EN    EN EN 
 
EN    EN  EUROPEAN COMMISSION 
Brussels, 31.1.2011 
SEC(2011) 96 final 
  
COMMISSION STAFF WORKING PAPER 
Reducing early school leaving  
 
 
Accompanying document to the 
  
Proposal for a  
 
COUNCIL RECOMMENDATION 
 
on policies to reduce early school leaving 
   
SEC(2011) 98 final 
SEC(2011) 97 final 
COM(2011) 19 final 
 
EN 2   EN TABLE OF CONTENTS 
1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 4 
2. UNDERSTANDING EARLY SCHOOL LEAVING.................................................. 5 2.1. Definition of early school leaving................................................................................ 5 2.2. The situation in Europe ................................................................................................ 5 2.3. Factors leading to early school leaving........................................................................ 8 2.4. Impacts on individuals, society and economy............................................................ 11 3. TACKLING EARLY SCHOOL LEAVING ............................................................. 13 3.1. Identification, monitoring a nd coordination of policies............................................. 13 
3.2. Prevention................................................................................................................ ... 15 
3.2.1. Early childhood education and care ........................................................................... 15 3.2.2. Structural strategies................................................................................................... . 16 
3.2.2.1. Prolongation of compulsory education ...................................................................... 16 3.2.2.2. Desegregation policies ............................................................................................... 1 7 
3.2.2.3. Positive discrimination measures ............................................................................... 19 3.2.2.4. Systematic language support...................................................................................... 20 3.2.2.5. Increasing permeability of educational pathways ...................................................... 21 3.2.2.6. Strengthening vocational pathways............................................................................ 22 3.3. Intervention .............................................................................................................. .. 23 
3.3.1. School-wide strategies................................................................................................ 23  
3.3.1.1. Schools as Learning Communities............................................................................. 23 3.3.1.2. Early warning systems ............................................................................................... 25  
3.3.1.3. Enhancing the involvement of parents ....................................................................... 25 3.3.1.4. Networking with actor s outside school ...................................................................... 26 
3.3.1.5. Teacher education, empowe rment and motivation .................................................... 27 
3.3.1.6. Extra-curricul ar activities........................................................................................... 28 
3.3.2. Student-focused strategies.......................................................................................... 29 3.3.2.1. Mentoring and tutoring............................................................................................... 2 9 
3.3.2.2. Personalised learning................................................................................................. . 30 
 
EN 3   EN 3.3.2.3. Improving guidance.................................................................................................... 31 
3.3.2.4. Financial support..................................................................................................... ... 32 
3.4. Compensation............................................................................................................. 3 3 
3.4.1. Second chance programmes ....................................................................................... 33 3.4.2. Support to re-enter mainstream education ................................................................. 34 3.4.3. Recognition and validation of prior learning ............................................................. 36 3.4.4. Targeted individual support ....................................................................................... 36 
 
EN 4   EN 1. INTRODUCTION 
1. Early school leaving (ESL) has been increasingly recogni sed as one of the main 
challenges faced by European societies. For the majority of young people, leaving 
education and training premat urely is both a result of ed ucational, psychological and 
social problems and a cause of continuous so cial insecurity. European education and 
training systems lose hundreds of thousands  of young people each year, who are then 
equipped with inadequate skills for later life. 
2. Reducing ESL to less than 10 % by 2020 is a headline target for achieving a number of 
key objectives in the Europe 2020 strategy and one of th e five benchmarks of the 
strategic framework for European coopera tion in education a nd training (ET 2020)1. 
Europe 2020 highlights three mutually reinfo rcing priorities: 'sma rt growth' based on 
knowledge and innovation, 'sustainable grow th' promoting a greener economy and 
'inclusive growth' fostering high employment and social cohesion. High rates of ESL are 
detrimental to the objective of making lifelong learning a reality and a constraint to smart 
and inclusive growth in Eur ope. They increase the risk of unemployment, poverty and 
social exclusion. ESL represents a waste of  individual life opportunities and a waste of 
social and economic potential. 
3. While the number of low qualified jobs is  shrinking, European economies are more 
and more in need of highly skilled employ ees. Skill mismatches are of growing concern 
in most Member States and risk damagi ng Europe's future competitiveness. The 
European Agenda for New Skills and Jobs'2 underlines the need to raise overall skill 
levels and to give priority to the education and training of those at  the risk of economic 
and social exclusion, in part icular early school leavers. 
4. This document provides basic data on ESL across Member States, outlines the main 
factors causing ESL, and presents examples of policies and measures to prevent or 
reduce it. It highlights strate gies against ESL that are based on evidence consist of 
prevention, intervention and compensation measur es, and involve all re levant actors and 
stakeholders. Most of the policy examples in  this document are drawn from the work of 
the Cluster 'Access and Social Inclusion in Li felong Learning', created in 2006 within the 
framework of the Educati on and Training Programme 2010.3 Others were presented by 
Member States separately. The document aims to help policy makers in Member States understand the phenomenon of ESL and the factors leading to it. It provides a 'tool kit' 
that supports the deve lopment of consistent and compre hensive policy for reducing early 
school leaving. 
                                                
 
1 Council conclusions of 12 May 2009 on a strategic framework for European cooperation in 
education and training (‘ET 2020’) (OJ C119, 28.5.2009); Commission Communication "Europe 
2020 – A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth" - COM(2010) 2020. 
2 Conclusions of the Council and of the Representa tives of the Governments of the Member States, 
meeting within the Council of 15 November 2007 on the new skills for new jobs (OJ C 290, 
4.12.2007). 
3 More information on http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningClusters/clusterDetails.cfm?id=15 
 
EN 5   EN 2. UNDERSTANDING  EARLY  SCHOOL  LEAVING 
2.1. Definition of early school leaving  
5. ESL can be defined as a failure to complete upper secondary school, a failure to 
complete compulsory schooling or a failure to gain qualifications  or school leaving 
certificates. At EU level ESL rates are defined by the propor tion of the population aged 
18-24 with only lower seconda ry education or less an d no longer in education  or 
training.4 Early school leavers are therefore t hose who have only achieved pre-primary, 
primary, lower secondary or a short upper s econdary education of less than 2 years 
(ISCED 0, 1, 2 or 3c short5), and include those who ha ve only a pre-vocational or 
vocational education which did not lead to an  upper secondary certif ication. This is the 
working definition adopted for this document.  While the term "early school leaving" 
includes all forms of leaving education and training before completing upper secondary 
education or equivalents in vocational educa tion and training, the te rm "school drop-out" 
is used with a much more re stricted meaning: it refers to discontinuing an ongoing course 
in general or vocational education and training. 
2.2. The situation in Europe 
6. The Education Council set itself in 2003 a benc hmark to reduce the EU average rate of 
early school leaving to not more than 10% by 2010. In 2009, the ESL rate stood at 
14.4%, an 18% reduction compared to the year 2000.6 With a drop of 3.2 percentage 
points in nine years, progress has been sign ificant: the number of ea rly school leavers has 
been reduced by almost one and a half million. Nevertheless,  progress has been 
insufficient to reach the 10% target by 2010. The Council has therefore renewed its 
commitment to the 10% benchmark, with a new target date of  2020. To reach this target 
the reduction rate of ESL needs to accelerate significantly. 
7. The EU average rate masks large differen ces between Member States. Seven Member 
States have already achieved the 10% be nchmark (Austria, Czech Republic, Finland, 
Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia), wh ile three Member States have rates higher 
than 30% (Malta, Portugal and Spain). Looking  at the relative performance of Member 
States, there are reasons for optimism. A ll but three (Finland, Sp ain, Sweden) have 
reduced their rates of ESL since 2000. A number  of countries with high ESL rates have 
also achieved significant reductions: Romani a, Malta, Italy, Cyprus and Portugal. 
Considerable progress has also been achieve d by countries which already had low rates 
of ESL at the beginning of the decade, such  as Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands 
and Poland. The strong progress of some Me mber States in reducing ESL shows that 
achieving the benchmark is possible, but that reinforced efforts are needed. 
                                                 
4 Council conclusions on "Reference levels of European Average Perfor mance in Education and 
Training (Benchmarks)", May 2003. The OECD defines early school leavers as 20-24 year olds 
with education below upper secondary level.  
5 International Standard Classification of Education, UNESCO 1997. ISCED 3 describes the level 
of upper secondary education. 
6 Commission staff working document "Progress towards the Lisbon Objectives in Education and 
training. Indicators and Benchmarks 2009" - SEC(2009)1616. 
 
EN 6   EN Chart 1: Percentage of the population aged 18- 24 with at most lower secondary education 
and not in education or training (2009) and evolution 2000-2009 (% relative change)7 
Croatia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Poland
Czech Republic
Luxembourg
Austria
Lithuania
Finland
Denmark
Sweden
Netherlands
Belgium
Germany
Hungary
Ireland
Cyprus
France
Estonia
Latvia
EU-27
Greece
Bulgaria
United Kingdom
MK
Romania
Norway
Italia
Iceland
Spain
Portugal
Malta
Turkey
Liechtenstein-27.5-13.7-20.3-17.8-7.5-36.8-19.4-19.6-29.2-9.4-54.2-28.4-17.2-26.9
36.4
7.2-28.3-18.2-22.6-24.0-14.7
-28.2(:)-7.946.6-5.3-51.3
10.0-47.3
-23.5
(:)-25.3-32.1-28.4
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 6031.231.221.419.217.616.616.215.714.714.514.413.913.912.311.711.311.211.111.110.910.710.69.98.77.75.45.34.9
(:)44.336.88.75.33.9
0 10 20 30 40 50Benchmark 2010 + 2020 
 
8. The profile of early school le avers varies considerably with in the EU according to the 
highest education level achieved , to their status on the labour market and to their ethnic 
origin. Moreover, deconstruction of national averages often reveals significant regional 
differences. 
9. Over 70% of early school leavers in the EU complete only lower secondary education. 
A very worrying fact is that 18% of early l eavers in the EU have completed only primary 
education. This trend is especi ally strong in Bulgaria (38 %) and Portugal (40%). Some 
countries offer ISCED 3C short courses, in cluding some vocational or pre-vocational 
training, such as in Cyprus, Greece, Luxembourg and the UK. ESL as defined in this document occurs often after achieving this level of education.
8 
                                                 
7 Eurostat (Labour Force Survey), MK= former Y ugoslav Republic of M acedonia, Students living 
abroad for more than one year or more or conscripts on com pulsory military service are not 
covered by the EU Labour Force Survey, which may imply higher rates than those available at national level. This is especially relevant for Cyprus. data for Slovenia and Croatia lack reliability 
due to a small sample size; Bulgaria, Poland and Slovenia: evolution refers to the period 2001-
2009, Czech Republic, Ireland, Latvia, Slovakia and Croatia: evolution refers to the period 2002-2009. In FI, the educational attainment level is measured at the beginning of the year (register 
data). This implies overestimation of the indicator  in the country. More information available on 
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/porta l/structural_indicators/indicators/social_cohesion 
8 SEC(2009) 1616, p. 77. 
 
EN 7   EN Chart 3: Early leavers from education and trai ning by highest educational level completed, 
2009 (%) 9 
0.0%10.0%20.0%30.0%40.0%50.0%60.0%70.0%80.0%90.0%100.0%
Eu-27
AT
BE
BG
CH
CY
CZ
DE
DK
EE
EL
ES
FI
FR
HR
HU
IE
IS
IT
LT
LU
LV
MK
MT
NL
NO
PL
PT
RO
SE
SI
SK
TR
UK
At most pri mary (ISCED 0-1) Lower s econdary (ISCED 2) Upper secondary short (ISCED 3C)
 
10. In 2009, only 48% of early school leavers in the EU were employed, while 52% were 
either unemployed or outside the labour ma rket. The percentage of employed early 
leavers was highest in Malta, Portugal, the Netherlands, and Cyprus. At the other end of 
the spectrum, large numbers of early school leavers were either unemployed or inactive 
in Slovakia (80%), in Bulgaria  (73%) and in Hungary (71%).10 
Chart 4: Early leavers from education and training by employment status, 2009 (%)11 
0.0%10.0%20.0%30.0%40.0%50.0%60.0%70.0%80.0%90.0%
Eu -2 7
BE
BG
CZ
DKDE
IE
EL
ES
FR
IT
HU
NLATPLPT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SEUKHR
TR
NO
CHCYEE
IS
LT
LULV
MK
MTEm p l o y e d Not employed (actively and not actively s eeking work) 
11. For migrant first generation youth, the EU average rate of ESL in 2009 is double that 
for natives (26.4% vs. 13.1%). In Greece, Spain and Italy more than 40% of migrants are 
early school leavers. In most other countri es, ESL is three times higher among first 
                                                 
9 Data source: Eurostat (Labour Force Survey), 2009; Notes: For ISCED 1 CZ, SI, SK, LV, MK 
lack reliability due to small sample size; for ISCED 2 HR, SI, LU; and for ISCED 3C IE, CY and LU. 
10 Data source: Eurostat (Labour Force Survey), 2009. 
11 Data source: Eurostat (Labour Force Survey),  2009 Notes: Data from SI, HR, EE, LU are 
unreliable for both categories and for LT and MK for employed only. 
 
EN 8   EN generation youth migrants than among nationals . By contrast, a few countries such as 
Portugal, the UK and Norway show lower ra tes of ESL among migrants compared to 
nationals.12 12. The general trend holds also fo r disadvantaged ethnic minorities: ESL 
among Roma population is running even hi gher in a number of Member States. 
Chart 5: Early leavers from education and training by migrant status, 2009 (rates)13 
05101520253035404550
EU-
27  BE  BG CZ DK  DE  EE  IE   EL  ES  FR  IT   CY LV LT  LU  HU  MT NL  AT PL  PT  RO SI   SK  FI   SE  UK  IS   NO CH HR  MK TR  
Natives Migrants
 
2.3. Factors leading to early school leaving 
13. The reasons for early school leaving are highly individual. However, as a social 
phenomenon, ESL follows certain patterns. Th ese differ from one country or region to 
another, and it is impossible to  establish a single 'profile' of early school leavers or a 
comprehensive list of causes leading to ESL.  
14. Nevertheless, while some early school le avers might not have any of the following 
characteristics and, conversely, some young pe ople with them might  be successful in 
education, early school leavers ar e in general more likely to: 
• come from poor, socially disadvantag ed and or low education backgrounds; 
• come from disadvantaged minorities (such as Roma or other minority ethnic groups) 
or migrant backgrounds; 
• belong to vulnerable groups, such as youth from a public care background, teenage 
mothers and persons with physical and mental disabilities or othe r special educational 
needs (SEN);14 
                                                 
12 In countries with high recent migration a cons iderable proportion of migrant early school leavers 
have not attended school education in these countrie s. They have no or only little experiences with 
education and training in the country and have not been 'produced' by it. They need specific 
measures in order to gain qualifications - SEC(2009) 1616, p. 95. 
13 Data source: Eurostat (LFS). Data for the C zeck Republic, Danemark, Estonia, Luxembourg, 
Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Iceland, and the former 
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia lacks reliability due to small sample size. Migrants include non-nationals and those born abroad. 
 
EN 9   EN • have to contribute to the family income or take adult responsibilities, such as 
parenthood or caring for family members; 
• have had a history of disengagement from school, long-term absenteeism, truancy or 
expulsion; 
• have achieved poorly in school and l ack sufficient educational resilience15; 
• have often changed their place of residence or schools.16 
15. Children of parents who left education and training prematur ely have a higher risk of 
becoming early school leavers themselves.17 The risk is also increased in the case of 
household mobility, dysfunctional family dynamics, limited family support for remaining in school and home -school conflict. 
16. ESL has also a gender dimension: In th e EU, 16.3% of boys are early school leavers, 
compared to 12.5% of girls
18. During compulsory education, boys tend to experience 
more difficulties than girls in adapting to  the school environmen t and generally have 
lower achievement levels. They are over-re presented among pupils with disabilities 
(61%) and are more likely to  show emotional and behavioural problems, or specific 
learning difficulties (65%).19 
17. In some Member States ESL is a predominantly rural phenomenon, has high 
incidence in remote areas and can be linked to insufficient ac cess to education. In others 
it mostly affects disadvantaged areas in big cities. Some count ries experience high levels 
of early school leaving in certain vocationa l tracks, while others register lower early 
school leaving in, for instance, apprenticeship tracks.20  
18. ESL is often concentrated in schools:  
                                                                                                                                                 
14 See also: Active inclusion of young people with disabilities or health problems. Background 
paper, European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2010. 
15 'Educational resilience' refers to 'the maintenance of positive adaptation by individuals despite 
experiences of significant adversity'; it enables learners to deal with difficulties and drawbacks in 
their learning. It can be built and enhanced by emphasising also feelings of confidence, for instance, as well as addressing academic competen ce. Luthar, S.S., Ciche tti, D. and Becker, B. 
(2000), The construction of resilience. A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work, in: 
Child development, 71, p543, cited by NESSE (2009). 
16 GHK (2005), p.9, NESSE (2009), Early School Leaving – Lessons from research to policy 
makers, p. 12. 
17 Anna Christina d'Addio: Intergenerational tran smission of Disadvantage: Mobility or Immobility 
across Generations? A Review for OECD countries, OECD Social, Employment and Migration 
Papers 2007. 
18 Eurostat, LFS 2010. Only in a few countries (Bulgaria, Romani a and the Czech Republic) there 
are approximately the same propor tions of boys and girls leaving school early. Turkey stands out 
from the pattern as having much higher numbers of early school leavers, with girls representing 
the majority of these. Eury dice, Gender differences in educational outcomes, p. 77. 
19 SEC(2009) 1616, p. 96. 
20 GHK (2005), Study on Early School Leavers, Final Report, p.77, Sally Kendal, Kay Kinder 
(2005), Reclaiming those disengaged from education and learning – a European Perspective, p. 15. 
 
EN 10   EN • which have a high intake of pupils from  socially disadvantaged backgrounds and 
which lack targeted support for these pupils; 
• in which the school environment is characte rised by violence, disruptive behaviour of 
pupils, and high levels of absenteeism; 
• with low levels of achievement, lack of subjective relevance of curriculum, low 
degree of trust towards teachers and low edu cational expectations of teachers, parents 
and community;21 
• which have only weak cooperation between schools and families. 
19. On the level of the education system, the following aspects have been identified as 
having a negative influence on ESL: 
• limited or poor quality provision of early childhood education; 
• systematic use of class repetition and lim ited support to those who fall behind at 
school; 
• difficult transitions between levels of edu cation, from primary to secondary or from 
lower secondary to upper secondary school; 
• potential dead ends in secondary educati on, not leading to uppe r secondary graduation 
or not providing credib le career perspectives; 
• absence of suitable provisions for groups  such as migrants and minorities, and 
• lack of educational second chances.22 
20. There is an obvious relationship between so cio-economic status and the risk of ESL, 
but the mechanisms linking various kinds of  disadvantage to ESL are not clearly 
recognised; ESL is a result of the interaction  between home/family/community based 
factors, school-based and systemic factors. 
21. Looking more closely at the motivations of young people, some early school leavers 
regard their decision as a 'positive' choice. They feel undervalued and disrespected at 
school and underachieve academically. School edu cation appears to them  to be irrelevant 
to their lives and they believe that they c ould achieve more outside formal education and 
training.23 Some of them seek to obtain qualificati ons later and might even fully re-enrol 
in education or training either a very shor t time after dropping out of school, or many 
years afterwards.24 The different reasons for leaving education and training prematurely, 
and the different careers of early school leaver s in later life, illustrate the complexity of 
the phenomenon. Different measures need to be  implemented in parallel in order to 
reduce the different risk factors leading to ESL. 
22. ESL is a process rather than  a one-off event; it can be prev ented best if the first signs 
of this process are recognised and effective measures to su pport the pupil in continuing 
education and training are taken. 
                                                 
21 NESSE (2009), p. 15. 
22 OECD (2007), No more failures: ten steps to equity in education, p. 67. 
23 Dwyer and PRC, 1996, cited by NESSE (2009), p. 14. 
24 Dekkers and Driesen, 1997, cited by NESSE (2009), p. 13. 
 
EN 11   EN 2.4. Impacts on individuals , society and economy 
23. ESL has serious individual, social and ec onomic consequences. It also impacts on 
countries with very low ESL rates, sinc e ESL tends to be concentrated among the 
weakest groups in societies.  
• Early school leavers are more likely to be unemployed than those who have completed 
upper secondary education. They are also mo re likely to be unemployed in the long-
term. 
• If employed, early school leavers are more  likely to work in jobs with less 
employment security or to work part-time. 
• They earn less, but the size of the 'incom e penalty' for ESL varies from country to 
country.25 
• They face a higher risk of poverty and social  exclusion. At the level of the EU in 
2008, the risk-of-poverty rate for those with  less than upper secondary education was 
23.5%, compared to 13% for those with uppe r secondary or post- secondary education 
and 6.6% for those with tertiary education.26 
• Early school leavers participate less in fu rther learning or adult education and thus, 
participate less in re-training.27 Given future skills require ments, non-participation in 
further learning will increasingly handicap them on the labour market. 
• Due to their disadvantage on the labour market, early school leavers are more 
dependent on social support throughout their lives. 
• Early school leavers tend to participate less in elections or other democratic 
processes.28 
24. The economic consequences of ESL are likely to  get worse. It is th e forecast that by 
2020 85% of all jobs will require high or me dium qualifications. The share of jobs 
available for low skilled people will decrease from 20% to less than 15%.29 High rates of 
ESL, in combination with demographic change , risk increasing the shortage of skilled 
labour and restricting 'smart growth' in the EU. 
25. There are only few studies which calculate the costs of early sc hool leaving, but their 
estimates, projected over a lifetime, sum up to several hundred thousand EUR per early 
leaver.30 
                                                 
25 GHK (2005), p. 90. 
26 Survey on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) 2008, Eurostat. 
27 The EU average rate of particip ation in lifelong learning was only 18% for adults with less than 
upper secondary education, comp ared to 36.3% for adults with  upper secondary education - 
SEC(2009) 1616, p. 82. 
28 NESSE (2009), p.31, see also Shell Jugendstudie 2010 (2010). 
29 CEDEFOP, 2010: Skills supply and demand in Europe: medium-term forecast up to 2020, p. 13. 
30 See for example Canadian Council of Learning, No "drop" in the buck et, the high costs of 
dropping out, p.4. See also Dropout Strategie. Grundlagen zur Prävention und Reintegration von Dropouts in Ausbildung und Beschäftigung. Projektbericht des IHS Wien November 2007. 
 
EN 12   EN • The National Audit Office of Finland ha s calculated the costs of ESL based on 
2006/2007 data. They conclude that the co sts per year per person are 27,500 EUR. 
Over the course of adult life (40 years)  this amounts to 1.1 million EUR per person.31 
• A Dutch study estimates that the costs of ESL amount to 1.8 million EUR per person 
over the course of his/her lifetime.32 
26. These estimations have to be treated with caution and they provide only partial 
information, but they show that ESL creates long-term costs for societies and, at a high 
rate, has major economic impacts. A comparis on of these costs with the costs generated 
by measures against ESL concluded that the to tal costs created by ES L, including social 
costs, costs related to crim inality and loss of productivit y, exceed by far the costs for 
most of the measures aiming to reduce ESL.33 
27. The social consequences, however, go far beyond the strictly economic ones. 
Education generates wider social benefits in  terms of higher soci al cohesion or civic 
participation. Both the social and economic be nefits for society at large greatly surpass 
the short-term costs of putting in place eff ective policies and measures against ESL, not 
to mention the personal, social a nd economic benefits for individuals. 
                                                 
31 Nuoret miehet työelämään. Mitä paveluja ja toimenpiteitä tarvitaan TE-toimistoissa. Työja 
elinkeinoministerion julkaisuja. Työ ja yrittäjyys 34/2009. 
32 CEDEFOP (2010) Guiding at-risk youth through learning to work, p. 29. 
33 The study analyses only the situation in the Nether lands. Roel in t'Veld et.al. Kosten en Baten van 
Voortijdig Schoolverlaten, May 2006, p.18. 
 
EN 13   EN  
3. TACKLING  EARLY  SCHOOL  LEAVING 
28. ESL is a social phenomenon and its causes are not purely educational. But the quality 
of school education has a strong impact on its incidence. Improving the quality of 
education in individual schools and at system le vel helps all students at the same time as 
reducing the risk of dropping-out. The followi ng chart summarises the basic aspects of 
comprehensive strategies in ESL described within this chapter. 
 
29. Measures often fulfill preventative functions  and intervene in pr ocesses at the same 
time; they compensate for missed learning and are also relevant for pupils in compulsory 
education. The categorization of measures is  not always unambiguous  and there are clear 
overlaps between the different measures. ESL needs to be treated in a comprehensive 
way and the framework described in this  chapter supports the identification of 
imbalances and gaps in strategies against ESL. 
3.1. Identification, monitoring and coordination of policies 
30. The factors triggering ESL range from th e individual to the so cial and from the 
immediate sphere of the pupil (family, peers) to the wider society.  Those linked to the 
education system itself can also extend from th e individual school to the overall structure 
of the education system and the opportunities th at it offers. Strategies for combating early 
school leaving have to take as a starting point  an analysis of the national, regional and 
local specificities of the phenomenon. 
31. It is therefore advisable to collect and up-date regional and national level data and 
information on ESL, on school absenteeis m and on school avoiding behaviour as 
 
EN 14   EN reported by schools. Data collection can allow for identifying groups of pupils, regions, 
municipalities or schools which are especially affected by ESL. Strong disparities in rates 
of early school leaving might i ndicate specific structural prob lems in certain geographical 
areas or educational tracks. 
32. Policy design needs to be based on precise  information in order better to target 
measures; a system to monitor developments in ESL can help to constantly adapt them. 
Accompanying analysis can provi de additional information su ch as individuals’ reasons 
for leaving education and training early. 
Unique Pupil Number (UK) 
Since 1997, every child in the UK has a unique pupil number. It holds, in an anonymous 
format, details of learner's background as well as educational achievements. It allows to 
assess progress and to log results in school education against the unique pupil numbers. 
Educational interventions can be  measured for different types of learners and especially 
measures to support low achieve rs in education or  pupils at risk of  dropping out can be 
better evaluated.34 
Education number: better registration,  better analysis (Netherlands) 
With the introduction of the so-called ‘Edu cation Number’ the Netherlands moved to a 
system that offers complete and reliable fi gures on drop-out rates na tionally, regionally 
and at the municipal and school levels. Data are linked to socio-economic data (including 
demographics, ratio of native Dutch citizens and ethnic minorities, unemployment rate, 
social benefits) per region, city  and district. This created a wealth of information at hand 
for implementing policy and adjusting it when  necessary. Results ar e monitored and the 
system helps to exchange pr oven good practices between th e regions. In addition, an 
interactive tool, the School Drop-out Explorer provides qua ntitative data on ESL at 
national, regional, local and school level. It  can compare ESL figures between regions or 
educational institutions and show multiple school years side by side. This makes it 
possible to detect trends in ESL. It also gives b ackground information, including 
performance agreements, educational programme s, project examples and the regional and 
national contact persons.35 
33. Combating ESL can only be effective as a coordinated strategy across levels of 
government and different policy areas. Regions or municipalities face different patterns 
of early school leaving and strategies need to be adapted to their specific situation. At the 
same time, a strong vertical coordinati on mechanism linking local, regional and the 
national government is normally needed to ensure consistent implementation. 
34. In addition, all policies relevant to ch ildren and young people should contribute to the 
strategy against ESL. This concerns especi ally social policies and support services, 
employment, youth and integration policies. Every new policy or measure aimed at children, young people, parent s or professionals workin g with children and young 
                                                
 
34 http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/management/ims/datamanagement/UPN/ 
35 The approach to school drop-out: Policy in the Netherlands and the results of the 2007-2008 
performance agreements, http://www.aanvalopsch ooluitval.nl/userfiles/file/Engelse_atlas.pdf 
 
EN 15   EN people, irrespective whether it is related to the formal education system or not, should 
therefore be tested against it s contribution to reducing ESL. 
35. One effective way of approaching cooperatio n and mainstreaming is to recognise that 
ESL can be seen as a result of a  cumulative  process. A valuable strategic response may 
lie in designing policies to interrupt  the processes that could culminate in ESL . This 
chapter looks at three key stages in that strategy: prevention, intervention and compensation. 
3.2. Prevention 
36. Preventative strategies seek to tackle the problem even before the first symptoms of it 
are visible. They look at pre-conditions for successful schooling and the design of 
education and training systems. The aim is to remove systematic obstacles. Preventive 
strategies centre on early childhood educati on and care and structur al features within 
education and training systems. 
3.2.1.  Early childhood education and care 
37. Good quality early childhood education  and care  can be a particularly successful 
preventive measure for children at risk.
 It can enhance physical well-being, social and 
emotional development, language developm ent and cognitive sk ills. Early childhood 
education and care offers children from di sadvantaged backgrounds a better start in 
compulsory education.36 
38. This is well documented by PISA data from 200337: children who have participated 
in early education programmes score significan tly higher in mathematics at age 15 even 
after accounting for socio-economic status. The provision of a universally available, full-
time, play-based education programme closes the gap in achievement in social development, numeracy and literacy achieve ment between children from socially 
advantaged and disa dvantaged backgrounds.
38 However, children from disadvantaged 
backgrounds face particular ba rriers in accessing affordable high quality pre-school 
education. 
High quality preschool education for all (Sweden)  
In Sweden, the provision of high-quality preschool educati on for all, well connected to 
school education, is regarded as a meaningful  way of preparing fo r lifelong learning and 
fostering social cohesion. The Swedish ea rly childhood education and care system is 
based on: 
• Adequate resourcing, with high levels of  investment in preschool education 
                                                 
36 UNESCO (2008) Education for All, p. 111; Commission Communication on Equity and 
Efficiency in Education and Training - COM(2006) 481, p. 5. 
37 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is an internationally standardised 
assessment of 15-year-olds in sc hools. Three assessments have so far been carried out. See 
http://www.pisa.oecd.org. 
38 Bennet 2008, UNICEF Innocenti Working Paper "Early Childhood Services in the OECD 
Countries: Review of the Literature and curren t policy in the Early Childhood field". See also 
Alissa Goodman and Paul Gregg (2010) 'Poorer children's educational attainment: how important are attitudes and behaviour, Joseph Ro wntree Foundation,  www.jrf.org.uk 
 
EN 16   EN • Appropriate design, focused on preparing th e transition to formal  schooling, unitary 
settings for 1 to 5 or 6 y ear olds, and on the crucial ro le of inspection to improve 
pedagogic practice 
• Adapted content and organisa tion for preschool education. Special attention is given 
to the integration of education and care, to staff qualifications, and to the guidance 
role within the curriculum. Social competen ces receive emphasis as well as different 
ways of approaching language developm ent for children with a migrant background.39 
3.2.2.  Structural strategies  
39. The structures of education and training systems influence the rate of ESL. Research 
suggests that flexible educat ion and training systems with a variety of recognised 
learning pathways and combined with indivi dual and school-level support offer more 
educational opportunities and therefore better chances of diminishing the risk of ESL. 
For example limiting repetition of school years and replacing it with flexible individual 
support has been associated with lower ESL.40 
3.2.2.1.  Prolongation of compulsory education  
40. Extending the duration of compulsory educ ation has been a measure of choice in a 
number of countries such as the Nether lands, Hungary, Poland, and Italy. Introducing a 
legal requirement to attend a form of education until an older age can influence the behaviour of families and young people. Ho wever, the extension of compulsory 
education does not necessarily lead to succ essful graduation, better qualifications or a 
better transition from school to work. It re lates only to the expansion of educational 
opportunities and needs to be accompanied by m easures to improve the educational offer 
and the variety of educational pathways, espe cially for pupils at  risk. Nevertheless, 
evidence shows that lengthe ning the duration of compulso ry education leads to a 
decrease in the number of early school leavers.
41 There is also a recent trend of extending 
compulsory education to include at l east one year of pre-school provision.42 
41. Alternatively, several countri es recently introduced educ ation and training guarantees 
for young people who are no long er subject to compulsory education, but failed to 
achieve an upper secondary qualification. Gu arantees give young people the statutory 
right to upper secondary e ducation and require educational author ities to provide 
                                                 
39 PLA in Sweden, Preschool education in Swed en and the connection between pre-schooling, 
school-age childcare and compulsory school in the light of lifelong learning, Final Report, http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningAc tivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=88 
40 European Commission: Improving competences for the 21st Century - SEC(2008) 2177, p. 32 -, 
see also Sally Kendall, Kay Kinder (2005) Reclaiming those disengaged from education and learning: a European Perspectiv e, p.9, IRIS (2009) Thematic Study on Policy Measures 
concerning disadvantaged youth, p.67. Eurydice (forthcoming), Grade progression during 
compulsory schooling in Europe: Regulations and statistics 2009/2010. 
41 GHK Consulting Ltd (2005) Study on Access to Ed ucation and Training, Basic Skills and Early 
School Leavers; Oreopoulos (2009) "Would More Compulsory Schooling Help Disadvantaged 
Youth?" in Gruber (ed, 2009) – The Problems of Disadvantaged Youth, NBER. 
42 Eurydice (2009) Key Data on Education in Europe. 
 
EN 17   EN adequate education and training courses for th em. Such measures, particularly combining 
education or training with employment, ar e also used to target youth unemployment.43  
Prolongation of compulsory education in Poland  
Poland  gradually expanded over the last 10 years the duration of compulsory education. 
In 1999, compulsory education was extended from  the age of 14 to 16,  in parallel with 
the introduction of a comprehensive school system and the postponement of student 
tracking. Poland also introduced  an obligatory 0 grade aime d at preparing for primary 
school and lowered the age of  beginning of the compulsory education from 7 to 6. 
According to the legislation adopted in 2009, compulsory pre-primary education will 
start at the age of 5 as of 2011, and compulsory  primary education at the age of 6 as of 
2012.44 
Prolongation of compulsory education in Italy 
In 2007, Italy raised the length of compulsory education from 8 to 10 years (to 16 years), 
and established a right and a duty to obtain an upper secondary school qualification or a 
vocational qualification requiring at least th ree years, by the age of 18. Previously, 
compulsory education had lasted only until  the age of 14 and upper secondary education 
and vocational training were vol untary. The reform was implem ented in parallel with the 
expansion and diversification of initial VET tracks and the in troduction of a new 
apprenticeship track.45 
3.2.2.2.  Desegregation policies 
42. The accumulation of student s from disadvantaged backgrounds  in certain schools has 
been identified as a systemic cause for cons istent high ratio s of educational failure and 
ESL. 'Compositional effects' va ry across different countries.46 However, socio-economic 
background is the main segregation factor in Eu ropean school systems. It often interplays 
with other socio-cultural factor s such as migrant background or minority status. Multiple 
disadvantages can result in particularly seve re forms of segregation, to the point of 
referral to special education, which in  turn increases the risk of ESL.47 
43. Desegregation policies aim to change the social composition of 'disadvantaged' 
schools and to provide better access for child ren from low socio-economic backgrounds 
                                                 
43 IRIS, p.67; Kendall, Kinder (2005) mention the legal obligation for county authorities in Norway 
to provide a follow-up service for young people aged 16 to 19 and not in education, training or employment. In addition everyone between 14 and 19 has the statutory right 3 years upper 
secondary education. 
44 The impact of the 1999 Education Reform in Poland, OECD Education Working Paper No. 49. 
45 Summary Report of the PLA on 'M easures targeted at disadvantaged youth' in Naples, Italy, in 
2009; http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningActivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=94 
46 PISA data show, for instance, that the impact of the socio-economic status (SES) of individual 
pupils is not the same in the different EU Memb er States. The same goes for the impact of the 
aggregated socio-economic status of schools. 
47 Careful attention needs to be given to whether separate schooling is in the best interest of the 
pupils involved. Biased assessments of pupils with disadvantaged or migrant backgrounds may 
lead to a significant overrepresentation in special  education. Multicultural diversity and Special 
Needs Education, Summary Repo rt, European Agency for De velopment in Special Needs 
Education, 2009. 
 
EN 18   EN to schools with higher socio-economic composition. A more balanced social composition 
of schools can improve the educational a ttainment of children from socially 
disadvantaged and low-education backgrounds w ithout lowering attainment levels of the 
class as a whole. It also reduces the leve l of behavioural problems which are often 
concentrated in disadvantaged schools.48 This entails controlling the conditions of 
entrance to individual schools as  a mean of ensuring a broader socio-economic 'balance' 
in their population.  
44. Desegregation policies are often contested by parents, who fear decreasing academic 
performance levels and want to ensure that their children attend sc hools with high socio-
economic status. This can result in a so-called “white flight”, i.e. the tendency of parents 
with higher socio-economic status to transfer  their children to othe r schools when they 
perceive the proportion of pupils  from lower socio-economic backgrounds to be too high. 
Attempts to increase the social mixity of  schools therefore need  the firm political 
commitment of the relevant educational author ities, combined with measures to ensure 
school quality. 
Active desegregation policy (Hungary)  
Hungary has a large Roma minority with wo rrying education indicators. 15% of the 
Roma pupils do not attend school beyond primary level and only 2% attend higher 
education. ESL and repetition rates are very  high. Many Roma pupils attend segregated 
schools or segregated streams within schools an d therefore education results remain low. 
In order to change the situ ation, the government, in co-o peration with the Hungarian 
Institute of Educational Research and Development and the Roma Education Fund, 
promotes the development of “integrated education” through grants and technical 
assistance. Schools benefitting from this pr ogramme must ensure that their school 
population reflects the socio-economic balance and composition of their district. They 
take a fixed quota of multiply-disadvantaged  students and foster school quality by e.g. 
extracurricular activities. 
As from September 2007 schools also have to prioritise enrolment based on residence 
criteria. EU Structural Funds support a dditional equity meas ures and Hungarian 
authorities introduced the condition that pr ojects funded within state programmes are 
required to contribute to the de segregation of the school system.49 
School desegregation (Bulgaria) 
Roma grassroots organizations in nine towns and one mainstream school in Blagoevgrad 
initiated school desegregation actions.50 3.500 Roma children from Roma-only schools 
were integrated into mainstream schools following a model developed in 2000 with the 
                                                 
48 Alex Hugh David, The 'collateral impact' of pupil behaviour and geographically concentrated 
socio-economic disadvantage, British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 31, p.261-276. 
49 PLA in Hungary, (De)segregation in Education, Final Report,  
http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningAc tivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=21 
50 The towns were Berkovitsa, Montan a, Pazardjik, Pleven, Plovdiv, Sliven, Sofia, Stara Zagora, and 
Vidin. Six of the school desegregation projects were supported by the Open Society Institute’s 
Roma Participation Programme in the period 2000-2005 and by the Roma Education Fund from 2005 till now.
  
 
EN 19   EN launch of the first desegregation project in the town of Vidin. The model includes 
motivational campaigns among Roma parents to enrol their children into mainstream 
schools outside the Roma neighbourhoods, pla nned enrolment of Roma children in 
mainstream schools to avoid re-segregation in  the new schools, provision of academic 
support for Roma children who need to catch  up with their peers,  extra curriculum 
activities involving Roma and non-Roma stude nts, and school bus transportation for 
Roma students who live far away from their new schools. 
Evaluations show that Roma children in in tegrated classes achieved better results in 
school education than their peers from segregated schools. At the same time school 
achievements of non-Roma pupils’ remained st able. Socializing Roma children with non-
Roma peers at this early stage of their lives is also of great importance for their social 
inclusion. 
3.2.2.3.  Positive discrimination measures 
45. Many Member States have introduced meas ures of positive discrimination, mainly by 
allocating additional resources to schools w ith a more disadvantaged pupil population. 
These schools can improve their educational offer, provide additi onal support to their 
pupils and create innovative le arning environments adapted to their specific needs. 
However, the application of th is principle raises questions. One is how to identify and 
quantify socio-economic disadvantage with in the pupil population. Measuring the per 
capita income of the area where the school is located is a pragmatic but imprecise 
approach. Children can attend schools outside their area of reside nce and disadvantaged 
schools in prosperous neighbourhoods do not bene fit from this measurement. Indicators 
which focus on the personal situation of each pu pil – family income, ethnic origins, and 
lone parent-families - are more precise, but complexity of measurement is much greater.
51 
Zones of Educational Priority (Cyprus) 
Zones of Educational Priority (ZEP) ar e formed by a network of schools in 
disadvantaged areas characterised by low soci o-economic and educativ e level, high rates 
of school failure, drop-out, f unctional illiteracy and a high percentage of non-Cypriot 
students. The networks are composed  of high schools, primary schools and 
kindergartens. ZEPs aim to create democratic schools that support social inclusion of all 
children, respect diversity, improve literacy and reduce early school leaving and school 
failure. ZEPs receive additional funding and posts for coordinating tasks. 
Actions taken by ZEPs include the reduction of  the number of children per classroom, the 
employment of teachers speaking the mother  tongue of migrant pupils, free meals, and 
afternoon activities (groups, clubs). 
The Ambition réussite  programme (France) 
                                                 
51 See also Summary Report of the PLA in Belgium on School integration of immigrant children, 
positive discrimination measures, support to school drop-outs in 2006;  http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningAc tivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=20 
 
EN 20   EN The programme Ambition réussite  (Ambition to succeed), reformed in 2006, is a 
comprehensive programme that provides ad ditional resources thr ough networking of 
schools, partnerships between stakeholders, supervision and monitoring. It focuses on 
eliminating inequalities in achievement between  schools in deprived districts and schools 
in more prosperous neighbourhoods. 
Funding is not allocated to single schools, but to networks of schools (249 networks 
across the country).  They propose projects e.g. focussing on an improved organisation of 
timetables, on bridging actions in transiti on years, and on innova tive pedagogies. The 
programme allows allocation of additional staff and organisation of a range of extra 
support (evening classes, vocationa l guidance and grants for pupils).52 
PROA - Reinforcement, Guidance and Support Programme (Spain) 
The “Programas de Refuerzo, Orientación y Apoyo” is a territorial cooperation project 
between the Ministry of Education a nd the Autonomous Communities, supported by 
European Social Funds. It provides extra re sources to education establishments to 
address inequalities in education and to prev ent social exclusion. It  offers extra support 
for pupils facing difficulties in primary and secondary education, as  well as targeted 
support for secondary schools hosting larg e numbers of pupils from socially 
disadvantaged backgrounds. These measures  include career counselling and guidance, 
support for pupils with behavioural problems or learning difficulties, etc. The numbers of 
schools with available targeted programm es has been extended from 143 in 2005 to 
3.343 in 2010.53 
3.2.2.4.  Systematic language support 
46. Language acquisition is a vital factor in the educational success of children from a 
migrant background or from disadvantaged mi norities, such as the Roma. Systematic 
support through policies for language developmen t is one of the main policy levers for 
improving the academic performance of children with a different mother tongue.54 
47. While early immersion in th e language of instru ction is important for the acquisition 
of communicative language, a systematic provision of continue d support throughout 
education is essential for the acquisition of the academic level of the language of 
instruction. This requires th e provision of a clear and co nsistent language curriculum 
across levels of education, supported by assessm ent tools and integrated into mainstream 
core curriculum, as well as an adequate number of qualified teachers of the language of 
instruction as a second language. At the sa me time, positively valuing multilingualism in 
schools and offering possibiliti es for supporting and validati ng knowledge of the mother 
tongue can offer children from migrant or  minority background se lf confidence and 
identification with school and enri ch learning across the whole school. 
                                                 
52 Summary Report of the PLA in France on 'Fight against failure in school and inequality in 
education' in 2007; http://www.kslll.net/P eerLearningActivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=23 
53 Summary Report of the PLA in Spain on 'Schools as learning Communities' in 2008; 
http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningAc tivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=87 
54 NESSE (2008) – Education and Migration: Strategies for integrating migrant children in European 
schools and societies. 
 
EN 21   EN Structured system for lang uage development (Sweden) 
Sweden has a structured curriculum for Sw edish as a Second Language, which can be 
taken as a subject throughout primary and secondary educa tion. Assessment in Swedish 
and Swedish as a Second Language are equiva lent for promotion to higher education 
levels, including tertiary admissions. There are specific teacher training programmes for 
Swedish as a Second Language, which can be chos en as a specialisati on in initial teacher 
education, as well as in-servi ce training available in this subject. Children from a migrant 
background are also entitled to support both for Swedish and for the mother tongue 
during early childhood educat ion and care and can choose their mother tongue as a 
school subject in primary and secondary educ ation, equivalent to other school subjects. 
Moreover, individualised study support and guidance  can be provided in the students' 
mother tongue.55 
3.2.2.5.  Increasing permeability of educational pathways 
48. Overly rigid education systems and too st rong an emphasis on academic prerequisites 
for accessing advanced education levels ca n discourage students with lower academic 
performance from remaining in education and training. In order to motivate students to 
continue education and training, alternatives to ESL must offe r credible perspectives and 
allow students to continue education and training also at later stages of their career. This 
means a high degree of permeability of educational pathways which avoids educational tracks leading to 'dead-ends' offering no oppo rtunities for further progression. Several 
Member States have developed flexible approaches to combine general education, vocational training and first practical work e xperience. They target students who want to 
start working as early as possi ble and allow them at the same time to continue education. 
Lower cycle of vocational secondary education (Luxembourg) 
In Luxembourg  more flexible education conditions  have been promoted under the 
programme Projet cycle inférieur de l’enseigne ment secondaire technique (PROCI)  to 
allow students in a ‘preparatory system’ to access a lower cycle of ‘vocational secondary 
education’ and to subsequently  enter vocational training. Th e lower cycle of ‘vocational 
secondary education’ offers ge neral instruction in the first 3 years of secondary education 
(ages 12 – 14). Students are then able to c hoose the learning pathway (vocational or 
professional training) which best  suits their abilities and inte rests. This enables students 
both to expand their knowledge and to positiv ely orientate themselves in the education 
system. Career guidance is also strengthened.56 
Diversified, flexible pathways (Italy) 
In 2006 Italy introduced a didactic methodol ogy called “alternanza sc uola lavoro” that 
allows students aged 16 to 18 to continue ed ucation, alternating sc hool and work periods. 
It can be applied both in lyceums and in te chnical and vocational sc hools. The aim is to 
                                                 
55 OECD (2010) – OECD Review of Migrant Education: Sweden;  
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/45/40/44862803.pdf 
56 Projet pilote cycle inférieur PROCI 2003 – 2007. Rapport d'évaluation.  
http://www.men.public.lu/publications/postprima ire/rapport_evaluation/070321_rapport_proci/07
0321_rapport_evaluation_proci.pdf 
 
EN 22   EN increase flexibility and the permeability of pathways and to address the educational and 
vocational needs of student s. Moreover it encourages guidance and motivates the 
development of personal tale nts and interests. This appr oach is based on agreements 
between public and private institutions and in particul ar between schools and other 
regional actors.57 
Production schools (Denmark) 
The production schools in Denmark combine co mpulsory schooling with VET. They are 
independent institutions with st atutes approved by the local au thority; the social partners 
are represented on the school board. The obj ective is to strengthen the personal 
development of the pupils and improve their chances in the education system and on the 
labour market. Young people can obtain qualifica tions that enable th em to complete an 
education on upper secondary level leading up to a professiona l qualification. The 
pedagogical theory and practice of the produc tion schools is built around activities in 
various workshops combined with instructions in theory. The professional standard at the 
workshop is used as an educat ional tool to devel op personal and social competencies. In 
addition, the school offers teaching in general su bjects in order to prep are the participants 
to commence a regular youth education programme.58 
3.2.2.6.  Strengthening vocational pathways 
49. Enhancement of vocational pathways as an  alternative to gene ral upper secondary 
education is a discernable trend. Reforms in this direction are on- going in many Member 
States, and they address both the quality of vocational education and training (VET) and 
its links to the general education system. 
50. VET can respond to several of the factor s leading to ESL. It can increase the 
motivation to learn and can offer students more flexibility and a more appropriate 
pedagogy. It can also address th e labour market aspirations of young people, in particular 
when it is combined with company training. However, the limited evidence available indicates that ESL is more frequent in VET than in general education in several 
countries. Reasons include the structure of VET provision, its image and social status, 
but also the generally weaker socio-ec onomic background of VET students and their 
often weaker academic performance.
59 Structural strategies to  reduce ESL in VET should 
analyse the specific factors leading to dr op-out, the needs of VET students, their 
motivation and their future perspectives. 
51. The degree of flexibility and the variety of  vocational training is identified as a key 
factor in helping young people find appropriate education a nd training opportunities. In 
order to be successful in reducing ESL, VET must be of high quality and high status, and 
lead to recognisable qualifications. Base d on strong quality assurance mechanisms, it 
should offer extended and meaningful work  experience and match labour market 
opportunities.  
                                                 
57 PLA in Italy, Measures targeted to disadvantaged youth, Final Report,  
http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningAc tivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=94 
58 http://www.eng.uvm.dk/Uddannelse/Upper% 20Secondary%20Education/Production%20 
Schools.aspx 
59 Kendall, Kinder (2005), p. 9. 
 
EN 23   EN Providing attractive alt ernatives to ESL (Spain) 
The national ESL rate of 31% du ring the last years masks significant regional differences 
in Spain. Many early school leavers drop out from VET, which is of ten associated with 
school failure, has a low prestig e and only few links with th e rest of the educational 
system. 
In the Basque Country, however, ESL stood at 14.3% in 2007 (less than the EU average), 
and VET constitutes a strong feature. Sign ificant efforts including the support of 
European Social Funds have improved its la bour market relevance by establishing close 
co-operation between enterprises and traini ng providers. Large investments were also 
made in order to improve the technical equipmen t of training centres and to align it with 
the equipment used in enterprises. 
Providers of initial training offer also conti nuous training – which has a positive effect on 
the morale and motivation of trainees. Th e employment rate of VET graduates is 
constantly monitored; quality is constantly  evaluated, and strict quality standards are 
applied in most training centres. VET in the Basque Country displays  very low drop-out 
rates.60 
3.3. Intervention  
52. Intervention aims to avoid ESL by improvi ng the quality of education and training 
and providing targeted support to pup ils or groups of pupils at risk. School-wide 
strategies address all pupils, bu t are especially beneficial to  those at risk of dropping-out. 
They look at school development in general,  early warning systems and networks with 
outside actors to support th e work of the school. Student-focused strategies build on 
early detection of support needed for learning and mo tivation and take a multi-
professional and holistic approach in addres sing them, and provide individual guidance 
and support. The following chapter outlines examples of both school-wide and student-focused strategies.  
3.3.1.  School-wide strategies 
53. School-wide strategies focus on improvi ng the overall school climate and making 
schools places where young people feel comfor table, respected and responsible. They 
seek to maintain the motivation of all people  to engage in learning by offering various 
activities, opening up schools to local comm unity, working closely with parents and 
involving both students and thei r parents to decisions concer ning school. Such structures 
are able to react to the fi rst indications of problems that could lead to ESL. 
3.3.1.1.  Schools as Learning Communities 
54. Schools that ensure the well-being of all students and that are physically inspiring 
and comfortable places for learning are more  likely to motivate pupils to continue 
education and training and to address risk f actors early and effectively. Similarly, schools 
that meet the different learni ng styles by proving activities such as team work or drama 
and the use of new technologies can effectivel y help pupils who prefer 'learning by doing' 
                                                
 
60 Summary Report of the PLA in Spain. 
 
EN 24   EN and get motivated by active forms of lear ning. Practicing school democracy in daily 
decisions of school life may help overcome problems of disaffection. 
55. A promising concept in this context is the one of 'schools as learning communities'. 
Schools striving for 'learning communities' agree on a common vision, basic values and 
objectives of school development. This comm on vision shared by teachers, parents and 
other stakeholders increases commitment a nd supports the development of school level 
curricula, the organisation of teaching and learning, assessment and evaluation. 
56. 'Learning communities' use the diverse expertise and knowledge within the school; 
the traditional roles of teachers and students may be reversed. For instance, students with 
good ICT skills can share their expertise with their peers and teachers. The ethos of 
learning communities is based on openness, dialogue, inquiry, risk-taking, trust and professionalism. Teachers have the resource s and encouragement to try out new and 
innovative teaching strategies, to make l earning more effective and to ensure high 
motivation of each student to carry on learning. 'Learning communities' build on 
leadership that supports this process; school  leaders that assume a 'developmental mind-
set', inspire teachers and students to seek improvement and support them in taking 
ownership of a goal-oriented learning process. 
Learning Communities (Spain) 
The Learning Communities are a flagship initiative implemented in several Spanish 
regions, aiming to ensure school success for all by mobilising all key actors around an 
educational project. The initiative started in the Basque country in 2000 where it is 
implemented in 28 centres. In Spain around 10 0 centres are carrying out projects based 
on the “learning communities” concept.  
It is based on projects adapted to the spec ific needs of each school , involving a selection 
of methodologies. Learning communities us ually centre on pedagogic innovation, e.g. 
dialogic learning or a pedagogy aiming at pr omoting respectful and open exchange and 
solidarity between the students and school st aff. Pupils, teachers and school leaders, 
parents, community stakeholders  and education authorities ar e all involved in defining 
and building a project for the school, and are actively engaged in learning from each 
other. 
The implementation of the initiat ive comprises several phases. The first step is reflection 
and an open brainstorming on the motivation fo r change. In order to continue, the project 
must be approved by the most relevant acto rs (teachers, the headteacher, families and 
administration). Once a school de cides to adhere to the proj ect, all the stakeholders 
together need to decide what to impr ove, both in academic and non-academic ways. A 
mixed committee in which all relevant stak eholders are represen ted follows up the 
implementation of the different steps of the transformation of the school into a learning 
community.61 
Rural education project (Romania) 
                                                 
61 Summary Report of the PLA in Spain. 
 
EN 25   EN The rural education project is a nation-wide project aiming at increasing the quality of 
education in rural areas, raising completion rates of compulsory education and 
facilitating transitions towards upper seconda ry and higher educati on. This large scale 
intervention integrated four components fo r closing the achievement gap between rural 
and urban areas: Firstly, a school-based teach er professional development model, based 
on open distance learning and supported by a teacher mentorship scheme was developed 
to suit the needs of remote communities. Second ly, an investment in school infrastructure 
and teaching and learning materials aimed at making the school environment in deprived 
schools more pupil-friendly. Thirdly, a school- community grants programme aimed to 
empower schools and communities, build local  project management capacity, supporting 
school development programmes and the estab lishment of Local Educational Councils. 
Fourthly, the establishment of a National Education Database for monitoring school 
achievements, an essential part for ev idence-based policymak ing. The project was 
successful in increasing transition rate s towards upper secondary  education and in 
narrowing the gap in achievement scor es between urban and rural schools.62 
3.3.1.2.  Early warning systems 
57. There are several warning signs which help  to identify pupils at risk of ESL. The 
most obvious is truancy or ab senteeism. Long periods of absenteeism lead to growing 
alienation from school and make it difficult fo r students to return to the cl ass room. 
Others signs are sudden decline in performance,  frequent change of schools (either due to 
school problems or due to family reasons ), family problems, regular misconduct, 
aggressive behaviour or  being affected by bullying or viol ence. While truancy often starts 
only during lower secondary, the underlying problems might have developed already 
during primary school.63 Early warning systems within th e school can help to identify 
pupils at risk before they start to become a lienated from school, play  truant or drop-out. 
Digital absence portal (Netherlands) 
Schools in the Netherlands report  absences to a single dig ital portal, which will then 
notify the relevant local aut horities automatically. Schools do not have to find out which 
local authority or supervisor  they are obliged to contac t for an individual pupil. In 
addition, all notifications follow a fixed pro cedure and after notific ation, the relevant 
officer treats the absence in consultation with the school. The portal makes it easy to 
report absences and gives schools and teach ers more time to react and prevent young 
people from dropping out of school.64 
3.3.1.3.  Enhancing the involvement of parents 
58. If key actors such as parents are disengaged, it deeply undermines the success of 
school education and means that warning signs are more easily missed. Cooperation 
between families and school is indispensable especially for pupils at risk of ESL. 
However, parents from socio-economical ly disadvantaged and low-education 
                                                 
62 Forthcoming World Bank implementation report. 
63 Kendall, Kinder (2005); Irene Hofmann-Lun et.al (2007), Schulabbrueche und 
Ausbildungslosigkeit, p. 22. 
64 http://www.aanvalopschooluitval.nl/actueel_vervo lg.php?id=262. The approach to school drop-
out: Policy in the Netherlands and the results  of the 2007-2008 performance agreements, 
http://www.aanvalopschooluitval.n l/userfiles/file/Engelse_atlas.pdf 
 
EN 26   EN backgrounds are often reluctant to contact the school. They mi ght believe themselves to 
be unwelcome, have their own experiences of school failure or might not expect 
appropriate support from the school. Sometime s, schools may find it difficult to reach out 
to families because of a real or percei ved attitude of non-cooperation among some 
families. Building trusting relationships be tween parents and schools is a crucial and 
challenging task in reducing ESL. Innovativ e approaches which support communication 
with parents, which create partnerships between parents and sc hools and which enhance 
mutual understanding do exist, but are not yet sufficiently widespread. 
59. A number of countries have successfully  introduced school mediators or teaching 
assistants who often provide the missing link be tween the school and the parents. This is 
a successful approach particular ly for communities with a dist rust of school authorities, 
or for parents who do not speak the language of  instruction. School mediators often have 
a role in facilitating access to education, including early childhood education and care, 
and in the reinsertion of st udents who have dropped out. 
The Home-School Community Liaison (Ireland) 
The initiative aims to establish collaboration between parents and teachers for children's 
learning, targeting, in particular, familie s from disadvantaged backgrounds and/or 
neighbourhoods. In order to overcome parents'  own negative experiences with school, the 
initiative tries to recover trust by recognising parents as  belonging to the school (e.g. 
parents’ rooms), offering adult education courses, involving parents in teaching 
mathematics and reading for primary school children, and involving pa rents of children 
with special needs in helping their own child in class. Pa rents thus gain knowledge and 
understanding of learning and can be tter support their children at home. 
Another key feature of the programme is th e 'home-school coordinator', who acts as a 
mediator and contact person. The coordinator regularly visits fam ilies and can intervene 
in particular in crisis situations, after ab sences from school or in cases of disruptive 
behaviour.65 
3.3.1.4.  Networking with actor s outside school  
60. Difficulties at school often have their roots outside. Solving problems at school 
cannot be done effectively wi thout tackling the range of pr oblems that put children in 
difficulty, which can include drug or alcohol  use, sleep deficits, physical abuse and 
trauma. Some of the most successful measur es have been those wh ich provide a holistic 
solution by networking different actors and so support the whole perso n. Partnerships at 
the local level seem to be highly effective ways of doing this.  
The School Completion Programme (Ireland) 
This measure of ESL prevention favours stro ngly cross-community and cross-sectoral 
approaches based on the development of local strategies. Schools are grouped into 
clusters of secondary and primary schools. Each cluster has a local management 
committee composed of principals, voluntar y and statutory agencies including County 
Development Boards, Local Drug Task Forces , Area Partnerships (local organisations 
                                                 
65 Summary Report PLA Ireland. 
 
EN 27   EN focussing on social inclusion), the local pr ogramme coordinator, parents, community 
interests, etc. The committee develops and ove rsees the implementation of an integrated 
plan to tackle early school leaving.  
The clusters of schools receive  extra-funding to organise act ivities such as academic and 
non-academic support for pupils on a continuous basis. In order to avoid the 
stigmatisation effect of singling out indi vidual pupils for suppor t activities, most 
activities target the whole class or school.66 
Regions take action (Netherlands) 
The Ministry of Education made agreemen ts with municipalities and schools in 39 
regions for the period 2008-2011 in order to reduce early school  leaving. Municipalities, 
schools and care institutions can decide themse lves on the measures to be implemented. 
It is the result that counts. Any school th at manages to reduce its drop-out rate will 
receive € 2.000 for each drop-out less than the number it had in the reference year (2005-
2006). Furthermore, additional funds are available for educ ational programmes aimed at 
reducing drop-out rates.  
Funds provided under the agreements are allocated to the schools. Via the local 
governments, schools can also call on the serv ices of care institu tions, the police and 
judicial authorities. At the end of this programme, it will be analysed which of the 
measures had the greatest im pact on early school leaving.67 
3.3.1.5.  Teacher education, empowerment and motivation 
61. Any strategy to decrease ESL should include  a well-prepared and motivated teaching 
force. However, teachers are often discouraged when constantly faced with difficult teaching and working conditions. Schools in so cially disadvantaged areas or with a 
disadvantaged intake often experience high te acher turnover; this has a highly disruptive 
effect on the educational offer, the quality of  teaching and on the reputation of the school. 
62. While these schools usually rely on a handf ul of dedicated and committed teachers 
who choose to stay despite the difficulties, it is essential that teacher education prepares 
future teachers to deal with diversity in the classroom, with pupils from disadvantaged 
social backgrounds and with difficult teaching situations. It is also essential to improve school climate and working conditions - especia lly in disadvantaged areas - in order to 
have a more stable teaching force.  
Comenius Project: THE GOLDEN 5 
The project aimed at helping teachers turn difficult classroom situations – typically in 
mixed-ability secondary classes – into empowerment, by successfully addressing 
diversity, lack of motivation and social and personal development drawbacks. It 
concentrated on improving teachers’ comp etences step-by-step and developing new 
strategies for classroom management, building relationships, social climate, personalised 
                                                 
66 Summary Report of the PLA in Ireland, Preventive and compensa tory measures to reduce early 
school leaving, http://www.kslll.net/Peer LearningActivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=22 
67 http://www.aanvalopschooluitval.nl/english.php 
 
EN 28   EN learning and family-school relationship. Res ources on the project' s website support and 
motivate the teachers and bring them into cont act with colleagues else where. Materials in 
five languages have been in use since 2004 and are available via an international on-line 
network allowing registered teachers access and the opportunity to contribute to 
continued improvements. (www.golden5.org) 
We need all Youngsters - Courses on diversity for VET teachers (Denmark) 
Within this initiative, in service courses for ’contact teachers’ at VET colleges have been 
developed, the aim being that the cont act teachers acquire knowledge about and 
pedagogical tools to handle immigrant student s. The course focuses on the students’ 
social lives at the co lleges and on their social and pe rsonal backgrounds. Other in-service 
courses address all VET teachers to help them capitalise on the diversities within 
immigrant groups. They provide methods to a ddress students with various learning styles 
and clarify the connection between language learning, culture and identity, including 
language acquisition, communicative comp etence and second language pedagogy. 
The courses are optional and typically take  place during working hours. An evaluation 
showed that the development of courses led to innovative programmes with well 
functioning tools and methods, which have been adopted by educational institutions.68 
3.3.1.6.  Extra-curricular activities 
63. Activities after and outside school can raise self-esteem, im prove motivation and 
support learning processes. The aim of such ac tivities is on the one hand to keep children 
off the street, and on the other hand to pr ovide them with the support (supervision of 
homework, recreational activities etc.) that more fortunate childre n receive from their 
families. The importance of non-formal and also non-academic education for reducing 
ESL is uncontested; after-sc hool activities need to find the right balance between 
supporting homework and bringing learning in to spaces such as sports and community 
centres.  
64. In certain areas, schools might be the only institution available wi th facilities that 
allow for non-formal education activities ou tside school hours. Opening the school to 
educators other than teachers can also help to overcome reluctance towards education as 
well as developing better cognitive and emoti onal abilities and a sense of belonging. Also 
art projects, either as part of the curricula  or in addition, have been shown to have 
positive impacts on pupils' motivation and learning.69 
Open Schools in Naples (Italy)  
In the region of Campania, a flagship so cial inclusion scheme called Open Schools 
(Scuole Aperte ) aims to tackle disengagement of  pupils. Over 40% of schools in the 
region take part, and 250 projects were funded in the school year 2008-09. The projects 
can be implemented by all schools, fro m pre-schools to upper secondary.  
                                                 
68 http://www.brugforalleunge.dk/fileadmin/bruger_upload/Billeder/Publikationer/English_ 
Summary_evaluation_BFAU_final-version.pdf 
69 Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation: Serious Play. An evaluation of arts activities in Pupil Referral 
Units and Learning Support Units. 
 
EN 29   EN Three-quarters of Open School projects are run by sc hools in association with local civil 
society; many co-operate with local authorit ies or universities. In 2008-09, the scheme 
enabled the organisation of 1,350 on-going afte r-school classes in disadvantaged areas. 
The most popular ones are thea tre and music workshops, ICT courses and workshops that 
promote intercultural co-operation or activ e citizenship. Such activities are run by 
schools, NGOs or religious organisations. Th e workshops are organised outside school 
hours and are open for all children, includ ing those who have already abandoned 
mainstream education. They provide a way to re-engage them and also many children 
who were at risk of dropping out in learning.70 
Tanoda centres (Hungary)  
In Hungary, the European Social Fund suppor ted the creation of a network of centres 
("Tanoda") aimed at providing children from  disadvantaged backgrounds, mainly but not 
exclusively Roma, with the extra support. Th e Centres help children with homework, and 
also organises art and sport activities. For academic support, courses are provided by 
local school teachers, who can identify difficu lties at school and provide pupils with an 
extra support in the after noon. School performance and at tendance have dramatically 
risen since the Centres started to work. Key success factors are the direct involvement of 
representatives of the Roma co mmunity and of parents, as we ll as a culture of respect 
towards children and young people.71 
3.3.2.  Student-focused strategies 
65. Together with the development of school-w ide strategies, education systems need to 
provide individual support to  young people who are at risk  of dropping out . Redressing 
difficulties, which can be of social, cognitiv e or emotional nature, is of paramount 
importance. And they need to be adapted to  the individual needs. Academic performance 
does not necessarily have to determine later school careers;  however, without sufficient 
'educational resilience', the capacity to cope with difficulties and drawbacks, there is a high chance that negative experiences will cumulate and result in ESL. Traditional 
'academic support' measures aim to help pupil s with academic difficulties to 'catch up' 
with their peers. Resilience-building puts more  emphasis on feelings of confidence, for 
instance, as well as addressing academic competence. 
66. Building resilience, offering mentoring and tutoring to st udents at risk, strengthening 
personalised learning approaches, and providing maintenance allowances are some of the 
measures which address the specific needs of individual pupils and go beyond school-
wide strategies. 
3.3.2.1.  Mentoring and tutoring 
67. A key feature of several effective ESL prevention programmes is mentoring. Some 
programmes are based solely on this measure,  with key personnel wo rking directly with 
pupils at risk. Besides school education staff, they often involve also other community 
members, including businesses and community  volunteers. They can be regarded as 
'impartial outsiders' by pupils who are disengaged from the school environment. 
                                                
 
70 Summary Report PLA Italy. 
71 Summary Report PLA Hungary. 
 
EN 30   EN 'Mentoring', however, can mean different things  in different contex ts and support offered 
can range from academic help to social wo rk. What characterises a student-focused 
support programme as 'mentoring' is the one-to-one approach. 
68. Mentoring programmes are in general ex pensive, time- and space-consuming. For 
this reason, tutoring in small groups is often a preferred alternative.  Tutoring can be done 
by teachers, but also by out-side persons w ith appropriate background or training. They 
support pupils with low achievement levels and help them to cope with their difficulties 
in school. They can also help st udents in transitional periods. 
Care and Advisory Teams (The Netherlands) 
Every child who needs mentoring should re ceive it. This entails good cooperation 
between all partners in the care sector. Schools play a central role in  this: they are the 
place where dropping out occurs and the place wh ere it can be combated. For this reason, 
Care and Advisory Teams are already in place at many schools (95 % of secondary 
schools, 82 % of vocational institutions). Thes e teams are made up of professionals who 
identify dangers early and take appropriate action. They get into direct contact with 
Youth Services, social workers, the police and judicial authoriti es and organise the 
necessary help to prevent young people from dropping out. They try to make sure that 
mentoring is available when needed.  
Tutoring programmes (French-speaking Community of Belgium)  
The tutoring programme supports pupils in upper-secondary education to reduce year 
repetition and facilitate transition to higher education. This programme was created in 
1989 and aims at schools with a large popula tion with socio-economic disadvantage and 
immigrant backgrounds. The tuto rs are university or colle ge students who offer support 
to groups of 3 to 8 students in  a specific course. Even if the programme is not a one-to-
one, the additional support has proved to be very useful for the pupils.72 
3.3.2.2.  Personalised learning  
69. For a diversity of social, emotional and cu ltural reasons, adjusti ng to the demands of 
formal education can be difficult for pup ils. Personalised learning programmes that 
include agreement of objectives and goals, specific programmes, division of labour and 
responsibilities can help to  overcome the barriers that  would normally prevent 
progression in learning. Personali sed learning brings benefits for all pupils, not just those 
at risk of dropping out, as in dividual strengths can be bett er exploited and weaknesses 
addressed in a more targeted way. Evidence shows that it should however be properly 
resourced and integrated into flexible indi vidual learning pathways. For students at risk, 
it could even be the preferred approach. 
Personalised programmes for educational success (France)  
In France, primary level students with severe and persistent learning difficulties are 
identified by their teacher, who implemen ts a personalised programme for educational 
success ( programme personalisé de réussite educative  - PPRE). Within the PPRE the 
                                                 
72 Summary Report PLA Belgium. 
 
EN 31   EN school agrees a 'contract' with the pupil and hi s or her family, which includes a help and 
support programme during and outside school  hours, defines objectives, means and 
resources attributed to the pupi l and to his or her family. Th e objective is to avoid school-
year repetition or to benefit from an unavoidable repetition. 
The Mission Générale d'Insertion  (France) 
The 'General mission of integration' is a cross-cutting pattern of interventions targeting 
pupils who have been identified as at high ri sk of leaving school without a diploma and 
without minimum qualifications. The programme  tries to prevent drop-out by offering 
personalized guidance, tailored to the sp ecific needs of each individual student and 
provided by a team of teachers and educational staff ( "group of insertion help").  
But the programme also prepares pupils w ho have left the school system without a 
diploma less than a year before to undert ake specific training courses for access to 
qualifications. "Re-motivation actions" follo w individualised methods, and provide 
active guidance and apprenticeship possibilities.  These are the actions which receive the 
biggest number of pupils (more than 30 000 in 2005/06) and after which 72% of the 
beneficiaries go back to education or training.  
3.3.2.3.  Improving guidance 
70. The growing variety of learning pathways reinforces the need for transparent and 
timely information on learning and career opportunities. Young pe ople often find it 
difficult to make the right choi ce or they lack a clear idea of what a certain occupation 
involves. The systematic provision of career and academic guidance can have a positive effect on school completion, especially in vocational pathways. It can prevent young people from taking wrong decisions regarding their future career developments. Besides 
schools, public employment services try to pr ovide services with multi-channelling, self-
service options, personalised s upport and up-skilling schemes. 
71. Pupils at risk often have less access to  high quality guidance. Moreover, once ESL 
occurs, the links to school-based guidance services are severed. Evidence shows that 
guidance services should enhance their cont ribution to reducing ES L by helping students 
to overcome learning difficulties, developing individual action plans or intervention 
strategies in collaboration with families. Guid ance services have a key support role and it 
is important that they remain accessible ev en after an individual has dropped out.
73 
Career Orientation and Guidance (The Netherlands) 
A number of good practice examples in ca reer orientation and guidance in the 
Netherlands have been investigated to determine success factors. 
LOEKS puts pupils in pre-vocatio nal secondary education in t ouch with professionals in 
various secondary vocational s ectors by offering them fieldw ork simulations. Instructors 
in secondary vocational and mentors in pre vocational secondary e ducation cooperate. 
While the instructors run the fieldwork simulations, mentors are responsible for 
                                                 
73 See also CEDEFOP (2010) Guiding at-risk youth through learning and work, OECD/EU (2004) 
Career Guidance. Handbook for policy makers. 
 
EN 32   EN preparatory and follow-up activities. They also  guide and observe the pupils during their 
visits. CHAMPS ON STAGE is a work placeme nt and mentoring project that helps 
youngsters to choose the right study course. The programme  mediates between schools 
and organizations acting as match-maker. Pupi ls receive training in applying for jobs and 
attend work placements. Instructor s and mentors cooperate closely. 
Easy access to labour market data (Czech Republic) 
The National Institution of Tec hnical and Vocational Education has developed an on-line 
labour market information system for teaching staff, advisors and graduates to support 
them in making informed career choices or in giving career advise . In addition, the 
Institute has developed lear ning facilities on issues like how to write a CV, how to 
behave in a job interview etc. E-learning tools have been made  available to train 
educational counsellors and teachers. 
Improving guidance and recognition (Luxembourg)  
The vocational guidance servi ces (Orientation Professionne lle – O.P.) which act under 
the authority of the employment services, automatica lly take in charge unqualified young 
people leaving school. Th ese young people attend an individual guidance and 
information interview where they are info rmed about the possibilities of entering a 
vocational training program or continuing their studies.74 
3.3.2.4.  Financial support 
72. Policies against ESL need to  take account of the financial difficulties that cause many 
young people to leave school early. Some Nord ic countries have traditionally provided 
study allowances as part of a policy of 'citizen  entitlement'. Financial incentives can also 
be conditional, e.g. based on regular school attendance. 
73. Another form of financial stimulus for young people to stay on at school is to make 
their families' social benefits dependent on their doing so.75 Though there are positive 
experiences with this measure in some count ries, it should be noted that conditional cash 
transfers on their own do not necessarily ensure  positive learning outcomes or an intrinsic 
motivation to stay in education and trai ning. They should therefore be accompanied by 
targeted measures to support pupils at risk  in their learning. Moreover, when such 
conditional cash transfers take place in highly unequal educa tional settings, they tend to 
reinforce the patterns of exclusion.  
Scholarships in Latvia 
To help vocational education students to st ay at school in the economically difficulty 
conditions, Latvia implements a major ESF project (ESF ~ € 31 million) that provides 
                                                 
74 http://www.adem.public.lu/adem/missions/op/index.html 
75 Since 2009, for instance, social benefits for ch ildren at compulsory school age in Slovakia are 
based on the condition that the children attend school regularly. Minimum Income Scheme in Slovakia, First Report 2009, April 2009. 
 
EN 33   EN scholarships, as a financial incentive, to  students. 26,038 students were supported in the 
framework of the project in 2009.76 
Educational Maintenance Allowance (United Kingdom) 
The Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA) is a conditional cash transfer, the aim of 
which is to decrease dropout rates in the transitio n from compulsory to post-compulsory 
education in the UK. As such, it is target ed at individuals who have completed their 
general certificate of seconda ry education (GCSE). If they choose to undertake any 
academic or vocational course that involves at least 12 ho urs of guided learning per 
week, and if their household income is belo w £30,000 per year, they are eligible for the 
programme. The payments consist of a w eekly allowance. It has been on offer 
nationwide since September 2004. 
In England the scheme was tested in va rious forms by 56 of the 150 local education 
authorities. It showed that EMA motivated  young people to stay in education and 
training. It had fewer eff ects on those who already le ft education and training.77 
3.4. Compensation  
74. Compensatory strategies create opport unities for those who left education and 
training prematurely, but want to gain the qua lifications they missed at a later stage in 
their life. The aim is also to  reintegrate young adults in danger of social exclusion by 
offering a range of tailor-made e ducation and training opportunities. 
75. While avoiding drop-out altogether is th e better outcome, the second chance route is 
an important option offers an essential opportu nity to continue edu cation and training for 
those who have left mainstream education earl y. Nevertheless early school leavers often 
face barriers to continue learning; many of their difficulties are linked to previous bad 
experiences at school and lack of confidence in own ability to learn.78 In second and 
further educational chances dr opout becomes more likely. . 
3.4.1.  Second chance programmes 
76. Whether young adults can benefit from a second chance in edu cation depends on why 
they dropped out of the 'first  chance system'. It depend s on their previous learning 
experiences, on their social or learning diffi culties, on their living conditions and on the 
set-up of the programme. Targeted measur es often follow a 360-degree approach and 
look at academic performance, wellbeing an d psychological recovery  of the young adults 
concerned.  
77. Second chance schools need to provide a different learning environment which 
responds to the specific needs of their learners, such as smaller learning groups, more 
teachers per student, more personalised an d innovative teaching, flexible and multiple 
                                                 
76 ESF Funding – Operational Programme 'human Resource Development', Ministry of Finance 
August 2009, http://www.esfondi.lv/upload/04 -kohezijas_politikas_nakotne/op/1_DP_2009-08-
04_ENG.pdf 
77 For more information http://ema.direct.gov.uk/; the Institute for Fiscal Studies (UK) evaluated the 
scheme, http://www.ifs.org.uk/projects/98. 
78 GHK (2005), p. 107 
 
EN 34   EN pathways and more elements of vocational training. Second chance programmes have to 
be relevant to their students, have to be able to provide sufficient incentives to maintain 
learning and need to be flexible to students'  varied needs. And they need to pass the 
crucial test of providing successful students with accreditation which is recognised on the labour market and allows them to continue  education and training within mainstream 
education and training system. 
Belvárosi Tanoda Alapitvány Foundation (Hungary) 
Hungary's Belvárosi Tanoda Secondary School is part of the network of Tanoda centres 
which aim at providing children from disadva ntaged backgrounds with the extra support 
in education. The Belvárosi Tanoda is a s econd chance school for students who have 
dropped out of upper secondary e ducation. It focuses on teachi ng adapted to the students' 
personalities and abilities and helps student s to finish upper-secondary and pass their 
final exams. The school offers no full-year classes, but organises small study groups per 
subject. One-to-one teaching is used when necessary and possible;  every student pairs 
with a teacher for help both in learning and in  other aspects of life. The student signs a 
contract with personal objectives for the sc hool year and learns according to a personal 
timetable. 
The facilities, which do not resemble typical school buildings, create a family 
atmosphere and ensure a safe and accepti ng environment for the young adults. Rooms are 
used in a flexible manner, including leisure,  cultural and sports activities as well as 
personal and team discussions. One of the main  objectives is to create a rich social 
climate with various opport unities to learn social role s and develop self-esteem. 
In 2007, the school had 100 full-time and 35  part-time students in general upper 
secondary education and employed 18 full-ti me and 13 part-tim e teachers and 6 
additional staff members.79 
3.4.2.  Support to re-enter mainstream education 
78. For reintegrating young early school leavers into the mainstream education system, a 
period of transition between the previous (a nd failed) school experience and a more 
successful one is often determinant. Seldom doe s a pupil return to school if he or she has 
not received any help. Transition programmes ai m to bridge this gap and to avoid the risk 
of not being in employment, education or training in th is crucial period of life. 
Project Learning for Young Adults (Slovenia)  
The ‘ Project Learning for Young Adults’ (PLYA)  is a long-standing programme that 
focuses on vulnerable young adults who have  dropped out of school. The programme is 
voluntary, and lasts from at least three months up to one year, depending on the 
expectations and motivation of its participan ts. The programme is free of charge and co-
financed by the European Social Fund, the Mini stry of Social Affairs and by interested 
local communities.  
                                                 
79 Lászlo Limbacher, A S econd Chance School in Hungary, OECD 2008, 
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/3/55/41533212.pdf 
 
EN 35   EN Due to the complex multi-faceted problem s faced by the target group, alternative 
pedagogical and counselling methods are employed to re-integrate them into education, 
training or employment. The success of the programme lies in th e provision of an 
individualised, supportive lear ning environment and a flexible approach tailored to fit 
local circumstances and the n eeds of each young person. The role of the mentor is crucial 
in supporting the individual through this transition. Ment ors act as role models, 
demonstrating what individuals can achieve  and supporting them in dealing with the 
wide range of problems they face. The mutu al trust and respect between mentors and 
students is an effective way of en suring the young person’s engagement.  
The voluntary aspect of this programme c ontributes to building self-discipline and 
motivation but there is also a need for compul sory elements to help  maintain the young 
person’s engagement (e.g. individual agreements ). The main strength of the PLYA is the 
comprehensive and person-centred approach that  supports the participants in all aspects 
of their reintegration journey.80 
Transition classes (France) 
Transition classes  give an opportunity to pupils at risk  to gradually regain confidence, 
catch up on missed learning and be reintegrated in regular classes enabling them to rejoin 
their year groups as smoothly as pos sible and without losing any time. 
A transition class consists of few st udents who receive intensive tuition from a 
substantial number of teachers  over a period of thr ee months to one year. The educational 
project is developed by staff and teachers under the supervision of the head of the 
transition centre. The centre is  established outside  school, but it is closely monitored by 
the inspectorate. Transition classes have shown high success rates: between 75% and 
80% of pupils return to regular school. The critical success factor seems to be the 
underlying concept combined with the high leve l of motivation and skills of teachers and 
other pedagogical staff e ngaged in the programme.81 
With the school year 2010, France introduced a comparable scheme, the 'micro-lycées', 
which support young people in re-entering ma instream education and achieve the 
baccalaureate. They are linked to the nati onal education system, but provide a more 
targeted support. 
Sas transition centres (Belgium) 
Sas is a programme of school reinsertion ta rgeting 13 to 17-year-olds who have dropped-
out from school. Some Sas centres work in more direct co operation with schools or even 
run within schools, others operate on school-i ndependent level within  the framework of a 
formalised partnership between the centre, students and their parents. 
The basic principle is to offer a sabbatical pe riod of maximum one year to allow pupils to 
explore other fields of activit y (e.g. art-related) , providing them with an experience, 
which may reinforce self esteem and may e quip them to face the challenges of school 
more easily. 
                                                 
80 http://www.guidance-europe.org/english/ slovenia/guidanceyoung/practice/plya/ 
81 Summary Report PLA in France. 
 
EN 36   EN Even though the pupils are not registered as  school leavers, the period spent in Sas 
centres is not recognised as a year of educatio n. Pupils have to restart at the same point 
they left. The idea behind this approach is to avoid stigmatisation linked to the attendance 
of second chance schools. The main objective is to bring pupils back to mainstream 
school: academic education should take place within the school.82 
3.4.3.  Recognition and validation of prior learning 
79. The recognition and validation of prior le arning and especially of informal or non-
formal learning outcomes is a measure str ongly linked to guidance and coaching. It can 
play an important role in motivating young adu lts to maintain education and training or 
to re-enter it. It often leads to increased se lf-confidence as it contradicts the experience of 
learning difficulties and failure . It is relevant for planning  further learning: validating 
prior learning helps learners to think about wh at they have achieved so far and to identify 
their strengths and skills. This helps them to  identify their long-term goals and what they 
need to do to achieve them.83 Advice and guidance during this process can help to ensure 
that the recognition of learni ng outcomes develops into a st arting point for new learning. 
But what is equally important is the availa bility of learning oppor tunities and a clear 
perspective how to use the recognition of learning out comes in later careers. 
New Opportunities Initiative (Portugal) 
The aim of the New Opportunities Initia tive is to involve by 2010 over 650.000 young 
adults in courses of double cer tification at the uppe r secondary education level. Those at 
risk of leaving school without a qualification shall be integrated in occupational paths. 
The initiative also focuses on the recognition of existing competences and learning 
outcomes, using the National Qua lification Catalogue as a tool. 
The initiative has a decentralised appro ach, implemented by a network of public and 
private teaching and training providers. A pane l of national and international experts has 
been appointed to perform external monitori ng and validation of the initiative. And first 
successes are already visible: Changing ed ucation and training paths at the upper 
secondary level has already allowed revers ing students’ losses, reducing failures and 
preventing early drop-outs. The young adults enrolled in double certification courses 
(2007-08) at the upper secondary education level is 40% of the total at this level, an 
amount near the 50% of the OECD c ountries and the in itiative goal by 2010. 
3.4.4.  Targeted individual support 
80. ESL can be part of a situation of serious social, academic and/or  emotional distress. 
These young adults face high risk of comple tely dropping out of e ducation, training or 
employment. Contrary to popular belief, they  come from all social classes, although 
socio-economic disadvantage is still strongl y represented among them. They may need 
special and integral support in order to return to education or training. It is crucial for many young people with turbulent relations hips with schooling to recognise their 
abilities, see them as part ners in the education proc ess and support their active 
involvement. 
                                                
 
82 Summary Report PLA in Belgium. 
83 CEDEFO (2009) European Guidelines for validating non-formal and informal learning, p. 51. 
 
EN 37   EN 81. Existing programmes operate outside and wi thin mainstream schooling. They provide 
a learning experience wh ich reinforces self esteem and equips pupils with  the necessary 
skills to face the challenges of school more easily. They offer learning alternatives that 
centre on the needs and life situ ation of the early school leav ers. The appropriateness and 
efficacy of the different programmes depends very much on the context. 
Youthreach centres (Ireland) 
Youthreach provides second-chance education for unemployed early school leavers aged 
15-20. It is administered in out-of-school  centres, operating fu ll time on a year-round 
basis. They are small in size, with about  50 pupils each. The dur ation of stay in 
Youthreach is an average of 18 months. 
The intervention of the Centre is holistic.  Bringing pupils back to mainstream school 
happens but is not the main aim of the pr oject. Youthreach provides formal education 
with the main objective of s upporting pupils to pass the leavi ng certificate. In addition, 
Youthreach provides medical treatments, psychological and family support; self-
development activities helping young adults  handle emotions and frustration, 
assertiveness, nutrition; and sport and leisure opportunities.84 
Action Locale pour Jeunes (Luxembourg) 
'Action Locale pour Jeunes' is a public in stitution acting under the authority of the 
“Vocational Training Service” (Ministry of Education). The ALJ supports young people 
during their transition from school to work, but also provides couns elling for young drop-
outs. They contact them individually and inte rview them about their reasons of leaving 
school and their current pe rsonal situation. The AL J proposes them training 
opportunities, transfer to another school or training institution (including institutions 
abroad) or supports them in finding wor k. Since September 2005, a special task force 
assesses the competences of mi grant pupils in order to offe r them the most appropriate 
education or training opportunities.85 
PLUS programmes (the Netherlands) 
The programme is intended for young people ag ed 12 to 23 who are cognitively capable 
of obtaining a basic qualification but w ho face an accumulation of personal problems 
which prevents them from completing thei r education in a regular study programme. 
These young people need comprehensive assist ance to a degree which is beyond the 
capacity of the education sector. The PLUS programme initiates a process intended to 
redress problems and help them to focu s again on their education and gain basic 
qualifications. Local authorities are closely involved in the programme; they ensure 
sustainability and continuation. Also various local budgets may be used in addition to the 
education budget.86 
                                                 
84 PLA Ireland, Final Report. 
85 Ministère de l'éducation nationale Luxembourg: Le décrochage scolaire au Luxembourg, 2009, 
p.26; http://www.alj.lu. 
86 http://www.aanvalopschooluitval.nl/v ervolg.php?h_id=10&s_id=57&v_id=64& 
titel=Plusvoorzieningen