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COMMISSION  OF THE  EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 
COM(83)  262  final 
Brussels,  16 May 1983 
COMMUNICATION FROM  THE  COMMISSION  TO THE  COUNCIL 
First  report  on the present situation and prospects in the 
management of radioactive waste in the Community 
REPORT  FROM  THE  COMMISSION  TO THE  COUNCIL 
Analysis  of the present situation and prospects in the 
field  of radioactive waste management in the Community 
COM(83)  262  final 

DRAFT 
COMMUNICATION  FROM THE COMMISSION  TO THE COUNCIL 
SUBJECT  : First  report  on the  present  situation  and prospects  in the 
management of  radioactive  waste in the Community. 
I. INTRODUCTION 
In its resolution  of 18 February  1980 (*),  the Council  approved  a 
Community  plan of action  in the  field of radioactive  waste.  This plan 
refers to the  problems  posed by radioactive  waste from nuclear  instal­
lations and in  particular  those concerning  the management and  storage 
of high level and/or  long-lived  waste. It runs from 1980 to 1992 and 
is reviewable every three years  (**). 
Point 1 of the  plan provides  for a  continuous analysis  of the  radioac­
tive waste management  situation  in the Community  with a view to 
adoption  of the  necessary solutions. This analysis  must cover: 
- the techniques available  and installations  already  in existence  or 
planned by the  Member  States  for the  various stage  of radioactive 
waste management,  including processes  and practices  for final 
disposal; 
- technological research  and development  work which the Member  States 
and the Community  intend  to carry out; 
- management  practices  for various categories  of waste which have been 
or are to be  defined  in the  Member  States; 
- the estimated implementation dates  and schedules. 
The information  and results  obtained  from this work are to be  used "to 
keep the Community and the  Member  States constantly  up to  date on work 
and achievements  in the management and  storage  of radioactive  waste, 
having regard  to nuclear  programme  requirements". 
(*) O.J. No C 51 of 29  February  1980 
(**) In the light of the  situation  described  here after and according  to 
the opinion  of the  competent  Advisory  Committee  on programme manage­
ment (O.J. No C 51 of 29  February  1980)  given on 5 November 1982, the 
Commission  considers that there  are no  reasons  to modify the plan of 
action for the  time being. This  Commission's  decision  will be the 
subiect of another  communication. 

2 
Consequently  the Commission  is transmitting  to the  Council, together 
with its  comments,  the annexed  report  drawn up on the  basis of infor­
mation supplied  by the Member  States;  this report  reflects  the situa­
tion in 1981-82  and gives the prospects  in the management of  radioac­
tive waste in the  Community  member  States  up to the end of the  cen­
tury. The Commission  intends  to follow up this report,  the first of 
its type, with others  in order to keep the Council regularly  informed 
throughout  the duration  of the  plan. 
II. The Commission  draws the Council's attention  to the  following points: 
a) Because  of the  high level of development  in the Member  States, radio­
active waste of many  different  categories  and origins  is produced  in 
the Community  (see chapter I of the  report). 
In terms of contained  radioactivity,  waste from nuclear  power  stations 
and associated  fuel cycle plants  accounts  for the  majority  of the 
waste produced.  This applies only  to States having nuclear  power 
programme.  As several  Member  States  have developed  the fuel cycle in 
its various stages,  the ensuing  waste  differs  very greatly  in type, 
volume,  radioactivity  level,  life, etc. 
In volume  terms,  a considerable proportion consists  of waste from 
medical  uses, non nuclear industry  and research. This applies  to all 
the Member  States (see chapter 1.4). 
b) The  radioactive  waste  situation  therefore  has to be  analysed  by 
categories  of similar  waste.  According  to the  report,  the present 
situation  in the  Community  is as  follows  (see chapter II): 
- There is some 30  years of experience  in low and medium  level waste 
management,  which  appears  to meet the current  requirements  of 
nuclear power  programmes  in the Member  States  and also safety 
requirements,  as regards  both past achievements  and future  develop­
ments. It is of  course  essential  to ensure  that technological 
progress  is continually applied  (see chapter IV, point 6). 
- There should  not be any  major problems  in disposing  of low and 
medium  level waste in so far as  existing  methods  (sea dumping  and 
land disposal)  will continue  to be  used.  This calls for rapid 
necessary  decisions  on the  identification  and opening  up of new 
sites (see chapter IV, point 7). 
- The basic technologies  for the management of  long-lived  waste con­
taminated  by alpha emitters  and high level waste are available.  Some 
are coming  on to the  market  place (waste  vitrification)  (see chapter 
III). However  current  development  efforts  must be continued.  A 
special  effort  must be payed for adapting  treatment  and conditioning 
processes for  waste contaminated  by alpha emitters  to the  conditions 
required  by disposal  in geological formations  (see  chapter IV, point 
8) . 
- So far  these types of waste have been stored  pending  final disposal. 
Disposal  facilities  for alpha waste  should come into service  in the 
Member States  concerned  in the  early 1990s (see chapter IV, point 
9) . 
- High level waste  disposal  is being studied  by the Member  States and 
the Community  from several angles: disposal  in deep continental 

3 
geological  formations  such as salt,  clay, crystalline  rocks avail­
able in the  Community  and the  feasibility  of which appears  to have 
been proved,  and in the  ocean  bed (see  chapter  IV, point 12). 
III. From this analysis it results: 
- Solutions  which  over long years  of experience  have been physically 
demonstrated  to be feasible  have therefore  been found to many of the 
radioactive  waste problems,  especially for the  medium  and short  term 
management  stages,  such as treatment,  conditioning and  temporary 
storage. 
- Disposal,  which  is the ultimate  long-term  stage  of management,  has 
not yet been successfully  demonstrated  for long-lived and  high level 
waste categories. 
A solution to this  problem  is regarded  as an  important  factor for 
the public  acceptance  of nuclear  development  and that is why the 
Commission  considers that a convincing  demonstration  must be given, 
even if: 
- disposal  does not readily lend  itself  to direct  demonstration 
since it  needs  safety  assessments  covering the  very long term, 
which of necessity  have to be based  either on accelerated tests 
or on indirect evaluations; 
- the need to allow  highly active  waste  to "cool" for several 
decades  rules out any industrial disposal  before  the end of the 
century. 
IV. In the  light  of what has been said above,  the Commission  considers it 
essential  vigorously to  pursue  the Community  activities  that have been 
successfully  conducted  over the past few years  and are  recognized  by 
the Community  institutions. 
In addition, special attention  should  be paid to the  implementation  of 
the measures  described in point 2 of the  Community  plan of action (*). 
Consequently  the Commission  has adopted  the following  course  of 
action: 
- Presentation to the Council in 1983 / 1984 - and in  conformity  with 
the objectives of the  scientific  and technical  activities  of the 
framework  programme  - of new R&D  programmes  which  will be carried 
out by the Joint  Research  Center  (programme  1984 - 1987) and by cost 
shared actions  (programme  1985 -  1989).  These programmes  will focus 
on all aspects  of the  waste  disposal  problem:  prior waste  condition­
ing, specifications for disposal, quality control, disposal in 
geological  formations,  administrative, legal and financial  aspects. 
- Encouragement  of technical  cooperation  between  Member  States either 
at the level  of licensing Authorities or in the  context  of the R&D 
effort especially by suitable  measures  to facilitate: 
(*) Examination  at Community  level  of measures  which  could ensure  the 
long-term  or permanent  storage  of radioactive  waste  under optimum 
conditions" (Plan of action, point 2).  Note:  the terms  "permanent 
storage"  and "disposal" are  synonymous. 

4 
a) staff mobility  and exchanges  between  public  or private  bodies 
taking part in the  Community  R&D programme  mentioned  above. 
b) the negotiation of  suitable  methods  for the  subsequent  phases  of 
the programme;  this should involve  reciprocal  commitments  between 
the participants  in the  programme  since up to now they  have legal 
ties only with the  Commission. 
- In the context of the  Community  plan of  action,  examination of the 
development  status,  feasibility,  cost and possible timetable for 
the various stages in the implementation of  disposal  options for 
long-lived  and high  level waste  ranging from conditioning to the 
disposal  facility  pilot project;  continuation of the safety studies 
already  started.  The corresponding proposals for projects  will be 
presented at the  same time as the proposal for the  1985 - 1989  R 
and D programme. 
- Promotion  of a demonstration  - within the  meaning  of Section III 
above - of one or  more radioactive  waste management  plans,  includ­
ing disposal  in geological  formations. The plan concerned could 
cover several  sites or institutions,  with each of the  sites provid­
ing specific  services.  Cooperation extended to the outside of the 
Community  should help to  improve  the standard of the demonstration 
and avoid  costly  duplication. 
- The Commission  invites  the member  States to  communicate,  as from 
now, their  possible projects concerning the  above  actions and in 
particular  the study and  realisation  of experimental or  demonstra­
tion disposal  installations. 
- Community  aid going  beyond  the budget  allocated  to the R&D  program­
mes could be requested to help finance the  above  projects.  The 
Commission  will make concrete proposals in order to  meet any 
requests for  financing,  provided the corresponding projects are in 
line with the  interests  of several  Member  States. 

COMMISSION 
OF THE 
EUROPEAN  COMMUNITIES 
Directorate-General 
for Science, Research  and  Development 
Joint Research Centre 
Analysis  of the present situation and 
prospects in the field of radioactive 
waste management in the Community 
Provisional address:  Rue de la Loi 200, B-1049  Brussels  — Telephone  2351111  — Telegraphic  address: "COMEUR Brussels" 
Tehx: "COUTU  R °1P77" 

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 
Chapter  I 
Present  situation and prospects concerning radioactive 
waste production in the Member States of the Community. 
1.1. Sources of radioactive waste production  1 
1.2. Radioactive waste categories  3 
1.3. Nuclear power programmes  5 
1.4. Prospects for the production of waste in the Community 
Member  States  7 
Chapter  II 
Present  situation of the radioactive waste management 
in the Member States of the Community. 
11. 1. Radioactive waste management schemes  15 
11. 2. Management and structures established in the 
Member  States  16 
11. 3. Available techniques and facilities for waste 
treatment  and conditioning  20 
11. 4. Means available for waste storage and disposal  36 
Chapter  III 
Prospects  for the management of radioactive waste in 
the Community Member States. 
111.1.  R  8 D in the Community  41 
111. 2. Prospects and plans for  treatment  and conditioning 
techniques and facilities  43 
III.3 Prospects and plans for  waste  storage  and disposal... 50 
Chapter  IV 
Conclusions  54 
References  58 

CHAPTER  I 
Present  situation and prospects concerning radioactive 
waste production in the Member States of the Community. 
1.1. Sources of radioactive waste production 
ALL human activities inevitably produce waste. 
In particular, the use of radioactive materials of natural or artificial 
origin gives rise to the production of radioactive waste requiring  treatment, 
conditioning and disposal to make it safe for man and his environment for 
as long as necessary. 
This  use also generates liquid and gaseous effluents which are dis­
charged  into  surface water and the atmosphere in conformity  with  the radiatioi 
protection regulations in force and subject to adequate controL. These dis­
charges  are communicated to the Commission of the European Communities and 
appear  in periodic reports by the Commission; they do not constitute radio­
active waste as such and do not come  within  the scope of this report. 
Three types of activities generating radioactive waste can be  consi­
dered  within  the European Community  (military  activities do not come  within 
the scope of this  report)  : 
- nuclear power production, 
- research activities, 
- industrial and medical activities involving the use of radio-
elements  . 
Sources  of waste may be nuclear power stations and the associated 
fueL cycle facilities, laboratories and research centres, factories and 
hospitals.  The relative importance of these sources varies considerably  from 
one country to another  within  the Community; alL these countries commonly 
utiLise  radioéléments  for research, industrial and therapeutic purposes, but 
to date only some of them have undertaken nuclear power programmes, which 
generate waste containing most of the radioactivity. 
The activities linked to the nuclear power programmes  entail the 
following waste production  : 
a) Production of low level waste during the  successive  steps of the 
fuel cycle upstream  from  the nuclear reactor, namely the mining and 
processing  of uranium ores containing alpha-emitting radioisotopes 
of natural origin (such as radium-226), conversion  into  uranium 
hexafluoride, uranium enrichment in the uranium-235 fissile 
isotope and the fabrication of fuel elements. This technological and 
process  waste (x) contains materials contaminated by uranium isotopes. 
(x) Technological waste is made up, for example, of non-reusable clothes, 
rags,  papers, plastic sheets, etc., whereas process waste consists of 
materials specific to the process  used. 
1 

b) Production of Low and medium Level waste during the operation of  
the reactors of nuclear power plants and of the associated fuel 
cycle  plants. As far as reactors are concerned, a major  part  of 
this waste consists of evaporator concentrates, ion exchange resins, 
filter  cartridges of coolant loops and off-gas cleaning devices, 
decontamination solutions, etc. This waste essentially contains 
activation products and traces of fission products, which, in the 
event of the failure of fuel element cladding, can be present in the 
primary coolant loop of the reactor. 
c) Production of low, medium and high level waste in the  part  of the 
fuel cycle downstream  from  the nuclear reactor, essentially during 
the reprocessing of the spent fuel (x) ; this waste contains the 
fission products, transuranic elements such as americium and 
curium, and traces of plutonium (these various radioelements are 
produced in the reactor and are set free during the dissolution of 
the fuel in the reprocessing phase). 
It is  worth  pointing out  that  the reprocessing of spent fuel does 
not constitute an additional source of radioactivity as the radionuclides 
are already present in the spent fuel. 
Activities not connected  with  nuclear power programmes are 
essentially sources of low level waste : 
a) In research, waste  from  nucLear research centres is the most abundant 
and resembles  that  produced under nuclear power programmes. 
b) In industry and medicine, waste comes  from  the production and 
utilization of radioisotopes. Examples include non-destructive testing 
in industry by means of gamma radiation or neutron sources, radio-
sterilization of food, surgical and other products, cobalt used in 
cancer  treatment,  etc... 
(x) These operations separate  unburnt  uranium and plutonium  from  the 
"ash"  of nuclear combustion. The uranium and plutonium recovered 
can then be recycled. 
2 

I .2.  Radioactive waste categories 
Radioactive  waste comprises a Large variety of materials. 
These  materials can have  different  physico-chemical states, can  emit 
several  types of radiation (x) and can have radioactivities ranging 
over several orders of magnitude. 
This  diversity results in extremely  different  hazard potentials 
and necessitates therefore  different  types of management. Radioactive 
waste should therefore be classified by categories. No classification 
is accepted today as an international or Community standard, although 
the classification of untreated waste proposed by the  IAEA  (xx)  cons­
titutes  a sort of reference for numerous laboratories and nuclear 
installations (1) . 
Most  of the existing classifications comply  with  operational 
requirements; consequently, the utilization of some of them is limited 
to the internal needs of certain organizations, while others are 
established  for regional and possibly national use. Some classifications 
are used for theoretical purposes, in particular for global and safety 
studies. 
In these circumstances it is possible to ensure pragmatically 
proper waste management and the protection of man and his environment. 
On the other hand, overall evaluations are  difficult,  in particular 
when they have to cover several countries, as is the  case  for an evaluation 
concerning the European Community. 
The classification used in this  report  and described below has 
been  chosen because it was the best way of presenting for the Community, 
the quantitative data on treated and conditioned radioactive waste produced 
in the Member States (and by the Community's Joint  Research  Centre). It 
also  offers the advantage of grouping the radioactive waste  into  categories 
which correspond to the disposal options at present applied or envisaged 
by the Member States (cfr. chap. II and III). 
Four  main categories are considered: 
- low level waste, 
- medium level waste, 
- alpha waste, 
- h igh level waste. 
These  categories, and the inclusion of a 'type' of waste in one 
category rather than in another, are obviously not of a regulatory or 
normative nature. Moreover, the management practices of some Member States 
may be such  that  types of waste or categories identical to those considered 
in the present  report  may not exist on a national  level. 
(x) They are essentially alpha, beta and gamma radiation, 
(xx)  International  Atomic Energy Agency. 
3 

a) The category of Low Level waste  includes waste (mainly technological) 
containing or suspected of containing beta-gamma emitters and essentially 
naturally occurring alpha emitters in Low concentrations (and therefore 
of Low  activity)  coming  from  research centres, the industrial and medical 
utilization of  radioéléments  and various installations in the nuclear 
fuel  cycle.  The concentration of the other alpha emitters  (plutonium, 
americum,  etc.) in this waste category is practicalLy nil and is the 
subject of very  strict  controls (x)  . 
b) The category of medium level waste comprises process waste containing 
principally beta-gamma emitters in relatively large concentrations. The 
waste in this category originates, for the most  part,  from  nuclear power 
plants (ion exchange resins,  filter  cartridges, evaporator concentrates, 
etc.). The concentration of the alpha emitters in waste of this category 
is the same as in low activity waste, (x) 
c) The waste in the alpha waste  category (x) comprises technological and 
process  waste  from  nuclear Laboratories where research is carried out 
on transuranics,  from  plants fabricating  uranium-plutonium  mixed oxide 
fuel elements and  from  spent fuel reprocessing plants. Some is low-level 
waste essentially containing alpha emitters. The rest is medium-level 
waste containing alpha, beta and gamma emitters  from  reprocessing pLants, 
such  as fuel cladding and hulls and shearings  from  decanned fuel elements. 
d) The category of high level waste  consists, for the purpose of this report, 
solely  of  vitrified  waste containing nuclear combustion  ashes  (fission 
products and  transplutonium  elements which are alpha, beta and gamma 
emi tters) . 
(x) For the Federal Republic of Germany alpha waste is included in the Low 
and medium Level categories in view of the fact  that  deep geological 
formations  will  be used for the disposal of all categories of waste. 
4 

I .3.  Nuclear power programmes 
The production of radioactive waste associated  with  power 
programmes is directly proportional to the  scale  of these programmes. 
It is  therefore  appropriate to recall  their  development and to  assess 
future  prospects . 
Several  Community countries have installed nuclear power plants 
since  the end of the 1950s. For the 10 countries of the present Community, 
installed nuclear power rose gradually  from  0.48 Gwe in 1960 to 7.5 GWe 
in 1970, and was about 28 GWe in 1980. 
As far as the  future  is concerned, the forecasts at the end of 
1980 on the development of nuclear power programmes up to the year 2000 
are summarized in Table 1.1 which shows, country by country and for some 
key years, the net-nuclear power installed, committed and/or planned at 
the end of the year, (x) 
The  limitations  relating to forecasts on nuclear power programmes 
are directly applicable to those relating to the production of radioactive 
waste linked to these programmes. They  will  be recalled in the following 
pa ragraph . 
(x) This table essentially takes up the data given in the  report  of the 
"ad hoc" Advisory Committee for the reprocessing of irradiated nuclear 
fuels  (C0REC0M)  (2). However, the data on the  French,  Netherlands 
and British programmes have been revised to take  into  consideration : 
- recent modifications in the programme for the installation of nuclear 
power plants in  France; 
- the existing Netherlands policy on nuclear energy. 
- natural uranium nuclear power plants (Magnox reactors) already in 
operation in the United Kingdom whose installed power did not  figure 
in the  CORE  COM  report. 
5 

Table I.1 : Nuclear power programmes of the Community Member  States. 
COUNTRY Net power installed at the end of the year (GWe) 
a) = power stations in operation, committed 8 planned 
b) = only power stations in operation and committed 
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 
BELGIUM  (1 ) a) 
b) 1.65 
1.65 5-5 
5.5 5-5 
5.5 5-5 
5.5 5-5 
5. 5 
DENMARK  (2) a) 
b) 0 
0 0 
0 0 
0 (1.3) 
0 (2.6) 
0 
GERMANY  F.R. a) 
b) 8. 95 
8.95 18.2 
18.2 29.6 
29.6 40 
29.6 53 
29.6 
FRANCE  a) 
b) 10 
10 39 
39 58 
44 75 
44 90 
39 
IRELAND  (3) a) 
b) 0 
0 0 
0 0 
0 0.6 
0 2 
0 
ITALY  (4) a) 
b) 1.24 
1.24 1.24 
1.24 7.2 
3-2 13.2 
3.2 21 
3. 1 
NETHERLANDS  a) 
b) 0-.51 
0. 51 0. 51 
0. 51 0.51 
0.51 0.51 
0.51 0. 51 
0. 51 
UNITED a) 
KINGDOM b) 6 
6 10 
10 11 
10 15 
9 20 
8 
(1) No decision has been  taken  on the development of the nuclear power programme 
after  1985. 
(2) These are mean values in a range of forecasts, the lower  limit  of which is zero. 
(3) Very  tentative  figures. 
(4) The installed power of  21 GWe in  2000  is derived from an extrapolation no yet 
endorsed  by the government authorities. 
N.B.  Luxembourg still has nos plans to construct nuclear power stations; information 
on any nuclear programme  that  might be considered in Greece was not submitted 
to the  Commission  in due time. 
6 

I.4. Prospects  for the  production  of  waste  in the  Community  Member  States 
The estimates  given below refer  to the  annual  production  of  treated  and  
condit ioned  radioactive waste linked  to  nuclear power  programmes  and  associ­
ated fuel cycle installations  (x) and to  radioactive  waste  resulting  from 
research  and the  production  and  utilization  of  radioelements  in  industry, 
medicine,  etc..  They  are  based  on  information from  national,  sources supplied 
by Member State delegates  to the  Commission's Advisory  Committee  on  Programme 
Management  for the  management  and  storage  of  radioactive  waste. 
The estimates cover  a period  of 20  years, from  1981  to 2000.  They  are 
more reliable  for the  first  than  the  second decade  for the  following  reasons  ; 
- the  estimates concerning nuclear power programmes  are  affected  by the 
same  uncertainties  as the  programmes themselves  and in the more  distant 
future  these programmes  are  very uncertain; 
- to judge from technological progress  in  general  and the  research  aimd 
development efforts  of  some Member States,  of  waste  treatment  and  coxnéi— 
tioning processes giving better volume reduction  factors  will  be  awaiilLatolLe 
in the  years  to  come;  any  progress here will result  in  smaller  volLiuimes  ©tf 
waste than given  in the  following tables; 
- the  choice  of the  nature  and  scope  of the  treatment  and  conditioning  t© toe 
applied  to  waste depends,  to a  large extent, upon  the  disposal  ©ptii©ims 
selected  and  must  be  optimized  in  that  light;  some  Member  States  Hnawe im©tl 
yet made final choices, there  are  uncertainties  about  the  voliuiimes  ©tf  trreattedi 
and conditioned waste. 
Finally  the  estimates given also encompass  materials  uhidhi  are  ©may 
suspected  of  radioactive contamination.  The  future  intreduction  ©f  mniimiiiimiuni 
values  ("de  minimis" values)  , which  are now  being  discussed imtermattiiaBimalLlLsfv 
will make  it  possible  to  define thresholds below  which  these  imateHalLs  <ås> 
not require  any  special precautions.  The  introduction  of  these  walLiuies  ummuilLstl 
significantly reduce  the  volume  of low  level  waste  shown  in the  ffolLl©wriiimg 
tab Ies  . 
(x) With  the  exception  of low  level waste from  the  mining  and  treatment 
of uranium  ore and the  decommissioning  of  nuclear  power  plants  and 
other nuclear installations. 
For waste from  the  decommissioning  of  nuclear  power  plants,  it  shouulld 
be noted  that  even  if  some nuclear power plants  are  definitively  sftniurt. 
down before  the end of the  century,  the  decommissioning  operations  w/iilLlL 
not begin immediately  and the  resulting waste  will  be  treated  and 
conditioned  (at  least  for the  major  part)  after  the  year  2000.  Estimates 
of the  quantities  of  this waste  are  being made  for the  Comunity  unndeir 
the Commission's research  and  development programme  on the  decommissioning 
of nuclear power plants  (O.J. n°L  83/19  of  April  4,  1979).  They  are 
likely  to be  available towards  the end of the  programme  (1983). 
7 

For each Member State, the estimates have been split up  into  the 
four waste categories discussed in paragraph 1.2 and presented by periods 
of five years. They are set out in Tables 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5 below, 
for low, medium, alpha and high level waste respectively. Furthermore, 
the data have been cumulated, category by category, and are shown in 
Fig.  1.1. for the Community as a whole. 
The data on waste associated  with  nuclear power programmes relate to 
the net power, installed at the end of the year, resulting from nuclear 
power plants in operation, committed and planned, given in item a) of 
Table  1.1. However, account has been taken in some  cases  of a certain 
time lag to allow for the treatment and conditioning of the waste. 
The production of waste from nuclear research activities and indus­
trial  and medical utilization of radioelements, the quantities of which 
are already included in the data in the preceding tables, has been assumed 
to be constant over the four five-year periods considered in this report (x). 
The percentage of the waste quantities coming from these activities in the 
total  quantity of waste produced will  without  doubt decrease  with  time 
(see  table page 14), as its rate of increase will be lower  thant  that  of 
other waste. Nevertheless, this waste represents, for the time being, a 
considerable  fraction of the  total  waste production in each Member State of 
the Community. This is particularly valid for Member States which, at present, 
have  little  or no-installed nuclear power capacity, such as Denmark,  Italy 
and the Netherlands. However, at the end of the century, the real quantity 
of this waste will represent only a low percentage of the  total  quantity of 
waste produced in  France,  the Federal Republic of Germany and the United 
Ki ngdom. 
From  the analysis of the above-mentioned tables and diagram it appears 
that  : 
a) The largest quantity of waste belongs to the low level category (more than 
77 % of the  total  volume of treated and conditioned waste arising up to the 
end of the century). Nevertheless this waste contains only a very small 
fraction of the  total  radioactivity of all the waste. 
b) Medium level and alpha waste represent about 17 % and 5 % respectively of 
this  total  volume. 
c) The amount of treated and conditioned high level waste produced up to the 
year  2000 represents  less  than 0.3 % of the  total  volume of waste produced 
in the Community. Waste of this category contains almost all the radioactivity 
of all the waste. 
(x) It is to be expected  that  the production of this waste will increase 
during these four periods; it is, however, very  difficult  to make 
reliable estimates. Moreover, better volume reduction factors can be 
expected in this field too. 
8 

Table  1.2. :  Amounts  of treated and  conditioned low-level waste from  all  sources, 
produced  in various Community Member States (power stations  in  operation, committed 
and planned  - hypothesis  a) of  Table  1.1) 
Country Total quantities  of  waste  per 
(m3) five-year period 
Remarks 
1981-1985 1986-1990 1991-1995 1996-2000 Total Remarks 
Belgium 7,000 11 ,000 13,000* 12,000* 43,000* * These amounts also include waste originating from fuel 
reprocessed  abroad. 
Denma  rk 100 100 100 700 1 ,000 
Germany 31,000 41,000 57,000* * 
64,000 193,000 The amounts include  a part of the  alpha waste. 
* These amounts also comprise waste originating from fuel 
reprocessed  abroad. 
France 101,000 118,000 129,000 140,000 488,000 
Italy 5,000 5,000 12,000 18,000 40,000 
Nether lands 4,500 4,500 4,500 4,500 18,000 
United Kingdom 120,000 120,000 120,000 120,000 480,000 
Grand  Total 268,600 299,600 335,600 359,200 1,263  , 000 
N.B.  The  Commission  did not  receive  in time  information  on  waste produced  in Greece,  Ireland and  Luxembourg. 

Table 1.3 : Amounts of treated and conditioned medium Level waste produced in 
various  Community Member States (power stations in operation, committed 
and planned - hypothesis a) of Table 1.1) 
Country Total quantities of waste per five-year period 
(m3) 
Remarks Country 
1981-1985 1986-1990 1991-1995 1996-2000 Total Remarks 
BeIgiurn - -* 
800 * 
100 900 * Waste originating solely from fuel reprocessed abroad. 
According  to management practices in Belgium, waste of 
this category is included in low-level waste. 
Denmark * * * 200 200 * The real amount is less than 1 m3/y and is not included 
in this table 
Germany 600 1,000 * 
16,000 * 
25,000 42,600 The amounts include a part of alpha waste. 
* These amounts also comprise waste originating from the 
fuel reprocessed abroad. 
France 31,000 45 ,000 51,000 58,000 185,000 
Italy 1,500 1 ,500 7,000 13,000 23,000 
Netherlands 250 250 250 250 1,000 
United Kingdom * 
10,000 * 
10,000 * 
11,000 * 
12,000 43,000 * These amounts incLude waste  that  is not treated and 
conditioned  converted into the equivalent of treated 
waste . 
Grand  Total 43,350 57,750 86,050 108,550 295,700 
N.B.  The Commission did not receive in time information on waste produced in Greece,  Ireland  and Luxembourg. 

Table 1.4. Amounts of  treated and conditioned alpha waste produced  in 
various Community [power  stations in operation, committed 
and planned hypothesis a) Member States 
N.B. The Commission did not receive in  time  information on waste produced in Greece,  Ireland  and Luxembourg. Country Total quantities of waste per 
(m3) five-year period 
Remarks 
Country 
1981-1985 1986-1990 1991-1995 1996-2000 Total Remarks 
Belgium * 
2,300 450 + 
1,350 + 
700 4,800 * Stocks of waste produced previously which  will  be 
conditioned during this period. 
+ These amounts also include waste originating from fuel 
renroi-pssed  abroad. — — — 
Denmark - - - - -
Germany - - - - -The amounts of alpha waste are included in low and 
medium level categories. 
France * 
7,000 * 
10,000 * 
13,000 * 
15,500 45,500 * These amounts also include waste produced before the 
period concerned which is  treated  and conditioned 
during  that  period. 
Italy 600 850 * 
850 * 
200 2,500 * These amounts also include waste originating from 
fuel reprocessed abroad. 
Netherlands - -* 
50 * 
50 1 00 * Waste originating from fuel reprocessed abroad. 
United Kingdom * 
5,500 * 
5,500 * 
7,500 * 
7,500 26,000 * These amounts include waste  that  is not  treated  and 
conditioned converted into the equivalent of  treated 
waste . 
Grand  Total 15,400 16,800 22,750 23,950 78,900 of Table I .1) 

Table 1.5 : Amounts of  treated  and conditioned high level waste produced in 
various Community Member States  (power  stations in operation, committed and planned - hypothesis a) of Table 1.1) 
Country Total quantities of waste per five-year period 
(m3) Country 
1981-1985 1986-1990 1991-1995 1996-2000 Total Remarks 
Belgium - -* 
70 * 
75 145 * These amounts  aLso  include waste originating from 
fuel reprocessed abroad. 
Denmark - - - - -
Germany - -* 
250 * 
375 625 * These amounts also include waste originating from 
fuel reprocessed abroad. 
France 190 580 850 1,230 2,850 Waste originating solely from the reprocessing of 
domestic  fuel. 
Italy - -* 
125 * 
135 260 * These amounts also include waste originating from 
fuel reprocessed abroad 
NetherLands - -* 
5 * 
15 20 * Waste originating from fuel reprocessed abroad 
United Kingdom - - 400 400 800 Waste originating solely from the reprocessing of 
domesti c fuel 
Grand  Total 190 580 1,700 2,230 4,700 
N.B. The Commission did not receive in  time  information  on waste  produced in Greece,  Ireland  and Luxembourg. 
ro 

- 13 -
„3 
Low Level waste 
medium level waste 
alpha  waste 
hiqh level waste 350 000 
300,000 
250,000 
100,000 
50,000 
1981-1985 1986-1990 1991-1995 Periods 
1996-ZCCG 
Fig. 1-1 - : Radioactive  waste arisings  from  all  sources  within  the  Community 
(cumulated over five-year periods) 

Country Percentage  by volume of waste coming from 
research  activities and the utilization 
of radioelements compared to  total  waste 
arisings. Country 
1981-1985 1995-2000 
Belgium 30 20 
Denmark 100 40 
Germany 30 10 
France 20 6 
Italy 50 12 
Netherlands 40 20 
United Kingdom 15 | 
10 | 
I 
d) The increase in the production of low and medium level waste is more 
or less  linear during the period under review. The rate of increase is 
lower than  that  of installed nuclear power. This is mainly due to the 
hypothesis made earlier  that  new treatment and conditioning techniques 
allowing  further  reductions in volume will be applied in the years to 
come. 
e) The non linear growth rate shown by the volume of alpha waste is due 
to the fact  that  a large part of this waste consists of waste from 
spent fuel reprocessing plants. The spent fuel will be reprocessed 
in ever increasing quantities as from the end of the 1980s. 
Finally  it should be pointed out  that  the volume of waste indicated 
in the preceding tables comprises the actual volume both of the radioactive 
materials constituting the waste and of various  inert  materials (cement, 
bitumen, polymers,  glass,  etc..) necessary for waste conditioning. This 
latter volume represents an important fraction of the final volume of 
conditioned waste. Furthermore, the numerical values in the tables also 
take  into  account the volume of the containers (metallic drums, concrete 
containers,  etc..)  into  which the conditioned waste is put (*). In the 
case  of vitrified  high level waste, the volume of the container is 1.25-
1.3 larger than the volume of the block of glass containing the actual 
waste. 
(*) The figures for Germany do not include the volume of concrete 
containers. 
14 

CHAPTER  II 
Present  situation of radioactive waste management 
in the Member States of the Community. 
II.1. Radioactive waste management schemes 
The main objective of waste management is to ensure the safety and 
protection of present and  future  generations and  their  environment  until 
such  time  as the radioactive substances in the waste reach harmless levels 
by radioactive decay. 
To this  end, it must, in particular, conform to the general princi­
ples  of radiological protection. 
Management includes the gathering, sorting,  treatment,  conditioning, 
transport,  storage and finally disposal of waste. These  different  activities 
are closely linked by numerous interactions. However, for the sake of simpli­
city, two main groups of  activity  can be distinguished : (*) 
a) treatment  and conditioning are industrial processing operations designed 
to put the waste in a suitable  form  for handling, storage and  disposal. 
b) disposal may be either land disposal (shallow burial, disposal in 
continental geological formations) or sea disposal (dumping in the ocean 
or burial in the ocean bed). 
Management also encompasses the choice of techniques and the 
design  of the installations involved; technical, social and economic 
factors play a considerable role. 
Finally,  management must be carried out in the  framework  of rules 
allowing adequate implementation and control. 
The radioactive waste management schemes adopted or being developed 
by the Member States of the Community try to take these various considerations 
into  account;  they  involve public and private organizations and industrial 
and regulatory bodies. 
(*) Transport operations constitute a particular  case  of the  transport 
of nuclear materials in general and do not specifically come under 
the heading of radioactive waste management. 
15 

II.2. Management and structures established in the Member States (*) 
In the  majority  of Member States, waste management activities in 
the first  group, i.e.  treatment  and conditioning, are carried out directly 
by the waste producers themselves on the waste production site (operators 
of industrial plants in the nuclear fuel  cycle,  nuclear research centres, 
etc.),with  the exception of waste resulting  from  the medical and industrial 
use of radioisotopes, whose  treatment  and conditioning are, in certain  cases, 
centralized.  However, responsibility for disposal activities (the second 
group) lies  with  national organizations or the national authorities 
themselves. 
It is advisable briefly to recall the essential management structure 
and administrative principles as they stand today in the various Member 
States,  as the above outline of radioactive waste management is a general 
one which can vary  from  one country to another. 
In Belgium, the storage, discharge and disposal of radioactive 
waste is reglemented by the provisions of the  Royal  Decree of February 1963 
on the protection of the population and workers against the hazards of ionizing 
radiation. This Decree also lays down a system for the inspection and autho­
rization of various nuclear operations, including those on radioactive waste. 
A National Agency for radioactive waste and fissile materials  ONDRAF/NIRAS 
was set up by the law of August 1980 and confirmed by the  Royal  Decree of 
March  1981 which constitutes the Agency statute. The Agency's powers extend 
to the transport (organization, co-ordination and registration) of radioactive 
waste, the  interim  storage (responsibility), outside production plants, of 
untreated and unconditioned waste and all waste disposal operations, whether 
or not preceded by  interim  storage for which it is responsible. In the 
domain of waste conditioning, the Agency has a role complementary to  that 
of the operators of major fuel cycle plants. Furthermore, the Agency is 
responsible  for the definition of quality criteria for conditioned waste, 
the acceptance of conditioning methods and the quality control of conditioned 
waste. 
In accordance  with  an agreement between the National Health Service 
of Denmark and the Ristf National Laboratory, the  latter  is the only organiza­
tion  in Denmark which provides services in the field of waste management for 
users  of radioactive materials (hospitals, industry, etc..). The system for 
the management of this waste and the waste produced at Risof itself is operated 
in accordance  with  the principles laid down in the Danish atomic laws (**) . 
The system is supervised by the Danish nuclear regulatory  authority.  No 
decision  has been taken on the disposal of the waste stored at  RisaL 
(*) ALL the countries having nuclear activities guarantee  that  the exposure 
to radiation associated  with  these activities, and consequently  with 
radioactive waste management, remains  within  fixed Limits. Community 
and national rules established in this field do not come  within  the 
specific  scope of this report. 
(**) Lov om nukleare anlaeg (atomanlaeg) n°170, 16 May 1962 and  part of Lov 
om sikkerhedsmaessige og  mi Lic/maessige  forhold ved atomanlaey 
m.v. n° 244 of 12 May 1976. 
16 

Although  no  nuclear power plants  are at  present operating  in 
Denmark,  the  aspects associated  with  high  activity  waste management  are 
being studied  by the  Danish Agency  for the  Protection  of the  Environment. 
The purpose  is to  evaluate  the  investigation  by the  electricity companies 
of the  feasibility  of  high level waste disposal  in  salt geological formations. 
In the  Federal Republic  of Germany,  with  the aim of  "closing  the 
nuclear fuel  cycle",  the  governement  has  developed  an  "integral concept  for 
the back  end of the  fuel  cycle"  (*).  This system includes  all  back  end 
activities  and  installations,  i.e. the  management  of  irradiated fuel  and 
radioactive waste.  The 1976 4th  Amendment  to the  German "atomic  law" (**) 
defines  and  distributes  the  responsibilities between  the  government  and 
the industry concerned.  The  Federal Government  is  responsible  for  securing 
and finally disposing  of  radioactive waste. This task  was  conferred  on the 
federal agency "Physikalish  - Technische Bundesanstalt  (PTB)"  which  has to 
develop,  build  and  operate  the  installations  for  waste confinement  and  final 
disposal.  The  industry,  on the  other hand,  is responsible  for  development 
construction  and  operation  of all  other back-end installations including those 
for the  treatment  and  conditioning  of  waste.  The  industry concerned here 
consists  of all  utilities  which operate nuclear power reactors,  and for the 
purpose  of  accomplishing  the  task imposed  by the law,  these have established 
the "German Company  for  Reprocessing  of Nuclear  Fuel"  (***). 
According  to the  atomic  law, the  radioactive waste coming  from  the 
medical,  industrial  and  research  use of  radioisotopes  has to be  delivered 
to central storage installations  built  by the  Federal Lander  (****). 
The final  disposal  of these waste categories  is  also  the  responsibility  of 
the Federal Agency  PTB. 
Work  on  radioactive waste management  has  been carried  out in  France 
for about  30  years  by the  scientists  of the  Atomic Energy Commission 
(CEA)  who  have gradually been confronted  with  all the  aspects  of waste 
management including disposal since  the  establishment  of the La  Manche disposal 
centre  in 1969 fo  low/medium level waste. This centre  has  been operated  for 
ten years  by a  private company  on the  CEA's  behalf. 
(*) 
(**) 
(***) 
(****) "Integrietes  Entsorgungskonzept" 
"Deutsches  Atom-Gesetz 
"Deutsche  Gesellschaft  fur  Wiederaufarbeitung  von  Kernbrennstoffen 
mbH"  (DWK) 
"Landessammelstellen". 
17 

More  recently, the development of the French nuclear reactor 
programme has prompted the authorities to step up the waste disposal 
effort  and give it an industrial character. 
As a result, a central organization, the national Agency for 
radioactive waste management  (ANDRA),  was established on the 7 November 1979. 
The legislative and regulatory provisions make  ANDRA  responsible 
fo r : 
- the long-term management of disposal centres, either directly, or 
through  third  parties acting on its behalf; 
- designing, installing and establishing new disposal centres, and 
carrying out all the necessary studies to this end, especially the 
forecasting of waste production; 
- promoting,  jointly  with  waste producers, specifications for conditioning 
and storage of radioactive waste before removal to disposal centres; 
- contributing towards research, studies and  work  concerning long-term 
management processes for radioactive waste and their  future  development. 
The CEA is the organization which carries out  basic  research 
and the development of waste conditioning  processes.  The plant operators 
producing radioactive waste are responsible for waste conditioning in 
conformity  with  the specifications issued by  ANDRA  so that  the waste can 
be accepted in a disposal centre. 
In Italy , the  treatment  and conditioning of waste and the  interim 
storage of conditioned waste (on production or "ad hoc" sites) is the res­
ponsibility of the nuclear plant operators and of the users of radioisotopes 
(including hospitals). This applies to all categories of waste including 
high level waste category. It is foreseen  that  the  Italian  State  will  be 
responsible  for the disposal of all categories of conditioned waste. 
Disposal  will  be carried out after prior authorization by the  Industry, 
Commerce  and Handicraft Ministry. 
The NUCLECO  Company was set up by  ENEA  and Agip Nucleare to manage 
low and medium level waste (*) . 
ENEA  (National Committee for research and development on nuclear energy 
and alternative energies) was given the following tasks: 
- to carry out and promote, partly by means of appropriate international 
cooperation, studies and R S D  work  on waste management (development 
of treatment  and conditioning  processes,  studies and experiments on 
techniques for disposal in geological formations, studies to select 
geological formations most suitable for disposal); 
(*) This  Company was established in 1981 by  AGIP  Nucleare and  ENEA. 
Its activities consist of : 
- the collection, transport, storage and conditioning of low and 
medium level waste; 
- the decontamination of plants and facilities; 
- the decommissioning of nuclear plants; 
- the design, construction, delivery and operation of plants for 
the treatment  and conditioning of low and medium level waste. 
18 

- to ensure  that  a suitable publicly-owned site is available for the 
disposal  of high level and/or alpha waste in geological formations; 
- to contribute, in its capacity as a technical State body, to the 
definition  of criteria and management practices for each category 
of waste and, in particular, of the characteristics of conditioned 
waste. 
In addition,  ENEA,  as a producer of waste in its own facilities, 
has the same responsabi lities as any ordinary operator. 
Pursuant  to the law on nuclear energy in the Netherlands, the 
Energy  Research  Centre of the Netherlands (ECN) (*) is the central 
department for the collection of radioactive waste. The Centre also 
treats  and conditions waste for  interim  storage and  disposal. 
In the United Kingdom, the Environment Departments are responsible 
for nuclear waste management policy. This includes the establishment of 
an overall long-term strategy. The bodies responsible for the regulation 
of radioactive waste management are the Environment Departments, the 
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and  Food,  the Nuclear Installations 
Inspectorate and the Department of Transport. 
The treatment,  conditioning, storage,  transport  and disposal of 
waste are the responsibilities of individual waste producers. In July 1982, 
the electricity generating boards  (CEGB  and  SSEB),  BNFL  and  UKAEA  set up the 
Nuclear  Industry  Radioactive Waste Executive (NIREX) to coordinate the 
nuclear industry's requirements for  disposal,  to establish the necessary 
disposal  facilities and to take over responsibility for the operation of sea 
disposal  from  UKAEA  (**). 
(*) 
(**) Energieonderzoek  Centrum Netherlands 
CEGB  : Central Electricity Generating Board 
SSEB  : South of Scotland Generating Board 
BNFL  : British Nuclear  Fuel  Limited 
UKAEA  : United Kingdom Atomic Energy  Authority 
NIREX  : Nuclear  Industry  Radioactive Waste Executive. 
19 

II.3. Available techniques and facilities for waste  treatment  and 
condit ioninq 
As already pointed out,  treatment  and conditioning are supplementary 
processes  designed to put waste  into  a form  suitable for safe handling, 
storage and disposal. In accordance  with  the  ALARA  (*) principle, the 
techniques and processes used are chosen in such a way  that  workers are not 
exposed  to significant radiation doses. 
According  to the nature and the activity level of the contained 
radioactive materials, the  treatment  may be preceded by some months or even 
years  of storage of raw waste for radioactive decay and cooling purposes. 
The treatment  prepares the waste, as generated at the production 
source,  for conditioning by mechanical, physical, and/or chemical processes 
which are basically designed to reduce the volume of raw waste and change 
its composition. Some of these processes are (**) : 
for solid waste: - cutting, shearing, shredding; 
- compaction; 
- incineration, calcination; 
for liquid waste: - evaporation; 
- insolubilization; 
- chemical precipitation, neutralization and 
fi Itration; 
- etc.. 
Some  of these processes have been successfully applied to low-level 
waste in the Community for 20 to 30 years. 
Conditioning transforms treated waste  into  forms  that  reduce to a 
minimum the risk of releasing the contained radionuclides during the 
handling and transport operations and/or during attack by external agents 
(essentially  water)  when waste is stored and or disposed of. The treated 
waste is frequently embedded in matrices which solidify  into  blocks or 
structures offering,  with  or without  the help of external metallic 
containers, the required safety characteristics (good mechanical resistance 
to impacts, resistance to fire, a low leaching rate, etc ). 
(*) As Low as Reasonably Achievable. 
(**) Most  gaseous waste is today released as  effluent  (cfr.  1.1.). 
Such  releases may become inacceptable in the long term. 
Therefore R&D  work  is being carried out  with  a view to developing 
adequate  treatment  processes and immobilization in solid matrices. 
20 

The choice of matrix depends on many factors, the main ones being 
the type of waste, the type and Level of the contained radioactivity, 
cost  and the safety given by the conditioning. 
The current situation in the Community may be outlined as follows: 
- Cements have been used since the 1950s and are still in general usage, 
essentially  for low level waste, 
- Bitumens introduced around 1960-1965 can embed higher activities per 
unit  volume than cements. They are used in only some Member States. 
- Polymers have recently been introduced and are used primarily for 
conditioning of power plant waste. 
- Gla ss, studied for about 25 years for the conditioning of high level 
and long-lived waste  from  the reprocessing of irradiated fuel, can now 
be used industrially and commercially in the process recently put on 
the market by  France. 
The description of the  different  techniques used is beyond the 
scope  of this document. Recent reports (3) (4) (5) give, if need be, 
the state of the art for the countries of the Community and also  full 
technical  details (*) . 
Nevertheless,  Table II.1. gives an overview, country by country, 
of the main techniques for  treatment  of solid waste and embedding matrices 
currently  used.  It should be pointed out  that  evaporation and  filtration 
techniques are widely used in all the Member States for the  treatment  of 
liquid waste. 
Obviously  the  treatment  and conditioning techniques described are 
making progress, and improvements are being studied (improved cements and 
bitumens, thermosetting resins, vit rocerami cs, etc..). These activities 
and prospects, together  with  the development of new techniques, are under 
the heading of  Research  and Development and are dealt  with  in Chapter III. 
The main  treatment  and conditioning facilities for solid wastes now 
in operation in the  different  Community countries are shown in Table II.2, 
while Table II.3 lists facilities for the  treatment  and conditioning of 
liquid wastes. 
After  treatment  and conditioning, waste is confined in containers 
specially  designed for waste  disposal.  In particular, these containers meet 
the specifications issued by national bodies responsible for radioactive 
waste management (cf.  II.2). 
(*) these reports are the outcome of studies in the Community's  first 
R&D  programme (1975-1979) on the management 
and storage of radioactive waste (see  III.1.) 
21 

TabLe  II.1. : Main techniques for the  treatment  of solid waste and main embedding 
matrices used in the Community Member States. 
COUNTRY Treatment techniques Embedding  matrices for waste conditioning COUNTRY 
Compaction Incineration Cements Bitumen Polymers 
BELGIUM + + + + + 
DENMARK + + + 
GERMANY + + + + 
FRANCE + + + + + 
ITALY + + + 
THE NETHERLANDS + + + 
UNITED  KINGDOM + + + + 

TABLE  II.2. 
Available  installations for  treatment  and conditioning of solid waste in various Community countries. 
COUNTRY NATURE  OF 
WASTE MANAGEMENT 
STEP INSTALLATION CAPACITY  AND 
CHARACTERISTICS REMARKS 
BeIgi um combustible treatment Low-temperature incinerator type 
(700-800°C) installed at the 
CEN/SCK  - Mo  I 100-150  Kg/h 
volume reduction 
factor 60 including 
compaction of  ashes the incinerator 
does  not allow 
treatment  of 
plutoni  urn-
bearing waste 
compactabl e treatment 300-tonne press installed at 
CEN/SCK  Mol volume red.f.3 alpha-tight 
installation 
combustibl e 
compactabl e 
non-
compactabl e conditioning Facilities  for incorporation of waste 
in cement and bitumen are available 
at CEN/SCK  Mol conditioned waste 
is packed in 2201 
metal drums or 
400 I concrete 
containers 
Denmark compactabl e treatment Balling  press available at  Rise/ waste is compac­
ted into  metal 
drums and stored 
without  conditio­
ning 

TABLE  II.2. 
Available  installations for  treatment  and conditioning of solid waste in various Community countries. 
COUNTRY NATURE  OF 
WASTE MANAGEMENT 
STEP INSTALLATION CAPACITY  AND 
CHARACTERISTICS REMARKS 
Germany combustible treatment Incinerators for low and medium level 
waste are in operation in the 
following nuclear research centres : 
- Karlsruhe 70 Kg/h also  for liquid waste 
- Julich 100 Kg/h 
compactable treatment Waste  compaction facilities are in 
operation in several nuclear power 
plants and in the following nuclear 
research  centres : 
- Karlsruhe 1000 m^/y volume 
reduction factor 5 
- Julich 16-tonne press 
- HMI, Berlin volume reduction 
factor 2 
- GKSS,  Geesthacht 

TABLE  II .2. 
Available  installations  for treatment  and conditioning  of solid waste in  various  Community  countries. 
COUNTRY NATURE  OF 
WASTE MANAGEMENT 
STEP INSTALLATION CAPACITY  AND 
CHARACTERISTICS REMARKS 
Germany 
(cont.) non-
compactable treatment Shearing facilities are available 
in the following research centres : 
- Karlsruhe 
- Karlsruhe 
- Julich 
- HMI, Berlin 400 rru/y 
70 m ly for low level waste 
for medium level waste 
combustible 
compactable 
non-
compactable conditioning Facilities  for embedding waste in 
cement are available in several 
nuclear power plants and in the 
following nuclear research centres : 
- Karlsruhe 2 drums/h (200 I) for ash, ion exchange 
resins and evaporator 
concentrates 
- Julich 150-200 drums per 
year (200 I) for ash and dried  eva­
poration sludges 
- HMI, Berlin for solids and evapora­
tor concentrates 
- GSF 
- GKSS,  Geesthacht 
compactable 
non-
compactable conditioning Mobile  plant  for immobilization of 
ion exchange resins in styrene mixed 
with  a catalyst the resins are condi­
tioned in 200 I drums 

TABLE  II.2. 
Available  installations  for  treatment  and  conditioning  of solid  waste  in various  Community  countries. 
COUNTRY NATURE  OF 
WASTE MANAGEMENT 
STEP INSTALLATION CAPACITY  AND 
CHARACTERISTICS REMARKS 
France combustible treatment Incinerators of various types are in 
service  at the following CEA nuclear 
research  centres: 
- Cadarache 30 Kg/h incineration of a 11 
types of solid radio­
active waste including 
alpha-bearing 
- Cadarache 50 Kg/h incinerator for 
organic liquids 
- Marcoule 100 Kg/h the incinerator will 
also  fire  non-aqueous 
liquid waste. 
- Fontenay-aux-Roses 50 Kg/h 
- Grenoble 20 Kg/h for biological waste 
and contaminated 
plastic materials 
compactable treatment Presses  of various forces are in 
service  at : 
- Cadarache 
- Marcoule 
- La Manche disposal site 2500 KN 
600 KN 
4000 KN 

TABLE  II.2. 
Available  installations for  treatment  and conditioning of solid waste in various Community countries. 
COUNTRY NATURE  OF 
WASTE MANAGEMENT 
STEP INSTALLATION CAPACITY  AND 
CHARACTERISTICS REMARKS 
France 
(cont. ) non-
compactabl e treatment Arc-cutting facilities available at 
Marcoule  for waste of large dimen­
sions.  Other  cutting  facilities are 
in operation in research eentres such 
as Saclay. 
combustible 
compactable 
non-
compactable conditioning Waste  cementation facilities are 
available  at various nuclear power 
plants,  at COGEMA  and  MARCOULE  fuel 
reprocessing  plants and at the 
La Manche disposal site. 
Cementation/bituminization facilities 
at Cadarache.  Facilities for incor­
poration of ion exchange resins and 
filter  cartridges in thermosetting 
resins  are available  at Chooz  power 
plant; a facility of the same type 
i9 in operation at the CEN Grenoble. 
itêiy 
r e ©flippet  able treatment various  presses are  available  at : 
- CAMiN  research  centre volume  reduction 
factor  4 
- I§pra  J8G 7SQ KN 
= Trine, §aMg Hafi§, eaerie 
and Latina nu§l§ar p§w§p  planti. Balling  presse« 

TABLE  II.2. 
Available  installations for  treatment  and conditioning of solid waste in various Community countries. 
COUNTRY NATURE  OF 
WASTE MANAGEMENT 
STEP INSTALLATION CAPACITY  AND 
CHARACTERISTICS REMARKS 
Italy 
(cont.) compactable 
non-
compactable conditioning One facility for embedding in 
bitumen is in operation at 
- Ispra JRC 
Facility  for embedding ion exchange 
resins  in formaldehyde is available 
at the  Caorso  nuclear power plant. 500 drums of 
200 l/y 
Facility  for embedding the fuel 
element splitters in resins available 
at the Latina nuclear power plant. 
Mobile  unit  for embedding ion 
exchange  resins, evaporator  concen­
trates etc.. in plastic materials 
or cement. average  capacity : 
2000 drums of 
220 l/y 
The 
Netherlands compactable treatment 1500-tome press in operation at 
Petten  ECN volume reduction 
factor 5 
conditioning A facility for embedding waste in 
cement is in operation at Petten ECN 20-25  drums/h 

TABLE  II.2. 
Available  installations  for treatment  and conditioning  of solid waste in various Community countries. 
COUNTRY NATURE  OF 
WASTE MANAGEMENT 
STEP INSTALLATION CAPACITY  AND 
CHARACTERISTICS REMARKS 
United 
Kingdom combustible treatment Incinerators for low level waste 
are available at most nuclear power 
plants. about 7,000 m3/y This  type  of inci­
nerator has no  filter 
in the stack. 
Incinerators for medium level waste 
are in operation at Berkeley, Hinkley 
Point,  Bradwell and Wylfa nuclear 
power plants and at the Harwell 
research  centre. about 3,000 m3/y 
compactable treatment Presses  are available in some nuclear 
power plants and at the Harwell 
research  centre. volume reduction 
factor 2 
various conditioning Facilities  for embedding in cement 
are available at 
- Hinkley Point and Trawsfyndd 
nuclear power plants. 0.2 m3/d 
- Harwell and  Winfrith  research 
centres. conditioning for sea 
dumping 

TABLE  II.3. 
Major  installations available for treatment and conditioning of liquid effluents in various Community countries. 
| COUNTRY NATURE  OF 
WASTE MANAGEMENT 
STEP INSTALLATION CAPACITY  AND 
CHARACTERISTICS REMARKS 
Belgium effluents from 
nuclear  power 
plants treatment Facilities  for  filtration  and evapo­
ration of liquid effluents are  avai­
lable  at Doel I, II and Tihange power 
plants capacity  of the 
fiItration/evapora-
tion  circuits : 
2 tonnes/h processed  liquids 
are discharged  into 
rivers. 
effluents from 
Eurochemic 
fuel reproces­
sing  plant treatment Two evaporators under vacuum for 
medium level liquid effluents. 1 .5 m3/h 
concentration 
factor 30 Hot waste concentrates 
are stored pending 
conditioning. effluents from 
Eurochemic 
fuel reproces­
sing  plant 
conditioning Immobilization in bitumen of residues 
from the chemical decanning of fuel 
elements  at the Eurobitume facility. 650 m 3/year Waste  is conditioned 
in 220 I stainless 
steel  drums. The drums 
are stored at the 
Eurostorage  facility. 
effluents from 
various 
nuclear 
installations treatment Flocculation  -coprecipitation facili­
ties are available at the  CEN/SCK  Mol 
for treatment of liquid effluents 
from the nuclear laboratories at Mol 
and Geel (JRC),  Eurochemic fuel 
reprocessing  plant and Belgonucleaire 
(Dessel)  : After treatment and 
control liquid 
effluents are dischar­
ged into  a river. 
- effluents of category 1 * 500 m3/day 
- effluents of categories 2 * and 3 * 400-500  m3/day.  Con­
centration factor : 
4000  - 5000 * These are  IAEA  cate­
gories  (see refer.1) 

TABLE  II. 3. 
Major  installations available for  treatment  and conditioning of liquid effluents in various Community countries. 
COUNTRY NATURE  OF 
WASTE MANAGEMENT 
STEP INSTALLATION CAPACITY  AND 
CHARACTERISTICS REMARKS 
Belgium 
(cont .) effluents  from 
various 
nuclear  ins­
tallations 
(cont . ) conditioning Facility  for direct immobilization 
of sludges in bitumen available at 
CEN/SCK  Mol 10 Kg of dried 
solid  per hour conditioned waste is 
stored pending sea 
dumping 
Denmark low level 
activity ef­
fluents  from 
laboratories 
and nuclear 
research  faci­
lities treatment Evaporation  plant (recompression 
plant  with  forced circulation) in 
operation at  Risd 2 m3/h 
conditioning Facility  for bituminization of evapo­
ration concentrates 
• waste is placed in 
100 I drums which 
are put  into  210 I 
drums. The annular 
space  between drums 
is filled  with  cement 

TABLE  II.3. 
Major installations available for  treatment  and conditioning of liquid effluents in various Community countries. 
COUNTRY NATURE  OF 
WASTE MANAGEMENT 
STEP INSTALLATION CAPACITY  AND 
CHARACTERISTICS REMARKS 
Germany effluents 
from  nuclear 
research 
centres treatment Evaporation facilities are available 
at the following research centres : 
- Karlsruhe 4 m3/h two evaporators for 
low level effluents 
- Karlsruhe 1 m3/h for medium level 
effluents 
- Julich 5 tonnes/h and 
2 tonnes/h for low level 
effluents 
- HMI, Berlin 150 Kg/h for low level 
effluents 
An incinerator for solvents is 
available at Karlsruhe 20 Kg/h Pilot facility 
A kerosene purification facility is 
available at Karlsruhe 40 m3/y 
A decontamination facility (ion 
exchange resins) is available at 
Julich. 
conditioning Evaporation concentrates are 
embedded in cement at the facilities 
mentioned in Table II.2. 

TABLE II.3. 
Major installations available  for treatment  and conditioning  of liquid effluents  in various  Community  countries. 
COUNTRY NATURE OF 
WASTE MANAGEMENT 
STEP INSTALLATION CAPACITY  AND 
CHARACTERISTICS REMARKS 
France low and 
medium level 
effluents 
from the 
nuclear  fuel 
cycle plants 
and research 
centres treatment Two installations available  at 
Cadarache  for treatment,  by preci­
pitation,  of aqueous  waste from the 
mixed-oxide  fuel fabrication plant. 
Other facilities  of the  same type 
are available  at La Hague and Marcoule 2 m /h 
6 m /h 
Evaporators  are available  in all the 
nuclear power plants and at : 
- Saclay 7,000 m /year 
- Cadarache 10,000 m'/year 
- Fontenay-aux-Roses 2000-4000  m /year 
- Marcoule 100 - 130 l/h for carbonated liquids 
conditioning Facilities  for immobilization  of 
evaporator concentrates  and sludges 
in cement are available  in several 
nuclear power plants and research 
centres. 
Facilities  for immobilization  of 
evaporator concentrates  in bitumen 
are available  at Saclay,  Cadarache 
and Marcoule 
high level 
effluents 
from fuel 
reprocessing 
plants treatment Evaporators  are in  operation  at 
La Hague and Marcoule 500 l/h 
conditioning A vitrification  pilot workshop  is in 
operation  at Marcoule vitrified  waste 

TABLE II.3. 
Major installations available  for treatment  and conditioning  of liquid effluents  in various  Community  countries. 
COUNTRY NATURE OF 
WASTE MANAGEMENT 
STEP INSTALLATION CAPACITY  AND 
CHARACTERISTICS REMARKS 
Italy low level 
effluents  from 
research 
centres and 
nuclear power 
plants t reatment A precipitation/fiItration  installa­
tion for category  2 aqueous  liquids 
is available  at the  Casaccia research 
centre. 2.5 m /h 
Treatment  facilities  in operation  at 
the JRC Ispra : 
- combustion  furnace  for organic 
liquids.  > 
- flocculation/centrifugation 
installation. 25 l/h 
5 m /h 
Evaporation installations  are in 
operation  at Latina, Trino, Gariglianc 
and Caorso  nuclear  power plants 
conditioning Facility for immobilization  of ion 
exchange  resins in urea-formaldehyde 
in operation  at Caorso  nuclear  power 
plant. 500 drums  of 220 I 
per year 
low - medium 
high level 
effluents 
from pi  lot 
reprocessing 
plants t reatment Evaporators  are in  operation  at 
EUREX and ITREC pilot reprocessing 
plants. Evaporator  concen­
trates are stored 
awaiting conditioning 

TABLE II.3. 
Major installations  available  for treatment  and conditioning  of liquid effluents  in various  Community  countries. 
COUNTRY NATURE OF 
WASTE MANAGEMENT 
STEP INSTALLATION CAPACITY  AND 
CHARACTERISTICS REMARKS 
The 
Netherlands low level 
effluents 
from research 
centres and 
nuc Lear 
power plants treatment Precipitation-  centrifugation  -
filtration  facility  at Petten ECN 2 m /h 
Filtration  and evaporation  facilities 
are in operation  at the  following 
nuclear power plants : 
- Dodewaard 
- Borssele U.6 m /h 
1 tonne/h 
conditioning Facilities  for waste immobilization 
are in operation  at : 
- Petten ECN (cement) 
- Dodewaard (cement) 
- Borssele (polyethylene) 0.5 m Id 
0.25 m /d 
United 
Kingdom low - medium 
level 
effluents  from 
nuclear  fuel 
cycle plants treatment Filtration  and/or ion exchange 
facilities  are available  in all the 
nuclear power plants and at the 
Windscale spent  fuel reprocessing 
plant. 4,000 m /d 

II.4. Means  available for  waste  storage and disposal 
The disposal of radioactive  waste  in the  Community  is currently 
confined essentially to low and  medium  level  waste.  For the  time being 
alpha and high level  waste  * are stored.  Means  of disposal are being 
studied or  developed  and will be dealt with in  Chapter  III. 
The activity  of low and  medium  level  waste  will,  by radioactive 
decay,  decline to that of natural radioactivity in a few  hundred  years. 
For disposal of this  waste,  the Member  States use either land disposal 
(shallow or in  depth)  or sea  dumping  or both. 
The optimization  procedure  needed  for the application of radiolo­
gical protection principles helps to  determine  the relative  importance 
to be attributed to  these  two options in  each particular case. 
Land disposal is or has  been practised industrially in several 
Member  States for  many years (shallow land burial in  France  and the United 
Kingdom,  disposal in  depth  in the Federal Republic of  Germany)  and is  governed 
by national regulations. 
Other Member  States (Belgium, the Netherlands, the United  Kingdom) 
have been dumping  waste  in the sea for  many years under  the multilateral 
consultation and surveillance  mechanism  for sea  dumping  of radioactive 
waste introduced in 1977 within NEA ** in order to  promote  the objectives of 
the London  Convention  *** among  the member  countries of the  OECD (of which 
they are also  members). 
This convention attributes to the  competent  international  body,  currently 
the IAEA,  the task of: 
- defining "highly active  waste  and other highly active materials not 
suitable  for dumping  owing  to their  consequences  on human  health, biology, 
and other  fields"; 
- establishing  recommendations  which  the contracting parties, i.e., the 
States,  must take into  account  when issuing permits for the  dumping  of 
other waste  and radioactive materials. 
On this basis, the  competent  national authorities  must also make a 
detailed  examination  of the  consequences  of dumping. 
* As defined in  Chapter I for the  purposes  of this report. 
** In view of the 1960 IAEA-NEA  agreement  on cooperation on  matters 
of common interest. 
*** February  1972 convention on the prevention of  marine pollution by 
dumping of wastes and other  matter. 
36 

The IAEA has established  activity  limits  (expressed  in curies  of certain 
isotopes/tonne  of waste)  which are subject  to periodic  revision. 
Under Article  37 of the  Treaty establishing  the European  Atomic  Energy 
Community  (Euratom),  the Member  States  have to provide  the Commission  with 
general data  on any new sea  dumping  site they select. After  a panel of Com­
munity experts  has examined  the data on the  site and the  waste to be dumped 
there, the Commission  has to  deliver  an opinion. 
The European  Parliament,  for its part, adopted  on 16  September  1982 a 
resolution  which,  amongst  other things,  called  on the  Commission  "to prepare 
a directive  which  will in future ensure  the sea is not  polluted  by radioactive 
waste from the European  Community". 
Finally,  some Member  States practise only storage, i.e. temporary storage 
allowing  the subsequent  recuperation  of waste  with a view to its disposal. 
Generally  the attitudes  of the Member  States  to these various  approaches 
are not definitive.  The storage  and disposal  methods  currently used  in the 
Community  are briefly  described  below,  country  by country.  They  include buffer 
storage necessary  for the  proper staggering  of the  various  phases  of waste 
management.  Buffer storage  is practised  by all the Member  States. 
Owing to its high population density  and geographical  and geological 
limitations,  Belgium  has chosen  sea dumping  for the  disposal  of low  level 
conditioned  waste  since the beginning  of the  1960s.  Disposal operations, 
organized nationally  and coordinated  by multilateral  consultations  in NEA/OECD, 
are carried  out in  partnership with  the Netherlands  and Switzerland. 
Conditioned  waste  avaiting  dumping  is stored at the CEN/SCK  storage  site 
in Mol which for the  time being  is in the  open air. This  site is being enlarged 
and will have an additional storage capacityof  10 000  tonnes in sheltered areas. 
The waste  disposed  of by  Belgium includes  : 
- all low level  solid  waste  treated  and conditioned  in Mol; 
-bitumized sludges from  the Mol  central  facility  for the  treatment  of low 
level liquid  effluents; 
- the evaporation concentrates conditioned  on the  sites of nuclear  power  plants. 
37 

Conditioned  waste from the Eurochemic  reprocessing plant (alpha  waste 
referred  to in  Table 1.4) and  other  solid  waste are  stored  in the  Eurosto-
rage facility,  which has  some surface  bunkers and is equipped to  provide 
storage  for 50  years. 
No waste  disposal option  is currently practised  in Denmark . However, 
for some  fifteen  years temporary  storage  facilities  have been  available  at 
the Risd research centre  for low and  medium  level  conditioned  waste. 
Waste of the  latter  category  is stored  in an underground  facility. 
In the Federal Republic  of Germany,  low and  medium  level waste has, 
since 1967, been  disposed  of in a  disused  salt mine at Asse,  excavated  in 
a salt geological formation,  the stability  and confinement  capability  of 
which go very much beyond the  required durations.  About 25 000 m of low 
level waste,  embedded  in bitumen or in  concrete, containing  no more than 
five Ci per  container  and not  exceeding  200 millirem  at the  surface  of the 
container,  have been  placed  in large rooms at a depth of between 490 and 
715 m. About 250 m3 of waste  containing  a few hundred  curies  per 200  litre 
drum (medium  level  waste  requiring  remote  handling)  have been  lowered  by 
cable and stored  in a closed  room at a depth of 511 m. No  high level  waste 
has been  disposed  of in  this mine. All  disposal operations  have been  sus­
pended in the  Federal Republic  of Germany  since the licence expired  in 1978. 
No other disposal option  is authorized  in that country. 
Reauthorization  of disposal  in the Asse mine is  currently  under  conside­
ration,  together with  procedures to  authorize  the use of the "Konrad"  disused 
iron mine. The R&D done  since  1977 has  shown  that this mine has an adequate 
confinement  capability  for the  disposal  of low  level waste. 
In addition,  facilities  for the temporary  storage  of conditioned  waste 
awaiting disposal  are available  in most of the  nuclear research centres,  fuel 
cycle facilities  and nuclear  power  plants. 
In France,  low and  medium  level waste has been  disposed  of by  shallow 
land burial  at a centre  in La  Manche  since 1969. 
Two types of manmade  structures  are used for the  disposal  of condi­
tioned waste : 
- monoliths,located  below the  original  ground  level,  for waste  whose  initial 
conditioning  has to be completed by  immobilization  in a concrete structure; 
- tumuli,  above the  original  ground  level,  for waste  whose  initial  conditioning 
does not  necessitate  any supplementary  immobilization. 
38 

The whole  is covered with a thick layer of clay to protect both 
structures  and waste  packages  from rain water. 
The disposal centre occupies an area of 12 hectares and has a 
disposal  capacity for  about  400 000 m3 of conditioned  waste.  About 
200 000 m3 of  waste  has already  been disposed of. 
Long-lived  waste  (alpha and high  level waste)  are stored in speci­
fic facilities  located in various research centres or nuclear plants, pending 
the preparation of  deep disposal centres in suitable geological formations. 
For example,  the Marcoule  centre has since 1978  been storing the output of 
the Marcoule  vitrification  plant consisting of 750 stainless  steel drums 
each containing 150  litres  of vitrified  waste. 
As there are no disposal  sites  available in  Italy,  low and  medium 
level conditioned  waste  is stored temporarily in  facilities  designed for 
this purpose.  As in other countries, these  facilities  are attached to the 
centres producing the  waste  (mainly nuclear research centres and nuclear 
power plants). The  first  sea dumping  exercise for low and  medium  level waste 
is planned for 1984. 
In the Netherlands low and  medium  level  conditioned  waste  has been 
dumped  in the sea for  some years now (see Belgium). The current policy 
consists  of storing conditioned  waste  temporarily as an alternative to  dumping. 
In the United  Kingdom  low level  waste  is disposed of by the routes 
outlined  below;  they include,  where  appropriate, disposal with ordinary  house­
hold refuse,on-site  burial,  and disposal at a  land-fill  tip for non-radioactive 
waste. 
The main disposal routes are as follows : 
(a) Burial at Drigg  where  waste  principally  from BNFL but also  from UKAEA 
and the generating  boards  is disposed of by shallow land  burial.  This 
site of approximately 300 acres is  owned  and operated by  BNFL.  Waste  is 
disposed of in trenches  which  are 700 m long, 15 m  wide and 4.5 m  deep 
and is covered with at least 1 m of  soil.  It is estimated that  appro­
ximately 150 000 m3 of  waste  have been buried at  this site since it 
started  operation in 1971. 
(b) The UKAEA  has iso  been exploiting a  burial  site at Dounray  since 1972. 
There 200 I  steel drums  containing conditioned  waste  are piled  up in 
pits which  are 7 m  deep.  Six pits exist at present. The  first  four 
have a volume  of 3 500 m3  each,  while  pits 5 and 6  have a volume  of 
6000 and 14 000 m3 respectively. The  empty  space between  the drums  inside 
the pits is filled  with polythene materials. The  pits are then covered 
with earth. 
39 

(c) Sea dumping  has been going on since 1949. Up to now it has  been 
organized  by UKAEA  but will shortly  be taken over by  NIREX.  This 
disposal  route is used for waste from nuclear and non-nuclear  appli­
cations  and in 1981  some 2 500 tonnes of waste  (including  packaging) 
containing  approximately 2 000 alpha  curies  and 100 000  beta-gamma 
curies were disposed of. 
The disposal  routes described  above cope with  most of the waste  arising 
from non-nuclear  applications  and the  low-level  waste from nuclear 
plants. 
Waste which cannot be disposed of by these routes is stored  where  it 
is produced, generally in the form in which it is generated. 
40 

CHAPTER III 
Prospects  for the management of  radioactive  waste in 
the Community Member  States 
III.1 - R&D in the Community 
ALL human  activities  involving  the use of any  techniques  and practices, 
whether  or not of an  industrial  nature,  start and are  perfected  as a result 
of R&D work.  This ongoing  R&D first  demonstrates  feasability  and then makes 
the activity  itself  more  reliable,  safer and even more economical  by impro­
ving and optimizing  the basic processes  and techniques. This general obser­
vation is equally applicable  to the management of  radioactive  waste. 
In some Community  countries research  on radioactive  waste management 
started  in the  early 1950s.  The aim was to  develop treatment  and conditioning  
methods  for the  waste  existing  at that time, i.e. mainly  low and medium  level  
waste from nuclear research. Alongside  this research  effort,  later expanded 
to cover  waste  from the first nuclear  power  stations  to be commissioned, 
studies  on the  disposal  of these categories  of waste were started. 
In this way treatment  and conditioning techniques  and processes  and 
also the two  disposal routes  for low and medium  level waste  have gradually 
been developed since  the 1960s.  Today  these are industrial  operations  and 
they have been discussed  in the  previous chapter. 
With the entry into operation  of the  first spent  fuel reprocessing 
plants (towards  the beginning  of the  1960s), research  on the  treatment  and  
conditioning  of high level  waste was started, especially  in France and the 
United Kingdom.  The research  work,  which in the  United  Kingdom  was suspended 
for some years, resulted  in the  commissioning  in France,  in 1969, of the  first 
facility  for waste  solidification  in glass (Piver  facility)  *. 
Later several  Member  States  embarked  on studies  and research  on waste 
disposal  in suitable geological formations  at depths of up to  several  hundred 
metres. A major R&D effort  was also launched  on alpha-contaminated  waste. 
* This facility operated up to 1973. It was  followed in 1978 by the 
present vitrification  plant at Marcoule (AVM) already mentioned 
in Chapter II. 
41 

From the beginning of the  1970s,  with the Launching of these  numerous 
national  programmes  or projects, the large  number  of possible options, and 
the need in the  medium  term to select and optimize  methods  and processes, 
Community  cooperation  became  essential. 
In 1973, the Council of Ministers of the  European  Communities  esta­
blished  the principle  of Commission  competence  for environmental protection 
and in  particular  nuclear and non-nuclear  waste. 
That same year a  modest  initial  multiannual R&D  programme  on radioactive 
waste was started at the JRC. In 1975 it was  supplemented  by a wider  five-
year programme  comprising shared-cost projects with laboratories in the  Member 
States (6). 
This programme,  the main results of which  were described in 1980 at the 
first European  Community  conference on radioactive  waste (7), covered  activi­
ties designed to solve certain technological  problems  arising  from the treatment, 
storage and disposal of  waste  of all categories and to help  towards  the defini­
tion of a legal,  administrative and  financial  framework  for waste management 
activities. 
Considering that  this  first programme  "has yielded positive results 
and opened  up encouraging prospects" on the one  hand and that "the  particular 
nature of the  waste  is such as to require monitoring of its potential effect 
and reinforcement of projects and research  activities  undertaken to ensure the 
protection  of the environment" on the other, the Council adopted, in 1980, a 
second five-year  programme  (1980-84)  which is a  logical  follow-up to the  first 
programme  (8). This  programme,  the nature and  scope  of which, together with 
the initial  (partial)  results already obtained are described in the  first  two 
annual reports (9), is closely coordinated with the  activities  of the JRC in 
the same sector.  Some  of the research now being carried out  under  the Member 
State national  programmes  is supported by  this programme  which also  makes  it 
possible  to coordinate at  Community  level some  specific  activities  such as 
the evaluation of the  performance  of various geological  systems  for high-level 
waste confinement or the characterization and  definition  of acceptance  criteria 
for the disposal of various  forms  of conditioned  waste. 
R&D is  still going on at both national and  Community  level,  stimulated 
by the results already obtained. 
The prospects, together with the  installations  and facilities  that  will 
exist in a few years time, are  examined  country by country in the next two 
sections. 
42 

III.2. Prospects and plans for treatment and conditioning techniques 
and faci  li ti es. 
The purpose  of the research currently  under  way is : 
to improve  and optimize the existing techniques  which  are only 
concerned with low and  medium  level waste.  Improvement  and 
optimization  have become  necessary to  cope with the ever-increasing 
quantities  of waste  resulting  from the expansion of nuclear  power 
generating  programmes. 
The improvements  concern in particular  volume  reduction factors, 
the decontamination factors necessary to  meet the ever  more stringent 
authorized  limits  for radioactive discharges and the increase in the 
Long-term  resistance of conditioned radioactive products to  ensure 
greater safety in disposaL; 
to perfect certain processes now  under  development  or being tested 
on a pilot pLant  scaLe so that they  will be industrially  and commer­
cially available in the  Community  when they are  needed  in a few 
years time;  this applies essentially to : 
1. treatment processes for  medium  level  liquid  waste  and solid  waste 
contaminated by alpha emitters. 
2. conditioning of  fuel element  hulls (alpha  waste) 
3. conditioning of high  level  waste;  in this field,  however  the 
French AVM process is already in  commercial  use. 
Finally,  systematic evaluation of the characteristics of the different 
forms of conditioned  waste  will help to define acceptance  criteria  for their 
disposal.  This  problem  is already being discussed  between  reprocessors and 
their customers  and studied by various national safety authorities, while 
a coordinated research  effort  is under  way at  Community  level. 
The main programmes  in the  Member  States and  some future prospects 
are outlined  below. 
In Belgium, the high temperature  FLK-60  * incinerator, constructed in 
an alpha-tight  cell at CEN/SCK  in Mol, is currently in operation for the 
treatment of low-level  beta-gamma  waste,  both solid  and liquid  (organic 
residues).  As of 1983  this incinerator  will also treat low-level alpha 
waste. 
For fuel element  hull conditioning, the  CEN/SCK,  which  has concentrated 
its R&D work  on a technique  based  on the mechanical  compaction  of the hulls 
followed by  embedding  in a lead  alloy,  is now  engaged  on designing a press 
capable of working in hot  cells. 
Towards  the end of the  1980s,  the Belgian  vitrification  plant (AVB) 
could enter into operation for the conditioning of high  level  waste. 
* This incinerator is being developed  under the Community  programme  on 
radioactive  waste management  and storage. 
(4) 43 

The plant is based on the AVM process.  However,  construction 
depends on future spent  fuel reprocessing  activities  in Belgium, on 
which no decision has as yet  been taken. 
Since the  first nuclear  power stations in  Denmark  will not be 
installed  until toward the end of the  1990s at the  earliest,  there 
are no plans at present for the  development  of new waste treatment 
and conditioning  facilities. 
Nevertheless, basic research  will be continued, especially in 
the field of waste treatment and characterization of  waste forms. 
In the Federal Republic of  Germany  high-level  waste from the 
WAK reprocessing  pilot plant, now stored in  liquid form, are to be 
vitrified  in a pilot plant.  However,  no definite  decision has as yet 
been taken. 
A combined  facility  for glass block and  bead production is  under 
construction  at the Eurochemic  site and should demonstrate the  feasi­
bility of the PAMELA  process (*). It should enter into service in 1985 
and will be managed  by DWK  jointly  with BMFTC**)  and Eurochemic. 
In the coming  years nuclear  power plant operators who treat or 
store waste themselves  will develop improved conditioning techniques, 
the ultimate aim being to reduce  volume. 
A new management  system for  medium  level liquid waste is now 
being developed. The  waste  will be split into a small active  fraction 
containing  gamma and alpha emitters and a large low  level fraction  for 
direct immobilization in  cement  or bitumen.  Much of the  "lost"  shielding 
required  for transport and handling prior to disposal  will be saved by 
this system. 
The Karlsruhe nuclear research centre is developing : 
- waste immobilization in  cement,  ceramics and glass 
- an acid digestion process for combustible alpha  waste with 
subsequent plutonium recovery (***) 
- conditioning  methods  for fuel element dissolver sludges, hulls 
and structural materials. 
This process was developed by a  team of researchers 
from various  German  organizations, backed up by 
techniques developed by  Eurochemic 
BMFT = Federal Ministry for Research and Technology 
The ALONA  pilot plant based on  this process  will 
shortly  start hot operation on the  Eurochemic  site 
at Mol. (**) 
(***) 
44 

Some of  these projects  are being developed  in conjunction with 
Battelle  Frankfurt. 
The NUKEM  company  is developing  a new  incineration  method for 
alpha waste,  based on hydropyrolysis,  and a method  for the  incinera­
tion of ion  exchange  resins  and organic esters  of phosphoric acid. 
NUKEM is  also developing  a waste  immobilization  waste  container 
system using natural graphite.  It can  immobilize  any type of dried 
or calcined  waste  free from highly oxidizing material. 
The Jülich  nuclear research centre  is continuing  to operate 
its new FIPS II facility  for  vitrification  of high-level  waste. 
The Karlsruhe  and Jülich  research centres  are devoting special 
attention  to the  trapping  and immobilization  of gaseous  waste in 
solids (silver-based adsorbants  for  iodine-129,  zeolites  or metal 
alloys for krypton). 
A special container less conditioning  and disposal  concept for 
low and medium  level waste is now  being developed.  It consists of 
pregranulating  the waste solutions, sludges  or solids  with cenent  and 
mixing the granules with  a cement-based  binder.  The mixture can be 
injected  into a cavern  where it cures to form a monolith. No  human 
intervention  is required within  the cavern. 
This development  is being sponsored  by BMFT and developed  by two 
research centres  and two  industrial  companies. 
In France,  many studies  and research projects  are being carried 
out on waste  treatment  and conditioning  and its characterization.  The 
Lines of research  are as  follows  : 
a) low and medium  level waste,  alpha waste 
The processes developed  for aqueous  liquid  waste  have already 
been operational  for a  long time  and,  depending  on the  type of waste, 
produce  either sludges, concentrates  or various  ion exchange  resins. 
At present  an intensive  effort is being made to  facilitate final 
conditioning  (e.g. reduction  of the  sodium  content  in concentrates, 
and of nitrates  in sludges). 
For organic  liquid  waste,  incineration (already  in operation  for 
all types of organic  waste)  or distillation-mineralization  processes 
for organic solvents  (TBP) are  being developed simultaneously. 
For high alpha  waste,  recovery  of alpha emitters  is being 
developed  as follows  : 
- a facility  for the  treatment  of mixed oxide  fuel fabrication  waste is 
due to start operation  in 1983 at Cadarache  (cryogenic shredding, 
recovery  of plutonium, acid digestion  of cellulosic  waste). 
45 

- a facility  (LEDA)  for waste from nuclear research centres  is planned 
at Fontenay-aux-Roses  (leaching  of alpha waste up to  70-90  %). 
For combustible  waste,  incineration  is being studied  from the 
technological,  economic  and safety aspects. 
Some small-capacity  facilities  already exist  in France.  A few 
design studies  are available,  in particular  for a 100 kg/h  incinerator 
for low level waste.  The use of  this technique  on an  industrial scale 
will depend  on later decisions. 
Much research  is being devoted  to gaseous  waste  treatment, with 
priority  for iodine and krypton,  and this will be continued. 
The most common  conditioning  processes  for all treated  waste 
make use of  hydraulic binders,  bitumens  or thermosetting resins,  in 
accordance  with formulae  and processes  already available  industrially, 
but substantial research  and development  work is being actively  pursued 
in these  fields.  These  conditioning  processes  have been selected  for 
the new reprocessing units  at La  Hague  (1987). 
Mention  should also  be made of the  extensive research  on the 
development  of alternative highly stable conditionings  for  alpha waste, 
the embedding  matrix generally being  a ceramic  material,  a generic 
term that covers ceramics, glass, porcelain,  sandstone,  etc... 
Two main directions  are being followed  : 
- processes  as alternatives  to bitumenization  for aqueous  waste  from 
reprocessing plants, 
- the self-crucible melting  of fuel element  hulls and end-fittings. 
The characterization  of conditioned  waste  is a fast developing 
basic research  activity. 
It involves  : 
- systematic tests  on : 
. characteristics relating  to fabrication (quality control) 
. characteristics relating  to storage  and disposal (resistance  to shock, 
fire, weather  conditions, etc..) 
. short-range chemical  stability  (full-scale  leaching tests). 
It is also planned  : 
. to set up a  sample  collection (conservation  of representative  samples) 
46 

. to set up a  Laboratory for destructive  testing  of oLd  packages. 
- basic studies  on : 
. the phenomenoLogy  of possibLe  Long-range  modifications  (mechanism 
and physico-chemicaL nature  of Leaching, internaL  diffusion,  thermal 
stability,  aLpha,  beta and gamma  radiolysis), 
. the composition  in time of effects  previously  known as ageing 
(study currently  limited  to hydraulic binders). 
The following large-scaLe  development  work cannot be omitted 
from a full analysis  : 
- studies  on the  conditioning  of special  waste,  in particular  tritium-
bearing  waste and decommissioning  waste  (decontamination processes, 
melting of metallic  waste, etc..) 
- development  at all stages  of processes  for bulk and sample  measurements 
(alpha,  beta, gamma  spectrometers, alpha counting  by active  and passive 
neutron  methods), 
- establishment  of the  fullest  possible inventories  of waste  arisings. 
b) High  level  waste 
Vitrification,  the basic process  for the  conditioning  of high 
level waste,  has now  reached  the  industrial  stage. Expected future 
developments  are as  follows  : 
The AVH (or R7)  facility  associated with  the extensions  at La  Hague 
is expected  to become  operational  in 1987.  Following  the pattern  of AVM, 
it will be based on an  inactive  prototype  now being constructed.  In 
handling  primary high  level  solutions,  a maximum  of liquid  waste  will be 
recycled  and sent for  vitrification,  which  will reduce  the other  activities 
for alpha waste. 
PIVER II : an  active  pilot unit for continuous  vitrification. 
Intensive  work is in  progress  on the  characterization  of glass : 
. Analytical  studies  : leaching,  exchange  mechanisms  in the  surface  layer, 
radiation  stability  (alpha-doped glass,  ion implantation,  etc.), 
physical  stability  (crystallization,  effects  of thermal  and mechanical 
shocks), pressure  and temperature  effects. 
These studies started  more than 10 years ago are  being intensively 
continued. 
. Global study  : simulation  on active  and inactive  blocks  of foreseeable 
storage conditions, with  or without geochemical  barriers,  a programme 
to start in 1983. 
Long-term  plans include  the development  of a leaching  model. 
47 

A number of  studies  and research projects  are also being conducted  in 
Italy on waste  treatment, conditioning  and characterization.  They are 
carried out essentially  by ENEA and to a  lesser  extent  by AGIP Nucleare. 
ENEA is  mainly  engaged  on an R & D programme to  acquire  vitrifi­
cation technology  for high level  waste. National  work in this field is 
open to any  possibility  of Community  cooperation. 
A pot vitrification  process  is now  being tested both cold  and hot 
(the latter  in a hot  cell on a  mini-pilot  scale).  At the same  time an 
experimental set-up  to study remote  handling  of the pot is  being deve­
loped (PROTEO  facility)  and studies  on the  characterization  of the  glass 
produced  are being continued. 
There are plans to construct  in the  early 1990s a pilot  vitrification 
unit attached  to the EUREX  pilot  reprocessing plant. 
Two pilot  conditioning  facilities  are being developed  for low and 
medium  level  liquid  waste.  They  will be used to demonstrate  the  feasi­
bility of two  processes  for embedding  waste in polyester  and in  cement 
plus resin  matrices, developed  by ENEA. 
It is planned  to construct  a conditioning  facility  based on one 
of these  two processes  in the  early 1990s.  It will be attached  to the 
ITREC reprocessing plant.  A compaction  facility  will be constructed  for 
the treatment  of solid waste  currently stored  in various nuclear research 
centres. 
Studies  and R&D  work on the  treatment  of plutonium-contaminated 
liquid and solid waste  (alpha  waste)  will be continued.  In this field 
AGIP Nucleare  has developed  a molten  salt oxidation process. 
In the Netherlands, research  is focussed mainly  on the  disposal  of 
high level waste  (vitrified  waste  from spent  fuel processed abroad which 
will be returned  to the  Netherlands from  the beginning  of the  1990s). 
Tests and evaluations  on ceramic materials  for the  immobilization  of 
high level waste are also in process. 
In the United  Kingdom,  a vitrification  plant for high level  waste  will 
be constructed  at Sellafield  and should  be operational  by 1990.  Although 
present indications  are that vitrification  using  borosilicate  glass  will 
produce a waste  form suitable  for disposal, other processes based  on ceramic 
and mineral matrices  are being investigated  for possible  use in  later plants. 
A plant for the  sorting,  treatment  and conditioning  of alpha waste is 
also planned  at Sellafield.  The processes  will probably include immobiliza­
tion of the  waste, when appropriate,  in cement-based  matrices  for sea  dumping. 
48 

The range of waste of other categories generated in the 
United Kingdom  is wide both in terms of physical and chemical 
form and in the nature and quantity of associated  radioactivity. 
Hence there is a wide range of  potential  processes for conver­
ting waste  into forms  suitable  for disposal. 
Examples  of treatment processes  currently  being researched 
are as follows  : 
- for volume  reduction  : shredding,  laser  cutting,  compaction, 
incineration,  acid digestion and, in the case of wet waste, 
dewatering by  filtration,  evaporation,  centrifugation  and 
hydrocyclone  drying; 
- for decontamination  : washing,  ultrasonic  cleaning, leaching, 
electropolishing  for solid waste and  floe precipitation,  ultra­
filtration,  magnetic  filtration,  ion-exchange and electrochemical 
techniques for  liquids; 
- for inertness and/or  compatibility  with immobilization matrix  : 
incineration  or acid digestion for organic materials and conversion 
to inert  oxide or hydroxide for reactive materials. 
Conversion of waste  into a form  suitable  for disposal may be 
achieved by incorporation, with or without pre-treatment, in a 
matrix such as  cement,  bitumen, organic polymers, polymer-impre­
gnated cement  or even metals.  Alternatively,  some materials such 
as metal oxides or  salts  may be  suitable  for direct  conversion to 
a ceramic material by hot pressing and  plastics  might be converted 
directly  to a  solid  block by melting and  casting.  These  various 
processes are at  different  stages of  technical  development.  They 
produce waste forms of  different  quality  and suitability  for disposal. 
Also, process costs and  radiation  exposure of operators may vary 
widely between  options such as  direct  encapsulation in  cement  or 
bitumen and  more complex  treatment processes  involving  volume 
reduction  and decontamination before immobilization. 
In practice  the final  selection  of a process  will be made in the 
context  of an optimized waste  management  scheme  when the requirements 
of storage, transport and disposal  have all been assessed with respect 
to environmental impact and cost. The  Department  of the Environment 
is now carrying out studies, in  collaboration  with other bodies and 
waste producers, to define and evaluate  this scheme. 
49 

III.3. Prospects and plans for  waste storage and disposal 
The prospects and plans for  waste storage and disposal  dis­
cussed in  this section  relate mainly to alpha and high  level waste, 
since disposal of both low and  medium  level waste has already reached 
the industrial  stage (see section II.4). Nevertheless  some informa­
tion on the  installation  of new  facilities  will be given country by 
country. 
The option for disposal of alpha and high  level waste that is 
now being studied  most in the Member  States and at  Community  level 
is the confinement of  waste in deep geological formations (*). 
The results  obtained so far from research in  this field seem 
to confirm the  feasibility  and merits of  this disposal option. Also, 
the inventory of geological formations having the  right technical 
characteristics  for the  installation  of repositories in  deep under­
ground geological formations in the  Community  countries (10)  shows 
that the authorities responsible for prospecting and studying 
possible  disposal  sites have a wide choice available to  them. 
Even though  existing  knowledge  shows that it is possible to 
construct  disposal  facilities  in any type of the geological formation 
studied  (clay,  granite,  salt), the confinement performance of these 
different  formations has nevertheless to be  clarified. 
Studies and research  carried  out by Member  States in  different 
geological  formations, at both national and  Community  level (**), should 
make it possible to  answer  this question in the next few years. 
(*) The transmutation of transuranic elements  into short-lived  elements 
by irradiation  in nuclear reactors  would reduce the problem of  dis­
posing of long-lived  waste. Research  carried  out at JRC Ispra in 
cooperation  with the international  scientific  community  from 1973 
to 1980 has  shown that this strategy  would have more drawbacks  than 
advantages, at  least in the current state of technology. This  stra­
tegy is no longer being envisaged at present by the  Member  States 
and the Commission. 
Under the Community's  R&D programme,  clay formations are being 
studied mainly by Belgium and  Italy,  crystalline  formations by 
France and the United  Kingdom,  salt domes by the Federal Republic 
of Germany  and the Netherlands. Supporting studies on all forma­
tions are being  carried  out by Denmark.  It should be noted that, 
except for the Federal Republic of  Germany,  these options do not 
in any way imply a  definitive  commitment  to the type of formation 
being studied.  These Member  States and the JRC are also taking 
part in the Community  programme  to investigate the confinement 
performance of these geological formations and of  deep marine 
sediments.  However,  the Community  is doing  less work on the  last 
option. (**) 
50 

Recently disposal  in the sea bed has  been considered  as an 
alternative  to disposal  in continental geological formations. 
Studies and research  in this field are much  less advanced  than those 
on continental formations.  In particular,  feasibility  remains  to be 
demonstrated. 
At this  stage it can be  predicted that  some Member  States 
will by the  early 1990s  have  facilities  in continental geological 
formations  for the  disposal  of alpha waste  at depth. 
Some Member  States  have planned  or are  constructing  underground 
facilities  to study the disposal  system  for high level  waste.  This 
could be followed  towards  the end of the  century  by operational  faci­
lities for the  disposal  of high level  waste in the  deep layers  of 
continental geological formations. 
The main  plans of the Member  States  and some  future prospects 
are given  below : 
In Belgium,  sea dumping  is still the disposal route  used for 
low level  waste,  following technical  and organizational efforts  to 
reduce volume. 
On the  other hand,  the possibility  of creating  a set of  under­
ground  galleries  for disposal  of high and medium  level and alpha waste 
in a layer of clay under the CEN/SCK  territory  at Mol (HADES  project) 
has been under  study for some  years and  still is. 
The clay layer  concerned  (Boom  clay) is 160 to 270  metres  deep. 
Geological  and hydrogeological studies  and investigations  have 
already  been  carried  out and the  first aim of the  current  programme is to 
set up an  experimental laboratory  in the  clay 225 m  below ground.  The 
work started  in 1980 and  will in principle  be completed  in 1983.  This 
underground  laboratory  (the  first of its kind  in Europe)  will provide 
additional  hydrogeological,  geomechanicaI  and technological data  and 
verify in situ aspects related  amongst  others  to thermal  exchange  and 
corrosion. 
The construction  of a  final underground  facility  for waste 
disposal  will be subject  to the  authorization  procedure.  It is  expected 
that all  the data for the  file will be available  around  1987-1988. 
According  to an  initial  design study,  the  facility,  situated  in 
the middle  of the  layer,  would  comprise  two vertical  access  shafts,  two 
ventilation  shafts,  a main gallery  4.5 m in  diameter  and 550 m  long for 
transport  purposes  and a set of  secondary  galleries  3.5 m in  diameter 
for disposal.  About  7 km of  these  galleries  would be set  aside for 
medium  level and alpha waste. 
Although  the facility  could become  operational reasonably 
quickly  for medium  level and alpha waste,  it is  expected  that at least 
a 50-year  storage period  on the  surface  will be necessary  for high 
level waste. 
51 

After several  decades  during which a recovery option  will 
be maintained, all the  empty spaces  will be rigidly  backfilled  and 
the shafts  will be sealed with the clay extracted  when drilling 
them. The sealing  mode used will depend  on experience gained 
during the reversible  phase. 
In Denmark,  because  nuclear  electricity  will only be 
subsequently introduced and  because  of the  relatively  small volume 
of low and  medium  level waste now stored at Risd national laboratory, 
geological  disposal  facilities  will not be required  this century. 
However,  preliminary planning for  waste disposal is necessary. 
Various  possibilities  are currently being investigated. 
Given the conditions requested prior to the introduction 
of nuclear  electricity  in their country, the Danish  electricity 
utilities  have conducted a vast  site investigation  programme  to 
demonstrate  the feasibility  of disposing of high-level  waste in 
Danish salt domes.  This is currently being evaluated by the 
authorities. 
In the Federal Republic of  Germany,  the Asse mine could very 
probably be authorized again in the near future for the disposal of 
low and medium  level waste.  The Konrad mine could also be used for 
disposal  of low  level waste,  probably from 1988. 
At the present the Gorleben  salt dome is the subject of a 
considerable R&D  effort  with a  view to its future use as a disposal 
site for high  level and other categories of  waste. 
The plans provide for the use of the  waste emplacement  methods 
developed since 1967 in the  Asse mine and the high  level waste empla­
cement methods  now being developed in the  same mine. 
In France, the following are being considered  under a general 
programme  for the  management  of all radioactive  waste : 
- a second centre for the disposal of low and  medium  level waste of 
the same type as that now in operation should be constructed and 
should become  operational  around  1986, 
- some categories of  waste should be  dumped  in the ocean under the 
arrangements  set up by  OECD/NEA;  this practice  would be supplemen­
tary to land disposal, 
- a disposal centre for alpha  waste should come into operation early 
in the 1990s, 
- an experimental disposal centre for  vitrified  high level waste should 
also be put into operation at  about the same time, 
- the first phase,  which is considered as essential for the  whole 
development  of the programme,  consists of  making  an inventory of 
potentially  suitable  sites and studying  them so as to characterize 
and qualify the disposal  site or sites where these centres  would 
be located. 
52 

In the immediate  future, pending the creation of these 
disposal  centres, there are plans to construct the necessary 
storage  facilities  to cope with the  waste  generated, in  parti­
cular alpha and  vitrified  waste  from the reprocessing of spent 
fuel. 
In Italy,  underground caverns in disused  mines  are now 
being identified  for the disposal of low and  medium  level waste. 
Alpha and high  level waste  will be disposed of in suitable 
geological  formations at depth. Disposal  will be preceded by 
storage for  some decades  in artificial  ad hoc structures to allow 
cooling  and radioactive decay. 
Work on the  identification  of sites  for disposal  facilities 
is concentrated on clay formations.  However,  other geological 
formations are being considered. 
The construction of an experimental underground laboratory 
will start  soon. A demonstration disposal  facility  could be 
available  by the end of the century. 
In the Netherlands, options for disposal of low and  medium 
level waste  as an alternative to sea  dumping  are being studied. 
In the United  Kingdom , a storage  facility  for high  level 
vitrified  waste  will be constructed at  Sellafield. 
Since the  feasibility  of high  level waste  disposal  deep 
underground has  been established in  principle,  work is continuing 
on disposal  under  the ocean  bed. Thus  it will in due course be 
possible  to make a comparative assessment of the  different  options. 
Work is now in progress so as to bring into operation from 
1990 land  facilities  for the disposal of  most medium  level  and alpha 
waste. These  facilities  could consist of engineered trenches  20-30  m 
deep or a modified  mine or purpose-built  cavities  at greater depths. 
Investigations  are under  way to  identify  suitable  sites. 
The types and quantities of  waste  that can be disposed of in a given 
facility  will depend  on the  specific  design of each  facility  and of 
the waste  packages. Consequently it is not possible at  this stage 
to evaluate the  number  of facilities  required. 
For low  level  waste,  it is planned to continue using the 
existing  disposal  methods  described in section II.4.  However,  there 
are also plans to  identify  suitable new  sites  for the shallow  burial 
of the forms  of waste  that are currently disposed of at Drigg. 
53 

CHAPTER  IV 
CONCLUSIONS 
1. At present radioactive  waste is generated in the  Community 
in three sectors of  activity  : production of nuclear  electricity 
(including  the associated  fuel cycle  *), research and the indus­
trial and medical applications of radioisotopes. 
The relative  contribution of these three sectors varies in time and 
from one  Member  State to another, in particular depending on  commit­
ments and progress in nuclear  electricity  programmes. 
2. Institutional  provisions regulating radioactive  waste mana­
gement exist in all  Member  States. In recent years additional  mea­
sures have been taken in the countries concerned to ensure the imple­
mentation of the disposal of radioactive  waste.  All these provisions 
are designed to  keep man safe and to protect the environment; they 
are continuously monitored so that they can be  supplemented  whenever 
necessary. 
3. The volume  of essentially low  level  waste  generated by research, 
medical and  industrial  activities  today represents the  total  production 
of the Member  States that do not  have nuclear  power programmes  and a 
significant  or major  proportion of the  total  production of those that do. 
4. About 95 % of the conditioned  waste  produced today in the 
Community  consists of low and  medium  level  activity  waste  which,  by 
radioactive  decay,  will be reduced to the natural environment  activity 
level in a few  hundred  years. This percentage  will decline in the years 
ahead with the increased arisings of  waste  of other categories related 
to the development  of the nuclear  fuel cycle in the  Community,  but it 
will still  remain very high (about  85 %)  up to the end of the century. 
The annual production rate in the  Community  is now  some  tens 
of thousands of m3 for all the three sectors  mentioned  above.  It will 
approach the one  hundred  thousand m3  mark by the end of the century. 
By comparison, in  1982 the Community  produced approwimately  40 million 
tonnes of chemical  waste  of varying degrees of  toxicity. 
* In this report no account has  been taken of low  level  waste  from 
uranium  ore mining and treatment and from the decommissioning of 
nuclear plant.  Most  fo the decommissioning  waste  will not be 
treated  before the end of the century. 
54 

5. Products considered today as Low Level  waste  include 
materials  that are only suspected of radioactive contamination. 
A decrease in the  volume  of these products is to be 
expected in the future owing to : 
- the completion of studies now in progress at  international  level 
to define thresholds  beLow  which materials do not  calL for any 
special  precautions ("de minimis" values). 
- the development of  methods  of determining low  activities 
- the improvement  of the techniques described under 6. 
6. Treatment and conditioning processes for low and  medium 
level waste  are available  and the corresponding  industrial  facilities 
have been operating  successfully  since the  early 1950s.  R&D work 
is being continued,  however,  in many Community  countries in order to 
improve  existing  processes and to develop,  where  necessary, new 
processes,  products and packages that are  more efficient  and/or  more 
economic and can be used on a vast  industrial  scale. 
All this work is designed,  amongst  other things, to improve 
volume reduction factors and increase long-term  integrity  of condi­
tioned products so as to ensure safer disposal. This part of  waste 
management  appears to  satisfy  quite adequately the  existing  requi­
rements of the nuclear  power programmes  and as regards safety. 
7. Two complementary  methods  are at present being used in 
combination or separately by the  Member  States to dispose of low 
and medium  level waste  : land disposal on the surface and sea  dumping. 
Land disposal capacity is  likely  to prove  insufficient  in the near 
future if the establishment of new  sites  is not  rapidly  decided on in 
some Member  States. The quantity and  activity  of waste dumped  in 
the sea are  limited  by the  international  recommendations  in force. 
At the moment  these  limits  exceed the requirements of the  Community. 
8. Of the radioactive  waste produced in the  Community,  5 % 
consists  of products contaminated by  long-lived  alpha emitters, the 
radioactivity  of which  will remain at  significant  levels  over long 
periods  of time.  Most  of this waste  is as yet untreated. Basic 
technologies  for the treatment and conditioning of  this waste  are 
available  but the processes  must be developed, improved and selected 
so as to ensure  optimum  disposal. Current R  & D is concentrated on 
treatment techniques for alpha-contaminated  liquid  and solid waste 
and the conditioning of spent  fuel element  hulls.  The aim is to 
find conditioning processes allowing safe storage and disposal over 
long periods of time. The separation of  long-lived  radioactive species 
(actinides)  either  for recycling  of to  downgrade  the bulk of the  waste 
to other  waste  categories is also being studied. 
55 

When these techniques  are perfected  in a few  years time, 
the Community  should  be in a  position  to meet requirements  in good 
time. 
9. Alpha-contaminated  waste  is not yet  disposed  of. The Member 
States concerned  have up to now  been storing  this waste in special 
facilities  until  they are in a  position  to condition  and dispose  of it. 
The first  facilities  for the  disposal  of alpha waste in geological 
formations  at medium  depth (around  a few  hundred  metres)  should enter 
into operation  in some Member  States  at the  beginning  of the  1990s. 
If this is so, the  disposal  of alpha waste  will not be a  problem  in 
the future; otherwise,  the interim storage practices  in use  today 
will have to be  continued.  Thus the situation  and prospects regarding 
alpha waste  disposal  do not  appear to be a  hindrance  to the  development 
of nuclear  electricity  programmes  in the Member  States having  the 
greatest  commitments  to nuclear energy. 
10. Of the  volume  of radioactive  waste produced  in the  Community, 
0.3 % consists  of high level  waste  (also containing alpha emitters) 
that will be vitrified.  This  waste  contains almost all  the radioac­
tivity generated  by nuclear  electricity  programmes.  Radioactive decay 
heat is therefore  a major  concern  for waste management.  Radioactivity 
and decay heat  will reach similar levels  to those of alpha waste  after 
a few hundred  years,  and then high  level waste may be  treated  in a 
similar way as  alpha waste. 
11. Most  of this high level  waste is today stored  in liquid  form in tanks 
with special cooling  and safety arrangements. Treatment  and conditioning 
processes  are designed  to immobilize  this waste in long-term  integrity 
solid matrices such  as glass. Various conditioning processes  are now 
being developed  in the  Community.  The French  vitrification  process'. 
(AVM) is now  commercially available. 
12. The  necessary cooling period,  the availability  of temporary 
storage  facilities  and the  small volume  of high level waste  allow great 
flexibility  in the  defintion  of a strategy  and time schedule  for the 
disposal  of such waste.  An enormous  R&D effort  both within  and 
outside  the Community  is being devoted  to disposal. Almost all  the 
Member States  and the  Commission  are contributing  to this effort. 
The options  under  study are disposal  at depth in various continental 
geological  formations, well represented  in Community  territory,  and 
disposal  in sediment  in the  ocean bed. The  results obtained  so far 
confirm that disposal  in suitable continental formations  is feasible 
in the Community.  The seabed disposal option helds  out interesting 
prospects  but its  feasibility  has not yet  been demonstrated. Several 
Member States  are constructing  or planning underground laboratories  in 
order to obtain further information  on the  waste/disposal  facility 
system. This could  be followed  by operational  facilities  towards  the 
end of the  century. 
56 

13. In the  final analysis, taking  an overall  view, the current 
situation  and prospects  in the  field of radioactive  waste management in 
the Community do not  jeopardize  the safety  of man and his  environment 
or offer  a technical obstacle  to development  of nuclear  power programmes 
in the Community. If  this situation  is to  continue,  it is  essential  to 
ensure that current predictions  can actually  come about by continuing 
national  and Community R&D  activities  and starting  work on  additional 
facilities.  Any obstacles  to the  implementation  of this plan  are not 
of a technical nature  but could come from a lack of acceptance  by the 
general public. Consequently clear  political  decisions  on the  imple­
mentation  of this plan  are necessary. 
57 

REFERENCES 
(1) The classification  of radioactive  wastes;  Health Physics, 
Vol. 27 (1974). 
(2) Communication  from the Commission  to the Council on the report 
of the ad hoc Advisory  Committee  on reprocessing of irradiated 
nuclear fuels  (CORECOM);  CEC document  C0MC82)  37 final, 
5 February  1982. 
(3) Technological progress in the  management  of radioactive  waste  : 
Part I :  Evaluation of the present situation in  Europe 
Part II  : Evaluation of the research and  development  work 
Part III  : Conclusion and  recommendations; 
EUR report n°  6699 EN (1980). 
(4) Traitement et  conditionnement  des déchets  solides de  faible  et 
moyenne  activité;  EUR report n°  7374 FR (1981). 
(5) Advanced  management  methods  for medium  active  liquid  waste; 
EUR report N°  7037 (1981); 
Management  of plutonium-contaminated  waste; 
EUR report N°  7335 (1981). 
(6) Council Decision of  9 July 1975 adopting a  programme  on the 
management  and storage of radioactive  waste  (1975 to 1979); 
0J Volume  18 N° L 178 (1975). 
(7) Radioactive  waste  management  and disposal  : proceedings of the 
first European  Community  conference,  Luxembourg,  May 20-23,  1980; 
EUR report N°  6871 (1980). 
(8) Council Decision of  18 March  1980 adopting a  programme  on the 
management  and storage of radioactive  waste (1980-1984); 
0J Volume  23 N° L 78 (1980). 
(9) Research  and development  on radioactive  waste management  and 
disposal  : 
- First annual  progress report of the  European  Community  programme 
1980-1984;  EUR report N°  7652 (1982). 
- Second annual  progress report of the  European  Community  programme 
1980-1984;  EUR report N°  8272 (1982). 
(10) Geological  confinement  of radioactive  waste  within the  European 
Community  : European  catalogue of geological formations having 
suitable  characteristics for the disposal of  solidified  high-level 
and/or long-lived radioactive  waste;  EUR report N°  6891 EN, FR  (1980).