COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS - Draft Joint Report on Social Inclusion

Part I - The European Union

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Introduction

1. Major trends and challenges

2. Strategic approaches and policy measures

3. Identification of good practice and innovative approaches

3.1 Objective 1: To facilitate participation in employment and access by all to resources, rights, goods and services

3.1.1 Facilitating participation in employment

3.1.2 Facilitating access to resources, rights, goods and services for all

3.1.2.1 Social protection systems

3.1.2.2 Housing

3.1.2.3 Healthcare

3.1.2.4 Education, Justice and Culture

3.2 Objective 2: To prevent the risks of exclusion

3.2.1 Promoting eInclusion

3.2.2 Preventing over-indebtedness and homelessness

3.2.3 Preserving family solidarity

3.3 Objective 3: To help the most vulnerable

3.3.1 Promoting the integration of people facing persistent poverty

3.3.2 Eliminating social exclusion among children

3.3.3 Promoting action in favour of areas marked by exclusion

3.4 Objective 4: To mobilise all relevant bodies

3.4.1 Promoting the participation and self-expression of people suffering exclusion

3.4.2 Mainstreaming the fight against exclusion

3.4.3 Promoting dialogue and partnership

4. Promoting equality between women and men

4.1 Gender sensitivity in the major challenges

4.2 Gender mainstreaming in the overall strategy

4.3 How gender issues are dealt with in the different objectives

4.4 Gender in the monitoring process, impact assessments and indicators

5. Use of Indicators in the NAPs/incl

Part II - The Member States

BELGIUM

DENMARK

GERMANY

GREECE

SPAIN...

FRANCE

IRELAND

ITALY...

LUXEMBOURG

THE NETHERLANDS

AUSTRIA

PORTUGAL

FINLAND

SWEDEN

UNITED KINGDOM

Annex I : Indicators

ANNEX II : Examples of good practice indicated in the national action plans against poverty and social exclusion

Part I - The European Union

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

It is the first time that the European Commission presents a policy document on poverty and social exclusion. By documenting and analysing the situation across all Member States and by identifying the key challenges for the future this draft Joint Report on Social Inclusion contributes to strengthening the European social model. It is thus a significant advance towards the achievement of the EU's strategic goal of greater social cohesion in the Union between 2001- 2010.

This report gives a concrete reality to the open method of coordination on Social Inclusion agreed at the Lisbon Summit in March 2000. This new process is an important recognition of the key role that social policy has to play alongside economic and employment policies in reducing inequalities and promoting social cohesion, as well as of the need to ensure effective links between these policies in the future. It is thus an important element in progressing the European Social Agenda agreed in Nice and complements the objectives of the European Employment Strategy.

This report marks a significant advance in the process of developing common indicators to measure poverty and social exclusion across and within all Member States. It shows that Member States and the Commission are actively engaged in this process. This will lead to a much more rigorous and effective monitoring of progress in tackling poverty and social exclusion in the future. It will also contribute to better evaluations of policies and a clearer assessment of their effectiveness and value for money. This should lead to better policy making in Member States in the future.

This report does not evaluate the effectiveness of the systems already in place in different Member States. Rather it concentrates on analysing the different approaches that have been adopted by Member States in their National Action Plans against poverty and social exclusion (NAPs/incl) in response to the common objectives on poverty and social exclusion agreed by the EU at Nice in December 2000. It examines Member States' NAPs/incl focussing on the quality of analysis, the clarity of objectives, goals and targets and the extent to which there is a strategic and integrated approach. In doing this it demonstrates the commitment of all Member States to use the new social inclusion process to enhance their efforts to tackle poverty and social inclusion.

This report documents a wide range of policies and initiatives in place or proposed in Member States. These will provide a good basis for co-operation and exchange of learning between Member States in the future. However, it has not been possible to identify examples of good practice as at present there is a general lack of rigorous evaluation of policies and programmes in Member States. The report thus identifies that an important challenge for the next phase of the social inclusion process will be to introduce more thorough analysis of the cost effectiveness and efficiency of policies to tackle poverty and social exclusion.

The new commitment - At the European Councils of Lisbon (March 2000), Nice (December 2000) and Stockholm (June 2001), Member States made a commitment to promote sustainable economic growth and quality employment which will reduce the risk of poverty and social exclusion as well as strengthen social cohesion in the Union between 2001 - 2010. To underpin this commitment, the Council developed common objectives in the fight against poverty and social exclusion. It also agreed that these objectives be taken forward by Member States from 2001 onwards in the context of two-year National Action Plans against poverty and social exclusion (NAPs/incl). Furthermore, the Council established a new open method of coordination which encourages Member States to work together to improve the impact on social inclusion of policies in fields such as social protection, employment, health, housing and education. The NAPs/incl and the development of comparable indicators provide the framework for promoting exchange of good practice and mutual learning at Community level. This will be supported from 2002 by a five year Community action programme on social inclusion.

The overall context - The new open method of co-ordination should contribute to a better integration of social objectives in the already existing processes towards achieving the ambitious strategic goal for the Union set out in Lisbon. In particular, it should contribute to ensuring a positive and dynamic interaction of economic, employment and social policies and to mobilise all players to attain such a strategic objective. The present report is fully consistent with the aims of the European Social Agenda agreed at Nice, to the extent that it recognises the dual role of social policy, both as a productive factor and as a key instrument to reduce inequalities and promote social cohesion. In this respect it puts due emphasis on the key role of participation in employment, especially by groups that are under-represented or disadvantaged in it, in line with the objectives of the European Employment Strategy. Furthermore, the report takes into account the achievements of the European Social model, characterised by systems that offer a high level of social protection, by the importance of social dialogue and by services of general interest covering activities vital for social cohesion, while reflecting the diversity of Member States' options and conditions.

Fulfilling the commitment - All Member States have demonstrated their commitment to implementing the Open Method of Coordination by completing National Plans by June 2001. These set out their priorities in the fight against poverty and social exclusion for a period of 2 years and include a more or less detailed description of the policy measures in place or planned in order to meet the EU common objectives. Most also include examples of good practice. The NAPs/incl provide a wealthy source of information from which the Commission and Member States can further develop a process of exchange of good practice conducive to more effective policies within Member States. This process should be enhanced in future by more extensive evaluations of national policies, including their implications for public finance, and through the development of a comprehensive set of indicators and methodologies, at both national and EU levels.

The overall picture - Evidence from the NAPs/incl confirms that tackling poverty and social exclusion continues to be an important challenge facing the European Union. The impact of favourable economic and employment trends between 1995 and 2000 has helped to stabilise the situation which had deteriorated in many Member States with economic recession in the mid 1990s. However, it is clear from the analysis provided by Member States and comparable EU indicators that the number of people experiencing high exclusion and poverty risk in society remains too high. The most recent available data on income across Member States, while not capturing the full complexity and multi-dimensionality of poverty and social exclusion, shows that in 1997 18% of the EU population, or more than 60 million people, were living in households where income was below 60% of the national equivalised median income and that about half had been living below this relative poverty threshold for three successive years.

The risk factors - A number of factors which significantly increase people's risk of poverty and social exclusion have been identified in the NAPs/incl. Unemployment, especially when long-term, is by far the most frequently mentioned factor. Other important factors are: low income, low quality employment, homelessness, weak health, immigration, low qualifications and early school leaving, gender inequality, discrimination and racism, disability, old age, family break-ups, drug abuse and alcoholism and living in an area of multiple disadvantage. Some Member States stressed the extent to which these risk factors interact and accumulate over time hence the need to cut through the recurring cycle of poverty and to prevent intergenerational poverty.

The structural changes - Several NAPs/incl identify a number of structural changes occurring across the EU which can lead to new risks of poverty and social exclusion for particularly vulnerable groups unless the appropriate policy responses are developed. These are: major structural changes in the labour market resulting from a period of very rapid economic change and globalisation; the very rapid growth of the knowledge-based society and Information and Communication Technologies; the increasing number of people living longer coupled with falling birth rates resulting in growing dependency ratios; a growing trend towards ethnic, cultural and religious diversity fuelled by international migration and increased mobility within the Union; increase in women's access to the labour market and changes in household structures.

The challenges - The overarching challenge for public policy that emerges from the NAPs/incl is to ensure that the main mechanisms which distribute opportunities and resources - the labour market, the tax system, the systems providing social protection, education, housing, health and other services - become sufficiently universal to address the needs of those who are at risk of poverty and social exclusion and to enable them to access their fundamental rights. It is thus encouraging that the NAPs/incl highlight the need and confirm the commitment of Member States both to enhance their employment policies and to further modernise their social protection systems as well as other systems, such as education, health and housing, and make them more responsive to individual needs and better able to cope with traditional as well as new risks of poverty and social exclusion. While the scale and intensity of the problems vary widely across Member States eight core challenges can be identified which are being addressed to a greater or lesser extent by most Member States. These are: developing an inclusive labour market and promoting employment as a right and opportunity for all; guaranteeing an adequate income and resources to live in human dignity; tackling educational disadvantage; preserving family solidarity and protecting the rights of children; ensuring good accommodation for all; guaranteeing equal access to and investing in high quality services (health, transport, social, care, cultural, recreational and legal); improving the delivery of services; and regenerating areas of multiple deprivation.

Different points of departure - The NAPs/incl highlight the very different social policy systems across Member States. Member States with the most developed welfare systems and with high per capita social expenditure levels tend to be most successful in ensuring access to basic necessities and keeping the numbers at risk of poverty well below the EU average. Not surprisingly these very different social policy systems combined with the widely varying levels of poverty resulted in Member States adopting quite different approaches to tackling poverty and social exclusion in the NAPs/incl. Some used the opportunity to rethink their strategic approach to tackling poverty and social exclusion, including the co-ordination between different levels of policy-making and delivery. Others, particularly those with the most developed welfare systems where poverty and social exclusion tend to be narrowed down to a number of very particular risk factors, took the key contribution their universal systems make as read and concentrated on highlighting new and more specific measures in their NAPs/incl. Another factor that influenced Member States' approach to their NAPs/incl was the political structure of the country and how the responsibilities in the fight against social exclusion are distributed between the central, regional and local authorities. However, whatever the variation in this regard, most Member States recognised the need to complement national plans with integrated approaches at regional and local levels.

Strategic and integrated approach - While all Member States have fulfilled the commitment agreed in Nice, there are differences as regards the extent to which the NAPs/incl provide a comprehensive analysis of key structural risks and challenges, frame their policies in a longer term strategic perspective, and evolve from a purely sectoral and target-group approach towards an integrated approach. Only a few have moved beyond general aspirations and set specific and quantified targets which provide a basis for monitoring progress. Gender issues lack visibility in most NAPs/incl and their mention is sporadic, though a commitment by some to enhance gender mainstreaming over the next two years is very welcome. To a large extent, the different emphasis in these aspects across NAPs/incl reflect the different points of departure mentioned above.

Scope for innovation - In terms of specific actions and policies most Member States have focused their efforts on improving co-ordination, refining and combining existing policies and measures and promoting partnership, rather than launching important new or innovative policy approaches. The relatively short time available to develop the first NAPs/incl has led most Member States to limit the policy measures to the existing budgetary and legal frameworks and most did not include any cost estimates. Thus, while most 2001 NAPs/incl are an important starting point in the process, in order to make a decisive impact on poverty and social exclusion further policy efforts will be needed in the coming years.

Interaction with the Employment Strategy - Participation in employment is emphasised by most Member States as the best safeguard against poverty and social exclusion. This reflects adequately the emphasis laid on employment by the European Council at Nice. Two-way links are established between the NAPs/incl and the NAPs/employment. On the one hand, the Member States recognise the crucial role played by the Employment Guidelines in the fight against exclusion by improving employability and creating new job opportunities, which are an essential condition for making the labour markets more inclusive. At the same time, the Employment Strategy is concerned mainly with raising employment rates towards the targets set in Lisbon and Stockholm in the most effective way. On the other hand, by focusing on actions that will facilitate participation in employment for those individuals, groups and communities who are most distant from the labour market, the NAPs/incl can play a positive role towards increasing the employment rate. The trend towards more active and preventive policies in most NAPs/incl reflects experience gained under the Luxembourg process.

Policy design - Across the different policy strands addressing the EU common objectives, three general and complementary approaches emerge from the NAPs/incl. The first approach involves enhancing the adequacy, access and affordability of mainline policies and provisions so that there is improved coverage, uptake and effectiveness (i.e. promoting universality). The second approach is to address specific disadvantages that can be overcome through the use of appropriate policies (i.e. promoting a level playing field). The third approach is to compensate for disadvantages that can only be partially (or not at all) overcome (i.e. ensuring solidarity).

Policy delivery - A key concern across all NAPs/incl is not only to design better policies but also to improve their delivery so as to make services more inclusive and better integrated with a greater focus on the needs and situations of the users. Some elements of best practice can begin to be identified on the basis of NAPs/incl. This involves: designing and delivering policies as close to people as possible; ensuring that services are delivered in an integrated and holistic way; ensuring transparent and accountable decision making; making services more user friendly, responsive and efficient; promoting partnership between different actors; emphasising equality, rights and non discrimination; fostering the participation of those affected by poverty and social exclusion; emphasising the autonomy and empowerment of the users of services; and emphasising a process of continuous improvement and the sustainability of services.

Mobilisation of key stakeholders - Most Member States recognise the need to mobilise and involve key stakeholders, including those experiencing poverty and social exclusion, in the design and implementation of their NAPs/incl. Most consulted with NGOs and social partners when preparing their NAPs/incl. However, in part due to the short time available, the extent and impact of this consultation seems to have been limited in many cases. A key challenge for the future will be to develop effective mechanisms for their ongoing involvement in implementing and monitoring National Plans. Some Member States highlight consultation and stakeholder mechanisms that will help to ensure this.

Common indicators - The evidence from the first round of NAPs/incl is that we are still a long way from achieving a common approach to social indicators which will allow policy outcomes to be compared and which will contribute to the identification of good practice. Efforts are needed to improve this situation, both at the national level and the level of the EU. The majority of NAPs/incl still make use of national definitions in the measurement of poverty and of levels of inadequacy in access to housing, health care or education and only a few make appropriate use of policy indicators in their NAPs/incl. This adds urgency to the current efforts to develop a set of common indicators on poverty and social inclusion which can be agreed by the European Council by the end of 2001. It also highlights the need to enhance the collection of comparable data across Member States.

Introduction

The present report aims at identifying good practice and innovative approaches of common interest to the Member States on the basis of the National Action Plans against poverty and social exclusion (NAPs/incl), in conformity with the mandate received from the European Council of Nice. It is presented as the draft Joint Report on Social Inclusion that the Council will prepare together with the Commission for the European Council of Laeken.

The adoption of this report is in itself a significant achievement. For the first time ever, a single policy document assesses common challenges to prevent and eliminate poverty and social exclusion and promote social inclusion from an EU perspective. It brings together the strategies and major policy measures in place or envisaged by all EU Member States to fight poverty and social exclusion [1]. It is a key step towards strengthening policy co-operation in this area, with a view to promoting mutual learning and EU-wide mobilisation towards greater social inclusion, while safeguarding the Member States' key responsibilities in policy making and delivery.

[1] Throughout this report the terms poverty and social exclusion refer to when people are prevented from participating fully in economic, social and civil life and/or when their access to income and other resources (personal, family, social and cultural) is so inadequate as to exclude them from enjoying a standard of living and quality of life that is regarded as acceptable by the society in which they live. In such situations people often are unable to fully access their fundamental rights.

Following the inclusion under Article 136 and 137 EC by the Amsterdam Treaty, of the fight against exclusion among the social policy provisions, the European Council of Lisbon agreed on the need to take steps to make a decisive impact on the eradication of poverty by 2010. It has also agreed that Member States' policies for combating social exclusion should be based on an open method of co-ordination combining common objectives, National Action Plans and a programme presented by the Commission to encourage co-operation in this field.

The new open method of co-ordination should contribute to a better integration of social objectives in the already existing processes towards achieving the ambitious strategic goal for the Union set out in Lisbon "to become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world capable of sustained economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion". In particular, it should contribute to ensuring a positive and dynamic interaction of economic, employment and social policies and to mobilise all players to attain such a strategic objective. The present report is fully consistent with the aims of the European Social Agenda agreed at Nice, to the extent that it recognises the dual role of social policy, both as a productive factor and as a key instrument to reduce inequalities and promote social cohesion. In this respect it puts due emphasis on the key role of participation in employment, especially by groups that are under-represented or disadvantaged in it, in line with the objectives of the European Employment Strategy. Furthermore, the report takes in full account the achievements of the European Social model, characterised by systems that offer a high level of social protection, by the importance of social dialogue and by services of general interest covering activities vital for social cohesion, while reflecting the diversity of Member States' options and conditions.

Given the multiple interaction with other existing processes of policy co-ordination, there is a need to ensure consistency with the Employment Guidelines, on one hand, and the Broad Economic Policy Guidelines, on the other, to avoid overlapping and conflicting objectives. In the Synthesis Report submitted to the European Council of Stockholm, the Commission started to translate the new strategic vision of the Union into an integrated assessment of policy strategies and outcomes in four key domains: economic reform, information society, internal market and social cohesion. The present report aims at highlighting the role of social policy and of other equally important policy areas for social cohesion (education, housing, health) in the forthcoming Synthesis Report that the Commission will prepare for the European Council in spring 2002.

All Member States have committed themselves in Nice to developing their policy priorities in fighting poverty and social exclusion in the framework of four commonly agreed objectives:

(1) to facilitate participation in employment and access by all to the resources, rights, goods and services;

(2) to prevent the risks of exclusion;

(3) to help the most vulnerable;

(4) to mobilise all relevant bodies.

The Member States also underlined the importance of mainstreaming equality between men and women in all actions aimed at achieving those objectives.

The NAPs/incl setting out the policy objectives and measures to tackle these objectives were prepared between January and May 2001. The Commission played an active role in supporting Member States' preparatory efforts, by proposing a common outline and a working schedule for the NAPs/incl which were adopted by the Social Protection Committee. Furthermore, the Commission proposed and took part actively in a series of bilateral seminars with all Member States, to present the new EU strategy and to discuss the country's policy priorities in preparation of the NAPs/incl. In addition to the authorities responsible for the co-ordination of the plans, several other government departments, as well as representatives from regional and local authorities, non-governmental organisations and the social partners, participated in the seminars in varying degrees.

The overall picture that emerges from the fifteen NAPs/incl confirms that tackling poverty and social exclusion continues to be an important challenge facing the European Union. If Member States are to achieve the goal of building inclusive societies then significant improvements need to be made in the distribution of resources and opportunities in society so as to ensure the social integration and participation of all people and their ability to access their fundamental rights. However, the magnitude of the challenge varies significantly both between and within Member States.

The very different social policy systems across Member States led to quite different approaches to the NAPs/incl process. Some Member States saw the NAPs/incl as an opportunity to rethink or make fundamental improvements to their approach to tackling poverty and social exclusion. Other Member States, particularly those with the most developed welfare systems, took the contribution their universal systems make to preventing poverty and social exclusion as read and concentrated on highlighting new and more specific measures in their NAPs/incl.

The NAPs/incl highlight the need and confirm the commitment of Member States both to enhance their employment policies and to further modernise their social protection systems as well as other systems, such as education and housing, and make them more responsive to individual needs and able to cope with traditional as well as new risks of poverty and social exclusion. A key challenge here is to ensure that equal value is given to policies in these areas alongside employment and economic policies. The struggle against poverty and social exclusion needs to be appropriately mainstreamed across this large range of policy areas and there need to be real synergies between them. There is also recognition in many Member States that the picture is not static and that the rapid structural changes that are affecting all countries need to be taken into account if new forms of social exclusion are not to occur or existing forms to intensify.

All Member States are committed to the new EU process of policy co-ordination against poverty and social exclusion. Without exception, the NAPs/incl set out Member States' priorities in the fight against poverty and social exclusion for a period of 2 years, taking into account the four common objectives agreed by the European Council of Nice. All NAPs/incl include a more or less detailed description of the policy measures in place or planned in order to meet such objectives and the majority have included examples of good practice to facilitate their identification. However, a number of Member States noted that the time allowed for the preparation of their plans was too short to enable them to consider new important initiatives and innovative approaches. As a result, most NAPs/incl tend to concentrate on existing policy measures and programmes instead of setting out new policy approaches.As a general rule, the NAPs/incl focus comparatively less on the public finance implications of proposed initiatives. Existing initiatives will of course have been properly costed and budgeted for. But in terms of designing the future strategy for promoting inclusion, it is essential to be aware of financial constraints. Commitments to increase investment in education, to improve the adequacy of social protection or to extend employability initiatives may entail significant costs and therefore should also be seen in the context of national budgetary commitments as well as the Broad Economic Guidelines and the Stability and Growth Pact. Similarly, regulatory constraints should also be taken into account. For example, measures that might affect labour costs or incentives to participate in the labour market should be consistent with the BEPGs and the Employment Guidelines.

The next steps in the open method of co-ordination will be as follows:

-Step 1 (Oct - Dec 2001): the analysis of the NAPincl by the Commission is supplemented by the Member States in the Social Protection Committee and subsequently in the Social Affairs Council. The European Parliament is expected to contribute to the debate. A Joint Report will then be submitted to the EU Council in Laeken-Brussels which is expected to define the priorities and approaches that will guide efforts and cooperation at Community level during the implementation of the first NAPs/incl.

-Step 2 (Jan - May 2002): attention will concentrate on organising a process of mutual learning, supported by the new Community action programme which is planned to start in January 2002 and the set of commonly agreed indicators on social inclusion which the Council is expected to agree on by the end of 2001

-Step 3 (remainder of 2002): A dialogue between Member States and Commission will take place in the Social Protection Committee, building on the experience of the first year of implementation. The aim is to draw conclusions towards the end of 2002 which make it possible in the run up to the second wave of NAPs/incl to consolidate the objectives and to strengthen cooperation.

The Göteborg European Council invited the candidate countries to translate the Union's economic, social and environmental objectives into their national policies. Promoting social inclusion is one of these objectives to be translated in national policies and the Commission encourages candidate countries to make use to this end of the Member States' experience presented in this report.

1. Major trends and challenges

Key trends

Over the most recent years, the EU has lived through a period of sustained economic growth, accompanied by significant job creation and a marked reduction in unemployment. Between 1995 and 2000, the 15 Member States enjoyed an average GDP growth rate of 2.6 %, which together with a more employment-friendly policy approach, was responsible for the creation of more than 10 million net jobs and an average employment growth rate of 1.3% per annum. Over the same period, the employment rate increased from 60 % to 63.3 % overall, and for women, the increase was even faster - from 49.7 % to 54 %. Unemployment is still high as it affects currently 14.5 million individuals in the Union, but the rate has declined steadily since 1995-97, when it had been close to 11%, to reach more than 8% in 2000. Reflecting a more active approach overall to labour market policy, long-term unemployment has declined even faster, resulting in a reduction of the share in unemployment from 49 % to 44 % (Table 10).

In contrast with the generalised acceptance that the economic and employment situation has improved, the perception of trends in poverty and social exclusion is quite uneven across Member States. While some admit that the situation has worsened, or at least has not changed significantly, in the latter part of the nineties, others suggest that it has improved, essentially due to the fall in unemployment. In many Member States renewed economic growth and increased levels of employment have helped to largely stabilise, but still at too high a level, the situation in relation to poverty and social exclusion which had deteriorated with economic recession in the mid nineties. However, the lack of a commonly accepted analytical framework makes it is difficult to come to definite conclusions.

Current deficiencies in the available statistical coverage, including the measurement of changes over time, compound the difficulties in getting an accurate picture of recent developments. The latest year for which income data are known across Member States is 1997 (and not for all Member States). The relative poverty rate, defined as the proportion of individuals living in households where income is below 60% of the national equivalised median income, was 18% [2] in that year, just about the same as in 1995. This corresponds to more than 60 million individuals in the EU of which about half were consistently living below the relative poverty threshold for three successive years (1995-97).

[2] This figure is based on harmonised data from Eurostat's European Community Household Panel (ECHP).

The use of the relative poverty rate is also useful as an indicator of the overall impact of the social protection system on the distribution of income. Relative poverty would have affected 26% of the EU population if social transfers other than old-age pensions had not been counted as part of income, and 41% if old-age pensions had also not been considered (Table 6).

While the overall gender gaps in relative poverty rates is small [3], it is very significant for some groups: people living alone especially older women (relative poverty rate for older men is 15%, for older women 22%) and for single parents who are mostly women (40%) (Table 3a and 3c).

[3] The measured gender gap in low-income does not match the current perception of gender differences in the exposure to poverty and social exclusion. This can be partly explained by the fact that income data are collected at the level of the household and the assumption that there is an equal sharing of the household income among all adult members.

Relative income poverty was substantially higher for the unemployed, particular age groups, such as children and young people, and some types of households such as lone parent families and couples with numerous children. The 60% relative poverty line is used in this report as the best indicator which is currently available to draw comparisons on poverty across the EU. However, it is recognised that a purely monetary indicator, while important, cannot capture the full complexity and multi-dimensionality of poverty and social exclusion. Income is however just one dimension of poverty and social exclusion. Across the Union, substantial numbers of people appeared to live in an unfavourable situation with respect to financial problems, basic needs, consumer durables, housing conditions, health, social contacts and overall satisfaction [4]. One in every six persons in the EU (17%) faced multiple disadvantages extending to two or even all three of the following areas - financial situation, basic needs and housing.

[4] For a detailed analysis of non-monetary poverty indicators based on the 1996 European Community Household Panel, see "European social statistics - Income, poverty and social exclusion", Eurostat 2000.

While persons in a low-income household appeared to be much more frequently disadvantaged in non-monetary terms than the rest of the population, the relationship between income and non-monetary dimensions of poverty is by no means simple. A substantial number of people living above the relative poverty line may not be able to satisfy at least one of the needs identified as basic. On the other hand, the actual living standards for those living below the relative poverty line are strongly conditioned by such factors as house ownership, health condition, security of work income, need of extra care for elderly or disabled members of the household, etc. Account should also be taken of the fact that the relative poverty lines are national and that they vary widely across Member States. The monetary value of the relative poverty line varies between 11 400 PPS (or 12 060 euros) in Luxembourg [5] and 3 800 PPS [6] (or 2 870 euros) in Portugal.

[5] All data for Luxembourg refers to 1996.

[6] PPS= Purchasing Power Standards a notional currency which excludes the influence of differences in price levels between countries; Source: Eurostat

It can also be useful to examine dispersion around the 60% relative poverty threshold. In this regard it is worth noting that the figures for the number of people below 70%, 50% and 40% of national equivalised median income were 25%, 12% and 7% respectively in 1997 for the Union as a whole.

There is a fairly clear correlation between expenditure in social protection and the level of relative poverty (see graphs 1 to 4 in the Statistical Annex). Member States with the most developed welfare systems and with high per capita social expenditure levels (i.e. well above the EU average of 5532 PPS in 1998), such as Luxembourg, Denmark, Netherlands, Sweden and Germany, tend to be most successful in both ensuring access to basic necessities and keeping the numbers falling below relative poverty lines well below the EU average. For such countries the issue of poverty and social exclusion, while important, tends to be narrowed down to a number of very particular risk factors. The lowest relative poverty rates in the EU in 1997 were found in Denmark (8%), Finland (9%), Luxembourg [7] and Sweden (12%).

[7] All data for Luxembourg refers to 1996

In contrast, in Member States with less developed welfare systems, which historically have experienced lower levels of expenditure on social protection and investment in public services, partly as a result of a lower level of labour productivity, poverty and social exclusion are likely to be a more widespread and fundamental problem. In these countries, the relative poverty rate tends to be higher and especially so in Portugal (23%) the UK and Greece (22%) [8] - see Graph 1 in Annex I. In addition, some of these countries are experiencing rapid transition from a rural to a modern society and see evolving forms of social exclusion coexisting alongside more traditional forms.

[8] It should be noted that these figures do not fully take into account the equalising effect that widespread owner-occupation of housing and/or income received in kind may have in some of these Member States.

The relatively wide quantitative variations across the EU as regards the risk of relative poverty illustrate the different starting points from which Member States had to develop their policy priorities in the NAPs/incl.

Key structural changes

There is an acknowledgement in the NAPs/incl of four major structural changes that are occurring across the EU and which are likely to have a significant impact over the next ten years. In practice these are reflected more or less strongly in the different proposed strategies depending largely on the extent to which Member States looked either at the past and present or looked from the present to the future when drawing up their plans. These structural changes are both creating opportunities for enhancing and strengthening social cohesion and putting new pressures on and posing new challenges for the main systems of inclusion. In some cases they are leading to new risks of poverty and social exclusion for particularly vulnerable groups. They are:

Labour market changes: There are major structural changes in the labour market resulting from a period of very rapid economic change and globalisation. They are creating both new opportunities and new risks:

-There is increasing demand for new skills and higher levels of education. This can create new job opportunities but also create new barriers for those who are lacking the skills necessary to access such opportunities, thus creating more insecurity for those who are unable to adapt to the new demands.

-There are also new job opportunities in services for people with low skills leading to increased income into households, though this can also lead to the danger of persistent low paid and precarious employment, especially for women and youths.

-There are also more opportunities for part-time and new forms of work which can lead to new flexibility in balancing home and work responsibilities and to a pathway into more stable employment, but also can result in more precarious employment.

-These trends are often accompanied by a decline in some traditional industries and a drift of economic wealth from some areas to others thus marginalising some communities and creating problems of congestion in others. This problem receives particular attention in the NAPs/incl of Greece, Portugal, Ireland, the UK and Finland and is also evident in the regional differences within Spain, Italy and Germany.

Overall, these structural changes in labour markets, which often impact on the weakest in society, have been recognised by all Member States.

eInclusion: The very rapid growth of the knowledge-based society and Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) is leading to major structural changes in society both in economic and employment terms and in terms of how people and communities relate to one another. These changes hold out both important opportunities and significant risks. On the positive side ICTs are creating new job opportunities and more flexible ways of working that can both facilitate the reconciliation of work and family life and allow more flexibility about where people work. They can contribute to the regeneration of isolated and marginal communities. They can be used to improve the quality of key public services, to enhance access to information and rights for everyone and to make participation easier for people with particular disadvantages such as people with disabilities or people who are isolated and alone. On the other hand, for those who are already at high risk of exclusion, ICTs can create another layer of exclusion and widen the gap between rich and poor if some vulnerable and low income groups do not have equal access to them. The challenge facing Member States is to develop coherent and proactive policies to ensure that ICTs do not create a new under-skilled and isolated group in society. Thus they must invest in ensuring equal access, training and participation for all.

In the NAPs/incl, the eInclusion issue is substantially recognised by the different Member States on the basis of a quite developed analysis of the risks and current national gaps. However, the scale of the challenge is not well quantified and indicators are in general not developed in the Plans.

Demographic changes and increased ethnic diversity: There are significant demographic changes taking place across Europe which see more people living longer and hence a greater number of older people and particularly very old people, the majority of whom are women. This is particularly highlighted by some Member States (Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Greece, Austria) but is generally a growing issue. The old-age dependency ratio, defined as the proportion of people aged over 65 to working-age population (20-64) has increased from 25 % to 27 % between 1995 and 2000, and is foreseen to increase further to 53 % by 2050 (Source: Eurostat).

A reduction in birth rates in many countries is also contributing to an increase in dependency ratios. This has important implications for poverty and social exclusion in several respects:

-Tax/welfare systems are being challenged to fund adequate pensions for all older people, particularly for those, mainly women, whose working career has not been sufficiently long and/or continuous to accumulate satisfactory pension entitlements;

-Whereas public services are being challenged to meet the needs of a growing elderly population, to provide care and support, to ensure ongoing opportunities to participate fully in society and to cope with increasing demands on health services.

Several Member States recognise in their NAPincl a trend towards growing ethnic, cultural and religious diversity in society, fuelled by international migration flows and increased mobility within the Union. In a recent communication ( COM 2001 (387) ) the Commission has also emphasised that, due to demographic and other pressures, there will be a need for increased migration of both skilled and unskilled workers in the EU. This has important implications for all policies which aim at promoting social inclusion and strengthening social cohesion. In it's communication, the Commission has stressed that "failure to develop an inclusive and tolerant society which enables different ethnic minorities to live in harmony with the local population of which they form part leads to discrimination, social exclusion and the rise of racism and xenophobia."

Changing Household structures and the role of men and women: In addition to the ageing population requiring more care, households are changing more frequently as an effect of growing rates of family break ups and the trend towards de-institutionalisation of family life [9]. At the same time women's access to the labour market is sharply increasing. Moreover, women were traditionally, and still often are, in charge of unpaid care for dependents. The interaction between all these trends raises the crucial issues of reconciling work and family life and providing adequate and affordable care for dependent family members.

[9] COM (2001) "The social situation in the European Union 2001.

This is acknowledged to various degrees by all Member States. The increased participation of women in the labour market is seen as positive in terms of promoting greater equality between men and women, generating higher household incomes to lift families out of poverty and increasing opportunities for active participation in society. The main challenge is then for services and systems to respond in new ways to support parents combining work and home responsibilities and in ensuring that those who are vulnerable are provided with adequate care and support. This is particularly stressed by those Member States such as Greece, Spain, Italy and Portugal for whom the family and community was the key support against poverty and exclusion.

An aspect of the changing household structure is the growing number of one-parent households. These households tend to experience higher levels of poverty, as evidenced by the fact that 40% of the people living in such households were below the relative poverty line in 1997 (the same percentage as in 1995) (Table 3c). Such risks are particularly acute for women who constitute the large majority of single parents. This is emphasised in a number of NAPs/incl (Austria, Belgium, France, Germany. Spain, UK). However, it is noticeable how a number of countries (in particular Finland, Denmark and Sweden) have much lower levels of relative poverty among one-parent families.

Key risk factors

The NAPs/incl clearly identify a number of recurring risks or barriers that play a critical role in limiting people's access to the main systems that facilitate inclusion in society. These risks and barriers mean that some individuals, groups and communities are particularly at risk of or vulnerable to poverty and social exclusion and are also likely to experience difficulties in adjusting to the structural changes taking place. They also serve to highlight the multidimensional nature of the problem, as it is usually due to a combination or accumulation of these risks that people (both adults and children) are trapped in situations of poverty and social exclusion. While the intensity of the risks varies significantly across Member States, there is a fairly homogeneous perception of the importance of the following risks:

Long-term dependence on low/inadequate income: A number of Member States highlight how the longer the length of time someone has to survive on a very low income the greater the degree of deprivation and exclusion from social, cultural and economic activity and the greater the risk of extreme social isolation. 1997 ECHP data on people living in persistent poverty, that is people who have lived for three or more years in households below 60% of the national median equivalised income, suggests that this is a particular problem for 15% of the population in Portugal, 11% in Ireland, France and Greece, and 10% in the UK (Table 7). The issue of indebtedness associated with low income also features in a number of NAPs/incl.

Long-term unemployment: There is a clear correlation between long term unemployment and low income. People who have been jobless for a long time tend to lose the skills and the self-esteem necessary to regain a foothold in the labour market, unless appropriate and timely support is provided. For countries with high levels of long-term unemployment such as Spain, Greece, Italy, Germany, Belgium or France, with rates exceeding the EU average of 3.6 % in 2000 (Table 9), this risk is considered as a major factor behind poverty and social exclusion. However, all Member States highlight the risks of poverty and social exclusion associated with unemployment and especially long-term unemployment.

Low quality employment or absence of employment record: Being in employment is by far the most effective way to secure oneself against the risk of poverty and social exclusion. This is clearly borne out by evidence drawn from the ECHP according to which only 6% of the employed population in the EU lived below the relative poverty line in 1997, as against 38% of the unemployed and 25% of the inactive (Table 3b). However, remaining in and out of insecure, low paid, low quality and often part-time employment, can lead to persistent poverty and weaker social and cultural relationships as well as leading to inadequate pensions in the future. While the proportion of the "working poor" has been stable in 1995-97, the phenomenon has been more noticeable in a few Member States (Greece and Portugal, with an in-work relative poverty rate of 11%).

In addition, the absence of employment record is recognised as a key risk factor in particular for women when combined with a family break up and for single elderly women in countries where pension mainly depends on work record.

Low level of education and illiteracy: The lack of basic skills and qualifications is a major barrier to inclusion in society and this is even more the case in an increasingly knowledge-based society. There is thus a growing danger of new cleavages in society being created between the haves and have-nots of skills and qualifications. This is well acknowledged by most Member States.

While the total inability to read and write has now been largely eradicated in Europe, except among a small number of the elderly, ethnic minorities and immigrants, the phenomenon of functional illiteracy is widespread. This is recognised by several Member States, notably Greece, Ireland, Portugal and the Netherlands, who highlight the particularly severe difficulties that people with literacy problems face in participating in society and integrating into the labour market.

Many Member States recognise that some groups have particularly high risk of educational disadvantage. For example, Austria, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, Spain and Germany identify poorly educated young people, particularly during the transition from school to work, as a significant group at risk of poverty. Encouragingly several Member States specifically recognise the challenge of integrating children with disabilities into mainstream education provision if their very high risk of educational disadvantage and social exclusion is to be countered. Some Member States such as the Netherlands also highlight the problems of older people with low educational qualifications and the difficulties they face both in accessing the labour market and more generally participating in society. The high levels of educational disadvantage experienced by immigrants and ethnic minorities are stressed by many Member States as are the language barriers that many of them face.

Growing up in a vulnerable family: Children growing up in households affected by divorce, lone parent households, poor households with numerous children, jobless households, or households in which there is domestic violence are perceived as being at great risk of poverty and social exclusion. This is borne out by evidence from the ECHP showing that households with 2 adults and 3 or more children and households with a single parent with at least 1 dependent child have the highest relative poverty rates of all household types,respectively 35% in 1996, and 40% in 1997 (Table 3c). Indeed in most Member States, children (0-15) are at a greater risk of relative poverty than adults, their average EU relative poverty rate standing at 25% in 1997, as against 13% for adults (25-49) (Table 3a). Young people (16-24) also show a great vulnerability to relative poverty, as 23% of them live below the relative poverty line. There is much evidence that children growing up in poverty tend to do less well educationally, have poorer health, enjoy fewer opportunities to participate and develop socially, recreationally and culturally and are at greater risk of being involved in or affected by anti-social behaviour and substance abuse. Some NAPincl have particularly emphasised this risk, as is the case with Finland, Portugal and the UK.

Disability: The majority of Member States clearly identify people with disabilities as a group potentially at risk of social exclusion. This is in line with the public perceptions on the importance of disability: 97% of EU citizens think more should be done to integrate people with disabilities more fully into society [10]. It also ties in with consistent evidence from the ECHP of the high risk of poverty for people who are ill or disabled. However, the lack of detailed data and common indicators for people with disabilities is striking. Only Italy, Spain, Portugal, UK and France list clear indicators for people with disabilities, thereby attempting to gain a real picture of the situation. It will be of fundamental importance to improve the provision of indicators on social inclusion for people with disabilities

[10] Results of a Eurobarometer survey conducted in 2000.

Poor Health: There is a widespread understanding that poor health is both a cause and a consequence of wider socio-economic difficulties. The overall health status of the population tends to be weaker in lower income groups. The percentage of people claiming their health to be (very) bad was significantly higher for the income poor than for the non-poor in the Union as a whole (13% and 9% respectively [11]), as well as in all Member States. Finland, Sweden, Spain, Greece, the Netherlands, the UK and Ireland, highlight in their NAPs/incl the strong correlation between poor health and poverty and exclusion. Particularly vulnerable groups such as the Romaand Travellers have poor life expectancy and higher rates of infant mortality. This correlation depends on various factors but in particular on the extent to which adverse social and environmental factors, which are experienced disproportionately by people on low incomes, can make it difficult for individuals to make healthier choices.

[11] ECHP, 1996 as reported in the Social Situation in the European Union 2001.

Living in an area of multiple disadvantage: Growing up or living in an area of multiple deprivation is likely to intensify the exclusion and marginalisation of those in poverty and make their inclusion back into the mainstream more difficult. Such areas often tend also to develop a culture of welfare dependency, experience high levels of crime, drug trafficking and anti-social behaviour and have a concentration of marginalised groups like lone parents, immigrants, ex-offenders and substance abusers. Regenerating such mainly suburban and urban areas is seen as a significant challenge across the majority of Member States.

Precarious housing conditions and homelessness: Lack of access to adequate housing or accommodation is a significant factor in increasing isolation and exclusion and is perceived as a major problem in some Member States. Pressure on housing supply is particularly noted in areas of rapid growth in Sweden, Finland, and Ireland leading to significant problems of congestion. Particular groups such as immigrants and ethnic minorities (notably the Roma and Travellers) can also face greater difficulties in securing adequate accommodation and thus experience greater exclusion. Many Member States, notably Austria, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, the UK and Finland, highlight serious problems of homelessness, and some attempt to estimate the numbers involved.

Immigration, Ethnicity, Racism and Discrimination: The majority of Member States, clearly identify ethnic minorities and immigrants as being at high risk of social exclusion [12]. Several, such as Denmark and Ireland, note the growing numbers of immigrants and the challenge of developing appropriate services and supports to help them to integrate into society and of building a more multi-cultural and inclusive society [13]. This is likely to be a growing challenge for many Member States over the next few years as the number of foreign workers and their dependants will increase [14]. A few countries point to other factors of discrimination, such as sexual orientation (Germany). In spite of the widespread recognition of such risks there is a generalised lack of data and common indicators for people from these vulnerable groups. Only Spain, Portugal, Italy, Netherlands and France list clear indicators thereby attempting to gain a real picture of the situation and needs in their countries.

[12] The term ethnic minorities generally refers to national citizens of a different ethnic origin than that of the majority of the population (e.g. the Innuits of Denmark). These may include citizens from former colonies (e.g. the black African Portugese). Yet, it may also refer to groups among the immigrant population with an ethnic origin which is distinct from that of the majority of the population (e.g. Turkish immigrants in Germany).

[13] See also Council decision of 28 September 2000 establishing a European Refugee Fund where one of the objectives is integration of certain categories of immigrants.

[14] This underlines the importance of ensuring that Community immigration policies are responsive to market needs - see communication COM 2001 (387) from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on an open co-ordination for the Community Immigration Policy.

Breaking the Cycle of Poverty and Social Exclusion - A number of these risk factors as well as being causes could equally well be seen as consequences or products of poverty and social exclusion. For instance, the concentration of poverty and multiple deprivation in certain communities, high levels of physical ill health, psychological and environmental stress, increases in crime or drug and alcohol abuse and the alienation of young people are all exacerbated by poverty and social exclusion. The point is that the causes and consequences of poverty are often inextricably linked. Thus several Member States highlight the challenge of breaking the cycle of poverty or intergenerational poverty if some individuals and groups of people are not to become further marginalised and alienated from the rest of society.

Eight core challenges

The overarching challenge for public policy is to ensure that the main mechanisms which distribute opportunities and resources - the labour market, the tax system, the systems providing social protection, education, housing, health, and other services - become sufficiently universal in the context of structural changes to address the needs of those individuals, both men and women, who are most at risk of poverty and social exclusion and to enable them to access their fundamental rights. Eight core challenges stand out from the NAPs/incl:

(1) Developing an inclusive labour market and promoting employment as a right and opportunity for all: There is general agreement across Member States of the importance of promoting access to employment not only as a key way out of poverty and social exclusion but also as a means to prevent poverty and social exclusion. The challenge is thus to develop a range of policies that promote employability and are tailored to individual needs. Such policies should be accompanied by the creation of appropriate employment opportunities for those who are least able to access the mainstream labour market as well as adequate and affordable measures to reconcile work and family responsibilities.

(2) Guaranteeing an adequate income and resources to live in human dignity: The challenge is to ensure that all men, women and children have a sufficient income to lead life with dignity and to participate in society as full members. For several Member States, it means reviewing the systems and policies operating a redistribution of resources across society so that those unable to earn their living or who are retired have incomes that keep pace with general trends in living standards in the wider society. It may also include the development of adequate policy approaches to prevent and tackle problems of overindebtedness.

(3) Tackling educational disadvantage: The challenge here is perceived by some Member States as to increase investment in education as a key long-term policy to prevent poverty and social exclusion. In accordance with Member States' priorities, this challenge may involve working to prevent educational disadvantage by developing effective interventions at an early age (including adequate and comprehensive child care provision), adapting the education system so that schools successfully respond to the needs and characteristics of children from disadvantaged backgrounds, preventing young people from dropping out of school (and bringing those that did back to learning), developing and extending lifelong learning so that there are customised education and training opportunities accessible to vulnerable groups, enhancing access to basic skills provision or tackling (functional) illiteracy. It also may involve strengthening the role of education and training establishments in promoting norms and values such as social cohesion, equal opportunities and active citizenship.

(4) Preserving family solidarity and protecting the rights of children: For several Member States, the challenge is to find new ways of supporting the family in all its forms as a prevention against poverty and social exclusion that take into account the changing roles of men and women in society. In addition, giving particular support and guidance to vulnerable families and protecting the rights of children is another key challenge in a number of countries.

(5) Ensuring good accommodation for all: Access to good quality and affordable accommodation is a fundamental need and right. Ensuring that this need is met is still a significant challenge in a number of Member States. In addition, developing appropriate integrated responses both to prevent and address homelessness is another essential challenge for some countries.

(6) Guaranteeing equal access to quality services (health, transport, social, care, cultural, recreational, legal): A major policy challenge, particularly for those Member States who have had a low investment in such services, is to develop policies that will ensure equal access across this wide range of policy domains. In this context it is striking that the legal, cultural, sporting and recreational dimensions remain undeveloped in many NAPs/incl.

(7) Improving delivery of services: Delivery of social services is not limited to the ministries of social affairs but involves other actors, public and private, national and local. Four kinds of challenges can be identified from a large number of NAPs/incl. First, to overcome the fragmentation and compartmentalisation of policy making and delivery both nationally and locally. This means addressing the need for greater integration between different policy domains and complementing national plans with integrated approaches at regional and local level. Secondly, to address the issue of the links between the national, regional and local levels, particularly in those Member States with strong regional structures. Thirdly, to overcome the problem of policies and programmes that seem remote, inflexible, unresponsive and unaccountable and to address the gap between democratic structures and those who are poor and excluded. Fourthly, to mobilise all actors in the struggle against poverty and social exclusion and to build greater public support for the policies and programmes necessary to shape an inclusive society.

(8) Regenerating areas of multiple deprivation: The challenge of developing effective responses to the problems posed by areas of multiple deprivation (both urban and rural) so that they are reintegrated into the mainstream economy and society is recognised by Member States.

2. Strategic approaches and policy measures

Promoting a strategic and integrated approach

The Nice objectives were set in a political framework that made the promotion of social cohesion an essential element in the EU global strategy for the next ten years. The 2001 NAPs/incl are therefore a first step in a multi-annual process which should contribute to making a decisive impact on the eradication of poverty and social exclusion in the EU within that horizon. Furthermore, poverty and social exclusion take complex and multi-dimensional forms that require the mobilisation of a wide range of policies as part of an integrated approach. Member States were therefore encouraged to develop in their NAPs/incl a strategic and integrated approach to fighting poverty and social exclusion.

The aim of the present chapter is to analyse the extent to which Member States have in their NAPs/incl appropriately framed their policy measures in a strategic and integrated approach For this purpose, the NAPs/incl have been reviewed in respect of three key criteria:

1. the analysis and the diagnosis of key risks and challenges to be addressed by the NAPs/incl;

2. the extent to which NAPs/incl translate the common objectives into clear and detailed priorities and goals, in the light of national circumstances, and

3. the extent to which NAPs/incl overcome a purely sectoral and target-group approach and develop an integrated policy approach.

The way national strategies are developed in the NAPs/incl reflect underlying differences across Member States in terms of:

-the nature of the social protection system, the underlying level of public expenditure in social protection, and its effectiveness;

-the perceived dimension of poverty and social exclusion, which in some cases is assimilated to the specific problems of most vulnerable groups in society, while in others it is considered as pervasive to the society as a whole;

-the extent to which an integrated anti-poverty strategy, encompassing a broadly agreed analytical framework, a set of priorities and a monitoring process, already exists in the country;

-the political structure of the country, determining how the responsibilities in the fight against poverty and social exclusion are distributed between the central, regional and local authorities.

By taking into account the three above mentioned criteria, the following typology can be established, in order to highlight how NAPs/incl develop a strategic and integrated approach to tackling poverty and social exclusion, without analysing the performance of every country.

-The NAPs/incl of Denmark, France and Netherlands provide a comprehensive analysis of important structural trends and their underlying causes from which they identify key challenges with regard to poverty and social exclusion. The overriding response in these NAPs/incl is proactive, set in a framework that includes time horizons, objectives and quantitative targets extending beyond 2003 [15]. Preventive approaches also receive more attention as a result. A key characteristic of these three NAPs/incl is their holistic approach aimed at supporting structural change. This also leads them to link and integrate policies in a more consistent way. However, there are some areas which could have been developed further in these NAPs/incl such as the gender dimension in the Netherlands, the labour market integration of immigrants in Denmark, and the development of specific objectives and financial means in the case of France, which have to be articulated in the light of the national programme to combat social exclusion adopted later on.

[15] The NL NAPincl, for example, includes targets to reduce illiteracy among adults by 10% in 2003, to reduce problematic debts by 10% in 2005, to reduce early school leavers by half in 2010, and to guarantee full accessibility to city & regional transport and rail transport in 2010 and 2030 respectively.

-The NAPs/incl of Portugal, Finland, Sweden and the UK are solidly underpinned by diagnoses of key challenges and risks and set out reasonably coherent and strategic approaches. The NAPs/incl of Finland and Sweden place the fight against poverty and social exclusion very much in the context of their developed universal social protection systems which they intend to improve further through a range of very specific measures. The NAPs/incl of Portugal and the UK are particularly strong on diagnosis and set ambitious quantitative targets [16]. The Portuguese plan, however, was less able to prioritise among a very wide range of concrete objectives and it is not clear how resources will be channelled to reach the set targets. The UK NAP tends to focus on a number of particular issues like child poverty, problem neighbourhoods, lone parents and teenage pregnancies for which it sets out policies that are to be pursued as part of a comprehensive and integrated policy framework.

[16] The Portuguese NAPincl commits itself to eradicating child poverty by 2010, to reduce the absolute poverty rate by 50 % and its national poverty rate to the national EU average of 17 % before 2005.

-The NAPs/incl of Belgium, Germany, Spain, Italy and Ireland contain elements of a national strategy that is being improved in order to reflect new realities or made more coherent. The NAPs/incl of the first four Member States reflect the extent to which responsibility for key policies (e.g. health, education and social assistance, etc.) is largely devolved to regional and local authorities. This has the advantage of ensuring that strategies can better reflect local differences and be more responsive to local needs. It can also facilitate the mobilisation and participation of all actors. However, it also leads to particular challenges in terms of integrating local, regional and national policies and in combining overall national and regional targets. The process of developing an overall plan under these conditions has also proved a more complex one which requires a more lengthy period of preparation. None of these NAPs/incl have either set overall targets [17] or developed a comprehensive set of regional or local targets. The Belgian, Italian and Spanish NAPs/incl have particularly strong sections on diagnosis and indicators, which provide a comprehensive overview and analysis, while the German NAP/incl makes reference to a recent national poverty report.. Spain has pulled together relevant policies and actors, at all levels, as a first step towards developing a more strategic approach and several regions have now prepared regional plans. In addition to reviewing its overall planning processes and its approach to social policy, Italy has also pulled together in its NAP/incl a range of recent national, sectoral and regional initiatives into a comprehensive overview and all regions are in the process of developing social plans. The Belgium and German NAPs/incl have to be seen in the context of the efforts currently undertaken by these countries to promote a more inclusive and active Welfare State.

[17] Ireland mentions overall targets included in the current National Anti-Poverty Strategy (NAPS) which will be revised soon.

The Irish NAP/incl documents a wide range of anti-poverty measures already in place in the framework of its existing National Anti-Poverty Strategy (NAPs) but does not develop its analysis or update and refocus its overall strategy, priorities or targets. This is due to an ongoing review of the NAPs involving widespread consultations. [18]

[18] As the review is not due to be completed until the end of 2001 it was not possible to incorporate its findings into the NAP/incl. However, Ireland is committed to ensuring that the current review of the NAPs is informed by the Nice objectives and the NAPs/incl process. In future the NAPs and the NAPincl process will coalesce.

-The NAPs/incl of Greece, Luxemburg and Austria basically provide a snapshot analysis of the situation on poverty and social exclusion and the policies that are currently in place to address the key problems. The analysis of longer term structural trends and their underlying causes is less developed and as a result these plans do not present long-term quantified targets. The NAPs/incl of Austria and Luxembourg aim at improving their comprehensive social protection systems by adding or extending some measures but have chosen not to use the NAPs/incl to develop a more strategic approach. The Greek NAP/incl, which in itself represents a significant step forward, provides an analysis of the main challenges and problems and develops a pragmatic approach for the next two years focusing on selected target groups in the wider context of economic, employment and social reforms.

While the NAPs/incl may differ in terms of the strategic approach which they have developed, all share a range of fundamental principles and objectives underpinning the European social model, such as "solidarity", "social cohesion", "respect for human dignity and fundamental rights", "integration and full participation in society" and "high level of social protection". At least two aspects are worth highlighting among those strategic elements that are common to most NAPs/incl.

Most NAPs/incl recognise the need for policies that invest in new starts. Building inclusive and active societies goes beyond protecting people against major risks and drawbacks in life. Initiatives taken in the NAPs/incl with regard, for instance to exclusion from the labour market, long-term unemployment, delinquency or addiction, skills redundancy, homelessness, family breakdown, poor or inadequate school behaviour and intergenerational poverty, respond to the often complex needs and difficult conditions faced by those for whom they are intended. They reflect a framework of rights and duties underpinning the goods, services and other provisions made available to support new starts.

Most NAPs/incl tend to tackle risk and disadvantage no longer defensively, i.e. as a threat, but to develop strategic responses that turn risk and disadvantage into opportunity. Policies and actions in relation to disability, migration, and deprived areas, for example, seek increasingly to bring out and develop the untapped potential of immigrants, people with disabilities, lone parents and older people as well as lagging regions and neighbourhoods. However, while most Member States aspire to achieving as universal and inclusive systems as possible which will support the integration and development of such individuals and areas and underpin people's fundamental rights as citizens, in practice several Member States still tend to concentrate on less universalist and more selective policies which are based on a sectoral and target-group approach.

Promoting exchange of good practice and innovation

An important goal of the new European process is to promote the exchange of good practice and innovative approaches, in order to facilitate mutual learning. It was therefore expected that all NAPs/incl would set out in a structured manner a range of policy measures to tackle the priorities defined in the framework of the Nice objectives. Two issues are important in assessing how the different NAPs/incl have met such a requirement.

1. To what extent can the NAPs/incl be used as a primary source for identifying good practice of common interest to Member States-

2. To what extent has the NAPs/incl exercise led to the formulation of new and/or innovative policy measures and approaches-

Member States have included in their NAPs/incl a more or less detailed description of the policy measures in place or planned in order to meet their priorities. Some member States, particularly those with universal systems, opted to highlight new and more specific measures while taking for granted knowledge of their existing systems. The large majority have included examples of good practice to facilitate their identification. Therefore, in addition to their political relevance, the NAPs/incl also constitute a wealthy source of information which enables the Commission and the Member States to obtain an updated and comprehensive overview of the major policies in place. However, the examples of policies given under the different chapters of this report are based on the information delivered in the NAPs/incl and do not represent exhaustive lists of existing policies in this domain.

The lack of in-depth post evaluation analysis of the impact of current policies has limited the possibility of identifying which measures, approaches or initiatives deserve good practice status in the present report. Evaluation of policies (both ex ante and ex post) seems to be a key area for future development, with social benefits being made more explicit. Given overall constraints on resources, it is essential also to focus on the costs of policies and to look at whether other policies could achieve the same aims more efficiently. Also, in examining the possibilities of dissemination of good practice, full account should be taken of the underlying conditions in each Member State, and the extent to which they have conditioned success.

The identification of good practice and innovative approaches of common interest has therefore to be seen as an ongoing process of which the present report is just the first step. The examples from the member States highlighted in boxes in this report should be understood in this light. The exchange of good practice between Members States will be enhanced in the future by more extensive evaluations of the impact of national policies and through the development of a comprehensive set of indicators and methodologies, at both national and EU level.

The relatively short time available to develop the first NAPs/incl has impaired the formulation of new and/or innovative policy measures and approaches. The measures presented in all NAPs/incl have basically been developed in the context of existing budgetary and legal frameworks. Most Member States therefore have focused their efforts on improving co-ordination, refining and combining existing policies and measures and promoting partnership, rather than launching important new initiatives or policy approaches. These goals are facilitated for Member States like Denmark, Netherlands, Sweden and Finland, which already possess highly developed universal policies, or France, where the policy efforts against exclusion are being strengthened after last year's evaluation of the 1998 national law against social exclusion. For these reasons, the NAPs/incl of these countries tend to be relatively more forward-looking [19]. Other Member States, like Portugal and Spain, saw in the preparation of the NAPs/incl an opportunity to introduce more ambition in their policies against poverty and social exclusion, by setting targets or rationalising the policy framework.

[19] The Finnish NAP/incl, while not including any new measure, refers to a range of policy issues being considered for further policy developments.

3. Identification of good practice and innovative approaches

Policy responses in the NAPs/incl generally consist of a mix of market-oriented responses, public policy provision and civil society action. Throughout the different policy strands it is possible to identify three general goals which they seek to promote:

-Universality: This means ensuring increased levels of Adequacy, Access and Affordability of mainline policies and provisions with the view to improving their coverage, uptake and effectiveness.

-A level playing field: This means addressing specific disadvantages that can be overcome by the use of appropriate policy (e.g. lack of skills);

-Solidarity for human dignity: This means compensating for disadvantages that can only be partially (or not at all) overcome (e.g. disabilities).

3.1 Objective 1: To facilitate participation in employment and access by all to resources, rights, goods and services

3.1.1 Facilitating participation in employment

In the context of the European employment strategy, and the implementation of the guidelines in particular:

(a) To promote access to stable and quality employment for all women and men who are capable of working, in particular:

-By putting in place, for those in the most vulnerable groups in society, pathways towards employment and by mobilising training policies to that end;

-By developing policies to promote the reconciliation of work and family life, including the issue of child and dependent care;

-By using the opportunities for integration and employment provided by the social economy.

(b) To prevent the exclusion of people from the world f work by improving employability, through human resource management, organisation of work and lifelong learning.

All Member States agree that promoting participation in employment is a key way of both preventing and alleviating poverty and social exclusion. The right to work is a fundamental right and a key element of citizenship. Participation in the social community of a workplace is, for most people, a key means of both ensuring an adequate income (both in the present and when retired) and extending and developing social networks. This facilitates participation in society and reduces the risk of marginalisation.

In their NAPs/incl most Member States make links with the NAPs/empl. This was indeed expected, as the Employment Guidelines put due emphasis on the creation of job opportunities and the improvement of employability, which are essential conditions for making the labour market more open and inclusive. Some Member States recognise the important role that the European Employment Strategy has played in developing a more effective policy approach to fighting unemployment based on individualisation, activation and prevention.

Most of the policy areas and initiatives mentioned in this section were already considered under the Luxembourg Process. However, while the Joint Employment Report covers the whole range of policy actions which aim at improving the efficiency of the labour market and increasing the employment levels towards the targets set in Lisbon, and must be evaluated as such, the present report tends to focus on actions that will facilitate participation in employment for those individuals, groups and communities who are most distant from the labour market. A number of Member States have rightly noted the positive role that such actions can play towards more general employment goals, such as increasing the employment rate. While all NAPs/incl prioritise employment there are differences in emphasis. These tend to reflect differences in the employment situation across Member States. Countries with high employment and low unemployment emphasise the need to increase labour participation of specific groups, such as older people, immigrants or people with disabilities (Luxembourg, Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden and Ireland), also with a view to tackling current labour shortages. On the other hand, countries where unemployment and especially long-term unemployment is a widespread problem concentrate on more comprehensive policies to encourage job creation and increase the employability of the long term unemployed and young people (Spain, France, Belgium).

Many Member States, while emphasising the centrality of work, also stress that access to work should not be promoted regardless of other fundamental rights but rather should complement them. Thus access to work should not be at the expense of the right to an adequate minimum income, the right to participate fully in family, community and social life or the right to good health.

Full access to stable and quality employment for all women and men who are capable of working is to be seen as a result of a complex process of transformation of labour markets. In the Danish NAP/incl, the outcome of such transformation is defined as the inclusive labour market, where more persons with poor qualifications or reduced capacity for work get a chance to use their skills and participate in working life. The inclusive labour market is a broad concept mainly expressing the expectations that workplaces should be open to persons who are not capable, under all circumstance and at all times, of complying with prevailing performance or norms.

Policies that increase the employability of the most hard-to-place individuals, through the use of active policies, and in particular training, as well as policies aiming at reconciliation of family and work life or the promotion of the social economy, may be an efficient way to promote social inclusion. But an essential step is to make the existing labour market more open and responsive to employing individuals and groups who are currently marginalised and excluded.

Promoting a more open and responsive labour market

Measures to increase the openness and responsiveness of the existing labour market to people who are currently excluded include:

-Introducing social clauses/chapters in collective agreements for employing and retaining persons with reduced capacity for work in the labour market (Denmark) or establishing quotas for the employment of particular groups such as people with disabilities (Germany, Austria);

-reducing employers' costs in employing people with less skills or certain categories of unemployed (Luxembourg, Greece, Sweden);

-promoting education and training of employers to counter prejudices or discrimination against people from particular communities or particular backgrounds and regular review and monitoring of recruitment procedures and outcomes;

-ensuring that government agencies prepare action plans for the promotion of ethnic diversity among employees (Sweden);

-inserting social clauses into publicly awarded contracts requiring the employment of people who are long-term unemployed or from special groups or from local disadvantaged communities or the introduction of a policy of ethnic equality (Denmark);

-expanding "sheltered", "near market" and rehabilitative job opportunities for particularly vulnerable people (Denmark, Finland);

-promoting entrepreneurship amongst disadvantaged groups and communities and provide intensive support to local economic development initiatives in areas of multiple disadvantage;

-focusing economic investment and employment development policies on unemployment blackspots, particularly areas of multiple disadvantage (UK; see also section 3.3.3);

Putting in place pathways towards employment

Developing and implementing pathways towards employment is widely recognised as a key dimension of developing a more inclusive labour market. Pathways normally combine several insertion measures like counselling, training, subsidised or sheltered employment, with the activation of social assistance recipients. This is a crucial and sensitive aspect as often social assistance recipients are people that are very far away from the labour market who require extensive and personalised aid. The majority of Member States reflect clearly in their NAPs/incl a change in philosophy from passive income support to active support to assist people to become autonomous. In some cases, explicit reference is made to the experience gained under the implementation of the NAPs/empl with a view to extend the same approach in order to cover also those more distant from the labour market.

The link between the labour market situation and other elements of exclusion is recognised, with many Member States quoting as an objective the better collaboration between employment and social services in order to better target individual needs (Austria, Germany, UK, Finland, Luxembourg , Spain and Sweden). This focus on employability has led to the development of more tailor made supports for people and in several cases this has led to the development of specific social insertion contracts such as in Portugal and France and Luxembourg.

Developing effective insertion and activation measures is complex and more comparative studies between Member States as to what works best for those who are most distant from the labour market would be useful. Emerging best practice seems to suggest that measures should be developed in ways that are seen as supportive and developmental and not punitive. Individualised programmes should be developed in consultation and mutually agreed after careful assessment of people's needs and potential. For those who are most distant from the labour market insertion can take time and can involve preparatory action and confidence building.

It is clear that developing more effective activation programmes requires improvement in delivery mechanisms. A number of key improvements can be identified from the NAPs/incl. These include: greater decentralisation and more integrated localised delivery of employment and social services and supports such as the establishment of fifty Employment Promotion Centres in Greece or the Social Activation Incentive Scheme in the Netherlands or efforts to reduce and streamline bureaucratic procedures (Germany and France).

While a focus on prevention and thus early intervention is important so that people do not become too distant from the labour market it is also important that schemes do not cream off those who are most easily reintegrated and give less attention to those who are less productive. If not careful this could be one of the risks in setting ambitious targets or using reintegration companies without setting sub targets for the most vulnerable groups.

As well as developing focused activation programmes many NAPs/incl also give a high priority to their training and education policies with an increased emphasis on lifelong learning and on ensuring that vulnerable groups have enhanced access to this provision (Austria, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, Sweden) and better access to apprenticeships such as Luxembourg's proposed apprenticeships for adults.

In developing a more active approach to increasing employability for long-term unemployed and those who have been long-term dependent on welfare Member States also recognise the particular challenges facing a number of especially vulnerable groups. Weakest groups in the labour market are identified as not only the long-term unemployed, but also young people, older workers, the disabled [20] and immigrants.

[20] Provisions to support the integration of disabled people in the labour market will be reviewed in section 3.3.1.

In line with the NAPs/empl, all Member States undertake to facilitate women's participation in employment [21] with a particular attention to those in more difficult situation such as the lone parents cited by most Member States, the disabled (Germany) and those with low skills (Spain, France) or returning to the labour market (Ireland).

[21] Provisions regarding the access of women in the labour market are dealt with under Chapter 4.

Young people: Many Member States prioritise problems that have arisen around the transition from school to work, in particular for those individuals who do not complete their cycle of education/vocational training. Some countries have elaborated specific programmes to ease young people into employment such as Belgium's First Job Agreement, Finland's Rehabilitative Job Activities, France's Trace programme, Sweden's Municipal Youth Programme and the UK's New Deal for Young People of work related support and training which is compulsory for young people after six months. Other countries concentrate on the development of the vocational training system as an alternative route to basic qualifications (for example Italy is reforming the vocational training system following the example of the dual system and through the development of apprenticeship and internships and Greece is developing a system of Second Opportunity Schools aiming at reintegrating individuals over 18 in the educational process by means of individualised teaching). In countries where the vocational training system is already well established (Germany, Austria, Luxembourg) the emphasis is on facilitating job search and retention as well as on training, back-up assistance and counselling to limit the number of drop-outs. In this context it is interesting to note also the attention given to financial incentives to the trainee (subsidies to training).

TRACE: personalised programme for young people in difficulty (France)

This programme is addressed to young people in difficulty. It offers each young person a tailor-made programme and follow up for 18 months by professionals and aims at placing at least 50% of them in durable employment. It is based on:

- the specific engagement of one young person with one social assistant with the signature of a contract. Each social assistant follows 30 individuals, can get to know them personally , their previous training and working experiences etc.;

- A piloting committee which coordinates and mobilises the existing activation measures which may exist at national, regional or local level. It also aims at eliminating administrative blockages and at favouring the links with other policy areas (health, housing, training etc.)

Older workers: The problem of older workers who lack the education or skills to access jobs in the modern labour market is identified by many Member States. For this reason many NAPs/incl emphasise the need for intensive skilling offensives and retraining of older workers (Germany, Finland, Netherlands and the UK). Some Member States also highlight the importance of flexible arrangements for work towards the end of a person's career (Finland, Denmark and Sweden).

Spring Programme: Exchange help for a job (BELGIUM)

This programme is aimed at long term unemployed and minimum income recipients. It combines activation measures with the use of specific contracts of the temping agencies. Temping agencies receive subsidies for 24 months both to decrease the wage bill and to train the beneficiaries. The objective is to reduce the minimum income recipients by one third in five years and to raise the number of beneficiaries of activation measures from 5% to 20%.

Ethnic minorities and immigrants: The majority of Member States clearly identify ethnic minorities and immigrants as often having particular problems in accessing the labour market and many recognise the need to increase their employment levels. A few Member States set out specific targets in their NAPs/employment with that aim (Denmark, Netherlands). A number of interesting measures in this field is mentioned in some NAPS/incl. For example in Finland integration of immigrants is supported by an integration plan jointly drawn up by the immigrant, the municipality and the employment authority. Denmark has initiated a facilitator pilot scheme providing financial support by local authorities and employment services to buy working time of an employee in private companies. Spain provides interesting case studies developed by NGOs (La Huertecica and Asociacion Candelita).

PATHWAYS TO EMPLOYMENT FOR MINORITIES (NETHERLANDS)

In June 2000 the Dutch government negotiated agreements with a number of large companies on additional efforts to be made by these companies in the areas of intercultural management, inflow, transfer and retention of members of ethnic minorities. Intercultural management is an instrument for fleshing out the social dimension of Socially Responsible Enterprise. It involves the optimum utilisation of the possibilities for cultural diversity in the workforce (with an inward focus) and an acknowledgement of the cultural diversity of the clients (the environment in which the company operates). The government facilitates the preparation and implementation of this framework agreement via the project organisation 'Ruim Baan voor Minderheden' ('Pathways to Employment for Minorities'). The tasks of the project group are to provide a platform for the exchange of best practices, product development, to implement innovative trial projects and to eliminate bureaucratic bottlenecks.

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FACILITATOR SCHEME FOR NON-DANISH ETHNIC MINORITIES (DENMARK)

The Government pilot scheme enables local authorities and Public Employment Services to provide financial support to buy working time of an employee in a private company to function as a facilitator or, in the case of small companies, to pay the fees of an external adviser facilitator. Facilitators and advisers are to help introduce new employees with a non-Danish ethnic background to the company. They inform the new employee of the norms and values in the company and facilitate dialogue and social interaction between the new employee and other employees in the company.

The target group for the scheme is unemployed people with a non-Danish ethnic background who claim cash benefits or unemployment benefits. The support scheme may be used when an unemployed person is offered ordinary employment, or it may be used in connection with offers of (individual) job training, on-the-job rehabilitation, flexible working arrangements and sheltered employment with wage subsidy.

Local authorities or the Public Employment Services can also use some of the funds to disseminate information about the facilitator scheme to companies or to arrange courses, establish networks etc.

Promoting the reconciliation of work and family life

Many Member States recognise that, in order to ensure that people stay or move into employment, it is important to help them to overcome barriers which may hinder their participation. The main factor mentioned in NAPs/incl is child (and other de