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COM (85) 070 
 
 
 
Vol. 1985/0 022 
  
 
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COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
C0M(85) 70 final  
Brussels, 5 March 1985
ÇOMMyNIÇATION_£ROM_THE_ÇOMMISSION_TO_THE_ÇOyNÇIL
concerning the protection of animals during international transport
COM(85) 70 final

EXPLANATORY NOTE
On the 12 May 1981 the Council adopted Directive 81/389/EEC establishing  
certain measures necessary for the application of Directive 77/489/EEC con­
cerning the protection of animals in international transport.
The Commission agreed to ask the Standing Committee for Agricultural Research  
(SCAR) to exmaine whether there are good physiological, ethological and  
economic reasons for limiting the final journey to the abattoir of animals  
for immediate slaughter and, if so, of recommending a maximum duration for  
such journeys.
The SCAR studied this question on the basis of an extensive examination of the  
problems by a group of experts representative of the Member States.
The conclusions and considerations reached by SCAR, and the expert report  
entitles "International Transport of Farm Animals intended for slaughter"  
are annexed to the present communication.
( I )

DRAFT
COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL  
concerning the protection of animals during international transport
1. Introduction
On the 12th May 1981 the Council adopted Directive 81/389/EEC (1)  
establishing certain measures necessary for the application of  
Directive 77/489/EEC concerning the protection of animals in  
international transport.
The Commission agreed to ask the Standing Committee for Agricultural  
Research (SCAR) to examine whether there are good physiological,  
ethological and economic reasons for limiting the final journey to the  
abbatoir of animals for immediate slaughter and, if so, of recommending  
a maximum duration for such journeys.
The SCAR studied this question on the basis of an extensive examination  
of the problems by a group of experts representative of the Member  
States.
The conclusions and considerations reached by SCAR, and the expert  
report entitled "International Transport of Farm Animals intended  
for slaughter" are annexed to the present communication.
2. Report of the Standing Committee for Agricultural Research
Following a consideration of the expert report the Standing Committee  
for Agricultural research agreed that:-
"It will therefore be seen that both the content of individual  
chapters and the conclusions which can be drawn from the available data  
show more information is required before a specific answer can be given  
to the original question:
(1) O.J. L.150 of 06.06.1981. p. 1

"Are there good, physiological, ethological, and economic  
reasons for limiting the final journey to the abattoir for  
animals intended for immediate slaughter and, if so, of  
recommending a maximum duration for such journeys."
Specifically, further research would seem to be needed into the  
following areas:
(1) Feed and Watering
When and how should animals be fed and watered prior to and  
during transport, according to their age, species and physio­
logical condition?
(2) Resting
What is the importance to the animal of rest during transport?  
By what means can animals be provided with appropriate environ­
ments during transport in which they may rest? Is there a need  
alternatively for journeys to be broken - and at what intervals  
- and animals unloaded for resting?
(3) Stocking Rates
What are suitable stocking densities and group size by species,
age, sex and physiological conditions?
(4) Ventilation
What are the ventilation requirements of the different modes  
of transport for the different species and class of livestock?
(5) Physiology
Continued investigation of the various physiological factors  
may help in the assessment of changes in stress and behaviour  
of livestock during transit. What is the significance of these  
observations in relation to the animal's need for food, or  
water, or rest?
The monitoring of livestock being transported involving the collection  
of data on morbidity, mortality and injury during transport and the  
effect of transport conditions on meat quantity and quality are topics  
of crucial importance. The work requires the closest possible

-3-
co-operation between Member States of the Community. This can and  
should be assisted through Commission initiatives in:
(1) the planning, co-ordination and discussion of laboratory  
and field investigations using the expertise and facilities  
which exist within Member States;
(2) the further encouragement of the exchange of information, by  
way of seminars and work-shops;
(3) the continuing exchange of research workers and others having  
practical training or administrative experience to offer.
There are indications of the priorities to be worked on if the  
paucity of information, in certain aspects, is to be solved; clearly  
more work will give more results but not necessarily all the answers."
3. The Commission has considered this report. It) view of the conclusions  
and recommendations made it considers that it would be premature at  
the present time to make proposals to the Council for amendments to the  
existing Community Directives which have been adopted in this sector.
4. It is apparent that if a better scientific basis is to be found to  
enable progress on these questions it will be necessary for further  
financial resources to be made available for specific areas of  
research, and to support projects of co-operation between Member States  
to monitor livestock being transported so that essential data can be  
collected.
5. At the same time the attention of the Commission has been drawn to the  
necessity of taking more immediate practical steps to facilitate the  
application of the existing Community provisions as regards the International  
transport of animals. The parliament in its resolution No. 229/83
in particular requested further improvements in respect of the  
International transport of horses intended for slaughter.

-4-
These problems are also subject to consideration under the auspices  
of the Council of Europe where particular questions of transport  
from non-member countries are of importance.
6. In view of this situation the Commission considers that a useful role  
could be played in the immediate future by the development of  
European Codes of practice for the international transport of animals.  
There is a need, even within the limitations of existing data and  
knowledge, to improve the dissemination of knowledge at the level of  
education and in particular for the many citizens who in their daily  
lives are concerned with the international transport of animals.
The development of these codes by the Commission would involve  
considerable work and close co-operation with the authorities of  
Member States and consultation of the interested parties within the  
Communi ty.
7. Neither further research nor development of practical advisory codes  
are at present possible due to the absence of the necessary financial  
and staff resources. The Commission has already indicated to the  
Council this problem which is general to the sectors of work involving  
the protection of farm animals.

International transport of farm animals
intended for slaughter
An examination of whether there are good physiological, ethologica  
and economic reasons for limiting the final journey to the  
abattoir of animals intended for immediate slaughter and, if so,  
of recommending a maximum duration for such journeys.
September 1984
VI/4746/84-EN

Contents
1. Introduction
1.1. Reasons for the report 1
1.2. Background and key factors 2
1.2.1. Stress factors 5
1.2.2. Feeding and watering 9
1.2.3 Grouping H
2. General criteria H
2.1. On farm preparation 11
2.1.1. Feeding and watering 12
2.1.2. Grouping 14
2.1.3. Assembly points, markets and lairages 16
2.2. Transport 17
2.2.1. Loading and the actual journey 18
2.2.2. Grouping and space requirements 25
2.2.3. Feeding and watering 28
2.3. At the abattoir 32
2.3.1. Unloading and handling 32
2.3.2. Immediate slaughter or lairage to
precede slaughter 35
3. Specific criteria
Methods of transport
3.1. Road vehicles 40
3.2. Roll-on/roll-off ferries 42
3.3. Trains 43
3.4. Fatted vessel 44
3.5. Transport by aircraft 46

page
4. Economic, marketing and social considerations 49
4.1. Death rate and injuries 49
4.1.1. Mortality and injuries in horses 50
4.1.2. Mortality and injuries in cattle 50
4.1.3. Mortality and injuries in pigs 53
4.1.4. Mortality and injuries in sheep 55
4.1.5. Mortality and injuries in poultry 56
4.2. Influence of transportation on carcase weight 57
4.2.1. Weight loss 57
4.2.2. Weight losses in cattle 57
4.2.3. Weight losses in pigs 59
4.2.4. Weight tosses in sheep 60
4.2.5. Weight losses in poultry 61
4.3. Influence of transport on meat quality 61
4.3.1. Meat quality in cattle 62
4.3.2. Meat quality in pigs 64
4.3.3. Meat quality in lambs 67
4.3.4. Meat quality in poultry 68
5. Conclusions and recommendations for further research 69
and development.
6. Acknowledgement 73
7. Appendix 1: References 74
8. Appendix 2
An examination of transport according to the behaviour 
of different species.89

1.
1. Introduction
1.1. Reasons for the report
The aim of this examination was to attempt to answer the 
question posed to the Commission of the European Communities 
(CEC) Standing Committee for Agricultural Research (SCAR) by 
the Council of the European Communities. The question asked 
in 1980 was:
Are there good physiological, ethological, and economic  
reasons for limiting the final journey to the abattoir of  
animals intended for immediate slaughter and/ if so, of  
recommending a maximum duration for such journeys?
Within the European Communities thousands of slaughter animals  
are transported from one country to another every day.
Distances range from a few kilometres to hundreds and thousands  
of kilometres. The duration of such journeys runs from a few  
hours to some days. For some years there have been complaints  
because animals transported internationally were found in a  
poor condition in transit or at their destination.
In attempting to answer the main question, based on an examina­
tion of the current scientific literature, and valued experience  
in practice and to cover such complaints, four main considera­
tions were identified:
1. Are certain types of transport better than others?
For example, road versus rail versus boat.
2. What are the effects of loading, reloading and unloading  
on the welfare of transported animals?
3. What are the economic aspects of transportation?
4. Is research needed to answer questions on international  
transport of farm animals?

2.
1.2. Background and keyfactors
Concern has focussed on transportation and its effects,  
not only because of the need to assess stock requirements  
and normal comfort during travel, but because of bruising,  
or even death, occurring before arrival at the destination  
(Pearson and Ki Igour, 1980). Hails (1978) in his study  
pointed out some key factors:
(1) The great increase in numbers of animals now being  
transported
(2) The complicated nature of the variables operating  
during transportation
(3) Weather, loading density and distance travelled  
are factors in stress
(4) Prior husbandry experience is a very important factor.
(5) Many vehicles used for stock transport are poorly  
designed
(6) The concern for the animal being transported is in  
direct proportion to its value
(7) Some diseases are associated with transportation.
According to Pearson and KiIgour (1980)_the transport of  
animals involves a great variety of factors with which  
animals have to cope. If each factor is taken separately  
it would pose few problems for the transported animal, but  
in combination they may lead to changes of behaviour and  
metabolism or cause pathological conditions. Among the factors  
to be considered are climatic conditions, handling, food and  
water intake, exercise, social interactions, transport types,  
environment change and duration of journey.

3.
In 1971 "The European Convention for the Protection of  
Animals during International Transport" was promulgated  
by the Council of Europe. The aim of the Convention is to  
establish common minimum provisions for the protection of  
animals ensuring their welfare. The most important regulations  
relevant to the transport of farm animals were discussed  
by ADLER (1982), namely, that in the country of export the  
animals should be inspected by a veterinary officer who is  
responsible for
(1) the animals being deemed fit for transport
(2) satisfactory loading arrangements
(3) a certificate stating identity, that the animals  
are fit to travel and a record of the means of  
transportation.
Veterinary officers in all countries through which animals  
are transported are entitled to prescribe rest and care for  
the animals where considered necessary.
The Convention lays down the following points:
1. Adequate space and room to lie down should be provided.
2. Vehicle construction shall ensure protection against  
inclement weather conditions and proper ventilation.
3. Boxes and cages should be labelled and easy to clean;
they must ensure safety of the animals and allow inspection.
4. Floors must be solid, close boarded and prevent slipping.
5. There shall be segregation according to species, age  
(young and adult should be separated), sex (uncastrated  
adults should be kept separate from female adults boars  
and stallions separate from each other).
6. Bovines shall not be tied by the horns. Ties should be of  
adequate strength and allow for lying down, eatingiand  
drinking. Bulls above 18 months of age shall be tied and  
fitted with nose rings for handling only.

4.
7. Solipeds shall wear halters and shall have individual  
stalls or their hind feet unshoed.
8. Suitable equipment shall be used to prevent slipping and  
falling down.
9. Consignants of livestock shall be accompanied by an  
attendant (unless carried in containers or other measures  
taken).
10. Animals becoming ill or injured shall have veterinary  
attendance as soon as possible and if necessary shall be  
slaughtered without unnecessary suffering.
11. Ill or injured animals shall be considered not fit for  
transportation. Those becoming ill or injured are to be  
given first aid and submitted to veterinary examination.
12. When animals placed above each other in containers or on  
floors the falling of droppings on animals underneath  
shall be avoided.
The 10 Member States of the European Communities and 8 non­
member countries (Austria, Cyprus, Finland, Norway, Spain,  
Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey) signed the Convention. Since  
1979 the European Communities as a group has had the status  
of a contracting party. EEC Directives 77/489 and 81/389  
embody the Convention.
In international transport of farm animals special problems  
appear because the animals are often imported or in transit  
from countries, which have not signed the Convention.
For example, especially difficult situations arise on the  
German border with transport from Poland and the Soviet Union,  
because refusals on this border are not practicable, and  
because East Germany does not take back such transports.

5.
The necessary regulation certificates concerning the law 
relating to contagious diseases from these countries verify 
the health and absence of epidemics but they do not give 
information on the fitness to travel of the animals, the time 
of loading and the rest periods.that have to be kept ('.Geye&
1982). One of the main problems is, who is responsible for  
the animals during international transport. The animals are  
loaded in foreign countries, and they are not accompanied by  
the owner, but by hired people. This results in the conse­
quence that in the case of complaints direct influences on  
the owner are nearly impossible.
1.2.1. Stress factors
The stress concept and its relation to transport is central 
to the understanding of the reactions of livestock during 
transportation.
Selye (1950) considered stress to be a response of the organism 
to some experimental treatment or environmental feature that 
induces deviation from homeostasis. The environmental factors 
which lead to stress are referred to as stressors.
Adaptation involves both metabolic adjustments and behavioural 
(coping) responses. Stress occurs when normal adaptive mechanisms 
are inefficient to control certain situations. Stress is the 
process by which environmental factors over-tax these control 
systems in an individual, thus activating responses whose 
effects are prolonged and ultimately detrimental to that 
individual in that they reduce its fitness (Broom, 1983).
Stress can be assessed by direct or indirect signs of the 
activation of the main hormonal systems involved in adaptation, 
the pituitary-adrenal system which releases corticosteroids 
and the sympathetic-adrenal medullary system which release 
catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline). In addition 
various behavioural responses which alter the state of an 
individual or signal the failure of the individual to cope 
with the situation are recognisable stress responses.

6.
Because of the dynamics of the stress response and the multi­
plicity of its components, there is no single measure of the  
degrees of stress which must therefore be assessed by the  
simultaneous measurement of several "indicators” (Stephens,
1980; Dantzer et al., 1983).
Transport to slaughter is likely to involve several factors  
which may be stressors (Porzig 1969, Dantzer and Mormède 1979  
pp 12-21, van Logtestijn and Romme 1981). These include:
1. Physical factors such as noise, vibration and forceful  
contact with the vehicle or other animals. These can be  
exacerbated by, for example, close confinement, poor  
vehicle design, and excessive movement of vehicle. They  
may result in injuries which further stress the animal.
2. Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity,  
oxygen level or the presence of noxious gases. These  
factors may be of minor importance at the start of a  
journey but may become important as the journey progresses.  
High temperature often associated with high humidity, is
a frequent stressor.
3. Metabolic factors such as those resulting from insufficient  
consumption of water or food. These may be present even  
when water and food have been available but not consumed.
4. Factors resulting from lack of exercise or prolonged  
standi ng.
5. Factors resulting from novelty or from treatment by handlers  
or other animals. The loading procedures, the transporter  
and the other animals being transported will often be strange  
and frightening to the animal. The human handlers may not  
treat the animals in a manner which minimises stress and  
individual animals, forced into close proximity to others  
who may be unfamiliar, are often under stress and may fight.

7.
Fighting can lead to injuries and further stress.
These factors may have a greater effect in concert than when  
acting individually. For example an environmental temperature  
which is not sufficiently high to have any adverse effect  
may be a stressor if it occurs at the same time as forced  
association with strangers. Such interactions and indeed the  
relative importance of the various factors, are poorly under­
stood. The most dramatic effect of transport is the death  
of an animal before or very soon after reaching the destina­
tion. This is an important problem in pigs and has been the  
subject of much research (for example Van Logtestijh et al.  
1982), because pigs are more susceptible to transport stress  
than other species of farm animals (Sybesma 1968; Lendfers,  
1970, 1975). Tarrant (1982) described the porcine stress  
syndrome as the acute reaction to stress, mediated by the  
sympathetic nervous system, which can cause severe distress  
and even death. In relation to this, it has to be noted that  
affected animals show severe signs of dyspnoea, cyanosis  
and hyperthermia, and they may develop rigor in the limbs  
before death occurs. This links up with the findings of  
Clark (1979), who found in 70% of the transport related deaths  
diffuse and severe pulmonary congestion, often accompanied  
by a moderate degree of pulmonary oedema. The hearts of these  
pigs were contracted and pale. Thirteen per cent of the other  
dead animals showed a variety of lesions from acute to chronic,  
in addition to the pulmonary congestion and oedema, while  
only 1.9% had no lesions at all. Circulatory collapse also  
occurs in broilers. Lo'liger and Torges (1977) observed a  
death rate of 0.08%=>after transport of 56,000 birds. A per­
centage of 0.07% died because of circulatory collapse, while  
the others died from injuries (0.004%) and non-transport-  
related diseases or infections (0.004%). This is comparable  
to hens with a death rate of 1.46% in which also most of the  
casualties died because of acute circulatory heart collapse  
and 0.17% of injuries or diseases (0.13%) of different organs

8.
which occurred before transportation.
Bergmann, (1978, 1979) studied changes in cardiac and skeletal  
muscles of pigs following transport stress and found clinical  
signs of exhaustion and acute circulatory insufficiency.
All these symptoms are attributable to the excessive muscle  
metabolism which leads to acidosis and hypercapnia. The con­
centrations of lactate and carbon dioxide in the circulation  
stimulate the release of catecholamines and anaerobiosis  
even further. Therefore, one of the suggestions is that the  
pigs are thought to die in a state of cardiogenic shock, but  
there is no physiological evidence which verifies this  
assumption. Another suggestion, much more important than the  
environmental influences, is the stress susceptibility of the  
pigs. Many cases of transport losses in pigs, which range  
between 70 and 80% during transportation, while the remainder  
occur in the abattoir, can be attributed to the malignant  
hyperthermia syndrome (MHS). This syndrome, which is an 
indication for stress-susceptibility, is genetically deter­
mined, probably by an autosomal recessive gene. Pigs suffering  
from the MHS, can be identified at an age of 6-12 weeks by  
means of the halothane-test. As a result of this test the  
percentage of reactors in the Dutch Landrace breed could be  
dramatically reduced (Sybesma and Eikelenboom 1969-1979).
Stress, whatever its cause has economically important effects  
on meat quality as well as being bad for the welfare of the  
animals. The dark cutting or DFD (dark, firm, dry) condition  
is a direct consequence of stress and exhaustion during the  
preslaughter period (Tarrant, 1981) and has been observed to  
occur in many meat species. The physiology of DFD depends on  
muscle glycogen breakdown that is stimulated by circulating  
adrenaline and by the contractile activity of muscle during  
preslaughter transport and handling, e.g. during social re­
grouping in young bulls (Tarrant/ 1982, McVeigh and Tarrant/  
1983).
(2)

9·
The PSE (pale, soft, exudative) condition, on the other hand,  
has a genetic base and is associated with hereditary suscepti­
bility to stress in pigs (MHS). Environmental stressors may  
increase the incidence or severity of the PSE-condition, its  
elimination partly on selection of stress-resistant slaughter  
stock.
Injuries, including bruising, may also occur during transport  
and, besides reducing carcass and meat quality, may be at the  
source of intense suffering. The incidence of death, injuries,  
reduced meat quality, susceptibility to disease and physio­
logical and behavioural signs of stress is much higher during  
or after transports than during any other comparable period  
of the life of farm animals.
Although it is apparent that transportation is a critical  
period for the animal, adverse economic and welfare effects  
can be alleviated by good conditions and careful handling.
1.2.2. Feeding and Watering
"The European Convention for the Protection of Animals during  
International Transport" advises that food and water shall be  
given at suitable intervals. Animals shall not be left more  
than 24 hours without being fed and watered. This period may,  
however, be extended if the journey to the destination where  
the animals are unloaded can be completed within a reasonable  
time. The animals shall be fed and watered by the attendant  
of the transport, and cows are to be milked at intervals of  
not more than 12 hours.
There are doubts that these times suit all animals. These  
figures are not based on scientific research and maybe young  
animals or monogastric animals need to be fed and watered  
more often. Feeding and watering during transportation are  
important and are discussed in further detail later in the  
report (p 12). There is national legislation which covers  
internal transport in each Member State.

10.
According to the report of the Agricultural Departments (1978)  
experts in animal husbandry and nutrition are of the opinion  
that even calves which are still on, a liquid diet may go for  
24 hours between.feeds without ill effect. While even longer  
periods would not necessarily harm the animal, an interval as  
long as 36 hours could cause a setback to the calf's develop­
ment. If the length of journey were such that feeding became  
necessary on the way, the calves should be unloaded and rested  
for 2 or 3 hrs before being fed, and should then only be given  
a maintenance level of feed.
These experts advise further that for ruminating cattle and  
sheep water is more important than food on a.journey. While  
ruminating animals could travel for 36 hrs or possible more  
between feeds without suffering any ill effect, they should  
not go for intervals longer than 24 hrs without being watered.  
Under good environmental conditions a period of more than  
24 hrs without water would not necessarily be detrimental  
but 36 hrs would prpbably be excessive.
According to the Convention adequate food and water shall be  
available for poultry unless the journey is less than 12 hrs  
or a journey lasting less than 24 hrs for day-old chicks  
providing the journey is completed within 24 hrs of hatching.
Despite both national and international legislation on feeding  
and watering which requires livestock to be fed and watered  
at specific stated intervals there are doubts that such time  
intervals suit all species and ages.

11.
1.2.3. Grouping
This is a key factor but very Little work has been carried  
out as yet. The 1971 Convention of the Council of Europe  
laid down, if animals of various species travel in the same  
truck, vehicle, vessel or aircraft, they shall be segregrated  
according to species. Furthermore special measures shall be  
taken to avoid adverse reactions which might result from the  
transport in the same consignment of species naturally  
hostile to each other. When animals of different ages are  
carried in the same truck, vehicle, vessel, or aircraft, adult  
and young animals shall.be kept separate; this restriction  
shall not, however, apply to females travelling with their  
young which they suckle. With regard to bovine, and porcine  
animals, mature uncastrated males shall also be separated from  
each other; this shall also apply to stallions.
The Convention, however, does not make any remarks.on group  
size or loading density.
Although in national and international legislation loading  
densities are quoted for various species, weights and ages  
of animals, group size is not mentioned despite its obvious  
i  mportance.
2. General criteria
2.1. On-farm preparation
According to Wythes et al. (1980) good welfare on the farm  
primary to transport is a matter of good handling, yard design  
and construction. The Ammerdown Group (1980) however, comes to  
the conclusion that this welfare leaves much to be desired,  
due to over-vigorous treatment, the use of sticks, electric  
prodders and dogs.

12.
2.1.1. Feeding and watering
The questions whether to feed and water animals before long  
journeys, the quantities of food and water and the best time  
for the last meal before loading, have not been yet satis­
factorily answered.
Cattle
Dodt et at. (1979) found, that bullocks fasted in yards for  
24 and 48 hours were more bruised than those not fasted.
They attributed the difference to agonistic behaviour in order  
to establish the new social rank. Wythes et al. (1980) found  
horns account for approximately half of all bruising in cattle.  
Thus dehorning would improve animal welfare during marketing  
and grouping before transport. The German Gutachten (1977)  
advises not to feed and water cattle before loading above a  
weight of the rumen of about 10 to 15% of the animal's live  
weight. Only watering cattle does not induce any problem.  
Stephens (1982) could not detect any effect on "digestive  
scours" in calves, that were either overfed or not fed at all  
and transported for two hours after the last meal of milk  
replacer.
Pigs
Food can have a detrimental influence on the well-being of  
pigs. Schütz (1975) found a highly significant increase in  
heart rate in correlation with a shorter lapse of time between  
feeding and transportation. A fasting period of 24 hrs before  
transport appeared to have the lowest negative influence on  
the cardio-vafcular system during transport. A longer fasting  
period than 24 hrs caused considerable weight losses. The  
Meat & Livestock Commission (1974) recommends that pigs should  
be watered but not be fed on the day of collection to be  
slaughtered. Wythes et al. (1980) report a Queensland survey,  
showing smaller transport losses in pigs during transport if

13.
they had been given no food in excess of 12 hrs before loading,  
compared with those that had been fed until .transport.  Warris  
(1982) compared the effects of different fasting times before  
transport. In order to prevent economically important losses  
the author advises that the time between the last meal and  
actual killing should not exceed 18 hrs. Markov (1981) reports  
weight losses in pigs on transport up to 10,2%, caused by  
journeys of 2,5 to 3 days.
There obviously is a common opinion that pigs should not be  
fed at the day of collection for transport. Everybody agrees  
that pigs should have water available until the actual loading  
starts.
Sheep
Hinrichsen (1979) and Grandin (1981) recommend that sheep  
should be watered and fed sufficiently but not excessively  
before transportation. If the transport will not last longer  
than 8 hrs Grandin prefers a fasting period (for food and  
water) of 16 hrs prior to loading. Hinrichsen demands feeding  
of 1 day old lambs destined for fattening, in intervals no  
longer than 8 hrs during transport.
There is general agreement that on the day of transportation  
pigs should be allowed water ad libitum but not other feeds.  
From the existing regulations on watering, feeding and  
recting prior to export for species other than pigs and the  
recommendations for fasting periods prior to transport it is  
clear that more research is required to establish definitive
guidelines.

14.
2.1.2. Grouping
Unfamiliar environments are one of the most stressfull aspects  
of transport and preslaughter handling procedures. Platt (1982)  
recommends a period of conditioning at assembly lairages.
For bulk transport of free ranging animals this period of  
adjustment is particularly relevant. The lairages should be  
located near the embarkation points. In this period stock  
become used to the diet, that will be fed on the voyage itself.  
The animals also become more manageable and loading is less  
stressfull.
Cattle
Strange farm animals penned together will start a fight in  
order to establish a rankorder. Kenny 8 Tarrant (1981) showed  
that mixed penning of steers before slaughter increased the  
incidence of mild and moderately bruised carcasses, but not  
the number of severe ones. Apart from dehorning unnecessary  
mixing of strange groups of animals will reduce the incidence  
of bruised carcasses. Thus pens for lairage should not be too  
large, in order to be able to keep groups separated.
Pigs
After a fattening period of about 4 months, without having  
encountered strange pigs, slaughter pigs were suddenly removed  
(Van Putten and Lambooy 1982) from their usual pen and mixed  
with pigs they had never met before. There was much resultant  
confusion and fighting. The mixing of pigs for transport  
causes stressors to accumulate, for example (1) leaving a  
familiar environment (2) losing the contact of penmates
(3) encountering antagonism with strange pigs.

15.
Van Putten and Lambooy (1982) showed for air transport  
that, by grouping and mixing a few days in advance, strange  
pigs destined to travel in one compartment of a container  
then handling was easier and less stressful. Furthermore  
such a practice avoided the use of tranquillizers such as  
Azaperone and the after effects. Schmidt and Van Lengerken  
(1980) and Schlicht (1980) advised strongly in order to  
prevent losses not to mix pigs from different pens.
Experience gained from air transport Moss (1978), Schmidt  
and Van Lengerken (1980) Schlicht (1980) and by many others  
should be considered for application to other forms of  
international transport.
The Meat and Livestock Commission (1974) strongly advises  
that pigs from different fattening pens should be kept  
separately before loading in order to reduce stress and the  
likelihood of fighting.
Sheep
T h e Ammerdown Group (1980) advised that sheep should be  
handled with great care. Extensive haemorrhages may be  
caused by lifting by the fleece. Such handling is likely  
to create both stress and physical damage and this often  
becomes apparent only after the animal has been slaughtered.
To prevent rough handling, the group recommended adequately  
sized, strongly built holding pens, a ramp to load the animals  
at the tailboard level of lorries and wherever possible the  
avoidance of stick, electric goads, dogs and noise.
Prearranged grouping of animals well before the actual transport  
starts decreases social stress considerably during transport  
and thereby prevents accumulation of stressing factors.

16.
2.1.3. Assembly points, markets and Lai rages
On the continent animals are picked up at the farms of origin  
and are transported directly to the slaughter-house or the  
assembly point for export. In Great Britain and Ireland  
animals often pass through a market, assembly point or lairage  
before starting their final journey. The Ammerdown Group  
(1980) reports that 50% of all cattle and 70% of all sheep  
pass through market before being transported to the slaughter­
house. Pigs are only exceptionally sold via auctions.
Cattle
According to the Ammerdown Group (1980) cattle generally are  
loaded, unloaded or reloaded no less than four times. Even  
with adequate facilities this procedure causes much stress  
and physical damage and reduces carcass quality. Apart from  
this the bruises and stressfull situations are detrimental  
for the animal's welfare. These cattle suffer from noise,  
from mixing with unfamiliar animals again and again, attacks  
from animals in adjourning pens, restlessness by continous  
moving of other animals and blows and noise whilst being driven  
from one place to another.
According to Dow (1976) the purpose of lairage is to reduce  
the level of stress induced by previous handling. In Great  
Britain before export animals must be rested for at least  
10 hrs in a Government approved lairage at or near the port  
or airport of departure (Agricultural Department, 1-978).
The following requirements have to be satisfied:
(1) The animals in lairage must be provided with an adequate  
supply of suitable food and water,
(2) All animals must be examined at the lairage by an official  
veterinary officer. He issues a certificate valid for
18 hrs from the time of examination.

17.
(3) Lai rage operators must keep proper records of the  
animals' movements.
(4) Calves must weigh at least 50 kg, and any underweight  
calves are turned back.
Detailed requirements for lairages include the provision of:
(1) sufficient clean bedding;
(2) separate pens for different species arranged so that
not more than 40 cattle, 40 pigs or 100 sheep are detained  
in one pen or enclosure;
(3) experienced and competent supervision
(4) isolation pens
(5) regular cleaning and desinfection.
Not withstanding some general ideas about how to keep animals  
at lairage, in order to let them rest, far too little informa­
tion is available to establish definitive guidelines.
In terms of pre-transport preparation, from regulations  
requiring watering, feeding and resting prior to export  
(Agriculture Departments 1978) to varying recommendations as  
to fasting periods prior to transport (Stephens (1982),
Warris (1982), Grandin (1981), lead to the conclusion that  
much more research is required before definitive guidelines  
can be given.
2.2. T ransport
International transport may last from a few hours to some weeks.  
Most experiences and research are based on relatively short  
duration transportation within one country. It would not be  
correct to extrapolate these data to international transport  
lasting some days. Besides, during transportation over long  
distances extreme climatic differences may be encountered and  
long periods of waiting for clearing by customs at the borders  
can occur.

18.
2.2.1. Loading and the actual journey
One of the most stressful parts related to transportation  
is loading. This applies especially to moving the animals  
from their home-pen into the transporting vehicle.
Horses
Loading of horses is difficult if the loading bridge is not  
quite stable, if the outside and inside light-conditions are  
different and if the hoofs on the loading-bridge sound  
hollow (Frohner, 1961). Therefore Hinrichseri & Korner (1978)  
advise to keep the noises as low as possible during loading  
and to cover the loading-bridge with straw or with coconut  
matting.
Cattle
Cattle trucks should load from the end rather than from the  
side. Side-loading trucks may confront cattle with the decision  
to turn once they are inside (Anderson, 1973), and then end up  
turning around completely therefore facing the door (Sutton  
et al., 1967) and making it very difficult for other animals  
to enter. According to Grandin (1980b) cattle move more easily  
if they can see an animal ahead, if the driveway is curved  
instead of straight, and surrounded by solid fences. Cattle  
enter facilities more easily, if they are well lit.
Well designed ramps encourage cattle'to move and climb.
Handlers should keep in mind that cattle move slowly and should  
not be forced by electric prods and rough treatment to move  
fast. Such routines, acknowledging cattle behaviour, would  
help to minimize transport stress.
In another study Grandin (1979) reports that leg and foot  
injuries can occur if the truck is not properly positioned  
against the loading dock, and recommends that the loading  
chute should be equipped with telescoping side pannels and a  
selfaligning dock bumper to prevent animals from jumping out  
through the gap between the back of the truck and the chute.

19.
Many animals are injured because the loading chute is too  
steep.
The slope of a permanently installed loading chute for cattle  
or hogs should not exceed 20°. The slope of portable or ad­
justable chutes should not exceed 25°. Stairsteps ramps are  
best for cattle and pigs. Prolonged travelling is not  
necessarily detrimental to the welfare of cattle. Friend et al.  
(1981) transported 150 Angus x Hereford calves, weighing  
on average 164 kg for 70 hrs by rail and 36 hrs by truck.
Despite this travelling during five days, no negative effects  
or stress could be detected. Gastmann (1977) reports that  
during the first 30 hrs of transport (German Democratic Rep.)  
no tissue losses occur. Afterwards the weight-losses of the  
carcass are about 0,12% per hr. Losses were higher in young  
animals and lower in older ones.
Pi gs
According to Van Putten & Lambooy (1982) in most pig farms  
handling and loading facilities are very poor, and designers  
never seem to have cared about it, despite the results of  
many experiments, indicating that these conditions do matter.  
Schlicht (1980) stresses this point and so does Gratz (1981).
Van Putten &Elshof (1978 analysed the stressing factors in  
handling and loading slaughter pigs by means of radio telemetric  
recording of the heart rate of 50 pigs. The loading bridge  
caused the largest stress. The electric probe-stick had an  
increasingly bad effect every time it was used. Entering an  
unknown dark room was much more stressful than entering a  
relatively light unknown room and took three times as long.
The slope of the loading bridge had a direct correlation with  
the heart rate of the pigs. The C.B.I. (1977) gives the follo­
wing advice concerning the treatment of slaughter pigs at  
the farm:

20.
(1) tagging should not be done in the fattening pen but on  
the lifting platform or in a special pen at the base  
of the loading ramp;
(2) special light switches should be installed to always  
enable pigs to walk from a relatively dark place to a  
bright one;
(3) no obstacles should hinder pigs whilst they are being  
driven through the passages, for example narrow places  
(doors), unstable parts of the floor (ventilation grids)  
steps or sharp turns;
(A) slaughter pigs should remain inside on their way to the  
lorry, because they hate rain and wind and have never  
had any similar experience;
(5) every fattening pen should have a door, leading to a  
broad passage way
(6) no trough should be in their way;
(7) only small groups (about ten pigs) should be driven at a  
time, by a man with a board behind them.
The Scientific Commission on Intensive Livestock (1978) reports  
that at several farms in Holland farmers have begun to build  
small collecting sheds placed against the outer wall of the  
pig shed, equipped with a ramp to make it easier for the  
animals to be loaded into trucks. On the evening before trans­
portation, the pigs are driven into these small collecting pens  
by the stockman. Only pen-mates are placed together to prevent  
fighting. Upon being loaded the pigs will leave these unfamiliar  
surroundings more readily than if they were loaded directly  
from their habitual stalls or pens. There is evidence that  
mortality is lower during transport when the animals are  
collected into the special preloading pens a few hours before  
transport. Also under the conditions of industrial pig produc­
tion in Eastern Germany Schlicht (1980) recommends driving  
slaughter pigs 1 to 2 hr prior to transportation carefully to  
the ramp in order to avoid uneasiness and excitement. They are  
kept there till loading, and due to this procedure pigs get

21.
used to the changed environmental conditions (temperature,  
light, floor) and to walking.
Drawer (1971) summarizes cruel methods often used in practici  
in driving animals into the transport vehicle. An example  
is forcing animals to move faster than they normally walk.  
Pigs especially move much slower than human beings. The  
excessive use of electric goads, often applied to handicaped  
or injured animals to the last animals of a crowd wedged in  
is very cruel. Pulling or throwing pigs down off lorries  
without using a ramp is cruel.
Since pigs often balk at bright sunlight, if they have to  
leave the stable in the course of loading, Grandiri (1982b)  
recommends covered loading chutes. If a stationary ramp is  
not available the loading bridge can be covered with canvas  
or plywood. These closed ramps and the lorry should be  
equipped with artificial lighting. Schlicht (1980) also  
recommends roofing ramps to protect animals from inclement  
weather conditions which may cause them to refuse to enter  
the ramp; and advises that the animals be allowed to walk  
across an even bridge into the lorry in order not to stress  
them by forcing them to climb a steep loading bridge.
According to Smith & Allen (1976) transport losses are  
relatively low below 10°C but increase rapidly above 18°C.  
The authors developed a hyperbolic curve from which the  
mortality at any temperature can be predicted. Allen et al.  
(1974) as well as Sybesma et al. (1978) report seasonal  
changes in deathrate of pigs on transport, revealing the  
summer months are much higher than the winter months.  
According to Sybesma et al. (1978) seasonal fluctuations of  
0.53% in August and 0.27% in December are possible although  
they found that these differences are less important than  
the striking differences between the average deathrate of  
different slaughtei— houses; 0.72% and 0.22%.

22.
There are indications that pigs are in a better condition  
after travelling long distances compared to short distances  
but information is limited. In a study by Augustini (1976)  
pigs were transported either for 300 km or 30 km. He found  
that the pigs were in a better shape after the longer lasting  
transportations. With increasing transport distance heart  
frequency and body temperature decreased. He also stated that  
the biggest negative influence arose from weather conditions  
(high temperature and a high relative humidity). The next  
important negative influence was the loading-density and  
transport distance was third in the priorities of negative  
influences. Whether this can also be applied to very long  
distances, is not known.
Climatic conditions during transport are a major concern of  
many authors, especially since pigs are very sensitive to hot  
temperatures. Van Putten & Lambooy (1982) give the example  
that crossing the Alps may mean a frost of -10°C, whereas  
next day in Italy the temperature may rise to 20°C and more.
The authors are concerned about regulations for large venti­
lation openings being too strict. Driving style also  
influences deathrate during transport.The Meat and Livestock  
Commission (1974) recommends driving at even speeds with a  
minimum of severe braking. As far as possible loaded vehicles  
should keep on the move. If vehicles are stationary for any  
lenght of time, including stationary rest periods, air flow  
is greatly reduced, heat builds up, and the likelihood of  
losses increases. Scharner et al. (1979) performed electro­
cardiographic investigations on pigs for slaughter transported  
by a lorry across 10 and 40 km. Heart frequency depended on  
the kind of road the driver took. Driving on the even and bend­
less Autobahn led to a decrease and a certain constancy of  
heart frequency. Driving on normal roads and adaptation to  
that kind of traffic, with all the stopping and speeding up  
increased heartrate. According to the Scientific Commission  
(1978) there are big differences between truck drivers and  
enquiries have shown that some truck drivers have a worse

23.
record of dead pigs during transport than their colleagues.
It is recommended that truck drivers who understand the  
behaviour of pigs are better able to handle these animals  
with calmness and firmness, and are preferred for this type  
of work.
The use of tranquillizers on pigs may assist by reducing  
stress, fighting and weight loss in transit. However current  
legislation in most countries limits their use. Therefore  
tranquillizers should not be administered less than 24 hr  
before slaughter, which is of very little value in practice.  
Allen et al. (1974) mention that the use of Azaperone in  
Belgium significantly reduced the number of transport deaths  
and lowered the incidence of inferior meat quality.
Verstraaten & Dietmann (1979) have tested the blocker Carazolol  
as an alternative. They found that unlike.sedativa this B-  
blocker did not cause drownsiness. The numbers of transport  
losses and of animals with a poor meat quality (PSE) were  
significantly higher in the group of animals not treated.
Sheep
Sheep should be loaded as quietly as possible, avoiding the  
use of sticks and other forms of force. Most of the damage  
occurring during haulage takes place at loading and unloading.  
Attempts to hurry stock usually have the opposite effect,  
causing stock to slip and fall. Partitions or rear loading gates  
should not be used to force sheep into the vehicle (Meat &  
Livestock Commission, 1974). Probably the longest journeys  
are in transporting sheep. Since Australia is one of the main  
countries exporting sheep then long distances have to be  
covered to reach the destinations. Export of living sheep  
for instance from Australia or from New Zealand may take place  
by road, by rail and then by sea through a tropical conditions.  
This transportation might take as long as 30 days (Pearson &  
Kilgour, 1980). According to these authors some experiences  
show that even such long transportation times can be sustained

24.
by the animals provided adequate care is given and if  
possible some pre-training is undertaken before the final  
journey.
Drivers of international transporters should select transit  
routes very carefully to avoid problems. Transport by road  
cah be unexpectedly extended if the driver does not find the  
right way and gets lost. This has happened with drivers from  
East European countries in Germany and caused in one case  
a high deathrate in sheep Pevec , 1982).
Poultry
Gerrits&De Koning (1982) describe loading of broilers.
By the most used loading method in The Netherlands 16 crates  
are placed on pallets and are transported between the lorry  
and boilerhouse using a tractor forklift. In the broilerhouse  
four catchers fill the crates, while two other persons handle  
the empty crates and the full ones. The full crates are  
stacked by two people on the lorry, while a third man placed  
16 empty crates on an empty pallet. The catching of broilers  
in a broiler-house is usually done by picking up a bunch of  
four or five animals by the legs and squeezing them into the  
crate. Another method of catching, which is not applied as  
frequently, but nevertheless merits attention, involves  
catchers crawling around on the floor and picking up two  
animals by the sides with both hands. In this method the wing·  
remains closed; the risk of injuries to leg- or hipjoints is  
reduced. If broilerhouses do have doors in the side-wall another  
method is practicable. Two people pick up the animals in bunches  
of five and hand them over to the "carriers", who walk to the  
lorry with a bunch in each hand. The lorry is parked at the  
door and the two or three people there, stack the crates on the  
loading floor of the lorry.
( 3 )

25.
Obviously loading and unloading facilities group size and  
loading density are of crucial importance.  The effect of  
group size and composition on livestock during transport  
is little known and needs research.
2.2.2. Grouping and space requirements
The European Convention for the Protection of Animals during  
International Transport (Council of Europe, 1972) states  
which animals may be grouped together and for which animals  
it should be strongly avoided. But it is not only grouping  
which is of great importance for transportation since space  
requirements are of similar significance. Unfortunately, the  
European Convention does not give any information concerning  
the space needed during transportation.
Many authors observed that unfamiliar animals start fighting  
if they are grouped together. As described previously,  
fighting during transport can be reduced if animals are kept  
together for some time before loading. In some countries,  
before export, animals have to be kept for a certain time  
period in lairages and in the course of loading prearranged  
animals have to be grouped together and not mixed with other  
animals.
Horses
Horses rest in a lying position only if they are familiar with
the environment. They are also able to rest while standing
for a longer time. Since there is probably no familiarity with
the environment during transportation, the expert opinion
2recommends an area of 1.75 m (0.7 x 2.5 m) for adult horses
transported. Because foals (up to 6 months) usually lay down
after a short period of transportation, a minimum space
2requirement of 1.4 m (1.0 x 1.4 m) is considered as necessary.
Young horses (6-24 months) show the need to lie down after
having been on transport for more than 48 hrs. For those a
2 .  .minimum space requirement of 1.2 m (0.6 x 2.0 m) or a minimum
2layinq area of 2.4 m (1.2 x 2.0 m) is recommended (Gutachten,
1977).

26.
Cattle
For cattle German experts recommend, depending on live weight,
2
for calves up to 150 kg 0.33 - 0.70 m , for calves and young
?cattle from 150 to 300 kg 0.7 - 1.10 m , for cattle between
2300 and 700 kg of live weight 1.10 - 1.60 m , for pregnant
2
and lactating cows 1.30 - 1.70 m and for old bulls 1.75 - 2.00  
per animal. Group size of young calves (40 - 80 kg) should  
not exceed 25 - 30 animals, calves (80 - 150 kg) 15 - 25  
animals, and older calves (150 - 220 kg) and young cattle up  
to 300 kg live weight 10 - 15 animals in lorries and 20 - 25  
animals in a train wagon. Group size of pregnant and lactating  
cows and old bulls should consist of not more than 5 animals  
in lorries and 10 - 12 animals in a train wagon. These re­
commendations are based on practical experience not on  
scientific research.
Pigs
If the loading density is too high, this may cause unnecessary
suffering for the transported animals. However, if the loading
density is too low, standing pigs cannot support each other
and animals will fall down if sudden movements of the vehicle
occur. Information on the best loading density is absent.
Schütz (1975) observed that pigs lie down during transportation.
To make it possible for all pigs to lie down at the same time2
an area per pig of 100 kg live weight of 0.5 m must be  
provided. This demand is underlined in experiments byVon  
Mickwitz (1982), who found that a high animal density (less  
than 0.4 m2) leads to an increase of body temperature, heart  
rate and respiratory rate. This means higher stress for the  
animals and results in a higher amount of PSE meat, because  
animals were slaughtered with high body temperatures (up to  
41°C).

27.
Von Mickwitz (1982) concluded the limit for loading density
2for slaughter pigs (100 kg live weight) is 0.5 m . The Meat
and Livestock Commission (1974) confirms the recommendations
2for slaughter pigs in other countries (0.5 - 0.6 m ), but
2indicates that a range from 0.4 - 0.5 m would be adequate  
for baconers. The same source holds the opinion that variations  
in weight of pigs, weather conditions, vehicle design and  
construction preclude the recommendation of precise loading  
densities.
Sheep
Sheep should be transported in groups, which do not contain  
more than 20 animals. The groups should be separated on the  
transport vehicles by fences. Rams have to be transported as  
single animals, if they are not transported with sheep of  
their own herd (iinri chsen., 1979). Platt (1982) reports that  
on ships sheep are kept in pens with about 50 - 60 heads.
Muller (1982) who travelled with sheep from Australia to the  
Middle East by ship, considered an average floor space of  
0.30 - 0.33 per animal to be sufficient. According to this  
author, densities of 0.25 to 0.45 m^ had no influence
on death rate during transport. Sheep should not be too losely  
packed, because this results in bruising whilst the vehicle  
is in motion.
There is much conflicting evidence on journey times. Schmidt  
and jengerken (1980) found death rate increased with distance  
to the slaughterhouse whereasAugustini (1976) found pigs in  
"a better shape" after transportation over 300 km as against  
30 km. Although in national and international legislation  
loading densities are quoted for various species, weights and  
ages of animals, group size is not mentioned despite its obvious  
importance. The regulations on loading densities are based  
more on opinion and negotation than on scientific information  
which can only come after planned research.

28.
2.2.3. Feeding and watering
The European Convention for the Protection of Animals during  
International Transport (Council of Europe, 1972) states:
"During transport animals shall be offered water and appropriate  
food at suitable intervals. Animals shall not be left more  
than 24 hours without being fed and watered. This period may,  
however, be extended if the journey to the destination where  
the animals are unloaded can be completed within a reasonable  
period". Whether this period has been based on physiological  
data is doubtful.
Horses
If horses are transported from Poland to Italy by rail, they  
are watered at the border station in the Federal Republic  
of Germany after having left the German Democratic Republic.
The transport has lasted about 18 hours then. The description  
of Wei chert (1981) shows that the horses are unloaded and  
some start to drink right away on the platform. Others, however,  
are much too excited to drink and have to be walked up and  
down the platform for about a quarter of an hour before being  
able to drink. If horses are found sick or injured, they are  
excluded from the transport and slaughtered in the nearest  
abattoir immediately (Bornkessel, 1982). Horses imported to  
Germany and transported by truck reach their destination within  
24 hrs, so they are not fed and watered. Horses in transit to  
France are watered (Geyer., 1982).
Cattle
Bisschop (1961) studying feeding and resting behaviour of  
cattle during breaks in long journeys, showed a consistent  
pattern of behaviour in the cattle. The cattle were unloaded  
into pens containing water and lucerne hay. The animals spent  
a short period of intensive feeding, during which they ingested  
about 2 kg of hay. A short period of fidgeting, walking around,  
desultory picking at the remaining food, drinking, possibly  
eliminating and finally lying down to rest, ruminate and sleep

29.
followed. The period of rest lasted up to an hour. After that,  
when the animals felt hungry again, they were restless and  
moved about searching for food. Sutton et al. (1967) found  
that under similar conditions cattle showed a marked preference  
to walk around slowly before settling down to eat and drink.  
During a combined journey of truck and rail described by Friend  
et al. (1981), calves started immediately eating hay and  
drinking water after loading into the railcar, reflecting the  
deprivation during the 750 km journey by truck to the rail­
road station. The calves continued eating and drinking  
regardless of the smoothness of the ride. When the car was  
standing still, consumption was greatly reduced as calves lay  
down to rest. When the car started moving again, the calv'es  
stood up and commenced eating and drinking. Apparent hay  
(5.1 kg) and water (21.1) consumption per head was normal.  
According to Jackson (1974) during a 24 hr. air journey,
Hereford cattle browsed at hay but did not drink water.
These 4 reports suggest that cattle do eat and drink during  
transport, if the movements of the means of transport are not  
too vigorous (Friend et al., 1981). However, if they are,  
cattle have to be unloaded in order to be able to eat, to 
drink and to rest (Bisschop, 1961; Jackson, 1971); as is the  
case with horses.
Pi gs
If slaughter-pigs are transported from The Netherlands via  
Belgium and France to Italy, they hardly make use of the  
drinking nipples, made operational at the border between  
France and Italy after having been transported for at least  
24 hours (Van Putten & Lambooy/ 1982). One could imagine  
several reasons for this behaviour. The assumption that they  
are not thirsty is a very simple one. However, there may be  
other reasons, which are much more complicated to deal with.

30.
One could for instance assume, that these pigs did not use  
the drinking nipples, because they were not familiar with  
them. This possibility was tested by comparing the drinking  
behaviour of 160 pigs used to drinking nipples with that of  
80 pigs being watered with troughs. There appeared to be no  
difference between the pigs with nipples and the ones with a  
trough. However, pigs under a heavy stress did drink very  
little in contrast with pigs not being stressed. The latter  
did drink relatively much, no matter whether they were fed  
or not. The time before, during which they were not watered  
(24 hrs. of 48 hrs.) did not influence the amount of water  
intake (Lambooy, 1982).
It is not very likely, that the pigs drinking little were not  
thirsty. Inspection of the blood and carcasses of the slaughter  
ed pigs showed a certain amount of dehydration. Nevertheless  
the claim is made that these pigs were not thirsty because  
they converted their body fat into water. Another observation  
does not support the assumption that pigs in transport are  
not thirsty. Many pigs for breeding purposes are transported  
by lorry from Belgium to the airport of Amsterdam. These  
transports last at least five hours. At Schiphol airport the  
pigs are unloaded and, once on the ground, are watered from  
water troughs. Under such circumstances they appear to be  
really thirsty and are eager for water (Van Putten & Lambooy/  
1982).
There may be another reason for not drinking from the drinking  
nipples during a stop at the French-Italian border. Friend and  
others (1981) report the behaviour of calves during a rail  
transport of 2.5 days. Food and water were available during  
the whole transport. However, during the stops the calves  
did neither eat nor drink. They used these occasions to rest.  
Maybe transported pigs also are too tired to drink during the  
stops and simply rest.

31.
There is no reason at all to presume that horses are more  
stress susceptible than pigs. If this applies also to pigs,  
it would mean that pigs on their way to Italy have to be un­
loaded from time in order to let them drink. This would be in  
accordance with the procedure we use with horses and also with  
the necessity to unload cattle to let them eat and drink.
The necessity to unload depends largely on whether the vehicle  
moves in a very unpredictable way like lorries, or provides  
a more or less stable environment enabling the animals to  
rest, to eat and to drink, like on ships in calm water and  
sometimes on trains. Jackson (1973) accompanied a transport  
of 120 pigs (age between 6 and 9 weeks) from England to Italy  
by ferry and railroad, which lasted 7 days. During the journey  
508 kg of creep feed and 10,910 1. of water were consumed by  
the pigs.
Sheeg
According to Geyer (1982), the duration of sheep transports  
by road from the middle and western parts of Poland and from  
Eastern Germany last no longer than 24 hours. It has to be  
supposed that sheep transports from the East of Poland and  
from the Soviet Union do not reach destinations in France  
within 24 hours. For this reason sheep from the Soviet Union  
had to be unloaded, fed and watered. If the animals arrive at  
their destination place however within a "reasonable time"  
(according to Geyer, 1982, not longer than additional 6 hours)  
they are not unloaded. The author assumes that the unloading  
of 400 sheep out of multiple floor trucks causes more stress  
to the animals than a duration of the transport of about 30  
hours.
Vigorous movements of the vehicle prevents animals from  
drinking. During stops animals often prefer resting to drinking.  
Therefore it is useless to install expensive watering devices  
without giving the animals a real chance to consume the water.

32.
The requirements for "a real chance" differ from species  
to species. For horses it means unloading. For other animals  
research is urgently needed.
2.3. At the abattoir
2.3.1. Unloading and handling
Arriving at a slaughter-house at the end of the journey the  
animals should be unloaded immediately. Animals should not  
have to wait in a standing transport vehicle. For unloading  
the same basic rules should be applied as for loading.
Grandin (1981, 1982b) claims that unloading chutes should be  
constructed differently from those used for loading. A chute  
used for unloading any type of livestock should be wide and  
straight to provide a clear, unimpeded path to exit. If the  
chute is curved too sharply, the animals may refuse to leave  
the truck because the chute appears to be a dead end.  
Disembarkation of sea-transported livestock can also be hazar­
dous for the animals. The watei level at ports affects the  
angle of the gangway on which the cattle are driven off the  
ship; a correlation was found between the steepness of the  
gangway and the damage to the animals (Muller & Von Horsten,  
1982).
I
Cattle
According to Drawer (1971) hurrying too much while driving  
cattle on slippery ramps and ways may cause painful fractures  
of vertebra and other bones, and bruises. At abattoirs special  
vehicles should be available for injured animals. According  
to Grandin (1979,1980b) livestock often get injured while they  
are being loaded or unloaded. Leg and foot injuries can occur  
if the truck is not positioned properly against the loading  
dock. In cattle 66% of the bruises of the loin area occur  
during loading or unloading of trucks. The double deck trucks  
which unload through the side instead of through the rear may  
be a factor in the high percentage of bruised loins.

33.
The major problem in such trucks occurs when cattle are being  
unloaded from the top deck since they have to walk down an  
internal ramp from the top deck, negotiate a 90° turn, and  
walk out the door at the bottom of the ramp. If the animals  
become excited or are rushed by the handlers, they can dumb  
their loins against the side of the door.
Pigs
For unloading pigs various types of platforms are used. The  
upper deck of the lorry is nearly always unloaded first and  
because the unloading platforms have been adjusted to the  
height of the lower deck, it is necessary to bridge a difference  
in heigt of about 1 m when unloading the upper deck. Pigs  
prefer to walk up a slope rather than down one. They become  
frightened when they have to walk down the slope. The truck  
drivers are usually in a hurry, so that the pigs tend to be  
handled with a lack of patience and often with undue force.
The pigs are driven down the slope with the help of an electric  
goad. Those pigs that cannot get up, because of cramp or  
because of disease or injury, will be tramped underfoot during  
the process. They will have to be dragged off the truck. This  
is usually accompanied by beating or kicking or they are  
dragged across the floor, often with a chain attached to one  
of the hind legs (Scientific Commission on intensive livestock.,  
1978).
At the end of the journey, which often means after two or three  
days of travelling, pigs may not be too well received. They  
may arrive at night and then have to wait in lairage until the  
next day to be slaughtered. They may even have the misfortune  
to arrive on a Saturdaynight and in that case they have to wait  
a whole weekend. Mostly they are showered after arrival, but  
sometimes such facilities are not present.
After transport pigs should be showered, but not continuously.  
They prefer 2 showers of a quarter of an hour to un-  
interupted showering during a two hours rest at the slaughter-

34.
house ( Van Putten & Lambooy., 1982).
Sheep
According to the Meat and Livestock Commission (1974) unloading  
facilities for sheep at the lairage should provide unloading  
ramps to reduce steepness of lorry tailboards. Adequate lighting  
is necessary in the unloading area during the hours of darkness.  
The use of "Judas-sheep" to lead sheep from transport vehicles  
to lairage pens would reduce handling and stress to a minimum.
Poult ry
Gerrits & De Koning (1982) describe the unloading of broilers.  
After arriving at the slaughter-house the broiler stacks are  
de-stacked. Only a small number of slaughter-houses are equiped  
with a mechanical de-stacker. In many cases the full crates  
are dropped onto a roller conveyor; the top crate from a stack  
falls down about two meters. During the manual de-stacking the  
crates are not always kept in a horizontal position, so that  
sometimes all broilers are pressed together along one side of  
that crate.
In order to avoid delay in unloading then transportation should  
be well planned. Delayed unloading is unacceptable if animals  
have been transported in a way nobody can take care of them,  
or in vehicles without adequate ventilation during stops.
Because the animals are tired after long journeys special  
arrangements should be made to prevent them from stumbling and  
falling down ramps.

35.
2.3.2. Immediate slaughter or Lai rage to precede slaughter
According to the European Convention for the Protection of  
Animals for slaughter, animals shall not be taken to the place  
of slaughter unless they can be slaughtered immediately.
Animals which are not slaughtered immediately on arrival shall  
be lairaged. Kenny and Tarrant (1982) noted that a so-called  
rest period in practice is usually unavoidable in order to  
ensure the continuity of the supply of animals for processing.  
Several authors doubt that animals are able to rest or re­
cover from the stress of transport in the given types of  
lai rages.
After transportation animals often are placed together with  
strange groups in lairages. Grandin (1979) and Kenny and  
Tarrant (1982) investigated mixing of unfamiliar groups of  
cattle. This caused a high level of agonistic behaviour and  
resulted in a high level of physiological stress. Cattle  
became stressed if they were sorted and regrouped more than  
once during a 48 h period. Mixing was counterproductive as it  
prevented the animals resting and they frequently become  
exhausted and sometimes injured. According toKenny and  
Tarrant (1982) the behavioural response to mixed penning is  
most obvious and intense among young bulls. They observed that  
the animals showed an immediate and high level of aggressive  
and mounting activity which gradually abated over a considerable  
number of hours, as the social hierarchy was established and  
the animals became exhausted. The total number of behavioural  
interactions per minute at 30 min after mixing was 1.29;after  
150 min 1.21 and after 240 min still 0.95.
Kilgour (1976) reported that the shape of pens is an important  
factor. Cattle, like pigs and sheep, prefer to rest along the  
fence, also square pens mean that cattle are more crowded than  
in long, narrow pens. Bulls start to fight, if the distance  
between animals is less than 5.5 m, even in formed groups.

36.
Bulls are very sensitive to disturbance and greatly stimulated  
by seeing other socially active cattle, whether fighting or  
mounting. Mixing strange bulls can best be carried out towards  
evening, immediately before feeding.
Dark-cutting in cattle which spend the night in the slaughter  
plant stockyards can be practically eliminated in steers if  
the animals are kept unmixed in the stockyards. Bulls should  
be slaughtered as soon as possible after arrival. Loads of  
cattle which have been shipped for long distances or through  
bad .weather should be allowed to rest for one or two hours  
only and then slaughtered ( Grandirv 1980).
The effect of penning of steers before slaughter on the  
occurrence of dark-cutting meat was investigated byGrandin  
(1979). She described observations on 423 steers penned in  
groups at a show ground, transported by road for 5 h to an  
abattoir, where they were again penned in groups until  
slaughter. The animals were treated as follows:
No of animals Treatment % DFD
80 Transported immediately 0
penned and slaughtered  
on arrival at abattoir
45 1 night penned at show-  
ground, slaughtered on  
arrival0
84 2 nights penned at show-  
ground, slaughtered on  
arri val3.5
29 3 nights penned at show-  
ground, slaughtered on  
arrival10
79 1 night penned at show-  
ground, 1 night in lairage(figure missing)
109 1 night penned at show-  
ground, 1 night in lairage17

37.
Grandin (1980) points out that one of the reasons the incidence  
of dark-cutters is lower in the U.S. (0.5%) than in England  
(8-10%) is that the majority of the fed steers and heifers  
are handled in large homogenous groups and not mixed with  
strange animals. Investigations indicated that mixing strange  
steers together only once would usually not cause dark cutters  
if the animals were slaughtered within 24 h after mixing.
If strange steers were mixed together, and then re-sorted,  
so that their social hierarchy was disturbed two or three  
times within 48 h prior to slaughter the incidence of dark  
cutters rose sharply.
McVeigh et al (1982) studied muscle glycogen breakdown during  
mixed penning of young Friesian bulls. Mixing was accompanied  
by a high degree of physical activity, which gradually  
lessened during the 6 h stress period. Physical exchanges  
between the newcomers and the established group consisted of  
aggressive butting and pushing, and frequent mounting.
Physical activity was probably accompanied by emotional arousal  
in response to a novel and threatening situation. Stressed  
bulls showed increases over controls in body temperature  
(P 0.001), heart rate (P 0.001), serum nonesterified fatty  
acids (P 0.05) and plasma creatine kinase (P 0.01).
Muscle glycogen content fell during stress to 41% of the value  
for the control animals (P 0.001). Recovery of muscle glycogen  
concentration to resting values took 3 to 7 days under  
favourable conditions (McVeigh et al 1982; McVeigh and Tarrant  
1982).
Augustini (1981) investigated the effect of different waiting  
times and group compositions in the lairage for bulls raised  
in loose yards. He found that lengthening the waiting time  
on the day of arrival and also prolonging the time in lairage  
till the next morning was closely associated with an increase  
of dark-cutting beef in M. semimembranosus. Only if the animals  
were slaughtered immediately after arrival was dark-cutting  
avoided. When bulls were mixed together, waiting times up to  
90 min resulted in some incidence of high ultimate pH values.

38.
The frequency of dark-cutting in beef was Lower in groups  
which were not mixed together. In these groups a prolonged  
waiting time (at least 1.5 to 3 h) was necessary to produce  
this quality fault. The pH value at 48 h post mortem was  
closely correlated with glycogen concentration and meat  
temperature (both measured in M. semimembranosus at 30 min  
post mortem) but not with the concentrations of creatine  
phosphate, ATP and lactate.
Kol'k and Kol'k (1972) studied the influence of different  
starvation times and overnight penning in lairages on the meat  
pH values. The pH value was measured on a total of 305 cattle.  
Starvation times were from 0 to 28 h. Starvation did not improve  
the pH value. On the contrary, for animals kept in lairage  
overnight, the number of carcasses showing pH values above 6.2  
was twice as great as in animals slaughtered immediately after  
arriving.
Geschwindtar|dEhinger (1979) studied the influence of different  
waiting times before slaughter in broilers. For this purpose  
the animals were placed on the ramp of the slaughterhouse for  
0 to 4 h. The ambient temperature was 20 to 24° C, inside the  
boxes it was 13° C higher than outside. The concentration of  
carbon dioxide was between 0.2 and 0.3 volumes per cent and  
the concentration of ammonia was 4 ppm at the end of the experi­
ment. The weight loss after the first hour was 2.6 per cent and  
after 4 h was 3.75 per cent. By increasing waiting periods up  
to 3 h the tenderness of breast and thigh meat was decreased.
The water binding capacity was at a minimum after 3 h of waiting  
before slaughter. Blood parameters including haematocrit,  
haemoglobin, serum protein, serum lipids and serum cholesterol  
indicated an increasing stress situation.

39.
3. Specific criteria
Methods of transport
Animals are transported by road, rail, sea and air. Each  
method has its unique advantages, the most common method  
of transport of farm animals within or between European  
countries is transport by road. National legislation within  
Member States ensures minimum construction requirements.
For example, the Agricultural Department (1978) state that  
livestock vehicles must conform to statutary construction  
and maintenance standards. These are intended to ensure  
that animals do not get injured or suffer in vehicles which  
are poorly designed or maintained or not properly equipped.  
The requirements cover the provision of:
(1) floors constructed so as to give a proper foothold to the  
animals
(2) interiors which are free from dangerous projections
(3) ramps for loading and unloading constructed according to  
certain specifications.
(4) suitably designed and constructed partitions used to  
separate the animals
(5) rigid sides and suitable roofs to vehicles, to protect  
the animals from the weather
(6) adequate ventilation
(7) easy access to the animals
(8) arrangements to prevent overcrowding, including specifi­
cations of maximum pen sizes.
Several authors believe all transport vehicles have to be  
equipped with lights. These requirements apply for all means  
of transport.

40.
Road vehicles
Road vehicles are the main transport method to carry pigs.
Pigs are transported in specially designed trucks which have  
two storeys, with a lower and upper deck; some trucks may  
have three decks. Pig transporters are designed to carry  
between 75 and 100 pigs at a time (Scientific Commission on  
Intensive Livestock). Van Putten and Lambooy (1982) recommend  
a distance of 3 m between partitions in a lorry.
According to the Meat and Livestock Commission (Technical  
Bulletin N° 14,1980) some vehicles have an inadequate head-  
room which accentuates overcrowding. It is assumed that precise  
recommendations for heights between decks in pig vehicles are  
not possible as there are considerable variations in the size  
and weight of pigs carried. However, as a guide each animal  
must be able to stand up and there should be sufficient head-  
room for the proper circulation of air. Each pen on each floor  
should be easily accessible to personnel. But this is difficult  
to achieve due to the low distance between the decks and the  
loading density.
Van Putten (1982) states that vehicle loading ramps are  
generally at an angle of 30° to the ground. This is, as men­
tioned earlier, too steep for pigs. The loading ramp should not  
exceed an angle of 15°, which makes the ramp too long to be  
a part of the lorry and therefore should be equipment at the  
fattening farm. According to Sybesma et al. (1978) lorries are  
now available with hydraulic lifts, which makes loading and  
unloading less stressful for the animals. A claimed disadvantage  
of hydraulic lifts is that the process of loading and unloading  
is more time consuming compared with other methods.
About 10 years ago containers to carry pigs were discussed.
Van Putten (1973) and Wohlfahrt and Schroter (1974) reported  
good results using this method in respect of deathrate; pigs  
also arrived far less stressed at the abattoir. The higher  
organizational requirements of this method probably meant  
it never became popular.

41.
A continuing problem seems to be the proper ventilation of  
the lorries. According to Van Putten and Lambooy (1982) pigs  
are very hot after loading on a lorry because of the physical  
and psychological stress. The authors state that ample venti­
lation-openings are vital even for transport lasting only some  
hours. There are many publications on the influence of high  
temperatures, but no information about the impact of very low  
temperatures on pigs in long duration transportation. One  
solution could be to equip lorries with air conditioning  
Horses, cattle and sheep (depending on the fleece) are less  
sensitive to cold conditions than pigs, although these species  
have to be protected from inclement weather.
In international transport cattle are carried in trucks with  
two decks holding about 70 bulls (Geyer, 1982). For trucks  
transporting sheep the Meat and Livestock Commission (1980)  
recommends adequate partition points, ideally at 30 cm centres,  
should be provided. Partitions should be provided for at least  
every 2.4 m of vehicle length. The top deck of three-deck  
vehicles should be totally enclosed. To reduce the slope of the  
deck, lorries should be built on either the stepped frame  
principle or with a lower than normal turntable height.
According to Geyer (1982) one lorry can carry 300 to 500 sheep  
or lambs. The same author reported horses intended for slaughter  
are transported by trucks carrying 18-22 animals.
According to Loliger (1974) and Loliger and Torges (1977)
transportation of poultry destined for slaughter is carried out
nearly exclusively by road. Poultry (broiler, poulards, finished
laying hens) are transported in special containers which have
openings for ventilation on each side. The height is between
23 and 26 cm. The density in the container depends on the weight
of poultry: up to a live weight of 1250 g the area provided
2per animal is 250 cm , up to a live weight of 1500 g an area  
2of 320 cm and for animals heavier than 1500 g an area of  
360 cm^ is recommended.

42.
Each cage contains 12-20 broiler or 10-17 laying hens.
The loading capacity of a lorry with trailer is between 10  
and 15.000 broiler and laying hens, or 1000 to 1200 turkeys.
These authors expect the duration of transport of broilers  
to be between 3 and 6 h and for finished laying hens 12 to  
15 h in Germany.
According to the same authors turkeys are transported for both  
short and long journeys with distances up to 600 km. Turkeys are  
transported in metal containers (each for 6-12 animals) in  
5-7 tiers on the lorry. The sides of the containers consist  
of bars or fences that allow proper ventilation. The tiers  
of containers are divided by solid horizontal partitions.
In multiple deck lorries concern is expressed about the droppings  
falling from the upper decks on to the animals beneath, and  
from the lorry on the road. Animals become wet and cold from  
the faeces of their conspecies. Droppings lost on roads are  
not desirable if there is any danger of pathogenic contamina­
tion.
3.2. Roll-on/roll-off ferries
From the United Kingdom the greatest proportion of livestock  
exported for breeding, further fattening and slaughter goes  
by roll-on/rol l-off transport. Five veterinary officers  
accompanied livestock from certain major English ports for a  
six-week period. They published in detail on this method of  
transport (Brown et al. 1976). Livestock lorries were loaded  
as late as possible on the ferries. These lorries were placed  
nearest to fans or open spaces, where the vehicles had the  
best ventilation. If the hold was not full, the vehicles were  
given extra space all around, or if the hold was full, they  
were placed in the best position available. The best positions  
were those in the centre since the ones on the sides of the  
ship were not this good. Problems can occur in ventilation,  
probably due to a breakdown in communication, or lack of know­
ledge, rather than an actual mechanical fault. Temperatures  
in the hold varied on different trips from 14° C to a maximum

43.
of 24° C. These were independent of the external weather  
conditions. Temperatures up to 26° C were recorded. The higher  
temperatures usually occurred in the forward pens of the  
upper tiers. If two or more rows of vents were provided,  
ammonia was not usually experienced. In aluminium containers  
with limited ventilation, ammonia was frequently noticed.
All vehicles were provided with access doors; so all pens were  
accessible to some extent. Some vehicles had safety grills  
inside the doors. Few lorries had two metal cross bars inside  
each door to prevent animals falling out when the doors were  
opened. Unloading time from ferries was generally very rapid  
and livestock lorries were unloaded as soon as possible.
3.3. Trains
The European Convention requiries that railway trucks shall  
be marked, covered and constructed to prevent escape and  
ensure safety and adequate ventilation.
Vehicles shall prevent escape, ensure safety and have a roof  
and tying facilities. Partitions shall be rigid. The advantage  
of transportation of livestock by trains is that they are  
accompanied by personel. For long duration transportation  
they carry feed and in some cases water. But if the water is  
not permanently available livestock are provided with it on  
stops during the journey. Another advantage of transport by  
train is that trains in transit are controlled permanently and  
the position of the train is always known. In the accompanying  
travel documents the locations, time and duration of feeding  
and watering are noted. About one fourth of the horses exported  
from Poland are transported by railroad. The transports are
carried out by the German or the French Railroad Administrations.
2The area of these wagons is 25 to 33 m .  The middle of the  
wagon is reserved to feed or inspect so that the area is 2.4  
to 2.75 m per horse. Eight to ten horses are loaded per wagon  
in a right angle to the driving direction.

44.
Only sports horses are loaded in the driving direction.  
Ventilation wings, depending on the weather are totally or  
partly opened and the sliding door is 15 to 35 cm open  
(Bornkessel, 1982).
Jackson (1973) reports the transport of 120 piglets from the  
United Kingdom to Italy in a railcar converted into 4 pens  
each of 4.65 m^. A central area between the doors of 2.74 x  
2.44 m was left for feed, water and bedding for the pigs.
The journey lasted 7 days and included 2 days of waitingtime.  
The only serious problem was with ventilation. The ventilators  
could not be adjusted from inside the railcar so the choice  
was between cold or condensation and Jackson (1973) believes  
that if plenty of food is available it is better to keep the  
ventilators open.
3.4. Fitted vessel
The European Convention incorporates specific regulations  
about sea transport. The articles 25 to 30 of the Convention  
state, that animals should be tied, or properly accommodated  
in pens or containers, with adequate passageways between to  
allow access. All parts of the vessel where animals are  
accommodated should be provided with drainage and kept in a  
sanitary condition. The number of attendants shall be suffi­
cient. The vessel shall be provisioned with sufficient  
drinking water and appropriate foodstuffs. Provisions for the  
isolation of ill or injured animals are required.
Dow (1976) states that there are matters for concern  
due to transport by sea. First, an increasing number of ships  
engaged in livestock import and export, which once flew the  
British flag, are passing under flags of other nationalities.  
This might be true for several other member states of the EEC  
also. Second there is growing evidence of ships' captains  
sailing under owners' order but contrary to their best judge­
ment on the suitability of conditions for their livestock  
cargoes.

45.
Transport of horses by sea was important for military reasons  
as a means of mass transportation in the past. Sea transport  
of sports horses has been replaced by airtransport. Except in  
countries, which prohibit the import of horses by air for  
reasons of controlling diseases. Horses are kept on ships in  
containers of the following minimum size: 85 cm wide long,  
and 200 cm high. The containers are arranged at right angles  
to the sailing direction, in order to balance the dashing of  
waves and the rolling of the ship. The passages between the  
containers have to be 90 cm wide to make a change of the  
position possible during the journey. The horses are loaded  
on a gangway which should have sidewalls of 150 cm (Hinrichsen  
and Korner, 1978).
World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) (1982 a)  
field investigations into the bulk transport of horses for  
slaughter showed a high proportion of injuries when the horses  
were examined at the place of disembarkation. In some instances  
the unsatisfactory mode of transport, i.e. bad design features  
of the transporter and equipment, is clearly the cause of these  
injuries. However, there have been occasions when the mode  
of transport was clearly not a fault and the causes remained  
obscure. Ethological studies into equine behaviour and the  
effects of stressful stimuli in horses indicate that horses  
react substantially differently from domestic farm animals,  
particularly in relation to bulk transport. In this respect;  
a special case may well be to preclude horses from this type  
of transport unless the most stringent safeguards are applied  
- according to the opinion of the WSPA. Horses transported in  
bulk for slaughter purposes are usually tethered alongside  
each other or in close proximity with each other within the  
confines of pens. While these arrangements permit desirable  
bodily contact to be maintained, the individual distances  
required between animals for peaceful coexistence is not  
provided. The results are bite wounds.

46.
According toMuller and Von Horsten (1982) sea transport is  
the cheapest way to transport cattle. Cattle transported  
in these ways as well as those reported by Von Horsten (1979)  
are destined for breeding. Increasing ambient temperatures led  
to higher body temperatures, respiratory rates and pulse rates  
in animals transported on the deck of the vessel.
Sheep are transported by sea from Australia to the Middle East.  
Several of the ships used are carrying 90.000 to 100.000  
sheep on six decks. Five to six stockmen take care of the  
animals supervised by a livestock officer who is responsible  
for nutrition, health, treatments, records and the monitoring  
of temperature and ventilation levels (Platt, 1982).
Muller (1982) has also accompanied these transports. He  
described the climatic conditions. The temperature increased  
from 21°C to 36°C on the E-deck and the relative humidity  
from 65% to 95%. NH^ - concentration varied between 7 and  
35 ppm and CO^ - concentration between 0.08 and 0.1 0/00.
Strewing superphosphate reduced the NH^ - concentration from  
15 to 4 ppm and in one transport reduced the losses.
3.5. Transport by aircraft
Air transport is the most careful, but the most expensive  
method to carry animals. It is possible for an animal to be  
taken to any part of the world in a matter of hours, thus  
increasing its survival potential. Millions of animals are now  
carried by aircraft each year, but, because of its high costs,  
air transport is more widely used for the movement of zoo  
animals, wild animals for laboratories, and valuable domestic  
animals, such as racehorses, and breeding animals, than for  
the routine transport of livestock (Halls, 1978). Transport  
by air shall be described even if animals of high value are  
transported by this method so far.
Regulations for horses transports are provided in the Live  
Animal Regulations of the International Air Transport Assiciation  
IATA).

47.
According to Hinrichsen- andKorner (1978) normal planes,  
freight or transformed passenger planes serve as the means  
of transport. The number of horses transported by a plane  
depends on the type of plane. The animals are loaded in  
containers outside the aircraft. As soon as an animal is in  
a container, it is secured by a belt that runs across its  
back. This prevents the mounting of the horses in the container.  
The loading of the container is carried out with the help of  
a special lifting platform, which conveys them up to 8 m into  
the cargo department. The critical stages on the flight are  
the take off and landing. The horses calm down as soon as  
the flight altitude is reached.
Similar observations were made by Jackson (1974) with cattle;  
resting behaviour seemed to increase in the animals as the  
journey continued. The transport of one-day old chicks by air  
is reported by Hoogerbrugge and .Ormel (1982). Generally 3 to  
12 hours after hatching the chicks are transported by truck  
to the airport, then the boxes are put in pallets or directly  
loaded into the belly of the aircraft. The time between  
loading and take off has to be as short as possible since  
during loading there is usually only natural ventilation in  
the aircraft.
In modern aircraft heating is present in all compartments.
This means that only in the case of mistakes or accidents is  
the death of 1-day old chicks caused by low temperatures.
During the flight the authors collected data about temperature  
values inside the plane. The data show a large difference in  
temperatures found in boxes located at different places.  
Sometimes the authors found temperatures exceeding 35°C.
These high temperatures are dangerous for the chicks. The  
heat produced in the chick box can only be removed by con­
vection or ventilation. As most chick boxes are surrounded by  
other boxes the net heat loss by ventilation is about zero.
So the only possible way to reduce the heat is by convection.  
The loading configuration of the boxes depends on the size  
of the boxes and on the compartment in the aircraft.

48.
To prevent boxes from moving they are often stacked Like  
bricks. This means that air circulation between the boxes  
is Limited and heat removal is reduced.
Much better ventilation is possible when there is an open  
space between each stack of boxes. But this will render the  
adherence between the individual boxes to be poor, making  
the use of so-called "spacers" necessary to keep the box  
structure rigid.
In most aircraft the fresh air inlet is situated at the top  
of the compartment and the outlets at the side wall or at the  
loading floor so that the ventilation system does not suit  
the transport of large numbers of chicks. The authors are  
of the opinion that the present ventilation system is inadequate  
for animal transport, which involves a layered system of  
stacking. For chicks and poultry the removal of warm air is  
less than the ventilation rate of the aircraft would suggest.  
Muller (1978) calculated ventilation rates per kg bodyweight  
for the air transport of the different species of domestic  
animals, which will allow a satisfactory transportation  
of these animals. As ventilation-rates during flight are  
smaller than at ground level it is necessary to have additional  
ventilation equipment provided during loading etc. The tempera­
ture of the-cabin is easy to keep about 18-24°C while the  
ambient temperature outside is about -50°C. Critical conditions  
arise in the course of landing and on the ground itself, where  
the temperature of the cabin or cargo department cannot be  
cooled down by inlet of ambient air of high temperatures.
These situations occur in the tropics as well as in temperate  
zones if the loading density of the aircraft is too high.
In all transport methods satisfactory ventilation is crucial  
and this must function effectively during all climate  
conditions and for the different species sex and age; having a  
direct relationship to group size and stocking density.

49.
Economic, marketing and social considerations  
Economic effects of transportation of animals include losses  
caused by death, bruising, lower meat quality and weight loss.  
Whilst in most countries transport deaths have decreased  
recently reports of lower meat quality caused by stress  
during transport have increased. Further considerations of  
economic aspects include comparisons of the means of transport  
and the advantages or disadvantages of slaughter near the  
point of production. This report does not deal with the  
economic aspects of the entrepreneurial considerations of  
international trade in slaughter animals.
Death rate and injuries
Death rates in international transport seem to have decreased  
recently under western European conditions. One of the reasons  
might be that animals intended for export are selected care­
fully to pass the veterinary inspection and certification of  
fitness for transportation.
There might be another reason, however. There is the possibili­
ty that the remarkably low death rate could be a result of an  
insufficient registration of major fatalities. Everyone who is  
engaged in transportation of livestock knows cases of high  
mortalities where the authorities were notified too late or for  
other reasons were not able to react. Examples of such cases  
are high death rates in cattle caused by prolonged waiting times  
in North African ports where the cattle were not unloaded because  
of Ramadan; calf losses in France were caused by an unsuitable  
lorry, calves broke through the upper decks; high sheep losses  
were caused by excessive driving time without a break because  
the driver got tost. But the statistics in which such cases  
are registered are unknown.

4.1.1. Mortality and injuries in horses
According to Bornkessel (1982) the loss of horses transported  
by train from Poland to France is on average 0.8% observed at  
the German border. Geyer (1982) found from a total of 27,000  
horses transported by road from Poland to France in 1980 five  
animals were dead at the border station of Helmstedt, and six  
horses had to be excluded from further transport because of  
severe injuries or sickness.
4.1.2. Mortality and injuries in cattle
Transportation can result in high calf mortality, especially  
when the animals are transported at an early age (Stephens,
1982). For example, calves younger than 14 days of age that  
were transported over long distances have shown a mortality rate  
as high as 23% (Staples and Haugse, 1974). Calves are susceptible  
particularly in the first days of life or during long distance  
transport (Barnes et al. 1975). For example in several shipments  
of calves by air from the USA to Italy in 1964, mortality during  
shipment was very low, but heavy losses occurred during the  
first 8 days after transport, in some cases more than 9%  
(Claxton, 1968). Rodenhoff and Schonherr (1971) found that  
transport mortality in cattle carried by rail was twice as high  
as it was during road transport. Deaths of cattle during road  
or rail transport were estimated at 0.01% and the most frequent  
causes of death were suffocation or cardiac insufficiency  
(Istvan, 1979).
Apart from these findings, most of the information on transport  
mortality in adult cattle is related to sea transport. Losses  
in cattle exported from Australia in 1956-1958 were caused by  
heat stroke, high humidity and injuries sustained during  
excessive movements of the ship (Lavers, 1959). Contributory  
causes were overcrowding, inadequate drinking water, incorrect  
feed and failure of cattle to adapt. During shipment of 350  
cattle from New Zealand to South East Asia 102 died (Donaldson,  
1970). Andersen and Lowe, (1971) concluded from a study of ship­
ments of cattle by this route that mortality could be reduced

51.
simply by providing adequate ventilation and water supply.
The effect of overcrowding has also been demonstrated during  
the sea transport of 5275 breeding cows from West Germany to  
Morocco in fourteen shipments between November 1974 and March 1975,  
mortality was 1.3% in pregnant cows and abortions accurred in  
4.5.% (von Mickwitz et al., 1976), of 5509 pregnant cows in 23  
shipments, 0.69% of the animals died and 4.64% had abortions of  
those transported on deck, whereas 2.0% died and 6.92% had  
abortions when the animals were kept below deck, (von Horstein,
1979).
Bruises are traumatic injuries without penetration of the skin,  
where tissue and blood vessels are damaged to such an extent that  
there is extravasion into the surrounding tissue (Petersen, 1978).
The economic loss resulting from bruises in the U S livestock  
industry was estimated at approximately § 46 million annually  
and of this § 22.4 million was in cattle (Grandin, 1980).
Bruised meat cannot be used for human food. Bruising results from  
an animal striking its body against a sharp object or being hit  
by an abusive or careless handler. Studies in Australia indicated  
that horns are one of the major causes of bruises, bruising being  
almost doubled in groups of horned cattle when compared with  
groups of polled cattle. Tipping did not reduce the bruise  
losses. In a further study Grandin (1981) found that cattle which  
had been handled roughly during weighing and loading at the feed-  
lot had 15.5% bruises causing price discount. Cattle which had  
been carefully walked onto the scales and trucks with a minimum  
of excitement had only 8.35% discountable bruises. The author  
observed that putting just one or two extra cattle on a truck  
can double the amount of bruising. The highest percentage of  
bruises were located in the valuable loin area. A total of 45%  
of the bruises occurred on the loin, 23% on the back, 2% on the  
rump, 15% on the flank, 11% on the rib and 4% on the shoulder.
Overall 10.5% of cattle surveyed had discountable bruises, and
5% of them had discountable loin bruises, 2.3% had loin bruises
which were so severe that they extended all the way through the carcass.

52.
The cattle in this survey had been trucked 80 to 240 km  
(Grahdin, 1981).
Bruising was more frequent in cows and resulted in higher  
average trimming losses than in steers (2.6 kg versus 1.6 kg,  
respectively), (Yen, 1978). The weight of bruised tissue trimmed  
off the cercasses of cows was related to the length of trans­
portation and increasing fatigue may be important in that respect.
Meischke (1975) found a connection between bruising and the  
number of stops in a train journey. Bruise trim on equal journeys  
was 0.89 kg/carcass when there were four stops versus 1.2 kg/  
carcass when there were 10 stops.
The Australian Meat Board reported that 10% of all cattle surveyed  
were downgraded for bruising (Dow, 1976). A survey in Australia  
in 1971 indicated that beef losses due to bruising were valued  
at about §17 million (Thornton and Gracey, 1974). Three trials,  
each with 100 bullocks previously grazing improved pasture,  
compared bruising in cattle starved for 24 and 48 h before  
transport for slaughter. Overall the weight of bruised trim from  
fed bullocks (0.48 kg) was less than that from bullocks starved  
for 24 h (0.99) or 48 h (1.03 kg). Overall, duration of feed  
withdrawal had no significant effect (Dodt, et al. 1979).
Shipping fever is the most important disease associated with the  
transport of cattle and has caused severe economic losses, parti­
cularly in Canada and in the USA. It has also been reported in  
most European countries (Hails, 1978). It occurs mainly in store  
cattle fatigued after long transport with insufficient feed  
(Thornton and Gracey, 1974) although it can occur in calves  
(Barrett and Neylon, 1971). The syndrome is characterised by  
fever, dyspnea and pneumonia. The disease is initiated by lowered  
host resistance, as a result of exposure to stressors during  
transportation (Irwin, 1979). Typical stressors which were found  
to alter the immune system of animals include heat, cold, crow­
ding, mixing, noise and restraint (Kelly, 1980; Tarrant, 1982).

53.
4.1.3. Mortality and injuries in pigs
In the Netherlands (Van Logtestijn et al., 1982) the overall  
transport death rate, including lairage, decreased from .42%  
in 1972 to .3% in 1980. The number of deaths in the lairage was  
on average .07% in 1972 and .05% in 1980. It is well known that  
transport losses are much higher during the summer months than  
in the winter months due to higher temperature and humidity.  
Transport losses are also caused by rough, abusive and otherwise  
inconsiderate treatment of pigs by handlers and transport  
personnel. The death rate of pigs, transported for 2 or 3 days  
over long distances (about 2500 km) was only 0.17% (Marov,1981).  
However the possibility that pigs suffered from severe stress  
to such an extent that their meat quality was decreased was not  
investigated. During transport by road of 2,000 pigs from the  
Netherlands to Italy the death rate amounted to only .1%
(Lambooy, 1982). Similarly, in the UK between 0.5% and 0.12%  
of pigs taken to slaughter die en route or in lairage.
A Swedish investigation (Fabiansson, et al.1979) showed that  
the death rate during transport to and lairage at 25 abattoirs  
was 0.13%. These losses remained static over several years.
The financial losses due to deaths amounted to about three  
million Swedish crowns per year. In Germany the death rate  
during transport increased from 1962 (0.24%) to 1975 (1.0%)  
(GRATL, 1981). Since then losses remained constant at 1%. The 
authors calculated the financial losses for 1980 to be 102 
million DM per year (1% of a total of 34.8 million slaughter pigs  
at an average price of 300 DM per slaughter pig).
According to Nielsen (1982) transport losses were reduced when  
lorry and lairage were fitted with ventilation, in which case  
losses amounted to 0.24 per thousand in transport and 0.68 per  
thousand in lairage compared to 0.46 and 1.06 respectively with­
out ventilation.

54.
Contrary to the European results, Clark (1979) reported that  
transport losses of slaughter pigs increased recently in Saskat­
chewan. The losses increased from 2 per thousand in 1974 to a  
high of 4 per thousand in 1978. The highest losses occurred at  
the hottest (July-August) and coldest (December-January) months  
of the year. Seventy per cent of the deaths happened in transit,  
the remainder occurred at the abattoir before slaughter. The  
pigs were transported in trucks for an average distance of  
150 km (15-450 km).
The Meat and Livestock Commission (UK) found in a survey of  
10,000 pigs that over 50% of all carcasses were damaged. The ’  
carcasses of 44.4% of all pigs surveyed were damaged particularly  
around the head and shoulders by fighting. Fourteen pigs were  
dead on arrival at the factory, of these 8 were badly damaged  
by fighting. Bruising occurred in 7.9% of all carcasses.
Bruising was not confined to any specific part of the body  
although it was more common in the central pelvic area. The  
causes included striking with sticks, kicking, crowding in gate­
ways, trampling at loading, unsatisfactory vehicle or lairage  
floors and the misuse of slap markers. Visual inspection did  
not always show the full extent of the damage. Some surface  
discolourations which appeared to be of little importance were  
found on cutting to conceal serious bruising necessitating  
condemnation. Skin blemishes or discolouration occurred in  
3.6% of the carcasses. These seldom penetrated into the under­
lying tissue but were of importance where carcasses or rind-on-  
joints were sold. Blemishes were caused by urine scald, a conse­
quence of inadequate bedding on long journeys or of holding pigs  
for long periods in lairages without bedding and with inadequate  
drainage.

55.
4.1.4. Mortality and injuries in sheep
There are few reports in the literature of sheep losses during  
road transport. Heat stroke was found as the main cause of  
mortality in sheep transported by sea from Australia to Singapore,  
and in shipments from Brazil to Iran. Mortality rates on these  
transports were 0.3 to 1.7% for 8 to 9-day voyages and 3.6%  
for 18 to 20-day voyages (Gardiner and Craig, 1970); Mondino  
Silva, 1973). Other causes of mortality were Salmonella infection  
and hypocalcaemia (Hails, 1978).
Geyer (1982) reported very low mortality in transit. In 1980  
there were 14 deaths among 234,434 sheep transported by road.
There are some reports of much higher road losses. In the  
summer of 1982, German police stopped a truck transporting  
sheep from Poland to France at Baden where the Polish-speaking  
driver had lost his way. Veterinary authorities found many  
animals dead and others in such poor conditions that they  
ordered immediate slaughtering. The total losses were 65 out  
of 400 transported sheep (Pevec, 1982).
The Meat and Livestock Commission of the UK (1974) reported  
bruising damages in 10% of all fat lambs and hoggets. According  
to this study the fat lamb and sheep industry has an annual  
output of § 120 (stg) to i 140 million. If 10% of these animals  
marketed are reduced in value by 2p/lb carcass weight, the total  
loss will amount to about £ 1.0 million. The report found three  
main categories of damages. Bruising was most severe in milk-fed  
lambs and was evident over the shoulder, in the area of the ribs,  
on the loin, the rump and down the hind leg. Damage appeared to  
be worse in lighter weight lambs. Bruising of weaned lambs and  
hoggets was seen mainly along the back and on the rump. The cause  
of a particular bruise was difficult to pinpoint, but stick marks  
wool pulling, crowding in gateways and trampling by other lambs  
during drawing, loading or in transit, all contributed. Bruises  
may also be caused by rough handling when ear tagging prior to  
loading, or subsequently during the process of loading or unloading.

56.
Poor vaccination techniques can result in secondary abscesses,  
causing severe damage. Blood splash (blood spots or streaks  
in various parts of the lean meat) may assume serious proportions  
in certain conditions.
4.1.5. Mortality and injuries in poultry
Losses during transport of broiler fowl in Germany in January -  
March, April - May, and June - July were 0.22, 0.18 and 0.23%,  
respectively, while in old hens losses for the same periods  
were 0.16, 0.17 and 0.53% respectively (Hails, 1978).
Seligmann and Lapinsky (1970) found mortalities of 0.32% in  
28,704 slaughter poultry and of 0.64% in 19,195 birds delayed  
at a wholesaler for 2 - 3  days with no feed and water. Loliger  
and Torges (1977) found that transport-related deaths in one day  
old chicks are nowadays very rare, if transport does not last  
longer than 60 h and the ambient temperature is at least 25°C  
and not too high. Chicks normally travel well if ventilation is  
adequate, (King, 1970).
Hoogerbrugge and Ormel (1982) investigated the effect of tempera­
ture on one day old chicks transported in boxes by air. They  
found that when the temperature is over 34°C and ventilation is  
limited the temperature inside the box will increase rapidly  
to values exceeding 40°C. There is a strong correlation between  
body temperature and the higher temperature inside the box.
When the body temperature rises above 40°C the activity of the  
chickens rises, further increasing heat production, and the  
chicks start panting. When the body temperature reaches values  
of about 43 to 44°C chicks become comatose and die very quickly.  
According to Loliger and Torges (1977) the death rate is between  
0.02 and 0.4% in broilers and between 0 and 2.5% in spent hens.  
The losses are higher in summer than in winter.
(5)

57.
The reasons for higher transport Losses in laying hens compared  
to broilers were longer transportation times and higher suscepti­
bility to transport stress. The same authors found a death rate  
of 0.59% in turkeys. Most losses were caused by chronic peri­
carditis, epicarditis, liver cirrhosis and intestinal diseases.  
However, injuries attributable to the method of loading were  
rare. Scholtyssek and Ehinger (1976) examined broilers after 2,
4 and 6 h journeys and found more bruising after longer transport  
times and in transport cages with more space.
Unsuitable transport vehicles, prolonged waiting times, and  
rough handling contribute to an increased death rate in farm  
animals.
4.2. Influence of transportation on carcase weight
4.2.1. Weight losses
The reduction of live weight and carcass weight during transport  
is of major concern to the livestock and meat industries (Tarrant,  
1982). Loss of live weight results from excretion, evaporation  
and respiratory exchange (Dantzer, 1982). Loss of carcass weight  
during prolonged transportation is due to the dehydration of  
the carcass tissues and to mobilization of depot fat and muscle  
glycogen. Tissue protein catabolism may also occur, due to gluco­
corticoid action (Trenkle, 1981). Loss of weight due to tissue  
breakdown in fasted animals will occur earlier in monogastric  
animals than in ruminants (Tarrant, 1982).
4.2.2. Weight losses in cattle
Shorthose (1965) calculated that the approximate rate of carcass  
weight loss in steers was 0.75% per day for transport and holding  
times lasting from 3 to 8 days. Liveweight losses in cattle were  
about 8% for the first 24 h of transport, considerably in excess  
of the loss expected from fasting alone. During the next two days  
liveweight fell about 2% per day. Mayes et al (1979) found that  
slaughter cattle handled and transported a distance oif 85 km in

58.
5 h shrank by 2% of liveweight. Those handled and transported  
1,250 to 1,625 km during a 26 h period shrank by 6.3%.
The long distance journey described by Friend et al (1981)  
referred to previously in this report, resulted in weight losses  
of 10.6% in calves transported by truck. The rail shipment had  
a lower weight loss than the truck shipment (4.1% during the  
truck transport to the train, and 2.1% during rail transport  
and truck ride to the destination). The calves transported by  
rail had a significantly higher average daily gain at 7 and  
14 days post transit, but there was no difference between the  
road and rail transports after 28 days. The effects of dehydration  
after a long journey (1,420 km) by road and rail on liveweight,  
carcass weight and muscle properties of cattle were examined by  
Wythes (1980). After unloading, bullocks were watered without  
feed for 0, 3.5, 7, 28 or 32 h or watered with feed for 32 h,  
prior to a 16 h preslaughter fast. This treatment allowed 108  
bullocks in the first three treatments (36 animals per treatment)  
to be slaughtered after resting for one day and the remaining  
108 after resting for two days. Bullocks lost 10.4% of initial  
liveweight (656 kg) in transit. The mean liveweight of 588 kg  
on arrival increased when the animals had access to water, so  
that after 3.5 h on water the net liveweight loss was reduced  
(P 0.05) to 6.0% of the initial liveweight. After longer periods  
the loss varied from 6.8 to 7.3%. The net loss of the group also  
offered lucerne hay was 6.7%. In another study cattle lost up  
to 13.5% of initial liveweight during long distance transport  
to abattoirs in northern Australia (Wythes, unpublished data).
Losses of body weight are reported to be the most significant  
economic effect of transport, Leach (1982). Self and Gay (1972)  
monitored liveweight changes in 4,685 feeder cattle, weighing  
between 255 and 275 kg, transported by road over distances  
between 240 and 1,824 km (average 1,023 km) in the USA. Cattle  
collected directly from ranches showed an average loss of 7.2%  
body weight, while those collected from auction markets averaged

59·
a 9.1% Loss (P 0.05). Weight Loss increased by 0.38% for  
every 100 km of the journey. Weight Losses are infLuenced by  
the seasons, they are greater in summer months than in coèLer  
periods.
4.2.3. Weight Losses in pigs
Live weight Losses are high initiaLLy; about 0.5 to 1% of Live  
weight is Lost per hour of transport in pigLets. Of Live weight  
Lost during trucking for 2 h 42% was accounted for by excretory  
products, whiLe 58% was attributed to evaporative Loss and  
respiratory exchange. Of the Latter data 36% was attributed  
to road traveL and 22% to the stress of handLing and confinement.  
Live weight Loss - when corrected for excretory Losses - was  
correLated to ambient temperature and humidity, and increased  
with duration of transport or sociaL grouping (Dantzer, 1982).
The weight Loss during transport for 2.5 to 3 days was 10.2%  
on average (Markov, 1981). In transports from HoLLand to ItaLy  
by road 5.2% was the average Liveweight Loss for 6 transports  
totaLLing 1,200 pigs (Lambooy, 1982). ActuaL Losses depend  
LargeLy on cLimatic conditions. These Losses are considerabLe  
and enforce the suspicion that Long Lasting transports mean a  
Lot of suffering for the transported pigs. Weight Losses are  
caused by excretion and by depletion of the reserves of bodyfat  
during Lengthy fasts. This situation has not necessariLy a  
detrimentaL effect on their heaLth (Van den Bergh, 1977). The  
infLuence of presLaughter fasting on carcass and Liver yieLd in  
pigs was examined by Warriss and Brown (1983). They found that  
Live weight began to be Lost by pigs aLmost immediateLy after  
food withdrawaL. Loss of carcass weight started after between  
9 and 18 h. ALthough no difference was found in the composition  
of chops from animaLs fasted for different Lengths of time there  
was evidence that some of the carcass weight Loss was attributabLe  
to Loss of water. Liver weight decreased rapidLy over the first  
24 h after food withdrawaL and a Large part, but not aL L, of this  
decrease was Loss of water and gLycogen. The rates of Loss between  
18 and 48 h of fast were 0.21% of Live weight and 0.11% of carcass

60.
weight per hour.
Results suggest that the effects of transport are independent  
of, and additional to, those of fasting (Warris et al 1983).  
Significant losses in carcass yield can be attributed to transport  
even in pigs which have been fed before transport. Fed pigs lost  
on average 1 kg of liveweight in the first hour of road transport  
and an additional 0.4 kg per hour in journeys lasting for 6 h.
The 1 kg live weight lost during 1 h transport is mainly due  
to loss of gut contents and urine. On the other hand, carcass  
weight was significantly reduced in a 6 h transport group, by  
about 1 kg of carcass weight.
4.2.4. Weight losses in sheep
Lambs of 40 kg liveweight starved for 18 h, then transported  
for 1.5 h lost 0.9 kg (Rudloff, 1974). Sheep will lose up to  
3.6 kg during transport for 24 h, but this is mainly loss of  
ingesta, as tissue loss appears to be only slight during journeys  
of this length, (Thornton and Gracey, 1974). However, during  
prolonged transport by rail (more than 3 days) in South Africa,  
it was shown that significant losses in carcass yield can occur  
(Sutton and van den Heever, 1968). In lambs, loss of carcass  
weight was nearly a linear function of fasting time and occurred  
at a rate of about 1.5% of initial carcass weight per day for up  
to four days of fasting (Starke, 1948 cited by Shorthose, 1965).
A series of New Zealand lamb experiments has indicated that  
carcass weight reduction resulting from pre-slaughter starvation  
is a source of loss to the meat industry. Carcass losses start  
between 8 and 24 h off pasture and a loss of about 0.25 kg by  
24 h has been noted (Kirton et al., 1972).

6 1.
The Meat and Livestock Commission, UK,(1974) reported the  
influence of distance from farm to slaughterhouse on liveweight  
and carcass weight. Milk lambs and weaned lambs (totalling 1,100)  
were transported between 9 and 160 km (average 66 km). The milk  
lambs were slaughtered within 3 and 6 h of loading, the weaned  
lambs were held over night and slaughtered within 22 - 26 h of  
loading. The findings indicated a small increase in live weight  
loss with increasing distance. Killing out percentage based on  
farm liveweights were higher where liveweight losses in transit  
were low.
4.2.5. Weight losses in poultry
Broilers transported for 1.5, 3 and 4.5 h had weight losses of  
1.3, 2.3 and 3.1% respectively (Scholtyssek et al 1977).
In another study Scholtysser and Ehinger (1976) reported  
significant differences in weight losses in broilers were observed  
in some trials after journeys of 2, 4 and 6 h. Blood corticosterone  
concentration and creatine kinease activity, indicating tissue  
damage, reached their highest values after 4 h of transport.
4.3. Influence of transport on meat quality
In addition to the problems of bruising and loss of carcass  
weight discussed in the previous two sections, transportation  
of meat animals to slaughter may adversely affect meat quality.
The two most common stress-related meat quality defects are pale,  
soft, exudative (PSE) and dark-cutting or dark, firm, dry (DFD)  
meat. PSE meat is of normal acidity and keeping quality, but is  
abnormally pale and watery and gives lower yields in cooked and  
processed products. DFD meat is of low acidity, poor keeping  
quality, dark in colour, and has a high water-binding capacity.  
Abnormally low pH values in the hot carcass (pH^ values below  
6.0) are associated with PSE meat, whereas high final or ulti­
mate pH values (pH values above 6.0) indicate DFD meat.

62.
4.3.1. Meat Quality in Cattle
According to Leach (1982) the most common defect in beef attri­
butable to transport is probably dark-cutting, in which in vivo  
depletion of the glycogen reserves of the muscles results in  
failure of the pH to fall to normal levels post mortem.
Prolonged stress, emotional as well as physical, which may  
result from mixing strange animals, e.g. in overnight lairing,  
withholding food and water or exposure to marked diurnal tempera­
ture variations. Substantial losses of muscle glycogen pre-  
slaughter result in dark-cutting meat. Tarrant and Sherington  
(1980) observed that dark-cutting in beef may be caused by  
hardship arising from higher meat factory throughput of (grass  
fed) cattle in the autumn. When throughput is particularly high,  
stress is likely to result from delays in transport and in­
creased mixing of cattle during the preslaughter periods.
They observed a seasonal effect with more dark-cutters in the  
period September to January (5.2%) than from February to August  
(1.2%). The degree and duration of excitement and anxiety have  
a major effect upon the incidence of dark-cutting (Hedriek, 1981).  
Dark cutting beef was induced by the indiscriminate use of an  
electrical goad such as the "hot-shot". Short-term mistreatment  
(2h) did not produce dark-cutting, but longterm mistreatment  
did. Young bulls are particularly susceptible to the DFD  
condition because of higher levels of aggressive and sexual  
activity among male animals (Tarrant, 1982). There is a period  
of intense behavioural stress after mixing while a dominance  
hierarchy is being established. The reaction of steers to social  
regrouping is less energetic.
Shorthose et al (1972) studied the effects of a long journey  
of 400 Shorthorn steers transported 322 km by road to a railhead.  
The animals were rested for 16 h, with water available, and then  
railed 966 km to the meatworks, a journey which took a further  
42 h. Steers rested and fed for 4 days rather than 2 days after  
the long journey to slaughter had a lower pH in M. longissimus  
Horsi and flpxor profundus 24 h post mortem and a lower 48 h pH

63.
in M vastus .lateralis. It was possible that muscular activity  
during the journey depleted the glycogen concentration of the  
leg muscle (M vastus lateralis) more than in M longissimus  
dorsi. It was of commercial interest that the extra holding  
period reduced the proportion of animals with a 24 h pH value  
above 5.8 in M longissimus dorsi. The extra holding period  
before slaughter did not significantly affect the mechanical  
properties of the cooked leg or loin muscles or the percentage  
loss of weight during cooking.
Cervenka (1968) found, that with increasing distance and duration  
of transport the pH of the meat increased but little in cattle  
transported by rail. Fischer and Augustini (1980) studied the  
effect of different transport temperatures and food deprivation  
for several days. Holstein-Friesian bulls were transported for  
4 h in an air conditioned truck at 2, 12 or 36° C and 65%  
relative humidity and were slaughtered immediately afterwards.  
Temperature had no effect on heart rate, but at 36°C ambient  
temperature the rectal temperature was significantly raised  
during transport. Measurements taken at 45 min and 48 h post  
mortem showed a tendency towards lower glycogen and higher  
lactate and glucose contents, particularly in M semitendinosus  
and M semimembranosus.  Final pH and water binding capacity were  
not influenced by this treatment. In bulls transported under  
the same conditions but then penned without feed for 48 h before  
slaughter, muscle glycogen decreased by 50% and half the animals  
had final pH values higher than 6.2 in M longissimus dorsi.
Final pH values and water-binding capacity values in other  
muscles also differed significantly between starved and non-  
starved animals.
Cervenca (1971) reported that the meat pH was only marginally  
higher in slaughter cattle transported at higher ambient  
temperature (30 - 34°C) than in cattle transported in a cold  
season (0 to 4°C). Resting bullocks after a long journey of  
1,420 km for two days rather than one day significantly reduced  
the pH values of the M longissimus dorsi at 24 h post mortem

64.
from 5.64 to 5.57 CWythes et al, 1980).
Tarrant (1981) concluded from questionnaires he circulated  
that preslaughter stress was the most frequently cited cause  
of dark-cutting in beef. Problems were associated with in­
adequate handling, transport and penning of cattle. Problems  
with transport were specified as overlong distances or times  
in transit, bad conditions during transport and insufficient  
recovery time after transport. Also climate was seen as an  
important factor causing dark-cutting in beef. The specific  
climatic features mentioned were inclement weather, large  
daily temperature fluctuations and excessively hot or cold  
environmental temperatures.
4.3.2. Meat quality in pigs
In pigs, as in cattle, there is ample evidence that stress  
and exhaustion occur during preslaughter transport and handling.  
Clark (1973) showed that lower meat quality (DFD) and lower  
yield of liver resulted from long distance transport of pigs  
by road in Britain. The average distance travelled by pigs to  
a bacon factory was 193 km. Pigs then fed sugar in solution to  
replenish lost stores of liver and muscle glycogen, gave better  
meat quality (lower ultimate pH values) and better yields of  
liver. Gallwey, Tarrant and McMahon (1977) studied carcass yield  
and meat quality in pigs after road transportation of 80 km  
and overnight lairage at a bacon factory. Their results supported  
those of Clark (1973). They observed that sugar-feeding (2.2 kg  
of syrup) of pigs after transport lowered the ultimate pH of the  
meat, improved the keeping quality of the cured meat, gave a  
higher carcass yield and a substantial increase in liver weight  
compared to control pigs that were held overnight after transport,  
with access to water only.
The ultimate pH of 34% of the muscles of the control group were  
abnormally high (above 6.0) compared with 8% in the sugar-fed  
group. The hot carcass weight of sugar-fed pigs was significantly  
greater than that of the controls, and the carcass yield was

65.
significantly higher for the sugai— fed pigs (77%) than for the  
controls (73.7%). Sugar feeding produced an increase of 34% 
in cold liver weight. The added weight consisted almost entirely  
of carbohydrate and moisture.
Gallwey and Tarrant (1978) showed that there is a relatively  
high incidence of pigmeat of abnormally high ultimate pH value  
(DFD) in the Irish bacon industry. The source of pigs, factory,  
time of year and grade had significant effects on ultimate pH  
value of pork. However, over 80% of total variation in the ulti­
mate pH of pork remained unexplained by the general variables  
mentioned and was considered to be due to specific environmental  
stressors acting on individual pigs during the preslaughter  
period; transport being only a part of it.
Pigs from small fattening units had the lowest pHu values, pigs  
from large fattening units had intermediate values and pigs  
brought at market and from dealers had the highest values.
This was considered to be due to better preslaughter handling  
and transport of pigs from small units. They were usually  
delivered by the owner to a local factory in small unmixed groups.  
The higher values of pigs from large fattening units were probably  
caused by a combination of factors contributing to increased  
stress, such as mishandling during loading and unloading, in­
adequate transport type, fighting among pigs from different  
pens and possible adverse physiological effects of intensive  
husbandry practices. In addition to the above stress factors  
pigs purchased from dealers and markets (which had the highest  
pHu values) frequently suffered from exposure, low nutritional  
status, travel fatigue and the effects of interaction between  
groups collected from different sources.
DFD meat is also a common problem in the British pigmeat  
industry as can be seen from the data of Kempster and Cuthbertson  
(1975) and Chadwick and Kempster (1983). Exhaustion of pigs  
during preslaughter road transportation and penning at the  
factories is a widespread problem with serious economic impli­
cations for the pigmeat industry and negative welfare implications

66.
also. In the Netherlands it was estimated that up to 15% of  
all slaughter pigs suffer from being transported to such a  
degree that their physiology before slaughter and their meat  
quality afterwards are definitely abnormal (van Logtestijn, 1970).
Post mortem muscle metabolism determines the occurrence of PSE  
and DFD properties, and these were also recorded on the basis  
of the chemico-physical properties of the meat. It was found  
that there was an extraordinarily high proportion of PSE meat  
in all conditions of transport studied (about 53% in M lonqissimus  
dorsi and about 31% in M semimembranosus). No definite differences  
in pH value, colour brightness, water-binding capacity and state  
of rigor were observed between the variants.
It is evident that even very careful transportation cannot  
prevent poor quality in the meat if the animal is constitutionally  
disposed in that direction. The results emphasise the need for  
very good ventilation, particularly on sultry days, and a  
reasonable stock density. These measures will be unavailing  
however, unless the constitution of the modern pig can be  
improved by breeding.
In a subsequent experiment with halothane tested pigs it was  
shown that under uniform transport conditions the significant  
differences in PSE occurrence between animals were explained  
almost exclusively by halothane reaction, Augustini and Fischer  
(1982). A further reason for the difference within treatments  
was due to differing degrees of muscling. This supports the  
opinion that the incidence of PSE meat determined more by genetic  
factors than by preslaughter treatment. It is important to  
standardise the method of judgement of meat quality. Von Mickwitz  
(1982) found that at routine meat inspection, of 237,058 slaughtered  
pigs only 99 (0.41%) were classified as PSE, but when measured  
the carcass pH at 45 min post mortem (at the same slaughterhouse)  
the frequency of PSE-type carcasses based on low pH^ values  
increased to 20.6% (239 of 1160 carcasses examined).

67.
According to Nielsen (1982) the longer and more stressful the
preslaughter treatment is for the pigs the more pigs have DFD
meat and the fewer pigs have PSE meat. The author reports an
experiment in which 84 pigs were taken 20 m to the stunning pen  
without any kind of force being used while the same number of  
pigs were normally transported and held in lairage. The results  
showed that the extremely considerate treatment on the day of  
slaughter led to a higher incidence of PSE meat, but no DFD 
occurred. Activity during transport and lairage ensured a certain  
amount of muscle energy (glycogen) consumption and thus fewer  
pigs with PSE meat.
Prange et al (1977) transported (60 to 70 min) a total of  
1,010 slaughter pigs either by truck conventionally or in con­
tainers each of which contained 7 pigs of one fattening group.
The method of transportation did not influence the pH-value,  
colour brightness and drip loss of the pork. Transport losses  
were reduced when the animals were transported in containers due  
to less voluntary muscular activity. However, because the treat­
ment of the animals was the same after arrival at the slaughtei—  
house, the advantage of containerized transport may be lost and  
no benefit achieved in terms of meat quality.
4.3.3. Neat quality in lambs
The effect of transport and physical stress on ultimate pH of  
lambs were studied by Chrystall et al (1982). In the first part  
of the experiment, transport (400 km, 9.5 h) and light exercise  
(2 km walking) were shown to have very little effect on mean  
ultimate pH values of M lonqissimus dorsi but there was an  
increase in intei— animal variability in pH^ values. In the second  
stage, recovery from severe stress was followed by serial slaughter  
of groups of animals. Ultimate pH values were still slightly  
elevated above normal after 24 h of recovery. The intei— animal  
variability in pHu in the stressed groups was very high with  
some animals being relatively insensitive to stress and others  
recovering very rapidly.

68.
4.3.4. Heat quality in poultry
Scholtyssek et al (1977) investigated the influence of transporta­
tion and starvation on the carcass quality of broilers. They  
only found significant physiological effect of stress or  
exhaustion after starvation for longer than 12 h. The carcass  
quality showed little affect, only the tenderness was reduced,  
when the birds were starved for longer than 12 h.
Ristic and Schon (1977) studied the effect of transport distances  
of 10 - 15, 36 and 90 km in broilers. The water-binding capacity  
of water-cooled carcasses was better after 36 km than after  
either of the other two distances studied.
Ehinger and Gschwindt (1979) investigated the effect of transport  
times between 0 and 6 h on meat quality. They found that water  
binding capacity and loosely bound water were worst after 4 and
3 h of transport, respectively. Meat tenderness was lowest after
4 h. They also found that by increasing waiting periodsthe  
tenderness of the breast and thigh meat decreased. The watei—  
binding capacity also decreased. Female birds had greater  
roasting losses from both breast and thigh meat and higher pH  
in the thigh than male birds. The pH at 15 and 45 min post  
slaughter was 5.87 and 5.74 respectively in non-transported birds,  
6.3 and 6.18 in birds transported for one hour, and 6.1 after
six hours of transport. Ehinger and Geschwindt (1981) studied  
the influence of transportation for 2, 4 and 6 h on meat quality  
and on physiological parameters, in 240 birds of four commercial  
strains (Lohmann, Hybro, Hubbard, Ross). Water-holding capacity  
of raw breast meat, tenderness and cooking losses in thigh and  
breast meat were not substantially influenced by transport and  
strain, but female birds showed inferior results with these  
characteristics. pH ^ was lowered significantly after 4 and 6 h  
of transportation in breast and thigh meat. Scholtyssek and  
Ehinger (1976) examined criteria of meat quality in broilers  
after journeys of 2, 4 and 6 h and found negative effects on the  
shear force values after the longer transport times.

69.
Much work has been carried out on liveweight loss and loss in  
carcase yield following transport. Both occur but vary consider­
ably with different species, transport methods and practices.  
Similar work has been carried out on meat quality with similar  
findings.
Conclusions and recommendations for further research and  
development
It is obvious that transportation is a critical period for the  
animal but the effects of transport can be alleviated by good  
conditions and handling. There is also much evidence that care­
ful handling reduces bruising to livestock and thus to the  
carcase and that most of such damage occurs at loading and un­
loading if the facilities for those procedures and the way in  
which they are carried out are unsatisfactory. As generalisation,  
consideration of all the available and relevant scientific  
information contained in the previous pages, both experimental  
and that obtained by observation under normal working conditions,  
indicates that attention to the preparation of livestock prior  
to transport, improved loading and unloading facilities at the  
beginning and end of transport, improved handling and physical  
transport conditions would all result in improved animal welfare  
during transport of livestock to slaughter.
It is obvious that animals will tire during transport and they  
may be seen to rest in preference to eating after a long journey.  
However, other stressors can still occur on short journeys and  
conclusions on the merits andde-merits of long as against short  
journeys cannot be drawn with any certainty.
To enable a valid conclusion to be reached on the question posed  
at the beginning of this study more information is required on,  
amongst other matters, the interpretation of the various physio­
logical measurements which can be made on livestock during  
transport; which of those measurements are most useful with  
regard to deciding on criteria which will indicate the onset of

70.
distress and the relationship of those physiological measurements  
with a time limit to be set for any journey, and in particular  
the final journey of livestock to the slaughterhouse.
Despite the great deal of available knowledge which if used  
would enable animals to be transported, according to their  
species, age and condition with little stress, there are many  
areas where it is impossible to make specific recommendations  
on transport conditions because vital information is lacking.
The appropriate time prior to a journey, during a journey, and  
after a journey at which feeding and watering by species, age  
and physiological condition is administered is not precisely  
known. There are great differences between the monogastric  
species and the ruminant and there will be considerable differences  
in their requirements at different times of the year. Stocking  
densities by species, age, physiological condition and method  
of transport are based very much on practical observations but  
there is still much more information required, which could be  
obtained by observational studies, before advice on stocking  
densities that provide for all species and all methods of  
transport can be promulgated. In addition the ventilation require­
ments of the various methods of transport are not precisely  
known for all species, age and physiological condition of animals;  
and the effect of lack of rest for all livestock is an area in  
which very little, if any, work has been carried out.
At the present time with the vast majority of transport methods,  
limiting factors for journey time will depend on:
(1) The species (whether ruminant or monogastric) age and  
physiological condition (pregnant or not pregnant, shorn  
or unshorn in the case of sheep etc.)
(2) climatic conditions during the journey
(3) the construction and ventilation of the means of transport
(4) methods of loading and unloading

71.
(5) methods of preparation of Livestock prior to the  
journey
(6) methods of reception of Livestock at the end of the  
journey.
The range of combinations of a L L these factors is aLmost infinite  
and except in a very few instances it is impossibLe to draw  
concLusions on journey time. On a very hot day, with fat pigs,  
poor preparation, with poor Loading faciLities and a poor  
means of transport, alL Lead to the conclusion that the journey  
time must be as short as possible (indeed a journey in such  
conditions may not even be indicated) whereas on the other hand  
with good preparation, good means of transport, with adequate  
room, ventilation, and watering and feeding facilities on board,  
it could be argued that a journey of indefinite length is  
possible without distressing the livestock so carried.
So more information is required before definitive conclusions  
can be reached on what limit should be placed on the duration  
of the transport of livestock being conveyed to slaughter.  
However, it still may not be possible to reach such conclusions  
even after further investigation. Further research is certainly  
required into:
(1) when and how to feed and water animals prior to and during  
transport by age, species and physiological conditions
(2) the importance of rest during transport and by what means  
animals CBn be provided with environments during transport  
in which they can rest, or is there a need for journeys  
to be broken for the provision of rest
(3) stocking densities by species, age, sex and physiological  
condition;
(4) ventilation requirements of the different modes of  
transport for the different species;

72.
(5) the economic effects of the various methods of transporta­
tion on the quality of the meat produced;
(6) information on morbidity and mortality during transport  
by species, age and physiological condition;
(7) investigation of the design of lairages at slaughterhouses  
and the provision of water and feed (or not) prior to  
slaughter;
(8) further investigation of the various physiological measure­
ments which can be used for assessment of changes in the  
physiological and psychological status of livestock and  
the significance of those measurements in relation to  
assessment of any time limit which should be placed upon  
the journey of livestock being moved to slaughterhouses.
There would appear to be two main methods by which this further
research can be carried out and both require the closest possible
co-operation between Member States of the European Communities.
(1) Observational studies of transported livestock in intra-  
Community trade
(2) Laboratory investigations using the expertise and facilities  
which exist within the Community on a co-ordinated basis,  
to encourage the exchange of information in small seminars  
and workshops; by the exchange of research workers; and
the funding of specific research contracts.

73.
6. Acknowledgement
Over a period of three years (1980-1984) a small group of scientists  
with willing helpers examined the scientific literature available.
A number of important studies have been reported since work on this  
examination started in 1980 and there is a clear need for more  
research, development of ideas and training. Those reviewing,  
compiling and editing this report have met on only a few occassions  
and the final document, although the answers are not yet complete,  
is a valued judgement of the information currently available.
The experts involved met under the chairmanship of W. Sybesma,  
Instituut voor Veeteeltkundig Onderzoek, Schoonoord, Zeist, The  
Netherlands. Major contributions were made by D. Buchenauer and  
D. Smidt (D), R. Ddntzer (F), P.N. Demertzis (Gr), M. Verga (I),
P.V. Tarrant (Irl), G.van Putten (NL), R.Moss and D.M. Broom (UK).
Coordination at the Commission of the European Communities was by  
J.Connell and T.Golden. The fine work of all of those involved is most 
gratefully acknowledged and the document produced is an excellent  
example of enthusiastic cooperation and harmonisation of the data  
and views present in many different countries on questions of  
international animal transportation to slaughter.

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89
Appendix 2
8.An examination of transport according to the behaviour of different 
species
The main purpose of this report is to examine questions of transport. 
However since this section, the main and salient points of which are 
in the text, exists dealing with species it seemed useful also to 
present this information as an appendix to the text.
There are obvious differences both within and between species in their 
physiological and behavioural reactions to transport methods and 
practi ces.
1. Horses in transport
The few reports of horses destined for slaughter in international 
long lasting transports are that of Bornkbssel (1982) and Geyer 
(1982). Both authors describe transportation of horses from Poland 
or Soviet Union to France, Belgium or the Netherlands via Germany. 
Bornkessel (1982) gives a description of a rail transport. If the 
horses are found to be fit for transport by Polish veterinarians, 
they are fed and watered before loading, also the shoes have to be 
removed. The horses are tethered in a way that allows them to take 
hay from the floor and lie down. They are separated from any 
neighbour by beams.
From 1973 to 1979 most transport of horses was done by train. But 
since then the transports changed to the road, so that in 1980 only 
9000 (25%) horses were transported by train, but 27000 horses were 
carried by road. The transport of horses by road is criticized by 
Weichert (1981). Heholds the opinion that transport by road is more 
adversive to horses than rail transport and that the inspections at 
the border are not done intensively enough. Little information about 
the physiological response to transport in horses is known. The most 
frequent causes of death or serious sickness were chronic diseases 
of the legs and respiratory organs, and disorders of the heart and 
circulatory system, while injuries were found on the legs and bite 
injuries on the head and neck areas.

90
2. Cattle in transport
Kenny and Tarrant (1981) gave a review of the behaviour of cattle 
during transport and penning before slaughter. The following is an 
extract of this paper. The authors divided behaviour during transport 
in four stages: behaviour after loading, standing in transit, lying 
down in transit, and behaviour in stationary wagons.
Bisschop (1961), one of the cited authors, found two different 
sets of behaviour occurring in the interval between loading and 
departure. In one case, where the interval lasted 1.5 h the 
steers (of mixed breeds) were very nervous and restless, showed 
trembling and kept on butting each other and changing their positions 
in the trucks. They defaecated and urinated copiously. This state 
lasted for the first 4 h after departure. During the following
8.5 h the animals settled down; they stood resting. In two other 
studies of the same author (one consisted of cattle of mixed breeds 
and the other of Afrikanertype cattle), 3 h elapsed between loading 
and departure. No animals showed nervousness, trembling or more 
than normal elimination. They did, however, mill about. The author 
offers no explanation for this difference. However, the first group 
travelled 8 h to the railroad station and seemed to spend just one 
night there. The other groups travelled 2.5 days and 5.5 days 
to the railroad station, respectively. It is possible that the first 
group had not suffi cient time to complete formation of a social 
hierarchy. Sutton (1968), another cited author, noted the behaviour 
after loading of Afrikaner-type oxen from a single herd. Initially 
they were restless and anxious. A high state of alertness was suggested. 
This stage of unsettled behaviour lasted only 30 min, probably due 
to the established nature of the group. According to the mentioned 
authors, groups of cattle tend to settle down soon after departure, 
although occasional groups exhibit continued nervousness as described 
above. While they are in motion, animals stand parallel to each other 
and at right angles to the direction of travel of the train, facing 
indiscriminately in either direction. This position appeared to be 
the best to counteract the sideways sway of the truck when it was 
moving.

91
An animal rarely changes its position while the train is moving, 
once the parallel pattern across the railway truck has been formed. 
Cattle often lie down in the trucks while they are moving. In a
9.5 h journey by road, Anderson (1973) found 25 animals out of 
a total of 494 down. Of these 20 were lying in a normal position 
and were easily brought to their feet. In rail travel the animals 
usually do not lie down until 20 h after the journey has started.
When they were unloaded in rest periods, they remained standing for 
13-17 h after reloading, before the first one lay down. In the course 
of a 96 h journey without off-loading all the cattle lay down at one 
point or another (Sutton, 1967). Up to 13 h travelling after the 
first rest period it was easy to force bullocks to their feet.
From this journey time on, more animals were found down and were 
assisted to their feet with increasing difficulty. After 31 h 
travelling some 50% of the heavier and 25% of the lighter bullocks 
were down in the wagons. The period spent lying down averaged 
15 min, but could be up to 5 h at a time. A greater percentage of 
animals lay down in the padded than in the unpadded wagons.
Standing animals continued to maintain the parallel pattern across 
the truck, although occasionally the animals nearest the one lying 
down stood lengthwise in the truck with their heads over it.
Standing animals were careful not to trample on recumbant ones. 
However, another author found that the animal with the heavier 
bruise trim weight was down in the truck during the journey.
Tramping would be unlikely if the animals were calm or not thrown 
off balance. In transport by road the animals became unsettled when 
the vehicle was stationary. During rail transport the standing 
position was rarely changed until the train came to a halt. The 
animals frequently moved to face the direction while the train was 
moving or to haphazard positions. However, the transverse position 
was immediately re-assumed when the train started to move.
Friend et al. (1981) reported on a long journey of about 2000 km 
by rail and road. As mentioned before 150 Angus X Hereford steer 
and heifer calves weighing about 165 kg were transported from 
Tennessee to Texas. 50 of these calves were loaded into a conventional 
cattle truck and transported directly to the destination point. The 
other calves were transported by truck 750 km where they were trans-

92
ferred to the railcar. After loading the calves immediately commenced 
eating hay and drinking water, reflecting the water deprivation 
during transport to the railcar. The calves remained highly active 
for the first two hours after loading. After 2-5 h after loading 
two-thirds of the animals on the bottom deck were lying down.
None were lying down on the upper deck, but these were disturbed 
several times by personnel checking equipment.
Many of the cattle were lying down while the train was standing 
(-25%’  of the time in transit) or moving at slow speed (30 km/h 
or less). Lying while the car was moving was a common occurrance 
from midnight (6 h after loading) of the first day on. If the ride 
was rough, almost all would stand. Those that remained lying were 
usually along a wall. Examinations of videotapes showed that the 
calves positioned themselves in a random manner throughout the car 
regardless of speed and smoothness of ride. The calves continued 
to eat hay and drink regardless of the smoothness of the ride.
When the car was standing still, consumption was greatly reduced 
as calves lay down to rest. When the car started moving, the calves 
stood up and commenced eating and drinking. Apparent hay (5.1 kg) 
and water 21 l) consumption per head was normal.
The calves showed no heat stress despite the presence of only a 
slight breeze. The combined transport by truck and railcar lasted 
69.2 h and the transport by truck 36 h.
Shorthose et al. (1972) described a transport of cattle in Australia, 
where cattle are transported often long distances to slaughter. In 
this case a group of 400 Shorthorn steers was transported 322 km 
by road to a railroad station. The animals were rested for 16 h, 
with water available and then railed 966 km to the meatwork, a 
journey which took a further 42 h. The cattle had been without feed 
for approximately 4 days. After arrival, three groups of 20 animals 
were split from the group and put into a bare resting paddock. The 
remaining 340 animals were held together, in another bare resting 
paddock. One group (no. 1) had access to water and another group (no.
2) to feed and water for one day after arrival and both groups 
were killed 2 days after arrival. Two groups (no. 3 and 4) were

93
slaughtered 4 days after arrival. Group 3 had access to feed for 
2 days and water for 3 days prior to slaughter and group 4 had 
access to both feed and water for 3 days. In the first 23.5 h in 
the holding paddock the apparent water consumption by the 60 steers 
in the groups 2, 3 and 4 was 25.9 1  /head. 20 l/head was consumed 
in the first 5.5 h. From 23.5 to 50.5 h consumption by the 40 
cattle of groups 3 and 4 was 11.4 l/head in the period 50.5 - 73.5 h 
after entering the holding paddock.
On the first day the apparent consumption of molassed hay was 
0.66 kg/head, groups 2, 3 and 4. This increased to 0.86 kg/head 
on the second day, groups-3 and 4, and 0.92 kg/head on the third 
day, group 4.
Kenny a n d  Tarrant' (1982) in their review report about transportation 
of horned cattle, when animals are left undisturbed there is always 
more activity among groups of horned cattle than among dehorned 
cattle. Heterogenous groups were always midway between the horned 
and hornless groups in activity. On closer observation, most of 
the activity seemed to be of the avoidance type. No serious degree 
of malicious horning or aggressive behaviour was observed but 
many incidences of accidental horning and impedance of free movement 
were noted. Horned cattle find it hard to manoeuvre without brushing 
other stock in the crowded conditions and some horning can occur 
when new positions are being taken up. The incidence of bruising in 
horned groups transported by rail was observed to be 41.8% versus 
20.1% in polled cattle. Other authors observed that there was a 
significantly higher amount of bruised tissue on the carcasses of 
horned cattle transported by truck to the slaughterhouse.
The long horns of Afrikaner type cattle in which the most observations 
have been made are especially likely to cause damages. But Kenny 
and Tarrant (1982) conclude generally that dehorning is an important 
requirement where cattle are transported in groups. Many animals 
are nowadays either polled or alrady dehorned as calves.

9A
During a 24 h air journey, Hereford cattle browsed at hay but did 
not drink and for the most part appeared unconcerned during the 
whole flight. Resting behaviour seemed to be increased in the number 
of animals as the journey went on (Jacksqn, 1974).
Bailey et al. (1982) observed that in sea transport smaller cattle 
should not be kept with more than 40 head per pen even if large 
enough to carry more animals. In larger groups animals can get 
injured when they are caught against the fence while frightened 
animals all push in one direction. The authors recommend that groups 
of large size animals should not contain more than 20 animals for 
the safety of both the animals and their attendants.
The authors found that fou r -footed animals are generally more stable 
and show less stress than humans do during rough seas.
Von Horsten (1979) observed that cattle kept on deck changed their 
ruminating behaviour. With increasing ambient temperature and 
duration of the journey they always started to ruminate sooner 
after eating. Also the time per ruminated bite shortened with the 
duration of the journey. It lasted 70-80 sec at the beginning of 
the journey and decreased to 50-60 sec.
In cattle kept below deck such chanqes could not be observed.
The amount of consumed feed decreased with higher wind velocity in 
both cattle kept on deck and below deck. It also decreased in 
cattle on deck with ambient temperatures higher than 25°C. The feed 
intake of cattle below deck did not change since the temperature 
there was nearly constant. With increasing temperatures cattle on 
deck drank more water, e.g. with temperature of 18°C they drank 
between 24 and 28 kg water and at 28°C the consumption was between 
32 and 38 kg per day.
Bailey et al. (1982) observed the behaviour of steers weighing about 
630 kg during a sea transportation. Five animals were kept in modified 
20 ft containers (standard shipping unit 8 x 8 x 20 ft, approximately 
one-half a truck trailer) equipped with a water bucket and a feed 
trough. From dusk to dusk (a 25 h period) animals were lying down

95
55% of the time, standing 30%, eating grain 7%, eating straw 5%, 
and drinking 3%. In Light periods steers spent more time with 
the activities standing, eating and drinking and Less time with 
Lying down than in night periods.
5. Some physioLogicaL responses of cattLe to transportation
Leach (1982) reports in a review of effects of transports on physio- 
LogicaL systems: in 350 caLves and steers, aged 13-14 months, tran­
sported 35 km to sLaughter, Loading caused high increases in cortisoL, 
gLucose, Lipids, protein Bnd urea, aLL indicating that the animaLs 
were stressed. Tissue protein cataboLism may aLso occur, due to 
gLucocorticoid (cortisoL) action (TrenkLe, 1981), which can resuLt 
in decreasing tissue protein. Steers were more affected than caLves.
In animaLs then fasted 24 h before sLaughter gLycogen vaLues were 
halved and 48 h fasting reduced them seven foLd , compared with 
animaLs ki LLed on arrivaL. In 1.5 - 2.5 year oLd heifers
transported by road for 1.5 h and in 2.5 - 4.5 year oLd cows
transported for 2 h cortisoL Levels and total white cell counts 
showed a marked increase over pre-transport values. The white cell 
count had returned to normal vaLues within 10 h, while cortisoL Level 
was normal within 48 h.
Serum enzyme activity of caLves, weighing 107 - 165 kg, transported 
by road 266 - 310 km, rose significantly; GOT increased by 7 - 38%, 
GPT 29 - 83%, LDH 14 - 42% and CPK 30 - 38%. The rate and degree 
of rise was greatest for CPK, but it aLso fell most rapidLy.
In cattLe serum vaLues of GOT, LDH, and aldosterone (ALD) rose after 
transport and continued to increase to the time of sLaughter, 20 - 
50 h Later. The rise in ALD was most marked and related to transport 
distance, age and ambient temperature. After Long journeys pH was 
normal or slightly Lowered, pCO^ vaLues were consistently decreased. 
Chloride Levels were always raised and some groups showed a sLight 
hypocalcaemia. In 18 - 30 month old Limousin cattLe transported 
by road for over 500 km blood vaLues of PCO 2 and PO 2 decreased while 
pH increased.

96
Transportation has been shown to result in a decreased plasma 
concentration of glucose and total proteins with a concomitant 
increased level of urea and uric acid (Agnes and Genchi., 1972).
These authors suggested that such changes resulted from the muscular 
activity and starvation imposed by the journey. Stephens (1982) 
studied the effect of a road journey on kidney function in very 
young calves (usually under 1 week) intended for slaughter. From 
group of 14 such calves bLCôd sampLes were taken for urea estimation 
at a market. Some degree of dehydration was observed as a conse­
quence of scouring, while microscopic observations of the kidney in 
transport death calves showed signs of tissue degeneration.
Subsequently the calves were loaded onto a standard cattle transporter
capable of carrying up to 100 calves. After a 4-hours
journey to the abattoir a second blood sample was taken immediately.
The data for the blood urea levels were 50.2 mg/ml on the start 
and 59.1 mg/ml on the end of the journey. The difference was not 
si gni ficant.
According to Stephens. (1982) in simulated transport studiesthere was 
small decrease of 5% in renal blood flow during the first few minutes 
of exposure. After a few minutes, the renal blood flow regained 
normal levels and than was elevated for the duration (45 min) of 
transport stimulation. Heart rate increased from 100 beats/min 
to over 140 beats/min and remained at this level for the duration 
of the transport stimulation.
Stephens (1982) investigated the effects of transportation on heart 
rate (HR) and plasma corticosteroid levels in calves aged 2 - 4  months. 
Calves standing and unfettered, HR was elevated from a resting level 
of about 80 beats/min (b.p.m.) to about 110 - 115 b.p.m. for 1 hour 
while the transporter was in motion.
Morisse. et al. (1982) report some changes in blood components and 
biochemical parameters of 25 young calves stressed by transportation 
and starvation compared to 25 calves of the same age kept in optimal 
conditions at the farm of origin. Results show significant differences 
in stressed animals concerning: increase in thrombocytes and neutro­
phils counts, decrease in lymphocytes counts, increase in urea and

97
serotonine (serum and total blood),, increase in creatinine and 17 
hydroxysteroids (urine), decrease in proteins, gamma-globulins and 
glycemia (serum).
The effect of transportation on blood serum composition was investi­
gated by Mormede et al. (1981). Blood samples were taken before, 
during and after a 12 h transport by road with a stop at a transit 
centre. Transport induced increases in blood urea, creatinine, 
bilirubine, SGOT and LDH, suggestive of damages to kidney and liver. 
Energetic metabolites (glucose, triglycerides) were observed to 
decrease. Some degree of cellular damage was evident from the 
increased level of beta-glucuronidase. For most variables, the changes 
observed at the different stages of the transport were additive, 
a result which would suggest that they reflect more the effect of 
the transport duration than the consequences of the different components 
of the transport process. Trucking the calves produced an increase 
in cortisol levels which was maximum at the time of arrival in the 
transit centre. The cortisol levels returned to initial levels 
within one day. Plasma cortisol levels are of limited interest since 
the pituitary-adrenal axis habituates very rapidly (Dantzer, 1982).
4. Pigs in transport
To estimate strains of transportation Augustini and Fischer (1982) 
investigated the heartrate during transportation. For this purpose 
77 barrows weighing 100 kg were transported singly for 14.5 min.
The highest frequency rates were observed before and after transport.
The values climbed steeply during driving to the weighing point, 
they dropped slightly while weighing and climbed even more during 
driving to the lorry. Within t he first minutes inside the lorry 
the heart rate dropped sharply. During transport the rate remained 
at a relatively constant level of about 130 beats/min. During tran­
sport no animal lay down but, rather, they intensively investigated 
the new surroundings. While unloading and weighing at the end of 
the transport, the heart rate values again increased. During 
transport the rectal temperature increased on average by 0.7°G (from
39.05 in stall to 39.70 immediately after transport). A rest period 
of 45 minutes was needed before these values dropped, but the initial

98
values in the stall were not reached in this time.
The authors also compared loading either with the tail-gate lift 
or by ramp. During loading with the tail-gate lift the heart rate 
dropped whereas ramp-loading led to a steep rise in heart rate.
The initial value in the stall was 83.1 beats/min., during driving 
to the lorry 194.7 and during loading 217.8. A further investigation 
of the same authors showed, when limits of loading density (0.35 
or 0.70 m2/100 kg), temperature (2°C, 19°C, 29°C) and relative 
humidity (60 or 90%) are exceeded during transport special stress 
is placed on the pig. The testing of various combinations of these 
factors during constant duration of transport (100 min.) showed the 
strong influence of transport distance. In all situations the heart 
rate decreased with increasing duration of transport. The degree of 
decrease was influenced by respective treatment combinations.
Without considering relative humidity and loading density, transport 
at 19°C produced more favourable values than that at 2°C or 29°C.
2
Relative humidity (60 and 90%) and loading density (0.35 and 0.70 m / 
100 kg liveweight) led to differing results in each temperature range. 
The values were obviously strongly influenced by varying levels of 
physical activity during thermoregulation and by the amount of room 
avai lable.
The values at loading and at the end of transport were closely 
correlated. In many cases there was also a highly significant corre­
lation between rectal temperature and heart frequency.
Augustini andFischer (1977) estimated the degree of exhaustion with 
the help of a grading system. Slaughter pigs were transported for 
100 min. with the above mentioned densities and temperatures. The 
highest degree of exhaustion showed pigs which were transported at 
a density of 0.35 m2 and at temperatures of 19°C, and 29°C and at a 
humidity of 90%.
The lowest degree of exhaustion were observed in pigs which were 
transported at lower density (0.70 (m ) and temperatures of 2°C with 
60% humidity and 19°C with 60%. The activity after transport was 
highest in pigs which were transported at 19°C.

99
According toMickwitz (1982) the heart rate during transport
of slaughter pigs under practical conditions were influenced by 
times of feeding prior to commencement of transportation. He found 
that pigs fed 24 h-prior to the transport had the lowest heart rate 
during, and immediately after transport and during the rest period 
instead of animals which were fed 1, 4, 8 or 12 h prior to the 
transport.
Sybesma. et al. (1978) reported on the cause of genetic constitution 
and deathrate. Investigations showed that the Malignant Hyperthermia 
Syndrome is genetically determined by a autosomal recessive 
hereditary trait. There are differences in susceptibility between 
different breeds. The meaty type Pietrain is more susceptible to 
stress than less meaty breeds. Only 3.1% of Large White pigs reacted 
halothane positive, while in Dutch Landrace 22.2%. The deathrate of 
halothane positive pigs during transport was 3.35%, whereas in none 
susceptible pigs deathrate was only a tenth of it (0.32).
The author reported on other experiments, in which from 172 crossbred 
pigs 44 pigs reacted positive. Of those during transport 3 animals 
died, while none of the 128 negative reacting pigs died. From 557 
Dutch Landrace pigs, more than 226 reacted positive and 331 reacted 
negative. The losses were 13 and 7 (0.57% and 0.21%, resp.) The 
author concluded that effective selection for a pig more resistant 
to transport loss is possible.
5. Behaviour of pigs on transport
On a 7 day long journey from England to Italy by train Jackson (1973) 
observed no signs of restlessness which was not due to the pigs being 
either thirsty or hungry. The pigs did not appear to be affected by 
the movement of the wagon, although when violent shunting was being 
carried out, they were all on their feet, swaying in unison. They 
did huddle on few occasions when it became cold, but most of the time 
they were happily wandering around the pen, only becoming disturbed 
at meal times. All pens tended to behave in the same way even though 
they were well separated from each other. If one pen was sleeping, 
the other pens tended to be sleeping, if one pen had a few pigs on

100
its feet and the rest sleeping the other pens were usually the same.
One form of play was very noticeable. Each pen of pigs happened 
to have three metal rings located one foot above floor level. Much 
of the time pigs would be playing with these, sometimes two pigs 
would be playing with the same ring at the same time but more 
usually only one pig. The ring would be nosed and bitten by the pigs. 
The author concluded that rail travel is an excellent way of 
moving animals on long journeys provided they are accompanied.
Augustini et al. (1977) observed pigs during transportation by road 
at different densities (0.35 and 0.70 m /pig) and temperatures 
(2°, 19°, 29°C). At low temperature during transportation pigs 
shivered with cold especially if the humidity was high. The higher 
animat density led to considerable motor activity until each animal 
found a place, then the pigs calmed down quickly. At 19°C the 
animals felt well at Low density (0.70 m /pig) whereas in high 
density at the same temperature pigs showed high excitation and 
panic reactions. They calmed down very slowly. If there was at the 
same temperature the higher humidity many animals breathed heavily. 
According to Pearson and Killgour(1980) several authors considered 
that pigs do not fight during motion but do so when the vehicle is 
stationary. In addition a correlation has been found between the 
number of bites and the time the lorry was standing still. When 
the transport times were reduced by 50% by cutting out long stops 
the number of bites was reduced by 23%.
6. Some physiological responses of pigs to transport
Herding pigs to a lorry and subsequent transport led to increases 
in haemoglobin and hexokinase activity, indicating stress. The levels, 
however, returned to normal after 1.5 to 2 hrs rest. Blood values 
of haemoglobin, hexokinase and lactate were also lowered by a resting 
period at the slaughterhouse (Prange et al. 1977).

101
Sheep in transport
Platt (1982) recommends that sheep transported by sea should be 
allowed to make some adjustments before sailing because in the 
event of initial rough weather conditions injuries could be caused 
on overcrowded pens and inpartially occupied pens. According to the 
same author sheep are kept to about 50-60 head per pen. Each pen 
contains three feed and three water troughs. The daily ration of 
feed is about 1 kg/animal in two feeds, water is supplied continuously. 
The normal air flow is not sufficient to dissipate the levels of 
humidity and ammonia in the centre pens. There the installations of 
fans is indicated to disperse fumes when animals are resting.
After the author the most common diseases are those of respiratory 
and gastro-intestinal tracts, also infections keratitis (pink eye).
With voyages of 10-14 days duration, there are significant loss of 
condition with accompanying sickness and mortalities during the 
latter half of the journey. Losses of 1.2 to 1.4% are not uncommon, 
which means 1000-1500 sheep die on the larger stock carriers.
If sheep are not kept separately with respect to the same age, higher 
deathrates among sub-adults arise. Carcass examinations showed that 
these animals could not compete for food with older and more 
aggressive animals. A more judicious grading system at the time of 
loading to separate animals is necessary. The author points out 
the importance of a rest of at least 24 h after embarkation before 
further transport.
Some physiological responses of sheep to transportation 
Reid and Mills (1962) found that the cortisol and blood glucose level 
were less affected during transport in sheep accustomed to indoor 
housing compared with those taken directly from pasture. Pearson and 
Killgour (1976) took plasma cortisol levels at the time of throat cat, 
it has been found that the levels rise from a base of less than 
10 ng/ml to 22.7 + 6.0 ng/ml for travelling 20 km, 49.8 + 10.9 ng/ml 
for 30 km, 69.7 + 19.2 ng/ml for 60 km and a peak of 77.9 + 18.3 ng/ml 
for those travelling 100 km to the abattoir, even though the journey 
was on the day before slaughter. Greater distances travelled continued 
to give high levels of cortisol ranging between 61.0 + 22.3 ng/ml

102
and 76.3 + 13.7 ng/ml, up to 225 km. As all the lambs arrived at 
the abattoir within a few hours of one another and were subjected 
to similar treatment, there appears to be some link between the 
distance travelled from the farm at the levels of plasma cortisol 
next day at slaughter.
According to Pearson et al. (1977) in transport up to 2 hours there 
is an increase of the mean level of cortisol. Subsequently there 
was a slight fall as travelling time further increased to 8 hours. 
Killgour and De Langen (1970) studied short term transportation in 
sheep. Using a fluorimetric assay they estimated a cortisol level 
of 66 ng/ml in 12 sheep after a 90 min. truck journey compared with 
minimal disturbance levels of 36 ng/ml.
Behaviour of sheep
Sutton and De Heever (1968) observed sheep on a long rail trip and 
they found that adult Merino sheep seldom lie down in railway trucks 
even on a 5-day journey. When rested after 2 to 4 days travelling 
without water or food no preference was shown, but after 5 days 
there was a preference for water. In the rest pens only 0.4 kg of 
lucerne hay per sheep was eaten in 24 hours, indicating that if the 
regulatory 4 h rest was given, very little food would be taken up. 
Ewbank (1975) concluded from studies on the road transport of store 
lambs indicating that after transport and return to their field, 
these lambs grazed for only 2 to 3 hours and spent the next 22 hours 
resting. According to Killgour (1976) where animals have not been 
able to lie down (older stock start to lie down for longer periods 
after long journeys) resting takes precedence over feeding on arrival 
at the destination. This was also the reaction of trucked calves 
during halting times.
Some physiological responses of poultry to transport 
A significant effect of stress in poultry can be measured by the 
content of corticosterone and creatine kinase. Both increased signi­
ficantly, reaching the highest concentrations following 4 hrs of 
transport (Scholtyssek & Ehringer·, 1976). Besides stress this also 
indicates tissue damage as a consequence of transportation.

1G3
Corticosterone appeared to be correlated at a high level with the 
amount of loosely bound water. This is in agreement with other 
findings concerning meat quality. Water binding capacity had a 
minimum at 3 hrs following transport in combination with decreasing 
tenderness in breast and thigh meat (Gschwindt SEhringer., 1979). 
Other blood parameters, as haemoglobin, haematocrit, serum proteins, 
lipids and cholesterol also showed significant effects due to 
transportation, which was reflected in meat pH too ('Eh ringer & 
Gschwindt, 1981). Another factor occurring in relation to transport 
is starvation. In broilers, exposed to stress situations as star­
vation and transport, a physiological imbalance developed (Gschwindt, 
1977). Liver glycogen, microhaematocrit, total serum lipids and 
proteins changed significantly in a short time whereas blood glucose, 
serum cholesterol and creatine kinase were only significantly changed 
after longer periods of stress.