The steady decrease in the youth population living in the EU over the last decades has been alleviated by the growth of immigration from outside of the EU. The influx of immigrants has compensated for the overall natural change in the general population and reversed an otherwise declining trend in the total population. In addition to international flows, intra-EU migration has also increased, young Europeans have become increasingly mobile and likely to work or study in another European country.

The proportion of young people in the European Union continues to decrease and the decline is expected to carry on in the future. Eastern and southern European countries have seen comparatively larger drops in their youth populations than the average in the EU. In addition to the general decrease in fertility rates affecting the European population as a whole, in these countries, the economic crisis has also meant high rates of youth emigration, further aggravating the demographic imbalance.

Research on the topic provides further insight on these trends by documenting increased flows of youth emigration from eastern European countries (especially Bulgaria, Poland and the Baltic Republics) towards western ones (in particular, the United Kingdom and Germany), also as a consequence of the economic crisis which began in 2008 and the rising levels of youth unemployment (as discussed in Chapter 3) (). In addition to an east-to-west trend, a south-to-north drift has also taken place, and for similar reasons: significant proportions of young people have moved in recent years from southern European countries (in particular Greece, Spain and Italy) to northern ones (again mainly Germany and the United Kingdom) in search of education opportunities (discussed in Section 2.4 of the chapter on Education and Training), improved career prospects and better economic conditions ().

emigrating to another country since 2010 have been observed in Italy and Hungary, and, outside the EU, in Iceland and Liechtenstein (). On the other hand, Estonia and Finland have registered slight reductions in the number of young people moving abroad over the past five years ().

Significant flows of young Europeans have moved from eastern and southern countries towards north-western ones over the last decade.

The lack of EU level data for many countries since 2010 hampers the scope of analysis, which is therefore limited to the countries for which data are available. Increases in the proportion of young people

According to data from 2015, one third of young people from Latvia, Lithuania and Hungary were resident in another country; Bulgaria and Estonia follow closely behind with 25 % and 20 % respectively. In contrast, Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, and – outside the EU – Iceland and Norway appear as destinations attracting significant proportions of young Europeans. Other countries (such as Germany, Netherlands and Sweden) show more balanced figures of outgoing and incoming migrants, partly due to the higher proportions of students of this age arriving for study purposes (as illustrated in Chapter 2, Section 2.4).

In addition to international flows, intra-EU migration is an important dimension of youth demography. Thanks to the increasing opportunities for EU citizens to travel and set up residence across EU Member States, young Europeans have become increasingly mobile and likely to work or study in another European country (). Crossing geographical and cultural borders and gaining life and work experience in a different context is a great opportunity for a young person to acquire personal skills, learn new languages and appreciate the diversity of European culture. Comparing data by country on incoming and outgoing mobility allows for the identification of the 'net providers' and 'net receivers' of the young people moving across Europe; it also enables the mapping of the main trajectories of intra-EU youth mobility (Figure 1-H).

International migration also increases the diversity of the youth population in Europe. In the EU in 2014, second-generation young immigrants (young people between 15 and 29 years of age born in an EU Member State with at least one parent from a country outside the EU) were about 2.5 million ().

The highest numbers of young people born outside the EU are found in Spain, France, Italy and the United Kingdom. This is in line with statistics identifying these countries (together with Germany, for which data are not available) as among those hosting the largest numbers of international migrants from across the world (). Relative to the size of the resident youth population, Belgium, Spain, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Austria and Sweden present the highest figures, reporting percentages equal to or higher than10 %.

In addition, immigrants into EU Member States are, on average, much younger than the total population already resident in their country of destination: on 1 January 2016, the median age of the total population of the EU-28 was 42.6 years while the median age of immigrants to EU-28 was 27.5 years (). Although the contribution of immigration from non-EU countries has not been enough to reverse the general decline in the youth population living in the EU – as illustrated in the first part of the chapter – it has nonetheless made it less sharp. Immigration has impacted on countries' youth populations at varying degrees as illustrated by the proportion of young people born outside the EU and living in EU Member States (Figure 1-G).

As data pertain to young people born outside of the European Union, EFTA countries (IS, LI and NO) and EU candidates (AL, FY, ME, RS and TR) are not included.

Data illustrated on the chart show how the crude rate of total population change rose owing to the growth in the crude rate of net migration plus adjustment, especially since 2012.

Notes: A crude rate is calculated as the ratio of the number of events to the average population of the respective area in a given year. The natural change in population corresponds to the difference between the number of live births and the number of deaths during the year. Net migration plus statistical adjustment is calculated as the difference between total population change and natural change.

The steady decrease in the youth population living in the EU over the last decades has been alleviated by the growth of immigration from outside of the EU (). The influx of immigrants has compensated for the overall natural change in the general population and reversed an otherwise declining trend in the total population (). This phenomenon has been evident since 2011, although a blip occurred in 2014 (Figure 1-F).

According to these projections, while the total EU population is expected to grow through 2050 reaching approximately 525 million in that year, the proportion of young people will decrease from about 17 % in 2018 to below 16 % in 2050, equivalent to a reduction of over 7 million individuals. The progressive decline in the proportion of young people, in a context of gradual growth in the total population and of ever-increasing life expectancy rates, indicates that the EU population is progressively ageing. This is expected to substantially boost the old-age dependency ratio, a measure of the extent to which the working-age segment of the population has to support older age groups through, for example, sustaining public healthcare and pension schemes (). As a result, younger generations will likely face an increased burden in supporting the remainder of the population as they move into work ().

There are several reasons behind the decline in the youth population in the vast majority of European countries. While fertility rates rose modestly during the first decade of the century, they remained below the replacement level (). Since 2008, they have recorded a further decline which will affect the youth population in the future. This is partly due to the effects of the economic crisis which impacted on the level of unemployment and family income, especially in those countries most severely hit by the economic downturn (). In these countries, the economic crisis has also meant high rates of youth emigration (discussed in the last section of the chapter), further aggravating the demographic imbalance. In addition, a general tendency for women to give birth to fewer children and at a later age in life is observed, which further reduces the proportion of children being born (). These trends are expected to continue in the coming decades, leading to further reductions in the size of the EU youth population (Figure 1-E).

Central, eastern and southern European countries have seen comparatively larger drops in their youth populations than northern ones. However, Ireland is the country recording the highest fall in percentage points since 2010 (-4.8 p.p.). On the other hand, a few countries (Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands and Norway) have witnessed slight increases in the proportion of young people in their population.

The proportion of young people in the total population has declined progressively over recent decades, from around 24 % in 1985 to 19 % in 2010 (). Fewer births have led to a fall in the youth population and – combined with increased life expectancy – to a parallel increase in the proportion of older age groups in the total population (). In line with such long term trends, the proportion of young people continued to drop between 2010 and 2016 (Figure 1-D). On average, the size of the youth population decreased by 1.2 percentage points over those six years, equivalent to roughly 1 million people. This decline affected countries to a different extent.

The proportion of young people in the European Union continues to decrease and the decline is expected to carry on in the future.

Notes: The population corresponds to the number of persons having their usual residence in the country on 1st January. When 'usual residence' cannot be established, the countries can report of the legal or registered residence.

Young people represent around 17 % of the total population of the European Union (Figure 1-C). This proportion varies across countries: while it is comparatively smaller in Greece, Spain, Italy, and Slovenia (below 16 %), it reaches the highest level in Cyprus, where 23.6 % of the population is under 30 years of age. Iceland, Albania, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Turkey report the highest figures outside the EU.

For both age groups, the areas with the highest populations of young people were western and central Europe, while eastern and northern European countries reported lower figures. This clearly relates to the geographical distribution of the general population across countries. Outside the EU, Turkey was clearly the European country with the highest numbers of children and young people.

The first section offers an overview of the size and geographical distribution of young people across countries, followed by an illustration of their proportion in the total population. The trend in the number and proportion of young people over recent years is then described, accompanied by a discussion of the projected changes for the years ahead. In the second section, the impact of international migration and patterns of youth mobility across the continent are presented.

At EU level, official indicators in the field of youth set the age group as between 15 and 29 years of age (). This introductory chapter, therefore, sets the scene for the report as a whole by illustrating the key demographic data and trends for this age group.

There is no universally accepted definition of 'youth' in terms of the ages it covers. Cultural and socio-economic factors influence perceptions and determine when a person enters this period of life and how long it lasts. This is reflected in the fact that European countries’ national policies on youth matters vary in the age range they take into account ().

All these disadvantages are reflected in the social and living conditions experienced by youth groups in southern and eastern parts of Europe. Not only are they confronted with a higher risk of poverty or social exclusion, but in some countries their situation is deteriorating. While a general recovery in the economic and social prospects of young people has occurred in recent years in most areas of Europe, some Member States – particularly in the south – are still suffering the aftermath of the economic recession.

Indeed, higher than average general and long-term rates of youth unemployment are detected in the very same regions of Europe. In the southern European countries that were severely affected by the European debt crisis, youth unemployment rates are still considerably higher than before the recession. Moreover, in these countries educational attainment seems unable to ease the path to employment: the unemployment rates of people aged 20-29 remain high among those with low-level as well as high-level qualifications.

Apart from educational attainment, there are considerable differences between European countries in young people's use of digital technologies. The rate at which young Europeans from countries in the south and east of Europe master digital skills is lower than the EU average. As these competences are increasingly important to succeed in the labour market as well as for making the most of the opportunities for civic and cultural participation offered by the internet and its applications, such a deficit poses a particularly serious risk of economic and social exclusion.

Young Europeans from eastern and southern Europe face comparatively bigger challenges in terms of education, employment and inclusion. The trends in these three areas show that inequalities are manifest across different regions of Europe. For the main indicators on education, young people from countries in the eastern and southern regions of Europe consistently have worse outcomes than the European average. Lower proportions of students from these regions attain tertiary degrees, higher proportions leave school early, and greater percentages of students have low proficiency in reading, mathematics and science.

On the other hand, young men are disadvantaged in terms of educational attainment compared to women. They generally complete upper secondary and tertiary education at lower rates than women and are more at risk of leaving education early. Lower levels of participation in education contribute to the higher numbers of unemployed among young men than women. Men also suffer particular challenges in terms of health: not only are they more prone to risk behaviours and substance abuse (e.g. smoking, alcohol and cannabis), but they are also more likely than women to succeed in their attempts to commit suicide.

Young women and men both face disadvantages but in different areas. Data presented across the statistical section of this report point to the existence of inequalities between genders. Despite achieving higher levels of education, women's participation in the labour market is – in some respects – less prominent than that of young men. This is often related to the fact that they leave the labour force due to family and caring responsibilities. For example, part-time work is more common amongst women than men, and fewer women become self-employed. The potential economic fragility resulting from a less conspicuous involvement in the labour market can amplify the danger of social deprivation. Indeed, the risk of poverty or social exclusion affects young women to a larger extent than men. Larger proportions of young women also report facing barriers to accessing medical examinations, although this might be also linked to their stronger tendency to seek medical care. Social and economic marginalisation is known to have negative effects on the levels of political and civic participation. As a matter of fact, women vote and take part in organisations and political parties to a lesser extent than men.

Young women suffer more from social exclusion and political disengagement than young men, who, in turn, are more susceptible to educational underachievement and health risks.

Electoral turnout amongst young Europeans continues to decline. The most traditional form of political participation – voting – continues to lose its appeal amongst young Europeans, especially in EU elections. While other ways of expressing interest in political and civic issues (e.g. online methods) become more widespread, growing numbers of young citizens refrain from casting their ballot at elections. As discussed in Chapter 5, research suggests that rather than a lack of interest in democratic participation, the main reason for this disengagement seems to be that young people are not attracted by the choices on offer at elections.

Obesity and insufficient physical activity pose health risks for an increasing number of young people. Over recent years, the proportion of obese young people has increased in almost all countries with available data. Obesity is partly linked to unhealthy eating habits, as well as to a lack of physical activity. Indeed, since 2011, the rate of participation of young Europeans in sports clubs has fallen.

Poverty and social exclusion still affect large sections of the youth population. Despite a slight decline since 2014, the rate of children and young persons at risk of poverty or social exclusion is still considerable and higher than that recorded at the beginning of the decade. Concomitantly, the proportion of young people living in households with very low work intensity is still increasing, which poses serious risks to their economic and social welfare. What is more, in line with the trend in the general population, a growing proportion of young Europeans experience poverty while in employment. For this significant share of the youth population, the risk of suffering social exclusion and deprivation is very high.

Many young Europeans still face challenges in terms of their educational attainment, their health and their living conditions. Young people are also increasingly refraining from taking part in the electoral process

Some groups of young people encounter difficulties in educational achievement. The rate of underachievement in literacy, numeracy and science is not improving. Since 2009, the proportion of students aged 15 with low levels of proficiency in those key competences has either stagnated – as in the case of reading and mathematics – or increased – as in science.

Participation in voluntary activities shows an exceptional expansion. This renewed engagement in society has also translated into a sharp increase in the proportion of young Europeans participating in voluntary organisations (as explained in Chapter 6). The figure has increased significantly since 2011. The increase in the proportion of young volunteers contributing to projects in foreign countries is even larger: since 2011, the figure has increase threefold, indicating young Europeans’ strong solidarity with citizens across borders.

Young Europeans are demonstrating an increasing interest in politics and are taking advantage of the new methods of participation offered by modern technology. Improved opportunities in education and employment, as well as progress in social inclusion, not only contribute to the younger generation’s well-being, but can also revive their interest in political and civic issues and inspire them to re-engage with society. Chapter 5 documents the surge in the level of interest in politics expressed by young Europeans over the past decade, which has also led to a reduction in the traditional gap vis-à-vis older age groups. In addition, data show that young people feel more European than the general population, and self-identification as European citizens has grown more amongst the young than amongst older individuals. This renewed attention to political issues is also supported by the growing availability of internet applications, such as social media, blogs and online networks, which offer additional opportunities for communicating and exchanging information. Indeed, as discussed in Chapter 9, the daily use of the internet is increasing rapidly amongst young people.

Young people appear less prone to risky health behaviours. The difficulties young people face in their transition to adulthood and independence also reflect on their general welfare. In particular, as discussed in Chapter 4, vulnerable groups of young people such as those experiencing unemployment, poverty or social exclusion may be particularly prone to more serious problems in their physical and mental health. In this sense, better economic and living conditions positively influence the general well-being and health of individuals. Indeed, the proportion of young Europeans reported to be smoking daily has been steadily decreasing in the majority of countries. In addition, fewer episodes of alcohol abuse and intoxication have been reported amongst 16 year-olds.

There has been some improvement in the social inclusion of young Europeans. Labour market improvements have had a positive impact on the living conditions of many young people. Entering the job market often coincides with becoming independent and assuming new responsibilities in terms of sustaining the significant costs of living independently. Having better opportunities for finding gainful employment strengthens young people’s ability to secure better social and living conditions. Improvements in the labour market have also meant that the proportion of NEETs (young people not in employment, education or training) has declined steadily in recent years, falling below the levels registered in 2010. Indeed, in 2016, for the first time since the start of the economic crisis, the proportion of unemployed NEETs was lower than that of inactive young people within this group. The proportion of young Europeans suffering from severe material deprivation has also decreased since 2012 and is now at a lower level than in 2010.

More young people are finding employment. Improved educational attainment not only supports young people's personal development, but it also benefits them in other areas of their lives. In particular, as illustrated in Chapter 3, the positive relationship between higher levels of education and employment is well established in most European countries. In the EU as a whole, the unemployment rate is much lower for young people graduating from tertiary education than for those with the lowest levels of education. Following the rise in youth unemployment provoked by the economic recession in the early years of the decade, the rates have been falling since 2013 in the majority of European countries. Around 1.3 million fewer jobless young people live in the EU today compared to 2013. Long-term youth unemployment has also declined.

Young people are educated to an increasingly higher level. Over the past decade, the majority of indicators have registered positive trends with respect to education and training, as described in Chapter 2. The proportion of young Europeans who have attained at least upper secondary level qualifications has risen, as has the proportion with tertiary degrees; in parallel, a general decline in the proportion of early school leavers has also occurred.

This part of the report focuses on the most recent data available and, where possible, illustrates the trends which have emerged since the establishment of the EU Youth Strategy in 2010.

In line with the analytical part of the EU Youth Report () illustrating the state of play of EU and national initiatives and actions, the information and analysis of this statistical section covers the EU Member States and, where the available data allows, the EU candidate countries (Albania, Montenegro, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, and Turkey) as well as the EEA countries (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway).

Relying on Eurostat data, Eurobarometer surveys and other available sources, the population targeted in this part of the report is primarily young people between 15 and 29 years of age. Where possible, the analysis distinguishes between subgroups aged 15 to 19, 20 to 24, and 25 to 29. In other cases, a more limited age range is used, either because of the specifications of survey data, or because the issue in question affects a particular age group (e.g. early school leaving). In addition, children (under 16 years of age) are also included when analysing indicators on poverty or social exclusion. In order to highlight specific issues affecting the youth population, for some indicators comparisons with the total population or the prime working age group (people aged 25-54) are also made.

The period when a person is considered to be 'young' differs across Europe according to national context, the socio-economic development of society and time. Common to all countries is that the period of youth − the transition from being a child to being an adult − is marked by important life changes: from being in education to having a full-time job, from living in the parental home to setting up one's own household, and from being financially dependent to managing one's own money.

This part of the report builds on the dashboard of EU youth indicators (), a selection of 41 indicators which measure the most crucial aspects of young people's lives in Europe. Wherever one of these indicators is used, it is highlighted on the relevant figure. The dashboard of EU youth indicators is presented as an annex to this report.

This statistical part of the report presents data and information on the current situation of young people in Europe. Following an introductory chapter on demography, which presents the main trends in the youth population over recent years, separate chapters are dedicated to the eight 'fields of action' identified in the Council Resolution on the EU Youth Strategy (2010-2018): Education and Training, Employment and Entrepreneurship, Health and Well-being, Participation, Voluntary Activities, Social Inclusion, Youth and the World, and Culture, Creativity and ICT.

The renewed framework for European cooperation in the youth field ( ), also known as the EU Youth Strategy, covers the period from 2010 to 2018. It is divided into three-year work cycles. At the end of each cycle, a European Union (EU) Youth Report should be drawn up by the Commission. The Council has specified that the report 'shall consist of two parts: a joint Council-Commission report (political part), and supporting documents (statistical and analytical part). The EU Youth Report will evaluate progress made towards the overall objectives of the framework, as well as progress regarding the priorities defined for the most recent work cycle and identify good practices'.

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN COUNCIL, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS

However, significant shares of young people face challenges in completing their educational path. Europe still counts a worrying number of pupils with very low basic skills. What is worse, since 2009, the average proportions of low achievers have either stagnated – as in the case of reading and mathematics – or increased – as in science. In addition, participation in non-formal learning – which can be particularly beneficial to those who are at an educational disadvantage – is still limited.

Last but not least, international learning mobility in the context of non-formal learning can be of particular benefit for young people with fewer opportunities. Qualitative research shows that these experiences actually bring an added value to the participants in terms of increased self-esteem, social and communicative skills, as well as vocational skills ().

Besides tertiary education programmes, spending time abroad, getting acquainted with foreign cultures and interacting with peers from other countries represents an important occasion for non-formal and informal learning for many young people in Europe (). Unfortunately, quantitative data collected at international level on learning mobility outside of formal education are scarce (). Qualitative research has nonetheless shed some light on the learning benefits for participants in international youth mobility projects in the framework of the Erasmus+ programme (). Participation in youth mobility projects is seen as contributing to the development of all the key competences for lifelong learning. Communication in a foreign language, sense of entrepreneurship, civic competences, cultural awareness and expression, and learning skills (learning to learn) are reportedly the areas in which students benefit the most. A positive impact has also been demonstrated on other competences such as communication in the first language (mother tongue), mathematical competences and a sense of initiative (). Youth workers engaged in mobility projects also report that their competences were boosted, in particular in the context of managing international youth projects (). In line with these general findings, a survey on young individuals taking part in mobility projects under Erasmus+ during 2015 shows that close to 94 % of the participants reported having improved their key competences and skills relevant to employability ().

Disparities between countries are noticeable not only in terms of the total proportion of foreign students coming from abroad, but also their origin. While Luxembourg and Liechtenstein report the highest percentages of students from abroad, data show that they mainly come from other European countries rather than from areas outside of Europe. This pattern also applies to other countries with relatively high total proportions of incoming students, including Czech Republic, Denmark and Austria. Conversely, some EU Member States attract high proportions of tertiary students from areas outside of Europe − at least twice that from other European countries: this is the case of Ireland (mainly from Asia), France (in particular from African countries), Portugal (with a prevalence of central and southern American countries), Finland (with high a proportion of students from Asia including Russia) and the United Kingdom (also mostly from Asia) ().

Data are available on the flows of internationally-mobile students in tertiary education. Figure 2-J shows the proportion of students enrolled in a tertiary institution who come from abroad (inward student mobility) in 2015.

Learning mobility is generally seen as contributing to the development of a wide range of skills and competences among young people. Most importantly, transversal skills such as critical thinking, communication, problem-solving, and intercultural understanding are found to be improved by study periods abroad (). According to the Erasmus Impact Study, students participating in the Erasmus mobility programme improve their employability skills more than non-participants (). In addition, student mobility programmes also have the potential to contribute to the overall quality of education ().

Because youth work is such a wide field encompassing voluntary leisure-time as well as extra-curricular activities, its contribution goes well beyond supporting young people in their educational experiences. Studies which have investigated the effects of young people’s participation in youth work activities show that young people can acquire and reinforce personal skills such as conflict resolution, decision making, goal setting and interpersonal communication that can prove useful in all spheres of life (). Although data on young people’s participation in activities organised by youth workers is limited, Chapter 6 of this report provides some insight into the level of participation in organised voluntary activities (Figure 6-A) while Chapter 9 examines their involvement in youth organisations, cultural organisations and sports clubs (Figure 9-C).

Providing information, advice and guidance to support young people in their decision making during their education and training is another important aspect of youth work (). Indeed, in some European countries, central authorities place guidance services for students under the auspices of youth work organisations, delivered by nation-wide networks independent from schools ().

Youth work has been shown to exert positive influence on student achievements in education by fostering non-cognitive skills such as persistence, motivation, and self-efficacy (). In particular, young people at risk of dropping out prematurely from education and training may obtain support from youth workers, gaining access to learning resources and individualised assistance and becoming motivated to learn again through participation in the various activities organised for them (). Some youth work programmes have also proven effective in bringing young people who have left school early back into education by, for example, offering preparatory courses for re-insertion into mainstream education or second chance programmes ().

Non-formal learning may take place in the context of youth work. According to the Resolution of the Council of the European Union on youth work from 2010, youth work encompasses activities for and by young people, taking place in the extracurricular and leisure spheres, and based on voluntary participation. Such activities see the cooperation of professional and voluntary youth workers, youth leaders, and the active engagement and contribution of young participants ().

As illustrated by Figure 2-I, in the EU-28 the average proportion of young women and young men engaging in non-formal learning are similar. Since 2011, the participation in non-formal learning has slightly increased in the EU. Some countries have witnessed impressive augmentations, in particular France and Portugal. In contrast, young people in Denmark and the United Kingdom have engaged to decreasing extents.

On average in the European Union, 1 in 10 young Europeans participate in non-formal learning (Figure 2-I). However, countries differ greatly in terms of the proportion of young people involved. While at least 1 in 5 young individuals participate in non-formal learning activities in Denmark, France and Sweden, other countries register much lower percentages, in particular Bulgaria, Croatia, Poland, Slovakia and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.

Indeed, non-formal learning can help release the potential of many young people by uncovering and developing their knowledge, skills and attitudes and by encouraging the acquisition of new kinds of capacities. While these opportunities are important for all young people, they can be particularly beneficial to those who are at an educational disadvantage ().

Non-formal education and training covers any organised and sustained learning activities that do not take place within the framework of the formal education system (). Non-formal learning is undertaken intentionally but participation in the courses or activities is voluntary (). As acknowledged by the Council of the European Union, non-formal learning can greatly contribute to increasing the motivation of young Europeans to undertake lifelong learning as well as improving their employability and job mobility, provided that mechanisms for recognising and validating the skills acquired are widely available ().

The level of proficiency in foreign languages acquired by young Europeans is not being systematically measured across EU countries, although most countries require students to reach level B2 according to the Common European Framework of Reference for their first foreign language (mostly English) by the end of upper secondary education ().

There has been a slightly positive trend across countries since 2013 in terms of the opportunity to learn more than one foreign language in upper secondary general education. A few countries have seen significant increases equal to or above six percentage points (Czech Republic, Ireland, Croatia and Austria). However, only a minority of the countries have introduced attainment level targets with the aim of ensuring that learners will reach the threshold of 'independent use' of the second foreign language ().

Notes: EU-28 totals are calculated on the basis of the countries for which data are available. Where possible the previous/following year data have been used to compute the EU aggregates.

One in two students enrolled in general secondary education learns two or more foreign languages in the European Union (Figure 2-H). In about one third of countries, the proportion is much higher, approaching or reaching 100 %. Conversely, Ireland, the United Kingdom and some southern European Member States show particularly low proportions of young people learning at least two foreign languages.

Knowledge of foreign languages is a significant advantage for young people. It enables them to discover and understand different cultures, and expand their educational and professional prospects by opening up opportunities to study and work abroad.

Further effort to reduce the rate of underachievement in literacy, numeracy and science is still needed. Europe still counts a worrying number of pupils with very low basic skills and progress towards achieving the target of reducing this proportion to below 15 % has been slow (). Since 2009, the average proportions of low achievers have either stagnated – as in the case of reading and mathematics – or increased – as in science. In particular, Greece, Hungary, Slovakia, Iceland and Turkey have seen the proportion of pupils with poor performance in all three core competences surge upwards with percentage increases of between 6 and 15 points.

Gender differences (not shown in Figure 2-H), while negligible for mathematics and science, are pronounced in reading proficiency: on average, 10 % more boys than girls revealed low achievement, and the gap is even wider in Bulgaria, Greece, Cyprus, Malta, Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia ().

The figures clearly indicate a similar pattern in pupil performance in all three skills: countries that show a certain level of performance in one of these basic skills tend to perform similarly in the others. Cross-country variations are noticeable. Bulgaria, Cyprus, Malta, Romania and Slovakia registered proportions of low achievers about twice as high as the EU average. Albania, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Montenegro and Turkey showed much higher percentages − between 40 % and 70 %. Conversely, Estonia and Finland reported the lowest proportions of students with low levels of proficiency in all three competences.

Notes: For Malta, the change between PISA 2009 and PISA 2015 represents an effective change from 2010 because it only implemented the PISA 2009 assessment in 2010 as part of PISA 2009+.

In 2015, on average, about one in five young people aged 15 demonstrated low levels of proficiency in literacy, numeracy and science (Figure 2-G).

Further effort to reduce the rate of under achievement in reading, mathematics and science is still needed.

During the years spent in formal education, young people are expected to acquire the key competences that are essential if they are to achieve their full potential and be successful in their personal and social lives as well as in their career (). Amongst these key competences, literacy, mathematics, science and foreign languages also figure as EU youth indicators.

Young people who have left school prematurely can be helped to re-enter education and subsequently to gain higher qualifications through second chance education () which combines learning with social and emotional support, or through the validation of learning outcomes achieved by means of non-formal and informal learning ().

Notes: For data on educational attainment based on the EU Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS), the International Standard Classification of Education 2011 (ISCED 2011) is applied as from 2014. Up to 2013, ISCED 1997 is used. Nevertheless, data are comparable over time for all available countries except Austria due to the reclassification of higher technical and vocational colleges. Data for Croatia for 2016 have low reliability. A break in the time series for Denmark occurred in 2016.

Figure 2-F: Changes in the share of early school leavers (population aged 18-24 with lower secondary education at most and not in further education or training), by country, 2010-2016

Since 2010 – in conjunction with reforms in most countries to support young people at risk of dropping out of school and increase the flexibility and permeability of educational pathways ( ) – there has been a general decline in the proportion of young people leaving school early in Europe (Figure 2-F). The most significant decrease has taken place in Portugal, where the proportion of early school leavers has fallen by about 14 percentage points. Ireland, Greece, Spain, Norway, Turkey and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia have also experienced a sizeable reduction. Increases have taken place in Hungary, as well as in Czech Republic and Slovakia, which nonetheless remain below the EU benchmark of 10 %.

Figure 2-E: Early leavers from education and training (population aged 18-24 with lower secondary education at most and not in further education or training), by country and by sex, 2016

The risk of leaving formal education prematurely and with low qualification levels is higher amongst men than women. This gender gap applies to most European countries, and is widest in Estonia, Spain, Cyprus, Latvia, Malta, Portugal and Iceland. Only in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and in Turkey are there more young women than men leaving formal education early.

On average, 10.7 % of Europeans aged 18-24 in 2016 left school having completed lower secondary education at most (Figure 2-E) (). Several countries report much higher percentages (especially Spain, Malta, Portugal, Romania, Iceland and Turkey), while the lowest proportions are registered in Croatia, Lithuania and Slovenia, all with levels below 5 %.

Despite this positive trend in educational attainment, a significant share of young Europeans still face significant difficulties in the education system and feel compelled to leave prematurely without having gained relevant qualifications or a school certificate. This is the case with early leavers from education and training (also referred to as 'early school leavers') – people aged 18-24 with at most lower secondary education and who were not in further education or training during the four weeks preceding the survey. Of the factors contributing to young people leaving education early, socio-economic status proves to have significant weight (). Indeed, early school leavers are much more likely to come from families with a low socio-economic status (i.e. where parents are unemployed, have low incomes and low levels of education), or from vulnerable social groups such as migrants (). Early school leavers are exposed to a particularly high risk of deprivation and social exclusion. In addition, not only does leaving school and training early result in longer and more frequent spells of unemployment, but even when integrated into the labour market, early school leavers have fewer opportunities for personal development and to participate actively in society ().

Notes: For data on educational attainment based on the EU Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS) the International Standard Classification of Education 2011 (ISCED 2011) is applied as from 2014. Up to 2013 ISCED 1997 is used. Nevertheless, data are comparable over time for all available countries except Austria due to the reclassification of higher technical and vocational colleges. Data for Luxembourg for 2016 have low reliability. A break in the time series for Denmark occurred in 2016.

Since 2010, tertiary attainment has increased across Europe (Figure 2-D). On average in the European Union, the proportion of people aged between 30 and 34 having a tertiary degree has augmented by five percentage points. Lithuania and Austria have seen the most significant growth, followed by Czech Republic, Greece, Latvia, Portugal, Turkey and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The only decrease – although quite limited, around two percentage points – has been registered in Spain.

In accordance with the general educational attainment trends described above, the proportion of women attaining tertiary education is higher than men. On average, the gender gap amounts to 10 percentage points in the European Union. Men are furthest behind in Latvia, Lithuania and Slovenia (where the gap is twice the EU average). In Turkey the trend is the opposite as fewer women than men complete tertiary degrees.

In 2016, an average of 4 out of 10 Europeans between 30 and 34 years of age had achieved a tertiary degree (Figure 2-C) indicating that the target set in the Europe 2020 strategy was reached earlier than expected (). A few countries are well above the average, with as many as half of 30- to 34-year-olds having attained a tertiary degree (Ireland, Cyprus, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Sweden, Iceland and Norway). On the other hand, this percentage is significantly lower (equal to or below 30 %) in Croatia, Italy, Malta, Romania, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Turkey. The reasons behind the country variations are multiple and stem from the cultural, historical and social circumstances of each country. Yet, several characteristics of national education systems, such as the existence of multiple secondary education pathways leading to higher studies, the extent to which tertiary institutions select students, and the availability of guidance and information on higher education options (for both prospective and tertiary students) are recognised as important factors influencing tertiary attainment ().

Looking at higher qualifications than upper secondary level, a tertiary education degree helps young people the most in securing a job in a high-skilled labour market (as illustrated in the chapter on Employment and Entrepreneurship, Figure 3-I).

Notes: For data on educational attainment based on the EU Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS) the International Standard Classification of Education 2011 (ISCED 2011) is applied as from 2014. Up to 2013, ISCED 1997 is used. Nevertheless, data are comparable over time for all available countries.

Figure 2-B: Changes in the share of young people (aged 20-24) who have completed at least upper secondary education, EU-28 average and by country, 2010-2016

A few countries have remained stable over the years, while only two – Czech Republic and Slovakia – have recorded slight decreases. They remain nonetheless amongst the countries with the highest proportion of young people between 20 and 24 having completed at least upper secondary education.

Over time, young people have become increasingly qualified: in 2016, only 69 % of people aged 55 to 64 had attained upper secondary qualifications, in comparison with over 83 % of 20-24 year-olds (). Progress has continued in recent years. Indeed, the proportion of young people aged 20 to 24 with upper secondary or higher educational attainment has increased continuously since 2010 (Figure 2-B). On average, an increase of almost four percentage points was registered in the European Union. Two-thirds of countries have witnessed an increase in the rates of upper secondary attainment. Among them, a few have showed impressive improvements: Spain, Iceland and Portugal have respectively seen increases of 9.4, 11.8 and 18.4 percentage points since 2010.

Women generally have higher educational attainment levels than men. As Figure 2-A shows, in the EU-28, on average 85.6 % of women completed at least upper secondary education, while the percentage of men with the same attainment level was 80.8 %. This pattern holds true for all countries, with the exception of Czech Republic, Romania, Slovakia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Turkey where women and men complete upper secondary education at similar rates. Men record the lowest rates of upper secondary attainment in comparison to women in Estonia, Spain, Latvia, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal and Iceland, with gaps spanning from 9 to 15 percentage points.

Upper secondary educational attainment is considered the minimum desirable educational attainment level for EU citizens, as it is a prerequisite for better labour market integration and avoiding poverty and social exclusion (). In 2016, an average of 83.2 % of 20- to 24-year-olds in the EU had attained at least upper secondary education (Figure 2-A). Approximately one third of countries reported levels significantly higher, while in Spain, Iceland and Turkey the percentage is equal to or less than 70 %.

European children and young people on average spend 17 years in formal education (). Variations between countries are, however, quite significant, with the expected time spent in education ranging from 15 years in Luxembourg, to 21 years in Finland (). Such differences are partly due to countries setting different starting ages for compulsory education (); nevertheless, young people also stay longer in education beyond the compulsory school years to complete upper secondary and tertiary degrees.

Formal education refers to the structured system of education from pre-primary to tertiary level. This section considers some of the aspects most relevant to young people: the qualifications they attain – or fail to attain if they leave school prematurely – and the skills they acquire in the education system.

This chapter discusses the provision of learning opportunities for young people in Europe in both formal and non-formal settings. Taking a brief look first at the average number of years young Europeans spend in formal education, the chapter goes on to examine attainment in terms of the educational level completed and student achievement in reading, mathematics and science. The chapter proceeds to give an insight into the participation of young people in non-formal learning, including youth work activities, and then turns to analysing how many young Europeans have had the opportunity to widen their learning experiences by going abroad during their studies.

Moreover, education is not only a fundamental determinant of individual life chances and social participation, but also of economic development (). Accordingly, obtaining a high-quality education gives the opportunity for young people to succeed in the labour market and find meaningful employment, while spurring long-term economic growth.

The importance of education is unquestioned in today's world. Throughout the years spent in formal education and by means of the opportunities made available through non-formal and informal education and youth work, children and young people have the chance to develop their personal and social potential, acquire basic skills and qualifications, and become integrated into society at large. Indeed, high-quality and inclusive education for all is one of the most effective defences against the risks of social marginalisation, poverty and exclusion, especially at times of crisis ().

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN COUNCIL, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS

EUROPEAN COMMISSION Brussels, 22.5.2018 SWD(2018) 169 final COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Situation of young people in the European Union Accompanying the document COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN COUNCIL, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS Engaging, Connecting and Empowering young people: a new EU Youth Strategy

{COM(2018) 269 final}

{SWD(2018) 168 final}



3. Employment and Entrepreneurship EU youth indicators Youth unemployment rate and unemployment ratio (15-24 year-olds) Figure 3-D Long-term youth unemployment rate (15-24 year-olds) Figure 3-H Young employees aged 20-29 with a temporary contract Figure 3-O Self-employment rate among young people aged 20-29 Figure 3-U Young people aged 18-34 who would like to set up their own business Figure 3-V

3.1. Introduction One of the major challenges for young people in establishing their independence is finding a stable job and remaining in employment. The recent economic recession resulted in a reduced demand for young workers, which has hindered their chances of successfully moving from school to work ( ). Although the European economy and the opportunities in the labour markets are improving, it is important to understand how unemployment is affecting young people and what kinds of work opportunities are available to them. This chapter sets the scene by describing the transition(s) from education to employment that young people face. The proportion of young people in education and training is an essential parameter when analysing youth employment as it affects the size of the labour force, the calculation of unemployment rates, and the prevalence of part-time or atypical hourly employment. The first part of the chapter discusses the youth unemployment phenomenon and the relevant indicators for its assessment. The second part sheds some light on the types of jobs young people have. The chapter is built around the relevant EU youth indicators and the age groups on which they focus. At the country level, the discussion of youth unemployment mostly relates to the 15-24 age group, while the employment patterns mostly address people aged 20-29. At the EU-28 level, the youth data is generally broken down into three age groups (15-19; 20-24 and 25-29). In order to draw attention to the issues specific to the youth population, a comparison with the prime working age group (people aged 25-54) – the group with the highest labour force participation – is provided throughout the chapter. In order to discuss the developments over time, some of the indicators show the situation in the EU-28 before the start of the economic recession (ten years ago, namely 2007) and during the height of the great recession (2013). At the country level, several indicators display the recent changes pointing to a gradual economic recovery (since 2013) (). 3.2. Entering the world of work The transition from education to employment is rarely a smooth and clear-cut event, it is often a rather complex and protracted process with steps forward and back, interruptions and periods of overlap between these types of activity. The traditional model of transition, when a young person finds his/her first job directly after graduation and embarks on a stable career path, is becoming far less common in our rapidly changing and global world. Many young people start working part-time or have summer jobs while still studying; many young people start on temporary or fixed-term contracts followed by some spells of job-hunting in-between. Some young people return to finish their studies after a period of employment in order to upgrade their skills or qualifications. When searching for the right job, some young people discover they want a complete change from their original field of study or career and they return to education in a different area (). Figure 3-A provides a breakdown of the EU-28 15-34 year-old population by education and labour market status. The blue shades indicate those still in some form of education/training, while the pink shades indicate those outside − the colour intensity distinguishes the labour market status (unemployed, employed or not in the labour market). Figure 3-A: Structure of the youth population by education and labour market status, EU-28 average, 2016 Definitions: The Figure counts all those who state they have been in formal education or training during the previous four weeks as being in education, and does not include people who participated exclusively in non-formal training sessions such as attending a course, a seminar or taking private lessons. An employed person is a person who during the reference week performed work – even if just for one hour a week – for pay, profit or family gain. Alternatively, the person was not at work, but had a job or business from which he or she was temporarily absent due to illness, holiday, industrial dispute or education and training. The same activity may count as both education and employment e.g. most formal apprenticeships in secondary education, paid traineeships, or specific vocational training phases integrated into tertiary education study programmes. Source: Eurostat (LFS, 2016), based on a special calculation, data extracted June 2017 In the EU, virtually all 15-year olds are still in education as full-time education/training is compulsory until the age of 15-16 in most European education systems (). Afterwards, many remain in upper secondary education, which usually continues until the age of 18-19 (). The proportion of people in education gradually decreases with each year of age, while the proportion of young people in the labour market gradually increases. Some young people may have periods when they are in education and the labour market at the same time. Some are principally students and work only for a few hours a week () or in the summer vacations, others are principally employees and spend only a few hours in education, for example in professional training or evening studies (). The proportion of people who combine work with studies is the highest (around 18 %) at age 20-22 and gradually flattens out to approximately 10 % at the age of 34 ( ). The proportion of people who are studying and seeking employment is highest at ages 18-21 (around 3 %). Age 22 is the turning point when more young people are in the labour market than in education. On average, in the EU-28, the turning point for young people is at age 22 when they move on from studying to starting work or searching for a job. At this age, for the first time there are more young people in the labour market than in education. Moreover, at the age of 22, the proportion of those employed and not studying at all is already higher than the proportion of those that combine their studies with work. With each subsequent year of age, the proportion of young people in employment increases rapidly. At the age of 29, almost two thirds of young people are only in employment, they are not students or apprentices. Including those that are working and studying, the employment rate of 29 year-olds reaches 76.6 %. In contrast, at the age of 29, the proportion of students drops to 16.2 %, of which only 3.4 % are neither working nor actively seek employment. It is important to note that some young people leave education and stay outside the labour market, i.e. they are not seeking work. The proportion of young people who are 'not students or apprentices, nor in the labour market' as labelled in Figure 3-A, sharply increases at age 17-18. The proportion of those people who are out of education and out of the labour market flattens off at around 12-13 % between the ages of 30-34 ( ).

The patterns of transition from education to the labour market vary considerably between EU countries. Young people's routes into employment differ depending on the flexibility and structure of their country’s labour market (e.g. the availability of part-time and student jobs, formal apprenticeship schemes, etc.), the national system of education and training as well as cultural factors (). Figure 3-B: Youth labour force participation rates (15-29 year-olds) compared with the 'prime' working age group (24-54 year-olds), EU-28 average, 2016 % % Age 15-19 20-24 25-29 25-54 Age Source: Calculations based on Eurostat LFS [lfsa_pganws] Data extracted on 29/05/2017. The transition from education to employment is clearly reflected in the size of the labour force by age (Figure 3-B). Labour force participation rates indicate the proportion of those available for work compared with the total population in a certain age range. It includes both the employed and the unemployed irrespective of their education status. The remaining 'economically inactive' population () are those who do not work because they are studying or unpaid carers (have family responsibilities); or because they are sick, disabled or retired; or because they have either become 'discouraged' job seekers () or do not want to work; or lastly, have not been active enough in their job-searching to qualify as unemployed. Figure 3-B shows that only one in five people aged 15 to 19 are available for work (20.3 %). A large proportion of the youngest cohort of the working age population consists of people who are still in school, college, university, or other higher education or training establishment. In the EU-28, the employment rate of the youngest age group (15-19) is a mere 15.7 %. Moreover, the majority of 1519 year-olds who work also study − 11.4 % are both employed and in education (); half of those employed work only part-time (Figure 3-P). The proportion available for work is considerably higher amongst 20-24 year-olds: three in five are in the labour force (61.4 %). In this age group, every second person is already working. Among 20-24 year-olds, the proportion of people combining work and study reaches 13.4 % (). Finally, the labour force participation rates of young people aged 25 to 29 (82.5 %) come very close to the economic activity rates of those aged 25-54 (85.5 %). The employment rate of people aged 25 to 29 reaches 73.2 %. Only 6.7 % of 25-29 year olds are both employed and in education (). 3.3. Facing the labour market challenges: unemployment Youth unemployment rates and ratios Entering the world of work after graduation poses significant challenges. Many young people encounter the gap between education and 'real life' and get caught in a vicious cycle of being unable to obtain a job due to lack of experience, and being unable to gain experience without a job ( ). Those who leave education without formal qualifications and with low-level skills have even less chance of gaining employment. Figure 3-C: Unemployment rates and ratios among young people (15-29 year-olds) compared to the 'prime' working age group (24-54 year-olds), EU-28 average, 2016 % % Age

No. 15-19 1.2 m 20-24 3.0 m 25-29 2.9 m 25-54 14.1 m Age

N Note: The numbers of unemployed in millions are indicated below the age groups. Source: Eurostat LFS [yth_empl_090] and calculations based on Eurostat LFS [lfsa_pganws] Data extracted on 23/05/2017. In the EU-28 in 2016, 4.2 million people between the ages of 15 and 24 were unemployed (Figure 3-C). This Figure includes all people who are available for work and actively job-seeking, irrespective of their education status. However, the numbers of those in education become very important when considering the youth unemployment rate – the most common measure of youth labour market conditions. The unemployment rate is calculated as the number of unemployed individuals (i.e. those available and actively looking for work but not able find a job) divided by the number of persons in the labour force, multiplied by 100 %. The unemployment rate does not consider the economic inactive, who are not actively looking for a job, because of different reasons as discussed above. The unemployment rate does not indicate the percentage of a certain age population that is unemployed, as not the whole age population is participating in the labour force. When considering the prime working age group (people aged 25-54), the labour force is close to the total population, and therefore the unemployment rate does not differ much from the unemployment-to-population ratio (Figure 3-C). However, as many young people are still studying in their early twenties and therefore are not yet in the labour force, the statistics differ greatly. The proportion of people that unsuccessfully search for a job is the highest among 20-24 year-olds. Relatively small numbers of unemployed people can generate high unemployment rates when divided by a small labour force. Therefore, it is sometimes useful to consider the youth unemployment ratio statistics: the percentage of unemployed young people compared to the total population of that age group (not only the economically active, but also the inactive such as students). EU youth indicator Figure 3-D: Youth unemployment rate (15-24 year-olds) and unemployment ratio, by country, 2016 Unemployment rate Number Unemployment ratio Note: the numbers of unemployed in thousands are indicated in the middle. Source: Eurostat LFS [yth_empl_090] and [yth_empl_140] Data extracted on 21/07/2017. The unemployment rate and ratio are depicted side by side graphically in Figure 3-C. Both statistics reflect the same numbers of unemployed (indicated in the Figure below the age groups), but display considerably different distributions. When considering the unemployment-to-labour force indicator (unemployment rate), the younger age groups seem to be the most affected. In contrast, the unemployment-to-population indicator (unemployment ratio) shows that the problem is the worst for the 20-24 age group and, to a lesser extent, for the 25-29 age group. In order to get a full grasp of the unemployment phenomenon, both the unemployment rate and ratio are included among the EU youth indicators. Figure 3-D shows unemployment rates and ratios in European countries. The number of unemployed in thousands is indicated in the middle. This figure largely depends on the country's youth population and varies from almost 1 million unemployed 15-24 year-olds in Turkey and 600 000-700 000 in Spain, France, Italy and the United Kingdom, to 2 000-4 000 in Malta, Luxembourg and Iceland. In 2016, the highest proportion (around 15 %) of young population (15-24) was searching for a job in Spain (656 100) and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (41 500). The unemployment ratios were also high in Greece, Croatia, Italy, Cyprus, Finland and Sweden (10-12 %). In contrast, the lowest unemployment ratios (3-4 %) were in Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany and Hungary. The youth unemployment rates vary between European countries to a much greater degree than unemployment ratios as they are calculated taking into account the proportion of employed 15-24 year-olds. The labour force participation rates of this age group vary from less than 30 % in Belgium, Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Romania to more than 66 % in Denmark, the Netherlands and Iceland ( ). As discussed earlier, the size of the labour force depends on the proportion of young people that are inactive, namely those in education (chapter 2), those engaged in unpaid caring activities, or the sick, disabled, or discouraged workers (chapter 5). As discussed previously, the unemployment rate and ratio differ the least when labour force participation is high. For example, the 10.4 % youth unemployment ratio results in a 18.9 % unemployment rate in Sweden, where the labour force participation of young people is relatively high (54.8 %). In contrast, a similar unemployment ratio (10.0 %) in Italy, where economic activity rates are considerably lower (26.6 %), generates a much higher unemployment rate (37.8 %) (). Fifteen per cent of young people (aged 15-24) are searching for a job in Spain and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The rates of young jobless among those available for work are also high in Greece and Italy.

Figure 3-E: Youth unemployment rates (15-24 year-olds), compared with prime working age group (25-54 year-olds), EU-28 average, 2007-2016 % % Source: Calculations based on Eurostat LFS [lfsa_pganws]. Data extracted on 29/05/2017. Low activity rates amongst young people between the ages of 15 and 24 are found in several countries in southern and eastern Europe (e.g. Spain, Italy, Portugal, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania) (). For these same countries, data presented in Chapter 2 report lower rates of participation in education and higher proportions of young people leaving formal education before having achieved an upper-secondary degree (Figures 2-A, 2-C and 2-E). This hints at the existence of large segments of young people who are not employed, not in education and not in training (NEETs), and who are particularly vulnerable to the risk of social exclusion. This will be analysed in detail in Chapter 5. The highest rates of young people (aged 15-24) searching for a job among those available for a work (e.g. unemployment rates) were observed in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (48.2 %) (), Greece (47.3 %), Spain (44.4 %) and Italy (37.8 %). The unemployment rates of people aged 15-24 were also high (25-31 %) in France, Croatia, Cyprus and Portugal. Most of these countries record high rates of jobless people in the prime working age group (25-54 year-olds). In contrast, few of the young people available for work (about 7 %) had problems finding a job in Germany and Iceland. The youth unemployment rates were also rather low (approximately 11 %) in Czech Republic, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria and Norway. The level of youth unemployment shows the state of the youth job market, but also reflects the general economic situation. When the economy is in recession, the number of jobless people rises. When the economy is growing, jobs are created and the number of people who cannot find work falls. Figure 3-E shows unemployment rates and ratios for young people aged 15-24 and the prime working age group (24-54) from 2007 to 2016. The EU-28 economies started shrinking after the 2007 economic recession and the numbers of jobless young people and adults were rising between 2009 and 2013. After economic growth resumed, the numbers of people unsuccessfully searching for jobs have been falling since 2013. The changes in the proportion of unemployed among youth and prime working age populations (unemployment ratios) were similar (see the dashed lines in Figure 3-E that rise and fall in parallel). Between 2007 and 2013, the proportion of people looking for work increased by 3.1 percentage points among young people and by 3.2 percentage points among adults of prime working age. In 2016 there were 4.2 million unemployed people aged 15-24 in the EU. Youth unemployment rates recently decreased in the majority of European countries. Since 2013, there are 1.3 million fewer jobless young people in the EU. From 2013 to 2016, the youth unemployment ratio fell by 2.2 percentage points and the adult unemployment ratio decreased by 1.8 percentage points. In 2016, the proportions of jobless people in both youth and adult populations were even closer than they had been before the economic recession started in 2007. However, when the number of unemployed is expressed in relation to the labour force (unemployment rates), the impact of the economic crisis seems to be more severe on the youth population than on the prime working age population. The proportion of employed people aged 15-24 is much lower than in the 25-54 age group and therefore the increase in the proportion of unemployed people among those who are available for work is much higher. Figure 3-F shows the changes in youth unemployment rates during the last three years by country. The recent changes in youth unemployment rates follow the economic recovery in most European countries. Since 2013, when the youth unemployment rate in EU-28 reached its highest level (23.6 %), the numbers of young people unsuccessfully searching for work have been falling in most European countries. On average, in the EU-28, the youth unemployment rate in 2016 was 4.6 percentage points lower than in 2013. The decrease was especially pronounced (more than 10 percentage points) in several southern and central European countries, namely Bulgaria, Greece, Spain, Croatia, Hungary, Portugal and Slovakia. Many eastern/central European countries (Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Slovenia), as well as Ireland, Cyprus and the United Kingdom, have registered a 5 to 10 percentage point decrease in youth unemployment rates in recent years. Figure 3-F: Changes in unemployment rates among young people aged 15-24, by country, 2013-2016 Large decrease (below -10 p.p.) Moderate decrease (between -5 and -10 p.p.) Small decrease (between -1 and -5 p.p.) No change (less than 1 p.p. difference) Small increase (between 2 and 3 p.p.) Data not available/not collected Source: Eurostat LFS [lfsa_urgan], data extracted on 26/07/2017. Notes: Break in time series in Denmark, France, Luxembourg and Turkey. The numbers of jobless young people remained similar between 2013 and 2016 in Germany, France and Finland. However, of these three countries, youth unemployment rates are low only in Germany. In France and Finland, youth unemployment rates are currently higher than the EU-28 average. Although there was a slight increase, youth unemployment rates remained low in Austria and Norway (11 %). In contrast, in Luxembourg and Turkey, the recent slight increase brought youth unemployment rates to almost 20 %. Compared with the situation before the economic recession, in 2007, youth unemployment rates are still higher on average in the EU-28 as well as in more than a half of European countries. The proportion of young people available for work and unable to find a job returned to pre-recession figures or even less in Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Romania, Sweden, the United Kingdom and Iceland. In contrast, in the Southern European countries that were severely affected by the European debt crisis (Greece, Spain, Italy, Cyprus and Portugal) youth unemployment rates are still more than 10 percentage points higher than before the recession ( ). Long-term youth unemployment Figure 3-G: Long-term unemployment for young people aged 15-29 as a percentage of total unemployment, compared with the 'prime' working age (24-54 years) group, EU-28 average, 2016 % % Age 15-19 20-24 25-29 25-54 Age Source: Eurostat LFS [lfsa_upgan], data extracted on 24/07/2017 Unemployment brings serious hardships to individuals and their families. The problems and difficulties reach beyond the challenging financial situation. Long-term unemployment, especially for young people, leaves lifelong effects. Young people who have been looking for a job over long period of time are more likely to experience precarious employment, future periods of unemployment and lower job satisfaction, as well as having poorer health and sense of well-being more than 20 years later (). Young persons are particularly affected by long periods of job-seeking (). Prolonged periods without structured daily activity lead to feelings of uselessness and hopelessness; the lack of job identification also raises identity issues (). Moreover, the lack of meaningful activity is associated with increased alcohol and drug addiction as well as criminal behaviour (). For societies, high levels of long-term youth unemployment carry significant financial costs as well as increasing the risk of social unrest (). Eurostat defines the long-term unemployed as people who are out of work who have been actively seeking employment for at least a year. Figure 3-G shows that, on average, in the EU-28, the long-time unemployed as a proportion of the total unemployed grows with each age group. When young people first enter the labour market, they are less likely to be looking for a job for as long as older age groups. Only 17.9 % of unemployed 15-19 year-olds were searching for a job for longer than a year. The proportion is higher for 20-24 year-olds, at 34.1 %, while for 25-29 year-olds, 40.2 % had no success within a year. The problem is even more pronounced in the prime working age group (25-54), where approximately every other unemployed person (49.1 %) is jobless for more than a year.

The long-term youth unemployment rate for 15-24 year-olds is included among the EU youth indicators. The long-term youth unemployment rate is expressed as the number of persons aged 15-24 unemployed for 12 months or longer as a percentage of the labour force (i.e. employed and unemployed). Figure 3-H shows that, in 2016, on average, in EU-28, the long-term unemployed constituted 5.4 % of the youth labour force. The proportion was especially high in the southern European countries that were severely affected by the recent economic crisis. In the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, the long-term youth unemployment rate was 32.7 %, in Greece it was 25.1 %, and in Italy 19.4 %. However, it was lower in Slovakia, Croatia and Spain − between 11 and 13 %, and in Bulgaria, Portugal and Romania it was 8-9 %. Compared with 2013, long-term youth unemployment decreased in the majority of European countries. In the EU-28, on average, it was 2.6 percentage points lower in 2016 than in 2013. The proportion of young people who took longer than 12 months to find a job fell especially sharply during these years in Cyprus, Spain, Slovakia and Croatia. Figure 3-H: Long-term youth unemployment rates (15-24 year-olds), by country, 2016 and 2013 EU youth indicator % % Notes: Data for Estonia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Finland (2013) have low reliability. Source: Eurostat LFS [yth_empl_120], data extracted on 28/09/2017. Continuous job searching requires a high level of resilience, confidence and resourcefulness. With each rejection letter, with each failure to secure an interview it is increasingly difficult to keep on looking. Therefore, many people who have struggled to get a job eventually stop looking and drop out of the labour force altogether.



Youth unemployment and educational attainment Figure 3-I: Youth unemployment rate (15-29 year-olds) by the highest educational level attained compared with the prime working age group (25-54 year-olds), EU-28 average, 2007-2016 Note: Age groups 15-19 and 20-24 were merged as data for ISCED 5-8 are unreliable in the age group 15-19. Source: Calculations based on Eurostat LFS [lfsa_urgaed], data extracted on 29/05/2017 A good level of education and relevant qualifications are critical in finding employment as they provide young people with the appropriate skills needed in rapidly changing modern economies. Figure 3-I shows that the higher the educational level, the lower the unemployment rates. In the EU-28, the least educated have very high unemployment rates among both the youth and adult populations. On average, in the EU-28, the unemployment rate of those with lower secondary education/qualifications or less (ISCED levels 0-2) was twice as high as that of tertiary graduates (ISCED levels 5-8) in the 15-24 age group, and three times higher than in the older age groups (25-29 and 25-54). The unemployment rates among those with upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education (ISCED levels 3 and 4) are closer to those of tertiary graduates, the difference between all the age groups under consideration ranges between 2 and 3 percentage points. In Europe, there is a considerable variation in unemployment rates by educational attainment across countries (Figure 3-J). Educational attainment is most effective in minimising the risk of unemployment in central European countries (Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Austria and Slovakia,), as well as in Bulgaria, Ireland, Malta and Sweden. In these countries, the unemployment rate of those with low levels of education is four or more times higher than that of tertiary graduates. The situation is different in southern countries (Greece, Spain, Italy, Portugal and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia), where the unemployment rates of people aged 20-29 are high among those with both low-level and high-level qualifications. In Denmark and Romania, the unemployment rates are similar across all educational attainment groups and vary between 8 % and 14 %. As institutional and economic features intrinsic to every country heavily impact upon the chances of young graduates entering the labour market, the positive influence of higher education appears to be somewhat diluted in those systems where structural obstacles exist in the economic and business environment (). In two countries (Cyprus and Turkey), the pattern is reversed, namely the unemployment rate of those with low levels of education is lower than that of tertiary graduates. In Cyprus, where 46.9 % of young people aged 20-29 have tertiary level education, this might be an effect of over-education, namely, a discrepancy between the supply of education and the needs of the economy ( ). In Turkey, a higher incidence of unemployment among tertiary educated young people may be related to the fact that they are the ones who can afford to search for a job in the formal economy, while many unskilled young people are often employed in the informal sector in low-paid, irregular and insecure jobs ( ). Figure 3-J: Comparison of youth unemployment rates among 20-29 year-olds with low and high levels of education, by country, 2016 Unemployment rate of those with low levels of education is four or more times higher than

for those with tertiary-level education Unemployment rate of those with low levels of education is two to three times higher than

for those with tertiary-level education Unemployment rate of those with low levels of education is higher than

for those with tertiary-level education,

but less than twice as high Unemployment rate of those with low levels of education is lower than

for those with tertiary-level education Data not available/not collected Source: Eurostat LFS [yth_empl_090], data extracted on 05/09/2017 Notes: 'Low levels of education' means lower secondary education or below (ISCED levels 0-2) and 'high levels of education' means tertiary education (levels 5-8). Low reliability: Estonia, Croatia, Cyprus, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Slovenia, Iceland and Montenegro. Men are more vulnerable to youth unemployment than women In the EU-28, in 2016, there were 700 000 more jobless young men than women (15-29 year-olds). On average, in the EU-28, young males seem to be more affected by unemployment than young females. In 2016, in absolute numbers, there were more men than women unsuccessfully searching for work in all the age groups shown in Figure 3-K. Considering the unemployed-to-population ratio, male unemployment was higher in all the age groups analysed, the difference being the greatest among those aged 20 to 24. In the EU-28, in 2016, there were 369 200 more jobless 20-24 year-old men than women. In this age group, males constituted 56.1 % of the unemployed. The data from the last 10 years reveals that the pattern is stable over time. Male unemployment ratios were higher than female unemployment ratios for 15-29 year-olds in every year of the last decade ( ). Looking at the absolute numbers, in the EU-28, there were more young men than women searching for a job in every year and in every youth age group analysed ().

The fact that men constitute the majority of young unemployed people aged 15-24 is true for most European countries ( ). The only country where, in 2016, there were more young females than males among the unemployed is Cyprus. When the size of the labour force is taken into account, the situation reverses for the older age groups. Female unemployment rates are higher in the 25-29 age group as well as in the prime working age group (25-54). In both these age groups, women often leave the labour force due to family and caring responsibilities ( ) and therefore the proportion of women who are available for work is reduced. Therefore, the relative proportion of women who cannot find a job among those women who are available for work becomes higher. Figure 3-L: Differences between male and female unemployment rates, young people age 15-24, by country, 2016 Males ΔN Females Note: ΔN: The difference in the numbers of unemployed in thousands is indicated in the middle (positive = males more affected). Lithuania: Female estimates low reliability. Source: Calculations based on Eurostat LFS [yth_empl_100], data extracted on 04/09/2017



Figure 3-K: Differences between male and female unemployment rates and ratios for young people (15-29 year-olds) compared to the 'prime' age group (25-54 year-olds), EU-28 average, 2016 Age

ΔN 15-19 161.8 20-24 369.2 25-29 162.4 25-54 228.2 Age

ΔN Note: ΔN: The difference in the numbers of unemployed in thousands is indicated below the age groups (positive = males more affected). Source: Calculations based on Eurostat LFS [lfsa_pganws], data extracted on 27/07/2017. When taking into account participation in the labour market, male unemployment rates are still higher in most European countries (Figure 3-L). However, unemployment rates for young women are more than one percentage point higher than for young men in eight countries (Czech Republic, Greece, Italy, Cyprus, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia and Turkey). In all of these countries, labour force participation among young women was lower than the EU-28 average and is often significantly below the participation rates for young men (). For more information on factors influencing youth unemployment such as migrant background, health status (including disabilities), work opportunities in the area of residence, etc., see STYLE (2017).



3.4. patterns of YOUTH EMPLOYMENT Employment rates Employment rates of young people usually mirror those of the working age population. The employment rate is one of the key indicators when studying the labour markets. There is a strong relationship between the general situation in the labour market and the employment rates of young people ( ). Figure 3-M shows that the majority of European countries fall into two categories: countries where employment rates are high in both the youth and prime working age groups and countries where the rates are low in both age groups. Figure 3-M: Country distribution of employment rates for young people (15-24 years) and 'prime' working age (25-54 years) group, 2016 Source: Eurostat LFS [lfsi_emp_a], data extracted on 11/09/2017 The situation in the labour market is still difficult for both younger and older age groups in some of the European countries that were greatly affected by the recent recession. In Bulgaria, Ireland, Greece, Spain, Croatia, Italy, Cyprus, Romania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, the employment rates of both the youth and prime working age populations are lower than the EU-28 average. In contrast, the proportion of both groups is high in the Scandinavian countries, as well as in Germany, Estonia, the Netherlands, Austria and the United Kingdom. Several European countries have high employment rates in the prime working age population (ranging from 79.1 % to 85.7 %), but the proportion of young people at work is lower than the EU average (ranging from 22.7 % to 32.8 %). In Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Hungary, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia and Slovakia the labour markets are considerably less favourable to young people than to the prime working age group. In most of these countries, part-time work, which attracts young people (Figure 3-R), is not widespread ( ). Although the youth employment rates mirror those of the prime working age, there are some essential differences. Jobs for young people are not evenly spread across all sectors and occupations (). On average, in the EU-28, young people (aged 15-24) constitute approximately 8 % of all those employed. However, employed youth are more likely to be found in fast food restaurants, grocery stores, or hotel receptions than in public administration offices or educational institutions. In EU-28, on average, 20.1 % of the employed in the accommodation and food sectors are between 15 and 24 years old. Wholesale and retail trade, where young people constitute 12.2 % of all employed, is another youth-intensive sector. A higher proportion of young people is also found in a sector of arts, entertainment and recreation (14.5 %). Temporary contracts Figure 3-N: Young temporary employees (15-29 years) as percentage of the total number of employees, compared with the 'prime' working age group (24-54 years), EU-28 average, 2016 Age 15-19 20-24 25-29 25-54 Source: Eurostat LFS [yth_empl_050] and [lfsi_pt_a], data extracted on 11/09/2017 Temporary employment is related to lower job security as well as poorer skills and career development. An important characteristic of the youth labour market is the high percentage of temporary contracts in comparison to other age categories. A temporary contract is a fixed-term contract which will terminate either after a period agreed in advance or, if certain objective criteria are met, such as the completion of an assignment or the return of the employee who has been temporarily replaced ( ).

Temporary employment can be an important step in the transition from education to the labour market. It gives young people work experience and makes it easier for them to find a job. Temporary employment also gives employers an opportunity to assess young people’s suitability and capacity to perform the tasks required. Often, temporary jobs serve as stepping-stones to permanent jobs ( ). However, temporary employment implies higher levels of insecurity both workwise and financially, as well as fewer opportunities for developing skills and longer-term careers. Young people can be trapped in a cycle of alternating periods of temporary employment and unemployment, which may adversely affect their status into their thirties and beyond. Where this is the case, young people may lack the stability needed to allow them to live independently (). Figure 3-N shows that the proportion of temporary employees is very high for the youngest age group (15-19 year-olds) but it reduces rapidly with each older group. In the EU28, 58.2 % of all 15-19 year-olds in employment have temporary work contracts (). The proportion drops to 39.6 % for 20-24 year-olds and even further to 23.1 % for 25-29 year olds. In contrast, only 1 in 10 of the adult employees in the prime working age group has a fixed-term contract. One of the EU youth indicators focuses on the proportion of young employees aged 20-29 with a temporary contract (Figure 3-O). The types of contracts that young people have vary considerably across European countries. In Bulgaria, the Baltic countries, Romania and the United Kingdom, very few young people (less than 10 % of all employees) have fixed-term contracts. In the labour markets of these countries, temporary contracts are rather rare in general (). In contrast, in Spain, Croatia, Poland, Portugal and Slovenia, every other young employee has a fixed-term contract (the proportion ranges from 50 to 55 %). In Italy, 40.5 % of young employees do not hold a permanent position. The proportion of young employees in temporary employment is also relatively high (between 30 % and 40 %) in Denmark, Germany, France, the Netherlands, Finland and Sweden. In most of these countries, the proportion of prime working age employees on temporary contracts is also higher than the EU-28 average. Figure 3-O: Young employees aged 20-29 with a temporary contract as a percentage of the total number of employees, by country, 2016 EU youth indicator The trends in the EU-28 reveal that the proportion of employees with a temporary contract in the prime working age group remained rather stable during the last ten years, ranging between 9.2 and 10.3 %. The proportion of young employees on fixed-term contracts slightly increased during the recession, from 27.6 % in 2007 to 28.7 % in 2013. During the economic recovery, temporary employment for young people continued to grow and is currently 29.5 %. It is important to note that the EU-28 average encompasses divergent trends between countries that partly reflect the significance of this type of employment before the crisis. For example, fixed-term contracts increased during the recession and afterwards in most of the countries that already had a high rate of fixed-term contracts (e.g. France, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia and Finland). In other countries, such as Ireland and some central and eastern Member States where changes in labour legislation have encouraged the use of temporary contracts, the proportion of fixed-term contracts increased during the recession (), but has been in decline since 2013 ().



Part-time work Figure 3-P: Part-time employment for young people (15-29 year-olds) as a percentage of total youth employment, compared with the 'prime' working age group (24-54 year-olds), EU-28 average, by sex, 2016 Ages 15-20 20-24 25-29 25-54 Source: Eurostat LFS [yth_empl_060] and [lfsi_pt_a], data extracted on 29/05/2017 The ILO defines the term 'part-time worker' as an employed person whose normal hours of work are fewer than those of comparable full-time workers (). This definition encompasses all forms of part-time work (half-day work, work for one, two or three days a week, etc.). This number may be established at the national, regional, industrial or unit level. For comparative statistical purposes, however, part-time work is usually considered as working fewer than 35 hours, or 30 hours, per week (). Part-time employment can be beneficial depending on the quality of the part-time job and whether working part-time is a voluntary choice. The gap between the conditions of part-time and full-time employment differs significantly among European countries. On average, part-time jobs are characterised by poorer job security, lower average hourly earnings and fewer opportunities for training and promotion ( ). However, part-time jobs are the only way some groups of people can join or remain in the labour market. Many young people who are in education and training (Figure 3-A) are able to work only some hours per week in term-time or longer during vacations. Moreover, young people may work part-time as part of an apprenticeship in the context of either a vocational education programme or an employer-based programme. Part-time work is also often used by those with children or other care responsibilities. This becomes more important for the older age groups (Figure 3-P). Young people in the 15-24 age group mostly work part-time in order to be able to study. In contrast, most 25-29 year-olds take part-time jobs involuntarily. Part-time work is very common among the youngest employed people. Figure 3-P shows that every second 15-19 year-old who has a job works less than full-time. This might be because the majority (72.6 %) of those who work in this age group combine work and study (Figure 3-A). Many 20-24 year-olds also work part-time, namely 26.9 % of all employed people in this age group. This largely mirrors the proportion of people who combine work and studies (26.5 %). In contrast, only 17.5 % of employees in the prime working age group (25-54) are not employed full-time. The proportion is even lower among 25-29 year-olds, i.e. 16.9 %. Women tend to work part-time much more than men. Among the youngest age group in employment, namely 15-19 year-olds, 61.0 % of employed women worked less than full-time compared to 42.9 % of employed men. The reasons for a part-time job in this age group do not differ by gender – most young women and men (almost 80 %) work fewer hours than full-time workers in order to study. In most of the countries where a high proportion of young people work part-time, the main reason is for study purposes. Looking at 20-24 year-olds, 34.9 % of women in employment work less than full-time, compared with 20.2 % of men. Figure 3-Q shows that in this age group, education and training was still the main reason for part-time employment. However, one in three employed males and females worked part-time because they could not find full-time work (this is defined as involuntary part-time employment and is analysed in detail in Figure 3-R). Among 25-29 year-olds, only one in ten men works less than full-time. In contrast, in this age group, a quarter of employed females works part-time. Figure 3-Q suggests that the reasons for working less than full-time differ considerably between men and women in this age group. Among men, 45.6 % work part-time because they cannot find a full-time job, 30.9 % for educational reasons and only 4.2 % for family reasons. In contrast, 34.0 % of women aged 25-29 work part-time because of care duties – they look after children or incapacitated adults or have other family or personal responsibilities. In addition, 35.0 % of women work part-time involuntarily and only 14.8 % choose part-time jobs in order to study. Patterns of part-time work become even more gender-oriented in the prime working age group, where 93.4 % of employed men hold full-time jobs compared to 69.9 % of women. Adult women work part-time mostly due to family duties, while the few men who work part-time primarily do so because they cannot find a full-time position. Figure 3-Q: Main reasons for part-time employment among young people aged 15-29, compared to adults aged 25-59, EU-28 average, by sex, 2016 % Age 15-19 20-24 25-29 25-59 Age % Age 15-19 20-24 25-29 25-59 Age Family responsibilities Could not find a full-time job In education or training Notes: The category 'Family responsibilities' merges two categories: 'Looking after children or incapacitated adults' and ' Other family or personal responsibilities'. Omitted categories include: 'Own illness or disability' and 'Other'. For the 15-19 age group, the categories 'Looking after children or incapacitated adults' and 'Own illness or disability' are not available. Source: Eurostat LFS [yth_empl_070] and [lfsa_epgar]., data extracted on 15/09/2017

Figure 3-R shows that the level to which part-time jobs predominate in youth employment (20-29 year-olds) varies greatly in European countries. In the EU-28, on average, 20.7 % of all employed young people aged 20-29 worked less than full-time. The Netherlands stands out with a very high proportion of young people working part-time (53.9 %). Many young people are employed less than full-time in the Scandinavian countries (Denmark, Sweden and Norway) as well as Iceland (the proportion ranges from 30 % to 40 %). In contrast, part-time employment among young people is rather rare in most of the Member States that have accessed the EU since 2004 (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia), as well as the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Turkey. As discussed earlier, there are various reasons for working less than full-time. Figure 3-R also indicates the proportion of involuntary part-time employment in the total employment of 20-29 year-olds. In the EU-28, 7.5 % of employed young people work part-time because they are unable to find full-time work. However, in most of the countries with a high prevalence of part-time youth employment, the percentage working part-time involuntarily is rather low. In Denmark, the Netherlands and Iceland, the majority of those who work part-time do so because of education or training commitments ( ). The proportion of involuntary part-time employment is very high in Italy, where 20.9 % of young people in employment are working part-time because they cannot find a full-time position. In other words, in Italy, involuntary part-time work constitutes 80.8 % of all part-time positions filled by young people. The proportion is also very high in Spain: involuntary reasons account for 17.1 % of all jobs held by young people and 65.8 % of part-time jobs. Figure 3-R: Part-time employment as a percentage of total employment among young people aged 20-29, including the percentage of involuntary