COMVIISSION OF THE, EUROPEAN COI\MUNITIES 
COM(92) 46 final 
Brussels, 20 February 1992 
GREEN PAPER 
on 
The lnapact of Transport on the Envlror.nent 
-~-
A Community strategy for •sustainable mobility• 
(Communication from the Commission) 
........ .. .... , .. 
Green Paper 
on 
The Impact of TransPort on the Environment 
A COmmunity strategy for •sKstainable 1ft0bility• 
I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 
a. Pre I iminary comments 
b. Historical background 
I I. PROBLEMS AND ISSUES 
a. Current issues 
b. The role of transport 
c. Impact of transport on the environment 
I I I. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT page 
1 
2 
6 
7 
8 
a. Operational pollution 11 
b. Land-use and intrusion 25 
c. Congestion 29 
d. Risks inherent to the transport of dangerous goods 32 
e. Conclusions of assessment 34 
IV. ECONOMIC TRENDS 
a Trends and forecasts 
b. Structural changes 
c. The user's choice 
V. A COMMON STRATEGY 
a. A global approach 
b. Balance sheet of Community action 
c. 'Sustainable mobility' and future transport 
development 
d. A new framework 36 
38 
39 
43 
45 
49 
53 

I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 
a. Preliminary comments 
1. The impact of transport on the environment is coming under 
close scrutiny in the i ndustr i a Ii sed wor Id and more 
particularly in the Community. The g loba I nature of 
env i ronmenta I issues -such as the "greenhouse effect" -has 
led to a growing awareness of the need for a world-wide 
approach to environmental problems. 
This global approach in turn has high I lghted the need to focus 
on the causes of environmental problems in a different manner. 
It is no longer considered sufficient to assess the primary or 
immediate causes, but to go to the very root of the problem -
human behaviour. Thus, the Bergen DeclarationC1) stresses 
that "unsustainable patterns of production and consumption, 
particularly in industrialised countries, are at the root of 
numerous env i ronmenta I prob I ems, not ab I y foreclosing opt ions 
for future generations by depletion of the resource 
base".< 1) It warns that "the attainment of susta i nab I e 
deve I opment. . . requires fundamenta I changes in human va I ues 
towards the environment and in patterns of behaviour and 
consumption ... 11<1> and in this respect high I lghts the need 
"to reduce the harmful effects of the transport sector on the 
environment by promoting fast, safe, and convenient urban and 
regional transport services and reducing urban car 
traffic" (1). Also noted, is the need to encourage low 
transport demand. 
2. Hence, a number of human activities, of which transport, has 
come under close scrutiny. Indeed, transport is increasing I y 
being qualified as a human activity with a negative impact on 
the environment. A clear illustration of this is the concern 
about the env i ronmenta I nuisance and damage caused by the 
high level of traffic in sensitive geographical areas such as 
(1) Bergen Ministerial Declaration on sustainable Development in the 
ECE Region, 16 May 1990, p. 2, 4 and 11. 
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the Alps, as well as in densely populated areas, particularly 
large conurbations. 
This view is also endorsed by the Group Transport 2000 Plus in 
its report "Transport In a Fast Changing Europe", which 
identifies transport as a major contributor to energy and 
environmental problems since it is one of the main consumers 
of fossil fuels and is responsible for considerable nuisance 
and damage to the environment<1>. 
b. Historical background 
3. Fol lowing the declarations at the Paris Summit in October 1972 
a decisive political impetus was given to consideration of the 
environment in planning the socio-economic development of the 
Community. As a result, the Commission adopted a first Action 
Programme on the Environment for the period 1973 to 1977. 
The main concern was to ensure the proper functioning of the 
Common Market by amongst others introducing harmonised 
standards for consumer products. 
Hence, for the transport sector this programme provided for 
technical improvements of noise and gaseous emissions of 
motor vehicles as wel I as for the maximum content of lead in 
fuel. It also provided for specific action in the area of 
marine pollution resulting from sea transport. The programme 
already drew attention to transport problems in the urban 
environment. 
4. The second Action Programme for the period 1977 to 1981 
continued the same line of action. It concentrated as far as 
transport was concerned on marine pollution, measures to 
reduce noise from motor vehicles, motor cycles and aircraft. 
(1) Group Transport 2000 Plus, Transport in a Fast Changing Europe, 
December, 1990. 
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The third Action Programme for the period 1982-1986, however, 
Introduced a new dimension Into the general philosophy. 
Environmental policy was to be motivated by the fact that the 
environment itself contains the I imits to further economic and 
social development . This Action Programme stressed the need 
for a greater awareness of the environmental dimension in the 
area of transport. Vehicle emissions, 
environmental impact assessment of 
were earmarked as priorities. aircraft noise and the 
infrastructure projects 
5. It is only in the fourth Action Programme for 1987-1992 that 
the interaction between transport and the environment Is duly 
recognised as being of a wide-ranging nature. 
This new approach was the result of the Single Act which in 
Article 130 R provides that environmental protection 
requirements sha 11 be a component of the Community's other 
policies. This approach was endorsed in the Declaration by the 
European Counci I of June 1990, which stresses the need for 
sustainable and environmentally sound development as advocated 
in the 1987 Report "Our Common Future" by the World Commission 
on Environment and Development (the Brundtland Report). 
6. A more specific response in this direct ion was given by the 
Commission in April 1989, when it was deemed necessary to 
reflect on the relationship between environmental policy and 
other Community pol lcies, in particular in the field of 
transport. The outcome of this exercise provided the 
guide I ines for further work in this area with a view to 
examine the impact of transport on the environment in a global 
and coherent framework. 
7. This Green Paper is the logical follow-up to that initial 
response as well as to the world-wide concern about a number 
of g loba I env i ronmenta I issues. The Community posit ion on 
'global warming' as reflected in the Conclusions of the Joint 
Energy and Environment Council of 29 October 1990 on Climate 
Change Policy and its commitment to the stabilisation of co2 
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emissions by the year 2000 and the possibility of reductions 
thereat ter confirms this concern as we 11 as the need for 
action. 
This Green Paper is also in line with the guidelines on urban 
transport policy set out in the Commission Green Paper on the 
Urban environmentC1) and takes account of the need to create 
new opportunities for the peripheral regions so that they may 
share fully in the prosperity of the Single Market as set out 
in the Commission Communication 'Europe 2000•.(2) 
It is also a response to the Resolution adopted by the 
European Parliament in September 1991, which calls upon "the 
Commission to submit to the Council a framework programme for 
optimum environmental protection in the European transport 
market.11<3> 
8. This Paper is also in line with the forthcoming Fifth Action 
Programme on the Environment "Towards Sustalnabi I ity", which 
outlines a new pol Icy and strategy for the protection of the 
environment and natural resources and the achievement of 
sustainable development. 
The approach adopted differs fundamentally from that of 
previous Environmental Action Programmes, since it focuses on 
the agents and activities which deplete natural resources and 
damage the environment. Its objective Is to initiate changes 
in current trends and practices which are detrimental to the 
environment, so as to ensure socio-economic we I I-being and 
growth for present and future generations. Such changes are to 
be achieved through shared responsibi I ity, involving pub I ic 
administrations, public as wel I as private enterprise and the 
general pub I i c, in accordance with the principle of 
subsidiarity. 
(1) [COM(90)218 final of 27 June 1990] 
(2) [COM (91) 452 final of 7 November 1991] 
(3) PE 145.075/end of September 1991 
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The Fifth Action Programme focuses on five main economic 
"target" sectors, including the transport sector, and includes 
actions designed for the protection of the environment as wel I 
as for the benefit and sustainable development of the sectors 
themselves. 
Th is Paper converts and adapts the objectives and targets 
included in the Fifth Action Progranune into a global and 
coherent strategy for the transport sector. 
9. This Green Paper provides an assessment of the over a I I impact 
of transport on the environment and presents a Common strategy 
for "sustainable mobility• which should enable transport to 
fulfil its economic and social role while containing its 
harmful effects on the environment. 
The purpose of the Paper is to initiate a public debate on how 
to achieve the objectives of such a strategy which is to be 
subseQuently fully integrated into the forthcoming White Paper 
on the future development of transport policy in the 
Community. 
The principle of subsidiarity will play an important part in 
ensuring that the strategy is given its ful I effect by 
appropriate national, regional and local initiatives. 
Clearly, many of the areas discussed in this Paper are areas 
in which the Community's contribution wil I not be legislative 
-but may be in the research field, in standard setting, or in 
the definition of objectives. The legislative role may in such 
cases fall to Member States, or to local or regional 
authorities. The purpose of this Paper is to initiate 
discussion, rather than to programme a series of Community 
legislative acts. 
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11. PROBLEMS AND ISSUES 
a. Current Issues 
10. The 1989 and 1990 Scientific Assessments of the 
I ntergovernmenta I Pane I on CI imate Change (I PCC) has drawn 
wor Id-wide attention to the causes and consequences of the 
"greenhouse effect". Although scientific evidence is not yet 
conclusive as to the scale of the problem, there is general 
agreement that the high atmospheric concentrations of 
"greenhouse gases" wi I I have an effect on the earth's climate, 
causing the "warming" of the globe and the ensuing rise in the 
average sea levels. 
Energy-generation, industry and transport have been identified 
as the major sources of carbon dioxide, which is the main man­
made "greenhouse gas". 
11. The depletion of the ozone layer, which reduces the protection 
of the earth against ultra-violet radiation from the sun, is 
caused by emissions of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons. 
The direct contribution of transport to this phenomenon is due 
mainly to the refrigerated transport of goods and air­
conditioned vehicles. 
No less important but more restricted in its geographical 
range is the phenomenon of "acid rain", which affects animal 
and plant I ife and corrodes bui I ding materials. Transport 
contributes to "acid rain" through sulphur and nitrogen oxide 
emissions. 
12. Other current issues 
troposphere, caused inc I ude the bu i Id-up of ozone 
by the emission of volatile in the 
organic 
compounds and nitrogen oxides, with harmful effects on human 
health and animal life. Transport contributes to this 
phenomenon. 
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13. Al I these cur rent issues concern different forms of 
atmospheric pollution. 
Another current issue is that of the damage to which the 
urban environment is exposed. Transport is considered to be 
one of the root causes of present urban degradation. 
b. The role of transport 
14. For the purpose of this Green Paper transport includes the 
carriage of goods and persons by any mode of transport -road, 
rail, inland waterways, sea and air-, private or public, for 
payment or not, irrespective of the purpose -private or 
commercial. Traffic represents the physical 
transport. resu It of 
Transport ls vital to both our economic and social wel I being. 
It is vital to the production and distribution of goods and 
services as wel I as to trade and regional development. 
15. Since the beginning of the 1950's transport has made a major 
contribution to economic growth and has enabled the 
achievement of economies of scale in production and, by 
increasing competition in hitherto protected markets, has led 
to a wider range of choice for both the producer and the 
consumer with direct and indirect effects on the qua I ity of 
Ii fe. 
Transport has also contributed to the significant growth of 
tourism, which accounts for over 5 X of GDP and provides over 
8 million Jobs. 
16. In the Community the transport sector contributes 
approximately 7% to the Gross Domestic Product and represents 
7% of employment<1>. These figures go up to 10X and 9X 
respectively, if transport for own account of both goods and 
persons as we 11 as the product ion of transport means and 
infrastructure are included<2>. 
(1) Group Transport 2000 Plus, op.cit, p. 5. 
(2) E. Jacobs, Le marche europeen unique : un defi pour la pol itique 
des transports, 1990, p. 4-5. 
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According to OECD estimates the socio-economic cost 
including pollution, congestion and accidents -in the case of 
road transport could, however, be as high as 5% of Gop(1). 
This estimate does not represent the ful I external cost of 
transport since it does not cover all forms of environmental 
impact -namely the cost of the "greenhouse effect" -and is 
I imited to only one transport sector. 
17. Technological developments since the beginning of the 1950's 
have enabled people to travel more Quickly, more often and 
over longer di stances, breaking down economic, soc i a I, 
national, ethnic and geographical barriers. 
These developments have led to the mass movement of people and 
have greatly affected behaviour patterns and the general way 
of I ife, particularly in industrialised countries. The advent 
of the motor car and its widespread availabi I ity have 
encouraged a way of I ife where people feel entitled to 
mob i I i ty and the absence of a private means of transport is 
often felt as a handicap since it reduces access to available 
amenities. 
c. Impact of transport on the environment 
18. For the purpose of this paper environment includes the QUal ity 
of Ii fe, Ii vi ng conditions of human beings and the natura I 
environment with su i tab I e habitats for an ima Is and p I ants. 
The Qua I i ty of Ii fe is determined by the long-term 
avai labi I ity in sufficient Quantity and of adeQuate Qua I ity 
of resources such as water, air, land and space in general as 
wel I as raw materials. It also includes the natural and 
cultural heritage. 
19. Apart from initiatives in the shipping sector to prevent 
damage to the marine environment, the impact of transport on 
the environment was, unti I recently, viewed mainly in terms of 
atmospheric pollution and noise emissions. 
(1) OECD (1988) Transports et Environnement, Paris, 1988, p. 11. 
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Efforts to control atmospheric pollution caused by transport 
concentrated only on emissions of certain pot lutants emitted 
by motor vehicles. Emission standards were introduced in 
Industrialised countries for carbon monoxide (CO), 
hydrocarbons CHC), nitrogen oxides CNOx> and diesel 
particulates. The Community adopted legislation to reduce 
vehicle emissions as wet I as to encourage the use of unleaded 
petro I. Community standards have been regu I ar I y adapted to 
technological progress. 
20. In the case of noise emissions, industrialised countries 
introduced I imits for cars, buses, goods vehicles, motor­
cycles and aircraft. The Community adopted I imits on noise 
emissions for goods and passenger veh i c I es, as we I I as for 
motorcycles, and introduced legislation for the phasing out of 
the noisiest aircraft. No I imits were introduced for noise 
emissions from railways. 
21. This approach was one-sided, since these measures were I imited 
largely to vehicle emissions and, thus, were confined to only 
one aspect of the impact of a single transport sector on the 
environment. 
However, a 11 power-driven transport affects the environment 
and generates pollution. The impact is not I imited to 
atmospheric pollution and varies in scale and range according 
to the mode of transport. 
22. Thus, in order to ensure the widest possible assessment of the 
impact of transport on the environment the analysis in this 
Green Paper is based on a number of criteria related to the 
qua I i ty of the environment as defined above. These er i ter i a 
include the operational impact of transport on air, water and 
soil as well as the qua I ity of life, the impact of transport 
infrastructure on space, the consequences of congest ion as 
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wel I as the risks inherent to the transport of dangerous 
goods. The analysis also provides an assessment of the 
specific problems caused by transport and traffic in the urban 
environment. 
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Ill. ENVIROt<MENTAL IMPACT 
23. Since transport has a wide-ranging impact on the environment, 
the present analysis is based as stated above on a number of 
er i ter i a re I ated to the qua Ii ty of the environment. These 
include operat iona I pollution, land-use, congest ion and the 
risks inherent to the transport of dangerous goods. 
a. Operational pollution 
24. Operational pollution is caused by the actual use of the 
different means of transport. It affects the air, water and 
soil and produces noise and vibrations. The effects in many 
instances are long-term and cumulative, although those caused 
by noise and vibrations are of an immediate and transient 
nature. 
"Air" 
25. "Air pollution" is caused by the emission of chemical 
substances into the atmosphere which alter its composition, 
with harmful effects for human health, animal and plant life. 
The effects of some pollutants remain within the vicinity of 
the source, where concentrations are highest, and thus have 
mainly a local impact as in the case of lead emissions. The 
effects of other pollutants are suffered wel I beyond the 
vicinity of the source, as in the case of so2 emissions, 
which contribute to "acid rain". Pollutants can, however, also 
have a "global". impact as in the case of co2 and other 
greenhouse gases, which affect the climate of the whole 
p I anet. 
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26. Emissions from transport sources include the fol lowing air 
po I I utants: 
. carbon dioxide cco2> emitted by the combustion of fossil 
fuel 
carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC) and volatile organic 
compounds (VOC), resulting from incomplete combustion 
. nitrogen oxides 
temperatures (NOx> generated at high combustion 
. lead (Pb), ethylene dibromide and dichloride added to 
gasoline to attain the desired octane rating and greater 
volati I ity of combustion by-products 
. sulphur dioxide cso2> due to the higher sulphur content of 
diesel 
. fine particles present in diesel 
. formaldehyde and other aldehydes 
Carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide contribute directly 
to the "greenhouse ef feet" whereas nitrogen oxides, carbon 
monoxide and hydrocarbons contribute indirectly. 
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides contribute to the 
phenomenon of "acid rain". 
voes and nitrogen oxides contribute to the build-up of ozone 
concentrations in the troposphere. 
Hydrocarbons, voes, I ead, a I dehydes, ethy I ene di bromide and 
dichloride have potential carcinogenic effects, whereas lead, 
carbon monoxide and diesel particles are general IY detrimental 
to human health. 
27. Air pollution caused by the transport sector is almost 
exclusively related to the consumption of -mostly non­
renewable -energy. According to Eurostat figures for 1988 
energy consumption in the transport sector reached 
211.53 MTOE (1) <-29.8% of total final energy consumption). 
(1) Mi I I ions of tonnes of oi I eQuivalent. 
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This is comparable to the energy consumption of industry which 
represents one third of final energy consumption in the 
Community. 
Within the transport sector 84.4 X was used by road, 11.1% by 
aviation, 2.5% by railways and 2.0% by inland waterways. 
Therefore, it is usefu I to compare energy consumption for 
different means of transport. 
28. Although the results of comparative research in this field 
should be interpreted with caution, they nevertheless give a 
clear indication of the energy "greediness" of the different 
means of transport as shown for passenger transport in table 1 
and figure 1. 
In fact in the passenger sector they reflect mainly the 
different basic assumptions concerning i.a. the type of 
vehicle/train/aircraft taken as reference, the driving 
circumstances in the case of road vehicles, the average speed, 
the average energy consumption, the total passenger capacity, 
the occupancy rate, the production structure of electricity 
for electric powered trains. 
It is clear that the average occupancy rate, which varies 
largely from one mode to another, Is one of the key variables 
in i ntermoda I comparisons. Therefore, tab I e 2 and figure 2 
give a comparison of the specific energy consumption for 
different transport modes at different occupancy rates, namely 
25%, 50%, 75% and 100%. 
29. In order to make a fair comparison, the energy intensiveness -
also referred to as specific energy consumption -is measured 
in megajoules of primary energy, taking into account losses 
occurring during the production and transmission process, per 
passenger-km. 
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The main concluslons on the basis of table 2 and f lgures 1 
and 2 are that 
. for the private motor vehicle there is a considerable 
difference between smal I and large vehicles; 
within each mode the energy effectiveness is commensurate 
with the occupancy rate; 
of all modes the specific energy consumption is the highest 
for airplanes; 
compared to high speed trains energy consumption is twice as 
high for aviation; 
. at full capacity railways and buses have the lowest 
consumption. 
30. The latter is particularly important in the case of rush-hour 
traffic where the occupancy rate of cars is very low (between 
1 and 1.2 passenger/car), the driving circumstances and hence 
the real energy consumption due to congestion very unfavorable 
and the occupancy rate of trains and buses very high 
(sometimes exceeding 100% of seating capacity). Although there 
is no significant difference in energy consumption between 
ra i I ways and buses operating at fu I I capacity, qua Ii tat i ve 
aspects such as seating comfort, speed, travel time and 
rel iabi I ity are usually an advantage for the railways. 
31. For freight transport the same considerations regarding 
intermodal comparisons hold as in the case of passenger 
transport. Nevertheless the results give an indication of the 
scale of energy greediness. 
Moreover freight transport covers very heterogeneous 
activities, going from a door-to-door de Ii very of a 
refrigerator by van to the customer's home in the city centre, 
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over long distance transport of steel coi Is by 40 tonnes 5-
ax le art I cu lated lorry to intercont lnental transport of cut 
flowers by air. Table 3 and figure 3 give an indication of the 
energy consumption for different means of inland transport 
under different circumstances. 
32. Railways and inland waterways have the lowest energy 
consumption at around 0.6 MJ/tonne-km. 
For 4 and 5-axle articulated heavy goods vehicles (with a ful I 
load on the return Journey) the energy consumption would 
appear to be only slightly higher than for railways and inland 
waterways (0.7 MJ/tonne-km). However, the present market 
organization gives rise in practice to considerable empty 
running and a load factor between 50% and 70% would be a more 
realistic basis for an intermodal comparison. Under these 
conditions energy consumption is significantly higher for road 
haulage. Removal of existing restrict ions on market access 
could greatly contribute to energy efficiency. 
In the case of light goods vehicles the specific high energy 
consumption (between 4 and 8 MJ/tonne-km at ful I load) is due 
to the high value/high volume/low weight nature of the goods. 
33. The total amount of co2 released into the atmosphere by the 
transport sector in 1986 reached about 577 Mtons or 22.5% of 
total co2 emissions in the Community (1) 
The breakdown of this total output according to the different 
means of transport reflects the share of each means in the 
total energy consumption of the transport sector. 
(1) CEC, Energy in Europe, Energy for a new century 
perspective, special issue, July 1990, p. 228. the European 
( 1) -16 -
Means of transport Share in total C02 emissions 
by transport sector 
1. Road: total 79.7% 
-private car 55.4% 
-goods vehicles 22.7% 
-buses + coaches 1.6% 
2. Aviation 10.9% 
3. Ra i I ways: total 3.9% -passengers 2.8% 
-goods 1.1% 
4. Inland waterways 0.7% 
5. Other transport 4.3% 
Source: Consultant TNoC1) 
The private car alone accounts for more than 55% of the total 
co2 emissions of the transport sector. 
Almost three quarters of the total co2 emissions for both 
road and rail have their origin in passenger transport. (See 
figure 4). 
"The other pollutantsn 
34. Within the context of the CORINAIR programme a detailed 
analysis on a Community-wide basis is available for NOx, voe 
and so2 emissions by road transport. Only partial data are 
available for railways and none for inland waterways, shipping 
and aviation. 
The share of road transport in total emissions is 53.6% for 
NOx, 27.1% for voe and 2.9% for so2. (See table 4) 
The share of private cars and light commercial vehicles for 
the total emissions by road transport is 55.6% for NOx, 
66.9% for VOC and 49.5% for S02. (See table 4) 
TNO Pol icy Research, Possible 
Limiting co2 Emissions in the 
August 1991, p. 6-7. Community Measures Aiming at 
Transportation Sector, Delft, 
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The share of road transport in total CO emissions is estimated 
at around 74%. Data for Germany and the Netherlands show that 
wel I over 80% is attributable to the private car<1>. 
35. For particulates and lead, comprehensive data are not 
available. Data for Germany show that transport is responsible 
for 13% of total particulate emissions, for the Netherlands 
the share is as high as 22%, of which± 30% is attributable to 
the private car<1>. 
As far as lead is concerned data for the Netherlands attribute 
to road transport a share of 87% of tot a I I ead emissions, of 
which 94% is caused by the private car<1>. 
36. With regard to the specific problems related to the urban 
environment, it is worth mentioning that of al I pollutants 
released into the atmosphere by road transport a large part 
(26% for NOx, 61% for VOC) is emitted on urban roads, as 
data for the Netherlands and Germany show<1>. (See table 5). 
This is not surprising, since energy consumption and emissions 
of pollutants differ according to the driving circumstances. 
As shown in table 6 for the different means of road transport 
energy consumption and emission are significantly higher in an 
urban context. 
37.-No comprehensive Community data are available for the share of 
the other means of transport in the emissions of the different 
pollutants. However, figures for the UK show that 97% of non­
methane voe is caused by road transport, 2% by rai I and 1% by 
shipping; 95% of NOx is caused by road transport , 3% by 
rai I, 1% by air and 1% by shipping<2>. For aviation it is not 
specified whether the NOx emissions include tropospheric 
pollution, which is an area where research is still in an 
(1) Prognos, Evaluation of External Costs related to Road Transport : 
Heavy Goods Veh i c I es (HGV) of Minimum 12 Tonnes Gross Veh i c I e 
Weight (GVW), Basel, January 1991, tables. 
(2) The Institution of Civil Engineers, Pollution and its 
Containment, London, 1990, p. 46. 
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early stage. 
Aircraft emissions are becoming a matter of growing concern, 
particularly those produced in the mid to upper troposphere. 
It is thought that the impact of "greenhouse gases", 
particularly NOx• is much greater than If produced at ground 
level. 
38. The social costs of atmospheric pollution take into account 
the cost of health problems: effects on the respiratory 
system, toxicity due to lead accumulation, the loss of human 
productivity due to morbidity and mortality and the damage to 
bui I dings. 
Although results vary, probably because of differences in the 
methods of estimation, an average cost of 0.3 to 0.4X of GDP 
seems to emerge. According to a German study 91X of the costs 
can be attributed to road, 4% to rail, 3X to inland waterways 
and 2% to air<1>. 
'Water" 
39. "Water pollution" is caused by the direct or Indirect 
discharge of chemical substances, including dangerous 
biological agents and genetically modified organisms and 
micro-organisms, into the aQuatic environment resulting in the 
a Iteration of the qua Ii ty or nature of the water ecosystems 
with detrimental effects on human health or animal and plant 
Ii fe. 
Transport contributes Indirectly to ground water pollution 
through vehicle emissions and aircraft emissions at take-off 
and landing. Transport accidents involving dangerous or 
polluting goods can have direct or indirect effects on the 
water ecosystem. 
(1) Group Tran~port 2000 Plus, op. cit., figure 16, quoting 
·Frau.enhofer Institute Kar 1·.,r,uhe .. 
-19 -
Transport contributes directly to surface water pollution 
through operational discharges from barges and other vessels 
as wel I 
polluting as through accldental discharges of 
goods carried by inland waterways. dangerous or 
40. "Marine pollution" Is caused by the discharge -intentional or 
accidental of chemical substances, including dangerous 
biological agents and genetically modified organisms and 
micro-organisms, into the sea or estuaries with harmful 
effects for the marine ecosystems resulting in hazards to 
human health and to animal and plant I ife. 
Sea transport affects the marine environment through 
operational pollution in the form of intentional and routine 
discharges caused by operational fall out and loading and 
unloading of cargo as well as through discharges of dangerous 
or polluting goods in the case of accidents at sea and in 
ports. Eighty percent of all oil pollution of the marine 
environment is caused by operational pollution. 
"Soll" 
41. "Soi I pollution" consists of a change In the qua I ity or nature 
of the soi I or its general degradation, caused by chemical or 
physical interference. Since the soi I acts both as a reservoir 
and filter for water and provides storage of primary mineral 
water, its contamination by harmful substances or the general 
degradation of its physical or chemical structure can have 
far-reaching direct as well as indirect effects on human I ife 
as wel I as plant and animal I ife. 
The close interaction between the ecosystems of soil, air and 
water increases the vulnerability of the soil and widens the 
range of the potential effects of soi I pollution. 
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42. Transport contributes indirectly to soil pollution through 
operational discharges and directly In the case of accidental 
discharges of dangerous or polluting goods. Transport 
infrastructure can affect the ecological balance of the soil 
with repercussions for the ecosystems of water and air. 
"Noise" 
43. "Noise" consists of a number of tonal components which have a 
harmful effect on human beings and can be more or less 
intolerable due to the discomfort, fatigue, disturbance and, 
in some cases, pain it may cause. Depending on its intensity 
and nature, the effects of noise can range from mere 
discomfort to various psychological and pathological reactions 
and vary according to the information imparted by the noise 
signal and the nervous state and activity of the receiver. 
Over the last two decades noise has increased considerably due 
to the growing spread of urbanization, the greater mobi I ity of 
goods and persons and the far-reaching mechanization of most 
human activities. 
44. Noise emissions and their impact differ from one transport 
mode to another. 
The overal I noise level of road traffic can be broken down 
into engine noise, rolling noise (from tyres on the road) and 
other intermittent noise. Under normal traffic conditions the 
presence of lorries significantly increases average levels of 
both noise and the number and intensity of noise peaks. 
Psycho-sociological studies have shown that the noise of a 
single lorry is equivalent to that of six passenger cars in 
terms of perceived annoyance. On roads with intermittent 
traffic the equivalence can be as high as 10 to 15 cars for 
-21 -
one lorryC1>. Depending upon traffic conditions for a single 
lorry the "drive-by" noise, which increases with the speed of 
the vehicle, is between 6 and 12d B (A) (1)(2) higher than 
that of a single car. The annoyance is generally qualified in 
terms of the population exposed to noise levels exceeding a 
certain desirable I imit value -55 leq dB (A) (2) for new 
residential areas and 65 leq dB (A) in general .<3> 
45. In the Community, according to OECD figures, the percentage of 
population exposed to road transport noise above 
55 leq dB (A) varies from 34% (Denmark) to 74% (Spain) and 
for levels above 65 leq dB (A) from 4,1% (Netherlands) to 23% 
(Spain). The degree of urbanization, the population density 
and the structure and density of the road network are 
important elements which influence the annoyance level. 
46. Noise emissions from trains are caused by wheel/rai I contact, 
the engine, aerodynamics, structures along the route and 
ground vibrations. The noise from wheel/rai I interaction 
increases with speed. In the case of highspeed trains another 
important source of noise is the contact between the overhead 
catenary and the train pantograph. Although only a I imited 
number of OECD data are aval lable on railway noise, the 
percentage of population exposed to railway noise above 55 leq 
d B (A) is 6% in the Netherlands (no figures available for 
other Member States) and above 65 leq dB (A) varies from 
(1) DELSEY, J., (INRETS), Nuisances from Heavy Goods Vehicles, ECMT, 
Paris, January 1991, p. 2. 
( 2) d B (A): dee i be I , A-weighted: unit of measurement of sound in 
which greater emphasis is givon to medium and high 
frequencies to which the human ear is most sensitive. 
The d B (A) measure is the most usual in noise abatement 
and control activities. 
Leq: "equ i va I ent sound I eve I " , gives the aver age sound I eve I 
over a given period e.g. a full day or during daytime 
from 8.00 to 20.00. 
(3) ECMT, Transport Pol icy and the Environment, Paris, 1990, p. 23. 
-22 -
0.3% (United Kingdom) to 1,7% (Germany). The proportion of the 
population exposed to railway noise depends on the Importance 
of ra i I ways in re I at ion to other modes of transport, the 
density of the railway network and topographical factors. 
47. The main source of aircraft noise are the sound emissions from 
the reactors, which at take-off can exceed 120 dB (A). 
According to OECD figures, the percentage of population 
exposed to aircraft noise above 55 leq db CA) varies from 36% 
(Netherlands) to 1.7% (Denmark) and above 65 leq dB from 1% 
(Germany) to 0.3% (Denmark). The annoyance caused by aircraft 
noise depends mainly on the siting of the airport and on air 
traff lc density. 
48. There are no data available for noise emissions from ships and 
barges since the annoyance factor is virtually neg I igeable. 
49. In calculating the social cost of noise for inland transport, 
loss of productivity, health care, effects on property values 
and loss of psychological wellbeing are taken into account. 
Estimates for the tot a I soc i a I cost hover around O. 1% of 
GDP, 64% of which is attributable to road traffic, 26% to 
aviation and 10% to rai 1<1>. 
Overall road has the biggest impact on the qua I ity of I ife in 
terms of noise emissions. 
"Vi brat Ions" 
50. "Vibrations" consist of low frequency movements of physical 
matter. The effects on humans and fauna are broadly similar 
to those of noise. Vibrations also have harmful effects on 
soi I, buildings and infrastructure, which can range from mere 
cracks to structural damage. 
(1) Group Transport 2000 Plus, op. cit., figure 16, quoting 
Frauenhofer Institute Karlsruhe. 
-23 -
51. Road vibrations are caused almost exclusively by heavy goods 
vehicles driving on roads which are structurally or in lay-out 
unsuitable for such vehicles. These are mainly roads which are 
not motorways, giving access to or passing through large and 
small conurbations. Vibrations are, thus, of particular 
concern in towns and v t I I ages, where streets, bu i Id i ngs and 
underground services are vulnerable to damage. Vibrations 
become worse as the state of the road deteriorates. 
52. Railway vibrations are determined by local ground conditions, 
the track bedding system as wel I as the weight , suspension 
and speed of the train. Thus, there is a major difference 
between passenger and freight trains. Passenger trains with 
their I ighter axle loads and sophisticated suspension systems, 
even at high speed, rarely cause vibrations that are 
perceptible at a distance of 25 m from the track side. Freight 
trains, however, with high axle loads and simple suspension 
systems are the major cause of railway vibrations. 
53. Vibrations caused by aircraft on the ground have not led to 
major concern since this type of nuisance is overpowered by 
the noise emissions of the engine. 
54. There are no standards yet for acceptable levels of vibration 
for any of the modes of transport, which makes it difficult to 
assess the scale of the problem. 
Reduction of operational pollution 
55. In order to reduce the different aspects of operational 
pollution, the "best avai I able technology" should be appl led 
to al I transport means including fuel quality and alternatives 
as well as to infrastructure. 
This will require stricter gaseous emission standards for al I 
fuel types, for motor vehicles, (cars, commercial vehicles, 
buses and coaches), motorcycles, aircraft, ships and barges, 
stricter noise emission standards for motor vehicles, 
-24 -
motorcycles, trains and aircraft, stricter standards for fuel 
quality and blo-fuels, stricter energy efficiency requirements 
for motor engines, aircraft engines, motorcycle engines, ship 
and barge engines as we I I as new noise design requirements 
for roads, railways and runways. 
56. The "best available technology" should reduce atmospheric 
pollution, noise emissions, vibrations, fuel consumption and, 
thus contribute to the reduction of operational pollution by 
making the various transport means more environment-friendly, 
particularly in the road, sea and aviation sectors. 
The wide-spread use of electric vehicles for both goods and 
passenger transport and of hybrid (fuel/electricity) buses in 
cities and towns should affect atmospheric and noise pollution 
in the urban environment. On a more global scale a switch to 
electric vehicles should affect dependancy on oi I supplies. 
57. In the case of road transport environment-fr i end I y and safe 
speed I imits for road vehicles according to the type of 
vehicle, road and the specific traffic environment wl II 
contribute to the reduction of noise and vibrations as well as 
fuel consumption and gaseous emissions, particularly co2. 
58. Effective implementation and enforcement of these standards 
wi I I require continuous periodical checking in order to ensure 
that they are not infringed. 
Th Is can be achieved by the introduction of env I ronmenta I 
criteria in road and air worthiness testing of all vehicles, 
including motorcycles, and aircraft as wel I as the use of 
technical devices, such as speedl imiters, to ensure compliance 
with imposed speed I imits. 
59. -25 -
These standards wl II also require continuous updating in order 
to ensure that they keep up with technological and technical 
progress and thus cont i nue to meet the ob J ect i ve of "best 
available technology". 
This WI 11 be furthered by the promotion of research and 
development for the improvement of the environmental 
performance of the different transport modes and 
infrastructure as wel I as the promotion of new energy 
technologies such as bio-energy and electricity-driven 
vehicles. This In turn can be achieved by encouraging 
funding and providing f i sea I i ncent i ves for specif i c R & D 
projects. 
60. The introduction of new standards and dead I Ines for 
implementation should provide the opportunity to present 
"target" values and dates for industry. At the same time 
fiscal incentives should encourage the user and the operator 
to opt for the technically most environment-friendly vehicle, 
aircraft, vessel, motorcycle, train and fuel before the 
"target date." 
"Targets" can be set in such a way that legislation provides 
an incentive for industry to keep up with technological and 
scientific progress, while the "guided" choice of the user 
and operator can put pressure on industry to meet these 
"targets". 
b. Land-use and Intrusion 
61. Transport infrastructure has a permanent and of ten 
irreversible impact on the environment in terms of land-use 
and land intrusion. The impact of land-use varies according 
to the scare i ty of I and. Thus, infrastructure w i I I not have 
-26 -
the same impact in the urban environment as it does in less 
densely populated rural areas. 
In highly populated areas infrastructure can cause obstacles 
to the mobility of pedestrians, isolate physically as well as 
socially sections within the larger urban area, create visual 
barriers, exacerbate existing traffic nuisances and 
disturbances and disrupt day-to-day social and commercial 
activities. 
62. Transport infrastructure also determines the development of 
the urban and suburban landscape, influences the social and 
architectural homogeneity of cities and towns, reduces 
available I iving space and "green" belts. 
Transport infrastructure encroaches on the landscape : it can 
disrupt or destroy natural habitats as wel I as cause permanent 
damage to areas of high landscape value, leading to a 
deterioration in the ecological balance with particular 
significance for the wildlife. 
63. There are no comprehensive data available on the land taken 
up by the infrastructure of the different modes of transport 
in the Community. However, on the basis of the length of the 
different infrastructure networks, it is nevertheless possible 
to work out a broad estimate of the land-use<1> for each 
transport mode. 
According to Eurostat in 1986 the Community road network 
consisted of 30,237 km of motorways and 2,549,907 km of other 
roads, the rai I network of 70,911 km of single track I ines and 
54,918 km of double track I ines and the inland waterway 
network (including natural waterways) consisted of 21,634 km. 
(1) Assumptions concerning the average width of 
-Roads 11.22m 
-Railway lines 5.61m 
Forward Studies Unit, Transport and the Environment, op.cit., 
p. 24. 
( 1) 
(2) 
(3) -27 -
64. The Community road network would thus take up a surface area 
of 28,949 km2 or 1.3% of the total land area of the 
Community. This does not inc I ude the surf ace area used for 
intersections and Junctions nor car parks. The parking space 
for a single car in purpose-built ground level car parks can 
be as much as 17 m2(1) (including the space needed for 
turning and driving). 
65. For the Community railway network the corresponding figures 
are 706 km2 or 0.03% of the total land area of the 
Community. These figures do not take into account I and used 
for railway stations and marshal ling yards. A capacity 
comparison for commuter traffic during the rush hour shows 
that a double track railway line can move the same number of 
people (± 6500 passengers) per hour as a motorway.C2) 
66. It is not possible to estimate the land-use for inland 
waterways since there are no data available for the average 
width of the different types of canals and the inland waterway 
networks in the Community also includes natural waterways 
such as rivers and streams. There are no global figures 
available on the land-use for airports in the Community. 
However, the land-use for an airport can range from 200 to 400 
ha for the smallest regional airports to 1500 to 2000 ha and 
over for hubsC3>. A few examples ii lustrate this : Paris-Orly 
1500 ha. Brussels-Zaventem 1600 ha, Amsterdam-Schiphol 1800 ha 
and Paris-Roissy 3100 ha. 
Ll•ltatlon of land Intrusion 
67. In order to I imit land intrusion of infrastructure it wil I be 
necessary to ensure ful I use of existing infrastructure 
capacity as well as plan strategically expansion of existing 
CEC. Pol icy and Provision 
1989, Annexe 2, p. 20. 
Fondation Roi Baudouin, 
Bruxelles, Janvier 1991, 
Mens en Ruimte, Etude 
decembre 1989, p. 19. for Cyclists in Europe, Brussels, 
Mobilite, transport et environnement, 
p. 86. 
thematique du proJet TGV, Bruxelles, 
-28 -
infrastructure networks. It will also be necessary to limit 
the increase in transport demand, particularly in 
encumbered sectors. 
68. This can be achieved by 
. efficient and optimal use of existing transport capacity 
. traffic management schemes which spread more evenly the flow 
of traffic, particularly in the road and aviation sectors 
. coordination of infrastructure planning and regional 
development, taking account of the impact on the environment 
. strict implementation and follow-up of the environmental 
impact assessment of new projects, policies, plans and 
programmes which affect transport demand 
. conversion of relinquished infrastructure for the use of 
"soft" transport. 
69. Market organisation should al low for efficient and optimal use 
of existing transport capacity and thus encourage a shift from 
encumbered sectors to sectors where there is excess capacity, 
particularly from road to rail, combined transport and inland 
waterways for goods and from private car to collective 
transport for persons. Infrastructure planning should be 
coordinated in order to contribute to that objective. 
70. Ful I implementation of the freedom to provide services and the 
elimination and prevention of distortions of competition, in 
accordance with the objectives of the Treaty, together with 
the introduction of environmental charges or taxes related to 
operational pollution should contribute to a more balanced 
distribution of the existing volume of traffic between the 
different transport sectors. This in turn should reduce 
existing pressure on infrastructure capacity in the most 
encumbered sectors. 
-29 -
c. Congestion 
71. "Congestion" Is a recurrent temporary phenomenon of variable 
durat Ion, caused by an lmba I ance between the demand for and 
supply of transport infrastructure capacity, which results In 
an overburdening of existing capacity. Congestion is 
characteristic of urban traffic and more recently of air 
traffic. 
The most important consequences of congestion include 
reduction of capacity and mobility, increase of energy 
consumption and operational pol lutlon, inefficient use of 
time. It can also cause a loss of comfort and personal 
wellbeing, a drop in Income, production or leisure. 
72. Available data on the social and economic cost of road 
congestion indicate a cost of £10 to 15 billion per year in 
Great Brlta1n<O and of 1 billion guilders for the 
Nether I ands. By the year 201 o, w I th a 70X increase in car 
use, the cost of congest ion in the Nether I ands cou Id be as 
high as 4 bill ion gui lders<2>. 
In aviation the costs of congestion in Europe have been 
estimated at us $1 ,510 mi I I ion for the year 1988. These 
figures include for the airlines increased operating expenses 
(additional fuel, salaries for crew and other personnel, 
maintenance, excess interest, ... > and increased f I eet size 
cost as we 11 as the costs to air 11 ne passengers in terms of 
value of lost time<3>, with considerable repercussions for 
the tourist industry. 
(1) PIARC-Technical Committee on Roads in Urban Areas, Reduction of 
Car Traffic in City Centres, Pre-Congress Report, Marrakesh 1991, 
p. 8. 
(2) Second Chamber of the States-General, Session 1989-1990, Second 
Transport Structure Plan, part d : Government Decision, Transport 
in a Sustainable Society, p. 5. 
(3) PlaningsbUro Luftraumnutzer : The German Airspace Users Asso­
ciation, The crisis of European air traffic control : Costs and 
Solutions, p. 26-27. 
-30 -
Fuel consumption in the aviation sector is linked to 
technology and flying conditions (load factor, flight prof I le, 
weather conditions, congestion). As shown in figure 5 fuel 
consumption is mainly determined by flying conditions of which 
waiting before take-off, ho Id i ng before I anding and tax 11 ng 
after arrival are due to congestion. 
73. A supply-side solution to the problem of congestion does not 
necessarily restore the medium and long term capacity balance 
and does not, therefore, necessarily reduce the effects of the 
phenomenon. Congest ion In the road sector, for example, can 
represent a useful tool of dissuasion, since the available 
time-budget of the road user might lead him/her to seek more 
efficient alternatives in the form of collective transport. 
Reduction of congestion 
74. Traffic and congestion are interrelated phenomena. Changes in 
the volume of traffic wl I I affect congestion. 
Traffic reduction will reQuire a drop in transport demand 
and/or imp roved occupancy. This can be achieved by a more 
env i ronmenta 11 y rat iona I approach towards mob 11 I ty for both 
goods and persons and wi 11 reQuire changes in the mobi I ity 
patterns of users and operators 
Urban and industrial planning can contribute to changes in 
mobility patterns as can the wide-spread use of 
telecommunications. Emphasis on proximity and accessibility 
should contribute to traffic reduction and encourage the use 
of so-cal led "soft" means of transport, cycling and walking. 
75. The road and aviation sectors are the most sensitive to 
congestion. 
-31 -
In the road sector I arge conurbations and access routes to 
large conurbations are most affected by excessive traffic, 
particularly dur Ing so-cal led peak times. Congest ion can be 
reduced by 
. adequate collective transport systems 
. high occupancy rate 
. traff lc management schemes 
. road pricing 
. reduced accessibi I ity to congested areas for motorcars. 
76. Such measures should contribute to the reduction of the volume 
of traffic as well as to the improvement of its fluidity. 
Their effects can be reinforced by transport policy measures 
which encourage a shift towards collective transport, 
particularly for urban and inter-urban traffic and more 
specifically during certain periods of the day and certain 
times of the week and year. This shift will be made easier by 
a proper link-up of the different stages of a Journey : from 
point of departure (home/office) to metro/bus stop to train 
station/airport to metro/bus stop to final destination. 
77. In the aviation sector hubs are particularly sensitive to 
excessive traffic. Congestion can be alleviated by 
efficient air traffic control systems 
. regional distribution of traffic 
. seasonal distribution of holiday travel 
. rational use of aviation and airport capacity 
. best-in-class performance of airports. 
The availability of highspeed train services can serve as an 
alternative to short haul flights and, thus, contribute to 
reducing airport congestion. 
-32 -
78. A reduct ion In traff le wi 11 contr lbute to the reduct Ion of 
operational pollution as wel I as congestion and its side­
effects. It will also reduce the pressure on existing 
infrastructure capacity, particularly in the road and aviation 
sectors. I ts ef fee ts w i 11 be most far-reaching for the urban 
env I ronment. 
79. In the case of congestion, particularly in urban and suburban 
areas, infrastructure planning should not necessarily seek to 
promote an increase in capacity, since in certain instances 
this might boost transport demand and in the long-term 
exacerbate the problem, particularly In the case of road 
transport. However, adequate link-ups between the 
infrastructure networks of the different modes might 
contribute to solving the problem of congest Ion In certain 
instances by making alternative transport more accessible. 
d. Risks Inherent to the transPort of dangerous goods 
80. The release of certain chemical substances can cause air, 
water and soi I pollution with extremely harmful effects for 
human life as well as animal and plant life. The carriage of 
such goods, thus, represents a risk for the environment. 
A transport accident involving dangerous or polluting goods, 
Including dangerous biological agents, genetlcal ly modified 
organisms or micro-organisms, can cause major env I ronmenta I 
damage if these goods are discharged into the environment. The 
damage wi I I depend upon the nature, characteristics and volume 
of the substances thus released. 
81. Transport accidents involving dangerous or polluting goods can 
affect the ecosystem of water, soil and air with long term 
direct and Indirect effects for human, plant and animal I lfe. 
-33 -
Technical fal lure In a vehicle can have out-of-proportion 
effects as was illustrated in 1983, when due to brake fa I lure, 
a 10t lorry carrying a load of dangerous chemicals crashed 
into several vehicles in the vicinity of Huy (Belgium). This 
caused the discharge of corrosive liquids into the environment 
and resulted in five deaths, 21 Injured, four burnt cars and 
extensive damage to buildings and the environment. 
82. Ace i dents at sea, such as those of the Amoco Cadiz and the 
Torry canyon, can lead to major disasters for the marine 
environment. The Exxon-Valdez accident in 1989 resulted in a 
sp i I I of 1O.8 mi I I ion ga I Ions or 35, 000 tonnes of o I I with 
major and long I ast i ng effects on the marine environment as 
well as on plant and animal life along the coast. The actual 
damage to fisheries, water, wildlife and land is estimated by 
American sources between 2.5 and 5 bi II ion u.s.s. 
Other dangerous goods can have equally damaging effects, 
particularly in the case of toxic, explosive or radioact Ive 
materials. 
Reduction end prevention of risks Inherent to the transport of 
dangerous goods 
83. In order to prevent and reduce the risks inherent to the 
transport of dangerous goods, it wl 11 be necessary to make 
this type of transport safer and al low for immediate and 
appropriate intervention in the case of accidents. 
This will require 
. Minimum requirements for the safe carriage of all types of 
transport of dangerous goods . 
. Spec i a I training requirements for those in charge of the 
transport of the goods. 
-34 -
. Un I form marking of a I I dangerous goods for a I I types of 
transport . 
. Introduction and use of telematics for transport management 
of dangerous goods . 
. Comprehensive safety instruct ions for the hand Ii ng of the 
goods during their transport . 
. General safety reQuirements for the packaging of dangerous 
goods and for the means of transport. 
General transport safety measures, particularly in the road 
and maritime sectors, including safe speed I imits for 
commercial vehicles carrying dangerous goods as well as the 
use of speed I imiters. 
Such measures should prevent risks and reduce or contain the 
potential harmful effects in the case of transport accidents. 
e. Conclusions of assessment 
84. The assessment of the impact of transport on the environment 
according to its operational pollution, the impact of 
transport infrastructure on space, the conseQuences of 
congestion and the risks linked to the carriage of dangerous 
goods has shown that the impact differs ·for each transport 
sector . 
. Operational pollution is the key component for al I transport 
sectors, but more particularly for the road, sea and air 
sectors . 
. Land-use ranks as second, particularly in the road and 
ra i I way sectors. 
-35 -
. Congestion, although important, constitutes a secondary 
factor which exacerbates operational pollution and puts 
pressure on existing infrastructure capacity. It is 
particularly important in the case of road and air transport 
and In the case of road transport the effects are heightened 
in the urban environment . 
. The risks inherent to the carriage of dangerous goods 
constitute an important potential impact on the environment. 
This aspect of the impact is linked to the volume of 
dangerous goods carried by a particular transport sector. 
85. The impact of al I transport sectors includes in different 
degrees these four components . 
. Operational pollution, land-use, congestion 
inherent to the transport of dangerous goods and risks 
together as 
well as Individually rank highest for road transport. 
. Land-use in the case of sea and air transport is of a 
totally different nature to that of road and rai I transport. 
This in turn affects the nature of congestion and the way it 
can be control led. 
-36 -
IV. ECQNQMIC TRENDS 
a. Trends and forecasts 
86. The size and scale of the impact of transport on the 
environment Is a function of the volume of transport and the 
activities of each transport sector. Therefore, It Is 
essential to analyze the factors which determine transport 
demand. 
Transport demand -both for freight and passengers in 
general reflects the level of economic activity. 
87. s i nee 1970 the annua I economic growth in the Community has 
averaged 2 .6% in rea I terms. Economic forecasts expect th Is 
trend to continue until at least the end of the century. 
For the period 1970-1988 the overall annual growth in Inland 
transport averaged 3.1X for passengers and 2.3X for goods. 
This growth was not spread evenly between the different 
sectors. Thus, the increase in road transport both in absolute 
and relative terms has been much higher than for the other 
inland transport sectors (see figure 6). Since 1980 the 
increase in a Ir passenger transport has been highest of a I I 
with an average growth rate of 6.1X per year. (see tables 7 
and 8). The growth in tourism has contributed to this trend . 
88. The completion of the Single Market together with the creation 
of the European Economic Area. the po I it i ca I and economic 
developments in Eastern Europe as wel I as Economic and 
Monetary Union wl 11 influence the level of socio-economic 
activity in the Community in the short and medium as well as 
the long term. The expected increase in economic activity, as 
wel I as in intra-Community and external trade is I ikely to 
boost transport demand. (see Table 9) 
-37 -
89. In the "business as usua I" scenar lo < 1 > road transport in 
the Community will continue to increase significantly. 
Road haulage is expected to Increase by 42X between 1990 and 
2010, from 805 to 1.139 billion tons-km by 2010, whereas rail 
transport should only increase by 33X during the same 
period. (1) 
90. Although the total populat Ion of the Community wl 11 remain 
stab le unt i I the year 2010, demand for passenger transport 
will be influenced by changes in the demographic environment, 
including the size of the workforce, the share of female 
participation in the workforce, the size and number of 
households, the age structure, the lengthening of active 
retirement. 
The stock of private cars should increase by 45X from 115 
mi I I Ion in 1987 to 167 mi 11 ion by 2010, leading to a car 
ownership of 503 cars per 1000 inhabitants by 2010 against 381 
at present.Cl) 
91. The specific fuel consumption of cars should Improve from 9.3 
1/100 km at present to 7.8 1/100 km by 2010. The average 
annual mileage per car should decrease from 14,400 km/year in 
1990 to 13,400 km/year by 2010, but the total car mileage 
should increase by 25X between 1990 and 2010, from 1,727 
bll lion km in 1990 to 2,166 bi Ilion km in 2010.<1> 
In the same scenario passenger transport by air is expected to 
increase by 74X between 1990 and 2010.<1> 
(1) Energy In Europe, Energy for a New Century. The European 
Perspective, Special Issue, Brussels, July 1990, Technical Annex. 
-38 -
b. Structural changes 
92. over the I ast two decades the economy has been undergoing a 
number of major structural changes, with far-reaching 
consequences for transport demand. Transport prices, which so 
far have not reflected all external and internal costs, have 
contributed to these changes. 
93. Firstly, the structure of industrial production has been 
shifting from basic industry towards high-technology 
production of high value/low volume goods. Moreover high­
technology industry in the Community is undergoing a 
geographical shift towards the so-cal led "new industrial 
spaces" in Southern Europe. 
94. The ever growing importance of the service industry is another 
major structural change. The service sector represented 58% of 
total GDP in the Community in 1985. This share is expected to 
go up to 66% by the year 2000. The trend is to concentrate new 
service activities in the core regions of the Community, where 
they wi I I put further pressure on the already congested 
transport networks. 
95. Manufacturing technology is also undergoing rapid and radical 
changes. The "Just-in-time" methods of inventory management 
are I ead i ng to sma I I er and more frequent shipments, shorter 
I ead t i mes and an increase in door-to-door de I i ver i es. The 
more versatile customer-orientated production methods also 
result in more frequent deliveries of smaller shipments. 
Transport demand is, thus, becoming more sophisticated and 
more special lsed. 
96. The improvement of communication networks has in turn lead to 
a wider geographical dispersal of economic activity a~d more 
sophisticated and more versatile production systems. The trend 
-39 -
towards sub-production, as for example in the motor-car 
industry, is leading to a large number of interplant flows of 
commodities and personnel. Data convnunications make it further 
possible to separate the so-cal led "back-office" routine work 
from central management activities. 
97. These structural changes have furthered the changes in scale 
and size of undertakings, in the siting, the range and nature 
of operations, which in turn have resulted in a concentration 
of production in the most favourable locations. 
Al I these factors affect the demand for goods transport, 
shifting the emphasis from volume to frequency and speed, 
boosting total tonnage, average distances and shipment 
frequency as wel I as speed, but reducing average shipment 
size. The qua I itative aspects -speed, rel iabi I ity, frequency, 
f lexibl I ity -are thus gaining in importance. 
c. The user•s choice 
98. The analysis by a consultantC1) of the different factors 
which determine the choice of transport mode and their 
relative importance provides the fol lowing evidence on the 
user's choice of transport mode. 
"Frelght" 
99. For the transport of goods the user's choice is based on a 
number of criteria, including 
. the value/weight ratio of the commodity 
. the cost of transport including terminal, transshipment and 
I ine-haul costs 
. the speed and reliability of delivery 
(1) Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam, Factors Influencing Mode Choice, 
final report, Rotterdam, September 1991. 
-40 -
. the qua I ity of service, Including safe transport of the 
goods 
. the administrative efficiency and 
information on the whereabouts of goods 
. the distance and door-to-door Journey 
loading/unloading time) 
. the available alternatives availability of 
t i me C I nc I ud I ng 
. avallabi lity of and access to infrastructure 
. the availability of related services (packaging, 
distribution, ... ). 
100. The transport of goods, however, needs to be viewed as an 
integral part of the logistics of the production and 
distribution process. The logistics may vary for the different 
stages in the goods flow, depending primarily upon the nature 
of the goods. 
(I) For raw materials, transport is usually "point to 
point", generally between a I imited number of suppliers 
and customers. It is predominantly by road and Inland 
waterways, ra i I taking up on I y a sma I I share of the 
market. Transport costs constitute the determining 
factor in the user's choice. 
(ii) For semi-finished products, transport is usual IY 
"convergent", generally between a large number of 
supp I i ers and a sma I I number of I arge customers. The 
transport service Is predominantly by road, the 
logistics being those of "Just-In-time". Speed and 
reliability of delivery are the key elements in the 
choice of mode. 
(iii) For finished products, transport is usually "divergent", 
between a large number of suppliers and customers. It Is 
predominantly by road and to a lesser extent by air. A 
-41 -
combination of quality of service, speed and reliability 
as well as the availability of related services 
determine the choice of mode. 
(iv) For consumer goods, transport is usually "very 
divergent 11
, between a I arge number of supp I i ers and 
customers. The service is predominantly by road. Speed 
and re Ii ab i Ii ty are the key factors in the cho Ice of 
mode. 
"Passengers" 
101. The user's choice in the case of passenger transport is 
influenced by three sets of factors : the characteristics of 
the different modes, the socio-economic status of the 
decision-maker, the nature of the Journey. 
(i) The characteristics of the different modes Include the 
travel time and the monetary cost. 
*The travel time Is usually divided into two components 
: in-vehicle time and out-of-vehicle time. The out-of­
vehlcle time spent on waiting and walking is often 
rated as more uncomfortable and inconvenient than in­
vehicle time. 
* The monetary cost Is usua I I y the out-of-pocket cost 
(fare for pub I ic transport, petrol costs, tolls and 
parking charges for private cars). Fixed costs such 
as depreciation and interest charges, insurance, 
annual road tax appear to have little or no effect on 
the user's short-term choice. 
Other determining characteristics are transparency of 
the system, physical comfort, safety, status, 
punctua I i ty. 
-42 -
Ci i) Income, age, sex, I lfecycle stage of the household, 
occupa t I on, educa t I on, possess I on of dr Iv i ng I I cence, 
car ownership and residence are the main elements of 
the socio-economic status of the decision-maker which 
Influence his/her choice. 
For physical, economic or social reasons, certain groups 
of ind iv i dua Is may be more sens It i ve than others to 
specific characteristics of the transport mode. Thus, 
low income agents respond more readily to travel costs, 
working mothers to travel time, etc ... 
(iii) The nature of the Journey is characterised by the travel 
purpose (work, study, shopping, social visit, holiday, 
... ), distance, time of departure and arrival, day of 
the week, season, time of the year. Certain 
characteristics of the mode of transport may be more 
important for certain types of Journeys : for work and 
business Journeys travel time and reliability are more 
important than monetary costs. 
102. The user's choice, however, is subject to a number of 
constraints of which the most important are the availability 
of specific modes and the awareness of alternatives. The key 
element in the decision process appears to be the 
aval I ibl i I ity of a motor vehicle. Habit and lack of 
information about alternative modes may prevent a person from 
switching from private car to rail, bus or underground, 
especially In the short-term. Evidence, however, suggests 
that the wide availiblllty of effective and reliable 
information about collective transport can influence the 
user's choice In the long term. 
It is also important to note that the availability of a motor 
vehicle affects the mobility pattern of the user in terms of 
the frequency and distance of the Journeys : users with easy 
access to cars cover more than four times the mileage of those 
without cars. 
-43 -
V. A COMMON STRATEGY 
a. A global approach 
103. The assessment has shown that transport is never 
environmentally neutral. Thus, since existing trends indicate 
that transport and traffic, particularly in the road sector, 
wi 11 cont lnue to grow over the next decades and that the 
demand for transport services, al I things being equal, wi 11 
increase, the impact of transport on the environment wi 11 
become more significant. It is, therefore, essential that the 
Community adopt a Common strategy, which aims to reduce or at 
least contain the overall impact of transport on the 
environment in a global and coherent manner. 
104. Such a strategy wi 11 require a global approach in order to 
ensure that transport cont i nues to fu If i I its economic and 
social functions under the most favourable environmental 
conditions, while safeguarding the freedom of choice for the 
user. A global approach should also ensure that it 
contributes to social and economic cohesion in the Community 
and to the prosperity of the peripheral regions. 
Moreover, a g loba I approach shou Id ensure that the strategy 
covers a I I aspects of the impact and, thus, reduces 
opera t i ona I po I I u t ion, s I ows down unnecessary transport 
demand, reduces traffic and congestion and promotes efficient 
use of existing transport and infrastructure capacity, 
guarantees safer transport of dangerous goods and reduces 
pressure on the infrastructure capacity of the most encumbered 
sectors. 
105. A strategy based on a global approach would promote 
'sustainable mobility' by integrating transport into an 
overal I pattern of sustainable development which would seek to 
"meet the needs of the present without compromising the 
ability of future generations to meet their own needs"C1) and 
(1) The World Commission on Environment and Development, "Our Common 
Future", 1990, p 43. 
-44 -
would, thus, be In line with the objectives and targets of the 
forthcoming Fifth Action Programme A new Strategy for 
Environment and Development -"Towards Sustainability". 
106. The Commission is aware that adequate protection of the 
environment is not possible by reliance only on technological 
progress and technical measures. Evidence of this is given by 
the Commission Communication of September 1991, "A Community 
Strategy to Limit Carbon Dioxide Emissions and to Improve 
Energy Efficiency"Cl>. 
This strategy presents a wide range of measures and 
initiatives, including the need to study the possibility of a 
new fiscal instrument in the form of a co2/energy tax 
applicable to all non-renewable energy. Given the low price 
elasticity of demand for private road transport the proposed 
co21energy tax wi 11 require In the transport sector 
additional pol icy measures, both regulatory and economic. 
107. The same approach is adopted for urban transport in the Green 
Paper on the Urban Envlronment<2> where it Is recognised that 
environment-friendly vehicles would bring some relief, but 
that It is also necessary to initiate a significant shift in 
the balance between transport modes, favouring public over 
private transport and reducing the level and impact of motor 
traffic in inner cities. 
108. A strategy based on a global approach wi I I thus require 
different kinds of initiatives standardization, market 
organization and cost-charging measures as we I I as research 
Initiatives. 
(1) SEC (91) 1744 final 
(2) [Com(90)218 f lnal of 27 June 1990] 
-45 -
b. Balance sheet of Community action 
109. The Community has already to a large extent been guided by the 
principles of 'sustainable moblllty'. 
(I) ·standardisation .easures· 
110. A large number of standardisation measures have already been 
adopted in order to ensure a better environmental performance 
of the different transport means as wel I as the safer carriage 
of dangerous goods. 
They include 
. gaseous emission standards for petrol and diesel engines 
. noise standards for aircraft, motor vehicles and motor 
cycles 
. standards for sulfur content of diesel fuel 
. air qua I ity I imit values and guide values for sulfur dioxide 
and suspended part i cu I ates and air qua Ii ty standards for 
lead and nitrogen dioxide 
. harmonisation of weights and dimensions for heavy goods 
vehicles 
. int roduct ion of ABS systems for heavy goods veh i c I es and 
trailers 
. introduction of speed I imiters for certain types of heavy 
goods vehicles and buses 
training requirements for drivers of lorries carrying 
dangerous goods 
notification procedure for ships carrying dangerous goods in 
bulk 
. notification procedure for the transfrontier shipment of 
hazardous wastes within the Community 
-46 -
. mandatory environmental impact assessment for infrastructure 
projects 
mandatory avai labi I ity of unleaded fuel. 
111. The Commission has supplemented the existing Community 
legislation with additional proposals. 
These include 
updating of gaseous and noise emission standards for motor 
vehicles 
standards for railway noise 
checking of gaseous emissions in road worthiness test 
. extension of environmental impact assessment 
. extension 
dangerous of notification procedure to ships 
and polluting goods in containers, 
tanker-lorries carrying 
tankers, 
. obligation to designate a risk prevention officer for the 
transport of dangerous goods. 
(II) ·Market organisation .easures· 
112. The Community has already adopted a number of market 
organisation measures which introduce the freedom to provide 
services in the transport sector as wel I as measures which aim 
to eliminate or prevent distortions of competition in order to 
achieve a better uti I isation of existing transport capacity. 
These include 
. access to intra-Community road hau I age and road passenger 
transport 
I imlted cabotage in the road sector 
. cabotage in the inland navigation sector 
. I imited access to railway infrastructure and market 
. access to regional airports 
reduced constraints on access, fares and capacity in the 
aviation sector 
-47 -
. coordination of scrapping schemes for inland navigation 
. freedom to provide maritime services 
. state aid measures for combined transport 
. Community financing of infrastructure projects. 
113. The Commission has submitted to the Council additional market 
organisation measures. 
These Include 
extension of cabotage in maritime transport and the road 
sector 
. further reduction of constraints on access, capacity and 
fares in the aviation sector . 
. improvement of competitive position of railways. 
(Ill) ·cost-charging .easures· 
114. The Commission has already proposed measures which take better 
account of the external costs of transport. 
These include 
. infrastructure charging for heavy goods vehicles 
. harmonisation of excise duties on mineral oi Is. 
Also, the 1991 Commission Communication "A Community strategy 
to Limit Carbon Dioxide Emissions and to Improve Energy 
Efficiency" includes a chapter on fiscal measures which refers 
to 
. the possible use of tax differentiation for vehicle taxation 
so as to take account of the impact of motor vehicles on the 
environment (gaseous emissions, noise, ... ) 
the possible introduction of a tax on co2 emissions and 
the use of non-renewable energy in order to contribute to 
the reduction of the "greenhouse effect". 
-48 -
(Iv) ·Research Initiatives· 
115. A number of act ions and research projects covering certain 
aspects of the environmental impact of transport have already 
been initiated. 
These include 
* BRITE/EURAM (Basic Research in Industrial Technology for 
Europe & European Research in Advanced Mater i a Is) : R & D 
programme to strengthen the competitiveness of the European 
manufacturing industry in world markets and to establish the 
necessary technological base for the development of new 
products and processes. 
* CORINE CCoord i nation of Information on the Env I ronment) 
programme to collect information on the levels and sources, 
including road transport, of air pollution. 
*COST (European Cooperation in the field of scientific and 
technical research) framework for research cooperation, 
including projects on environment-friendly vehicles 
(COST 302, 303) 
* DRIVE (Dedicated Road Infrastructure for Vehicle Safety in 
Europe) : R & D programme to develop and validate tools and 
strategies for demand management, to reduce congestion, to 
improve road safety, road transport efficiency and the 
environmental impact of road transport through the 
appl lcation of transport telematics. 
* EURET (Specif lc Research and Technological Development 
Programme in the field of Transport) : research programme to 
optimize network exploitation and transport logistics and to 
reduce harmful externalities. 
-49 -
*JOULE (Joint Opportunities for Unconventional or Long Term 
Energy supply) R & D programme to develop energy 
technologies that take account of new and renewable energy 
sources, to increase security of supp I y and reduce energy 
imports and to contribute to environmental protection, 
including reduction of co2 emissions. 
* SAST (Strategic Analysis in Science and Technology) 
programme to identify, amongst others, the extent to which 
technological development can contribute to the reduction of 
the impact of transport on the environment. 
*SAVE (Specific Action of Vigorous Energy Efficiency) 
programme of energy conservation measures, amongst others, 
in the transport sector. 
*STEP (Science and Technology for Environmental Protection) : 
R & D programme to provide scientific and technological 
support for the environmental pol icy of the Community and to 
promote the Quality of environmental research. 
* THERMIE (Promotion of European Energy Technologies) 
programme to promote innovative energy technologies, 
dissemination and market penetration of energy technologies, 
to encourage greater use of new and renewable energy sources 
and to improve energy efficiency and environmetal 
protection. 
c. ·sustainable llOblllty• and future transport development 
116. These measures and initiatives go some way towards resolving 
the areas of conflict between transport and the environment. 
However, on their own, in view of the expected growth in 
transport demand and traffic, they wi I I not suffice. 
-50 -
The gains achieved through technical standardisation, the 
freedom to provide services and the elimination of distortions 
of competition are likely to be overtaken by the overall 
increase in mob ii ity due to the growth in economic activity. 
117. Even if the 'acquis' were to be supplemented by the 
introduction of the 'best available technology' and the 
strictest possible environmental standards for noise and 
gaseous emissions, fuel efficiency, fuel Quality and 
a I ternat i ves as we I I as measures to enforce and check their 
implementation, the gains thus achieved could easily be offset 
by the growth in traffic and congestion as illustrated under 
point 91. 
118. A Common strategy for ·sustainable mob/ I lty' wi 11 require 
additional initiatives. 
Such initiatives should focus on 
. market organisation measures which further the freedom to 
provide services and the elimination of distortions of 
competition, while aiming more specifically at encouraging 
the more environment-friendly modes as wel I as efficient use 
of existing capacity 
. additional risk prevention measures In order to ensure safer 
carriage of dangerous goods 
traffic management schemes in areas most vulnerable to 
congestion and the introduction of advanced telematics to 
improve efficiency of transport operations 
the use of fiscal 
influence the user 
cleaner technology 
transport modes. and economic instruments in order to 
and operator's choice in favour of 
and the more environment-fr i end I y 
-51 -
119. In order to reinforce these Initiatives pub I le and private 
investment should be guided towards col lectlve transport, 
whereas urban, industrial and commercial as well as regional 
development p Ianni ng shou Id be geared towards reduc Ing the 
need for mobility. At the same time infrastructure planning 
should be made subject to restrictions on land intrusion as 
we 11 as to strict env i ronmenta I impact assessment procedures 
at both the strategic and project stages, including evaluation 
of alternative options. 
120. Coordination of such measures and intiatives wi I I be essential 
as wl II their adaptation to the characteristics of the 
different transport sectors. At the same time it wil I also be 
necessary to ensure that any interaction of the effects 
resulting from the different measures should remain compatible 
with the overall objective while allowing for economic 
eff iclency and commercial viabi I ity of transport and the 
freedom of choice of the user and operator. It will also be 
necessary to take due account of the possible effects on smal I 
and medium size undertakings. Equally important will be the 
need to ensure that the peripheral regions share in the 
prosperity of the Single Market. 
"The role of the user and operator• 
121. A key element in any strategy which is to prove effective wi I I 
be the behaviour of the user and operator. 
Given the dominance of road transport, its impact on the 
environment and the expected growth in the vo I ume of road 
traffic, it will be essential to influence the behaviour of 
the road user, particularly the private car owner. 
As shown above the key factor in the decision-maker's choice 
of mode is the availability of a motor vehicle, which in turn 
affects the mobi I ity pattern of the user. This becomes al I the 
-52 -
more important in view of the expected growth in car ownership 
which could be as high as one car for every two citizens in 
the Community by the year 2010. 
122. A strategy which seeks to influence human behaviour towards 
mob i I i ty w I I I need to focus on the attitude of the user 
towards the car. 
The user should, thus, be encouraged to opt for an 
environment-friendly and energy efficient vehicle, alternative 
modes of transport, including "soft" means of transport, as 
wel I as a rational use of the motor car. 
123. This could be achieved by fiscal incent Ives, efficient and 
accessible collective transport, restricted vehicle access, 
I imited parking faci I it ies in city centres but strategically 
placed car parks al lowing for adequate I ink-up with collective 
transport. integrated urban and suburban planning and 
improved facl I ltles for "soft" users. 
Such actions would be more effective if reinforced by 
information, public education and publ le awareness campaigns. 
124. The user is also a consumer and as consumer should be given 
adequate and accurate information about the environmental 
performance of veh i c I es so that an env i ronmenta 11 y rat iona I 
choice is possible. 
125. As seen above the user's choice, when It comes to the 
transport of goods, is influenced by a number of criteria of 
which in the majority of cases speed and reliability are the 
most important. This to a large extent determines the user's 
choice of operator. 
In order to encourage more environment-friendly transport of 
goods It will be necessary to off-load the increase in demand 
from the road onto other sectors by providing alternatives 
equal IY attractive to road haulage. 
-53 -
This wi 11 require more efficient rai I services for goods, 
better access to combined transport and improved transshipment 
facilities, improved quality of service and reliable door-to­
door travel time for inland navigation and coastal shipping. 
126. At the same time the operator should be encouraged and in some 
instances compel led to opt for the technically "clean" 
vehicle, aircraft, barge, ship and train and make full use of 
existing transport and Infrastructure capacity. Fiscal and 
economic incentives as well as general and selective 
restrict ions on access to infrastructure can contribute to 
this, as wel I as reduce the demand for transport. 
d. A new framework 
127. Although the Community has recognised the need for a coherent 
and global approach to the impact of transport on the 
environment, there is as yet no framework for a Common 
strategy aimed at 'sustainable mobility' in the Community. 
Such a framework wi I I require coordinated examination of 
. measures laying down strict environmental standards for 
motor vehicles, motorcycles, aircraft, barges, ships, trains 
and fue I qua Ii ty as we I I as measures to enforce and check 
their implementation 
environmental measures laying down strict air and water 
qua I ity standards as wel I as strict limit values for air and 
water pollutants supplemented by measures to check and 
enforce their implementation 
. transport policy measures which implement the objectives of 
the Treaty as well as Community policies adopted to fulfil 
these objectives and ensure efficient and optimal use of 
existing transport capacity for the different modes, allow 
-54 -
environment-friendly modes, such as railways, inland and sea 
navigation and combined transport, to compete with road and 
aviation and ensure that transport contributes to co2 
stabi I isation in the Convnunity 
. an overall action plan for the transport of dangerous goods 
which wi I I ensure that these goods are carried in the safest 
possible manner throughout the Community 
. fiscal and economic instruments and a framework for the use 
of such instruments by the Member States in the transport 
sector in order to promote environment-fr i end I y transport 
and ensure that external costs are included in the price of 
transport 
. guidelines for the development and assessment of Community 
infrastructure projects which would discourage unnecessary 
transport demand and encourage where appropriate the 
development of alternatives to road transport, such as 
railway, inland waterways and combined transport as well as 
urban and inter-urban collective transport 
guidelines for the conversion and upgrading of relinquished 
infrastructure, particularly for the purpose of 'soft' 
transport 
guide I ines for the development of urban transport which give 
priority to collective and 'soft' transport and to adequate 
I ink-up between the different stages of urban journeys as 
wel I as to easy access to and from inter-urban transport 
. guldel ines for 'soft' tourism which promote the use of 
environment-friendly transport 
. guide I ines 
programmes 
transport 
friendly for the development of Community research 
which promote the deve I opment of 'c I ean' 
technology and the marketing of environment­
fuels, such as bio-fuels (ethanol, rape seed 
-55 -
dlester, etc ... ), natural gas and electric vehicles, 
including hybrid (fuel/electricity) buses as wel I as the 
development of eff iclent traffic management schemes 
. minimum consumer information requirements concerning the 
environmental performance of motor vehicles 
. guidelines for information campaigns on the environmentally 
rational use of the private car which draws the attention of 
the user to environment-friendly alternatives such as 
collective and 'soft' transport. 
128. The results of this examination should provide the framework 
for a Common strategy of 'sustalnable moblllty', which should 
contain the Impact of transport on the environment, while 
allowing transport to continue to fulfi I its economic and 
social functions, particularly in the context of the Single 
Market, and thus ensure the long term development of transport 
in the Community. It should also contribute to social and 
economic cohesion in the Community and to the creation of new 
opportunities for the peripheral regions. 
While safeguarding the freedom of choice for the user, this 
framework should identify, in accordance with the principle of 
subsidiarity, the responsibi I ity which the different actors 
will have to assume in order to achieve the objective of the 
strategy. 
129. The purpose of this Green Paper is to initiate a public debate 
on the Issue of transport and the environment and the proposed 
strategy for "sustainable mob/ I /ty". This should involve the 
views of the Council of Ministers, the European Par I iament and 
the Economic and Social Committee as wel I as those of the 
social partners. The debate should also draw views from 
-56 -
international organizations and associations and a response 
from the general public, including industry, transport users 
and operators, environmental protection groups, regional and 
local authorities. 
The outcome of the debate should provide an insight into the 
way in which it will be possible to achieve the objectives of 
"sustainable mobility" and how, according to the principle of 
subsidiarity, the different actors are to contribute to the 
strategy. It should also provide a blueprint for the 
forthcoming White Paper on the Future Development of Transport 
Pol icy. 
* * 
* 
IA8LE 1 PASSENGER TRANSPORT 
PRIMARY ENERGY CONSUMPTION FOR DIFFERENT TRANSPORT UODES 
Energy use 
Total seating 
Mode capacity f lnal energy In MJ primary 
per unit per 100 km energy/ 
(1) vehicle km 
1. Gasol lne car 
< 1. .. .. 7.5 I 2.61 
1.4 -2.0 4 8.6 I 2.98 
> 2.0 .. 13.4 I 4'.65 
2. Dlesel car 
< 1.4 4 5.9 I 2.26 
1.4 -2.0 4 7.2 I 2.76 
> 2.0 4 9.6 I 3.65 
3. Ra I I ways 
Intercity 563 1.527.7 kwh 160.9 
Super sprinter 147 459.6 kwh 48.4 
Suburban electrical llne 300 749.1 kwh 78.9 
High speed train 300 km/h 
type: Brussels-Paris 375 2.500 kwh 268.65 
High speed train 300 km/h 
type: London-Paris 700 .-.150 kwh 4'37.08 
... Bus/car 
Double decker 100 45.6 I 17 ... 0 
Bus 48 36.7 I 14.02 
Minibus 20 18.5 I 7.08 
Express car 46 29.9 I 11 • .-3 
5. Air 
Boeing 727 167 760.7 I 242.82 
6. •soft• transport 
eye I Ing 1 0.06 
walk Ing 1 0.16 
Source:·OECD. Rapport final sur les defall lances du March' et de 1·1nterventlon des 
pouvolrs publics dans la gestlon des transports. Paris. Novembre 1990; and 
Mens en Rulmte. op.cit •• 
(1) Conversion coeff lclents 
1 MJ primary energy• used: 
0.0287356 
0.026178 
0.031328 
0.0949487 petrol 
diesel 
kerosene 
kwh 
IA8LE 2 PASSENGER TRANSPORT 
SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSlAIPTION FOR DIFFERENT TRANSPORT ..x>ES 
AT DIFFERENT OCCUPANCY RATES 
(In MJ primary energy/passenger-km) 
OCCUPANCY RATE 
MODE 
25X SOX 75X 100X 
1. Gaso 11 ne car 
< 1.-4 2.61 1 .31 0.87 0.82 
1.-4 -2.0 2.98 1.-49 0.99 0.75 
> 2.0 4.65 2.33 1.55 1.16 
2. Diesel car 
< 1.-4 2.26 1.13 0.75 0.57 
1.-4 -2.0 2.76 1.38 0.92 0.69 
> 2.0 3.65 1.83 1.22 0.91 
3. Ra I lways 
Intercity 1.14 0.57 0.38 0.29 
Super sprinter 1.31 0.66 o . .c.c 0.33 
Suburban electrical I lne 1.05 0.59 0.35 0.26 
High speed train 300 km/h 
type: Brussels-Paris 2.86 1.-43 0.96 0.72 
High speed train 300 km/h 
type: London-Paris 2.50 1.25 0.83 0.62 
... Bus/car 
Double decker 0.70 0.35 0.23 0.17 
Bus 1.17 0.58 0.39 0.29 
Minibus 1.42 0.71 O • .C7 0.35 
Express car 0.95 0.50 0.33 0.25 
5. Air 
Boeing 727 5.78 2.89 1.9.C 1.-45 
6. •soft• transport 
eye I Ing 0.06 
walk Ing 0.16 
source: Computation based on table 1 
TA&LE 3; FREIGHT TRANSPORT 
ENERGY CONSUMPTION.FOR DIFFERENT MEANS OF TRANSPORT 
Vehicle characteristics Gross Fuel consumption Specific energy consumption 
weight 1/100 km MJ/tonne km 
tonne Ca 1 lowlng for part 
load and empty 
running) 
1) .B.21.sl 5M(2l 70S(2l tOMC2l 
5-Axle articulated 38 43.5 1.38 0.99 0.69 
4-Axle articulated 32 35.3 1.35 0.96 0.67 
3-Axle articulated 20 29.5 1.50 1.07 0.75 
4-Axle rigid 20 28.5 3.11 2.22 1.55 
3-Axle rigid 16 23.5 1.80 1.28 0.90 
Heavy box van 3.5 18.5 8.11 5.80 4.06 
Medium van city traffic 1.75 15.5 16.00 11.43 8.00 
2) Ra I lways 
Bulk freight traff lc n.a. n.a. 0.6 
Wagon load traff lc n.a n.a 1.0 
(Including, collection. 
delivery to terminals 
and marshal I Ing) 
3) lnl1n~ !!lllCDYI n.a. n.a. 0.6 ( 1) 
Source Dr.M. Waters. Review of TRRL and other Research. U.K. Road Transport 
Contribution to Greenhouse Gasses, 1990 and for (1), Fondatlon Roi Baudouin, 
op. cit •. 
(2) load factor 
TAQLE 1 EMISSIONS OF voe. S02 AND NOx BY ROAD TRANSPORT 
FOR THE YEAR 1985 
CATEGORY NOx I voe I S02 
( In X of total by road transport) 
• Automobiles~ light duty vehicles 55.6 66.9 19.5 
• Motorcycles 0.2 9.9 0.8 II 
• Heavy duty vehlcles and buses 14.2 8.2 49.5 
• Other (deposits of llquld fuels. service o.o 15. 0( 1) 0.2 
stations evaPoratlon> 
TOTAL 
In tonne/year 5 .592. 104 5,328,952 394,776 --------------------In X of total emissions by all activities 53.6 27 .1 2.9 
source CORINAIR, 20-11-90 
(1) of which evaporation alone accounts for 6,BX of total emissions by road 
transport 
. TAQLE 5 POLLUTION BY ROAD TRANSPORT ON DIFFERENT ROAD CATEGORIES 
Pollutant GERMANY <cars only) NETHERLANDS (all vehlcles) 
In X on In X on 
urban roads motor ways Other urban roads motor ways Other 
non-urban non-urban 
co 43.7 25.9 30.4 53.8 17.9 28.3 
N02 21.7 410.6 37.7 26.3 416.7 27.0 ; 
S02 35.9 28.2 35.9 410.7 n.a. n.a. 
voe 59.8 15.2 25.0 60.8 14 .9 24.3 
Particulates 33.8 32.4 33.8 57.5 20.0 22.5 
Source PROGNOS. op. cit. 
TA8LE 6 ENERGY DEMAND AND EMISSION INDICATORS IN 
ROAD TRANSPORT UNDER DIFFERENT DRIVING CIRCUMSTANCES 
Type of vehicle Specif le Emission of pollutants (In g/vehlcle km) 
consumption 
1/100 km 
co NOx HC C02 S02 Particulates 
-Private car 
Petrol urban 11.6 45.0 1.2 6.4 315 - -
non-urban 5.3 12.5 1.6 1.3 160 --
Dlesel urban 9.4 1.7 0.8 0.5 331 0.08 0.40 
non-urban 5.8 0.7 1.7 1.0 201 0.06 0.23 
-Bus urban 33.0 18.0 15.5 12.0 1158 1.70 n.a. 
non-urban 32.0 3.8 15.0 2.7 1123 1.50 n.a. 
-Delivery van 
urban 16.0 55.4 3.0 6.0 498 0.18 n.a. 
non-urban n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 
-lleavy goods vehicle 
urban n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 
non-urban 33.0 8.0 17.5 2.8 1158 1.59 n.a. 
-]rf:Jtorcycle 
urban 6.0 15.6 0.1 14.0 163 --
non-urban 3.5 8.5 0.2 4.7 106 --
Source DG XVI I 
TAQLE 7 GAS TURBINE AERO-ENGINE EMISSION 
Emissions (grams per kilogram of kerosene) 
Operation phase Engine power CX) co HC NOx 
Idle 5 5 20 5 
Approach 30 5 2 10 ?l 
Cruise 60 0 0 20 
Take-off 100 0 0 40 
Source Air-Line Business. The Magaslne for Alrllne Management • October 1990, p. 27. 
IA8LE 8: EVOLUTION OF TRANSPORT IN THE COt&IUNITY 
1970-1988 
Transport In blll. Yearly growth Market share In 
tonne-km or pass-km In S tonne-km or pass-km 
1970 1988 1970-1988 1970 1988 
1. INLAND 
Frelght 
• Road 389.1 772.6 3.9 55.7 73.4 . Inland waterways 103.1 103.2 0 14.7 9.8 
• Ra 11 207.0 176.6 -0.9 29.6 16.8 
Total 699.2 1,052.4 2.3 100.0 100.0 
Passengers 
• Road: 
private car/bus 1,590.6 2,826.3 3.2 89.7 92.5 
• Rall 181.1 229.7 1.3 10.3 7.5 
Total 1,772.9 3,055.7 3. 1 100.0 100.0 
2. A!.B. 
Frelght -- - --
Passengers 117.9 2s4 .a< n 4_7(2) --
3. MARIIIME 
Freight 55(3) 100(4) 1.2(5) --
Passengers -- ---
Source: CEMT, Consultants. 
(1) Figure for the year 1985 
(2) Figure for the period 1970-1985 
(3) Figure for the year 1975 
(4) Figure tor the year 1989 
(5) Figure for the period 1975-1989 
TAQLE 9: EVOLUTION OF ROAD VEHIQ.ES AND ROAD TRAFFIC IN THE COt&IUNITY 
1970-1987 
Yearly growth 
1970 1987 1970-1987 
In X 
-Passenger cars In use 
(In thousand) 57.459 116.947 4.3 
-Goods vehicles In use 
(In thousand) 7.419 12,881 3.3 
-Vehicle-km passenger cars 
C In bll I Ion> 760.5 1,399 3.7 
-Vehicle-km goods vehicles 
C In bll 1 Ion) 157.6 275.4 3.3 
source: OECD, Environmental data, compendlwn 1989. 
TAQLE 10 FORECASTS FOR THE TRANSPORT SECTOR IN THE cnAIUNITY 
UP TO 1995 
1995 Forecast 
( I n b I I I I on) yearly growth 
tonne-km or 1989-1995 
passenger-km In X 
1. INLAND 
Freight 
• Road 1.002 3.8 . Inland waterways n.a. n.a • 
. Ra 11 210 2.2 
Total n.a. n.a. 
Passengers 
• Road 3.712 2.9 
• Rall 295 3.3 
Total 4'.007 2.9 
2. A.lB. 
Freight 20.5 5.5 
Passengers 4'53. 4' 5.2 
3. MARITIME 
Freight n.a. n.a. 
Passengers n.a. n.a. 
Source: Europe In 1995. Economic outlook by sector. April 1991. 
Figure 1 
MJ 
primary 
energy/ 
passenger-km 
(100 X occupancy) 
1.5 
1 
0.5 .. 
.. 
.. 
0.29 
lnter­
c I ty 
train SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF DIFFERENT MEANS OF TRANSPORT 
0.29 
bus Passengers 
0.69 
0.62 
high diesel 
speed car 
train 0.75 
gaso-
1 I ne 
car 1.4'5 
aircraft 
Figure 2 
SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE DIFFERENT MEANS OF TRANSPORT AT DIFFERENT 
OCCUPANCY RATES 
MJ primary 
energy/passenger-km 
6 
5 
3 
2 
1 \ 
\ 
25 
aircraft 
gaso I i ne car 
diesel car \ 
\ 
\ 
ra i I ways 
highspeed train 
bus Passengers 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
' ... ' ,_ 
............ ..... 
............ 
50 75 
-Boeing 727 
-1. 4 -2 .o cc 
-1.4 -2.0 cc 
-intercity 
-London -Paris model 
bus with 48 seats .... _ 
100 
............. 
1 I ft I I t I occupancy 
rate (in X) 
Figure 3 SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE DIFFERENT MEANS OF TRANSPORT 
MJ primary 
energy/tonne-km 
2.5 
2 .. 
1 .. 
0.6 
rall 
bulk 0.6 
land 
water-
ways ·Freight 
1.55 
0.99 1.0 
0.69 
artlcu- artlcu- ra 11 rigid 
lated lated wagon lorry 
lorry lorry load 100 x 
100 x 70 x load 
load load 
[articulated lorry -5 axle articulated 38 tons] 
[rigid lorry -~axle rigid 20 tons] 2.22 
rigid 
lorry 
70 x 
load 
Figure 4 
X of total 
co2 output CONTRIBUTION OF THE DIFFERENT MEANS OF TRANSPORT TO THE TOTAL 
C02 OUTPUT-< 1 ) OF THE TRANSPORT SECTOR IN THE CCU.CUN I TY 
Passengers and Freight 
of transport sector 
55.~ 
50 .. 
.. - 40 
30 .. 
20 -22.7 
10 -10.9 
1.6 1.1 4.3 I 2 .s I I I I I I 0.7 
...... 
private goods buses avla- passen- freight Inland other 
car vehicles + tlon ger trains water- trans-
coaches trains ways port 
( 1 ) co2 OUTPUT OF THE TRANSPORT SECTOR IN 1986 • 557 MTONS OR 22 • 5 X OF 
TOTAL C02 EMISSIONS IN THE COMMUNITY. 
Fi 9ure 5 -----FUEL CONSUMPTION if JET-AIRCRAFT 
8000 
in Ki lo-
gramm 
Ideal Conditions: 7000 
-no load 
-no waiting before takeoff 
-no headwind 
-no taxiing after arrival 
-optimal flight profile 6000 
Least ideal conditions: 
-max.load 5000 -30 min. waiting before 
takeoff 
-strong headwind 
-30 min. holding before landing 
-tong taxiing 
Modern technology: 
Airbus 310 or 320 
MD-80, Boeing 7371300 
Outdated technology: 
Boeing 707, DC-8, L.000 
3000 
I 
Boeing 727, Boeing 7371100, 
DC-9/30 I 
2000 
10000 
6000 
4000 
2000 
ideal conditions , .... ·.-I -"/-
/ 
/ I I 
I 
I 
// .. _.;' 
/ . > e/ ./()()0 ~ . _, ~" 
llf!W'7 / v 
'~r •ocl! 
BRU-LON BRU-ATH 
least ideal cond1 t ions ___ _ 
modern technology 
P_M_/7_1_1991 I I I I I 
I 
I I 
I 
I I 
I 
I 1saStJO 
I 
I 
I ,, 'If/JOO 
I 
"']Oo 
~~ ooo 
BRU-NYC 
._.. _ ----
outdated technology 
Figure 6 
Market share 
In X 
100 ~ 
50 ~ EVOLUTION OF THE MARKET SHARES OF THE DIFFERENT 
. INLAND TRANSPORT SECTORS 
73 • .C 
...... 
:55.7: 
: : 
: : 
: : 
: : ...... 
: : :29.6: 
: : : : 
: : : : 
: : : : 
I I I I 
ROAD RAIL 
market share In 1970 Freight 
16.8 ...... 
:1.C.7: 
: : 
,9.8 i I 
INLAND 
WATERWAYS I 
-------market share In 1988 



ISSN 0254-1475 
COM(92) 46 final 
DOCUMENTS 
EN 14 07 
Catalogue number: Cl:J .. (~0-92-062-EN-C 
Office fo•. O!fidal Publications of the Buropean C.oill.lllwilllet; 
L-2985 I ;nxembourg ISBN 92-77-41382-4