+ * + 
à -it COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 
Brussels, 29.05.1995 
COM(95) 189 final 
COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION 
TO THE COUNCIL AND THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT 
WISE USE AND CONSERVATION OF WETLANDS 

I CL 
COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION 
TO THE COUNCIL AND THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT 
WISE USE AND CONSERVATION OF WETLANDS 
1. The Community 5th Environmental Action Programme, "Towards Sustainability", in 
endeavouring to achieve a more sustainable balance between human activity and socio­
economic development and the resources and regenerative capacity of nature, accorded 
seven priority fields of action. One of them, the sustainable management of natural 
resources (soil, water, natural areas and coastal zones), is the object of the present 
communication, centred on one of the most important, yet most threatened habitat 
types common to all European Union countries: the wetlands (marsh, fen, peatland, 
or shallow water bodies). 
2. Wetlands are ecosystems of paramount importance, not only because they have 
become so rare and are so threatened, but because they perform very important 
functions, provide resources for a large number of human interests and actors in 
supporting human activities and represent a valuable cultural and natural heritage. This 
is reflected by the fact that wetlands are the only major ecosystem forming the subject 
of an international treaty, the Ramsar Convention, established over twenty years ago, 
to which all EU Member States are contracting parties, with the exception of 
Luxembourg which at present is in the process of becoming a contacting part. 
3. Due to their complex composition and structure, wetlands perform certain functions 
and generate healthy vegetal, wildlife, fisheries and forest resources. The combination 
of these functions and products, together with the natural and cultural values of 
wetlands, makes these ecosystems invaluable to people. Many wetlands provide good 
opportunities for economic activities and recreation and sustain dense populations of 
fish, shellfish, cattle or wildlife. 
The functions for human societies, performed by wetlands are, notably: 
wetlands can diminish devastating effects of floods downstream, by storing 
precipitation water and releasing it later in a more even way; 
wetland vegetation stabilises shorelines, by reducing the energy of waves and 
currents: 
wetlands improve water quality, by accumulating sediments, nutrients and toxic 
substances, and under certain conditions this can be used for tertiary treatment of 
domestic waste water: 
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wetlands, in particular in the form of peat bogs, can reduce carbon dioxide 
emissions, by storing large quantities of carbon; 
wetlands harbour an extraordinary diversity of habitat types and plant and 
animal species, by their complexity and dynamic functioning; 
wetlands can provide renewable resources, such as reed and salt and can sustain 
the fanning offish, crayfish, waterfowl and grazing animals; furthermore many of the 
commercially exploitable fish, shellfish and crustaceans spend at least part of their life 
cycle in wetlands; 
many wetlands harbour a rich wildlife and provide important areas for 
recreational activities such as walking, birdwatching, nature photography, hunting, 
angling, swimming and sailing; 
4. Despite their value, the loss of wetlands is widespread; available information indicates 
that approximately two thirds of all European wetlands existing at the beginning of 
this century have since been lost. 
In the European Union, the following wetland types have suffered from substantial 
loss of surface: 
rivers and floodplains have paid a heavy tribute to hydraulic protection works; 
wet meadows, flooded grasslands and temporary freshwater marshes have 
suffered an extensive loss due to dam building, drainage and transformation into dry 
pastures and arable land; 
saltmarshes have been progressively reclaimed for conversion into arable or 
industrial land; 
peatlands have been considerably destroyed through unsustainable peat 
extraction and afforestation. 
The remaining wetlands suffer from the following types of degradation: 
excessive quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus from urban sewage and 
agricultural runoff often causes eutrophication; 
increasing consumption of groundwater, for irrigation and drinking, threatens 
to dry out many wetlands; 
the building of dams upstream may cause coastal erosion due to the lack of 
sediment inflow. 
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5. The Union's involvement in wetland conservation followed the United Nations 
Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1972 and started with 
the first Environmental Action Programme adopted in 1973. 
In 1979, Council Directive 79/409/EEC on the conservation of wild birds was adopted, 
requiring Member States to pay particular attention to the protection of wetlands. 
Between 1984 and 1992, under Council Regulations (EEC) N° 1872/84 and 2242/87 
on actions by the Community relating to the environment (ACE) and Council 
Regulation (EEC) N° 3907/91 on actions by the Community relating to nature 
conservation (ACNAT),nearly two thirds of the funds (i.e. over 27 million ECUs) 
were allocated to 60 projects providing an incentive to maintain, restore or improve 
wetland sites. Many of these sites are classified as Special Protection Areas (under 
Council Directive 79/409/EEC) and/or designated under the Ramsar Convention on 
Wetlands of International Importance. 
Other Community Initiatives and Council Regulations, such as ENVIREG, MEDSPA 
and NORSPA, supported several projects related to wetland conservation through 
water management measures. 
Since 1992, Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and 
of wild fauna and flora highlights, amongst others, lagoons, Mediterranean temporary 
ponds, active bogs, wet meadows and calcareous fens as conservation priorities. 
At the same time, the European Community adopted Council Regulation (EEC) 
N° 1973/92 creating a financial instrument for the environment (LIFE). Although the 
funds made available for nature conservation under this Regulation are very limited 
compared to funds under other Union policies having an impact on wetlands, in 1992, 
1993 and 1994, grants totalling about 30 million ECU were allocated to wetland-
related projects under LIFE. 
6. The Treaty on the European Union introduced in 1993, as a principal objective, the 
promotion of sustainable growth respecting the environment. This includes an 
environmental policy that aims at a high level of protection, the requirements of which 
must be integrated into other Community policies. In this spirit, the Fifth 
Environmental Action Programme "Towards Sustainability", has been formulated. The 
concept of sustainability laid down in that programme is identical to sustainable 
utilisation, compatible with the conservation of natural resources, and thus corresponds 
to the principle of the wise use of wetlands as defined by the Ramsar Convention. 
Environmental responsibilities are shared by all economic players, including public 
authorities* public and private enterprises, and, above all, the general public. It must ' 
be clearly seen that the maintenance of well functioning wetland ecosystems depends 
more on successfully implementing this principle than the single conservation of 
wetland reserves. Without this having been spelt out explicitly until now, the European 
Union's involvement in the wise use and conservation of wetlands mainly depends 
on implementing sustainable structural measures and policies. 
4CL-
7. There have been, in the past, some facts leading to the conclusion that the European 
Union should dispose a comprehensive approach to the wise use and conservation of 
wetlands laid down in a single document. On a number of occasions, the European 
Parliament expressed its concern regarding wetland conservation; e.g. several Oral and 
Written Questions dealt with the need to have a clear Community wetland policy, to 
promote the wise use of wetlands and to make available special economic aid for the 
conservation of wetlands (H-1056/91, W.Q. 2543/91 and 701/92). 
Since 1987, the Commission involved itself more intensively in the integrated 
management of wetlands, in particular those of Mediterranean type (Doc. C(87)2291 
final). 
Recent European Court rulings ackowledge the obligation of Member States to pay 
particular attention to the protection of wetlands (Cases C-57/89 and C-355/90). 
Recognizing the very critical situation of Europe's wetlands and the urgent need for 
action in the perspective of their sustainable development, the Commission has 
included in the 1994 work plan for the implementation of the 5th Environmental 
Action Programm the preparation of the present Commission Communication to the 
Council and the European Parliament on Wise use and conservation of wetlands. 
8. This Commission Communication provides a strategic basis for such a policy aiming 
at the sustainable use of wetland resources and the conservation of their functions and 
values for future generations. It not only considers the territory of the European Union 
but also Community programmes and policies for co-operation with countries in the 
Mediterranean and Baltic regions (LIFE-International), in Central and Eastern Europe 
and Asia (PHARE, TACIS), with African, Caribbean and Pacific countries (ACP), and 
with Asian and Latin American countries (ALA), as well as global commitments, thus 
also fully corresponding to the principles laid down in the "Agenda 21". 
The Communication explains that wetlands are components of natural landscapes, that 
they perform specific functions, that they support human activities, and that they 
represent a cultural and natural heritage (Chapter I); summarises briefly how the 
European Community became involved with wetland matters and refers to the fact that 
wetland conservation requirements need to be integrated in all Union policies both 
within and outside the EU territory (Chapter II); spells out current issues that affect 
wetlands in a negative way and provides an outline of the actions that need to be 
taken to stop and reverse the loss and further degradation of wetlands in Europe and 
world-wide (Chapter III); mentions specific measures to be taken in a number of 
strategic areas towards a concerted policy and action to address the social, economic 
and political causes of wetland loss and degradation (Chapter IV); describes how to 
integrate the above measures into major Union policies (Chapter V); finally it provides 
resulting conclusions and policy lines. 
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Wise use and conservation of wetlands 
Introduction page 1 
I. Europe s wetlands and their problems page 3 
• Wetland ecosystems 3 
• Interlinkage of wetland sites 4 
• Wetland values 4 
• Wetland loss and degradation 6 
II. The Union s involvement in wetland conservation page 9 
III. Key wetland issues page 12 
• Stopping and reversing wetland drainage and destruction 12 
• Reducing wetland pollution 12 
• Restoring wetlands 13 
• Sustainable wetland resource use 14 
• Integrating the management of wetland functions 15 
IV. Strategic directions page 17 
• Integrating water and wetland management 17 
• The management of large and international rivers 18 
• Coastal zone management 19 
• Improving legal instruments for wetland conservation 21 
• Improving Economic Instruments 22 
• Supporting research and monitoring activities, including the sound application 
of research findings 22 
• Improving information and awareness 25 
• Educating and training wetland experts 26 
• Conserving important wetland sites 27 
V. Integrating Union policies page 28 
• Towards sustainability 28 
• Integration of agriculture and wetland conservation 28 
• Fisheries policy and aquaculture 31 
• Regional development policies 33 
• The Cohesion Fund 36 
• Transport infrastructures 36 
• Tourism 36 
• European Union international cooperation, development, and trade policies 37 
VI. Conclusions and Recommendations page 42 
• General facts 42 
• European Union wetland policy 43 
• Final conclusion 48 
- Cxx -
Figure 1: Estimated recent wetland loss in some European Union countries 7 
Figure 2: Consumption of nitrogen fertilisers in the European Union 8 
Figure 3: Estimated total water withdrawal in the European Union 8 
Tabic 1: Eutrophication within different aquatic ecosystems in the European Union 
Annex I: Comparison between the Ramsar and CORINE wetland classifications 49 
Annex II: Guidelines for the Wise Use of Wetlands 51 
Examples of budget lines and specific wetland-related projects: 
Box A: Research programmes related to wetlands 24 
Box B: ACNAT Regulation: MedWet programme 25 
Box C: ACE wetland-related projects summary 26 
Box D: Environmentally Sensitive Areas: Somerset Levels and Moors 29 
Box E: Agri-Environmental Regulation: La Mancha Oriental 30 
Box F: Mediterranean fisheries support studies 32 
Box G: Community Initiative ENVIREG: Guyana coast 34 
Box H: Community Initiative INTERREG: Lavezzi/Magdalena islands 35 
Box I: Cohesion Fund: Irish bogs 35 
Box J: Tourism and environment 37 
Box K: MEDSPA projects in the Mediterranean 39 
Box L: LIFE projects outside the EU in the Baltic 39 
Box M: PHARE projects in Central and Eastern Europe 40 
Box N: Projects in ACP, ALA, and Mediterranean countries 40 
References 53 
page 1 
INTRODUCTION 
Wetlands are commonly understood as «areas of 
marsh, fen, peatland, or water, whether natural or 
artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is 
static or flowing, fresh, brackish, or salt, including 
marine waters, the depth of which at low tide does not 
exceed six metres»'. Most people are* familiar with 
wetlands in some shape or form, even if the term 
"wetland" has only recently become widely used. The 
village pond or stream, the local lake or estuary are just 
a few examples., For thousands of years, river valleys 
and their associated floodplains have served as centres 
of human population, with many boasting sophisticated 
urban cultures. Their soils brought in huge harvests, and 
they continue to be essential to the health, welfare and 
safety of millions of people. 
Wetlands are ecosystems of paramount importance, not 
only because they have become so rare and are so 
threatened, but because they perform very important 
functions, provide resources for a large number of 
human interests and actors in supporting human 
activities and represent a valuable cultural and natural 
heritage. This is reflected by the fact that, besides the 
Antarctic continent, wetlands are the only major 
ecosystem forming the subject of an international treaty, 
the Ramsar Convention2, established over twenty years 
ago, to which all EU Member States1 are contracting 
parties. 
Clearly, wetlands have an important economic value as 
a sort of natural infrastructure. However, the necessary 
appreciation of their economic value is almost entirely 
missing, as the benefits provided by wetlands are mainly 
for free. This led the OECD, some years ago, to find out 
the failure of market mechanisms in the field of the use 
and conservation of wetlands and their resources4. 
The Conference of the Contracting Parties of the Ramsar 
Convention has defined the wise use of wetlands as their 
"human use so that they may yield the greatest 
continuous benefit to present generations while 
maintaining its potential to meet the needs and 
aspirations of future generations ", this "in a way 
compatible with the maintenance of" their "physical, 
biological or chemical components, such as soil, water, 
plants, animals and nutrients, and the interaction between them" (see Annex II). Consequently, the wise 
use of wetlands is identical to sustainable utilisation 
compatible with the conservation of natural resources, 
and thus corresponds to the concept of sustainability 
laid down in the Community 5th Environmental Action 
Programme5. 
Today, wetlands are affected by human activities in their 
entire water catchment area. They are now among the 
most threatened ecosystems and landscapes due mainly 
to drainage, land reclamation, pollution, and over-
exploitation of wetland resources. It is estimated that 
two thirds of Europe's wetlands have disappeared since 
the beginning of our century, mainly lost through 
development processes which did not take their 
functions and values adequately into account. 
Over the past twenty years, the European Community 
has adopted a broad spectrum of legislation aimed at 
protecting and restoring the environment in view of a 
constant improvement of the living standards for its 
people. This has included important actions benefiting 
wetland conservation, notably depending on the Council 
Directives on the conservation of wild birds 
(79/409/EEC)6 and, more recently, on the conservation 
of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora 
(92/43/EEC)7. The Council Directives concerning urban 
waste water treatment (91/271/EEC)8 and concerning the 
protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates 
from agricultural sources (91 /676/EEC)9 contribute much 
to the improvement of water quality, a key element in 
wetland conservation. The Fifth Environmental 
Programme of Policy and Action "Towards 
Sustainability" addresses all key actors of the European 
society to play their part in creating a sustainable 
society, based on the principles of partnership and 
shared responsibility. 
However, as also stated in a recent evaluation report for 
France10 undertaken on behalf of the French Government 
and approved by it, we are not yet at a stage of 
stabilising wetland conditions. Even with an optimistic 
view, the best practical achievement possible with a 
radically improved, ambitious and innovative policy will 
only slow down in some years from now the negative 
trend observed. This makes a strong policy in favour of 
the wise use and conservation of wetlands even more 
urgent. 
page 2 
The present document provides a strategic basis for such 
a policy aiming at the sustainable use of wetland 
resources and the conservation of their functions and 
values for future generations. It not only considers the 
territory of the European Union but also Community 
programmes and policies for co-operation with countries 
in the Mediterranean and Baltic regions (LIFE-
Intemational), in Central and Eastern Europe and Asia 
(PHARE, TACIS), with African, Caribbean and Pacific 
countries (ACP), and with Asian and Latin American 
countries (ALA), as well as global commitments, thus 
also fully corresponding to the principles laid down in 
the "Agenda 21". 
The Communication is structured in the following way: 
Chapter I explains that wetlands are components of 
natural landscapes, that they perform specific functions, 
that they support human activities, and that they 
represent a cultural and natural heritage. Most wetlands 
have already been lost and those remaining suffer from 
degradation and destruction Chapter II summarises briefly how the European 
Community became involved with wetland matters and 
refers to the fact that wetland conservation requirements 
need to be integrated in all Union policies both within 
and outside the EU territory. 
Chapter III spells out current issues that affect 
wetlands in a negative way and provides an outline of 
the actions that need to be taken to stop and reverse the 
loss and further degradation of wetlands in Europe and 
world-wide. 
Chapter IV mentions specific measures to be taken in 
a number of strategic areas towards a concerted policy 
and action to address the social, economic and political 
causes of wetland loss and degradation. 
Chapter V describes how to integrate the above 
measures into major Union policies. 
Finally, Chapter VI provides resulting conclusions and 
policy lines. 
page 3 
I 
EUROPE'S WETLANDS 
AND THEIR PROBLEMS 
WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS 
There exists an enormous variety of wetland types. To 
classify them unequivocally is not easy because of their 
complexity, their dynamic character and the difficulty in 
precisely defining their often fluctuating boundaries. The 
contracting parties of the Ramsar Convention adopted a 
wetland classification system comprising 35 categories". 
The CORINE Biotopes classification which, in 
application of Council Decision 85/338/EEC on the 
adoption of a Commission work programme for the 
implementation of an information system on the state of 
the environment and natural resources in the Community 
(CORINE - Co-ordination of Information on the 
Environment)12, has been elaborated in order to identify 
and consistently describe the sites of major importance 
for nature conservation, is mainly based on vegetation 
characteristics and includes about 20 wetland habitat 
types. A comparison of both classifications is given in 
Annex I. 
For the sake of simplicity, wetlands in Europe can be 
regrouped within seven major wetland types: 
Marine and coastal wetlands 
A variety of wèt habitats occur along flat coasts. Coastal 
currents form sand and shingle spits that may isolate 
brackish lagoons and temporary ponds. Vast mudflats, 
isolated dune slacks, salt marshes and meadows are 
typical wetlands of the Atlantic and North Sea coasts. 
The Danish-German-Dutch Wadden Sea is the largest 
wetland (8000 km2) within the territory of the European 
Union. Since ancient times, large brackish to saline 
lagoons have provided necessary shelter for the 
installation of harbours and the development of 
important trade cities in the Mediterranean and Baltic, 
such as Venice or Gdansk. action is an important regulator. Estuaries are normally 
very productive due to their nutrient-rich waters and are 
often used by young fish as nursery areas. In the 
European Union they occur mainly along the coasts of 
the Atlantic, the Irish and the North Sea. Large centres 
of human trade and culture developed in connection 
with estuaries, for example London on the Thames, or 
Rotterdam, Antwerp and Gent on the Rhine, Maas and 
Schelde estuary complex. Intertidal mud and sand flats, 
salt marshes and rocky outcrops complement the range 
of wetland habitats. The Mediterranean Sea is notable 
for its river deltas which have developed in the absence 
of tidal water movements at the mouth of sediment-rich 
rivers. They consist normally of complexes of lagoons, 
marshes, lakes, temporary pools, river channels, irrigated 
agriculture and shallow coastal zones. In the European 
Union, the Camargue (Rhone), theEbro, Po, and Evros 
deltas are among the best known. 
Rivers and floodplains 
The periodic flooding of the area between the river bed 
and the raised land on the edge of a valley used to be a 
common feature of many European rivers and streams. 
Very few rivers are still allowed to spread out 
periodically over floodplains that include temporary 
sand and gravel banks, wet meadows, grassy marshes, 
flooded forest, and oxbow lakes. Where flooding has 
been regulated, only small areas of riverine forests and 
floodplain wetlands remain. The French Loire is 
probably one of the last remaining larger rivers with 
substantial parts of its floodplains remaining. 
Lakes 
Lakes and ponds are characterised by their open water 
surface. They are formed in basins with badly drained 
soils or by geological faults, landslides or glacial action. 
Most European lakes are permanent with freshwater but, 
especially in the Mediterranean climate of southern 
Europe, temporary lakes with brackish water are more 
widespread. Along shallow lakeshores, light that 
penetrates to the bottom allows the development of 
rooted vegetation creating biologically rich transition 
zones between open water and dry land. 
Estuaries and deltas 
Estuaries are situated where a river mouth widens into 
the sea, with intermediate salinity, and where tidal Freshwater marshes 
Freshwater marshes are common wherever groundwater, 
surface springs, streams or runoff causes frequent 
page 4 
flooding or more or less permanent shallow water. Their 
widespread distribution and variety is a reason for the 
range of terms used to describe freshwater marshes. 
Some of the larger ones have standing water throughout 
most of the year and often develop uniform beds of 
cattail and reed. 
Peatlands 
Under conditions of low temperature, waterlogging and 
oxygen deficiency, dead plant matter accumulates as 
peat. Where water drainage is impeded and peat deposits 
accumulate, distinctive fens and bogs are created. For 
climatic reasons, peatbogs mainly occur in the more 
humid Atlantic and boreal, but also in the alpine and 
continental parts of Europe. Many peatlands are so 
delicately balanced that even very slight changes in 
environmental conditions may cause substantial alteration 
or degradation. Peat soils often still occur on the drained 
agricultural land of former wetland sites. 
Man-made wetlands 
Past and current human activities have created different 
types of wetlands that have a certain interest for specific 
plants and animals. Undisturbed, abandoned, and 
restored parts of gravel pits and other excavations 
provide a variety of habitats. Large parts of traditional 
and industrial salines at the Mediterranean and Atlantic 
coasts are important refuelling sites for migratory birds 
and vital breeding grounds for colonially nesting birds. 
The biological value of reservoirs depends much on the 
slope of their shores and the fluctuations of their water 
levels. Rice paddies can provide interesting habitats as 
long as they are not polluted by agrochemicals. 
INTERLINKAGE OF WETLAND SITES 
The interconnectedness of different wetlands is an 
important fact. This is already recognised with regard to 
those sites that regularly act as critical links during the 
annual migrations of waterfowl. 
For some wetland types, particularly within the 
Mediterranean, conditions at individual sites are 
unpredictable as hydraulic and biotic conditions are 
constantly changing throughout time and space in 
response to fluctuating climatic conditions, namely the 
seasonal hydrological cycles. The Mediterranean climate is characterised by a four to five month period during 
which many wetlands temporarily dry. More prolonged 
dry periods of three to five years may also occur in the 
Mediterranean resulting in many shallow lagoons and 
floodplains remaining desiccated for several consecutive 
years. In such situations it is essential for the 
conservation of aquatic and semi-aquatic species of 
fauna and flora to have a wide range of alternative 
wetlands available, which during these unfavourable 
conditions can ensure the survival of these species. 
For the above reasons wetlands should not be considered 
in isolation but as forming a global interconnecting 
network, often between distant areas. 
WETLAND VALUES 
The interactions between the main wetland elements 
(water, soils, nutrients, plants and animals) allow 
wetlands to perform certain functions and to generate 
healthy vegetal, wildlife, fisheries and forest resources. 
The combination of these functions and products, 
together with the natural and cultural values of wetlands, 
makes these ecosystems invaluable to people. Many 
wetlands provide good opportunities for economic 
activities and recreation and sustain dense populations of 
fish, cattle or wildlife. 
Wetlands perform specific functions 
Wetlands are complex natural ecosystems that function 
according to fundamental physical, chemical, and 
biological laws. Impacts on their correct ecological 
functioning will inevitably affect the functions such 
ecosystems perform for human societies, notably: 
• By storing precipitation water and releasing it later in 
a more even way, wetlands can dimmish devastating 
effects of floods downstream. E.g. the channelisation 
of the Rhine for flood control that already started in the 
18th Century, created substantial loss of wetlands. More 
recently, the construction of dykes for hydropower 
plants on the Upper Rhine in the 1950s led to the 
destruction of 13,000 ha of natural floodplains. 
Subsequently, flood velocity and intensity increased 
downstream and put several large cities at greater risk. 
For safety reasons, it was necessary to rebuild artificial 
flood retention basins to store excess water during 
page 5 
exceptional floods. The water stored and released 
contributes to prevent drought during dry seasons and 
periods of high demand for agricultural irrigation, it 
can furthermore recharge the groundwater table, where 
it is over-used through pumping. 
• Wetland vegetation stabilises shorelines and 
consolidate soils by reducing the energy of waves or 
currents, while the roots hold the bottom sediment. In 
the United Kingdom, the construction of sea walls 
protected by a saltmarshe proved to be approximately 
twenty fold cheaper than the maintenance of sea walls 
without saltmarsh protection. This protective function is 
of particular importance in areas afflicted by subsidence 
and/or rising sea levels. In parts of eastern England, 
where net sea level rise is currently 5 mm per year, and 
the sea walls and shingle dams are in great need of 
improvement or repair, coastal engineers are now 
seriously considering restoring the coastal salt marshes 
as a cost-efficient alternative to the traditional sea 
defences. 
• Wetlands improve the water quality. They serve as 
pools where sediments and toxic substances settle. If 
reeds and grasses are present to slow down a river's 
flow, the opportunity for settling is increased. Wetlands 
retain nutrients, most importantly nitrogen and 
phosphorus, by accumulation in the soil and storage in 
the vegetation itself. Under certain conditions this can 
be used for tertiary treatment of domestic waste water 
with 1 ha of marsh serving to remove nitrogen as 
efficiently as a sewage plant sufficient for 500 people. 
Wetlands often recharge the groundwater table. 
Vegetated wetlands can act as buffers, to prevent 
nutrients of agricultural origin from reaching aquifers 
that are providing human drinking water. The release of 
nutrients during winter, when wetland plants die, 
provides vital support for fish breeding and nursery 
areas. 
• Wetlands, in particular in the form of £eat bogs, have 
the capacity to store large quantities of carbon, a fact 
that can reduce carbon dioxide emissions into the 
atmosphere, responsible for global warming. 
• Wetlands provide the habitat for a wide range of 
aquatic and wetland-dependent plant and animal 
species. Although they only cover a small percentage of the land surface, wetlands harbour an extraordinary 
diversity of habitat types and plant and animal species, 
of which many cannot be found elsewhere. Furthermore, 
wetlands serve as dispersal and migration corridors and 
"stepping stones" for many species. This favours the 
colonisation of new habitats and genetic exchange to 
maintain viable fish and waterfowl populations. 
Wetlands support human activities 
• Many of the commercially exploitable coastal species 
offish, shellfish and crustaceans spend at least part of 
their life cycle in wetlands. An intact network of 
wetland sites, from coastal lagoons and estuaries to 
upstream spawning grounds, is vital to support 
commercial fisheries. The Danish-German-Dutch 
Wadden Sea is an important nursery for plaice, mullet 
and sole, thus providing the recruitment area for 80 and 
50 per cent respectively of the North Sea fisheries catch 
of these species. 
• Renewable wetland resources, such as reed and salt 
are exploited for human use. Wetlands can sustain the 
farming of fish, crayfish, waterfowl and grazing animals. 
If done in a sustainable way, these activities contribute 
to the maintenance of outstanding ecosystems with a 
great biological diversity. 
• Many wetlands harbour a rich wildlife and provide 
important spaces for recreation activities such as 
walking, birdwatching, nature photography, hunting, 
angling, swimming and sailing. More than 800,000 
people visit the wetlands managed by the Wildfowl and 
Wetlands Trust each year, a British non-govemmental 
organisation devoted to wildfowl and wetland 
conservation. About 250,000 people visit the coastal 
dunes and wetlands of Terschelling island in the Dutch 
Wadden Sea per year. They represent 2.5 million tourist 
nights, a considerable economic factor for the island 
population of 4,600. 
• Economic wetland benefits have been calculated to 
represent nearly 5,000 ECUs per ha and year for the 
Wadden Sea, and more than 50,000 ECUs per ha and 
year for an Atlantic Spartina Marsh. 
page 6 
Wetlands represent a cultural and natural heritage 
Wetlands have particular attributes, such as their 
biological diversity, landscape value and importance to 
the cultural heritage. Such attributes are not consumed 
directly but seen as a value in themselves appreciated by 
many people. Over the centuries, people living next to 
wetlands have developed sustainable techniques to 
exploit the resources provided by the wetlands, thus 
profiting from the particular environment offered by the 
wetlands. 
The services wetlands provide and the functions they 
perform are often neglected and considered to be for 
free, when designing development schemes. Their 
existence and values are too often only realised once 
they have been lost due to the destruction and 
degradation of the sites. Post-war changes in agricultural practices provoked an 
extensive loss of this habitat due to dam building along 
rivers, followed by drainage and transformation of 
wet meadows into dry pastures and arable land. During 
the 1970s, annual losses were about 2,400 ha in 
Denmark, 4,000 to 8,000 ha in England and Wales, and 
10,000 ha in France. 
Salt marshes have been progressively reclaimed for 
centuries, mainly for conversion into arable or industrial 
land. The extent of saltmarshes in the United Kingdom 
has been cut by half since the beginning of the 
reclamation programme in medieval times. In the 
Wadden Sea region, 20,000 ha of saltmarsh were lost 
between 1950 and 1984, with a total of 40,000 ha 
remaining. In the Rhone delta, the saltmarsh area was 
reduced from 23,900 ha to 10,400 ha between 1942 and 
'1984. 
WETLAND LOSS AND DEGRADATION 
The loss of wetlands is widespread, but differences in 
terminology and type of data between countries still 
prevent a thorough analysis. However, available 
information indicates that approximately two thirds of 
all European wetlands existing at the beginning of our 
century have since been lost (Figure 1 provides some 
national examples). The following wetland types in the 
European Union have suffered, in decreasing order, from 
substantial loss of surface : 
Rivers and floodplain wetlands have paid a heavy 
tribute to hydraulic and flood protection works. Already 
at the beginning of this century, only a few untouched 
reaches of natural rivers remained, and yet even today 
new dams and hydrological works are planned for the 
last unregulated parts of rivers. Riverine forests have 
undergone a drastic reduction in size throughout Europe 
and in many countries only tiny forest strips remain. Of 
the 40,000 ha of riverine forests existing along the 
Alsatian side of the Rhine ia 1830, only 8,500 ha 
remain today, of which only 400 ha are still flooded by 
high water levels. 
Wet meadows, flooded grasslands and temporary 
freshwater marshes were traditionally used as grazing 
lands and were widely distributed throughout Europe. Peatlands have been considerably destroyed through 
unsustainable peat extraction and afforestation, with 
sixty per cent of their maximum extent remaining. In 
northern Germany, peatlands have disappeared by half 
with 300,000 ha remaining. In the United Kingdom, 
there are less than 6,200 ha of undamaged active raised 
bogs remaining, representing only six per cent of the 
original area. In the Netherlands the remaining raised 
bogs represent ten per cent of the area which existed at 
the beginning of this century. 
The remaining wetlands suffer from degradation 
The following examples provide an idea of different 
forms of ongoing degradation affecting the remaining 
wetlands: 
• The correct functioning of wetland ecosystems is often 
indirectly influenced by human activities occurring 
within their catchment basin. Many wetlands are the 
unwelcome recipients of excessive quantities of nitrogen 
and phosphorus from urban sewage and agricultural 
runoff. The release of compounds (e.g. C02, 
Dimethylsulfide, H2S, etc.) influences the air quality, 
and can drastically alter the ecology of wetland systems 
through atmospheric deposits of pollutants such as acid 
rain. Often these influences originate from outside the 
catchment basin. 
page 7 
• During the 1970s, the consumption of nitrogen 
fertilisers dramatically increased in the European 
Community Member States, in order to increase 
agricultural production (Figure 2), Consequently, the 
water of a growing number of wetland sites was 
excessively loaded with phosphorus and nitrogen, a 
process known as eutrophication. This proliferates 
unwanted vegetation and.provokes algal blooms which, in turn, result in oxygen deficiencies and production of 
toxins. The lack of oxygen and the presence of toxins 
provokes the mass death of fish and destroys the 
essential community of planktonic organisms which 
constitutes the basis of the food chain. The 
eutrophication phenomenon is widespread and increasing 
throughout the European Union (Table 1). 
The Netherlands France Germany 
55% lost between 
1950 and 1985 67% lost since 
ca. 1900 57% lost between 
1950 and 1985 
Spain Italy Greece 
60% lost between 
1948 and 1990 66% lost between 
1938 and 1984 63% lost between 
1920 and 1991 
Sources: 
Netherlands and Germany: - OECD. 1989. Environmental Data Compendium 1989. OECD, Paris. (Marshes excepted 
for Germany) 
France: - Ministère de l'environnement, 1993. Proceedings of the Fifth Conference of the Contracting Parties to the 
Ramsar Convention. Kushiro, Japan, June 1993. National report for France. 
Spain: - Casado, S., Florin M., Molla S. & Montes C, 1992. Current status of Spanish wetlands, in Finlayson, M., 
Hollis, T. & Davis, T. (Eds.) Managing Mediterranean Wetlands and their Birds. Proceedings of an IWRB International 
Symposium, Grado, Italy, February 1991. IWRB Special Publication N° 20, 1992, GB. Istituto Nazionale di Biologia 
della Selvaggina, Italy. Pages 56-58 
Italy: - ISTAT & ISMEA in Angle, T.G., 1992. La scomparsa degli ambienti naturali. in Habitat-Guida alia Gestione 
degli ambienti naturali - 140p. WWF, CFS (Eds). Pages 11-17. 
Greece: - Psilovikos, A., 1992. Prospects for wetland and waterfowl in Greece, in Finlayson, M., Hollis, T. & Davis, 
T. (Eds.) Managing Mediterranean Wetlands and their Birds. Proceedings of an IWRB International Symposium, Grado, 
Italy, February 1991. IWRB Special Publication N° 20, 1992, GB. Istituto Nazionale di Biologia della Selvaggina, Italy. 
Pages 53-55 
Figure 1: Estimated Recent Wetland Loss in some European Union Member States. 
page 8 
Table 1: Eutrophication within different aquatic ecosystems in the European Union 
(extracted from: The State of the Environment in the European Community, Overview, VoL III) 
B DK D GR E IRL I NL UK 
Natural lakes 
Rivers and dams 
Estuaries and lagoons 
Coastal waters o o • • o • o 
o o • o • o o 
o • • o - • o 
o • • • - o o o • 
o o 
o 
• Serious problems nation-wide 
O Problem identified Serious local problems 
not recorded 
Millions of tonnes Billions m3 
Figure 2: Consuption of nitrogen fertilizers in the 
EU countries. 
(source: The State of the Environment in the 
European Community, VoLIlL, OJ No. C138, 
16.5.93) Figure 3: Estimated total water withdrawal in the 
EU 
(source: The State of the Environment in the 
European Community, VoLUl, OJ N° C138, 
16.5.93) 
• Increasing consumption of groundwater threatens to 
dry out many wetlands (Figure 3). Groundwater 
abstraction of water in large agricultural areas around 
the National Parks of Donana and the Tablas de 
Daimicl in Spain has caused a serious drop in water 
levels resulting temporarily in the complete desiccation 
of several water bodies. Costly interventions were 
subsequently needed for compensation. Such problems 
are not restricted to Mediterranean countries. In the 
northern part of Europe, a four-year drought in the 
1980s raised major concern and excessive water 
abstraction is now considered to seriously damage 
English wetlands. • Threats to coastal wetlands from a rise in the sea-level 
expected to be provoked by Global Warming can no 
longer be ignored. In some regions coastal erosion will 
be enhanced by the lack of sediment inflow, as the river 
sediments are now trapped in upstream dams. The 
sediment load of the Rhone and Ebro river deltas in 
France and Spain have been reduced by 90 and 80 per 
cent respectively. Thus, the deltas face serious and 
costly erosion problems. Since 1975, the sea shore in 
the Ebro delta is retreating annually by l m on average, 
reaching 100 m in a few places. 
page 9 
II 
THE UNION'S INVOLVEMENT 
IN WETLAND CONSERVATION 
The United Nations Conference on the Human 
Environment held in Stockholm in 1972 marked the 
beginning of a global recognition of the need for 
environmental protection, reflecting an increasing public 
concern for environmental problems. 
The European Community was among the first to 
respond, with the establishment of a comprehensive 
preventive strategy to safeguard the environment and 
natural resources within the framework of an 
Environmental Action Programme. The first action 
programme was adopted in 197314 leading to the 
adoption of environmental legislation and financial 
instruments. 
Since the 1970s, non-go vemmental conservation 
organisations have devoted great efforts to identifying 
priority wetland sites throughout Europe, mainly in their 
function as bird habitats. They denounced the 
widespread destruction and the unwise use of wetlands 
and their resources, often provoked by the fact that 
development programmes ignored environmental 
concerns. In 1979, Council Directive 79/409/EEC on the 
conservation "of wild birds was adopted. It requires 
Member States to classify the most suitable sites in 
number and area as 'Special Protection Areas* for 
particularly vulnerable species and to take similar 
measures for other migratory species. In this regard 
Member States are required to pay particular attention to 
the protection of wetlands, especially wetlands of 
international importance. This latter obligation is an 
implicit reference at Community level to the Ramsar 
Convention as regards wetlands of international 
importance as waterfowl habitat. 
Between 1984 and 1992, under Council Regulations 
(EEC) N° 1872/84 and 2242/87 on actions by the 
Community relating to the environment (ACE)15 and 
Council Regulation (EEC) N° 3907/91 on actions by the 
Community relating to nature conservation (ACNAT)16, over 27 million ECUs were allocated to 60 projects 
providing an incentive to maintain, restore or improve 
wetland sites that are vital habitats for threatened bird 
species listed under Council Directive 79/409/EEC. 
Many of these sites arc classified as Special Protection 
Areas and/or designated under the Ramsar Convention 
on Wetlands of International Importance. 
Amongst other reasons, the environmental problems 
posed by some development projects of the Integrated 
Mediterranean Programmes resulted in 1987 in a 
Commission Decision1' to set up a working group of 
technical experts for the preparation of a concept for 
integrated management of coastal wetlands of 
Mediterranean type. 
In 1987, the Single European Act added to the Treaty of 
Rome a whole new chapter on the «Environment», and 
the Fourth Environmental Action Programme, adopted 
in the same year18, made environmental protection an 
essential element for all economic and social policies. 
The principle of subsidiarity, i.e. that the Community 
shall take action only when the objectives are better 
reached at Community level than at the level of the 
individual Member States, was also introduced through 
provisions concerning the environment under the Single 
European Act, and has been reinforced by the Treaty of 
European Union. 
The Community Initiative ENVIREG19 and Council 
Regulations (EEC) N° 563/91 on action by the 
Community for the protection of the environment in the 
Mediterranean region (MEDSPA)20 and N° 3908/91 on 
Community action to protect the environment in the 
coastal areas and coastal waters of the Irish Sea, North 
Sea, English Channel, Baltic Sea and NE Atlantic Ocean 
(NORSPA)21 supported several projects related to 
wetland conservation through water management 
measures. Increasingly, the European Parliament 
expressed its concern regarding nature conservation, and 
several MEPs have addressed to the Commission 
specific questions related to wetland conservation22. 
Recent European Court rulings23 acknowledge the 
obligation of Member States to pay particular attention 
to the protection of wetlands, as required by Council 
Directive 79/409/EEC. 
page 10 
In 1992, the Birds Directive was complemented by 
Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of 
natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora. This 
Habitats Directive highlights, amongst others, lagoons, 
Mediterranean temporary ponds, active bogs, wet 
meadows and calcareous fens as conservation priorities 
amongst a comprehensive list of natural habitat types of 
Union importance. It is foreseen that a Union-wide 
network of protected areas (Natura 2000) composed of 
the Special Protection Areas for wild birds and the 
Special Areas for Conservation for natural habitats and 
threatened fauna and flora will be completed by the year 
2004. Wetlands will form a large group of the sites of 
Natura 2000. 
At the same time, the European Community adopted 
Council Regulation (EEC) N° 1973/92 creating a 
financial instrument for the environment (LIFE)24. This 
instrument finances priority actions within the 
Community but can also support activities in other 
countries in the Mediterranean and Baltic regions or 
actions concerning regional or global problems provided 
for in international agreements. The funds made 
available for nature conservation under this Regulation 
are, however, very limited compared to the needs and 
compared to funds under other Union policies having an 
impact on wetlands. In 1992, 1993 and 1994, grants 
totalling about 30 million ECU were allocated to 
wetland-related projects from the LIFE-nature budget. 
Since 1988 the Community Environment Research 
Programm supported some 20 multidisciplinary research 
projects with a total budget of ca. 15 million ECUs, to 
better understand the functioning of river floodplain 
ecosystems and to develop a generalised methodology 
for their integrated management, to assess the role of 
salt marshes in the biogeochemical cycles of organic and 
inorganic substances at the land-sea interface, to 
evaluate the role of peatlands and floodplains in global 
change, to develop methodologies for the rehabilitation 
of eutrophied shallow lakes and to investigate the 
contamination of the inner coastal zone as the basis for 
the sustainable use and development of European 
wetland ecosystems. 
The Treaty on the European Union introduced in 1993, 
as a principal objective, the promotion of sustainable 
growth respecting the environment. This includes an environmental policy that aims at a high level of 
protection, the requirements of which must be integrated 
into other Community policies. In this sense, the Fifth 
Environmental Action Programme "Towards 
Sustainability", addresses five target sectors: industry, 
energy, transport, agriculture, and tourism. 
Environmental responsibilities are shared by all 
economic players, including public authorities, public 
and private enterprises, and, above all, the general 
public. It must be clearly seen that the maintenance of 
well functioning wetland ecosystems depends more on 
successfully implementing this principle than the single 
conservation of wetland reserves. Without this having 
been spelt out explicitly until now, the European 
Union's involvement in the wise use and conservation 
of wetlands mainly depends on implementing 
sustainable structural measures and policies. 
The European Community and its Member States 
together have long been a large source of development 
assistance. Within months of the opening of the borders 
and the emergence of democracy in central and eastern 
Europe the specific co-operation programme PHARE 
was set up by the Community. Projects benefiting 
wetland conservation included support of the Foundation 
for the Great Mazurian Lakes in Poland and a study on 
the conservation of wetlands and grasslands in Hungary. 
The Nicosia Charter of 1990 on environ^ entai co­
operation in the Mediterranean basin spelt out a five-
year programme to support and complement the 
Environmental Programme for the Mediterranean, 
initiated by the European Investment Bank and the 
World Bank. In the latest Lomé Convention, 
environmental concerns are listed as the first area of co­
operation between the European Community and 69 
African, Caribbean and Pacific states. Among other 
themes, the convention gives priority to the preservation 
of biological diversity and to the protection and rational 
use of water. The European Community also contributed 
to several wetland-related projects in Asian and Latin 
American countries. 
In July 1994, the Commission adopted a Communication 
with the title "Europe 2000+: Cooperation for European 
territorial development". In its section relating to the 
environment, this Communication stresses the need to 
supplement the traditional approach adopted for nature 
conservation, mainly oriented towards the protection of 
page 11 
threatened areas, with a more horizontal approach 
applied to the open spaces hosting the bulk of natural 
and semi-natural areas as well as the habitats of wild 
flora and fauna throughout the Union's territory. As far 
as water reserves aTe concerned, it recommends among 
other things longer term plans for major catchment areas 
establishing estrategic objectives for water reserves and 
priorities for their use. For coastal areas, it recommends 
inter alia integrated management plans tailored to their 
specific features, functions and vulnerability. 
In September 1994, an informal Council of Ministers 
responsible for Spatial Development agreed on the 
principles and spheres of action to be adressed by a 
European Spatial Development policy, among which the 
wise management and sustainable development of 
Europe's natural heritage. The importance of the international dimension of the 
Union's work in the field of the environment will be 
strengthened as the Union and its Member States have 
a special responsibility to encourage and participate in 
international action to combat global environmental 
problems following the Rio Declaration on Environment 
and Development. In pursuance of Article 130R.1 of the 
Treaty on European Union, the Union's involvement in 
international environmental actions will be stepped up 
over the period covered by the Fifth Environmental 
Programme. This will also have to include a 
comprehensive strategy to stop and reverse the loss of 
wetlands on a global scale and the promotion to use 
their resources in a sustainable way. 
page 12 
HI 
KEY WETLAND ISSUES 
STOPPING AND REVERSING 
WETLAND DRAINAGE AND DESTRUCTION 
Since early history, wetlands have widely been regarded 
as unproductive land whose .conversion to a more 
profitable use, mainly for agricultural purposes, was 
very beneficial for society. In the Mediterranean, the 
wish to eradicate malaria, the disease associated with 
these habitats, has enhanced the drainage.works. 
More recently, the development of civil engineering 
techniques has made the drainage of virtually all 
wetlands a minor obstacle to the creation of new 
agricultural land, industrial or commercial estates, 
urbanisation, tourist resorts, transport infrastructures, 
artificialized aquaculture units, etc. 
Signs of a recent reduction in wetland loss are shown in 
some Member States, and in some cases the political 
tools to halt the decline have been put into place. 
However, even now, many projects that would destroy 
and degrade further wetlands are planned. 
The fate of wetlands in other regions of the world, in 
particular industrialised parts, has been comparable, 
although their loss was probably less severe than in 
Europe. In the United States, it has been estimated that 
some 56 per cent of the original wetland area has been 
lost. Alarmed by this decline, the United States has been 
amongst the first countries to draw up a National 
Strategy for wetland conservation and to adopt a "No 
Net Loss" strategy. This recognises the fact that for 
specific socio-economic reasons some wetlands 
may have to be altered, and that in compensation, an 
equivalent wetland area also providing the functions of 
the lost site, must be created. However, although the 
"Moss in surface can approximately be compensated for, 
the re-creation of the precise functions that have been 
lost is normally very costly and extremely difficult, if 
possible at all. 
Unlike in North America, where vast areas of natural 
wetlands still remain, in Europe, wetland loss has been dramatic, probably the largest in the world. Immediate 
measures must be taken to maintain the remaining 
wetlands, forming part of a unique ecological network 
providing different functions for society and wild fauna 
and flora. 
The levels of development vary throughout the 
European Union's different regions. In some areas, most 
of the natural wetlands have been destroyed and great 
efforts are now being undertaken to restore lost 
wetlands, whilst in other regions, extensive natural areas 
remain but are under great pressure from development 
schemes. The bad experience encountered in a number 
of economically more favoured regions needs therefore 
to be put to good use in those other regions where it is 
most needed for a sustainable way of development. In 
a situation where agricultural land is set aside, where 
major diseases are under control, and where the 
environment is a major concern of European citizens, no 
further wetland drainage and destruction is justified and 
should, therefore, no longer be allowed in the European 
Union. 
REDUCING WETLAND POLLUTION 
Wetlands are very vulnerable to water and atmospheric 
pollution. However, if properly managed, they can help 
reduce water pollution to a certain extent. 
Nutrient enrichment and acidification originating from 
human settlements, agricultural land and air pollution 
have already been mentioned as the main forms of 
wetland pollution throughout Europe. Whilst their 
effects are relatively well known and immediately 
visible, the impact of other pollutants, such as certain 
pesticides, heavy metals or chlorinated hydrocarbons on 
natural ecosystems and their organisms is linked to 
long-term accumulation processes and therefore far less 
understood. Environmental changes or the accumulation 
of pollutants in wetland sediments or soils up to the 
saturation point may provoke the release of the 
pollutants, thus creating severe toxicological problems. 
In this sense, pollutants accumulating in sediments and 
the groundwater can create problems many years after 
their original release into the environment. In turn, 
stopping their release now, means that the beneficial 
effects will only become evident at some future date. 
page 13 
Pollution accidents create great public response, 
particularly as a result of their visibility and the 
immediate economic losses they provoke, such as 
rendering shellfish culture or fisheries impossible, or 
driving away large numbers of tourists from foul-
smelling or potentially toxic lagoons, lakes or coasts. 
Such accidents are normally followed by intensive 
cleaning actions at high cost, while only rarely, much 
lower-cost, medium to long term preventive measures 
are taken as a reaction to local complaints. 
Unfortunately, in some cases wetlands are still 
considered wastelands ideally suited for disposing urban 
and industrial waste. Even where this is not the case, 
spillages that spread with coastal currents or, either in 
the groundwater or on the surface, downstream in river 
systems, can create severe pollution problems at some 
distance from the source. 
For drinking water abstraction, and where important 
economic activities occur within wetlands, proper 
monitoring of the water quality usually takes place and 
pollution problems can be solved in time. Such 
procedures should be extended to all wetlands. Sources 
of waste water that pollute wetlands must be identified 
and cleaned. According to the "Polluter Pays" principle, 
cleaning costs should be borne by the originator of the 
pollution. 
The European Community has adopted a wide range of 
legal instruments aiming at improving water quality. The 
Council Directives concerning urban waste water 
treatment (91/271/EEC), concerning the protection of 
waters against pollution caused by nitrates from 
agricultural sources (91/676/EEC) and on pollution 
caused by certain dangerous substances discharged into 
the aquatic environment (76/464/EEC)25 are of particular 
importance in this context. The recently proposed 
Directive on the ecological quality of water26 will be 
crucial to complete this legislation while introducing a 
comprehensive and integrated element. However, the full 
impact of these directives largely depends on the 
strength of their implementation in each of the Member 
States. Furthermore, as contained in the proposed new 
Directive, procedures to monitor water quality and to 
improve it through integrated programmes targeting all 
elements of the ecological quality of water systems, 
need to be established. The restoration or creation of a network of buffer wetlands, functioning as pollutant 
traps can contribute to the improvement of the water 
quality of the remaining natural wetlands. However, the 
long term limitations- of such a strategy must be 
recognised, as these pollutants may be released again 
into the environment at a later stage (cf. above). 
In addition, as far as pollution from maritime accidents 
is concerned, at the beginning of 1994, the joint Council 
of Environment and Transport Ministers agreed on 
future iniciatives to be taken by international 
organisations on maritime safety and the establishment 
of guidelines27, some of which are clearly linked to 
wetland conservation and management. These are in 
particular : 
• The promotion of initiatives to tackle the 
problems of the ecological vulnerability of certain 
maritime zones and coastal areas. 
and 
• The definition of maritime zones that are 
environmentally sensitive and the implementation of 
special systems involving, where necessary, restrictions 
on maritime traffic and an obligation for all ships 
carrying dangerous materials to notify the authorities of 
any information potentially useful for the safety and 
protection of these zones. 
RESTORING WETLANDS 
The restoration and creation of wetland ecosystems is 
extremely difficult, as they are very complex by their 
nature. It is normally cheaper to conserve existing 
wetlands than to rehabilitate degraded wetlands. This, in 
turn, is more likely to be successful than the restoration 
of certain functions of destroyed wetlands, while the 
restoration of complete wetland ecosystems to their 
former functions and values, is almost impossible. 
However, the increasing interest in wetland restoration 
reflects the socio-economic importance of certain 
wetland functions that need to be restored. Careful 
spatial development strategies, multidisciplinary 
approaches, the establishment of clear goals, and full 
attention to the hydrology are important prerequisites for 
success. Wetlands to be restored should require little 
page 14 
management and restoration projects need to take into 
account existing hydrological links within the catchment 
basin. Subsequent monitoring is vital to assess if the 
restoration objectives have been achieved and, if 
necessary, to undertake corrections. 
Wetland restoration is particularly advanced as a policy 
element in the northern part of the Community, e.g. 
Denmark. Recently, the European Community funded 
some wetland projects to enhance their habitat functions 
for nature conservation (under the ACE and LIFE 
Regulations). However, other, economically important 
wetland functions need to be increasingly considered in 
future projects, such as the improvement of water 
quality, flood retention, biological corridor functions, 
etc. Large scale projects can be supported through 
regional programmes and the Cohesion Fund in the 
eligible countries. Furthermore, it is important to 
promote and publicise the experience gained during 
recent wetland restoration projects. 
The current changes of the Common Agricultural Policy 
and accompanying measures, including long-term set-
aside of arable areas, provide an unprecedented 
opportunity to restore vast areas of wet meadows and 
riparian wetlands that had earlier been converted to dry 
pastures and arable land. However, this requires the 
development of concerted policies which focus on areas 
with restoration potential, rather than being broadly 
applied in a spatially dispersed manner in all agricultural 
areas. 
SUSTAINABLE WETLAND RESOURCE USE 
Water resource management is often the central point 
for dispute, as different users want specific water 
quantities at different times of the year. When summed 
up, these quantities are often larger than the amount 
available, if provision is made to maintain the main 
wetland functions at a sufficient level. 
Water is the basic factor in assuring the ecological 
functions of wetlands. It is also a valuable natural 
resource for agriculture (irrigation), energy (hydro-
power), transport (river navigation), tourism (leisure» 
angling) and industry (production processes). It is 
essential that each of these sectors does not develop its water use policy without respecting the seasonal water 
quantity needed to maintain the ecological values of 
related wetlands and taking into account the needs of 
the other sectors. This clearly requires an integrated 
approach. With increasing water consumption in the 
European Union, water shortages will become more 
frequent. If ecological wetland characteristics are to be 
preserved, integrated water use plans, that ensure the 
long-term survival of an adequate hydrological regime 
on a sustainable base, need to be developed and put into 
practice. A strong policy of integration is therefore 
needed as a principal element of all Union policies. This 
integration must be implemented according to the 
Principle of Subsidiarity. 
For centuries, vast areas of wetlands such as wet 
meadows, flooded grasslands or temporary freshwater 
marshes have been used as grazing lands for cattle or 
for hay production. These wetlands support very rich 
plant communities and wildlife and these traditional 
non-intensive forms of agriculture gave also rise to the 
selection of several hardy races of horses, cows and 
cattle. These races were well adapted to this peculiar 
environment, but are now disappearing. Overgrazing or 
altering the inundation regime of these wetland sites 
decrease their natural value. Adapted grazing pressure 
and hydrological regime need to be precisely defined 
and applied in order to both preserve the biological 
diversity of such wetlands and optimise their agricultural 
productivity. 
Traditional fishing and aquaculture in European 
wetlands have been practised for a long time in a 
sustainable way. But recent intensification and 
industrialisation of these activities, combined with a 
degradation of the spawning habitats and the water 
quality, have had a severe effect on their productivity. 
Natural fish stocks and their renewal rate must be 
carefully evaluated and monitored in order to adopt the 
fishing mortality rate that does not deplete fish stocks. 
Furthermore, aquaculture projects need to be carefully 
evaluated in order to assess their environmental impact 
(notably water pollution leading to eutrophication, and 
the modification of hydrological features). 
Peat bogs have formed over millennia, under particular 
climatic conditions. In north-western Europe, peat 
extraction has long been carried out on a small scale, 
page 15 
mostly for domestic fuel production and, since the 
1920s, also for soil improvement in gardens and 
horticulture. Nowadays, extraction often takes place on 
an industrial scale, as fuel for electricity generation and 
for horticultural purposes. The current extraction rate in 
the European Union cannot be sustained, and the 
available peat stocks will further decline. Therefore, 
alternatives to peat must be developed. The exploitation 
of peat from large fens and blanket bogs can 
furthermore disrupt the fragile hydrology of nearby 
active raised bogs which are, like active blanket bogs 
and wooded bogs, priority habitats according to Council 
Directive 92/43/EEC. In addition, the origin of peat 
imported into the Union should be controlled in order 
not to encourage the destruction of valuable peat bogs 
outside the Union territory. 
Waterfowl hunting in European wetlands is a popular 
leisure activity and can be an important source of 
income for wetland owners. Rightly, hunting 
associations are becoming an important driving force for 
wetland conservation. The principle of using the 
waterfowl resource in a sustainable way can 
substantially contribute to wetland conservation, 
providing it includes the use of non-toxic shot28, the 
setting of bag limits, the creation of an adequate 
network of game refuges, and the adaptation of the 
hunting seasons to the ecological requirements of the 
species. These are also aspects covered by Council 
Directive EEC/79/409 on the conservation of wild birds. 
In the past, the multiple benefits of wetlands were 
poorly recognised and neglected by developments which 
often sought to maximise the use of only one of the 
wetland resources, according to an oversimplified 
ecosystem concept. Many wetlands are destroyed or 
degraded because of the impact of external activities 
upon the hydrological system which supports the 
wetland. To address these problems, specific attention 
needs to be given to improving the design and operation 
of planning procedures and strengthening institutions 
with the responsibility to pursue this work. 
In most cases, conflicts appear because of a lack of 
concertation between different wetland resource users. 
Often, there is little appreciation of the range of 
products and services provided by wetlands. Individual 
administrations and ministries perceive wetlands as having the potential for only one single product 
represented in their sector. Thus, wetlands are at the 
same time undervalued while some of their resources are 
overused. The maintenance and enhancement of their 
diverse productivity needs to be managed in an 
integrated way. 
INTEGRATING 
THE MANAGEMENT OF WETLAND 
FUNCTIONS 
Five principal factors contribute to institutional 
inefficiencies in wetland management and conservation: 
sector organisation, limited availability of management 
techniques, shortage of qualified staff, inadequate 
legislation and limited financial resources. The 
management of wetlands is often vested in relatively 
powerless institutions, or worst still, left to several 
uncoordinated bodies sometimes having important power 
and resources, but lacking the awareness and capacity to 
manage and use wetland resources in a sustainable way. 
Wetland conservation is low on political agendas while 
there is intense pressure for traditional economic 
development. Wetland destruction and degradation have 
adverse and unforeseen long-term costs which are often 
borne by the state, while organisations and individuals 
can make short-term profits from the conversion of 
wetlands. Major impact occurs on wetlands through the 
widespread policy of under-pricing water, resulting in a 
sub-optimal allocation of resources. Many sector 
interests interfere with coherent wetland management. 
They either affect wetlands directly or through 
competition for water, through water and air pollution, 
through deteriorating impacts on the landscape and its 
recreational potential such as smell or noise, etc. 
Throughout the European Union, appropriate policy and 
environmental standards need to be implemented, as has 
been decided in general for all environmental aspects. 
Thus, the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands 
and their resources must also be an integrated part of all 
Union policies. Wetlands need to be managed in a way 
that ensures the participation of local people in planning 
and enforcing balanced policies of sustainable resource 
use. The management mechanism must identify an 
agreed set of objectives and ensure that there is a free 
page 16 
flow of information and open consultation procedures 
between the exponents of major policies with a potential 
impact on wetlands, such as agriculture, industry, 
energy, transport, and tourism. 
The 5th Environmental Action Programme «Towards 
Sustainability»29 sets out clearly that environmental 
responsibilities have to be shared by all economic 
players, including public authorities, public and private 
enterprise and, above all, the general public, both as 
citizens and consumers. In order to bring about 
substantial changes in current trends, a broader mix of 
instruments which set fundamental levels of protection need to be complemented by cross sector guidelines for 
policies with a spatial impact to ensure their 
compatibility with sustainable use of wetlands, by 
market-based instruments designed to sensitise both 
producers and consumers, by horizontal supporting 
instruments that provide improved base-line and 
statistical data and by financial support mechanisms. 
The Commission has instigated studies on integrated 
management of coastal wetlands of Mediterranean type 
(document XI/669/92). Their general conclusions hold 
also for other European wetlands. 
page 17 
IV 
STRATEGIC DIRECTIONS 
INTEGRATING WATER AND WETLAND 
MANAGEMENT 
Water is the crucial element of wetlands. Wetlands, as 
water storage places, form part of the global water 
cycle. Threats to wetlands often originate far away from 
the actual wetland sites, within their catchment basin. 
Wetland conservation is thus directly related to water 
resource management, depending on and influencing in 
turn the quality and quantity of the water. 
The main areas of water management concern water 
supply, pollution control, flood control, energy 
production, navigation, fisheries, recreation, tourism and 
land-use planning. These issues are inter-related and 
may have profound influences on wetland sites and their 
ecological functions and values. In turn they are linked 
to agricultural, forestry, industrial and urban policies. 
So far, water quality has received very high 
consideration at European Community level. Two 
important Council Directives for the improvement of 
water quality in natural aquatic ecosystems were adopted 
in 1991: Directive 91/271/EEC concerning urban waste 
water treatment and Directive 91/676/EEC concerning 
the protection of waters against pollution caused by 
nitrates from agricultural sources. instruments for water management most often only 
concern particular sectors like energy production, 
domestic water, or navigation, etc. It is time to integrate 
them into a unified catchmcnt-bascd approach. The new 
water law adopted in 1992 in France, for example, 
defines water as part of the common national heritage 
and aims al a balanced management of water resources 
in order to assure, amongst other things, the preservation 
of aquatic ecosystems, sites and wetlands. 
In 1992, the International Conference on Water and the 
Environment in Dublin which prepared an input to 
Agenda 21, the action programme for sustainable 
development adopted some months later at the Rio 
Conference, recommended three priorities for using 
water more wisely in the long term: 1) integrated water 
management needs to take into account all uses of water 
and all sources of contaminants within a given 
catchment basin, 2) a preventive approach focusing on 
water demand management, water conservation and 
pollution prevention rather than water supply 
management and pollution control at the "end of the 
pipe", and 3) the wise use of wetlands so that they may 
yield the greatest continuous benefits to present 
generations while maintaining their potential to meet the 
needs of future generations. 
Integrated water management must be achieved 
considering surface and ground water as part of a 
system whose geographical limits are those of the water 
catchment basin (or aquifer), and taking all socio­
economic aspects into account as well as the functioning 
of the aquatic ecosystem. 
The impact of urban waste waters on natural wetlands 
is mentioned in Annex II of Directive 91/271/EEC and 
must be one of the main criteria for the selection of 
priority measures. The implications of Directive 
91/676/EEC are discussed below in relation to the 
Common Agricultural Policy. 
Recent drought periods in Europe reminded us that 
water is a limited resource and this exacerbates user 
conflicts, especially, but not only, in southern, drier 
regions. Often, water management competence is split 
between different administrations and different levels 
(national or regional). This can lead to unnecessary 
conflicts on how to share the limited resource. Legal Such an integrated approach must be promoted as a 
deliberate cross-sector strategy at the highest political 
level (i.e. inter-ministerial). Numerous sector legal 
instruments need to be improved, completed or replaced 
in order to address the integration issues. At the 
catchment basin scale, it might be necessary to create 
new administrative institutions in charge of consulting 
with the public and co-ordinating the different activities 
and uses. This is particularly important for 
transboundary water basins shared by more than one 
administrative region, province or state. International 
river basin agreements for the Rhine, Elbe and Danube 
are the first examples for promising collaboration. Here, 
the European Union has a leading role to play. 
page 18 
For each catchment basin, a freshwater resource 
assessment should be undertaken as a basis for 
management. This should also comprise an inventory of 
all wetlands in the catchment, their link to surface and 
ground water flows and the functions they perform in 
relation to the water cycle (flood and sediment retention, 
ground water recharge, etc). All categories of water 
users need to be made aware of the water resource 
limitation and its long-term conservation. 
The impact of major development schemes, such as 
those for which Council Directive 85/337/EEC on the 
assessment of the effects of certain public and private 
projects on the environment30 requires an Environmental 
Impact Assessment (EIA), should not only be assessed 
on site but with regard to the whole catchment basin. 
Furthermore, the list of development projects for which 
an EIA is compulsory should be extended to cover all 
works liable to modify surface or ground water flows. 
According to the "Precautionary Principle", it is 
appropriate to grant water use rights only for a 
(renewable) limited period. Ground water abstraction 
should not exceed the charge rate. Water saving and re­
use techniques must be further developed and publicised 
for wide application. Principles of long-term sustainable 
use of water sources and water saving are to be 
considered before funding measures of structural and 
regional development. 
Water has to be considered as a common heritage and 
limited resource. To avoid abuse and over-use of water 
for human consumption, this resource should be priced 
at a level to cover its true cost, including external 
environmental costs. This may require new water pricing 
mechanisms, including incentives for water saving. Staff 
of institutions dealing with water management should be 
trained in order to acquire a general understanding of 
the main ecological processes in wetland ecosystems and 
nature conservation issues. THE MANAGEMENT OF LARGE AND 
INTERNATIONAL RIVERS 
Until very recently, rivers were often only considered as 
a means to carry (or evacuate) water from one point to 
another. However, recent ecological research revealed 
the important interactions between rivers, adjacent flood-
plains and ground water flows underneath, and proved 
the necessity to preserve the multiple functional aspects 
of these complex hydrological systems. 
Alluvial (i.e. river-related) aquifers are of primary 
importance for domestic, agricultural and industrial 
water uses. Natural river beds and their associated flood 
areas have a great potential for water purification. 
Where they still exist, associated floodplains and 
wetlands can function as flood retention basins. During 
recent floods and subsequent inundation in different 
parts of Europe we were reminded of the dramatic loss 
that has occurred of areas able to play this role. 
Furthermore, natural river ecosystems support a high 
diversity of wild flora and fauna and serve as important 
corridors for migratory species (e.g. fish of commercial 
value, etc). 
While the management of smaller rivers and related 
floodplains and wetlands is often straightforward, 
management and conservation problems of large rivers 
are more complex and have to cover geographical areas 
of considerable scale. At this level, an integrated 
approach needs to take into account the functional 
dynamics of the river-floodplain ecosystem including the 
preparation of an inventory of all floodable zones, the 
formulation of clear restrictions for land-use within these 
zones, the restoration of natural areas for flood retention 
and the conservation of particular habitats. 
On rivers with barrages, technical installations that 
ensure the free movement of migratory species have to 
be installed, based on a careful inventory of 
reproduction sites for important fish and other migratory 
species. Sand and gravel extraction should be dislocated 
from river beds outside riverine floodplains, while 
promoting the use of alternative mineral resources (e.g. 
recycled building materials). Buffer zones without 
cultures should be established along sensitive riversides 
in order to reduce nutrient and fertiliser inflow. 
Problems caused by changes in sedimentation patterns 
page 19 
provoked by the establishment of barrages need to be 
solved. Natural, including temporary and erratic 
hydrological regimes of rivers should be respected. The 
compulsory minimum amount of water flow in rivers 
with important water abstraction (for energy production, 
agriculture, etc) needs to be defined carefully. 
River management is further complicated in the case of 
transboundary basins, covering different administrative 
regions or states. Several large European rivers form the 
border of different countries or cross different states on 
their way to the sea. Along such international water 
courses, Member States do have bilateral responsibilities 
regarding the quality and quarftity of the water flow, 
sediment transfer, migratory species, etc. 
The European Union has signed two multilateral 
agreements concerning, respectively, the Rhine and the 
Elbe and is proposing to sign a similar agreement for 
the Danube. The agreements lead to the creation of 
international commissions for the protection of these 
rivers, focusing mainly on pollution abatement. In the 
case of the Rhine, specific actions regarding migratory 
fishes, floodplain wetland conservation and restoration 
are underway. In the Mediterranean region, bilateral 
agreements on the Guadiana and Tagus river have been 
signed between Spain and Portugal. Greece has signed 
agreements with former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria* and 
Turkey. However, these agreements are mainly 
concerned with water abstraction and do not yet also 
cover the conservation of aquatic habitats. 
The Helsinki Convention on the protection and use of 
transboundary watercourses and international lakes 
provides a framework for integrated agreements. The 
European Union Member States have also signed the 
Espoo Convention on environmental impact assessment 
in a transboundary context, largely inspired by Council 
Directive 85/337/EEC. The Espoo Convention obliges 
the contracting parties to undertake EIAs for big dam 
and ground water abstraction projects. 
The following is a list of the most urgent actions to be 
taken towards integrated management of large rivers and 
their catchment: 
* A short list of the remaining natural rivers and 
parts of rivers should be established for priority 
actions related to Community legislation. Subsequently, the European Union will be 
prepared to promote the wise use of these 
rivers and their resources, avoiding any 
financing of detrimental development projects. 
Council Directive 85/337/EEC and its 
implementation must still be put in line with 
the obligations of the Espoo Convention, i.e. 
stipulate that EIAs are obligatory (Annex I of 
the Directive) for dam and ground water 
abstraction projects, if located in transboundary 
basins. EIAs need to be carried out at river 
basin scale and based on studies involving 
more than just the bodies interested in carrying 
out the proposed development projects. 
The conservation of aquatic ecosystems, 
including wetlands, must be an integral part of 
international river basin agreements. The bodies 
to guide implementation of these acts need to 
have adequate funds at their disposal and the 
facility to acquire the most sensitive areas for 
river conservation, as in the case of the Elbe 
Commission. 
There is an increasing need to establish similar 
bodies for integrated river basin management in 
other parts of Europe either on bilateral or 
national level (e.g. for Mediterranean rivers, or 
the Loire in France). 
Finally, within the framework of Council 
Directive 92/43/EEC, the European Union will 
promote the inclusion of international and 
inter-regional rivers in the Natura 2000 network 
of protected areas. 
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT 
About one third of all wetlands in the European Union, 
and an even larger proportion when considering their 
surface area, are located in the coastal strip, at the 
interface between land and sea. Consequently, coastal 
zone management is crucial, not only for the coastal 
wetlands, but in general for the conservation and wise 
use of the Community's wetlands. This is also reflected 
by the importance given to this specific subject in the 
page 20 
Commission Communication EUROPE 2000+ "Co­
operation for European territorial development"31. 
For centuries, coastal areas have been inhabited and 
used by man for the abundance of food and other 
natural resources they provide, as well as for their 
strategic position for trade and transport. As a result, 
coastal areas arc densely populated: 60 per cent of the 
Greek and 30 per cent of the Spanish population live in 
coastal areas, a third of the British live in estuarinc 
regions. Integrated coastal zone management is therefore 
crucial for the wise use and conservation of wetlands. 
Urbanisation, the development of industry, large-scale 
harbour facilities and, most recently, tourism have led to 
an important destruction and fragmentation of coastal 
natural habitats and landscapes. Resulting environmental 
degradation, as a consequence of water abstraction and 
pollution, has provoked the decline or disappearance of 
several species from places where they used to be 
abundant. Technical progress has allowed fish and 
shellfish catch to increase above sustainable levels. 
Nutrient loads of urban, industrial and agricultural waste 
waters are responsible for the eutrophication of coastal 
waters, already seriously affecting several economic 
activities, like shellfish and fish farming, the production 
of algal food, and tourism (algal bloom in the Adriatic, 
toxic algae in the Ligurian Sea, etc). 
Coastal wetlands and lagoons, due to their location 
downstream of, often large, catchment basins, are 
particularly vulnerable to water pollution. This danger is 
coupled with huge population increases in European 
coastal areas where large-scale tourist developments 
occur, especially in the Mediterranean. The number of 
international tourists in the Mediterranean region 
doubled from 56 million in 1970 to 116 million in 1986 
and could double again by the year 2025. It will be 
physically and economically difficult to satisfy the water 
demand and the waste water treatment needs of such 
numbers, especially during the dry summer months. 
Mass tourism can therefore not be considered a panacea 
in coastal regions that are suffering from industrial 
decline. 
Furthermore, the predicted sea level rise is likely to 
generate serious problems for coastal defence works and 
to necessitate increasing public expenditure. The European Union is ideally situated to play an important 
role in long-term coastal management planning, guiding 
legislative terms of national and regional parliaments. 
Another administrative difficulty for coastal zone 
management is the fact that current responsibilities arc 
often split between different ministries covering 
respectively marine and land-based aspects. Close co­
ordination, or the creation of integrated agencies to 
manage coastal areas is therefore needed. 
Coastal zones have received much attention and were 
the subject of specific programmes both at European 
Union and Member State level. For several years, the 
functional assessment of wetland ecosystems has formed 
an important part of the Commission programme for 
Research and Technological Development. Community 
actions such as MEDSPA, NORSPA, and the 
Commission Initiative ENVIREG provided specific 
funds for projects furthering integrated coastal zone 
management, including the preservation of natural 
resources and habitats. The action programme 
addressing the problems of sensitive marine and coastal 
areas along shipping routes in relation to oil spills has 
already been mentioned above. At Member State level, 
several of them have developed specific programmes 
and institutions for coastal protection, such as the 
Heritage Coast scheme in the UK, or the 'Conservatoire 
de l'espace littoral et des rivages lacustres' in France. 
Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands have taken 
common steps to develop the integrated and co­
ordinated management of the Wadden Sea by creating 
the Common Secretariat for the Co-operation on.the 
Protection of the Wadden Sea, Europe's largest coastal 
wetland area. With Community financial support, this 
body has just elaborated and approved a Common Co­
ordinated Management Plan for the Wadden Sea with a 
view to the three Member States concerned jointly 
designating this area very soon as a Special Area of 
Conservation pursuant to Council Directive 92/43/EEC. 
Based on a Community strategy for the management and 
conservation of coastal zones32, the Commission 
identified the need for action in three fields, 
1) installation of networks for data gathering, 
monitoring, and exchange of experience, 2) creation of 
public awareness on the problems and resources of 
coastal areas, and 3) definition of an environmental 
page 21 
framework and elaboration of general plans for 
sustainable and integrated management. 
Recently, the Environment Council, through two 
Resolutions adopted on 25 February 1992 and 25 March 
1994, invited the Commission to propose a Community 
strategy for the integrated management and sustainable 
development of the entire European Union coastline, 
respecting the principle of subsidiarity. That strategy 
will above all concern coastlines, including the shore, 
coastal waters and estuaries, as well as the strip of land 
extending to the limit of coastal marine influence and 
thus include a large part of the Community's wetlands. 
A description of the types of coastal wetlands and their 
functions will be one point of departure for such a 
strategy, which has to address, amongst others, the 
following points: 
• Coastal waters, estuaries, deltas, and coastal 
land, up to the limit of the marine influence 
need to be treated as a single management unit, 
given the many ecological interactions between 
the terrestrial and marine environments; 
• European coastal management should be 
considered at adequate biogeographical level. 
All studies and the promotion and exchange of 
information, techniques and monitoring results 
should be co-ordinated at this level; 
• special attention should be paid to problems 
arising from sea level rise and subsidence; 
• Member States should elaborate inter-
ministerial coastal management strategies with 
clear objectives, including integrated land-use 
plans, species and habitat conservation goals, 
the maintenance of ecosystem processes, etc.; 
• there should be no new encroachment on 
natural coastal areas of Community importance 
according to Council Directives 79/409/EEC 
and 92/43/EEC. 
IMPROVING LEGAL INSTRUMENTS FOR 
WETLAND PROTECTION 
Although the European Union Member States are contracting parties to the Ramsar Convention on 
Wetlands of International Importance, several make no 
precise reference to wetlands and their conservation in 
their relevant national laws. Legal conservation of many 
wetland sites often merely covers water quality. Even 
the most important wetland sites arc in many cases only 
protected as a habitat for endangered or rare (bird) 
species without mentioning the whole range of other 
benefits they provide. Human activities frequently affect 
numerous wetland functions, but regulations are 
generally designed only to address one aspect, like 
fishing or hunting, etc. 
At Community level, wetland sites important for 
migratory birds are mentioned in Council Directive 
79/409/EEC without defining the term "wetland". 
Council Directive 92/43/EEC goes further in listing a 
number of wetland types that are of Community interest 
requiring special conservation. The classification or 
designation of wetland sites as Special Protection Areas 
(Directive 79/409/EEC) or Special Areas for 
Conservation (Directive 92/43/EEC) is the main 
Community instrument to prevent the degradation or 
loss of these sites. In Denmark, some types of wetlands 
are legally protected under the Protection of Nature Act 
(N°9 of 3 January 1992), i.e. all lakes larger than 1 ha, 
and all saltmarshes, swamps, humid permanent 
grassland, etc. larger than 0.25 ha. In France, wetlands 
are now legally defined and their protection is one of 
the aims of the new Water Law (N° 92-3 of 3.1.1992). 
Through the above-mentioned directives, the importance 
of wetlands as a common natural heritage is 
acknowledged by the European Union, according to the 
definition given by the Ramsar Convention as quoted in 
the introduction to this Communication. Further efforts 
need to be undertaken to ensure that all wetland sites 
qualifying for Natura 2000 are designated as such and 
adequately managed. For wetlands, Member States 
should apply the instrument of management plans such 
as laid down in , Article 6 of Council Directive 
92/43/EEC as a rule. Furthermore, wetland conservation 
depends to a large degree on regulations ruling drainage, 
development planning and tenure rights, fiscal and tax 
rules and incentives. These regulations have therefore to 
be implemented in a way which is favourable for the 
wise use of wetland resources and their conservation. 
page 22 
IMPROVING ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS 
As mentioned at the beginning, at present there exists 
almost no economic appraisal of wetlands and their 
functions and values. Therefore, as the OECD 
discovered, market mechanisms still fail in the wise use 
and conservation of wetlands and their resources. 
The negative consequences of these gaps are in 
economic terms even increased by two facts that up to 
now have almost never entered the minds of decision 
makers : Firstly, there exists a clear physical and 
functional solidarity between wetlands and other areas 
with a view to supporting human activities and 
augmenting economic benefits. Secondly, because of the 
time-lag between the loss or degradation of wetlands, on 
the one hand, and the negative and also economic 
impacts induced by them, on the other hand, the 
economic consequences of wetland loss and degradation 
are, if at all, systematically evaluated at too low a level 
and integrated into decision procedures with insufficient 
weight. Member States which can lead to serious over-use of 
water. Combined with substantial Structural Funds for 
the development of irrigation schemes, it can cause 
wetland loss or degradation. Water prices have to be 
adapted to reflect its real cost, including the cost of 
cleaning polluted water. 
Regional development measures, even if located at 
substantial distances from a wetland, can alter its 
ecosystem functioning. Although significant progress has 
been made in the recent Regulations for Community 
instruments, like the Structural Funds and the Cohesion 
Fund, towards the full integration of environmental 
concerns, the assessment of the environmental impacts 
of proposed projects still needs to be improved and the 
spirit, that these Community instruments may not 
contribute to environmental deterioration, to be put more 
into practice. The extent of this work should not be 
under-estimated, and has to be taken seriously at all 
levels, with Member States playing the major role. Costs 
of this work need to be integrated into project costs 
from the beginning. 
Consequently, the economic evaluation of wetlands, 
their functions and values, the correct pricing of the use 
of wetland resources and the adequate integration of cost 
related to wetland loss and degradation, as well as to 
necessary compensation, into economic appraisal and 
decision procedures have to be put high on both the 
agenda of research, as reflected in the present STEP 
research programme, and the agenda of improvement 
of instruments. 
In the 1970s and 1980s, guaranteed high cereal prices 
were a major incentive to convert lowland pastures to 
arable land and public subsidies to drain wetlands were 
available throughout the Community. With the recent 
reform of the Common Agricultural Policy, this process 
should now be reversed. However Council Regulation 
EEC N° 2085/9333 concerning the implementation of the 
European Agricultural Guarantee and Guidance Funds, 
still allows «the renovation and improvement of 
drainage systems». Environmental guidelines, for 
example as included for «parcelling schemes, have to 
make sure that this does not result in a negative impact 
on still existing wetlands. 
The under-pricing of water is coiomon in several A widespread incentive for wetland drainage is the 
taxation of potential agricultural land, which may be 
based on statistics that are out of date. In France, for 
example, the tax value for meadows was calculated at a 
time when cattle breeding was one of the most 
profitable forms of agriculture, and means to adapt this 
to the current socio-economic situation are currently 
been sought. It is appropriate to develop standards for 
land taxation at the level of the European Union, 
reducing tax levels on remaining natural areas in private 
ownership and to create financial instruments in favour 
of those regions which integrate nature and wetland 
conservation into local development programmes. 
SUPPORTING RESEARCH AND MONITORING 
ACTIVITIES, 
INCLUDING THE SOUND APPLICATION OF 
RESEARCH FINDINGS 
Wetland management and conservation need to be based 
on a good understanding of the fundamental ecological 
functioning of wetland ecosystems, integrating different 
scientific disciplines. Whilst much is known regarding 
the biological, and particularly the ornithological, value 
page 23 
of wetlands, there is an urgent need to better understand 
their functioning and the values this provides to human 
societies. Although there is a good deal of academic 
research within specific fields, often, the results of this 
research are not sufficiently translated into concrete 
conservation and management actions. 
Since 1973, the Environment Research and 
Technological Development Programmes of the 
European Community have provided a driving force for 
co-ordinated wetland research (some examples provided 
in Box A). The Fourth Programme (1986-1990) focused 
specifically on, wetland research. However, in the 
absence of any sizeable promotion, the results of these 
studies take too long to be published and become public 
knowledge. It is important, but so far most often 
neglected, to make research results available to 
environmental managers and decision-makers by 
presenting them in the most appropriate form and 
disseminating them widely. 
During historic times, wetlands were used in sustainable 
ways by local populations. Nowadays, these traditional 
uses are often abandoned, mainly because they are no 
longer profitable under modern socio-economic 
conditions. However, the intensive uses which replace 
them are often detrimental to natural processes, habitats 
and species. Therefore, the identification of means to 
make traditional uses of wetland resources economically 
viable, whilst at the same time preserving wetland 
habitats and species, is a priority axis for applied 
research. This includes inter-disciplinary approaches that 
take economic and legal constraints and current policies 
into account (agriculture, fishery, etc.). It includes 
studies for the successful marketing of high-quality 
wetland products, produced in an environmentally 
compatible way (fish, shellfish, beef, reed, etc). 
Additionally, research on how to replace wetland 
resources that are exploited in a non-sustainable way is a high priority (e.g. peal as energy source and for 
horticultural purposes). 
Co-ordinated, Europe-wide monitoring of wetlands and 
their status is essential for their conservation and wise 
use. The European Commission's CORINE Landcover 
programme has established information systems upon 
which specific wetland monitoring programmes 
can now be based. Monitoring activities will also have 
to include a posteriori assessment of the success of 
wetland conservation and management projects and 
policies, e.g. on the results of measures for wetland sites 
of the Natura 2000 network or concerning agri-
environmental measures (Regulation EEC N° 2078/92). 
As far as it is appropriate to undertake this at 
Community level, these task will have to be executed by 
the European Environment Agency. The implementation 
of the proposed new Directive on the ecological quality 
of water already mentioned, will also largely contribute 
to the necessary monitoring of wetlands and their 
catchment basins. 
Different policies at Community, national, regional and 
local level have impacts on wetlands. A coherent 
framework for spatial development strategies fostering 
sustainable use of wetlands need to be established. 
Furthermore, multi-disciplinary investigations on the 
underlying interlinking between natural and socio­
economic sciences to make proposals on ways of 
avoiding or solving typical structural and administrative 
problems are needed - for instances through new 
institutional mechanisms. Major changes in policies and 
new regulations must be systematically accompanied by 
such studies and monitoring programmes in order to 
evaluate their impacts. To this end, a Council Directive 
on the strategic assessment of environmental impacts 
created by Policies, Plans and Programmes (PPP) will be 
an essential tool. 
• page 24 
Box A 
Research and Technological Development (RTD) 
Some examples of wetland-related RTD projects receiving Community support: 
Framework Programme 1990-1994 
Wetland-related research projects in the RTD programme in the field of the environment: 
MATURE: - Biogéochemistry of the maximum turbidity zone in estuaries 
EC contribution: 750,000 ECU 
Biogeochemical nitrogen and sulphur cycles and ecosystems dynamics in eutrophic coastal lagoons 
CLEAN 1992-1995. Coastal lagoon eutrophication and anaerobic processes 
EU contribution: 949,577 ECU 
Assessment of the two main and connected human influences: river disturbance and subsequent fish stocking, 
on the genetic diversity and stability of natural riverine fish populations 
EU contribution: 500,000 ECU 
Influence of nitrogen deposition on the carbon balance in peatland ecosystems 
EU contribution: 258,000 ECU 
ERMAS: - European river margins as indicators of global change 
EU contribution: 400,000 ECU 
Abiotic controls of the germination, establishment, and species distribution of woody riparian vegetation 
EU contribution: 300,000 ECU 
Disturbance of European salt marsh ecosystems; the impact of environmental pollution (eutrophication) in 
relation to sedimentation patterns 
EU contribution: 500,000 ECU 
The effects of environmental changes on European salt marshes: structure, functioning, and exchange 
potentialities with marine coastal water 
EU contribution: 1,100,000 ECU 
Extended HUMOR: - Extension of project HUMOR: Humic substances, modifiers for the response of aquatic 
ecosystems to acidification 
EU contribution: 250,000 ECU 
STEP projects 1989-1992: 
(Science and Technology for Environmental Protection) 
Emissions and absorption of the greenhouse gases nitrous oxides by agricultural soils and natural wetlands 
EU contribution: 527,000 ECU 
Elements, stocks, and fluxes in the Posidonia oceanica ecosystems of the Mediterranean 
EU contribution: 696,000 ECU 
ALPE: - Acidification of remote mountain lakes 
EU contribution: 300,000 ECU 
EROS 2000: - European River Ocean System Phase II 
EU contribution: 2,200,000 ECU 
Functional analysis of European wetland ecosystems 
EU contribution: 1,160,000 ECU 
IMPROVING INFORMATION AND 
AWARENESS 
Despite recent efforts for change, the word "wetland" 
still connotes a negative image for many citizens. The 
sustainable use and conservation of wetlands will only 
receive the political attention it deserves, if the public 
acknowledges their values and understands why it is 
important to preserve them. 
The European Union supports information and 
awareness campaigns for specific target audiences: 
administrations, decision-makers, parliamentarians, 
industry, farmers, and school children are but the most 
obvious examples. Information packages must be based 
on sound scientific knowledge and understanding. The 
wide dissemination of the results of case studies on 
economic success (or failure) of wetland management 
projects or development schemes having altered 
wetlands, is an efficient means to inform local decision­
makers and wetland users. So far, the European Union 
has financed such efforts through some nature 
Box B ______________ page 25 
conservation projects (ACE and LIFE), often related to 
visitor centres located at specific protected sites. The 
adaptation of this information for a wider dissemination 
at Union-level will be useful. Information material on 
wetland conservation subjects, produced under the 
current ACNAT project on co-ordinated actions for 
Mediterranean wetlands (MedWet, cf. Box B), provides 
a first example.to be followed by other means (videos, 
TV, multimedia, etc). To this end, collaboration with 
experienced professionals and conservation NGOs, can 
increase working efficiency. 
A "wetland component" should be integrated 
systematically into related thematic campaigns, such as 
campaigns on water, water transport, etc. Such a 
campaign could be based on the network of wetland 
sites where the Union has .already supported 
conservation actions (Natura 2000). The campaign has 
to include not only aspects of nature conservation, but 
also those regarding the wise use of wetland products 
(water, peat, fish, waterfowl) and their functions 
(drinking water storage or cleaning, flood retention, etc). 
Coordinated Action in Favour of Mediterranean Wetlands (MedWet) 
Council Regulation (EEC) N° 3907/91 on action by the Community relating to nature conservation (ACNAT) 
The European Community is the main supporter of the initial phase of the MedWet programme 1993-1995 
providing 66 per cent of the total costs of 6,650,000 ECU. 
The project is a common undertaking of the five Mediterranean Member States (France, Greece, Italy, 
Portugal, and Spain), the Commission (DG XI), the Ramsar Convention, the International Waterfowl and 
Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB), the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), and the Tour du Valat 
Foundation for the study and conservation of Mediterranean wetlands. 
MedWet activities are intended to lead to a truly circum-Mediterranean programme in which all states bordering 
the Mediterranean basin and all organisations with a particular interest in Mediterranean wetlands are invited 
to participate. For 1993-1995 the priorities include the following: 
the elaboration of a standardised approach for detailed inventories of all Mediterranean wetlands and 
regular procedures to monitor their ecological change; 
the preparation of a manual for administrators and managers on the integrated management of 
Mediterranean wetlands; 
the design, preparation and production of education materials and the preparation of training courses 
for wetland managers and technicians in different countries; 
the production of easily readable syntheses of scientific studies on Mediterranean wetlands for wide 
dissemination among decision-makers and managers; 
the preparation of basic awareness material and media campaigns to better inform the general public 
about wetland functions and values on a regional basis. 
page 26 
EDUCATING AND TRAINING 
WETLAND EXPERTS 
Europe has many experts in different disciplines related 
to wetland conservation, but few people arc trained to 
integrate basic techniques of different disciplines to co­
ordinate proper wetland management. Even more than 
the subjects mentioned before, the adequate education 
and training of wetland experts is a field where, 
following the Principle of Subsidiarity, progress mainly 
depends on the initiatives undertaken to this end by 
Member States and regions. 
A recent European inventory of professional training 
institutes dealing with water management (or the 
environment in a broader sense) in Greece, France and 
Spain identified about a thousand bodies of this kind. 
Amongst them, virtually none was offering a specific 
course on wetland management. The profession of 
"wetland manager" is virtually non existent as such. In 
different countries, wetland managers executing similar 
tasks, possess very different levels of education and 
training. There exists a need to identify future training 
needs and to recognise a clear professional category of 
"wetland manager". The European Union can provide incentives for Member 
States to elaborate the professional profiles and training 
In addition, training in basic and specific skills, 
including modem techniques, such as the preparation of 
management plans, environmental impact assessments, 
resolution of user disputes etc., is needed for wetland 
managers. 
Furthermore, Member States should include basic 
knowledge on wetland functioning and their values into 
the professional training bf engineers, agronomists, land 
use planners, aquaculturists, water managers and other 
professional categories dealing with water and \yetland 
resources. Student courses in these fields already exist 
at some universities and professional schools; they 
should be expanded to cover all relevant professional 
training institutes. 
At a more general level, Member States are invited to 
integrate information on wetland values and problems 
into primary school curricula and the study of wetland 
ecosystems as one of the subjects in biology courses of 
secondary school programmes. As far as the Principle of 
Subsidiarity allows, the European Union encourages this. 
Box C 
Wetland-related Actions of the European Community for the Environment 
Council Regulations (EEC) N° 1872/84 and N° 2242/87 
on action by the Community relating to the environment (ACE) 
The "ACE-biotopes" programme gave the Community the opportunity to support «projects aimed at providing 
an incentive and contributing towards the maintenance or re-establishment of seriously threatened biotopes 
which are the habitats of endangered species and are of particular importance to the Community under 
Directive 79/409/EEC on the conservation of wild birds». 
Of 92 projects supported through the ACE-biotopes programme, 59 dealt specifically with wetland conservation. 
The Community contributed 18,143,000 ECU (53 per cent) to the total cost of 34,419,000 ECU of these 
projects executed by national, regional and local authorities, and non-governmental organisations. 
Fifty-six of the projects were site-related covering 65 distinct wetland sites in the European Community. Three 
projects covered wetland inventories and monitoring plus support to the Greek Biotope/Wetland Centre. 
The specific actions at the 65 wetland sites included, in decreasing order of frequency, biotope improvement, 
restoration or re-establishment, land purchase, lease or exchange, awareness and education activities, 
elaboration of management plans, management measures, inventories, studies, and monitoring activities, 
improvement of the protection status, wardening of the sites, and land-use agreements with local farmers. 
page 27 
CONSERVING IMPORTANT WETLAND SITES 
In Europe, few large wetland areas of outstanding 
importance remain that have a satisfactory conservation 
status. Most of these sites have a national or Community 
protection status, e.g. they are listed as internationally 
important sites under the Ramsar Convention, or 
classified as Special Protection Areas (SPAs) under the 
Birds Directive (79/409/EEC). However, most of these 
areas are exposed to different pressures (industrial, 
agricultural, tourism, etc.) and are in danger of 
degradation. The sustainable management and 
conservation of these key sites requires immediate 
actions, for their intrinsic values, but also because a 
failure to conserve them would discredit the efforts and 
agreements under which they are designated. 
The European Union has been financing conservation 
actions at several important sites (cf. overview in Box 
C). However, due to the limitation of available funds, 
these actions had limited impact and generally only involved small wetland areas. Furthermore, the results of 
these actions can easily be undermined by parallel and 
uncoordinated development projects in the vicinity. 
Therefore, it is crucial for the lasting conservation of 
key sites, to plan land-use developments and 
management in an integrated way, on a socio-economic 
basis, as was recently started for the area surrounding 
the Donana National Park in Spain. To promote and 
actively support such integrated planning is an objective 
of the policy implemented by the Commission. 
A procedure for strong and immediate actions, when 
sites of Community importance come under threat, 
needs to be adopted. This will include a suspension of 
funding for projects causing the deterioration of such 
sites until an environmentally satisfactory solution has 
been found. The criteria and guidelines on wise use of 
wetlands of the Ramsar Convention can serve as 
guidelines (cf. Annex II). 
page 28 
INTEGRATING UNION POLICIES 
TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY 
The Treaty on European Union of 1992 introduced, as 
a principal objective, the «promotion of sustainable 
growth respecting the environment». This includes an 
environmental policy that aims at a high level of 
environmental protection, the requirements of which 
must be integrated into the definition and 
implementation of other Union policies, public and 
administrative decisions, the conduct of production 
processes and individual behaviour and choice. 
Target sectors, such as industry, energy, transport, 
agriculture and tourism, will receive principal attention 
from the Union's 5th Environmental Action 
Programme. It is important that the consequences of 
developments and measures in these fields on the 
conservation of the remaining wetlands and the 
continuation of the sustainable use of their resources and 
functions are identified and taken into account during 
the project appraisal and implementation of such 
measures. 
The 5th Environmental Action Programme does not 
make direct reference to wetlands, however, wetland 
conservation and the sustainable use of wetland 
resources will directly depend on actions in the fields of 
the protection of natural habitats and species diversity, 
the management of water resources, integrated 
management of coastal zones, and management of waste 
and waste water. Clearly, the general policy guidelines 
laid down by this programme also apply to the present 
subject. 
Thus, sustainable use of wetland resources needs to 
become part of a framework of shared responsibility by 
the economic and social actors, the authorities, the 
public and private enterprise, and the general public, 
both as citizens and consumers. The development of less 
favoured regions has to afford protection to their natural 
assets. In order to bring about substantial changes in 
current trends, a broad mix of instruments, setting fundamental levels of protection, needs to be 
complemented by market-based instruments designed to 
sensitise both producers and consumers, by improved 
horizontal supporting instruments providing the 
necessary base-line and statistical data, and by financial 
support mechanisms. Additional horizontal instruments, 
including research, education, and training, will need to 
form part of a coherent strategy. 
INTEGRATION OF AGRICULTURE AND 
WETLAND CONSERVATION 
Agricultural policy not only has a predominant place in 
Community affairs, but also a large influence on 
wetland conservation and use. 
Along with the production success achieved by 
Community agriculture during the last decades came 
negative side-effects of agricultural intensification, 
including the abandonment of agricultural practices 
maintaining semi-natural wetlands, water and soil 
pollution problems and the destruction or deterioration 
of valuable natural habitats including freshwater 
marshes, bogs, wet meadows and others. 
Measures were soon taken to combat these negative 
developments and have resulted, in the meanwhile, in a 
set of instruments with the following main elements: 
Nitrate directive and water pollution problems in 
agricultural areas 
According to Directive 91/676/EEC concerning the 
protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates 
from agricultural sources54, Member States are required 
to implement a national code of good agricultural 
practices and to establish a list of areas vulnerable to 
water pollution. Within these areas, action programmes 
to combat pollution have to be defined and 
implemented. Regulation 2078/92 (see below) provides 
for compensation payments within such areas. 
Following the Precautionary Principle, at least all 
Ramsar sites and wetland Natura 2000 sites located 
within or downstream of agricultural areas should be 
covered by water quality monitoring schemes. In order 
to prevent eutrophication, a strict procedure to consider 
them as vulnerable must be applied. 
page 29 
Increasing attention has to be paid to the phosphorus Agri-environmental measures 
content of fertilisers. Unlike nitrates, which arc recycled This specific Regulation N° 2078/92 on agricultural 
through denitrification processes, phosphates are not production methods compatible with the requirements of 
removed from the water and accumulate in the sediment the protection of the environment and the maintenance 
Their probable subsequent release can cause further of the countryside" follows previous Regulations on 
degradation of the water quality. improving the efficiency of agricultural structures, which 
allowed compensation for loss of income to farmers 
appUipg production methods compatible with the 
environment in Environmentally Sensitive Areas (cf. 
Box D) 
Box D 
Environmentally Sensitive Areas 
In the Eighties, "Article 19" of Regulation (EEC) N° 797/85 on improving the efficiency of agricultural structures 
provided financial support for agricultural practices compatible with environmental requirements in 
"Environmentally Sensitive Areas" (ESA). The Regulation was repeatedly revised, and its Article 19 was finally 
extended into four Articles (Title VII, Art. 21-24) covering not only agricultural practices compatible with the 
conservation of the environment and its resources (e.g. water), but favouring also habitat and landscape 
conservation (Regulation (EEC) N° 2328/91). 
A case study: the Somerset Levels and Moors (United Kingdom) 
The decline of wading birds breeding in wet grasslands in England and Wales is linked with the increase of 
drainage and fodder production on grassland starting in the late 1960s. The lowering of the water table reduced 
the surface of regularly flooded areas substantially, including vital feeding areas of these birds. The Somerset 
Levels and Moors in SW England consist of pastures on clay and peat soils intersected by drainage ditches 
in the floodplains of six rivers covering about 56,700 ha. This traditionally-managed wetland habitat supports 
nine bird species in numbers considered of international importance. Many rare and endangered species of 
aquatic flora and fauna are also found in the extensive ditch system. 
The area haé therefore received much attention in order to preserve its biological diversity. Governmental and 
private conservation bodies purchased land, and some conservation activities received Community support 
through Regulation 2242/87 (ACE). Grasslands belonging to this site have been designated as Sites of Special 
Scientific Interest (SSSI), and management agreements have been passed with farmers under a specific 
national scheme. Moreover, in 1987,27,000 ha of the area were designated as Environmentally Sensitive Area 
according to Regulation 797/85. The ESA included 14,000 ha of farmland eligible for financial compensation 
to farmers willing to apply traditional management practices aimed at the protection of the landscape and 
wildlife of the area. 
In order to evaluate the past changes in breeding birds numbers and establish a baseline for the monitoring 
of future changes, a survey was organised in spring 1987. The results showed that the overall densities of 
breeding waders within the ESA had severely declined since 1977, due to the lowering of the water table. This 
proved the importance of adequate water management despite the willingness of many farmers to adapt their 
farming methods. The case illustrates the necessity of an adequate monitoring system for wildlife, agricultural 
and hydrological parameters. Subsequent exchanges of information and experiences between people involved 
in the Somerset scheme and in similar schemes in the Cotentin Marshes proved to be very useful for the 
drawing up of an ESA scheme in NW France. 
page 30 
Box E 
The Agri-Environmental Regulation 2078/92 
This regulation has the potential to create a breakthrough towards true integration of environmental 
requirements into the Common Agricultural Policy. Its aid scheme promotes, amongst others, the use of 
farming practices that reduce pollution, environmentally favourable extensification of farming, ways of farming 
which are compatible with the protection and the improvement of the environment, long-term set aside of 
agricultural land for environmental reasons, and education and training for farmers in types of farming 
compatible with environmental protection. With regard to wetlands, programmes to conserve temporarily 
flooded pastures and wet grasslands could profit from agri-environmental measures. In 1994, a total budget 
of 483,000,000 ECU is foreseen for environmental measures accompanying the Common Agricultural Policy. 
A case study: the Zonal Programme "Mancha Occidental - Campo de Montiel" (Spain) 
The eligible area includes two well-known wetland complexes, the Tablas de Daimiel National Park and the 
Lagunas de Ruidera Natural Park. Both sites are known to host several species of plants and birds of 
Community interest. Although a part of this area is protected under national or international status (Ramsar 
Site, Biosphere Reserve, SPA), the important development of irrigated agriculture in the catchment basin during 
the last fifteen years led to a decline in the water table. Ecologically rich wetland areas consequently dried up 
and solutions to restore these areas had to be sought for. 
The main objective of the agri-environmental programme is to adapt the regional agriculture to a sustainable 
form, through the limitation of the irrigated surface and a reduction in the water consumption, in order that the 
extraction rate does not exceed the recharge rate of the aquifer supplying the wetlands. 
The total cost of this project amounts to 107,200,000 ECU for the period 1994-1997, of which the European 
Union covers 75 %, as the area lies within an Objective 1 region; otherwise Union support would amount to 
50 %. 
Unlike its predecessors, Regulation 2078/92 (cf. Box E) 
is compulsory in all Member States. It still involves 
farmers on a voluntary basis. The budget for these 
measures have been substantially increased, but still 
represents only a small percentage of the overall CAP 
budget. However, the Fifth Environmental Action 
Programme targets 15 per cent of the arable area to be 
under management contracts by the year 2000. 
The Agri-Environmental Regulation, which also foresees 
compensation payments to farmers, reducing fertiliser 
inputs in vulnerable areas designated under Directive 
91/676/EEC, is a necessary and useful step towards the 
integration of environmental concerns into the CAP. 
Three years after the entry into force in the Member 
States, the Commission shall present to the European 
Parliament and the Council a report on the aplication of 
this Regulation. The publication and circulation of the results of the evaluations will be essential to revise and 
improve the scheme. 
Other instruments 
Council Regulation (EEC) N° 1765/92 establishing a 
support scheme for producers of certain arable crops3*, 
allows, under certain conditions, direct compensatory 
payments to farmers setting aside agricultural land in 
order to lower production. Non-rotational set-asides, 
with a locally adapted management, can be interesting 
and should be encouraged around protected wetlands or 
rare wetland types to act as buffer zones, along rivers to 
constitute vegetated buffer strips, or within previously 
drained wetlands that are still easily or often flooded. 
As far as the implementation of Council Regulation 
(EEC) N° 2080/92 instituting a Community aid scheme 
for forstry measures in agriculture", is concerned, great 
page 31 
care has to be taken with regard to wetlands. Indeed, 
afforestation can have detrimental effects on certain 
types of wetlands, namely wet meadows, fens, and 
peatbogs. Inappropriate afforestation can also seriously 
affect the hydrology of nearby wetland sites. 
Afforestation schemes supported by the Community aid 
scheme must therefore be concentrated on agricultural 
areas of low environmental value, strictly avoiding 
natural or semi-natural open spaces of high interest for 
nature conservation, such as wet and temporarily 
flooded meadows and bogs. Furthermore, the 
environmental impact of large plantation schemes needs 
to be evaluated at a water catchment basin scale. 
In general, Member States and the Commission have an 
important role in assuring that the measures promoted 
by the CAP (e.g. production of non-food crops on set-
aside land or direct payments for silage maize) are not 
counterproductive to the Union policy for the wise use 
and conservation of wetlands. 
Towards a deeper integration of agriculture and 
wetland conservation 
Up to now, the CAP instruments with positive effects on 
wetland conservation mainly offer ad hoc measures and, 
as yet, no comprehensive integration of agricultural and 
environmental concerns. In the long term, it will not be 
feasible to carry on with industrial production methods 
throughout most of the arable area, whilst a small part 
only is farmed in a way compatible with the 
environment. A network of small and dispersed wetlands 
inside the arable area is vital for the dispersal and 
survival of many organisms and ensures important 
ecological and hydrological functions. Runoff of waters 
polluted by agriculture (and other sources) into wetlands 
is equally a problem that has to be dealt with at the 
scale of the catchment basin and ecosystem and should 
not be focusing only on restricted vulnerable areas. 
A Union-wide code of good agricultural practice, 
including guidelines on the type and quantities of 
agrochemicals to be used, the prohibition of drainage or 
filling in of wet areas of conservation interest, the 
maintenance of uncultivated buffer zones along wetlands 
including rivers, could form the basis of the more 
comprehensive approach that recognises the positive role 
agriculture has to play for the maintenance of the 
quality of countryside as an ecosystem. FISHERIES POLICY AND AQUACULTURE 
One of the main concerns of the Common Fisheries 
Policy (CFP) is the conservation'and management of 
fisheries resources by controlling fishing capacity in 
order to reach a balance between fishery efforts and 
available resources. Within the framework of studies 
dealing with fisheries, which have been financed by the 
Directorate General for Fisheries (DG XIV), some of 
them are related to wetlands (cf. Box F). In those 
regions whose economies greatly depend on fishing 
activities, aquaculture is seen as one of the potential 
alternatives. Wetland conservation on the one hand, and 
fishery and aquaculture uses on the other hand, are 
positively interlinked through the fact that wetlands are 
essential spawning and nursery grounds and through a 
common need for good water quality. But, if not 
properly developed and managed, fishery and 
aquaculture operations may result in significant negative 
impacts on wetlands. 
Aquaculture and wetland conservation 
Whilst /Some types of traditional non-intensive 
aquaculture and fisheries have led to the creation and 
maintenance of interesting wetland types since ancient 
times (north Adriatic lagoons, fishponds in France, etc.), 
recent installations of industrial aquaculture projects in 
wetlands of high natural value have led to concern about 
their environmental impacts. Aquaculture requires good 
quality water flowing in, but its wastes flowing out can 
cause a deterioration of the quality of -surrounding 
waters, especially in confined areas such as lakes, bays, 
inlets, and lagoons. The accompanying infrastructure 
(tanks, roads, power lines etc.) may contribute to the 
physical deterioration of natural habitats. Further 
potential negative environmental impacts include the 
disturbance of sensitive wildlife species, the attraction of 
predators, the release of exotic species competing with 
native ones and over-exploitation of natural fry stocks in 
lagoons. 
Methods and criteria to identify the maximum 
acceptable environmental impacts need to be developed 
further. In the Commission proposal for amending 
Council Directive 85/337/EEC on the assessment ofthe 
effects of certain public and private projects on the 
environment58, intensive production units of shellfish 
and fish have now been listed in Annex II. 
page 32 
Box F 
Directorate General for Fisheries, Unit for Conservation and Environment Issues (DG 
XIV, C-1). 
Studies in the fisheries sector including Mediterranean lagoons 
Between 1978 and 1991, some biological studies in the fisheries sector were financed under DG XIV budget. 
Some of them dealt with fishing in the Mediterranean lagoons, which is an important economic activity using 
renewable wetland resources that must be carefully planned in order to be executed in a sustainable way. 
Studies on resource evaluation and collection of statistical data for better fishery management of the 
Mediterranean coastal lagoon fisheries (1982) 
Definition of a strategy for the evaluation of Mediterranean lagoon fisheries in the Languedoc-
Roussillon region in France (1984). 
Study of interactions between lagoon, coastal and trawl fisheries in the Gulf of Lions, France (1985). 
Study of the coastal fishery around the Balearic islands (1987). 
With the revision of the Structural Funds regulations in 1993, a new Financial Instrument for Fisheries 
Guidance was introduced that will be able to support studies on fishing fleets, aquaculture and coastal waters. 
Moreover, no new project, including aquaculture, can be 
accepted within wetlands qualifying for the designation 
as Natura 2000 sites, unless a full EIA has proved that 
it is environmentally harmless or that compensation for 
the impact is possible in the case where alternative sites 
do not exist. This procedure has been partially supported 
by the Court of Justice regarding the Santona marshes, 
which is a wetland of international importance in Spain 
(2 August 1993, C-355/90). 
When aquaculture units are installed close to or within 
rich wildlife areas, it is likely that fish predators are 
attracted from the surroundings. As some of these 
species are likely to be protected under Directives 
79/409 and 92/43, such aquaculture projects have to 
include appropriate deterring devices. 
Inside wetland areas, rather than promoting new 
installations, the renewal and maintenance of existing 
traditional, non-intensive aquaculture systems in 
wetlands already modified to this end must be the 
priority, provided the cultivation can be done on a 
sustainable basis. Integrated projects, including aspects 
of cultural and nature tourism, and aiming to produce 
specific products of high environmental quality are 
likely to produce a better sustainable economical 
revenue. Such activities should be executed in the 
framework of a management plan, according to Article 
6 of Directive 92/43/EEC. The Structural Funds could 
finance pilot projects of this kind, given the new Financial Instrument for Fisheries Guidance (FIFG)39. 
Fisheries support and wetland conservation 
According to this regulation, there is now a general 
obligation for fisheries and aquaculture projects to take 
environmental concerns into account. The Commission 
will therefore require that environmental regional 
authorities be involved at all stages of the projects and 
check that Community and national laws regarding the 
environment are respected. 
Therefore, in order to be most efficient, the planning on 
which fish harvest is to be based and which has to 
define the long-term sustainable yield according to the 
best scientific advice available, must be part of an 
integrated management approach for coastal lagoons and 
wetlands as well as major rivers. Future Union support 
for structural adjustments and specific installations will 
also take into account the full integration of these 
concerns. 
In several regions of the European Union traditional 
methods of fish culture exist in semi-natural fish ponds. 
It is worthwhile to investigate the socio-economic and 
environmental constraints on how best to continue and 
improve such forms of fisheries and aquaculture which 
have both environmental and economic advantages, 
especially in rural areas with high unemployment; to 
this end, further specific EU-supported studies might be 
useful. Environmental training of aquaculturists and 
page 33 
actions to increase public awareness on a local and 
regional scale on environmental concerns related to 
fisheries and aquaculture must be promoted. 
Recently, the Council Regulation N° 1626/94 stating 
certain technical measures for the conservation of 
fishery resources in the Mediterranean, introduced a 
management system in harmony with the features 
peculiar to.this area. According to this, part of the 
coastal fringe is reserved for the most selective fishing 
systems, to be exploited by those fishermen using 
traditional methods. It also addresses the specific needs 
of conservation concerning species and particular 
habitats considered vulnerable or threatened. The two 
habitats listed in its annex I are wetlands and 
seagrasses. . 
COHESION 
A. REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT POLICIES farmers, especially in Objective 1 regions (whose 
economic development is lagging behind) and Objective 
5b regions (rural areas). A particularly interesting 
example is the case of the Objective 5b area of the 
Poitou-Charentes marshes (France). The Community 
Support Framework for this region not only includes a 
large number of measures as mentioned above, but its 
elaboration and implementation also involved two non­
governmental organisations for nature conservation. 
Community Initiatives to complement the projects 
submitted directly by the Member States include 
ENVIREG40 (cf. Box G), which supported wetland 
conservation actions at the Biguglia lagoon in Corsica 
and INTERREG41 (cf. Box H), which provided funds for 
the cleaning of the river Timavo on the border between 
Italy and Slovenia. In parallel, however, wetland damage 
still occurred at different sites through industrial, urban, 
and tourist development projects implemented with 
Community funds. 
The importance of the European Union regional 
development polices is increasing. Its spending has a 
major influence on land use, including that of the 
remaining wetlands. 
Structural Funds and wetland conservation 
Since the early stage of implementation of the 
Community regional development policies, there has 
been an evolution in the understanding and implications 
of the integration of the environment that now allows 
the avoidance* of negative impacts like those created in 
the mid-eighties by some projects of the Integrated 
Mediterranean Programmes implemented in wetlands or 
their catchment area. 
Since 1988 the Structural Funds have, and should do so 
even more in the future, also financed projects for the 
conservation of natural wetlands, their restoration, or 
sustainable use of their resources. 
There have been several cases, where wetland 
conservation projects have profited from Structural 
Funds. This includes support to traditional forms of 
agriculture and fisheries, management and restoration of 
hydraulic systems and water resources, the protection of 
most sensible areas, the development of sustainable 
tourism, and the training of local land managers and The main reason for this was the lack of participation of 
the regional and national environment authorities in the 
development of the projects, coupled with a lack of 
appropriate assessment of the environmental impacts of 
projects by independent experts.The 1993 revision of the 
Structural Funds Regulations42 filled these procedural 
gaps. 
For the current programming period, 1994-1999, the 
Structural Funds can provide funding for projects aiming 
at the sustainable use of wetland resources, including 
traditional forms of agriculture and fisheries, 
management and restoration of hydraulic systems, the 
protection of most sensitive areas, the development of 
ecotourism and the training of local land managers and 
farmers. Such activities should be actively promoted. 
In order to fully integrate wetland conservation into 
regional development policies, it is necessary: 
• to guarantee the full respect of environmental 
decisions during the implementation phase; 
• to develop the set of environmental indicators 
already defined by the Commission with 
particular reference to wetlands. These 
indicators should allow the measurement of 
environmental and socio-economic impacts on 
wetlands at the ex-ante, monitoring, and cx-
posl stages of evaluation; 
to integrate into the cost-benefit analyses 
aspects related lo sustainable use such as 
aquifer recharges or sustainability linked to 
traditional land use practices and fishery; and page 34 
lo increase the possibilities of supporting the 
improvement of institutional parameters, at 
present deficient in different regions. 
Box G 
Community Initiative ENVIREG 
A small part of the European Structural Fund was devoted to the Community Initiative ENVIREG during the 
period 1989-1993. 
The Initiative ENVIREG aimed at reducing pollution of coastal areas, particularly in the Mediterranean regions 
whose economy depends significantly on tourism, to promote land use in coastal areas in a way to conserve 
natural areas, and to contribute to the control and management of toxic and hazardous industrial waste. One 
billion ECU devoted to this initiative (60% from Commission) have been used for waste water treatment (51 per 
cent of the funds), that benefited indirectly several wetland sites. About 11 per cent of the funds have been 
used for habitat conservation. . 
A case study: the Maroni river mouth (French Guiana) 
At the mouth of the Maroni river in French Guiana, Hattes is a site of great ecological interest, including several 
marshes and a coastal sand beach, which is one of the few reproduction sites in the world for the Giant 
Leatherback Turtle. The area attracts a growing number of visitors, causing disturbance as well as aggravating 
waste treatment and water pollution problems that threaten the ecological balance of the site seriously, the 
ENVIREG project mainly financed the establishment of a properly supervised, intermunicipal rubbish tip for 
household waste and a system to collect and process waste water. Tourist infrastructure, such as car parks, 
etc, are also built in order to better control the influx of visitors. 
page 35 
Box H 
Community Initiative INTERREG 
The Community Initiative ENVIREG has not been reconducted during the Structural Funds programme 1994-
1999 because actions eligible under this initiative are now integrated in the Community Support Framwork 
undertaken at the initiative of the Member States. However, wetland conservation actions and the sustainable 
use of their resources can be promoted and supported by the Commission through other Community 
Initiatives, such as INTERREG (in border areas), LEADER (in rural areas), and PESCA (in areas depending 
on fisheries). 
The Community Initiative INTERREG is designed to help border areas to prepare for a frontier-free Europe. 
Transport and communication have yet absorbed about 45per cent of the Community contribution 
(914,000,000 ECU at 1992 prices). Projects related to the environment amount to about 10 per cent covering 
the following fields: tourism and the environment, land management and the environment, and environmental 
protection. These are the areas included in the operational programmes with potential benefits to wetlands. 
Several INTERREG projects include programmes benefiting wetlands were financed in different internal or 
external transborder parts of the European Union, such as the feasibility studies for the cleaning-up of the 
severely polluted river Tivamo at the border of Italy and Slovenia, the cleaning up of the lakes Lugano and 
Maggiore, between Switzerland and Italy, or a project between the United Kingdom and France including 
measures to preserve and protect the Channel cliffs at the English and Nord-Pas-de-Calais coast. 
A case study: the Lavezzi islands and Magdalena archipelago (France/Italy) 
Between the Islands of Corsica (France) and Sardinia (Italy) lie two rocky archipelagos, the Lavezzi islands 
(declared as a Special Protection Area under Directive 79/407/EEC) and the Magdalena archipelago, of great 
importance for numerous species of seabirds. Leisure activities are an important factor of human disturbance 
in these areas and must therefore be controlled. An INTERREG project included the implementation of 
measures for a better protection of these sites. The total cost of the project amounted to slightly more than 
5,000,000 ECU, of which the Community provided about 50 per cent. 
Box I 
The Cohesion Fund 
This fund can provide new opportunities for wetland conservation. In particular, it can support projects that 
contribute to the implementation of the protected areas network "Natura 2000" stipulated by Directive 
92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora in the four eligible countries. 
Until now the balance of supported projects is in favour of transport infrastructure projects, but there is still 
the opportunity for eligible Member States to submit more environmental projects. Most of them submitted 
until now relate to water management, and water and waste treatment. 
A case study: the Clara and Raheenmore bogs (Ireland) 
Ireland is of outstanding importance for the conservation of active raised bogs, that have become a very rare 
type of wetland habitat. The Clara and Raheenmore raised bogs represent an excellent example of such a 
habitat type. A project to secure 1,000 ha of these bogs will help Ireland to meet its obligations under 
Directive 92/43/EEC whilst providing the basis for a sustainable form of tourism based on the long-term 
conservation of this habitat type. 
The total project costs are 969,000 ECU of which the European Union is granting 85 percent. The measures 
will finance the restoration of the hydrology of the sites, their subsequent monitoring, and an initial phase of 
land acquisition. 
page 36 
B. THE COHESION FUND 
The Cohesion Fund adopted by Council Regulation 
(EC) N° 1164/94° provides funding to Greece, Ireland,, 
Portugal and Spain for investments in the transport 
infrastructures and environment sectors. This also allows 
important funding that contributes to the implementation 
of measures related to wetland conservation and 
management being in line with the priorities of the 5th 
Environmental Action Programme. A major wetland-
related project was recently attributed to Ireland (Box I). 
TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURES 
Most of the European wetlands are located in estuaries, 
valleys, lowlands, flat and not built-up areas; these areas, 
by their favourable topography and morphology, may 
therefore at times be chosen as preferred location for the 
establishment of transport infrastructures like roads, 
motorways, railways, ports and airports. 
The updating or construction of new waterways may 
pose several threats to remaining wetlands. Infilling with 
dredged and excavated material from channelization and 
other works can result in the destruction of smaller 
wetlands. Gravel extraction, sometimes used for 
transport concrete constructions poses another threat to 
actual and former river beds. The construction of 
transport routes and new navigation channels may 
fragment natural habitats, thereby further isolating 
populations of wild animals or disrupting hydrological 
systems. 
The proposal to amend Council Directive 85/337/EEC 
enlarges the scope of Annex I transport infrastructures 
subject to an Environmental Impact Assessment and lists 
a set of criteria to identify Annex II projects 
necessitating EIA. Wetlands and coastal zones are 
amongst the environmental sensitive areas requiring 
impact evaluation. 
EIA is an essential part of the decision-making process 
on whether a specific infrastructure measure should be 
implemented and how this should be done with the least 
impact. 
The impacts arising from new transportation infrastructures need to be carefully assessed beforehand 
and solutions, where possible, should involve the best 
available technology. It is critical that the evaluation 
fully examines alternatives: this is essential procedure 
for any proposed developments affecting Natura 2000 
sites. 
TOURISM 
Mass tourism affects wetlands most through the 
competition for freshwater resources, direct destruction 
due to buildings and infrastructure works, water 
pollution and disturbance created by leisure activities. 
The European Union action plan adopted in 1992 to 
assist tourism44 includes eleven measures, out of which 
one concerns tourism and the environment, whose aim 
is to ensure that the environment is more fully taken into 
account (cf. Box J). 
To this end, the Commission will support: 
initiatives increasing the awareness of tourists 
and suppliers of services about the interaction 
between tourism and the environment; 
innovative projects to reconcile nature 
protection and tourism; 
the development of institutional networks to 
ease exchange of experience; and 
initiatives encouraging forms of 
environmentally friendly tourism. 
The proposal to amend Council Directive 85/337/EEC 
on EIA mentions that several tourist and leisure 
infrastructures shall be made the subject of an EIA, 
where Member States consider that their characteristics 
so require. It also stipulates that special attention must 
be paid to wetlands (amongst other natural habitats) and 
sites benefiting from a national or regional protection 
status while evaluating the need for an EIA. Therefore, 
the existence of a wetland or protected area in the 
catchment basin or downstream of a proposed 
development site should result in an EIA. This will also 
have to cover issues related to water and waste 
management. 
Recently, DG XXIII supported a study on sustainable 
tourism in Europe's nature and national parks45. It 
elaborated concrete recommendations for actions in 
wetlands and coastal areas. Providing the carrying 
capacity of the site is respected according to the results 
page 57 
of a careful EIA, wetlands offer important opportunities 
lo increase public awareness aboul wclland values and 
functions. 
Tourist developments in wclland areas need lo be part 
of a plan covering the whole catchment basin; 
infrastructures need to be based on careful evaluation of 
the capacities of water supply, sewage and waste 
disposal possibilities and ihe particular landscape characlcr of the site. Zoning of Ihe area and the stricl 
control of access are particularly important in wetland 
areas, to conserve their biological diversity and natural 
character. Wetland conservation issues arc more 
complex than those concerning the conservation of other 
habitats. Therefore guided lours, interpretation centres, 
exhibitions and nature trails should be a key 
management tool to develop sustainable tourism in and 
around wclland areas. 
Box J 
Tourism and Environment 
Following its call for proposals 92/C 51/16, the European Commission allocated about 2,700,000 ECU to 23 
pilot projects in the field of tourism and the environment. Amongst these, three projects will have positive 
effects on wetland conservation: 
Planning and management tools for the establishment of sustainable tourism in the Wadden Sea, one 
of the most important coastal wetland of NW Europe, shared by the Netherlands, Denmark and 
Germany. 
Development of practical approaches for the integration of water policies within a sustainable 
development framework. This tourism and water" project will involve France, Greece and Spain. 
Elaboration of an ecological protection and environmental guide on tourist management techniques 
for coastal areas in collaboration with local populations. This project will involve Denmark, the 
Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and the United Kingdom. 
EUROPEAN UNION INTERNATIONAL 
CO-OPERATION, DEVELOPMENT AND TRADE 
POLICIES 
External aspects of the common environmental policy 
include actions in Europe and the Mediterranean outside 
the Union territory. In 1991, the Council adopted 
MEDSPA (see page 11). Regarding wetlands, the 
programme included projects on the protection of natural 
lakes in Corsica, river basin management in France, 
wetland restoration in Italy, studies on integrated 
management for lake Ichkeul inTunisia and others (cf. 
Box K). Some months later, NORSPA (see page 9) was 
adopted as a counterpart. It included two wetland-related 
projects in Denmark to improve the water quality by 
restoring eelgrass beds and by manipulating fish 
populations. During the years preceding the regulations, 
the measures in question were ihe subject of 
corresponding pilot projects. In 1992, both regulations, MEDSPA and NORSPA, were integrated into the new 
LIFE environmental regulation. Five per cent of the 
LIFE budget is spent on actions outside the Union 
territory in the Baltic and Mediterranean. This also 
includes specific projects on integrated wetland 
management (cf. Box L). 
The economic co-operation with Central and Eastern 
European countries and the Independent States of the 
former Soviet Union also includes aid for environmental 
protection. In 1989, Council Regulation (EEC) N° 
3906/89'* established the PHARE programme to support 
economic restructuring in central European countries. 
The programme includes several projects that benefit 
wetland conservation, such as providing support to the 
Great Mazurian lakes in Poland and the international 
Danube river commission (cf. Box M). Up to 1994, 
TACIS, the Community programme to help economic 
restructuring in the countries of the former Soviet 
page 38 
Union, has not yet financed specific wetland projects. 
In June 1992, the Community and its Member States 
jointly signed the Convention on Biological Diversity at 
the Earth Summit in Rio. Wetland loss world-wide is 
seen by the European Union as a global environmental 
problem as they are key habitats for species diversity. It 
has been estimated that some 25-50 per cent of the 
earth's swamps and marshes have already been 
destroyed. The European Union and its Member States 
have a special responsibility to encourage and 
participate in international action to combat global 
environmental problems. Since the Rio summit in 1992, 
the opportunities to fund wetland conservation measures 
through development aid programmes have increased, as 
10 per cent of the budget has to be devoted to 
environmental actions. Wetland conservation and the wise use of their resources 
also concerns European Union trade policies and those 
of its Member States. The same strict environmental 
rules and guidelines applied within the Union are to be 
applied for importation of wetland products from third 
countries, like peat from Central and Eastern Europe and 
Russia, or fish from ACP and ALA countries. The 
Commission will undertake specific efforts to promote 
the integration of these concerns into the respective 
trade regulations. 
In the latest Lomé Convention for African, Caribbean 
and Pacific countries (ACP), environmental concerns are 
listed as the first area of co-operation between the 
Community and ACP states, before agriculture, food 
security and rural development. Under the specific 
budget line for the protection of the environment in 
developing countries, the Union supports the elaboration 
of a Resource Guide on Tropical Freshwater Wetlands. 
It is also contributing to several wetland- related projects 
in Asian and Latin American countries (ALA)(Box N). 
This short overview clearly shows that wetland 
conservation is already part of the European Union 
development assistance policy, albeit as yet little noticed 
by the public at large. Currently, the Commission 
participates in the task force to formulate guidelines for 
improved conservation and sustainable use of tropical 
and sub-tropical wetlands, i.e. in those countries most 
benefiting from EU development aid and co-operation. 
These guidelines are prepared by the Development 
Assistance Committee of OECD, the principal forum 
where bilateral donors adjust the pattern of their aid to 
changing priorities and new perspectives on the 
development process. This is a clear indication that, 
together with the international community and large 
development assistance banks and administrations, the 
European Union wants to play a leading role in guiding 
global policies and implementing their 
recommendations. 
page 39 
BoxK 
Wetland-related Projects in the Mediterranean 
The following projects have been supported under Regulation (EEC) N° 563:91 on action by the Community 
for the protection of the environment in the Mediterranean region (MEDSPA) in countries outside the European 
Community: 
Algeria: - Elaboration of an integrated management plan for the conservation and development of the El Kala 
complex of coastal wetlands and National Park. 
Project costs: 300,000 ECU, 50 per cent covered by MEDSPA, 50 per cent by a grant of the European 
Investment Bank under the METAP technical assistance programme for the Mediterranean. 
Tunisia: - Support for management activities in the Ichkeul National Park. 
EU contribution: 155,000 ECU; 50 per cent of the total project costs. 
Morocco:.- Elaboration of a management plan for the AMHoceima coastal National Park, including the 
preparation and setting-up of structures to preserve the biogenetic diversity, with particular emphasis on the 
protection of the Osprey and the Monk Seal. 
EU contribution: 170,000 ECU; 100 per cent of project costs. 
Cyprus: - Management of the Akamas National Park, including the evaluation of all ecologically sensitive 
areas, the provision of assistance to the introduction of management control procedures, mitigation 
measures,and the introduction of necessary legislation. 
EU contribution: 145,000 ECU; 100 per cent of project costs. 
BoxL 
LIFE Wetland-related Projects Outside the European Union Territory 
Regulation (EEC) N° 1973/92 establishing a financial instrument for the environment (LIFE) can finance actions 
outside the Community territory in the Baltic and Mediterranean region, for the establishment of administrative 
structures, technical assistance, and transfer of environment-friendly technologies, fostering sustainable 
development, and providing assistance during ecological emergencies. On an indicative basis, five per cent 
of the annual budget of the LIFE Regulation is allocated to projects outside the Union territory. 
Specific, wetland-related projects have so far concentrated on the Baltic, including the support of protected 
areas in the lower Oder valley in Germany (EU contribution 400,702 ECU; nearly 20 per cent of project costs). 
A case study: the integrated management of Baltic lagoons and coastal wetlands 
Under the new Helsinki Convention for the Protection of the Baltic Sea from Pollution, signed by the border 
states in 1992, a working group on "Management plans for lagoons and coastal wetlands (MLW)" was created 
in 1993. The European Community is a signatory of the new Convention and the Commission participates 
actively in the working group, supporting its activities with a contribution of 547,575 ECU covering about 72 
per cent of the total costs, the rest being contributed by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. 
The group is currently establishing Area Task Teams to supervise and guide the elaboration of integrated 
management plans for selected wetland areas in the Curonian lagoon, shared between Lithuania and 
Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia, the Matsalu bay in Estonia, the Vistula lagoon, shared between Kaliningrad and 
Poland, the Oder lagoon, shared between Poland and Germany, and the Guff of Riga, shared between Estonia 
and Latvia. 
page 40 
Box M 
European Community support for Central and Eastern Europe 
Within the PHARE economic cooperation programme, specific projects benefiting wetland conservation include 
the following: 
Support to the Great Mazurian Lakes Foundation in Poland, 1990. 
EU contribution: 1,800,000 ECU. 
Support to the Warta River Foundation in Poland, 1990. 
EU contribution: 500,000 ECU. 
Support to the Green Lungs of Poland project for integrated regional development planning, 1991. 
Support for the wetlands and grasslands protection study in Hungary, 1990. 
EU .contribution: 200,000 ECU. 
Support for the establishment of Fertô Lake National Park in Hungary, complementing the Neusiedler 
See National Park on the Austrian side, 1990. 
EU contribution: 1,400,000 ECU. 
Support for two components of the Integrated Environmental Programme for the Danube River Basin, 
specifically related to nature conservation: 1) support for applied research in the Danube Delta; EU 
contribution 3,500,000 ECU, and 2) support for an inventory of biological resources in the Danube 
River Basin. 
BoxN 
Budget Line B7-5040: Environment in Developing Countries 
Activities related to sustainable use of wetlands: 
Belize: - Elaboration of a coastal zone management plan,1993. 
EU contribution: 570,000 ECU. 
Cameroon: - Elaboration of recommendations for a management plan for Mount Kupe forest for a sustained 
and improved water supply, 1991. 
EU contribution: 501,910 ECU. 
Costa Rica: - Consolidation of the conservation area of Llanuras de Tortuguero, Phase II. 
EU contribution: 857,000 ECU. 
Chad: - Study on the Kouri bovine race and its interaction with the agro-pastoral system at lake Chad, 1993. 
EU contribution: 345,000 ECU. 
Ghana: - Establishment of a surveillance system of water weeds and development of integrated control 
measures to avoid infection of further water bodies in order to protect the fishery resources, 1993. 
EU contribution: 485,000 ECU. 
Gulf Region: - Marine Habitats and Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Region; Phase II. 
EU contribution: 2,600,000 ECU. 
page 41 
Guyana: -Study on the environmental value of the Courida mangroves, 1989. 
EU contribution: 67,700 ECU. 
Indian Ocean: - Elaboration of a regional strategy for environmental protection, with particular emphasis on 
land and water resources, 1992. 
EU contribution: 153,560 ECU. 
Mauritania: - Wildlife inventory of the coastal zone and its impact on fishing and agricultural activities of the 
local population, 1993. 
EU contribution: 537,000 ECU. 
Mauritius: -Study oh the protection of coastal ecosystems, 1989. 
£U contribution: 141,000 ECU. 
Mauritius: - Elaboration of a strategy for developing and managing the south-western coast, including beach, 
lagoon, wetland and drainage systems management, 1993. 
EU contribution: 350,000 ECU. 
Morocco: - National Environmental Education Centre at Sidi Boughaba Ramsar Site. 
EU contribution: 394,000 ECU. 
Mozambique: - Gorongosa-Marromeu integrated conservation area study following the loss of wetland 
coverage due to declining water inputs since the construction of dams on the Zambezi River, 1993. 
EU contribution: 180,000 ECU. 
Sahel region: - Publication on hydrobiology and piscicuttural use of small water resources in the Sudano-
Saheiian region, 1992. 
EU contribution: 36,600 ECU. 
Tanzania: - Elaboration of a coastal zone management plan for the establishment of marine protected areas 
for equitable distribution and sustainable use of natural resources, 1991. 
EU contribution: 57,955 ECU. 
Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda: - Review of the availability of biodiversity information including tropical humid 
forests, tropical dry woodlands, deserts and semi-deserts, mountain and highland ecosystems, 1992. 
EU contribution: 50,000 ECU. 
Togo: - Research project on the impact of dam constructions on the vegetation cover and on underground 
water level in savannah regions, 1993. 
EU contribution: 600,000 ECU. 
Venezuela: - Technical assistance for the development of the Environmental Agency of the Basin of Lake 
Valencia. 
EU contribution: 875,000 ECU. 
Zambia: - Elaboration of a management plan for the Kafue fiats and the Bangwuelu basin, 1991. 
EU contribution: 685,494 ECU. 
Identification of a global coral reef management strategy, 1991. 
EU contribution: 100,000 ECU. 
Preparation of camera-ready documents on inland fishery resources, 1990. 
EU contribution: 11,690 ECU. 
Resources Guide on Tropical Wetlands, 1990. 
EU contribution: 155,000 ECU. 
NB: The above described activities only provide for a partial overview of development co-operation in the area of 
sustainable use of wetlands, as these activities only refer to budget line B7-5040 "Environment in Developing 
Countries". 
page 42 
VI 
CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY 
LINES 
GENERAL FACTS 
1) Wedands are essential for the ecological 
character and the wealth of the regions in 
which they are found. Individual wetlands 
cannot be viewed in isolation as they are 
ecologically linked to other, sometimes distant, 
wetlands. 
2) Wetlands are particularly important ecosystems 
performing vital functions, providing resources 
and support for numerous human uses and 
activities and representing a valuable cultural 
and natural heritage. However, up to now 
dramatic wetland loss and degradation have 
taken place throughout Europe. Therefore, wise 
use and conservation of wetlands are strongly 
required, which corresponds to the concept of 
sustainability as laid down in the 5th 
Environmental Action Programme. 
3) The quantity and quality of ground and surface 
water available in and running into wetlands is 
crucial for their ecological , values and 
functions. 
4) Wedands form an integral part of wider 
catchment areas or coastal zones. Their wise 
use and conservation is therefore dependant on 
factors operating over these wider areas*. 
5) The essential reasons for wetland loss and 
degradation are social and economic factors 
and man-induced changes in the use of and 
activities in the wetlands and their catchment 
areas resulting from them. They therefore need 
to be of central concern for wise use and 
conservation of wetlands. 
6) There is almost no economic appreciation that 
wetlands are a sort of natural infrastructure, especially concerning the pricing and use of 
their resources. This has resulted in a failure to 
develop market mechanisms for their wise use 
and conservation and has led to an increased 
rate of wetland loss and degradation. 
7) The factors which from a practical viewpoint 
merit the highest concern as causes of wetland 
loss and degradation are those changes in use 
and all infrastructures that physically convert 
wetlands into non-wetlands or impair their 
quantitative or qualitative hydraulic conditions 
or their functions. 
8) Although one agency may be responsible for 
co-ordinating wetland conservation action at 
national or regional level, other public and 
private institutions have expertise which is 
important for effective long-term wetland 
management. Therefore, the wise use and 
conservation of wetlands depends on good 
institutional conditions in each policy field 
affecting them, but equally also on managing 
them in an integrated way. 
9) Local communities, who will be the first to 
benefit from improved management of wetland 
sites, play a particular role in this respect. 
10) A wide range of Community instruments and 
policy elements favouring the wise use and 
conservation of wetlands are already available, 
in particular 
• the provisions of Article 130r of the Treaty 
on European Union and the policy guidelines 
of the 5th Environmental Action Programme 
"Towards Sustainability", which both require 
an integrated approach to environmental issues 
and their integration into other policies; which, 
by the way, has already had a corresponding 
impact on the Regulations reforming the 
Structural Funds; 
• the existing and proposed Community 
legislation related to nature conservation, water 
and environmental impact assessment; 
• the contribution provided by the Community 
to a better knowledge of wetlands, their 
functioning and their functions in the 
page 43 
framework of its research policy; 
• the financial support that the Community has 
granted over the last ten years and continues to 
do so, to projects aiming at the maintenance 
and restoration of wetlands which are sites of 
Community importance for nature conservation; 
• the funds that the Community has provided 
and, with a considerable increase in funding, is 
able and prepared to provide for measures in 
the framework of the Structural Funds 
(including Community initiatives), the 
Cohesion Fund and sector approaches like agri-
environmental measures or set-aside as well as 
its different assistance and development 
policies outside of the European Union and 
world-wide, aiming at and supporting the wise 
use and conservation of wetlands, either 
through relevant investments, equipment, 
technical assistance, institution building, 
training , information, improving knowledge or 
raising awareness. 
However, despite this, a continuing regression of 
wedands in the European Union is noticed. Thus, under 
the current conditions the Community will fail to 
maintain its wetlands at their present state. 
11) A coherent Community wetland policy still 
does not exist, partly because of the fact that at 
national and regional level there is not yet a 
sufficiently developed framework to integrate 
environmental concerns at any stage, from 
policy definition to project implementation into 
other policy fields. Even where, at whatever 
level, this framework exists, its practical 
implementation, in particular on the operational 
level of projects and measures, is rather 
unsatisfactory. 
12) Therefore, a comprehensive strong Community 
wetland policy must be set up. To this end, the 
instruments and policy elements which already 
exist must partly be put in more concrete form 
or specifically targeted and partly 
complemented. 
13) The objectives set out below must be included in 
the European Spatial Development Perspective to be drawn up during 1995 with a view to 
establishing a common strategic platform for 
policies with an actual or potential spatial 
impact. 
EUROPEAN UNION WETLAND 
POLICY 
OVERALL OBJECTIVES 
The Community wetland policy is based on the 
following objectives : 
• No further wetland loss 
For each NUTS level II region, the total surface area of 
wetlands has to be maintained at its present figure. This 
not only concerns all wedands together, but also the 
surface area of the seven major wetland groups, i.e. (i) 
marine and coastal wetlands, (ii) estuaries and deltas, 
(iii) rivers and floodplains, (iv) natural lakes and ponds, 
(v) freshwater marshes, (vi) peatlands, and (vii) man-
made wetlands of noticeable interest as ecosystems. Any 
future loss of wetlands may, exceptionally, only be 
admitted for imperative reasons of overriding public 
interest and must, in any case, be compensated, within 
the NUTS level II region concerned, by the restoration 
of former wedands or creation of new wetlands of at 
least the same surface and at least performing the same 
functions and providing the same ecological values. 
• No further wetland degradation 
The wetlands in the European Union must be 
maintained in such a way that they at least continue to 
perform their present functions and to provide their 
present ecological values. In particular, the water 
flowing into and to be found in each wetland must be 
kept at least at its present seasonal quantity and quality. 
If low water quality is causing a progressive degradation 
of a wedand, it has to be improved in a way that this 
degradation is halted and possibly reversed. In all cases, 
where the functions and values of a particular wetland 
or a part of it cannot be maintained at the present level, 
compensation has to be provided, as far as possible on 
the same wedand type, either in the wetland concerned 
or through improvement, restoration or creation of 
adjacent or nearby wetlands. 
page 44 
• Wise use of wetlands 
Wetlands must be used in a sustainable way, not 
exploiting their resources beyond their natural or, 
exceptionally, man-induced capacity of regeneration. 
Whilst comprehensive understanding of the ecological 
constraints of a wetland system should be sought, 
activities affecting wetlands need to be governed by the 
Precautionary Principle where such knowledge is not 
available. To be precise, if the impact of specific actions 
is not clearly understood, then these actions should not 
be executed, even if it is argued that there is insufficient 
evidence to prove a direct link between the activities 
and resulting wetland degradation. 
• Wetland.improvement and restoration 
In addition to the needs resulting from the above 
objectives, existing wetlands should be improved and 
former wetlands restored, as far as is feasible. This 
should happen with a view to providing the best level of 
wetland functions and values. Wetland improvement and 
restoration should have priority over the creation of new 
wetlands. . levels of administrative regions. Member States must 
give priority to incorporate all wetlands of Union 
importance identified under Directives 79/409 and 92/43 
within Natura 2000, defining sites by ecological 
meaningful boundaries. Wetlands designated under the 
Ramsar Convention represent the global link. Member 
States must complete the network at each level and, 
normally, integrate their Ramsar sites into the 
Community Natura 2000 network, applying to them the 
respective provisions, even if, exceptionally, they are not 
Natura 2000 sites. 
Integration policy, integrated management and land 
use planning 
The wise use and conservation of wetlands requires a 
co-ordinated and integrated approach. This necessitates 
appropriate provisions within the framework of policies 
that have a broad scope, such as environment policy 
(including the water and nature conservation policy to 
apply water laws) or regional and territorial development 
policy (including a resource planning policy), as well as 
in specific fields of sector policies related to this issue 
(like agriculture and aquaculture). 
• International co-operation and action favouring the 
wise use and conservation of wetlands 
In the framework of international co-operation, policies 
have to be designed and implemented so as to favour 
the wise use and conservation of wetlands. In general, 
apart from regional peculiarities, the objectives 
formulated for the wetlands of the European Union 
should also be respected for other regions of the world. 
The Community must play an active role in the 
conservation of wetlands globally, within the framework 
of international Conventions to which the European 
Community is a contracting party and through existing 
and future co-operation measures with non-Member 
States. Integrated management means, above all, the 
synchronisation of opposing interests related to a given 
wetland and its resources with a view to achieving a 
common goal of conservation and wise use. This implies 
that all parties with decisive or influential power over 
this wedand take part in the common process of 
reaching a consensus or finding a compromise. To this 
end, the interests, actors, competent authorities, and 
responsible bodies need to be identified and the 
necessary institutional and administrative arrangements 
to be made at Union, national, and regional level. A 
practical tool is to define a list of measures requiring an 
integrated approach and a list of bodies to be involved 
and consulted during the relevant procedures. 
OPERATIONAL APPROACH 
European network of wetlands 
The European Union and, furthermore Europe as a 
whole, must have a dense, coherent and interlinked 
network of wedands benefiting from the necessary 
protection ensuring their wise use and conservation. This 
network has to be graded according to the different In order to achieve a wetlands policy to be implemented 
at all levels the decision makers will need to be 
convinced of the real value of wedands and of the way 
in which wedand management can underpin regional 
development. This in turn requires authorities to 
understand the full value of wetland ecosystems and the 
role that their sustainable use can play in achieving 
social and economic growth. 
page 45 
Integrated management can be divided into four main 
activities: avoidance of negative influences, regulation 
of ecological and socio-economic influences, use of 
natural resources, and positive human intervention, i.e. 
the planning for a desired evolution. The approach must 
have both temporal and spatial dimensions through 
incorporating long-term, sustainable goals and 
considering the catchment area or the coastal zone of 
which a given wetland site forms part. 
If the economic and social potential of wetlands is to be 
used wisely and maintained and the operational 
approach of integration successfully implemented, there 
must be effective land use planning, which takes into 
account the wedands, their functions and values. Subject 
to the competence laid down in the Treaty, Community 
initiatives and concepts existing in this field must be 
strengthened. 
Knowledge of wetlands and their values 
Research fields that deserve further attention are both 
identification and quantification of wetland values, 
sustainability of weUand use and landscape functioning 
and modification. It is equally important to communicate 
the results of such studies in easy to understand 
language to those who take decisions on wetland use or 
development. 
Effective land-use planning and integrated management 
instruments will be much more successful and many of 
the changes required to wisely use and conserve 
wetlands more likely, if citizens and decision-makers 
understand why they should safeguard these ecosystems 
and their resources, as well as being aware of the 
actions required to do so. The value of the many direct 
and indirect benefits that wetlands provide and the 
social and economic consequences of weUand 
degradation and loss need, therefore, to be documented 
and communicated to the widest possible audience. The 
European Union and the Commission acting on its 
behalf must play a major role in pursuing this task. 
One of the most significant changes in the field of 
wetland conservation in recent years has been the 
increasingly interdisciplinary approach to management. 
Much of the concern for wetland conservation has its 
origin in the importance of wildlife, and weUand 
conservation was for decades the exclusive domain of specialists in this particular subject. However, with 
growing awareness of the broader values of wetlands to 
human society, a much wider range of institutions, 
including those concerned with fisheries, agriculture and 
livestock, have become involved in wetland 
conservation. At the same time recognition that wetlands 
need to be maintained as functioning units in the 
landscape - rather than simply in a limited number of 
national parks and other protected areas - has led to a 
growing understanding that conventional approaches to 
wetland conservation are largely inadequate. These 
aspects have still to become more common understood 
and widely practiced. 
Legal framework and administrative provisions 
The Commission and the Member States need to make 
full use of their legal and legislative instruments to 
promote and apply a coherent wetland policy that 
- follows the principle of integration. Most of the Member 
States still have to establish or to considerably improve 
their legal instruments. This also demands a periodic 
review of existing legislation at all relevant levels, 
including Community legislation, and to ensure that it 
is compatible with the strategic directions outlined in 
this Communication. The necessary adjustments need to 
be made, including the removal of economic incentives 
like tax benefits or subsidies and legal encouragement to 
destroy wetlands. The authorities competent for land-use 
planning should specifically indicate weUands in land-
use plans and, according to the case, define special 
management and conservation measures for them. 
Member States should generally subject activities 
affecting wetlands and their functions to prior 
authorisation that involves the body charged to supervise 
their wise use and conservation and consider 
Environmental Impact Assessments mandatory for them. 
Special provisions have to ensure that no important 
factor specifically related to wetlands is overlooked. 
EIAs must also be prepared, not only for projects in the 
wetlands concerned, but also for activities outside these 
sites within their catchment area or the coastal zone 
harbouring them, when these projects can have 
significant effects on the wetland concerned. 
Innovative measures 
When establishing suitable models of management, 
much should be learnt from traditional forms of wetland 
page 46 
use. Such sustainable practices must be adapted to 
today's conditions and provide local communities, 
radier than individuals or central powers, with greater 
control over wetland resources. These practices should 
then be integrated and supported by current Union 
policies, notably the Common Agricultural Policy and 
the Regional Development Policy. 
During die next reform of the CAP, even more attention 
has to be paid to the wise use and conservation of 
weUands. In particular, it is appropriate to further extend 
the possibilities under the agri-environmental support 
scheme to allow for full compensation of cost generated 
by measures aiming at the wise use and conservation of 
weUands. On the other hand, public expenditure directed 
to farmers in the framework of the CAP will have to be 
increasingly linked to environmental conditions. These 
must include the control of practices liable to alter the 
functioning of wetlands, within the wetlands themselves 
or in their catchment basin. 
Furthermore, under the Structural Funds a Community 
initiative targeting this issue is to be introduced when 
the next occasion arises, as well as the immediate use of 
Article 10 of the FEDER, with a view to effecUve land-
use planning being a prerequisite for the wise use and 
conservation of wetlands. 
INSTRUMENTAL IMPLEMENTATION 
With a view to the overall objectives laid down above, 
die Commission strives to implement the instruments 
available at Community level in such a way as to avoid 
negative impacts on the weUands and to maximise the 
positive contributions to their wise use and conservation. 
Legal instruments 
The Community legislation as sell as international 
conventions relevant to the wise use and conservation of 
wetlands have to be implemented consistently. This 
concerns above all Council Directives 79/409/EEC and 
92/43/EEC in the field of nature conservation, the 
relevant Directives concerning water quality and waste 
water treatment (91/271/EEC), including the proposed 
Directive on the ecological quality of water, and Council 
Directive 85/337/EEC concerning Environmental Impact 
Assessment in its proposed amended form. With a view to a preventive and integrated approach, it will be 
essential to complement the latter by a directive 
concerning strategic EIA of policies, plans and 
programmes. 
As far as the nature conservation Directives are 
concerned, the Commission will continue to insist on the 
widest^ possible classification and designation of 
wetlands as Natura 2000 sites. Furthermore, it will see 
that Member States consistently apply and respect 
Article 6 of Council Directive 92/43/EEC. This clearly 
offers and prescribes the instruments for the wise use 
and conservation of wetlands, i.e. management plans, 
appropriate statutory, administrative or contractual 
protection measures, appropriate EIA of measures likely 
to have a significant impact on a site in view of the 
site's wise use and conservation objectives, agreement 
to such measures after having ascertained that they will 
not adversely affect die site's functions and values, 
involvement of the public, compensatory measures to 
ensure in a coherent way the same functions and values 
in the case where a measure must be carried out despite 
the negative implications for the site. 
With respect to wetlands not qualifying as Natura 2000 
sites and where existing Community legislation does not 
provide a basis for wise use and conservation, the 
Commission will regularly monitor the extent to which 
the above formulated overall objectives and operational 
approach are respected. If required, the option exists to 
introduce for all weUands additional provisions laying 
down instruments similar to those of Article 6 of 
Council Directive 92/43/EEC and compulsory EIA in 
the case of projects listed at Annex II of Council 
Directive 85/337/EEC. However, it is preferable that 
Member States, in application of Article 130t of the 
Treaty, implement more stringent measures than those 
required by the existing and proposed Community 
legislation, in order to meet the overall objectives set 
out above. 
International co-operation 
The Commission intends to entirely support the 
development of co-operative arrangements for water 
systems shared between two or more Member States or 
regions. However, it is up to the national and regional 
authorities to take the necessary initiatives. This is 
particularly relevant in pursuance of the obligation of 
page 47 
the 1992 Helsinki Convention on the Protection and Use 
of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, 
the 1979 Bonn Convention on the Conservation of 
Migratory Species of Wild Animals, and the 1991 Espoo 
Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a 
Transboundary Context, all ratified by the European 
Union and most of its Member States. 
Inventory and monitoring 
A Union-wide review of the distribution, status and 
trends of European wetland types and sites is still 
unavailable and our current knowledge is therefore 
based on piecemeal information. Even an unequivocal 
classification of European wetland types is missing, 
because of their complex structure, dynamic character 
and the difficulty in precisely defining their often 
fluctuating boundaries. These facts show the imminent 
need to have available a co-ordinated and Union-wide 
system for wetland inventory and monitoring of their 
ecological change. As far as wetland sites in the 
European Union requiring special conservation measures 
pursuant to Council Directives 79/409/EEC and 
92/43/EEC are concerned, this will be provided within 
the framework of the Natura 2000 network. The 
European Environment Agency should be charged by 
the Commission and the Member States to set up, as far 
as wetlands are concerned, die necessary supplement to 
this network in order to provide the comprehensive 
system needed that, for example, will also includes 
those wetlands being sensitive areas in the sense of 
Council Directive 91/271 /EEC. Ideally, such a system 
would cover the whole continent including the non-
Union States. The inventory must also include up to 
date information on the status of the wetlands 
established under monitoring programmes. It should not 
be seen as a final document, but rather as a continuing 
process and database that provides base-line information 
for landFinancial instr-use and management planning, 
future monitoring and impact assessment. 
Financial instruments 
Whilst the financial support at present totalling about 60 
million ECUs spent since 1984 on wetland conservation 
and restoration projects by the Community within the 
framework of its environmental actions and financial 
instruments has proven to be of great incentive value, it 
cannot have sufficient long-term impact in the face of 
huge amounts spent on dams, polders, aquaculture and other projects for structural development, having a 
negative impact on wetlands and marginalizing rural 
communities that use wetland resources in a traditional 
way. Clearly, Article 7 of the new Framework 
Regulation for the Structural Funds, that new 
development plans must comply with the Union 
environmental policy, needs to be put fully into practice 
by the competent bodies. For all wetlands subject,of 
such developments, compliance of measures funded 
under Community financial instruments in general 
requires the widest possible implementation of 
provisions such as laid down in Article 6 of Directive 
92/43/EEC or of similar provisions. 
The Treaty and the 5th Environmental Action 
Programme provide a good legal basis and framework 
for practical integration of policy related to wetlands and 
for their integrated management. The Commission, for 
its part, has put in place administrative arrangements to 
comply herewith. In the light of future experience, it 
will adjust and amend these arrangements where needed. 
Increasingly, the Commission will grant Community 
financial support to measures aiming at the wise use and 
conservation of wetlands. Following the principle of 
integrating environmental concerns into other 
Community policies, as laid down in Article 130r of the 
Treaty, and with a view to the implementation of 
Article 8 of Council Directive 92/43/EEC, the 
Commission ensures that, as far as feasible, all available 
financial instruments are used to this end. Within respect 
to the financing principle laid down in Article 130s(4) 
of the Treaty, grants available under the Community 
policy for the environment can only to a very limited 
extent satisfy the financing needed to support the wise 
use and conservation of wetlands. 
However the Commission invites the Member States to 
make, for this purpose, wider use of the numerous 
financial possibilities existing under other Community 
policies, including those for training related to the wise 
use and conservation of wetlands. Given the long-term 
economic benefits induced by the wise use of wetlands, 
the Community must be prepared to favour, in its 
funding inside and outside the European Union, 
development measures which follow the wise use 
approach. 
page 48 
FINAL CONCLUSION 
In summary, the wise use and conservation of wetlands require a radical change from the way these 
ecosystems have been dealt with in the past. This can only occur on the basis of a comprehensive 
and coherent wetland policy that assures: the recognition of the functions and values that wetlands 
provide to mankind, the physical and functional solidarity through space and time between wetlands 
and other areas and between the generations depending on them, and the appreciation of their 
important economic value. The implementation of such a policy has to comprise basically innovative 
and ambitious initiatives. Its key aspect is to follow an integrated approach. 
The four most significant areas of importance in this context, in particular with a view to 
Community policy, are : 
• the full coherence of the Natura 2000 network and respect of the obligations related to it; 
• integrated water management with respect to both quantity and quality; 
• a spatial development stratégie based on community wide principles and guidelines with 
clear land-use implications; 
• significant financial support of co-ordinated, multi-sectoral policies, integrated 
programmes and plans and projects fostering the wise use and conservation of wetlands. 
page 49 
ANNEX I: 
Comparison Between the Ramsar and CORINE Wetland Classifications 
Note: 
As the Ramsar classification is specifically based on wclland landscape units, while the CORINE classification for 
natural and semi-natural habitats is essentially based on vegetation characteristics, the two cannot bo matched perfectly. 
Roth, Ramsar and CORINE classifications are hierarchical. Here, only higher level categories of the CORINE 
classification are represented. 
Ramsar (wetlands) CORINE (natural habitats) 
A) MARINE & COASTAL WETLANDS 
MARINE 
Al shallow marine waters 
A2 marine aquatic beds 
A3 coral reefs 
A4 rocky marine shores 
AS sand /shingle beaches 
ESTUARINE 
A6 estuarinc waters 
A7 intertidal mudflats 
A8 salt marshes 
A9 mangrove, tidal forest 
LACUSTRINE / PALUSTRINE 
A10 brackish/saline lagoons 
All coastal fresh lagoons 11.1 Open marine waters 
11 Ocean and seas 
12 Sea inlets 
11.2 Seabed 
18 Cliffs and rocky shores 
19 Islets and rock stacks 
16 Coastal sand-dunes and sand beaches 
17 Shingle beaches 
13 Tidal rivers and estuaries 
14 Mud flats and sand flats 
15 Salt marshes, salt steppes and gypsum scrubs 
21 Lagoons 
23 Standing brackish and salt water 
15.1 Salt pioneer swards 
22 Standing freshwater 
53 Water-fringe vegetation 
B) INLAND WETLANDS 
RIVERINE 
Bl permanent rivers 
B2 seasonal/intermittent rivers 
B3 inland deltas 
B4 floodplain wedands 24 Running water 
37.7 Humid tall herb fringes 
53 Water-fringe vegetation 
24 Running water 
37.7 Humid tall herb fringes 
53 Water-fringe vegetation 
22 Standing freshwater 
24 Running water 
37.7 Humid tall herb fringes 
53 Water-fringe vegetation 
37 Humid grasslands and tall herb community 
44 Alluvial and very wet forests and brush 
page 50 
LACUSTRINE 
B5 permanent freshwater lakes 
B6 seasonal freshwater lakes 
B7 saline lakes and marshes 
(permanent/seasonal) 
PA LUSTRINE 
B8 permanent freshwater marshes 
B9 seasonal freshwater marshes 
BIO shrub-dominated wetlands 
Bll freshwater swamp forest 
B12 peatlands 
B13 peat swamp forest 
B14 alpine/tundra wetlands 
B15 freshwater springs/oases 
GEOTHERMAL 
B16 gcothermal wetlands 
C) MAN-MADE WETLANDS 
URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL 
CI reservoirs, barrages, dams 
C4 salt pans/salines 
C5 gravel pits 
C6 sewage farms 
AGRICULTURE 
C2 farm pond/small tanks 
C7 irrigated land 
C8 seasonally flooded agricultural land 
AQUACULTURE 
C3 fish/shrimp ponds 22 Standing freshwater 
37.7 Humid tall herb fringes 
53 Water-fringe vegetation 
22 Standing freshwater 
37.7 Humid tall herb fringes 
53 Water-fringe vegetation 
23 Standing brackish and salt water 
15 Salt marshes, salt steppes and gypsum scrubs 
18.3 Vegetated cliffs of saline lakes 
22 Standing freshwater 
53 Water-fringe vegetation 
22 Standing freshwater 
37 Humid grasslands 
53 Water-fringe vegetation 
15.6 Saltmarsh shrubs 
31.1 Wet heaths 
44 Alluvial and very wet forests and brush 
44 Alluvial and very wet forests and brush 
51 Raised bogs 
52 Blanket bogs 
54 Fens, transition mires and springs 
53 Water-fringe vegetation 
44A Birch and conifer swamp woods 
31.1 Wet heaths 
37.8 Subalpine and alpine tall herb communities 
44 Alluvial and very wet forests and brush 
54.1 Springs 
66 Volcanic features 
89.2 Freshwater industrial lagoons and canals 
89.1 Saline industrial lagoons and canals 
86.4 Old industrial sites 
89.2 Freshwater industrial lagoons and canals 
89.2 Freshwater industrial lagoons and canals 
81.2 Humid improved grasslands 
81.2 Humid improved grasslands 
82.4 Flooded crops 
89.2 Freshwater industrial lagoons and canals 
page 51 
Annex II: 
Guidelines for the Wise Use of Wetlands 
Note: 
This is an abridged version of the Guidelines and Additional Guidance for the Implementation of the Wise Use Concept 
adopted by the contracting parties to the Ramsar Convention of wetlands of international importance at their I Vlh and 
Vth Conferences in 1990 (Recommendation C.4 Revised plus Annex) and 1993 (Resolution C.5.6 plus Annex). 
Definition 
«The wise use of wetlands is their sustainable utilisation for the benefit of humankind in a way compatible with 
the maintenance of the natural properties of the ecosystem.» 
Sustainable utilisation is defined as «human use of a wetland so that it may yield the greatest continuos benefit to 
present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations». 
Natural properties of the ecosystem are defined as «those physical, biological or chemical components, such as soil, 
water, plants, animals and nutrients, and the interactions between them». 
General 
The wise use provisions apply to all wetlands and their support systems within the territory of a Contracting Part)'. The 
concept of wise use seeks both the formulation and implementation of general wetland policies, and wise use of specific 
wetlands. These activities are an integral part of sustainable development. 
It is desirable in the long term that all Contracting Parties should have comprehensive national wetland policies, 
formulated in whatever manner is appropriate to their national institutions. However, elaboration of national wetland 
policies will be a long term process, and immediate action should be taken to stimulate wise use. The guidelines 
presented below therefore include both elements for comprehensive national wetland policies and priority actions. 
Establishment of national wetland policies 
1. Actions to improve institutional and organisational arrangement, including a) institutional arrangements to integrate 
fully wetland priorities into the planning process, and b) establishment of mechanisms and procedures for 
incorporating an integrated approach into planning and execution of projects in order to secure wetland conservation 
and sustainable development. 
2. Actions to address legislation and government policies, including a) review of existing legislation and policies, b) 
application of existing legislation where appropriate, c) adoption of new legislation, and d) use of development funds 
for projects which permit conservation and sustainable utilisation of wetland resources. 
3. Action to increase knowledge and awareness of wetlands and their values, including a) interchange of experience 
and information on wetland policy, b) increasing the awareness and understanding of decision-makers and the public 
of the full benefits and values of wetlands, c) review of traditional techniques of wise use, and d) training of 
appropriate staff which will assist in implementation of wetland conservation action and policies. 
page 52 
4. Actions to review the status of, and identify priorities for, all wetlands in a national context, including a) execution 
of a national inventory and classification of wetland sites, b) identification and evaluation of the benefits and values 
of each site,and c) definition of the conservation and management priorities for each site. 
5. Actions to address problems at particular wetland sites, including a) integration from the outset of environmental 
considerations in planning of projects which might affect the wetland, including projects upstream of the wetland, 
b) regulated utilisation of the natural elements of wetland systems such that they are not over-exploited, c) 
establishment, implementation and periodic revision of management plans which involve local people and take 
account of their requirements, d) establishment of nature reserves at wetlands, and e) serious consideration of 
restoration of wetlands whose benefits and values have been diminished or degraded. 
Priority actions at national level 
Whether or not national wetland policies are being prepared, several actions should receive immediate attention at 
national level in order to facilitate the preparation of national wetland policies, and to avoid delay in practical 
implementation of wetland conservation and wise use. 
Contracting Parties may wish to a) identify the issues which require the most urgent action, b) take action on one or 
more of these issues, c) identify the wetland sites which require the most urgent action, and d) take action at one or 
more of these wetlands, along the lines set out below. 
Priority actions at particular wetland sites 
Immediate action may be required in order to avoid destruction or degradation of important wetland values at particular 
wetland sites. These actions will undoubtedly include some elements listed under point 5 above. 
page 53 
REFERENCES: 
1 Defmition given at the Convention of Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, Article 
1(1). 
2 After the Iranian town where it has been done the 2 February 1971; full title see footnote (1). 
3 Except Luxembourg which at present is in the process of becoming a contracting party. 
4 OECD (1992), Market and Government Failures in Environmental Management: Wetlands and Forests, Paris. 
5 OJ NO.L138, 17.05.93 
6OJNo.L103, 25.04.79, p.l 
7 OJ No.L206, 22.07.92, p.7 
8OJNo.L135, 30.05.91, p.40 
9OJNo.L375, 31.12.91, p.l 
10 Environment actualité N* 122, Sept. 90, Supplément Spécial Plan national pour l'environnement ISBN 2-11-086801-5 
11 In 1975, the Commission recommended accession to the Ramsar Convention of the EC Member States; 
Recommendation 75/66/EEC, OJNo.L21, 28.01.75. 
,2OJNo.L176, 01.09.85 
13 OJ No.C138, 16.05.93 
14 OJNo.Cl 12/1, 20.12.73 
15 OJ No.L176, 03.04.84 and OJ No.L207, 29.07.87 
,6OJNo.L370, 31.12.91 
17 Doc.C(87) 2291 final 
,8OJNo.C328/l, 18.03.87 
19 OJNo.Cl 15, 09.05.90 
20 OJ No.L63, 09.03.91 
21 OJNo.L307, 31.12.91 
22 W.Q. 2543/91 by Sir J.Scott- Hopkins concerning the position of the European Community regarding wetlands 
wise use; W.Q. 701/92 by Mr J. de la Câmara Martinez about the adoption of a specific programme concerning 
financial aid for wetland nature reserves. 
23 Case C-57/89, Commission v Federal Republic of Germany, supported by the United Kingdom ("Leybucht" 
judgement) and Case C-355/90, Commission v Kingdom of Spain ("Santofta" judgement). 
24 OJ No.L206, 22.07.92 
2îOJNo. L129, 18.05.76 
26 Doc. COM(93)680 final 
27 Commission Communication COM(93) 66 final of 24.02.1993. 
_____ page 54 
28 A Union instrument aiming at the general use of non-toxic shot is highly desirable. 
29OJNo. C138, 17.05.93, p.l 
30 OJ No. L175, 5.07.85, p.40 
31 COM/94/354 
32 Doc. XI/627/91 
33 OJ No. LI93, 31.07.93, p.44 
34OJNo. L375, 31.12.91, p.l 
35 OJ No. L215, 30.07.92, p.85 
36OJNo. L181, 1.07.92 
37 OJ No. L215, 30.07.92, P.96 
38 Doc. COM(93)575 final 
39OJNo. L193, 31.07.93 
40OJNo. CI 15, 9.05.90 
41 Notice on INTERREG II: OJ No. C180, 1.07.94 
42 OJ No. L185, 15.07.88; OJ No. L193, 31.07.93 
43 OJ No. L130, 25.05.94, p.l 
44 Council Decision 92/421/EEC, OJ No. L231, 13.08.1992, p. 4. 
45 Federation of Nature and National Parks of Europe (1993). Loving them to death? Sustainable tourism in Europe's 
nature and national parks. 
46 OJ No. L375, 23.12.89 

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