COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 
COM(90) 218 final 
Brussels, 27 June 1990 
GREEN PAPER ON THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 
Communication from the Commission to the Council and Parliament 
TABLE OF CONTPHJS 
INTRODUCTION 1 
CHAPTER ONE : THE FUTURE OF THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 6 
1. City and Urbanization 6 
The spread of urbanization 7 
The city as a project 7 
The essence of a European approach 8 
The role of c 111 es 9 
Creativity 9 
2. The Urban Environment 10 
The comp I ex i ty of the urban env I ronment 11 
Urban pol lution 14 
The bu i 11 env I ronment 22 
Nature in the city 25 
3. The Root Causes of Urban Dégradât Ion 25 
Functional Ism 26 
Production and organisation of work 26 
Distribution and conception 27 
Hote I s, restaurants and hous i ng 28 
Tour I sm 29 
Commun I cat Ion and mob 111 ty 29 
CHAPTER TWO:TOWARDS A COMMUNITY STRATEGY FOR THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT...31 
1. Targets for Urban Environmental Improvement 31 
2. Constraints on effective environmental management 32 
3. Guiding Principles for Urban Environmental Improvement 34 
4. Instruments of Community Action 35 
5. Areas of Action 39 
5.1. Urban p I ann ing 40 
5.2. Urban transport 42 
5.3. The protection and enhancement of the historical 
her i tage of European c i t i es 46 
5.4. Protection and enhancement of the natural environment 
within our towns and cities. 47 
5.5. Water management 48 
5.6. Urban Industry 48 
5.7. Urban energy management 49 
5.8. Urban waste 51 
5.9. Comparative information on the state of the urban 
env I ronment 52 
5.10. Informat ion in It lat Ives 52 
5.11 .Social Initiât Ives 53 
5.12. Interregional co-operat ion 54 
6. Resume of priority suggested lines of action 54 
7. The next steps 57 
Appendix 1 : Articles of Treaty covering environment 
- 1 -
INTRODUCTION 
Dealing with the problems of the urban environment requires going 
beyond sectoral approaches. However useful and necessary the 
setting of targets for air quality, water quality, maximum noise 
levels, etc. In Directives and Recommendations, finding lasting 
solutions to the environmental problems facing our cities 
requires a wider view of their origins. This means addressing 
not Just the proximate causes of environmental degradation, but 
examining the social and economic choices which are the real root 
of the problems. 
The problems of the cities are an early warning signal of a more 
deep-seated crisis which will force us to rethink current models 
of organisation and urban development. Of course, not all 
European cities suffer Identical problems, given their different 
levels of economic and social development, different economic 
functions, and geography. But they have much In common. 
This Green paper is Intended as a first step towards debate and 
reflection, and attempts to identify possible lines of action. 
It may be asked why the Commission of the European Communities is 
taking up the problems of the cities and their environment. Why 
can these problems not be addressed and solved at the local 
level? What contribution can the Community possibly make 7 
It is important to recognize that the majority of Community 
policies have, directly or indirectly, an influence on urban 
areas. Article 130r of the Treaty as amended by the Single Act 
makes allowance for Community action for the protection of the 
Environment which must Include the potential of such action 
within urban areas. The full text of which is Include in 
Appendix I of this document. 
There are a number of existing Community actions which are 
targeted at the urban environment - its air, water, noise and 
waste - and hence at the quality of life in the cities 
themselves. There are also Community activities helping to 
preserve the architectural heritage which constitutes the 
cultural and artistic wealth of our cities. Community funded 
investments and programmes through both the Regional Development 
and Social Funds also have a considerable impact on cities in 
less developed areas and those suffering from industrial decline 
and high unemployment 
Moreover, many sectoral, industrial and research policies of the 
Community in such areas as transport, energy and social affairs 
do have a bearing on the development of our cities. There is a 
need to make sure that these Influences are fully recognized and 
control led. 
- 2 -
The primary focus for action to Improve the urban environment is 
clearly the Individual city. But achieving major Improvements 
will require action at national and Community level as well, with 
roles and responsibilities assigned to each within a framework of 
cooperative partnership. At the Community level, It Is Important 
that the various sectoral policies take due account of the 
problems of the urban areas and converge into a Community 
strategy for Europe's cities. 
In fact, the need for an Integrated approach to the urban 
environment is already stressed In the Fourth Environmental 
Action Programme (1987-1992), which states that "One priority 
will be to consider to what extend the Community's existing 
structural funds (and notably the European Regional Fund) could 
be directed to comprehensive environmental programmes In inner 
city areas. It will therefore be of special importance to ensure 
that an adequate level of funding is available to enable the 
Community to participate adequately, along with public 
authorities and local industry, in urban renewal schemes which 
take full account of both environmental and regional policy 
requirements". This may require a special financial facility. 
The Programme also commits the Commission to present a report to 
the Council "which will examine how the public and private sector 
and other interests can work together towards the rehabilitation 
of certain urban areas...". 
Moreover, solving the problems of the city would make a major 
contribution to solving the most pressing global environmental 
problems, notably the greenhouse effect and acid rain. For it is 
In the cities that we find the greatest concentration of 
population and economic activity - and hence of emissions. And 
it Is the cities which make the crucial, long-term and often 
Irreversible decisions on infra-structure investments in energy 
supply, waste and water treatment, and transport. 
A Community role in urban environment would also meet the growing 
demand by the cities themselves for greater opportunities for an 
exchange of Information and practical experience. The Commission 
recognizes that other organisations, particularly the Council of 
Europe, have for some time been encouraging interregional 
cooperation on urban issues. In the development of Community 
policies and programmes, the Commission will take note of the 
work already achieved, such as initiatives on urban renovation 
and protection of historic buildings, or planned by the Council 
of Europe to ensure that Initiatives are complementary and not 
duplicative. 
The Commission can play a crucial role in facilitating such 
exchanges. However diverse in detail, Europe's major cities face 
common problems. But frequently they know little of each other's 
experiences and projects. The preparation of this Green Paper 
showed clearly that the cities look to the Community to remedy 
this situât ion. 
3 -
Methodology 
This Green Paper was conceived as an instrument for identifying 
the full range of difficulties confronting Europe's conurbations, 
so as to devise adequate solutions to real problems. We have 
thus organized a wide consultation with those responsible for 
managing urban problems, with technical experts, and with 
academics and professionals concerned with urban Issues. 
For this purpose, six International conferences were organized 
around the following priority themes : 
(1) Disused Industrial Areas 
Derelict industrial sites in cities with an industrial past 
can provide a strategic opportunity to establish services 
and infrastructure linked to the centre. Examples are 
Milan's PlrelIi-Blcocca, Turin's Lingotto, the new projects 
for the Industrial zones of Bilbao, Rotterdam, Birmingham, 
Barcelona and others. 
RededIeating such sites often involves projecting a new role 
and image for the city to make it attractive for productive 
and residential investment - an opportunity for new ideas 
and a stimulus for innovation. Where some industrial 
activities remain, old and new functions of the city need to 
be harmonized. 
Two conference were dedicated to this theme, one In Brussels 
(June 1989) and one In Terni (December 1989) concerned 
specifically with the problems of steel towns. 
(2) The Urban Periphery 
Urban growth has spawned vast built-up areas which lack 
essential qualities we associate with cities history, 
functional differentiation, cultural and other forms of 
infrastructure - in short, a recognizable and unique 
individuality with which the citizen can Identify. 
These monotonous areas lay siege to the more structured 
parts of the city. They often harbour poverty, crime and 
drug abuse, problems of our modern society subject to 
increasing attention from authorities at all levels. 
The conference of Louvain (October 1989) dealt with this 
theme of urban "fragmentation" and provided examples of 
projects which revitalized such areas and established 
functional and formal links with the centre, transforming 
them from faceless dormitories to organic parts of the city. 
The conference held 
series of ongoing 
and Rotterdam. in Rome 
exper iments - A -
In the coming years, a great deal of planning and financial 
resources will be devoted to these two great challenges : 
derelict land and urban sprawl. More broadly, the city Inherited 
from the 19th century offers great opportunities for renewal: Its 
barracks, hospitals, railway stations, abattoirs and other 19th 
century relics can be replaced or put to new uses to Improve the 
qua IIty of our cities. 
(3) The Quality of the Urban Environment, Public Spaces and 
Green Areas. 
The "empty" spaces - the squares, parks and similar areas 
which lend character to our cities - are being assailed by 
the motorcar and bill boards, while in the periphery these 
urban features may be lacking altogether. Creating a 
quality environment requires more than putting out few 
benches, potted plants and waste baskets in pedestrian 
areas. It calls for a comprehensive approach. 
(December 1989) examined a 
in Britain, Barcelona, Rome 
(4) Urban Pollution in Northern and Southern Europe 
Two conferences, one in Avignon (December 1989) and the 
other In Bremen (January 1990), looked at the practical and 
Immediately pressing problems of the urban environment and 
possible Community help in addressing these; 
With one of the conferences dealing with the problems of the 
southern cities, and the other with those of the North, a 
comparison became possible, taking into account differences 
which went beyond climate to include those of history, 
culture and society. Both conferences dealt with air and 
noise pollution, urban waste disposal, water, and 
contaminated soils. 
These six conferences have been extremely useful in preparing the 
Green Paper. They combined firsthand observation, information 
about ongoing projects and the collection of recent data. 
Finally, it is Important to stress the horizontal approach which 
has guided the preparation of this Green Paper. Treating each of 
the factors threatening the city environment in isolation leads 
to short-term solutions - mere palliatives or simple delaying 
action. Thus, it is not enough to worry about air quality only 
when, as happens every winter, inversion renders the air of many 
cities unbreathabie. This leads to "emergency" measures which 
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fall to address basic causes. What is needed is a critical 
analysis of urban structures, their functioning and mode of 
development : It Is here that the remedies to improve the urban 
environment need to be sought. 
What Is clear, however, Is that the cities will continue to be 
crucial to the further economic and social development of Europe. 
Technological change may seem to Indicate otherwise. The old 
steel or shipbuilding towns like Liverpool. Sheffield, Lille, the 
Ruhr, and Genoa do Indeed suffer the effects of structural 
change. Non-urban areas of economic activity, linked to 
electronics, are emerging, for example In Flanders, southern 
France or the Tiber region near Rome. Moreover, global 
communication in the global village allows decentralized 
activities ranging from financial services, to research and 
Integrated production directed by a distant computer. 
But, paradoxically, the ease of long-distance information 
Increases the need for face-to-face contacts. The cities provide 
this through their density and through their role as transport 
"hubs". The creative development of modern products and services 
requires the presence of a large variety of specialized inputs 
which the cities most easily provide. "Culture" Is now 
recognized as a factor which extends beyond private life to 
playing a crucial part in economic creativity. 
Most European cities have stopped growing and - like an 
individual in mid-life - have begun to reflect on their purpose, 
their assets and their choices for the future. There are 
exceptions to this In the South, where rural migration continues 
to swell the population of some cities; and in cities like 
Berlin, which are coping with new migrants of a different sort. 
But even, and perhaps especially, in these cities under stress, 
basic questions concerning the quality of the environment are 
being posed. 
In general, however, population growth has stabilized. Attention 
Is shifting from creating new districts to Improving and renewing 
existing ones. This process Involves more than ecology in the 
strict sense, but architecture itself. The historical centres of 
our cities have been savaged by the Intrusion of anonymous boxes 
In the International style. Re-creating harmony with the old 
means more than mimicking superficial stylistic elements. It 
requires respect for fundamental traditions In the choice of 
materials, diversity of buildings and multiplicity of purposes. 
Mere zoning must be replaced by developing the city as a project 
which assure a new quality of social and economic life. 
- 6 -
CHAPTER ONE : THE FUTURE OF THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 
1. City and Urbanization 
From the Middle Ages to modern times, Europe's social, cultural 
and economic development has been based on the city .- the power 
of the Italian city-state, the prosperity of the Hanse towns and 
Europe's great port cities, the sway of the capitals of 
principalities and kingdoms, the creativity of university towns 
such as Bologna, Prague, Paris or Colmbra. European cities show 
the traces of struggles between city and country, rulers and 
ruled, rich and poor - testimony to their role In social and 
political development which, as Leipzig proved in 1989, 
cont inues. 
Their common history has given European cities a common face : 
the small streets and alleys of Mediaeval centres; the grand 
works of 18th century princes; the great transformations of the 
19th and early 20th centuries; the growth of suburbs and 
dormitory towns, Joined later by giant shopping centres; the 
decline of centres as dwellings for middle and upper income 
groups in a number of cities in favour of specialised commercial 
and administrative activities; and finally the invasion of 
traffic congestion, urban motorways, and uniform and mediocre 
architecture In centre and periphery alike. 
As we move towards the 21th century, Europe's cities will 
continue to be the main centres of economic activity, innovation 
and culture. Managing the urban environment and the quality of 
life of its citizens therefore goes well beyond concern for the 
physical well-being of the Community's urban population. At 
stake is the quality of "civilization" in its most practical 
manifestations of economic, scientific and social performance. 
Can we speak of "cities" or must we think In terms of "urban 
areas"? Using the vocabulary of the past may impede our 
understanding of new realities. The wider term seeks to describe 
the modern phenomenon, where a historic centre - itself greatly 
changed - Is surrounded by a periphery of high-rise dormitories 
or suburban houses. Urban areas are divided and, at the same 
time, linked by a network of communication - motorways and 
railways which allow constant movement of people and goods. 
There are no clear limits to the periphery, nor is its structure 
sharply defined. At the extreme, "urban areas" negate the 
concept of the city Itself : they become "post-urban" phenomena, 
far removed from the traditional Image of the pre-industrial and 
even 19th century city. Some experts at the OECD or UN dispense 
with the notion of "urbs" altogether and prefer to speak of 
"human settlements", no doubt In distinction to nature reserves 
or uninhabitable geological features. 
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The spread of urbanization 
More than as a concept of settlement, urbanization can be 
understood as a pattern of Individual and social behavior 
Consumption patterns, Information networks and social 
relationships are no longer those of the neighbourhood or the 
extended family of the pre-lndustrial village. In this sense a 
single urban life-style characterizes much of the Community. 
European cities also resemble each other for a different reason : 
they Increasingly harbour the poorest members of society In inner 
city ghettos or slums at the periphery. Yet this phenomenon 
creates its own diversity, as former city dwellers, rural 
migrants, European and non-European newcomers live In sometimes 
uneasy co-existence. Rural and "foreign" life styles blend only 
slowly Into the uniformity Imposed by modern production and 
consumption, and constantly renew the rich diversity which is one 
of the assets of urban life. 
The city as a project 
Has the spread of "urban areas" and life-styles made the concept 
of the "city" irrelevant ? True, with a few exceptions, today's 
cities have little In common with their 18th and 19th century 
predecessors. Yet the past decades have seen a rediscovery of 
the value of urban living and a growing appreciation of the 
importance of quality of life in the cities of Europe. 
In part this reflects the failure of the periphery : the absence 
of public life, the paucity of culture, the visual monotony, the 
time wasted In commuting. By contrast, the city offers density 
and variety-, the efficient, time- and energy-saving combination 
of social and economic functions-, the chance to restore the rich 
architecture Inherited from the past. "Urban areas" are a 
statistical concept. Cities are projects for a new style of life 
and work. "City" Is the right word to use when speaking of urban 
ecology. 
The Single Market accelerates economic activity and the process 
of Internationalization, with consequences for the social 
cohesion, economic functioning and quality of life of the cities. 
The role of some cities as centres for tertiary activities is 
being accentuated. While this Is encouraging economic development 
and Job creation it is also often reinforcing the pressure on the 
centres from office construction and traffic nuisance, reducing 
the diversity of city life and confirming the exodus to the 
suburbs which leaves the remaining dwellings to the poor and 
migrants, with enclaves for the rich. 
Other cities may find themselves outside the zones of modern 
economic development. These Includes towns which scarcely took 
part In the industrialization of the 19th and 20th century, and 
those specialising in Industries which are now of declining 
importance in the advanced world. 
- 8 -
Both accelerated development and economic decline, over which 
they sometime have little control, confront city authorities with 
difficult, sometimes Impossible, tasks. 
There Is today undoubtedly increased competition for Investment 
among localities of all kinds, including cities. Centrally 
located cities are undoubtly benefitting from the enhancement of 
the international service economy. In other cities concern for 
Job creation is leading city authorities to offer not only tax 
advantages and green field sites, but they also often repeat the 
mistakes of the past in permitting development of poor 
envIronmentaI qua 11ty. 
The essence of a European approach 
Two elements form the basis for a specifically European approach 
to cities. The first is that the European city can still be 
saved. The problems It shares with cities In other continents, 
rich and poor alike - traffic congestion, slums in the centre and 
periphery, Inadequate Infra-structure, pollution - are present 
there in extreme forms rarely matched in Europe. The worst 
sources of pressure on cities - population growth and rural 
migration - are largely, If not completely, things of the past in 
Europe, leaving only economic growth, which can yield the 
financial and technological means to correct the damage It may 
cause. 
The second specifically European element is Europe's traditional 
commitment to what Is now called "social cohesion". The problems 
of poorer regions spill over to cities In the Community and it 
is here that efforts to create more equal and decent living 
conditions must Increasingly concentrate. Cities have been -
and, as Eastern Europe demonstrates, continue to be - where 
democracy develops. In the West, "Stadtluft macht frel" - the 
city'8 air sets you free - has found a new meaning for those 
escaping a life without Jobs or prospects. 
It Is Europe's prosperity and Europe's economic failures which 
put pressures on the cities. Similarly, it is Europe as a whole 
which benefits form the economic efficiency, social stability and 
beauty of successful cities. In cooperation with national and 
local authorities the Community can and must make a contribution 
to improving a common patrimony and meeting a common 
responsibiIity. 
- 9 -
The role of cities 
Urban growth results from a combination of economic, social 
cultural and political dynamics : 
- the economic dynamic : the city is synonymous with proximity, 
providing the multiple contacts and activities that make It an 
information hub and creative centre. It is this ability to 
assemble the economic actors involved in all stages of 
production, research and consumption that draws firms to the 
urban centres. 
- the social dynamic : the city brings together a wide variety 
of social facilities (nurseries, hospitals, social service 
agencies, etc.) whose role is becoming increasingly important 
as populations are marginalized by underemployment, 
unemployment and poverty. Indeed, the concentration of social 
problems makes It possible to define and pursue specific 
rather than general remedial policies. The city also 
concentrates employment opportunities; this is one of its 
great attractions. More generally, the city represents 
choice : of social relations, education, services and work. 
- the cultural dynamic : as in the social sphere of which it is 
a part, the city's cultural role depends on density, proximity 
and choice. These factors facilitate the "production" of 
culture as much as its "consumption". In addition, the 
historic heritage of the city allows unique economic 
activities linked to culture, including tourism. 
- the political dynamic. More than any other place, the city 
must respond directly to demands by Its citizens for "good 
government". It Is a place where direct participation is 
possible and Increasingly practiced, and where the individual 
can develop most freely his sense of personal and civic value. 
It Is not by accident that citizen, citoyen, clttadlno, or 
BUrger denote the political sovereign in our languages. 
Creativity 
The city's economic and social importance ultimately rests on the 
ease of communication offered by spatial density and the sheer 
variety of people and Institutions which can exploit this 
opportunity. The telephone and data-link are no substitute for 
many kinds of communication which go beyond the exchange of 
information; on the contrary, efficient electronic communication 
increases the demand for face-to-face contacts. This Is 
especially true for collective decisions based on qualitative 
Judgments and for exchanges of Information which yield the 
unexpected, even unsought answer from which true innovation 
results. Physical movement and telecommunication services go 
hand In hand to help create the environment which attracts both 
business and residents to work and live in cities. 
-lo­
in short, urban communication yield the scientific, 
organisational, social and intellectual creativity which Is one 
of the motors of development in the post-industrial age. 
The enemies of this source of creativity are, on the one hand 
undifferentiated suburban sprawl in quasi-rural settings which 
isolate the Individual; and highly specialised land-use policies 
within cities which create functional enclaves and social ghettos 
where like speaks to like : university campuses at the city's 
edge, banking districts at the centre, industrial zones deprived 
of simple services and far from habitations. Both suburban 
sprawl and specialisation are linked to the urban environment : 
they exist because they provide escape or protection from urban 
blight, poverty and pollution. Re-creating the diverse, 
multifunctional city of the citizen's Europe is thus a social and 
economic project for which "the quality of life" Is not a luxury 
but an essentla I. 
There is no alternative to a commitment to urban Europe. 
Statistics showing the reduction of some cities' populations are 
cited as evidence of their decline. But the suburbs which 
received such migration continue to depend on the cities for 
their social and economic vitality. 
Indeed, while in some cities the move to the suburbs continues -
with the centres taken over by low-Income families living next to 
office enclaves - in others the convenience and stimulus of life 
in the city is being rediscovered. For this trend to continue, 
the noise which drives people to the quiet of the country must be 
reduced, the air improved, the open spaces redeemed from being 
parking lots and traffic islands. This is described in greater 
detail in the following section. The last section examines the 
deeper causes of urban degradation, which requires new thinking 
at all levels of policy making. 
2. The Urban Environment 
The urban environment has always known difficulties. Noise was a 
problem in ancient Rome; traffic blocked the streets of 18th 
century Paris; the 19th and 20th centuries have witnessed a 
proliferation of analyses of the pollution and nuisances 
besetting the lives of urban residents, particularly the poorer 
among them. 
The quality of urban life has Improved considerably over the past 
century. It was not until the end of the 19th century that homes 
were connected to supply mains and sewers. And it was not until 
the 1950's that most cities acted to reduce the air pollution 
from domestic coal heating. These improvements are reflected in 
Increased life expectancy, lower Infant mortality rates, etc. 
Numerous problems remain, but they are often less obvious and 
therefore generate little concern. City-wide sewer systems have 
Improved urban sanitation but pollute the rivers and oceans 
beyond the city's edges. Some types of pollution are highly 
visible only In certain parts of the city. 
- 11 -
Others - such as air pollution caused by Industry and cars, 
airplane noise, etc. - may be underestimated because they are 
only apparent at certain times or for short periods. 
The effects of many of these pollutants are long term, and In 
some cases are more easily observed In the damage they do to 
nature or to buildings than In the slow deterioration they cause 
human health. 
Yet the health of urban Inhabitants is becoming a subject of 
Increasing concern. Dense urban traffic is one source of health 
hazards. Carbon monoxide from vehicle exhaust may build up in 
tunnels or underground garages. This can cause respiratory 
system damage, inhibit oxygen absorption by hemoglobin and cause 
brain stroke in the elderly. 
Hydrocarbons resulting from Incomplete combustion react with 
other pollutants in the presence of sunlight, resulting in 
reaction products that cause eye Irritation and respiratory 
system damage. They also react with NOX to produce ozone, which 
produces painful breathing, coughing and impairment of the immune 
system. 
Lead is also a serious pollutant emitted by motor vehicles, but 
legislation requiring lead-free petrol should deal with this 
source. 
Indoor pollution Is a major source of health problems, the scope 
of which is Just beginning to be understood. Lead paint In older 
housing has led to numerous cases of poisoning in children. On a 
much wider level, asbestos - widely used a insulation - has 
become a serious cause for concern. Inhalation of asbestos 
fibres causes severe lung damage and a rare - and incurable -
form of cancer. This has engendered a hot debate as to whether 
asbestos already In place should be removed or is less of a 
hazard if left untouched. 
Other building materials contain dangerous substances such as 
formaldehyde, mineral fibres, mercury, and radon. The toxic 
effects of these have been aggravated by the tendency towards 
tight insulation. 
At a psychological level, noise may pose a significant health 
hazard to the urban dweller, creating stress-related physical 
symptoms and reducing the overall quality of life in the city, 
Increasing aggressive behavior. It may also cause hearing loss. 
2.1. The complexity of the urban environment 
The problems facing the urban environment are legion and varied. 
For convenience of exposition we discuss them under three 
headings : 
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- Urban pollution : air, water, noise, soil, waste 
- The built environment: roads, streets, buildings, open spaces, 
recreational areas. 
- Nature : greenery and wildlife In the city. 
In focusing on Individual problem areas, It Is Important not to 
lose sight of the fact that the "urban system" Is a complex and 
interrelated whole. A diagrammatic representation of some of the 
main cause-and-effeet relationships Influencing urban development 
and the urban environmental system is set out in Figure 1. 
The extent of these interrelationships demonstrates the potential 
danger of ad hoc decision-making : the solution to one problem is 
often the cause of another. Effective management of our urban 
environment requires a strategy based on an overview of the urban 
system, with integrated decision-making in key areas. Few cities 
posses an administrative structure that can ensure such 
integration, most critically between land use and transportation 
planning. While the city is the main focus of economic activity 
and the associated pressures on the environment, it cannot be 
analysed in isolation from the region within which it is located. 
The interrelations between the city and Its hinterland requires 
therefore that policies should be generated within a broad 
context which has a concern for the planning of the region as a 
who Ie. 
- 13 -
Figure 1 
Relationships within the Urban system 
- 14 
2.2. Urban pollut ion 
Urban areas, by their very nature as centres of population and 
economic activity, show high concentrations of pollutants. Yet 
despite growing attention and extensive research into 
environmental issues, there is a lack of comparable data on key 
environmental indicators. Even where data are available, 
comparison and interpretation may be complicated by differences 
in data collection and measuring techniques. 
Scientific research has, however, clearly established the 
negative effects on health of air, water and noise pollution, 
inadequate waste disposal and contaminated soils. Hence, the 
Commission has over the past decade established a number of 
environmental quality objectives. The Issues involved in each of 
these areas are discussed in the sections below. 
2.2.1. Air pollution 
Urban areas are subject to a wide range of pollutants. The 
health effects of these pollutants, some which are carcinogens, 
include respiratory diseases and eye and skin irritation. In 
addition, they erode the built environment and damage the natural 
environment. Most air pollutants stem from three sources 
industry, motor vehicles and the burning of fossil fuels for 
heating or electricity generation. 
The contribution of industrial sources to air pollution varies 
considerably from one town to another, depending on density and 
type of industry in an area, its precise location and the extent 
to which It has adopted measures to control emissions or disperse 
them beyond the local environment. The effects of severe air 
pollution can be devastating smog caused by S02 emissions 
caused the death of 5000 people in London In 1952. 
Industrial pollution is however exclusively an urban problem, 
however. National and international emission standards are often 
set to address wider problems such as acid rain and the 
greenhouse effect, rather than the urban environment. It is as 
much through ambient "limit values" for air quality as through 
source emission standards that industry's contribution to urban 
pollution is regulated. 
Air pollution problems related to city transport and buildings 
are more closely linked to the internal functioning of the city. 
The contribution of these energy-using activities to the levels 
of particular pollutants is set out in Table 1. 
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Sector Table 1 
Sources of Air Pollution 
C02 S02 NOX 
Energy generation 37.5 
(of which elec. gen.) (29.3) 
Industry 18.6 
Transport 22.0 
Others 21.9 
Total 100 
(2.7 bill.t.) 
Source : Energy 2010 (1989) 71.3 
(61.5) 
15.4 
4.0 
9.3 
100 
(14 mio.t) (9. .8 28.1 
(24.6) 
7.9 
57.7 
6.3 
100 
mio.t.) 
As this table shows, depending on the energy source, space 
heating can be one of the most important sources of air 
pollution. In Dublin, for example, domestic heating is a major 
source of S02 and particulates. A gradual move away from coal 
has alleviated some of the worst effects of particulate and S02 
pollution at the local level. However, a shift to electricity 
does not solve the problem at the global level, owing to the 
pollution resulting from most forms of electricity generation. 
In this wider global perspective, the use of all forms of fossil 
fuel contributes to problems of acid rain and, by increasing 
C02 levels (see Figure 2), to the greenhouse effect. 
Figure 2 
C02 Emissions, Europe 12 (1980-2010) 
By sector 
Mt/yesr 
Source: Energy in Europe : Major Themes In En^gy 
Directorate General for Energy, Sept. 1989. 
- 16 -
While the worst problems of local air pollution caused by heating 
have been solved, they have been replaced by increased levels of 
transport pollution. Automobile engines are major sources of 
NOX, CO, particulates and lead. As to C02 for Instance, It Is 
worth noting that almost half of transport combustion is 
estimated to be due to urban traffic. In many cities, the 
transport sector is responsible for almost 90% of carbon monoxide 
emissions. Figure 3 shows the growth of car ownership in recent 
years and projections in the short and medium term which indicate 
that this significant growth is likely to continue. 
Figure 3 
Car Ownership 1970 - 2010 
500-
400 < 
300 
200-
too 
0-c ors per 
2< 
ity*' 
1 1 1000 
ya\. 
\-inhabitants 
•U-
yrj^^i 
Wl^"^ 
1 1 r— EUROPE 12 
4«i-
1— sis >»cu—-;. ... 
—1 1 
1970 1*75 IMO IMS 19*0 l»S 2000 2005 2010 
Source : as Figure 2 
The Community has over the past decade established air quality 
directives related to a number of key air pollutants : S02 and 
particles, N02, etc... These directives have established both 
limit values - a critical value for human health - and guide 
values - a value set as the objective for environmental 
Improvement to prevent any long-term Impact on health and the 
qua Iity of IIfe. 
While Information Is not available across the Community to 
demonstrate the Impact of these directives and associated 
directives aimed at controlling Individual emission sources, 
Figure 4 demonstrates the effectiveness of measures to reduce 
S02 and NOX. Progress In NOX reduction has been less 
Impressive. The introduction of catalytic convertors In all new 
cars In 1992/93 will reduce pollution by individual vehicles, but 
Increases In road traffic and traffic congestion, including both 
private cars and road-handled freight traffic, may well offset 
this reduction. 
- 17 
Figure 4 
S02 and NOX Emissions 
Source : as Figure 2 
S02 Emissions for Europe 12 
By sector 
Ml/yao NOX Emissions for Europe 12 
By sector 
Mt/yaar 
ess ' I 1«*Wr,/0.»».«. n BS nw a^.»».» CD IM>M« 
ESZ Tianatwt ES OIK». d i T.*ii«ry/o*»..*i« 
In a number of southern European cities, such as Athens and 
Naples, there has been significant increase in most air 
pollutants and a corresponding reduction in air quality. This 
can be traced to the major growth in population of these cities, 
due to an exodus from the rural areas of Southern Europe. The 
growth of urban industry and vehicle emissions in Athens, for 
example, has been so great that the authorities have had to 
Introduce a system whereby vehicles are only permitted to enter 
the city centre on alternate days - and not at all when pollution 
levels exceed safety limits. 
These measures have only succeeded In preventing the situation 
from worsening. They cannot be considered as long-term 
solutions. 
Air pollution problems In urban areas are often aggravated by 
combinations of climatic and geographic factors which act to 
concentrate pollutants In the city and prevent their dispersion 
and dilution Into the wider atmosphere. Such effects are 
described in Diagram 1. 
- 18 -
Diagram 1 
The Concentration of Urban Pollution 
10-C 
Air tenperaturt 
Under normal conditions, the pollutants emitted In hot gases rise 
higher the more they come into contact with colder air masses 
(normal diffusion situât ion). 
In certain circumstances (e.g. nocturnal radiation), the 
temperature at an altitude of a few hundred metres is higher than 
the ground-1eve I temperature. 
The upward movement of the pollutants is then arrested and they 
are trapped In an inversion layer which acts as a heat cover. If 
there Is no wind the pollutants Increase considerably. 
Apart from such cases of local pollution, pollutants and all the 
chemical compounds arising from them may be carried into the 
atmosphere by the wind over long distances before returning to 
the ground mixed with rain water, snow, mist and fog. This cross-
frontier phenomenon of the long-range transfer of pollution Is 
commonly referred to as acid rain. 
"Heat Island" 
pbsoonsDOD S«C Gaidar air E^2>-Iuverslon IJBSJSOC 
Winter dear 
«fcy Bo wind »«c 
o«c 
countryside qryifVyr» air 
Colder 
oountryside 
Heat ifslnni 
Built-up areas are "heat Islands" at the break of day, while the 
sorrounding countryside cools down. The hot air rises, causing a 
depression drawing in the colder air of the surroundings. 
Pollutants emitted on the periphery are transported towards the 
built-up area, increasing the pollution levels, sometimes 
substant iaily. 
Source: French Environment Ministry, June 1989. 
- 19 -
While cases such as Athens are widely known, it would be wrong to 
assume that cities in Northern Europe do not have critical 
problems as well. While data obtained by monitoring may indicate 
an overall improvement, the use of average figures from a 
restricted number of recording stations may well be obscuring the 
presence of harmful concentrations at certain specific times and 
locations. In Brussels, for example, rush hour traffic in road 
tunnels results In pollution levels many times the limit 
recommended by the World Health Organisation. 
2.2.2. Noise 
Noise is the most "urban" or all forms of pollution, affecting 
both the health and the quality of life of its citizens. The most 
significant noise problems stem from various means of transport -
road traffic (especially motorcycles), aircraft, railways- and 
from building sites. Community action on noise has focused on 
combatting noise generated by the worst Individual sources -
e.g., aircraft, building sites and motor vehicles (as well as 
dealing with noise in the work place). 
Important as these improvements have been in reducing the noise 
of extreme individual offenders, the overall noise problems 
created by the sum of "normal" cars, planes and trains has 
hardly been tackled. The likely increase in traffic in the 
coming years will exacerbates the problem of urban noise. 
The Community proposes noise standards for motor vehicles as part 
of the norm-setting process of the Single Market. These 
standards have progressively been Improved, but arguably still do 
not require producers to incorporate the best available 
technology to reduce noise generation. While more stringent 
standards will clearly increase costs, these must be weighed 
against the benefits deriving from reduced noise nuisance. The 
use of economic Instruments might be worthy of consideration In 
this area. 
Yet even stringent standards for individual vehicles cannot 
substitute for a broader approach to traffic management. Where 
they have been tried, so-called traffic-calming schemes have been 
successful. Reduced speed limits, road restrictions and 
integrated traffic-light controls have been introduced on local 
initiative and are effective provided the restrictions are 
subsequent I y enforced. 
A major constraint on schemes designed to reduce the level of 
noise In cities Is the absence of a generally accepted noise 
quality standard. Various Member States have adopted noise 
target levels, but these rarely have legislative status. The 
Commission is studying the concept of setting limits for ambient 
noise levels as a quality target similar to those set for air 
poilut ion. 
- 20 -
This would recognise the importance of action aimed at assisting 
the significant numbers of people living In areas where they are 
subject to levels of noise which affect their health (by causing 
stress or disturbing sleep). It Is often the poorer sectors of 
our society, living In the worst housing conditions, who are 
subjected to the highest ambient noise levels. 
2.2.3. Water 
Historically, the process of population expansion and industrial 
development in urban areas has proved disastrous to the quality 
of the rivers which flow through them. As towns ceased to rely 
on their rivers as a source of water, the rivers became waste 
receptacles, subjected to an Increasing volume and variety of 
effluent harmful to both water quality and wildlife. 
A further aspect of this problem is that sewage systems designed 
and built in the late 19th century are still in use in many 
cities. Present polluting discharges are markedly different from 
those of the last century, both In their concentration of 
substances and In volume of flow. Moreover, older sewers are 
frequently in poor repair and the cost of replacing them is 
prohibitively expensive. 
The urban environment itself causes problems for sewage systems 
and their receiving waters. The city's impermeable surfaces 
telescope urban runoff following rainfall, both in terms of the 
peak discharge and the length of time needed to reach that peak. 
In certain cases, Increased urbanisation in a catchment area can 
Increase the downstream flood risk. Indeed, the canalization of 
many urban rivers exacerbates this situation. It should also be 
noted that the runoff from tarmaciced surfaces will carry with it 
a cocktail of pollutants normally present on urban surfaces. 
While water treatment prior to reuse is usually adequate to 
ensure conformity with Community water quality standards, the 
amenity aspect of water quality has received comparatively little 
attention. Where significant improvements have been achieved, it 
has often been In cases where the quality of a river has become 
an issue of civic pride, associated with the image of the city. 
This Is very much the case for London and the River Thames, which 
has received considerable investment for improvements over the 
past few decades and Is now claimed to have one of the cleanest 
estuaries in the world. 
Rivers such as the Rhine, which are influenced by a large number 
of towns and cities in various States, demonstrates the impact 
cities may have on each other, as well as the need for 
cooperative action at the international level. 
- 21 -
2.2.4. Waste 
As with other forms of pollution, the specifically urban problems 
related to waste result from a combination of high population 
density with a wide variety of economic activity : hospitals, 
large and small produce markets, debris from demolition and 
packaging discarded by transporters, retailers, and shoppers, to 
mention a few. 
The local authorities must in fact solve three related tasks 
- street cleaning 
- refuse collection 
- waste disposal 
The disposal of vast and ever-growing volumes of domestic and 
industrial waste poses an enormous problem for those 
administering Europe's cities. Table 2 indicates the volumes of 
waste generated and how these are treated, by country. The 
simple solution of landfill, even In controlled conditions, is 
becoming Increasingly difficult for many cities, either because 
of the scarcity of available land within reasonable distance of 
the city or as the result of opposition from residents In 
surrounding areas. 
Table 2 
Urban Solid Waste Treatment, Selected Countries, 1985/1986 
NATION R.S.U. DUMPING INCINE- OTHERS 
Million T. Legal / Illegal RATION 
Denmark 
Holland 
France 
Sweden 
Germany 
United Kingdom 
Belgium 
Italy 
Spain 
Greece 
Ireland 1.4 
4.4 
17.0 
— 
32,0 
20.0 
3,2 
15,0 
10.0 
— 
110.0 22 
53 
44 
80 
70 
90 
70/80 
30 
— 
80 
65 — 
— 
10 
— 
— 
— 
— 
55 
— 
20 
35 70 
37 
36 
35 
27 
9 
20 
11 
5 
— 8 
10 
10 
5 
3 
5 
10 
4 
15 
— 
Source : Recupero Aliumlnio in Forma dl Lattlne, Conzorzlo del 
Produttorl dl contenltorl in AI lumlnlo-Bresso (Ml) - IT. 
- 22 -
Incineration is proving to be a problematic alternative, it is 
difficult to find suitable sites and their partly toxic emissions 
have led to Community legislation setting emission limits for 
municipal Incineration plants. Progress In waste reduction and 
recycling has been achieved In some Members States, particularly 
Germany and the Netherlands, but even the most optimistic 
estimates generally give a 30% reduction as the highest target 
that can be achieved. 
The Commission's recently published waste management strategy* 
sets two priorities : prevention and recycling. Prevention is 
above all a matter for Industry. For instance changes in 
packaging could greatly ease urban cleaning and waste management 
problems. For urban authorities recycling Is a major option. 
This requires sorting at source (and the necessary containers), 
and specialized collection services. Future planning parameters 
for large apartment and office buildings can also incorporate 
facilities for sorting waste for recycling purposes. 
2.2.5. Sol I poI lut ion 
The pollution of soli by indiscriminate tipping of toxic 
substances is now recognised as a major concern in urban areas. 
While there is increasing interest to reclaim existing land 
within urban areas, soils contaminated by decades of tipping 
prevent the reuse of such land for either habitation or new 
economic activities. 
Given the local and very specific character of each Individual 
case, It is difficult to establish general policies or technical 
solutions. Yet while the Immediate impact of contamination Is 
often local, there is a medium-term threat to groundwater. 
2.3. The built environment 
While the landscape of the countryside Is formed by natural 
features, the townscape Is formed by buildings, with trees and 
green spaces providing Important accents. The environmental 
quality of townscape Is to some extent a matter of subjective 
taste. Nevertheless, most people show a similar appreciation of 
the quality of towns and cities - historical buildings and street 
patterns, open spaces and trees, activity. 
The historical centres of European cities, where they remain 
Intact, represent an important link with the city's past culture 
and heritage. In a world Increasingly dominated by international 
styles of architecture and building technology, historical 
centres provide a unique sense of place which differentiates one 
town form another. 
*SEC 89(934) final : Community Strategy for Waste Management. 
- 23 
The past few decades have seen major changes In the planning and 
management of our cities. Most have undergone a process of 
suburbanization, with fewer and fewer people living In the 
genuine centres, which are Increasingly taken over by offices and 
shops. 
Enormous development pressure from these activities has resulted 
in the destruction of much of the historical fabric of our 
cities, which has been replaced with new buildings, often of 
Indifferent - If not poor - quality. Very little of the 
construction of the present period is likely to be regarded by 
future generations as being the stuff of which heritage is made. 
Quantification of this destruction on a European scale is 
difficult, since official classification and listing systems vary 
widely. The U.K. has one of the most exhaustive such systems, 
with several hundred thousand buildings listed according to set 
criteria related to their age and condition. The Netherlands 
also has a wide classification scheme for individual houses. In 
Italy, whole historical centres are classified by local ordinance 
and national law. Belgium, In contrast, has far fewer classified 
buildings and uses more restrictive criteria. 
While classification of a building does not necessarily guarantee 
Its protection, an exhaustive listing process does have the merit 
of ensuring that the heritage value of a historic building is 
reasonably weighed against any proposals for redevelopment. At 
the International level, recognition of the Importance of areas 
is provided by the Council of Europe Diploma system. While this 
does not provide legislative protection, It undoubtedly 
influences local decision-making. 
Unfortunately, the problems faced by the historical centres of 
our cities are not restricted to those of demolition and renewal. 
While the more affluent either stayed or are returning to the 
centre, m IddIe-1ncome families continue to move to suburban 
areas, with large parts of inner city housing given over to 
rental accommodation for the less affluent groups of our society. 
While such housing is conveniently located, close to employment 
opportunities In the city centre, the revenue generated by these 
buildings is often not considered sufficient to maintain them, or 
is not used for that purpose. The result Is decay. 
Historical buildings are also threatened by the high level of air 
pollution In European cities. Buildings are not only being 
covered by layers of soot from particulate pollution, but 
chemical reactions with pollutants such as S02 cause a 
deterioration In the structure of stone. This is particularly 
serious and expensive to remedy, in the case of the decorative 
carvings on the more Important public buildings and monuments. 
The growth of car ownership and urban traffic also poses 
considerable problems for historical towns centres, which usually 
have narrow street patterns quite unsulted to motor vehicle use. 
Even cities such as Paris, historically subject to urban 
planning, Including the Introduction of wide boulevards, have 
- 24 -
found that current levels of traffic significantly exceed 
capacity. Apart from the physical problems caused by traffic 
congestion, parking In streets and squares not designed for such 
use is extremely Intrusive visually and disrupts pedestrian use 
of the street. 
It is fair to say that In the past decade there has been a 
greater recognition of the importance of historical town centres 
- the pace of demolition has slowed, and a number of restoration 
schemes have been undertaken. 
Traffic calming measures and pedestrian zones in parts of the 
city centre have been widely adopted and have proved popular, 
with citizens enjoying a safer and more relaxed shopping 
environment. Nevertheless, pressures arising from development, 
derelict areas and the Impact of motor vehicles continue, and the 
future of parts of the historical centres of many European cities 
still hangs very much In the balance. 
The same pressures also have often resulted in the loss of open 
space within city areas to parking lots or road-widening schemes. 
High property values make it extremely difficult for public 
authorities to acquire land for the creation of new public open 
spaces in city centres, Just as citizens are becoming more aware 
of the Importance and value of such space. 
One possible approach to this problem is through the intelligent 
management of the abandoned land that exists in all cities. 
Changing patterns of employment, manufacturing and freight 
transport have left their mark on the physical structure of our 
cities - predominantly In the form of wide swaths of derelict 
land comprising abandoned docks, factories and barracks. While 
some cities have undertaken Imaginative renewal projects which 
demonstrate the potential of these areas to create a new image 
for the city, others have left derelict land untouched - a blight 
on the urban environment. 
Ironically, the problems associated with the built environment of 
our cities are not restricted to the adaptation - poor or 
otherwise - of historical towns to 20th century life-styles. 
Equally serious problems have been identified In some of the new 
developments designed to replace inner city schemes. 
The late 1950s and 1960s saw a Europe-wide trend towards the 
construction of massive public housing schemes on the edges of 
our town and cities, often involving high-rise blocks of flats. 
Far from urban facilities, poorly served by public transport and 
frequently Inadequately maintained, these areas often became the 
slums of the late 1970s and 1980s. The absence of commercial and 
economic activities and opportunities in these areas has 
contributed to high unemployment levels and has tended to 
restrict further the mobility and opportunities of their 
inhabitants. 
- 25 -
2.4. Nature In the city. 
The value of natural features within urban areas has long been 
recognised. Parks, gardens and avenues of trees have been 
traditional features of town design. The visual contribution of 
such features is extremely significant; even a very small number 
of mature trees considerably softens the harshness of an 
otherwise totally built environment. In addition, such features 
have a symbolic value for many city dwellers, providing a 
psychological link to nature and the countryside. 
In recent years, a widening Interest In nature conservation has 
led many people to explore the habitats and wildlife of their 
immediate urban and suburban surroundings. Areas of abandoned 
land and seminatural habitats have often proved to be 
surprisingly rich in their variety and abundance of wildlife. 
The Importance of such natural habitats In urban areas has grown 
as increasing pressure has been placed on wildlife in the 
countryside by the use of Intensive agricultural practices over 
the past few decades. 
In a number of cities, detailed inventories of wildlife habitats 
have been drawn up and active volunteer groups formed, seeking to 
protect these sites from development and ensure their sound 
management. While in absolute terms such sites may not always 
have a wildlife value comparable to that of a truly natural 
habitat, their location in or close to urban population centres 
gives them a special value and relevance. They also form an 
important resource for educational activities and nature 
famiIlarization. 
A general Increase in leisure time has made citizens increasingly 
aware of the value and Importance of such open spaces in or close 
to the city. As land use within the city changes, public 
authorities frequently have the opportunity to create new public 
spaces. But, as already stated, this Is often a costly exercise 
due to the value of such land for development purposes. 
Open spaces and seminatural habitats on the city's edge, with 
ease of access for urban residents, are also of great importance. 
Many cities- such as Brussels, Berlin and Luxembourg - have large 
areas of forest adjacent to city boundaries; these provide a 
habitat for wildlife and recreational opportunities and are a 
resource for commercial forest production. With the priorities 
for agricultural production changing within the Community, the 
concept of developing such areas adjacent to other cities merits 
considérât ion. 
3. The Root Causes of Urban Degradation 
The city's problems are hidden by its obvious improvements - in 
the health of Its Inhabitants, better equipped housing, shiny new 
buildings and motorways. The notion that collateral effects are 
a necessary "price to be paid" may seem persuasive. Moreover, 
negative effects, while no less "real" than these Improvements, 
- 26 -
take much longer to become visible - rising crime, chronic health 
problems, the gradual build-up of traffic, noise and pollution-, 
they thus rarely produce the clear moment of crisis which Is 
usually required for political action. 
However, the political maturity of a society is measured by Its 
ability to think In the long term. European unity Itself Is an 
example. This cannot be achieved by bureaucratic and 
technocratic projects which fail to Inspire large parts of the 
population. The European city cannot be saved by regulation or 
money alone. Its improvement requires above all a broad 
understanding of the deeper causes of Its problems, forming the 
basis for a consensus which allows local, national and European 
action towards a shared goal. This will entail the exchange of 
ideas and cooperation between cities on a wide front. 
These causes frequently are to be found In the way we organise 
work, production, distribution and consumption, and in often 
rigid and outdated notions of planning. These - and other -
causes interact, reinforcing each other. The enumeration below 
does not Imply a hierarchy. 
Functlonalism 
Current urban planning often still reflects the principles of 
functional ism expounded In "The Charter of Athens", theory of 
planning set out In the 1940's, and also to be found in the 
earlier British Garden Cities movement. Both these theories 
expounded the merits of a system of town planning based on a 
rigid compart Imenta Iization and location of activities on the 
basis of function. Thus, housing, Industry, commercial areas, 
green spaces, etc. are all physically separated and linked by an 
extensive road and transport network. Functional separation may 
sometime be useful when applied, for example, to industry. In 
other areas, however, as was pointed out by Karl Gruber, the 
practice of strict zoning Ignores the patrimony and geographical 
reality of the city. "Functional exactness" destroys the 
flexibility of the city and Its buildings; these, conceived as 
architectural objects, are unable to adapt to changing conditions 
and therefore prevent the city from functioning as a dynamic, 
organic whole. 
Production and the organisation of work 
While even the industrial city was largely an extension of the 
traditional town, the Internationalisation of the economy has 
caused a break with the past. Investments - and their location -
are made from distant headquarters with scant regard for local 
effects. Products are conceived in one place and made in 
another. 
City planning is often orientated towards the encouragment of 
development : new commun I cat Ion Infrastructures, Industrial parks 
and office buildings, frequently replacing Inner city housing. 
- 27 -
Each city seeks to attract corporate headquarters, international 
Institutions, International service activities and industrial 
Investment. This Is now taking place In a context of Increased 
competition between cities. In all this the environment, and the 
quality of life of the Inhabitants, often come a poor second. 
At the same time It must be recognised that environmental quality 
is an asset In international competition. Farsighted cities are 
seeking to attract high value-added activities by Increasing the 
quality of life in the city or by establishing attractive science 
parks - with Increased tourist revenue as a bonus. 
Firms, research centres and other institutions seeking to recruit 
the top personnel and skilled workforce on which their success 
depends Increasingly take the attractiveness of a potential site 
as seriously as its conventional efficiency. The environment and 
quality of life for inhabitants and for promoting economic 
development should therefore be a primary Issue for city planning 
and management. 
Distribution and consumption 
The age of mass consumption has had a profound impact on the 
spatial organisation of the city. One such phenomenon is the 
large shopping mall at the far periphery, accessible on I y by car; 
similarly, the access routes to the city are lined with 
speciality shops, garishly advertised, whose collective visual 
Impact is more reminiscent of the industrial zone than of the 
traditional High Street. 
Meanwhile, high-class shops take over the most picturesque parts 
of the old centre, depriving its Inhabitants of shops for their 
daily needs. Other central areas are taken over by pedestrian 
zones, crammed with a narrow range of clothing and similar shops, 
which reduce variety and convenience for Inhabitants and attract 
large amounts of traffic to surrounding parking garages. 
There Is thus a link between single-purpose public spaces and 
urban monoculture generally: the pedestrian area creates shopping 
precincts; the urban motorway, office ghettos. What is lost is 
the equilibrium resulting from many uses and many modes of 
transport co-existing: the pedestrian, cyclist and public 
transport creating a multifunctional environment which neither 
depends on nor totally excludes the private driver. 
- 28 -
Hotels, restaurants and housing 
Hotels and restaurants can be an extension of city life, oriented 
to serve local Inhabitants. To an Increasing degree, however 
they are mere extensions of the office culture, serving its needs 
but crowding out local Inhabitants and attracting traffic to the 
centre. 
Increasingly, the centres are Inhabited by three groups: older 
people with modest means, Immigrants, and young professionals, 
well-off and without children, benefitting from private or public 
urban restoration In what is known as "gentrif I cat ion". 
The neighbourhoods surrounding the centre, built in the second 
half of the 19th century, show a greater diversity of age and 
social groups. They are, however, assailed by traffic passing to 
the centre, and by encroachments from office development. 
Further on the periphery, housing estates often represent 
extremes of monoculture, both as regards the social status of 
their inhabitants and the absence of multiple urban services and 
activities. 
While the growth of these dormitory towns can in part be 
explained as a response by public authorities to a pressing need, 
they also follow a doctrinaire view developed before World War I 
which saw the "garden city" as an Ideal. This attempt to provide 
the city's Inhabitants with air, quiet and space has 
unfortunately too often resulted In urban sprawl and further 
décentraiIzation. 
The price, however, Is the need for a massive transport 
Infrastructure whose main effects are felt by districts closer to 
the centre; and, for the individual, long travelling times. 
Moreover, suburban housing Is nothing If not self-sufficient. Its 
gadgets are an effective substitute for services exhanged within 
neighbourhoods - and hence contribute to Isolation. 
These effects have contributed to create a movement of "return to 
the city". Impatience with long commuting times and the desire to 
profit from the cultural diversity of the city are reinforced by 
two contemporary needs : as Industry and services Increasingly 
work around the clock, key technical personnel or executives must 
be Instantly available. In addition, the frequent uprooting from 
house and social life associated with increased Job mobility can 
be avoided by living in or close to the centre. The demand for 
attractive urban housing suitable for families is beginning to be 
met by a still often experimental supply of roads with traffic 
restrictions where children can play and adults mingle, small but 
well-planted parks and play areas, replanted courtyards, roof 
gardens, etc. 
- 29 -
These experiments show that the "mixing" of urban uses - of 
living, moving, working - Is possible and, Increasingly 
necessary. This new concept takes as Its model the old* 
traditional life of the European city, stressing density! 
multiple use. social and cultural diversity. Different social*, 
professional and age groups living together also create the basis 
for a civil coexistence which Is undermined by growing mutual 
Ignorance and distrust. 
However, the housing estates of the periphery, increasingly 
suffering from vandalism and crime provoked by limited 
occupational choice, monotony and isolation also have to be 
urbanized in this new-old pattern: by creating greater 
heterogeneity, centres of greater density, life, and variety of 
uses. 
Tour 1sm 
The constant increase In tourism in certain cities characterized 
by a very rich cultural heritage, numerous examples of 
outstanding architectural beauty and sophisticated or specific 
types of urbanization may, In the absence of effective controls, 
undermine the quality of life of the inhabitants. Historic 
centres are being turned into monofunctional areas as a result of 
the proliferation of hotels, the rise in property values, the 
disappearance of corner shops, overcrowding, and the relocation 
of small firms, including craft businesses. This transformation, 
disrupting the fragile equilibrium of the urban environment, is 
bound to affect the overall dynamics of historic centres, since 
an excessive concentration of visitors may result In the 
deterioration of the heritage itself. 
However, the cities and regions attach high hopes to the 
development of tourism and leisure activities. It is therefore 
essential that a planning strategy for urban tourism be 
elaborated In order to avoid the negative effects of tourism and 
to channel the proceeds Into renovation of the urban fabric, 
restoration of the cultural heritage, development of leisure 
facilities and green spaces and, last but not least, Improvement 
of pub 11c spaces. 
Communication and mobility 
Some futurologlsts have concluded that modern communications 
technology could allow those now living and working in congested 
cities to disperse throughout the country. Everything argues 
against such a vision for all but a few independent 
professionals : the sheer number of people relative to the land 
available, the destruction of the environment Involved, the 
Implied waste of existing urban Infrastructure. 
Personal mobility thus remains an essential - Indeed, the 
- 30 -
essential - atrlbute of the city. As argued above, spatial 
separation dictated by functionalist doctrine leaves, in the 
absence of effective public transport networks, little 
alternative to the motor car. 
Yet adding roads, tunnels, etc. to accommodate growing traffic 
has the perverse effect to slowing It down during construction, 
while Increasing pollution and noise even further. Once such 
Infrastructure is completed, traffic quickly Increases to 
recreate the previous levels of congestion. For the centre, 
however, the increase is real : pressure on space for parking 
spills over onto pavements, squares and parks. 
Outright prohibition of the car is rarely the answer. As stated 
earlier, It may accelerate the monofunetional quality of the 
centre. It may force detours which increase overall traffic and 
hence pollution, or shift the problem of parking to the edge of 
the protected centre. 
Generally, the objective must be to make the car an option rather 
than a necessity which is created - indeed, forced on the 
Individual - by the separation of the city into monofunctlonal 
segments. The multifunctional, creative city, which is also the 
more livable city, Is the one that pollutes the least. In turn. 
by limiting the car's contribution to noise, unsafe streets and 
air pollution, the city's attractions can grow and its economic, 
social, and cultural potential be realized. 
Concretely, this leads to three convergent orientations: 
- avoid strict zoning In favour of mixed uses of urban space, 
favouring In particular housing In Inner city areas; 
- defend the architectural heritage against the uniform banality 
of the International style, respecting rather than Imitating 
the old; A ., .: 
- avoid escaping the problems of the city by extending Its 
periphery: solve Its problems within existing boundaries. 
Lastly, It Is Important to stress the role of regulation while 
warning against certain modes of planning. Regulation regarding 
environmental targets Is essential. Planning without broad 
participation by, and concern for the city's Inhabitants will 
result in a narrow view of its efficiency, which ultimately 
condemns It to sterility. 
- 31 -
CHAPTER TWO: TOWARDS A COMMUNITY STRATEGY FOR THE URBAN 
ENVIRONMENT 
1. Targets for Urban Environmental Improvement 
The primary objectives of urban environmental policy and 
management are the creation, or re-creation, of towns and cities 
which provide an attractive environment for their inhabitants, 
and the reduction of the city's contribution to global pollution. 
However Utopian this target may appear, It is one which meets 
today's concerns and tomorrow's responsibilities. 
The analysis of the previous section traces urban environmental 
problems primarily to two factors. 
The first of these is the uncontrolled pressure placed on the 
environment by many of the activities which are concentrated in 
the cities. 
The second - and not unrelated - factor is the spatial 
arrangement of our urban areas. In the past few decades, planning 
philosophy and development practice have radically altered the 
organization of towns, In many cases giving rise to an almost 
clinical separation of land uses. This physical separation, often 
between areas not linked by public transport, has required urban 
populations greatly to increase their mobility, and thus their 
reliance on motor vehicles In general and private transport In 
particular. 
This has in turn led to the development of extensive suburban 
residential areas which are economically difficult to service by 
public transport. The environmental implications of such spatial 
reorganization of our cities may be seen In terms of 
- Adverse effects on specific areas within towns : congested or 
decaying city centres; peripheries turned Into dumping grounds 
for land uses considered undesirable for the city - waste 
tips, Industry, social housing-, 
- Generally high levels of air and noise pollution, caused In 
part by the mobility Imposed by spatial differentiation. 
Moreover, this pollution spills over Into the country and the 
global environment. By their very concentration, cities are major 
contributors to acid rain and - via C02 emissions - to the 
greenhouse effect. Higher smokestacks are thus not the answer. 
- 32 -
Growing concern over the environment In general and the urban 
environment In particular has led public authorities at all 
levels to Initiate remedial action. While such actions have 
undoubtedly helped to Improve environmental quality or prevent 
Its further deterioration, much remains to be achieved. There are 
few objective measures for evaluating the environmental quality 
of urban life. But with growing awareness of the Issues, citizens 
are seeking more than prevention of further deterioration-, they 
are demanding positive improvements. 
The experience provided by past successes and past failures 
provides useful guidelines for future action. An analysis of the 
efforts made during the past few years to tackle urban 
environmental problems suggests that these have been constrained 
by a number of important factors which can be addressed in a 
Community programme of action. 
2. Constraints on effective environmental management 
There is growing understanding that effective environmental 
management requires replacing the piecemeal approach to problems 
by a high degree of Integration, if displacement of problems is 
to be avoided. However, issue Integration must also be matched by 
procedural integration : between policy-making, problem analysis 
and Impact assessment, planning, financing, and implementation -
precisely because of the wide scope of the issues involved. Even 
at the end of the process, however, results will be transitory if 
the public is not helped to acquire the awareness needed to 
recognize environmental problems on a day-to-day basis and 
structures found which translate this awareness Into action. 
(1) Coordination 
This Is essentially an institutional problem which affects all 
levels of public administration. The traditional approach to 
urban environmental problems has been essentially sectoral - In 
other words, Individual measures aimed at reducing the effects of 
specific problems. 
Yet given the complexity of urban systems, decisions made In 
almost any Individual sector will have repercussions elsewhere. 
The division of responsibility of urban management between 
different levels of government and various agencies operating at 
the local level Involves difficulties of Integration which are 
both "vertical" and "horizontal". 
Few cities posses an institutional framework which permits 
genuine coordination of Investment, development and environmental 
decision-making. The implications of this are most easily seen In 
respect to transport planning. Despite their significant 
environmental Implications, decisions affecting public transport 
on the one hand and road construction on the other are rarely 
Integrated Into a single, comprehensive transportation strategy. 
(Ii) Resources 
While limited budgets undoubtedly constrain many environmental 
programmes, environmentally sensible solutions can often be 
achieved by the more efficient use of existing resources. 
- 33 -
(III) Information v 
As discussed above, the lack of accurate and consistent data on 
many environmental factors acts as a constraint on programme 
development. It is difficult to set objective targets for 
Improvement without a clear recognition of the scope of a 
particular problem. In the past few years, greater efforts in the 
field of environmental monitoring, together with public pressure 
for access to collected data, have generated demands that higher 
priority be given to Improvement programmes. 
(iv) Technical Knowledge 
With the growth of concern for environmental issues, there has 
been concomitant growth In environmental techniques and 
technologies. This has already yielded results In many areas of 
noise and pollution control, which will gradually be implemented 
over the coming years. These successes have made clear the 
importance of ongoing research and development In environmental 
technology. 
(v) Problem Displacement 
One of the shortcomings of the current sectoral approach is that 
the solution to one problem often proves to be the cause of 
another one. Thus, the construction of new urban roads to ease 
congestion may stimulate more traffic and thereby Increase 
pollution. Attention must therefore be paid to potential 
secondary effects of solutions. Electric cars will be quieter and 
cause less direct pollution than motor vehicles, but the problem 
of C02 pollution resulting from the generation of electricity by 
burning fossil fuels remains. Most electricity in Europe is 
generated in this way, and the situation Is not likely to change 
in the near future. 
(vl) Environmental Improvement vs Economic Growth 
A significant restraint on many measures for environmental 
Improvement has been concern for their Impact on economic growth. 
It Is not surprising that economies which have in recent years 
been been faced with high Inflation and unemployment are 
reluctant to burden Industry and consumers with higher 
environmental standards. This conflict between environment and 
economy is, however, a false one since In the long term the 
protection of environmental resources Is a basic condition for 
sustained economic growth, which can itself contribute to 
environmental improvement. 
In the short term, the weakness of our present environmental 
legislation and policies is such that economic growth is likely 
to lead to Increases in pollution and pressure on the 
environment. Analysis of the projected future patterns of growth 
within the Cdmmunlty Indicates that It is likely to cause severe 
environmental problems related especially to transport, energy 
and waste. More positive measures to overcome these impacts are 
required not Just to protect the environment but also to ensure 
that the benefits of this growth are sustained. Economic 
Integration provides positive opportunities for the application 
of environmental Improvements throughout the entire Community. 
- 34 -
ITttlî» °ne ,°f the maJOr d,ff,cu,t,es in judging the balance 
between environment and economic development concerns the 
timescale. Current environmental management far too often 
responds to short-term crises rather than engaging In long-term 
pIannIng. 
At the heart of the conflict, however, is the fact that the 
market economy currently doesn't "Internalize" the environmental 
costs. It does however have the potential to do so. While 
research carried out by the OECD, among other organisations, has 
already fully documented these costs, this is yet to have a 
significant Impact on public policy. 
Consumer and producer choices can be guided through economic and 
fiscal measures which rely on market forces. Although this policy 
option is only beginning to be explored, It has considerable 
potential as means of contributing towards compatibility between 
environment and economic growth. 
3. Guiding Principles for Urban Environmental Improvement 
From this discussion, a number of themes arise as guiding 
principles for Community action in improving the urban 
envIronment. 
(I) Coordination-intégrât ion 
The complexity and Interrelationships among urban problems calls 
for greater Integration in policy and investment decision-making 
to economic development, social policy (the reinforcement of 
social and economic cohesion), transport and environment. 
(II) ResponslbiIity 
Accepting responsibility for the consequences of our activities 
at all levels - of the Individual, the company and public 
administration - is an important prerequisite for environmental 
Improvement. This In turn presupposes understanding and knowledge 
of these consequences, which Is often lacking. While Informed 
choice alone will not solve our problems, it will contribute to 
this end. 
For the city itself, It Is perhaps useful to suggest the 
objective of the non-polluting city - assuming the responsibility 
to prevent pollution of the surrounding countryside. An example 
Is the project "Seine Propre", by which Paris aims to treat 100% 
of the waste water discharged into the river Seine. 
(ill) Sustainabllity 
The long-term objectives of environmental and economic 
sustainabllity must be accepted along with that of environmental 
quality In the short term. The World Commission on Environment 
and Development, in Its 1987 report, commonly known as the 
Brundtland report, developed as an Important principle 
"sustainable development": that the use of resources and the 
environment should not reduce the potential of these resources 
for succeeding generations. Its implications for urban 
environmental management need to be explored In detail. 
- 35 -
(lv) Subsidiarity 
r!^,,nP,rt,vnC,?le^,,eS sPec,f,ca,|y to actions by the European 
TiïTrL r n d,Ôf,n,ng the d,V,s,on of responsibilities between 
different levels of government, It assigns a role to the 
Community when policy objectives can best be achieved by acting 
at the European level. The full text of the Treaty which covers 
Community Involvement In environmental matters is set out In 
Append Ix I. 
With reference to the urban environment, the basis for Community 
action Is to be found in: 
(a) The International Implications of pollution originating from 
urban areas. Many of the activities which cause problems within 
urban areas also contribute to cross-border air and water 
pollution and to global environmental problems such as global 
warming. 
(b) The commonality of problems within the urban environment. 
This argues for cooperation among Member States in the search for 
solutions. 
(c) Recognition of a European dimension of the historical and 
cultural heritage of our towns and cities. 
(d) The necessity to consider potential Impacts on the 
environment, and In particular In urban areas, of Community 
poI icy In a 11 sectors. 
4. Instruments of Community Action 
City authorities, and the national governments which provide the 
legislative and financial framework within which cities operate^ 
have the major responsibility to Improve the urban environment. 
The Community already, through a variety of policies and actions 
has a significant impact on urban areas. The main instruments of 
Community action are described below with reference to how these 
are already being used to contribute to the Improvement of the 
urban environment. In considering how the Community can usefully 
extend its activities In this policy area, these are the main 
types of action which are available. 
(I) Legislation 
The Community has assumed a major role in environmental 
management by establishing quality objectives and emission 
standards for a number of environmental factors - particularly 
air, water and noise pollution. With Improvements In 
environmental technology, emission standards will have to be 
continuously reviewed to ensure that they are In line with the 
application of the best available technology. The Importance of 
this role has grown with the approval of norms In the context of 
the Single Market. 
- 36 -
Commun ty legislation requiring catalltyc converters which 
s gnlfleantly reduce emissions of pollutants such as N02', to be 
fitted to all new cars sold In the Community from 1993 is a good 
example of legislation which will contribute to improving the 
urban environment. 
The Community has also adopted legislation requiring a detailed 
environmental Impact assessment for major development projects, 
the aim of which is to ensure that decisions are made with fuli 
knowledge of the environmental Implications of different options. 
Consideration Is currently being given to the possibility that 
this legislation be extended to require such an analysis for 
policies, plans and programmes. This requirement will improve the 
coordination of objectives between different sectors and hence 
result in plans and policies that are more sensitive to the 
multiple needs of urban dwellers. 
(ii) Recommendations and Guidelines 
While in certain areas It is inappropriate for the Community to 
produce a legislative framework, the commonality of problems 
between Member States is such that the Community is an 
appropriate forum for discussing and developing guidelines for 
action. 
(ill) Research, Demonstration and Training 
Improved methods and techniques of urban management can 
potentially benefit the entire Community. It is therefore 
appropriate that the Community financially encourage such 
experimentation through demonstration and pilot projects which 
might serve as models for wider application. In the same spirit, 
the Community can serve a useful role in disseminating 
Information about the practical results obtained to date 
throughout the Community. The Community is already active In 
these ways in many areas of urban management. 
In the field of Research, existing examples of relevant Community 
programmes Include the "DRIVE" programme which is developplng a 
comprehensive range of Instruments for the provision of 
Information services to managers and users of the urban transport 
system. It will provide the tools for Improved planning and 
management of traffic, including the control of congestion, 
pollution and noise, and the efficient use of public transport 
and parking space. Research is also being carried out into the 
Impacts of atmospheric pollution on the structure of historic 
buildings. The Community Is currently supporting pilot projects 
in a number of areas which can contribute to improve the urban 
environment, Including for example a network of 12 cities being 
supported In the development of urban energy planning. 
(Iv) Financial Assistance 
The Community already finances considerable investment in urban 
areas through the structural funds, notably the Regional Fund, by 
loans from the European Investment Bank, loans and grants from 
the ECSC and by other financial Instruments. 
- 37 -
Some of these Investments directly or indirectly affect the urban 
environment; this includes direct environmental Improvements, 
recognised as often being a precondition of economic development. 
The reform of the structural funds In 1988 has brought a new 
dimension to their Involvement In urban areas. This reform has 
emphasised the need to concentrate resources In defined priority 
areas and to co-ordinate the actions of the various funds. 
Submissions for support are made within the context of a Regional 
Plan. After négociation, a Community Support Framework is 
established which forms the basis for financial support. For 
urban areas, the two following objectives are relevant : 
- Objective 1 areas regions whose development is lagging 
behind (I.e. where capita G.D.P. is less than or close to 75% 
of the Community average). 
- Objective 2 areas : areas of industrial decline. 
Objective 1 areas include many major cities and urban areas 
including Athens, Belfast, Dublin, Naples and Lisbon. The 
Commission has influenced the choice of actions in the Community 
Support Frameworks for Objective 1 regions. These regions often 
lack Infrastructure such as sewage or water treatment plants, or 
adequate public transport, the absence of which affects economic 
development and the environment. The actions for these regions 
under the CSFs are designed to improve their economic potential 
while at the same time taking account of the environment. 
Examples of actions for cities which will have specific 
environmental gains include: 
- the Athens metro to help reduce the dependence on the motor 
car and reduce the chronic levels of air pollution in the city 
- In Lisbon, under the programme "Llsboa Norte", there are 
proposals for water and sewage works. These include the 
construction of an "Interceptor" sewer and sewerage treatment 
plants and the purification of water from industrial areas 
- in Naples, a priority has been given to linking sewer system 
with treatment plants and the construction of a new water 
purification and sewage treatment plant. 
All Objective 2 regions are characterised by the decline of 
traditional industries with a legacy of derelict land and 
contaminated sites, and are therefore predominantly urban. A key 
priority under the Community Support Framework for Objective 2 
regions is the reclamation and redevelopment of former Industrial 
sites. Add itionnaly, other actions deal with the disposal of 
waste, treatment of water and sewerage and atmospheric pollution. 
It is estimated that 20% of current funding in these areas have a 
specific environmental benefit orientation. Environmental actions 
are being linked with other actions designed to create jobs and 
new opportunities. Some examples of the type actions intended are 
as fol lows : 
- 38 -
" î«8tîrCh,..and adV,Ce* 3S WeM as môasures. specifically linked 
and BremenS)POSal ^ recycMng of ,ndustr|a« waste (UK, Spain 
- Insistence that industrial development should not, where 
possible, take place on "greenfield" land. The CSFs stress the 
need to redevelop already derelict land (UK and Berlin). 
- Emphasis on the development of public transport systems rather 
than further road infrastructure spending (UK). 
- Inclusion of measures relating to "clean technologies" in the 
research and development priority (UK) and Investment aids to 
SME's for non-polluting production plants (Berlin). 
- Measures to combat atmospheric pollution (Spain). 
In all, about 40 percent of major cities of the Community are 
covered by the actions of Objective 1 and 2 areas. Since many of 
the problems related to unemployment and re-trainlng are 
concentrated in urban areas so, too, is the action through the 
Social Fund. 
Apart from the Community Support Frameworks, Community 
initiatives can tackle some environmental problems as well as 
promoting economic development. The RESIDER programme for steel 
areas or the RECHAR programme for coal mining areas are examples 
of specific programmes which, while primarily focussing on 
combatting the severe unemployment created by the decline of 
these industries, also Include Important elements which relate to 
the Improvement of the environment and Image of these areas. 
Another Community Initiative, ENVIREG, allocates 500 MECU over 
the period 1990-1993 specifically related to environmental 
actions to reduce pollution In coastal areas, mainly In the 
Mediterranean, and the management of hazardous and toxic 
Industrial waste In objective 1 areas. A priority Is in urban 
areas of less than 100,000 inhabitants. 
Under article 10 of the ERDF regulation, urban pilot projects of 
an Innovatory character and which have demonstrative potential 
for other cities may be co-financed, for example the London and 
Marseille pilot actions launched In February 1990. 
The Regional Development Fund Is, with few exceptions, limited to 
those areas of the Community which are considered to be 
economically disadvantaged and, within these areas, to projects 
which will lead to economic development. 
These limitations currently prevent the Community from assisting 
environmental measures In urban areas not covered by Objective 1 
and 2 and projects which cannot be regarded as leading to 
- 39 -
economic development. If the Community wishes to be able to 
support environmental actions In urban areas throughout 
Community, It will, therefore, need to consider the creation of a 
new financial faciIity. 
At present finance available for specifically environmental 
projects is very limited. The "Medspa" programme is the most 
significant of the current proposals. With a budget of 
9 million ECU In 1990 this programme is intended to provide 
technical and professional assistance with the preparation of 
plans for the treatment of urban sewage and waste to small 
communities, with less than 100,000 population, in the 
Mediterranean Basin. 
(v) Economic and Fiscal Measures 
The scope for Community action to encourage environmental 
improvement by economic and fiscal measures has yet to be 
explored in detail. Such measures aim to incorporate 
environmental quality within the economic system by operating on 
the market in ways which encourage environment friendly 
production techniques and products. 
(vi) Urban Impact Assessment 
The Commission makes policy In a wide range of sectors which may 
have consequences for the urban environment. Such policies should 
be carefully analysed to ensure that adverse effects on the 
environment are avoided. 
5. Areas of Action 
The first chapter of this document has identified the main 
problems facing urban areas and their causes. The limitations of 
the existing sectorial approaches to the solution of these 
problems have also been identified. In presenting suggestions for 
future lines of action, It is important therefore to orientate 
these towards addressing the causes of the problems rather than 
simply their symptoms. This section discusses potential solutions 
to the problems and from these identifies a range of suggested 
lines for future Community action. These suggestions, which 
relate to actions best achieved at the Community level, respect 
the principle governing the role and competence of the Community 
as set out in the Treaty. 
As discussed In the first section of this chapter, the main 
targets for future action for urban environmental improvement at 
all levels are seen to fall into two priority areas: 
- Policies which concern the physical structure of the city, 
specifically with regard to : 
- Urban planning; 
- Urban transport; 
- Protection and enhancement of the historical heritage; 
- Protection and enhancement of the natural areas within 
cities-, 
- 40 -
" IVMWi Concerned w,th reducing the impact of urban activities on the environment : 
- Urban Industry; 
- Urban energy management; 
- Management of urban waste-, 
- Water management. 
It is also Important that the development policies in this area 
are based on accurate and comparative data on the state of the 
urban environment. Consideration Is therefore also required of 
information needs and how these are to be met. 
In addition to these main priority areas, there is also scope 
for the Community to assist a range of Initiatives at the local 
and regional level which can contribute to the improvement of 
the environment and quality of life In urban areas. These 
include initiatives related to : 
- information 
- social action 
- interregional co-operation. 
5.1. Urban planning 
Encouraging greater diversity and avoiding urban sprawl. 
The strict zoning policies of the past decades which have led to 
the separation of land use and the subsequent development of 
extensive residential suburbs have In turn stimulated commuter 
traffic, which Is at the heart of many of the environmental 
problems currently facing urban areas. 
We therefore need a fundamental review of the principles on which 
town planning practice has been based. Strategies which emphasize 
mixed use and denser development are more likely to result In 
people living close to work places and the services they require 
for everyday life. The car can then become an option rather than 
a necessity. Strategies of this kind have already been put In 
motion In countries such as The Nether lands;they merit wider 
considérât ion. 
Redeveloping urban waste lands 
The many tracts of abandoned land, disused industrial sites, 
railway sidings, docks and military facilities in urban areas 
offer valuable opportunities for redevelopment - saving existing 
recreational and open space within cities and Its outskirts from 
encroachment by development. Many cities have already accepted 
this priority In their planning strategies. However, the problems 
posed by contaminated land and complex ownership patterns are 
such that It will often require a firm lead from public 
authorities. 
- 41 -
Revitalizing existing city areas 
Revitalizing existing housing areas within the city Is also 
Important. The quality of life In such areas can be dramatically 
Improved by carrying out environmental Improvements and, 
specifically, by reducing the noise and pollution from traffic' 
This requires local strategies that give priority to the needs of 
pedestrians and Inhabitants rather than to drivers passing 
through an area. Such environmental Improvements may well provide 
the Impetus for private investment In improvement of housing 
stock. 
The need for revltalIzation Is not restricted to areas within the 
city. Many urban peripheral housing estates, particularly those 
constructed as social housing, are showing symptoms of urban 
decline more traditionally associated with rundown inner-city 
areas. In London and Marseille, the Commission is already 
Involved In pilot projects aimed at Improving economic and social 
development In such areas. The problems experienced by their 
inhabitants are often aggravated by their physical isolation from 
the economic, social, commercial and cultural life of the city. 
Expanding the uses and activities of these areas, and thus the 
opportunities available to their residents, is part of a strategy 
aimed at integrating these housing estates into the city, and 
Improving their environment and the quality of life of their 
inhabitants. 
Urban design 
Urban environmental quality is as much a product of building 
design as of spatial differentiation. Protecting the visual 
quality and historical identity of our cities thus requires 
attention not only to the protection of historical buildings but 
also to the design of new buildings being inserted into the urban 
fabric. Urban planning should therefore Incorporate this third 
dimension, encouraging architectural innovation but ensuring that 
new buildings are compatible with existing urban character and do 
not destroy or render useless the city's open spaces. 
Suggested lines of action : 
- That the Commission, in cooperation with Member States and 
local authorities, should evolve guidelines for the 
incorporation of environmental considerations into town 
planning strategies - a detailed Investigation and elaboration 
of the principles outlined above. Such guidelines will attempt 
to Influence town planning practice and provide an important 
complement to the proposed directive on environmental 
assessment of policies, plans and programmes. 
- That further research Into the treatment of contaminated 
soils, which so often hinder redevelopment of existing city 
sites, be encouraged. 
- 42 -
That further financial assltance be given to pilot projects 
aimed at revitalizing less favoured urban areas by Introducing 
a greater mixture of uses and hence access to urban 
facilities. At the same time, such actions should aim to 
protect and assist existing residents In these areas. The 
Commission should also consider how it can extend this action 
building on lessons learnt from these pilot projects. 
The Community should consider the question of whether it 
wishes to extend financial support for urban renovation and 
environmental Improvement schemes beyond the types and areas 
of support permitted by the current structural funds and If 
so, how this could be achieved. 
5.2. Urban transport 
As stressed throughout this report, the dramatic rise in private 
vehicle ownership over the past few decades has provided greater 
convenience for many, but it has also led to congestion, negative 
impacts of urban motorways, loss of open spaces to parking, air 
pollution and noise. The dramatic increase in the amount of 
freight moved by lorry has contributed to these problems as well. 
Urban traffic is a major contributor to acid rain and the 
greenhouse effect. 
There Is growing recognition that the situation is serious and 
action needed. While the development of environment friendly 
vehicles could bring some relief, meaningful solutions will 
Involve a significant shift In the balance between modes of 
transport, favouring public over private transport and reducing 
the level and Impact of motor traffic In our Inner cities. 
At the Community level It Is not possible to provide details of 
the strategy that would be appropriate for a particular city. But 
It Is possible to Identify a number of areas where progress would 
contribute to reducing the Impact of vehicle traffic on the city. 
(a) Private Transport 
Improving current technology 
Existing and proposed Community legislation seeks to apply the 
best available technology to reduce the noise and pollution 
traditionally associated with motor vehicles, notably the switch 
to less polluting fuels, tougher standards on noise levels and 
the use of catalytic convertors. These controls apply to new 
vehicles. They will not, however, reduce the emission of C02, 
which Is one of the most Important greenhouse gases. 
Moreover, to be effective these measures must be maintained 
throughout the life of the vehicle. This can be accomplished by 
adding environmental conformity controls to existing technical 
(safety) controls. 
- 43 -
The Commission should be encouraging research into the further 
reduction of noise and pollution from motor vehicles and keep 
under review its directives In this area to ensure application of 
the results of such research. 
Even within existing technology, certain vehicles are recognised 
as less environmentally damaging than others. The Federal 
Republic of Germany has recently adopted a differential taxation 
system related to emission levels. The Commission could consider 
a wider application of such a system within the Community. 
Public authorities responsible for the acquisition and 
maintenance of a substantial number of vehicles within the urban 
areas for various functions should set an example both In the 
choice and the use and maintenance of their vehicles. 
Electric vehicles 
There is a growing interest in electric vehicles as a potential 
solution to the noise and air pollution problems posed by petrol 
and diesel engines. The Commission has already expressed interest 
in the development of these vehicles and has assisted in the 
creation of an Intercity association aimed at encouraging 
development cooperation. 
While such vehicles would undoubtedly contribute significantly to 
lowering pollution levels, they cannot be regarded as an absolute 
solution. They will not overcome congestion or relieve the 
pressures on urban space. Moreover, they rely on electricity 
largely generated by burning fossil fuels. 
Bicycles 
The bicycle Is the ultimate environment friendly vehicle. 
However, few cities have seriously attempted to incorporate the 
bicycle Into an overall transport strategy. Indeed, existing 
traffic presents pollution and safety hazards that strongly 
discourage the use of bicycles within the cities. 
Pedestrtans 
The hazards facing bicycles are equally daunting to that most 
private means of transport - walking. In areas of heavy traffic, 
the pedestrian is assailed by noise and fumes, leading to 
immediate discomfort and long-term respiratory and eye 
Irritations. Moreover, such areas tend to resemble obstacles 
courses. The pedestrian may have to navigate around parked cars 
blocking crossing and, In some cases, pavements, avoid metal 
poles bearing traffic signs, traffic lights, parking meters; rush 
across streets where the "pedestrian walk" signal may be as short 
as four seconds; watch for cars going through or turning on a red 
Iight, etc. 
- 44 -
Too often, street planning focuses on the efficient circulation 
of motor vehicle traffic, leaving pedestrians to fend for 
themselves. Walkers must be put back Into the planning equation -
not as an endangered species to be set aside In special 
pedestrian areas, but as major users of the city's streets. 
(b) PublIc Transport 
While the contribution of public transport to reducing urban 
traffic has long been recognised, few cities have succeeded In 
significantly shifting private to public transport. 
While the use of private cars has Increased, public transport has 
remained rather static. Experience has shown strong owner 
attachment to cars - often defying economic logic - and that only 
a powerful combination of Incentives and restraints can shift the 
balance to public transport. A number of issues call for 
consideration in this connection. 
(I) Public transport, land use and transport planning 
Urban transportation planning should consider the potential of 
all forms of transport and take decisions within a long-term 
strategy which relates it directly to land use planning and 
includes environmental objectives. At present, many cities seem 
to take Important transportation decisions in an ad hoc response 
to increased demand. 
Thus, the response to Increased car traffic has too often been 
new roads, which have In turn encouraged yet more traffic. A 
policy of favouring public transport must inevitably involve 
difficult decisions. Catering for all the demands of increased 
traffic Is not an adequte response; congestion represents in some 
cases a useful tool of dissuasion. 
(ii) Improving public transport 
A common complaint - or excuse - is that the quality of public 
transport makes It an inconvenient alternative to the car. 
Clearly, operators face significant economic problems. Improved 
services Imply Increased costs for vehicles, rolling stock, 
personnel and Infrastructure such as track and passenger 
faciIities. 
Unless such decisions are taken within the context of an 
Integrated transport plan based on a clear decision to develop 
attractive new public transport services as an alternative to new 
roads, there Is no guarantee that Improved services will attract 
a sufficient number of passengers to cover costs. Attention must 
also be given to the potential of park-and-rIde schemes and links 
between Intercity transport and internal networks. 
- 45 -
(c) Traffic Management 
The management of city traffic can be significantly improved by 
traffic management systems which can Include high technolgy 
Information and Informatics systems such as are currently being 
developped under the Commission's DRIVE research programme. While 
tradltlonnally the main objective of traffic management has been 
to ease congestion and improve traffic flow, It can also be 
applied to the improvement of environment conditions. The 
encouragement of new techniques raises therefore the question as 
to whether they are to be used to encourage more traffic or to 
reduce environmental impact. Traffic management policies should 
give full weight to environmental and safety considerations, 
taking account of longer term implications at both the local and 
global level, while still reflecting the need for mobility which 
is essential to a healthy urban economy. Within the framework of 
these considerations, the aim should be to reduce traffic 
congestion but not encourage greater use of the city areas for 
motor traffic. 
A variety of measures which restrain the use and impact of the 
private car are available. These include local area schemes aimed 
at traffic calming, Involving speed restrictions; road narrowing; 
and pedestrian zones. Such local measures if well designed and 
Implemented, are probably the most effective way to reduce noise. 
The Netherlands and Germany have had considerable success with 
these techniques. In addition to encouraging greater use of 
public transport, measures of this type form an integral part of 
schemes to revitalize Inner city areas, making them more 
habitable and "reclaiming the street" for pedestrians. 
(d) Restrictions on parking 
Parking restrictions have a major dissuasive effect on private 
car use within the city. Attachment to car use is often so great 
that drivers will accept considerable Inconvenience before they 
are willing to change to public transport. In those cities where 
public tansport is still Important, the availability of parking 
Is severely restricted, either by accident or by design. 
(e) Taxation of road use In urban areas 
A number of cities within the Community are proposing the use of 
road pricing or area licensing to Influence the balance of 
private and public transport. Such measures are already applied 
outside the Community, In cities such as Singapore and Oslo. The 
Justification for this type of economic Instrument Is that It 
forces the user more directly to assume the wider social and 
environmental costs of car use. These systems have the potential 
to discourage car use and to contribute financially to the 
development of alternatives but must be handled sensitively to 
avoid negative impacts on the city centre. 
- 46 -
Suggested lines of action 
The Community should : 
1. Encourage city authorities to Incorporate decisions about 
the coordinated future development of public transport and 
road construction into their plans for land use and 
transportation. The Commission should expect future 
submissions for structural fund assistance towards transport 
Infrastructure to demonstrate that such an analysis has been 
carried out. 
2. Encourage innovative approaches to the use of public 
transport and the environmental management of urban traffic 
by contributing to the cost of pilot projects and monitoring 
their effects. Research programmes should attach high 
priority to environmental considerations and should include 
innovative public transport, environmentally friendly 
vehicles and advanced traffic management systems. This 
should not lead to the encouragement of the greater use of 
urban areas for motor traffic. 
3. Encourage the Community-wide exchange of information in 
urban traffic management to maximize the benefits of a wide 
range of experience. 
4. Consider in detail, possibly by financing pilot projects, 
the potential for using economic instruments such as road 
pricing to help solve the environmental problems generated 
by urban traffic. 
5.3. The protection and enhancement of the historical heritage of 
European cltles 
The historical character of our European town and cities - their 
buildings, monuments, squares and street patterns - establishes 
an Identity and sense of place specific to individual cities. Our 
cities are an important symbol of the Community's rich cultural 
diversity and its shared historical heritage. Interest in 
protecting a city's historical character Is therefore not 
restricted to that city's own citizens. 
The development pressures of the past several decades have 
gravely threatened Europe's urban heritage. Many towns and cities 
have introduced planning schemes which provide significant 
protection for these areas and encourage their restoration 
through Imaginative area Improvement schemes. 
The Community has to date played a minor role In financial terms, 
but Important In terms of Increasing the public awareness of 
their architectural heritage. This role Is primarily oriented 
towards assisting In the conservation of momuments illustrating 
the richness and the diversity of the European architectural 
her itage. 
- 47 -
Suggested lines of action : 
1. That the Community provides more substantial finance for the 
conservation of historical buildings and areas of European 
significance. 
2. That consideration be given to the potential benefits of a 
Community system of recognition of the historic and cultural 
significance of individual buildings and parts of urban 
areas. 
5.4. Protection and enhancement of the natural environment within 
our towns and cities 
With growing environmental awareness the wealth of the natural 
habitats that lie within the confines of our towns and cities has 
been recognized. While the value of such areas is rarely 
comparable to that of more natural habitats in the countryside, 
their proximity to a large population gives them a special value 
in improving the quality of urban life, providing opportunities 
for informal recreation and for informal education in natural 
history and environmental Issues. 
The protection and improvement of open spaces and habitats and 
the planting of trees enhance the visual pleasure provided by 
urban areas, and can also help to combat the microclimatic 
effects which concentrate pollutants within the city, and the 
pollutants themselves. 
Many cities have adopted "green plans" which aim to protect and 
enhance the potential of open spaces and to encourage citizens to 
plant trees and to carry out other environmental improvements. 
The growth of leisure time and increasing demands of space for 
sports and recreation has placed great pressure on the existing 
open spaces within urban areas. There are few cities which could 
genuinely claim to have made adequate provision for such space. 
While the creation of new urban parks poses many problems, city 
authorities should be encouraged to take up opportunities 
provided by derelict and unused land. In many European cities, 
"recreation" forests on the edge of the city also provide very 
significant recreation opportunities for city dwellers. 
Suggested lines of action : 
1. The Commission should consider a programme of pilot projects 
across the Community to demonstrate the benefits of green 
plans and programmes of action. 
2. City authorities should be encouraged to review their 
provision of public open spaces and seize oppportunitles 
where available to extend such provision. 
- 48 -
5.5. Water management 
A current proposal for a directive on municipal waste water sets 
the objective of achieving a high standard of treatment for all 
waste waters originating from urban areas. The necessity for this 
initiative, as well as the improvements It could potentially 
realize, are clear. A 1984 survey of urban waste water and 
treatment facilities In 10 Member States showed that less than 
half of the total organic load was being treated at this time. 
At a more fundamental level, a project is currently under way at 
the Commission to produce a directive on the ecological quality 
of waters. Unlike previous EC quality objective directives, this 
will in principle apply to all Community waters. Moreover, It Is 
likely to require Member States to put improvement programmes 
into place to attain specific ecological goals. Although this 
project is still In an early phase, Its impact should eventually 
be to produce major biological and aesthetic Improvements in both 
urban and non-urban bodies of water. 
5.6. Urban industry 
Industry is a major source of air and noise pollution in urban 
areas and surrounding areas, particularly where these are 
residential. The traditional response to this problem has been to 
relocate Industry to the urban fringe or beyond. This policy of 
"out of sight out of mind", while offering some Immediate relief 
to the local environment, is not a comprehensive solution. 
For large industrial operations, such moves are often desirable, 
since new premises facilitate the application of modern 
production technology. For small and medium sized operations, 
where individual skills are often more Important than mass 
production techniques, such a move will frequently entail 
considerable financial cost as well as limiting access to 
customers and suppliers, notably of services. 
While It is true that some Industrial processes are undoubtedly 
best located away from other land uses, existing policies have 
relied too heavily on exclusion rather than compatibility. The 
Commission has already developed a range of directives limiting 
emissions and noise from Industrial operations. Further 
development of such legislation and of technical applications to 
avoid these nuisances should provide a more flexible framework 
for local planning authorities considering the location of 
compatible Industrial activities within urban areas. 
Such Industries can be of benefit to local Inhabitants In 
providing Job opportunities which do not require lengthy 
commuting. 
- 49 -
Suggested line of action : 
The Community should undertake measures to promote the growth of 
small and medium sized entreprises in a harmonious way within the 
overall fabric of the urban environment and should provide 
assistance, where appropriate, to enable them to comply fully 
with regulations and good practice In considerations relating to 
the environment. 
5.7. Urban energy management 
Energy consumption in urban areas is closely related to air 
pollution from transport, heating, lighting and air conditioning 
of buildings. A more efficient use of energy could significantly 
help In reducing urban air pollution and, consequently, the 
cities' contribution to the greenhouse effect. As transport has 
been discussed in detail above, this section focuses on energy 
use within buildings. Potential Improvements in this area 
i ncIude: 
(a) BuiIding design 
In recent years there has been considerable interest in the 
concept of ecological housing - self-contained units which create 
little demand for energy and cause minimal damage to the 
environment. Research has demonstrated that considerable energy 
savings may be achieved by incorporating simple "passive" solar 
heating and other energy-saving principles in housing design, and 
by considering factors such as orientation and proximity in 
producing a more efficient urban layout. 
(b) Standards of insulation In new construction 
The technology available for energy conservation - wall 
insulation, double glazing, etc. - is not being uniformly applied 
in new building construction across the Community. While 
geographic differences may account for some of the variation in 
standards, the Improvement and harmonization of such standards is 
worth further consideration. Standards and regulations for 
construction materials and products should also be put in place, 
taking Into account what is now known about the problems of 
indoor pollut ion. 
(c) Improvement of insulation In existing buildings 
While there Is little precise information on the insulation 
standard of the existing building stock within the Community, it 
is fair to assume that it is for the most part quite poor and 
that there Is scope for considerable improvements in energy 
conservation in this area. Many Member States now encourage such 
expenditure by financial and fiscal incentives. 
- 50 -
(d) Efficiency of heating plant 
The efficiency of individual heating plants is greatly influenced 
K,, i?? °f ma,ntenanc*- m the FRG, property owners are 
obliged to have their furnaces checked on an annual basis. It may 
be possible to link such inspections to fuel supply or home 
Insurance contracts. 
(e) Combined heat and power 
Combining district heating with electricity generation Is highly 
efficient in itself, while the proximity of producer to user also 
reduces energy loss during transmission. The Commission has on a 
number of occasions Issued recommendations supporting such 
systems. 
(f) Heating/energy audits of buildings 
Energy audits prior to a property sale may be one instrument for 
increasing public sensitivity to energy consumption. Such a 
system already exists In Denmark, where it Is linked to the role 
of a local energy consultant who provides advice on the costs and 
benefits of various energy conservation investments. 
(g) Energy planning in cities 
Energy planning in cities can reduce the energy requirement 
considerably. 
This Is a preventive means of avoiding pollution at the same 
time. It is based on an analysis of the energy consumption 
structure as well as the possibilities for exploiting local 
energy resources. Integrated energy management concepts resulting 
from such planning Include many measures of the kind mentioned 
under points (a) to (f) and have generally very positive effects 
on the pollution level and economic development of cities. 
However, many cannot realise the existing possibilities because 
they are Integrated In Institutional frameworks which do not give 
enough freedom for corresponding energy policies to be developed. 
The Commission Is already promoting energy technology projects In 
many of the above areas. 
- 51 -
Suggested lines of action .-
1. That the Community continue and Intensify its activités in 
urban energy management, seeking in particular to encourage 
and assist the cities to take steps towards urban energy 
planning measures, to disseminate useful advice on 
appropriate means in this framework, e.g. on building design 
for energy saving and further to demonstrate the benefits of 
various energy conservation techniques by pilot projects. 
2. While Community legislation on product norms defines 
standards for Insulation materials for building 
construction, there is currently no Community legislation 
requiring that specific standards be actually applied in new 
construction. While the Community has previously made 
recommendations in this area, it may now be appropriate for 
the Community to consider legislation. 
3. That the use of economic instruments to encourage energy 
conservation in buildings be the subject of a detailed 
report and proposal. 
4. That public authorities be encouraged to set a good example 
by the adoption of energy conservation measures in the 
buildings they operate. 
5.8. Urban waste 
The Commission has recently published a comprehensive strategy 
for the management of urban waste, placing the major emphasis on 
the avoidance of waste, reuse and recycling (see Chapter One, 
Section 2.2.4.). The strategy Includes a wide range of proposals 
for implementation. 
Its main orientation have been approved by the Council of 
Ministers at their meeting of 22-23 March 1990. 
We do not propose to repeat these proposals within this document, 
but merely to underline the close link between that strategy and 
the concepts presented In this Green Paper. The following 
additional proposals Illustrate the link between waste management 
and the wider Issues of urban management. 
Suggested lines or action : 
1. The Commission should encourage city authorities to take 
into greater consideration constraints linked to waste 
management in drawing up short and medium-term plans for 
urban management: designated sites for collecting sorted 
household waste and setting up treatment plants. 
- 52 -
2. The Commission should encourage, by means of fInane I no 
research and projects aimed at making people aware of thé 
Importance of sanitation; developing urban and architectural 
design that favours the sorting of waste at source, as well 
as sorted collection; finding new uses for urban waste, 
particularly that resulting from construction. 
3. The Commission should encourage the exchange of Information 
and experience In the field of sanitation, especially as 
regards cleaning technologies, sensitization of the 
population, legal Instruments and the recycling of urban 
waste. 
5.9. Comparative Information on the state of the urban 
envIronment. 
As discussed above, one of the difficulties in producing the 
analysis section of this paper has been the absence of 
Information of many subjects which permit an objective and 
comparative analysis of the state of the urban environment. 
Improvements in comparative data are already being put in hand by 
programmes within the COR I NE project, particularly related to air 
quality data. It is anticipated that the programmes, which will 
be taken over by the European Environment Agency, will improve 
knowledge In this area. Further Improvements will however be 
necessary in other subject areas if the Commission is to have an 
adequate Information base for the further evolution of urban 
environment policy. Such information should be made available not 
only to policy makers but also to Individual citizens. 
Suggested line of action : 
That the Commission consider how it can improve the availability 
of comparative data on the state of the urban environment. This 
could be achieved either by giving the new Environment Agency a 
specific remit In this respect or by supporting the development 
of such data systems within a research Institute or university, 
or a network of such Institutions. 
5.10. Informations Initiatives 
The urban environment Is primarily the concern of all those who 
live and work In the cities and without whose participation no 
urban policy can succeed. These urban actors - Inhabitants, 
shopkeepers, consumers, manufacturers, trade groupings 
contribute to urban deterioration, but they also suffer Its 
effects and benefit from improvements. 
- 53 -
In Implementing an urban environmental policy, It would be in the 
Community's interest to create structures to encourage dialogue, 
shared thinking and cooperation among the actors within 
Individual cities and among the cities themselves. Such 
structures would also serve to facilitate the exchange of 
Information and opinion with the Community. 
Suggested lines of action : 
The Commission should help the envisaged creation of a network 
for urban local Initiative centres. These centres should be 
organized in cooperation with those public agencies that already 
exist to provide information and planning for the urban 
environment. A certain number of such centres are being planned 
this year as pilot projects In various cities. The role of these 
centres would be to : 
1. Inform different sectors of the population of the 
Community's policies and measures and how these apply to the 
various factors that make up the urban reality, 
2. Stimulate and facilitate dialogue, shared planning and 
cooperation among urban groups, with a view to improving the 
urban environment; 
3. Facilitate the exchange of information among the cities of 
the problems they face and of their experience in dealing 
with these problems. 
5.11. Social initiatives 
Efforts must be made to ensure that the least privileged sections 
of the population are not isolated In the most run-down areas of 
cities. 
Preventive social policies are possible in the context of 
operations to protect the physical environmental and should 
comprise both social integration measures and job schemes, e.g. 
in connection with the restoration of subsidized housing. 
Suggested lines of action -. 
1. The Commission will support recruitment and vocational 
training schemes in keeping with environmental protection 
which create an economic and social development dynamic. 
2. The Commission will encourage technical assistance to pilot 
projects and the transfer of know-how to involve the least 
privileged social groups In the protection of the 
environment. 
- 54 -
5.12. Interregional co-operation 
The Commission supports and co-finances a wide range of schemes 
for Interregional co-operation and the development of networks. 
Cities are benefitting from actions which Involve close contacts 
with regional and local authorities and their representative 
bodies - Assembly of European Regions, Council of European 
Municipalities and Regions of Europe and International Union of 
Local Authorities. A number of Initiatives have been lauched 
which Include for example co-financing of the POLIS project 
(related to Improved traffic management) under a group of cities 
known as "Eurocltles" and a co-operation project involving 10 
ports in relation to action on marine pollution. 
Suggested line of action : 
That the Commission should continue to support such actions and 
seek where appropriate to extend co-operation and the exchange of 
information between cities. 
6. Resume of priority suggested lines of action 
This section pulls together the suggestion lines of action for 
the following key priority areas. 
Urban planning 
Suggested lines of action : 
1. That the Commission, in cooperation with Member States and 
local authorities, should evolve guidelines for the 
incorporation of environmental considerations into town 
planning strategies - a detailed investigation and elaboration 
of the principles outlined above. Such guidelines will attempt 
to influence town planning practice and provide an important 
complement to the proposed directive of environmental 
assessment of policies, plans and programmes. 
2. That further research Into the treatment of contaminated 
soils, which so often hinder redevelopment of existing city 
sites, be encouraged. 
3. That further financial assitance be given to pilot projects 
aimed at revitalizing less favoured urban areas by Introducing 
a greater mixture of uses and hence access to urban 
facilities. At the same time, such actions should aim to 
protect and assist existing residents In these areas. The 
Commission should also consider how It can extend this action 
building on lessons learnt from these pilot projects. 
- 55 -
4. The Community should consider the question of whether it 
wishes to extend financial support for urban renovation and 
environmental Improvement schemes beyond the types and areas 
of support permitted by the current structural funds and if 
so, how this could be achieved. 
Urban transport 
Suggested lines of action : 
The Community should : 
1. Encourage city authorities to incorporate decisions about 
the coordinated future development of public transport and 
road construction into their plans for land use and 
transportation. The Commission should expect future 
submissions for structural fund assistance towards transport 
infrastructure to demonstrate that such an analysis has been 
carried out. 
2. Encourage Innovative approaches to the use of public 
transport and the environmental management of urban traffic 
by contributing to the cost of pilot projects and monitoring 
their effects. Research programmes should attach high 
priority to environmental considerations and should include 
innovative public transport, environmentally friendly 
vehicles and advanced traffic management systems. This 
should not lead to the encouragement of the greater use of 
urban areas for motor traffic. 
3. Encourage the Community-wide exchange of information in 
urban traffic management to maximize the benefits of a wide 
range of experience. 
4. Consider in detail, possibly by financing pilot projects, 
the potential for using economic instruments such as road 
pricing to help solve the environmental problems generated 
by urban traffic. 
The protection and enhancement of the historical heritage of 
European cities 
Suggested linos of action : 
1. That the Community provides more substantial finance for the 
conservation of historical buildings and areas of European 
significance. 
2. That consideration be given to the potential benefits of a 
Community system of recognition of the historic and cultural 
significance of Individual buildings and parts of urban 
areas. 
- 56 -
Protection and enhancement of the natural environment within our 
towns and cities 
Suggested lines of action : 
1. The Commission should consider a programme of pilot projects 
across the Community to demonstrate the benefits of green 
plans and programmes of action. 
2. City authorities should be encouraged to review their 
provision of public open spaces and seize oppportunitles 
where available to extend such provision. 
Urban Industry 
Suggested lines of action : 
The Community should undertake measures to promote the growth of 
small and medium sized entreprises in a harmonious way within the 
overall fabric of the urban environment and should provide 
assistance, where appropriate, to enable them to comply fully 
with regulations and good practice in considerations relating to 
the environment. 
Urban energy management 
Suggested lines of action : 
1. That the Community continue and intensify its activités in 
urban energy management, seeking in particular to encourage 
and assist the cities in order to take steps towards urban 
energy planning measures, to disseminate useful advice on 
appropriate means in this framework, e.g. on building design 
for energy saving and further to demonstrate the benefits of 
various energy conservation techniques by pilot projects. 
2. While Community legislation on product norms defines 
standards for insulation materials for building 
construction, there Is currently no Community legislation 
requiring that specific standards be actually applied in new 
construction. While the Community has previously made 
recommendations In this area, it may now be appropriate for 
the Community to consider legislation. 
3. That the use of economic instruments to encourage energy 
conservation In buildings be the subject of a detailed 
report and proposal. 
4. That public authorities be encouraged to set a good example 
by the adoption of energy conservation measures in the 
buildings they operate. 
- 57 -
Urban waste 
Suggested lines or action 
1. The Commission should encourage city authorities to take 
Into greater consldration constraints linked to waste 
management in drawing up short and medium-term plans for 
urban management: designated sites for collecting sorted 
household waste and setting up treatment plants. 
The Commission should encourage, by means of financing, 
research and projects aimed at making people aware of the 
importance of sanitation; developing urban and architectural 
design that favours the sorting of waste at source, as well 
as sorted collection; finding new uses for urban waste, 
particularly that resulting from construction. 
3. The Commission should encourage the exchange of information 
and experience in the field of sanitation, especially as 
regards cleaning technologies, sensitization of the 
population, legal instruments and the recycling of urban 
waste. 
7. The next steps 
This document represents the first manifestation of the 
Commission's commitment to achieve real improvements in the 
quality of urban environment within the Community. The Commission 
is keen to see as wide as possible discussion of the ideas and 
suggestions set out in the document. 
In addition to its discussion by the European Parliament, Council 
of Ministers and Economic and Social Committee, the document will 
be sent to the Mayors of major towns in Europe and to 
professional and voluntary groups Interested in urban management 
issues for their comments. 
Following detailed study of the results of this consultation, the 
Commission will consider which of the suggested lines of action 
merit further action and fall within the Community's competence 
and how this can be best achieved. 
The implementation of such proposals will ensure that there is 
co-operation with, but no duplication of the activities of other 
International organisations active in the field of urban 
environment, seeking, whenever possible, common action. 
********* 
58 
APPENDIX I 
ARTICLES OF TREATY COVERING ENVIRONMENT 
Subsection VI - Environment 
Article 25 
A Title VII shall be added to Part Three of the EEC Treaty, 
reading as fol lows : 
TITLE VII 
ENVIRONMENT 
Article 130 R 
1. Action by the Community relating to the environment shall 
have the following objectives : 
(I) to preserve, protect and improve the quality of the 
env i ronment; 
ii) to contribute towards protecting human health; 
iii) to ensure a prudent and rational utilization of natural 
resources. 
Action by the Community relating to the environment shall be 
based on the principles that preventive action should be 
taken, that environmental damage should as a priority by 
rectified at source, and that the polluter should pay. 
Environmental protection requirements shall be a component 
of the Community's other policies. 
3. In preparing its action relating to the environment, the 
Community shall take account of : 
I) available scientific and technical data-, 
ii) environmental conditions In the various regions of the 
Community; 
iii) the potential benefits and costs of action or of lack of 
act ion; 
(iv) the economic and social development of the Community as a 
whole and the balanced development of its regions. 
_ 59 _ 
4. The Community shall take action relating to the environment to 
the extent to which the objectives referred to in paragraph 1 
can be attained better at Community level than at the level of 
the Individual Member States. Without prejudice to certain 
measures of a Community nature, the Member States shall 
finance and implement the other measures. 
5. Within their respective spheres of competence, the Community 
and the Member States shall cooperate with third countries and 
with the relevant International organizations. The 
arrangements for Community cooperation may be the subject of 
agreements between the Community and the third parties 
concerned, which shall be negotiated and concluded in 
accordance with Article 228. 
The previous paragraph shall be without prejudice to Member 
States' competence to negotiate in international bodies and to 
conclude international agreements. 
Article 130 S 
The Council, acting unanimously on a proposal from the Commission 
and after consulting the European Parliament and the Economic and 
Social Committee, shall decide what action is to be taken by the 
Community. 
The Council shall, under the conditions laid down in the 
preceding subparagraph, define those matters on which decisions 
are to be taken by a qualified majority. 
Article 130 T 
The protective measures adopted in common pursuant to Articfe 
130 S shall not prevent any Member State from maintaining or 
introducing more stringent protective measures compatible with 
this Treaty. 
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