EN  ECB-PUBLIC  
 
OPINION OF THE EUROPEAN CENTRAL BANK 
of 22 May 2017 
on limitations to cash payments 
(CON/2017/18) 
 
Introduction and legal basis 
On 23 March 2017, the European Central Bank (ECB) received a request from the Portuguese Assembly 
of the Republic (hereinafter the ‘Assembly’) for an opinion on two draft laws that aim to introduce 
limitations to cash payments above certain thresholds (hereinafter the ‘draft laws’). The draft laws were 
submitted to the Assembly by two parliamentary groups, namely the Bloco de Esquerda (the Left-Wing 
Block) and Partido Socialista (Socialist Party).  
The ECB’s competence to deliver an opinion is based on Articles 127(4) and 282(5) of the Treaty on the 
Functioning of the European Union and the second indent of Article 2(1) of Council Decision 98/415/EC1, 
as the draft laws relate to means of payment. In accordance with the first sentence of Article 17.5 of the 
Rules of Procedure of the European Central Bank, the Governing Council has adopted this opinion. 
 
1. Purpose of the draft laws 
1.1. The draft law submitted by the Left-Wing Block (hereinafter the ‘first draft law’) amends the 
Portuguese General Tax Law, which was adopted by Decree-Law No 398/98, of 17 December 
19982. The main purpose of the first draft law is to require the use of payment methods, namely 
bank transfers, cheques and direct debits, that identify the recipient, for sums equal to or greater 
than EUR 10 000. This restriction applies to all types of contracts, whether entered into in exchange for payment or free of charge.  
1.2. As clarified in the explanatory memorandum to the first draft law, the purpose of the first draft law is 
to combat the use of offshore jurisdictions, which have become havens for tax evasion, tax 
avoidance and money laundering. Within this context, it is considered essential to limit the 
accumulation of cash to the extent possible, including its use in payment transactions.  
1.3. The draft law submitted by the Socialist Party (hereinafter the ‘second draft law’) introduces a new 
autonomous framework that aims to prohibit cash payments above or equal to EUR 3 000 or its equivalent in foreign currency. A higher limit of EUR 15 000 (or its equivalent in foreign currency) 
would apply to payments made by non-residents, if the person making the payment is not acting as 
                                                 
1  Council Decision 98/415/EC of 29 June 1998 on the consultation of the European Central Bank by national 
authorities regarding draft legislative provisions (OJ L 189, 3.7.1998, p. 42). 
2  Diário da República  No 290, Series I-A, of 17 December 1998. 
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2 a business person or commercial dealer. The second draft law also prohibits cash payments for 
taxes totalling more than EUR 500.  
1.4. The second draft law introduces three exceptions to the general cash payments prohibition. These 
relate to (i) transactions with credit institutions and financial companies; (ii) transactions with public entities; and (iii) payments resulting from court orders or decisions. The second draft law also 
establishes a sanctioning regime, according to which a fine corresponding to 25 % of the amount 
paid in cash would be applied if the prohibition is not complied with. Furthermore, and in addition to 
this fine, if the improperly received cash has not been declared for tax purposes, the corresponding 
payable tax amount would be increased by 5 %.  
1.5. As clarified in the explanatory memorandum to the second draft law, the purpose of the second 
draft law is to combat tax fraud, tax evasion and money laundering. Against this backdrop, it proposes limits to the use of cash as a means of payment.  
1.6. Both of the draft laws explicitly state that they also apply to payments above the respective 
thresholds laid down in the draft laws, irrespective of whether the transactions in question are made in a single operation or in several related transactions.  
 2. General observations 
2.1 The Commission’s Recommendation of 22 March 2010 on the scope and effects of legal tender of 
euro banknotes and coins
3 (hereinafter the ‘Commission Recommendation’) states that the 
acceptance of payments in cash should be the rule, but acknowledges that cash may be refused 
for reasons related to the ‘good faith principle’, without this constituting a breach of the legal tender status of cash. Neither Union law nor the Commission Recommendation explicitly addresses 
whether, nor to what extent, it may be permissible to introduce a more general limitation to the obligation to accept euro cash payments. Therefore, Union law must be interpreted in order to 
ascertain the conditions that a limitation on payments in euro notes and coins should fulfil, including 
the conditions that should be fulfilled to comply with the legal tender status of euro banknotes and coins when general limitations to the obligation to accept cash payments are introduced. 
2.2 Without prejudice to the specific considerations in paragraphs 3.1. to 3.8, both draft laws, in their 
general provisions, must comply with Union law. In  this context, recital 19 of Council Regulation 
(EC) No 974/98
4, which states that ‘limitations on paymen ts in notes and coins, established by 
Member States for public reasons, are not incompatible with the status of legal tender of euro 
banknotes and coins, provided that other lawful  means for the settlement of monetary debts are 
available’5, should be taken into account. The ECB considers that other lawful means for the 
settlement of monetary debts, which ensure similar benefits to those of cash, are generally 
available in Portugal for business involving transactions with consumers. 
                                                 
3  OJ L 83, 30.3.2010, p 70. 
4  Council Regulation (EC) No 974/98 of 3 May 1998 on the introduction of the euro (OJ L 139, 11.5.1998, p. 1). 
5  See, for example, Opinions CON/2013/18, CON/2014/4 and CON/2014/37. All ECB opinions are published on the 
ECB’s website at www.ecb.europa.eu .  
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3 2.3 In this respect, the ECB notes that Directive 2014/92/EU of the European Parliament and of the 
Council6, has made it easier for Union citizens to obtain payment accounts and related electronic 
payment services as alternatives to cash7. In Portugal, Decree-Law 27-C/2000, of 10 March, also 
aims to create the conditions for making a minimum set of banking services accessible to all citizens. 
2.4 The ECB also acknowledges that the  draft laws’ objectives of combating tax evasion and money 
laundering may, in general, constitute ‘public reas ons’ justifying the establis hment of limitations on 
cash payments, but any limitation needs to comply with the legal tender status of euro banknotes. 
2.5 Limitations on cash payments should, therefore, be proportionate to the objectives pursued and 
should not go beyond what is necessary to achieve such objectives, especially in view of the fact 
that the measures set out in the second draft law also affect transactions between natural persons and involve payments for relatively small amounts. Any negative impact of the proposed limitations 
should therefore be carefully weighed against the anticipated public benefits. When considering 
whether a limitation is proportionate, the adverse impact of the limitation in question should always be considered, as well as whether alternative measures could be adopted that would fulfil the 
relevant objective and have a less adverse impact
8. 
2.6 Furthermore, it should be borne in mind that the ability to pay in cash remains particularly important 
for certain groups in society that, for various legitimate reasons, prefer to use cash rather than 
other payment instruments. Cash is generally also  appreciated as a payment instrument because it 
is widely accepted, fast and facilitates control over  the payer’s spending. Moreover, it is a means of 
payment that allows citizens to instantly settle a transaction in central bank money and at face value, without the legal possibility to impose a fee for the use of this means of payment. 
Additionally, cash payments facilitate the inclusio n of the entire populat ion in the economy by 
allowing it to settle any kind of financial transaction in this way. 
 3. Specific observations  
3.1 The explanatory memoranda to the draft laws do not mention the social impact of the proposed 
limitations on cash payments. Given that limitations are to be placed on transactions between natural persons, an impact assessment might be useful to assess any negative impact of the 
proposed limitations against the anticipated public  benefits. Furthermore, establishing a cash limit 
for all transactions between private individuals (as opposed to only sector-specific cash limitations 
over taxable transactions) does not mitigate the risk of tax evasion as in many circumstances such 
transactions are not taxable. Instead, it only ma kes it more difficult to settle legitimate private 
                                                 
6  Directive 2014/92/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 July 2014 on the comparability of fees 
related to payment accounts, payment account switching and access to payment accounts with basic features 
(OJ L 257, 28.8.2014, p. 214). 
7  Within the framework previously created by Directive 2007/64/EU, of the European Parliament and of the Council of 
13 November 2007 on payment services in the internal market amending Directives 97/7/EC, 2002/65/EC, 
2005/60/EC and 2006/48/EC and repealing Directive 97/5/EC, which introduced the legal basis for the creation of an 
internal market for payments within the Union and allowed for the creation of the Single Euro Payments Area – 
“SEPA”). 
8  See, for example, paragraph 2.3 of Opinion CON/2014/4, paragraph 2.3 of Opinion CON/2014/37 and paragraphs 
2.6 and 2.7 of Opinion CON/2017/8. 
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4 transactions using cash as a means of payment, thus endangering the concept of legal tender 
enshrined in the Treaty.  
3.2 In particular, the EUR 3 000 limit on cash payments proposed by the second draft law needs to 
take into account the advantages of having lim its on cash payments in place and the potential 
inconvenience thereof for citizens’ regular transactions in certain market segments. Setting the 
limitation at this level may make it difficult to implem ent the limit in practice. In this regard, it should 
be noted that Directive (EU) 2015/849 of the European Parliament and of the Council9, whilst 
confirming the vulnerability of large cash paym ents to money laundering and terrorist financing, 
nevertheless applied customer due diligence measures to cash payments of EUR 10 000 or more. This implies that the draft laws should establish a proportionate threshold for limits to cash 
payments, taking into account the objectives of such limits. Regarding the second draft law, there seems to be no justification as to why a different standard should be established for payments 
made by non-residents, which seems to discriminate against payments made by residents. 
3.3 The ECB considers that a degree of flexibility  should be introduced in the draft laws by, for 
example, allowing the delivery and receipt of cash payments for compelling reasons or for reasons 
that are outside the individual’s control
10, such as where no payment service provider is available at 
the place or time of the payment. It might also be advisable to allow cash transactions above the 
defined thresholds as long as the parties are able to ensure that the payment is traceable by 
identifying the amount, the reason for the transaction and the parties involved. 
3.4 It is suggested that the concepts of ‘several apparently related operations’ under the first draft law 
and of ‘all payments associated with the sale of goods or provision of services’ being ‘considered on a joint basis, even when they do not exceed the limit when considered separately’ under the 
second draft law
11, should be further elaborated in order to provide clearer criteria for identifying 
precisely which operations and payments fall within the scope of the draft laws. 
3.5 The prohibition under Article 1(4) of the second draft law regarding cash payments for taxes 
totalling over more than EUR 500 does not seem to be aligned with the exemption from the 
prohibition of cash payments under Article 2(b) of the second draft law for transactions with public 
entities12, since tax payments are typically made to public entities. 
3.6 The sanctioning regime established by the second draft law seems excessive and, in particular, the 
fine of 25 % of the amount paid13 appears disproportionately high. The ECB would reiterate that 
limitations on cash payments should not go beyond what is necessary to achieve their objectives, 
and that any negative impact of the proposed limitations should be carefully weighed against the anticipated public benefits. When considering whether a limitation is proportionate, the adverse 
impact of the limitation in question should always be considered. A sanction that would apply to any 
                                                 
9  Directive (EU) 2015/849 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 May 2015 on the prevention of the use 
of the financial system for the purposes of money launderi ng or terrorist financing, amending Regulation (EU) No 
648/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and repealing Directive 2005/60/EC of the European 
Parliament and of the Council and Commission Directive 2006/70/EC (OJ L 141, 5.6.2015, p. 73). 
10  See Opinions CON/2013/18 and CON/2014/37. 
11  Article 2 of the first draft law and Article 1, paragraph 2, of the second draft law. 
12  See Articles 1(4) and 2(b) of the second draft law. 
13  See Article 3(1) of the second draft law. 
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5 breach, regardless of the underlying situation, do es not seem to comply with the proportionality 
requirement.  
3.7 Furthermore, the parties’ joint liability for the fine imposed if they have improperly issued or 
received a payment  only refers to the fine ‘in the previous paragraph’, namely the 5 % increase in the corresponding payable tax amount whenever sums improperly received in cash have not been 
declared for tax purposes
14. Presumably it was intended that this joint liability should also apply in 
respect of the fine equal to 25 % of the amount paid. 
3.8 Finally, it is noted that Article 63-C(3) of the Portuguese General Tax Law already provides that for 
commercial transactions any payments equal to or above EUR 1 000 should be made by means that allow the identification of the receiver, e.g.  by bank transfer, bank debit or by a cheque made 
out to the recipient. Unlike for commercial transactions, it might be difficult to replace cash in transactions between two private individuals due to, inter alia, the risk of insolvency of the 
counterparty, the lack of possibility of immediate settlement, and the absence of infrastructure for 
cashless means of payment, that ensure similar benefits to those that exist in the case of cash payments made between two individuals. The interaction of the draft laws with the existing cash 
limitation for commercial transactions should be clarified. 
 
 
This opinion will be published on the ECB’s website. 
 
 Done at Frankfurt am Main, 22 May 2017. 
 
[signed ] 
 
The President of the ECB Mario DRAGHI 
                                                 
14  See Article 3(3) of the second draft law.