Contents

Introduction 3

1. Equal economic independence 5

1.1 Progress towards equal economic independence 5

1.2 A comprehensive policy mix to promote female employment 11

1.3 Supporting female entrepreneurs 18

2. Equal pay for equal work and work of equal value 18

2.1 The gender pay gap 18

2.2 The risk of poverty or social exclusion 21

2.3 Education achievements, key skills and their use at work 23

2.4 Persistent gender segregation in the labour market 26

3. Equality in decision-making 27

3.1 Gender (im)balance on boards of large listed companies 27

3.2 Women and men in political decision-making 30

3.3 Women’s under-representation in senior positions in media organisations 32

3.4 Gender equality in sports organisations 34

4. Dignity, integrity and ending gender-based violence 34

4.1 First European Survey on Violence Against Women: building an Evidence Base 34

4.2 Eliminating female genital mutilation 35

4.3 Violence against women: prevention and protection 36

5. Gender equality in external actions 37

6. Horizontal issues 40

Introduction

The European Union (EU) has promoted equality between women and men over the past five decades, and continued to do so in 2013. This report provides an overview of the main EU policy and legal developments on gender equality during the last year, as well as inspirational examples of policies and actions in Member States. It also analyses recent trends, on the basis of scientific evidence and key indicators that shape the debate on gender equality, and includes a statistical annex with more details on national performances.

The report is structured around the six priorities of the European Commission’s Strategy for equality between women and men 2010-15[1], namely: equal economic independence; equal pay for equal work and work of equal value; equality in decision-making; dignity, integrity and ending gender-based violence, gender equality in external action policy, and horizontal issues.

There has been progress in most areas, but achieved at an uneven pace. At this rate of change, it will take almost 30 years to reach the EU’s target of 75% of women in employment, over 70 years to make equal pay a reality, over 20 years to achieve parity in national parliaments (at least 40% of each gender), over 20 years to achieve gender balance on the boards of Europe’s biggest companies and almost 40 years to ensure that housework is equally shared. In other words, if nothing changes, many of us won’t live long enough to see equality between women and men achieved.

Although there were still gender gaps in 2013, they have significantly shrunk in recent years:

o Women’s employment rate stands at 63%, and that of men at 75%. During the financial and economic crisis, women’s participation in the economy and their contribution to family finances have increased, thereby decreasing the gender employment gap. In the meantime, women still bear the brunt of unpaid work within the household and family. Women spend an average of 26 hours on care and household activities, compared with 9 hours for men.

o Boys are more likely to drop out of school and women outperform men in higher education.

o Despite their investment in education, women are paid 16% less than men per hour of work. In addition, they are more likely to work part-time and to interrupt their careers to care for others. As a results, the gender gap in pensions stands at 39%. Widows and single parents — mainly mothers — are a particularly vulnerable group, and more than a third of single parents are poor.

o Moreover, segregation is omnipresent in the labour market: only 16% of employed people work in mixed occupations. Women are still less likely to hold senior positions. They account for an average of 17.8% of the members of boards of directors in the largest publicly-listed companies, 2.8% of the CEOs, 27% of senior government ministers, and 27% of members of national parliaments.

o Research and Innovation are no exception – in the last decade the number of women PhD graduates increased faster than that of men. Nevertheless, women are still greatly under-represented in particular at the top level of academic careers; only 20% of top level academics are women and just one out of ten universities in the European Union has a female Rector.[2]

o The results of the first EU wide survey on violence against women, carried out by the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) and based on interviewees with 42,000 women show that one in three women (33%) has experienced physical and/or sexual violence since the age of 15. One in 20 women (5%) has been raped[3].

In light of these figures the EU has taken significant actions in 2013 to accelerate the progress towards genuine equality:

o In the framework of the Europe 2020 strategy for growth, country-specific recommendations aimed at promoting female employment were addressed to 13 Member States. To support Member States, significant co-funding possibilities will be offered through the 2014-20 European Structural and Investment Funds. In the previous 2007-13 period, an estimated EUR 3.2 billion from the Structural Funds was allocated to invest in childcare facilities and promote women’s participation in the labour market, which had a significant leverage effect. Since 2007, the proportion of children cared for in formal childcare facilities significantly increased (from 26% in 2007 to 30% in 2011 for children under three years old, and from 81% to 86% for children between three and compulsory school age[4]).

o The European Commission increased its efforts to make equal pay a reality, by raising awareness about the remaining gender pay gap and monitoring the application of legislation on equal treatment of women and men.

o In 2012, the Commission adopted a proposal for a Directive with an objective of 40% for the under-represented sex among non-executive directors by 2020 and the European Parliament supported its objective and approach in 2013.

o In 2013, the EU protected women and girls from gender-based violence through legislation, practical measures on victims’ rights and a comprehensive policy package against female-genital mutilation. It also co-funded 14 national governments campaigns against gender-based violence (with EUR 3.7 million), as well as projects led by non-governmental organisations (with EUR 11.4 million).

o The EU promoted gender equality in international fora, in its development and humanitarian plans and actions, and in its neighbourhood and enlargement policies.

The mid-term review of the Strategy for Equality between Women and Men, which was published in 2013, complements this report by providing detailed information about how each Commission service and the European External Action Service contribute to the strategy’s implementation and to planned actions.

The report illustrates that well-designed policies can accelerate progress and contribute to closing gender gaps, so that gender equality is not a distant dream anymore. Focused actions at EU level, in the form of legislation, recommendations, co-funding possibilities or awareness-raising activities, have contributed to close the gaps.

1. Equal economic independence 1.1 Progress towards equal economic independence

In the third quarter of 2013 in Europe as a whole, the male employment stabilised just below 75%, while the female employment rate increased slightly for the third year running and reached 63%. The gap between employment levels gradually shrank as a direct consequence of the financial and economic crisis, which has pushed back male employment to pre 2000 levels and led women to increase their participation in the economy. However, the female employment rate progressed much more rapidly before the crisis. From 2002 to 2008, the proportion of employed women increased by 4.5 points in the EU-28, while the proportion of employed men increased by 2.5 points. As a total, the employment gap diminished by almost a third over the past 10 years.[5]

Figure 1 - EU-28 male and female employment rate (%) and gender gap in employment rate, people aged 20-64, 2002-2013Q3

Source: Eurostat, LFS (Labour Force Survey), 2013Q3 means data of the third quarter of 2013

The EU’s target employment rate is 75% for both women and men. The male employment rate is already close to this target. There are two questions that we must ask next:

If current trends continue, when will parity be achieved? How has the crisis affected achieving the target?

A basic answer assumes that trends are constantly linear, so we can take the annual growth in percentage points and see how many years it will take to reach the target. In the pre-crisis scenario, the target of 75% female employment would have been met by 2021. However, if the current macroeconomic and social trends were to continue, the target would be reached in 2038. (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Projections on meeting the 75% employment target based on alternative scenarios

Note: the red line shows the projection based on the 2002-08 average growth rate. The blue line shows the projection based on the 2002-12 average growth rate. For 2008-12 the distance between the red and the blue line can be interpreted as the cost of the downturn on potential employment outcomes. It shows the distance between actual and potential (based on the pre-crisis rate) outcomes. Source: Eurostat, LFS

The overall picture hides the diversity of experiences EU countries have had since 2002 (see Figures 3 and 4). Many countries with low female employment rates compared to the EU average made significant progress, but their progress was interrupted by the crisis. The female employment levels returned to those seen in 2002 in the most-affected countries. However, the female employment rate in 15 countries stabilised or slightly increased between 2012 and the third quarter of 2013. Today, nine countries have a female employment rate below 60% (compared to 12 countries in 2002). Only one country, Sweden, has maintained a female employment rate above 75% in 2000-13.

In the third quarter of 2013, unemployment reached historically high levels for both men and women: Today in Europe 11.2 million women are unemployed compared to 13.3 million men. Southern Europe (Italy, Spain, Greece, Portugal, Cyprus, Malta) is particularly affected, with 5.1 million unemployed women and 5.8 million unemployed men.

Figure 3 – Female and male employment rates (in %) and the gender gap in the employment rate, people aged 20-64, 2013Q3

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Figure 4 – Female employment rates: changes in percentage points between 2002-08 and 2008-13

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Some people who can’t find a job may decide to stop looking and hence drop out of the labour force — what is known as ‘the discouraged worker effect’. Others may decide to supplement falling incomes by working more in order to compensate — ‘the added worker effect’. In this way, some individuals who were not on the labour market previously may start looking for a job. Figure 5 shows that the ‘discouraged worker effect’ is overwhelmingly a male phenomenon, while ‘added workers’ are predominantly female. In a majority of countries, women are more likely than men to increase their offer of labour during the crisis.

Figure 5 - Change in men’s and women’s participation rate: The added worker effect versus the discouraged worker effects across Europe, 2008-12

Source: Eurostat, LFS

The developments in part-time work

Much of the pre-crisis increase in female employment related to part-time employment. The crisis led to an almost equal increase in part-time employment for men and for women — of around one percentage point in 2008-12, from a low starting point for men.

Men still account for less than a quarter of part-time employees. The share of men working part-time is small (8.2%), whereas almost a third of employed women across Europe work part-time (32%). This figure is above 40% in the UK, Germany, Austria, Belgium and the Netherlands (see figure 6). Consequently, if the same analysis is carried out using full-time equivalents, the female employment rate appears more modest (see annex).

Figure 6 –The share of part-time employment among women employees before and during the crisis

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Moreover, fewer women than men transition out of part-time into full-time work. The transition rate is particularly low for women in the Netherlands, Austria and Germany[6]. In other words, part-time status is more likely to be irreversible for women.

Gender imbalances in unpaid work

Women face such difficulties in paid employment because they shoulder the brunt of essential yet unpaid work in the context of the family (such as caring for children or adults and housework). According to a report released in 2013[7] and based on 2010 data, women still spend 26 hours a week in unpaid work, against nine hours for men. In 2005-10 the unpaid work gender gap among male and female workers shrank (see Figure 7): in 2005, the average EU-28 female worker spent 20 hours more than the average male worker on unpaid work, while in 2010 this difference fell to 17 hours. However, this reduction is mainly due to the decline in hours female workers spend on unpaid work (children, housework, caring for adults). The time men spend on unpaid work increased by only half an hour per week.

In other words, men carried out 23% of unpaid work in 2005 and 26% in 2010. At this rate of change, it will take almost 40 years to achieve equality in unpaid work: the contribution of men is projected to reach 50% in 2050.

Figure 7 – EU-28 average time spent by male and female workers on unpaid work per week, and the gender gap

Sources: European Working Condition Survey 2005 & 2010, Eurofound

Young people’s difficulties in finding a job

The EU economy's recovery potential depends largely on how it treats young people attempting to integrate into the adult world. A young person leaving compulsory education can continue in full time education, undertake training or find a job. Those who cannot participate in any of these three activities, called the ‘Not in Education, Employment or Training’ (NEET)[8], may feel cut off from the world of production and possibly even relegated to the margins of society.

Over the last ten years, the NEET rate has a familiar shape; it fell before 2008 and rose after. However, the NEET rate is consistently higher for women. In other words, young women find it harder than young men to enter the labour market. The proportion of completely inactive women, i.e. those far removed from the labour market, remains double that of men (see Figure 8).

Figure 8 - EU-28 NEET rate (%) by type and gender for youth aged 15-29, 2002-2012

Source: Eurostat, LFS

In order to halt and reverse the curve of the NEET rate, all Member States have put in place a Youth Guarantee[9] in 2013, ensuring that all young people under 25 get a good-quality offer within four months of leaving formal education or becoming unemployed. This Youth Guarantee should pay special attention to the gender and diversity of young people.

While we can expect women to play a more significant role in the economic recovery once this picks up, we must be cautious for three reasons. Firstly, the increase in women’s offer of labour has not yet been translated into an increase in jobs — in many countries more women are looking for work, but are unable to find jobs. Secondly, gender inequalities still persist, including among the younger generation. Thirdly, in order to increase female employment a number of supportive policies need to be put in place to enable women to achieve their goal. It is to these public policies that we will now turn.

1.2 A comprehensive policy mix to promote female employment

A policy-mix comprising affordable and quality childcare, neutral tax and benefits systems, flexible working time arrangements and the provision of paid leave for both genders can support men and women in reconciling work and family and effectively promote female employment.

Childcare facilities: the Barcelona targets

Childcare remains overwhelmingly a women’s responsibility. In 2010, 80% of parents who felt they had to reduce their working time to care for children were women[10]. The access to child care services plays a crucial role in women’s decisions to take part in paid employment. The EU recognized this and set the ‘Barcelona targets[11]’ for Member States in this area. In June 2013 the European Commission also released a detailed analysis of progress towards the Barcelona targets and the European Parliament organized a workshop on this topic in November. [12]

Across Europe, 83% of kindergarten-age children (three years old to mandatory school age) are in formal care facilities (see Figure 9). Many countries are still far away from the target for this group age (90%): Romania, Poland, Croatia, Bulgaria and Lithuania do not even reach 70%. Nevertheless, most countries showed considerable progress between 2005 and 2011, in some cases (Portugal) spectacularly so (see Figure 10).

Figure 9 - Percentage of children between the age of three and mandatory school age cared for in formal structures (and by weekly time spent in care), 2011

Source: Eurostat, EU-SILC

Figure 10 - Change in childcare provision for children between the age of three and mandatory school age (in percentage points), 2005-2011

Source: EU-SILC

The situation is more varied for younger children. Some countries already meet the Barcelona target (i.e. 33% of children in formal childcare), while others have essentially not started working towards the target yet, reaching less than 5% in 2011 (Poland, Romania, Slovakia). Some countries have clearly embraced this as a key strategic target, showing impressive growth between 2005 and 2011 (France, Luxembourg, Slovenia, the Netherlands, which met the target, and Greece, Austria and Germany, which did not meet the target).

Figure 11 - Percentage of children under three years old cared for in formal structures (and by weekly time spent in care) in 2011

Source: Eurostat, EU-SILC

Figure 12 - Change in provision of childcare for children under three (in percentage points), 2005-11

Source: Eurostat, EU-SILC

To support Member States in developing childcare facilities and promoting female employment, significant funding possibilities (EUR 3.2 billion from the 2007-13 Structural Funds) were allocated. Significant steps towards increasing childcare availability and affordability and towards diversifying the care offered have also been taken in several Member States. Examples include:

In its 2014 budget the Maltese Government announced the introduction of free and universal childcare, which will be available by April 2014, and which will be set up under public-private partnerships. Both parents must be in full- or part-time employment to benefit from the scheme.

An exchange of good practices was organised in November 2013 in France, which has succeeded in developing a diversified childcare supply that has expanded over the last 15 years The French childcare system offers different choices for families (e.g. type, number of hours, location of childcare facilities, etc.). The provision and accessibility of information for the relevant parties has improved through the development of a dedicated website (www.mon-enfant.fr), as well as initiatives at the municipal level[13].

To boost development of childcare institutions, Polish Ministry of Labour and Social Policy has prepared amendments of Act on care for children under three years of age. New provisions which came into force in July 2013 reduces the commune's own contribution from 50% to 20% of the establishment and operational costs of childcare institutions, as well as expands the list of companies able to apply for funding from the state budget for the establishment of care institutions, it also extents the catalogue of entities that may hire daily carers. Parallel to the Act, the Ministry has launched “Toddler Programme“ which goal is to encourage local self-governments to establish nurseries and kids clubs for children under 3 years old. By the end of 2013, around 3 thousand new childcare places, nurseries and children's clubs were created. This Programme also covers social security and health insurance contributions for nannies.

In some other Member States (Ireland, Spain) substantial spending cuts have affected the availability (closing down of childcare facilities), quality (understaffing) and affordability of childcare services.

Tax and benefit systems: disincentives for second earners – mainly women

During the crisis, women increase their contribution to the household income and the proportion of “male breadwinner” household decrease. In most countries dual-earner couples with a secondary earner female[14] are the largest group (see annex). Dual-earner couples with a secondary earner male are much less common. Couples with roughly equal earnings make up around 1/5 of all couples.

Tax and benefits systems may create specific fiscal disincentives that trap secondary earners into their status. Joint and progressive tax systems are more likely to create disincentives, because any income adding up to that of the primary breadwinner tends to be taxed at a higher tax rate. In the early 1980s, the EU took a stance against joint taxation, which helped introduce individual taxation in most EU Member States. Nevertheless several Member States still have joint taxation system. In France, Luxembourg and Portugal couples are jointly assessed for tax purposes. Ireland and Germany have joint taxation, with an option for individual taxation; individual taxation is the default in Estonia, Spain, Poland, and Malta though a joint assessment option is available. Occasional elements of joint taxation remain in the Belgian, Bulgarian, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Lithuanian, Latvian and the Dutch income tax codes, although the unit of taxation is the individual. Moreover, even if the tax code is individualised, the benefit system is often not, or at least not entirely. For example, child-related allowances and benefits are assessed against family income in most countries. Last but not least, several tax systems grant a ‘non working spouse allowance’ which is lost if the spouse in question takes up employment. Taking into account both tax and benefits, a recent study[15] shows that, in a number of countries (Belgium, Greece, France, Romania, Slovenia and Germany, Portugal and Belgium), the tax-benefit system penalizes dual-earner couples and does not encourage secondary earners to work more.

Flexible working arrangements

Flexible working arrangements enable employees to vary their working hours and adapt them to their personal and family needs, which makes a better work-life balance possible. According to recent data, women reported less access to family-related work schedule flexibility than men in most European countries. Moreover, the access to family-related work schedule flexibility differs across social groups and across countries. For instance the share of workers who can vary the start and/or end times of their working day for family reasons ranges from less than 10% in Romania to more than 80% in the Netherlands (see Figures 13 and 14).

Figure 13 – Percentage of employed people generally able to vary start/end times for family reasons, men and women, and gender gap (in percentage points)

Sources: EU-LFS AHM 2010 Forthcoming Short Statistical Report No 6 from Rand Europe “Family-related working schedule flexibility across Europe”.

Figure 14 – Percentage of employed people generally able to take whole days off for family reasons, men and women, and gender gap (in percentage points)

Sources: EU-LFS AHM 2010 Forthcoming Short Statistical Report No 6 from Rand Europe “Family-related working schedule flexibility across Europe”.

The provision of paid leave

Overall, leave schemes provide parents the opportunity to spend time off work around childbirth (or later) and thereby facilitate the combination of work and care activities. Moreover, the provision of sufficient paid leave has a positive effect on the employment rate of prime-age women as it encourages them to remain in the labour force after having children. For this to happen, a minimum length should be warranted[16]. When the leave entitlement is too short, mothers may simply leave the labour market without using the return option provided by the leave scheme, whereas too lengthy leave durations increase the time out of the labour market and may thereby hamper the decision to return to employment.[17]

A balanced use of leave entitlements by both parents after childbirth has been shown to have positive effects in terms of distribution of household and care responsibilities and improved female labour market outcomes[18]. Currently fathers’ take-up of parental leave[19] remains quite low in most Member States. For instance, it is less than 5 % in the Czech Republic, Spain, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia, though more than 20% in Belgium, Denmark and Sweden.[20]

The Directive on parental leave[21] gives each working parent the right to at least four months leave after the birth or adoption of a child (previously up to three months). At least one of the four months cannot be transferred to the other parent — which means that it will be lost if not taken — gives an incentive for fathers to take the leave. The Directive also provides for better protection against discrimination and a smoother return to work. Member States had to transpose it by 8 March 2013 at the latest. The Commission is currently checking if the national implementing measures are in conformity with the Directive.

Gender equality in Europe 2020 Strategy for growth and employment

It is clear that there is untapped potential in the supply of labour offered by women, which is likely to prove critical when the economy recovers. This potential is currently severely constrained by a low labour demand and by an inadequate policy-mix of poor childcare facilities, low access to flexible working time arrangements and fiscal disincentives in some countries. Unequal pensionable ages for women and men in some Member States also contribute to older women’s lower labour-force participation, as well as lower pension entitlements and increased risk of poverty in old age. As a consequence, in the framework of the Europe 2020 Strategy for growth, the 2013 European Semester addressed country-specific recommendations to thirteen Member States and asked them to promote the participation of women in the labour market and gender equality[22]:

Recommendations on childcare availability, quality, inclusiveness and/or affordability (in some cases also including all-day schools or out-of-school services) were addressed to ten Member States: Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, the United Kingdom and Estonia (for the first time in 2013 for the latter country); Recommendations to improve the provision of elderly care services were addressed to two countries: Austria and Italy (for the first time in 2013 for the latter country); Recommendations to tackle financial disincentives to work were addressed to three Member States: Germany, the Netherlands and Italy (for the first time in 2013 for the later country); Recommendation to address the gender pay gap and the gender pension gap was addressed to Austria; Recommendations to harmonise pensionable ages and rights were addressed to three Member States: Austria, Bulgaria and Romania. Romania received a recommendation in 2013 for the first time, and the recommendation to Slovenia was dropped in 2013 further to the implementation of the 2012 recommendation; A recommendation to promote flexible working arrangements was addressed to Malta for the first time in 2013.

Overall, there were more recommendations to promote the participation of women in the labour market, which is an acknowledgement of the problem and a clear signal that progress has been insufficient so far. In the Annual Growth Survey 2014[23], which takes stock of the economic and social situation in Europe and sets out the EU’s overall economic growth priorities, the European Commission calls on Member States to develop affordable care services and tackle the gender pay, activity and pensions gaps.

1.3 Supporting female entrepreneurs

Women constitute only a third of the self-employed in the EU and a quarter of self-employed with paid employees (the "employers")[24]. They face more difficulties than men, mainly in access to finance, training and networking. In its "Entrepreneurship 2020 Action plan"[25], published in 2013, the Commission recognised that potential women entrepreneurs should be made aware of business support programmes and funding opportunities. It will therefore create a Europe-wide on-line mentoring, advisory, educational and business networking platform for women entrepreneurs that will bring the current national ambassadors and mentors networks on-line, deepen their offer and expand their reach and support female entrepreneurship at national and regional level by promoting the exchange of best practices between Member States.

2. Equal pay for equal work and work of equal value

One of the obstacles to equality for women on the labour market is the systematically lower pay they receive. This is attributed to direct and indirect discrimination, fewer career advancements because of absences due to care, but also to the concentration of women in low-paid jobs and pervasive segregation in the labour market, as well as gender imbalances in education, and the undervaluation and underuse of women’s skills.

2.1 The gender pay gap

Despite consistent efforts over decades, women are paid on average 16% less than men per hour of work. Figure 15 shows the trend of the unadjusted gender pay gap[26] from 2006 (when consistent comparable statistics were collected for the EU-27) to 2012, the latest available data. The gradually falling trend to 17.2% in 2009 shows a steep decrease to 16.2% in 2010. It therefore seems that the crisis changed the speed of convergence.

If current convergence speeds continue[27], it will take more than 70 years to close the gender pay gap (in 2087 assuming that recent trends persist).

Figure 15 – EU-28 gender pay gap in unadjusted form (%),2008-12

Source: Eurostat, Structure of Earning Survey, data without Croatia in 2008-10

While the gender pay gap has been shrinking in almost all EU countries, it is still more than 20% in Estonia, Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Slovakia and the United Kingdom (see Figure 16).

Tackling the gender pay gap at EU level

Equal pay has for a very long time been an EU commitment and priority, and efforts to tackle the gender pay gap have intensified in 2013.

The European Commission monitors the correct application and enforcement of the equal pay provisions of the Directive on equal treatment of men and women in employment and occupation[28] at national level. In 2013, it adopted a Report on the application of this directive, with a focus on applying the provisions on equal pay in practice[29]. The Report includes an analysis of gender-neutral job evaluation and classification systems, a summary of equal pay case law of the Court of Justice, as well as examples of the national case-law on equal pay. It can support national authorities and national courts, social partners and other stakeholders in correctly enforcing and applying the existing rules.

In order to spread information about the remaining gaps, the European Commission organised the third European Equal Pay Day on 28 February 2013. At the same time, it has upgraded its webpage[30], press material and brochure[31] and has been increasingly working with Member States and stakeholders to improve synergies between the European and national equal pay days. To support this, an exchange of good practices on national equal pay days was organised in Estonia in June 2013.

In 2012 and 2013 the Commission funded the Equality Pays Off[32], which supported employers in their efforts to tackle the gender pay gap by organising training activities for companies in 34 European countries. As part of this project, a Business Forum[33] was held on 21 March 2013 in Brussels. It enabled 165 representatives of companies, multiplier organisations and institutions to exchange knowledge and strategies on how best to foster gender equality. Moreover, the Commission adopted a non-legislative initiative in 2014 to promote and facilitate the pratical application of the principle of equal pay[34].

All these initiatives aim to closing the gender pay gap and helping women to reap the benefits of their investment in education.

In France, as a result of a 2012 decree on gender equality in companies[35], for the first time, four companies were condemned in 2013 for not complying with the legislation on equal pay. 500 companies received a reminder. More than 4000 companies have notified their plan on gender equality to the Ministry of Women’s right. On 25 April 2013, the equal pay day, the minister of women’s rights said that the three priorities to reduce the gender pay gap are: awareness and support, controls and sanctions, and negotiations between social partners.

The gender gap in pensions

The hourly pay gap, the fewer hours worked plus more career interruptions lead to a greater gap in earnings throughout women’s life, which leads in many cases to inequalities in pension entitlements. As Figure 16 shows, this is not always so — the country with the largest pay gap also has the smallest pension gap (Estonia). The pension system may intervene to equalise differences (e.g. through universal citizens’ pensions, or widows’ pensions). However the tendency towards reforms to favour closer linking of contributions to entitlements (e.g. through multipillar schemes) is likely to magnify pay-linked gaps over time. Indeed, pension gaps are much higher than pay gaps, reflecting an accumulation of disadvantages throughout women’s lives. Women receive pensions that are on average 39% lower than men’s[36] and more than a third of all older women have no pension at all in some Member States. In response to these worrying figures, the Advisory Committee on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men issued an Opinion on reducing the gender gap in pensions[37], and encouraging the EU to step up its effort, in following-up the White Paper entitled "An Agenda for Adequate, Safe and Sustainable Pensions".[38]

Figure 16 - The gender pay gap vis-à-vis the gender gap in pension, across Europe

Source: Gender Pay Gap figures based on Eurostat’s Structure of Earnings Database for 2012, except for Greece (2010). The gender gap in pension income is based on EU-SILC 2011 data, and calculated by the European Network of Experts on Gender Equality.

2.2 The risk of poverty or social exclusion

In the framework of the Europe 2020 Strategy, the EU monitors the risk of poverty or social exclusion faced by people who either have low income relative to what is socially acceptable in their country or lack at least three of a list of nine important amenities[39], or living in households with very low work intensity. To interpret the gender differences in the figures, we should bear in mind that it is assumed that these differences do not exist for couples, as if all household members equally share in income and amenities. Any differences that appear in the data mainly reflect the situation of single-member households.

Older women are much more at risk of poverty or social exclusion than older men (22% versus 16.3%). Over the last 5 years, the relative situation of older men and women improved, and the gender gap has shrunk. The impact of the crisis at this EU-level is more visible for the group of working age, where the rise in poverty or social exclusion appears to be associated with a closing of the gender gap: 26.9 % of women are poor and excluded, compared to 24.8% of men.

Figure 17 - EU-27 (%) people at risk of poverty or social exclusion by gender and age

Note: Eurostat, EU-SILC

Single parents — mainly mothers — are a particularly vulnerable to poverty and exclusion, and 35.5% of them are at risk of poverty. This rate ranges from 26% in Slovenia to 66% in Greece (see Figure 18).

Poverty is targeted by many social policies from various means tested benefits to explicit social safety net guarantees. Rather worryingly, the efficacy of social policy in reducing poverty was lower for all types of households in 2012, compared to 2005 (see Figure 18). The fall in effectiveness of social policy is particularly high (almost 50%) for one-adult households, which include the majority of widows as well as single mothers. The generosity of the welfare state towards this group also varies greatly between countries. Poverty was reduced by less than 6 pp in Greece, Bulgaria, Croatia and Italy, and by more than 25 pp in the Netherlands, Finland, Denmark, Cyprus (see Figure 19).

Figure 18 – Risk of poverty and poverty reduction after social benefits, by household type, EU27 2005 & 2012

Source: Eurostat, EU-SILC

Figure 19 - Poverty risk and poverty reduction after social benefits, single parent households, 2012

Source: Eurostat, EU-SILC

In February 2013, the European Commission adopted the Social Investment Package[40], which provides Member States with social policy guidance to better address unemployment, poverty and social exclusion. Within the package, the importance of measures to remove barriers’ to women’s lower labour market participation is highlighted, such as affordable quality early childhood education and care and long-term care services for elderly dependents. It also underlines the various instruments available at EU-level to support Member States in tackling social challenges.

2.3 Education achievements, key skills and their use at work

Overall, the European 2020 Strategy’s education and training indicators show that girls tend to do better. Women are more likely to have completed higher education: in 2012, 39.9% of all women and 31.5% of men between the ages of 30 and 34 had attained a tertiary education level. In the same vein, girls were less likely to drop out of school than boys in 2012 (10.9% compared 14.4%). These figures have led to increased attention given to the so-called “boys’ crisis” in public policies and in research.[41]

Figure 20 –Proportion of early school-leavers (in %), in 2012, men, women and the gender gap (in percentage points)

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Figure 21 – Percentage of the population aged 30-34 who have successfully completed university or university-like (tertiary-level) education, in 2012, men, women, and the gender gap in percentage points

Source: Eurostat, LFS

The OECD’s PISA survey, the latest results of which were released in 2013, make it possible to analyse gender differences in the mastery of key competences, namely mathematics, science and reading among 15-years-old pupils. [42]

Gender differences in science subjects and mathematics performance are small and keep shrinking. The share of low achieving students is similar among genders: 17.4% of boys and 15.7% of girls are low achievers in sciences, 21.2% of boys and 23% of girls are low achievers in mathematics. However, even when boys and girls have the same performance level, girls tend to be more anxious about mathematics, and less self-confident. The OECD concludes that improving the attitudes of boys and girls towards mathematics should be a key concern.

Girls significantly outperform boys in reading in every participating country, and this gender gap is large, equivalent to more than a year of schooling: 23.7% of boys are low achievers in reading, compared to 12% of girls. This gap has widened in nine EU Member States (Denmark, Belgium, Spain, France, Finland, Hungary, Sweden, Bulgaria and Greece). The new figures recall the urgency of engaging boys in schools and motivating them to read, changing reading material and introducing engaging male role models.

Unlike PISA, the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), the first results of which were also released in 2013, shows little differences between adult men and women. On average, men have better results in numeracy and problem-solving skills. However the gap is small and doesn’t exist for the younger generations. Moreover, in most countries, men and women have similar scores on the literacy scale.

The PIAAC survey also makes it possible to analyse how skills are used in professional work. With only a few country exceptions, the survey shows that, on average, men use literacy, numeracy and problem-solving skills at work more frequently than women. Indeed, women are more often employed in jobs in which these skills are not used as intensively. These gender differences in using skills contribute to deepening the gender pay gap: countries facing the biggest gender pay gap are also the countries with the biggest gap in using skills (Estonia, Slovakia, the Czech Republic). It is therefore crucial to promote non-discriminatory gender roles in education and employment, as recalled by the European Parliament Resolution of 12 March 2013 on eliminating gender stereotypes in the EU[43], and explained in a study on "The role of men in gender equality" published by the European Commission in 2013.[44]

In Latvia, the Ministry of Welfare published a proposal on reducing gender segregation and integrating gender equality principles in education. The proposal contains a set of recommendations for each level of education.

In order to combat gender stereotypes in higher education in Poland social campaigns “Girls As Engineers!” and “Girls In STEM!” have been carried out by Perspektywy Educational Foundation and the Conference of Rectors of Polish Technical Universities. The main objective of these campaigns is to introduce technical and engineering studies to female high school students and to promote this educational path as interesting, attractive and very beneficial in the long run. In 2013 nineteen public technical universities took part in the campaign.

In Estonia, the Ministry of Social Affairs carried out an awareness raising campaign to tackle gender stereotypes and their influence on work and career choices. The main activities of the campaign were "career days" for boys and girls, a series of video clips and several communication initiatives. In the framework of career days boys and girls were introduced to occupations and jobs that are traditionally more common for the other gender (e.g. boys to professions like nurse, tailor, teacher and girls to professions like ground engineer, soldier, and miner). The feedback from participating young people was positive and although not many were considering afterwards choosing exactly the professions they have been introduced to, most of them said that they see their career choices more widely now. Video clips received a wide visibility.[45]

2.4 Persistent gender segregation in the labour market

Gender segregation, or the tendency for men and women to take different jobs, is pervasive across Europe. Only 16% of all employees work in mixed occupations (i.e. where the proportions of men and women are between 40% and 60%). Figure 22 shows the proportion of men and women within the top 20 occupations[46], which account for 94.3% of all employment across Europe. Women tend to be virtually shut out of certain occupations. Three occupations have a strikingly similar female proportion of 4%: metal, machinery and related trades, extraction and building trades and drivers and mobile plant operators. The three occupations with the lowest proportions of men are in the life science and health associate professionals (17%), teaching associate professionals (20%) and customer service clerks (23%).

Figure 22 - Proportion of women in the top 20 occupations in the EU 27, in 2010

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Segregation is not always associated with disadvantage for women. Some male-dominated jobs are also associated with poor working conditions and low wages. Segregation, however, narrows employment choices for both men and women, and may limit access to higher-level jobs. Segregation also facilitates the undervaluation of women’s work, and of skills and competences associated with women.

There has been little change in segregation patterns since 2005. The share of all employees working in mixed occupations was also remarkably consistent, increasing from 15.5% to 16.1%. However, there is some evidence that younger women, who have been relatively advantaged compared to men in their education, are making inroads into some of the higher-earning professional occupations that had been even more male-dominated in the past.

In Cyprus, the ESF-funded programme to reduce the gender pay gap is now implementing measures that address vertical and horizontal occupational segregation. The partnership of academics and NGOs will provide specialised training programmes for careers advice professionals, primary and secondary education teachers, and parents.

3. Equality in decision-making

Despite major progress across the EU in recent decades, men still largely outnumber women in senior positions, particularly at the highest levels, in business, politics and other fields. However, improving the gender balance in senior positions in politics and in the corporate sector more rapidly is critical to improving how our democracies and economies function.

3.1 Gender (im)balance on boards of large listed companies

Large companies across the EU continue to be disproportionately led by men, despite the strong economic and business advantages of gender balance and the presence of qualified and talented women. Data collected by the European Commission in October 2013, show that women account for an average of 17.8% of top-level board members in the largest publicly-listed companies registered in each of the EU-28 Member States[47] (Figure 23). Moreover, there are very few women in the most influential positions: just 4.8% of the chairpersons of these companies and only 2.8% of CEOs are women.

There is considerable variation between Member States ranging from almost 30% of female board members in Finland to just over 2% in Malta. Although no Member State has yet achieved gender balance in the boardroom there has been significant progress over the last decade thanks to intense debate and regulatory pressure. In October 2003, only two of the current Member States (Romania and Slovenia) had governing boards made up of at least 20% female board members. Ten years on, ten Member States have surpassed this level and half of these have more than 25% female board members. However, there are still six Member States in which men still hold more than 90% of board positions (Figure 23).

Figure 23 – Representation of women on boards of large publicly-listed companies in the EU, October 2013

Source: European Commission, Database on women and men in decision-making

Most of this improvement took place since 2010, when the European Commission first announced that it would consider targeted initiatives to improve gender diversity in companies, stimulating debate and action across Europe.[48] The rate of change for the EU as a whole has quadrupled from 0.5 percentage points per year to 2.0 pp/year (Figure 24). However, even this accelerated rate of progress is not enough to meet the target of 40% by 2020 set by the Commission in the proposed Directive[49] (see below).

Figure 24 – Representation of women and men on the top-level boards of large listed companies in the EU, October 2003 - October 2013

Source: European Commission, Database on women and men in decision-making

Moreover, recent progress has not been evenly spread across the EU and most of the significant improvements took place in countries that have taken or considered legislative action. Eight Member States have seen the proportion of women on boards increase to more than the EU average and have driven the overall change. Six of these have either introduced a legislative quota or target or had a government level debate about the possibility of doing so (Figure 25).

Figure 25 - Change in the proportion of women on boards, by country, October 2010 - October 2013

Source: European Commission, Database on women and men in decision-making

France leads the way in terms of recent progress. Since the introduction of a law in January 2011[50], under which companies have to ensure that members of each sex occupy at least 20% of non-executive director positions by 2014 and 40% by 2017, the proportion of women on the boards of companies on the CAC-40 index has more than doubled from 12.3% in October 2010 to 29.7% in October 2013. Moreover, the French government is continuing to focus attention on the issue. In October 2013 it published the first annual ranking of France’s 120 most actively traded companies based on a composite measure of commitment to improving the presence of women in senior management and throughout the organisation[51].

The Commission’s proposal for a Directive at EU level

Notwithstanding efforts made by some governments and companies to improve the situation, the rate of change in most Member States has been slow, which shows that there is insufficient commitment and that self-regulation does not bring about substantial and rapid change. Hence, the European Commission — with the strong support of the European Parliament and a number of Member States — has decided to take legislative action. On 14 November 2012, it put forward a proposal for a Directive on improving the gender balance among non-executive directors of companies listed on stock exchanges[52]. In 2013, the Council and the Parliament were involved in negotiating the Commission’s proposal. On 20 November 2013 the European Parliament adopted its resolution at first reading on the proposed Directive[53] by a vast majority of its members, confirming a broad consensus on the objective of increasing women’s representation on corporate boards and largely endorsing the Commission’s approach to redressing the current imbalance. Progress has also been made in negotiations in the Council, as outlined in the Irish Presidency’s progress report discussed at the EPSCO Council on 20 June 2013[54] and the Lithuanian presidency's progress report discussed at the EPSCO Council on 9 December 2013.[55] The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions have also adopted opinions, on 13 February[56] and 30 May 2013[57] respectively, expressing clear support for the Commission proposal. The latter body confirmed that the proposal is in line with the principle of subsidiarity.

In Denmark, an amendment to the Companies Act and the Financial Statements Act passed at the end of 2012 requires large companies to set targets and implement a policy for gender diversity from 1 April 2013 and to report on those targets from 2014[58].

In Poland, on 7 March 2013, the Minister of State Treasury issued an executive ordinance which obliges state-owned companies to "choose adequately prepared members of supervisory boards, taking into account the balanced participation of women and men"[59]. The Code of good practices annexed to this ordinance put in place a target of 30% by 2015 and a priority rule for equally-qualified women. No sanctions were envisaged.

In Germany the coalition agreement between the governing parties provides for a quota law. The responsible ministers have announced their intention to prepare a draft law which would apply a quota of 30% to the supervisory board of 110 large listed companies. Sanctions will apply in case the quota is not achieved (the board seat will remain empty). There will also be a flexiquota for other listed companies. The law is supposed to apply as of 2015.

3.2 Women and men in political decision-making

National governments: women continue to be under-represented

On average, women still account for 27% of senior government ministers[60] across the EU. In five Member States (Sweden, France, Finland, Denmark and Austria), governments include at least 40% of each gender, and in four others, the percentage is close to 40% (Bulgaria, Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany). However, in six EU governments less than one in ten ministers are women (Greece, Slovakia, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Estonia and Cyprus). The average percentage of female ministers in the EU-28 countries has risen from 21% to 27% over the last decade. At this rate of change it will take more than 20 years to achieve balanced governments (at least 40% of each gender, Figure 26).

Figure 26 - Representation of women and men in national governments (senior ministers) by Member State, 2013 and 2004-13

Source: European Commission, Database on women and men in decision-making. Note: Trend figures show data for EU-27 from fourth quarter 2004 to 2007 and EU-28 thereafter.

Many national parliaments fail to reflect the composition of their electorates

Ensuring that the composition of parliaments reflects the electorates they serve is a basic tenet of representative democracy. However the latest figures from the fourth quarter of 2013 show that women are outnumbered by men by an average of three to one in national parliaments across the EU. Six Member States have reached or are close to reaching the threshold of 40% of each gender (Sweden, Finland, Belgium, Spain, the Netherlands and Denmark), while in four others (Cyprus, Malta, Romania and Hungary) women account for one in seven or fewer members of parliament (Figure 27).

The average rate of progress towards equality in parliaments is similar to that in governments, with gender-balanced legislatures also predicted to be more than 20 years away (Figure 27). Legislative (or voluntary) quotas have in general significantly increased the rate of progress compared to no action.[61] Where legislative quotas have been adopted, e.g. in Belgium, Greece, Spain, France, Poland, Portugal and Slovenia[62], the average improvement in the representation of women has been almost double the EU-28 average (i.e. +10.5 percentage points compared to +5.3 percentage points during the last decade).

Figure 27 - Representation of women and men in national parliaments (single/lower house), by Member States, 2013, and 2003*-2013

Source: European Commission, Database on women and men in decision-making. Note : Trend figures show data for EU-27 from fourth quarter 2004 to 2007 and EU-28 (i.e.including Croatia) thereafter. * 2003 figure is missing data for CZ, HR, LT, MT and PL.

Over one-third of the Members of European Parliament are female

The representation of women in the European Parliament (2010-2014 legislature) is significantly higher than in national parliaments. In 2013, 36% of MEPs were women and 64% were men. While the share of women varies between Member States, the majority have over 30% women and more than a third have over 40% (Finland, Croatia, Slovenia, Estonia, Malta, the Netherlands, Denmark, France, Sweden, Ireland, Portugal and Spain). At the opposite end of the spectrum, the highest levels of gender imbalance are found in Luxembourg and the Czech Republic, where fewer than one in five MEPs are women.

3.3 Women’s under-representation in senior positions in media organisations

The Council of the European Union has been actively monitoring progress in the areas of concern identified by the UN Beijing Platform for Action[63] since 1999. In 2013, the Irish Presidency invited the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) to carry out research in the area of women and the media, resulting in a study of the gender balance in decision-making positions in EU media organisations[64]. Indicators developed in the study have subsequently been integrated into conclusions of the Council on how to advance women in media, which call on Member States and the Commission to take action and monitor progress[65].

Women represent 65% of graduates from degree-level media courses and 44% of media workers. However, the EIGE study indicates that the representation of women decreases progressively as the level of responsibility rises: amongst managers in major media organisations, women account for 37% at the lowest level but only 21% at the most senior operational level and 16% amongst strategic decision-makers such as CEOs and presidents (Figure 28). Women account for around a quarter (26%) of board members in the media companies covered by the study but there is a notable difference between publicly-owned organisations, where women account for 30% of board members, and private companies where the figure is 22% (Figure 28).

Figure 28 – Representation of women and men in decision making positions in media organisations in the EU-28, 2012

Source: EIGE. Board member figures exclude CEOs-level 1. Data collected between July and September 2012 cover 99 media organisations in the EU-28.for each country, including the public-service broadcaster(s) and up to three private organisations.

Some countries have introduced regulatory measures to promote gender equality in the media. In Ireland, for example, the Broadcasting Act (2009) states that for a board comprising 12 members “not less than five members of the board of a corporation shall be men and not less than five of them shall be women”[66].

3.4 Gender equality in sports organisations

Sports are important in the lives of both men and women.[67] However, the percentage of women in decision-making positions in sports organizations is far lower than the percentage of female active members. At the beginning of the 21st century, 38% of European sports federations did not have a single woman on their boards, 88% had fewer than 25% and only two had a female president. In the same vein, only three European National Olympic Committees (NOCs) had a female president, whereas the percentage of women on NOC Executive Committees was 14%. Today, the European Olympic Committee has no women on its executive board.[68] Women are also underrepresented in coaching both at the amateur and professional levels.

In light of these figures, the European Commission invited a group of experts to develop a proposal for strategic and specific actions on gender equality in sports for the 2014-20 period. The experts identified a number of priority areas: gender equality in decision-making, coaching, and media coverage and putting an end to gender-based violence in sports. These priorities were well received at a conference in December 2013 in Vilnius, which helped put the topic back on the political agenda of Member States and sports organisations. The initiative will be followed up at Council level under the Greek EU presidency (first semester of 2014) and through possible actions within the sports chapter of the EU’s Erasmus+ funding programme.

4. Dignity, integrity and ending gender-based violence

Gender-based violence can take many forms: violence in close relationships, sexual violence (including rape, sexual assault and harassment), trafficking in human beings, slavery and different forms of harmful practices, such as forced marriages, female genital mutilation and so-called ‘honour’ crimes. In 2013, the EU has made a breakthrough in how it collects evidence on gender-based violence. It has also taken a strong stance against female genital mutilation and it has stepped up its efforts to prevent violence and protect victims.

4.1 First European Survey on Violence Against Women: building an Evidence Base

The first EU-wide survey on women’s experiences of various forms of violence, carried out by the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA)[69] and based on interviewees with 42,000 women, has shown that many women across the EU continue to suffer from gender-based violence, including physical and sexual violence, as well as domestic violence. One in three women (33% has experienced physical and/or sexual violence since the age of 15. One in 20 women (5%) has been raped since the age of 15. Domestic violence is widespread: 22% of women have experienced physical and/or sexual violence by a partner. Among these victims, 67% did not report the most serious incident of partner violence to the police or any other organisation.

The survey also documented the extent, nature and consequences of stalking and sexual harassment, showing in particular that cyber stalking and cyber (sexual) harassment disproportionately affect young women. The survey also showed that 55% of women in the EU have been confronted with some form of sexual harassment since the age of 15.[70] Sexual harassment is still widespread: 21% of women experienced it in the 12 months prior to the survey. Overall, 32% of female sexual harassment victims said that the sexual harassment had occurred at the workplace, which stresses the importance of effectively implementing existing EU legislation[71] and policies in the area of employment.[72]

In addition, the European Institute for Gender equality organised several events and meetings in 2013, paving the way to improving the collection of indicators and comparable data on gender-based violence.

4.2 Eliminating female genital mutilation

On the International Day against Violence against Women, the Commission and the European External Actions Service adopted their Communication "Towards the Elimination of Female Genital Mutilation". This Communication builds on the results of a high-level round-table on female genital mutilation (FGM) hosted by Vice-President Reding in March 2013, a public consultation and an Opinion from the Commission’s Advisory Committee on equal opportunities for women and men.[73] It also takes into account a report of the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) which maps the situation in the EU.[74] The report finds that there are victims, or potential victims, in at least 13 EU countries: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Spain, Finland, France, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden and the UK.

This Communication defines a list of measures that the Commission will take to push forward the elimination of this unacceptable form of violence against women and girls. It has a strong focus on prevention, and includes both internal and external actions. It :

reiterates the need for improving understanding of the issue in the EU; emphasises that FGM is a deep-rooted social norm and that sustainable social change is needed; highlights the need for multidisciplinary cooperation to protect children at risk and support victims, and underlines the importance of civil society organisations in this regard; asks the European Institute for Gender Equality to develop a common methodology and indicators to measure the prevalence of FGM, to estimate the number of women and girls at risk of being mutilated and the number of women affected by FGM in the EU; calls for protection of women and girls, recalling that FGM needs to be recognized as grounds for asylum and that asylum procedures must be gender-sensitive; recalls that FGM is prosecutable in all EU Member States, even though prosecutions are rare; and acknowledges the significant role of civil society organisations. 4.3 Violence against women: prevention and protection

The European Protection Order[75], which applies to protection measures adopted in criminal matters, ensures that victims of violence can still rely on restraint or protection orders issued against the perpetrator in their home country if they travel or move abroad. These EU instruments do not harmonise protection measures in the Member States. They are based on the principle of mutual recognition: the measure of one Member State will be transmitted and recognised in another Member State. For example, women who have suffered domestic violence will be able to rely on a restraining order obtained in their home country wherever they are in the EU.

Moreover, in all its activities related to the elimination of violence against women, the Commission called on the Member States to ratify individually the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence. In 2013, the process of national ratification had been concluded by three Member States: Austria, Portugal and Italy.

In 2013 the European Commission used funding to strengthen the fight against gender-based violence: 14 national campaigns against gender-based violence were co-funded through the PROGRESS programme (with EUR 3.7 million) and projects run by civil society organisations, regional or local authorities, or other public services were supported through the DAPHNE programme (with EUR 11.4 million). They raise awareness of violence against women, fight harmful practices (FGM, forced marriage and honour crimes), and support victims of violence.

Some groups of women are more vulnerable to some specific forms of gender-based violence, in particular because they are less likely to report it. The European Parliament resolution on "Gender Aspects of the European Framework of National Roma Inclusion Strategies"[76] and the Council Recommendation on effective Roma integration measures in the Member States[77] emphasises the need to "fight violence, including domestic violence, against women and girls, trafficking in human beings, underage and forced marriages (...)." Moreover, in its study on "Discrimination Generated by the Intersection of Gender and Disability"[78] and in a resolution[79], the European Parliament underlines that women with disabilities are at a high risk of abuse. The Commission has therefore given priority to funding projects that fight violence against women with disabilities, both through the Progress and Daphne programmes.

Trafficking in human beings occurs mainly for sexual exploitation purposes and affects mostly women. The Directive on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims[80] acknowledges that trafficking in human beings is a gendered phenomenon and creates legal obligations for gender-specific measures for prevention and protection, as well as assistance and support, to victims. In April 2013 the deadline for transposition of the anti-trafficking Directive expired. As thirteen Member States had not communicated by that deadline any measures transposing the directive, infringement procedures have been launched against them[81].

Spain has developed various ICT-based resources and services to improve the protection, safety, care and recovery of female victims of gender-based violence, as well as of their children. For example, to verify the compliance with a precautionary restraining order imposed by a court, a wristband worn by the perpetrator broadcasts a positioning signal and alerts the victim if the distance is not respected. Victims at high risk may also receive a mobile phone allowing permanent contact with a care centre and if needed, an immediate response to emergency situations, 24 hours a day, 365 days a year and regardless of the place in which they are situated.

Ireland has developed domestic violence perpetrator programmes that aim to reduce men’s violent and controlling behaviour. Men complete the programme together with their current and/or future female partners and children. These programmes are built on a partnership approach between women’s service providers (i.e. women’s refuges and rape crisis centres) and those working with men, and offer a community alternative to prison.

5. Gender equality in external actions

The EU promotes gender equality and women’s empowerment in candidate countries for EU Accession[82], European Neighbourhood Policy partner countries[83], and third countries. This chapter provides an overview of the most recent activities carried out at the international level.

In March 2013, the EU presented a common position to the 57th session of the Commission on the Status of Women, the UN principal global policy-making body on gender equality and advancement of women, whose priority theme was the elimination and prevention of all forms of violence against women and girls. More than 600 million women live in countries where domestic violence is not considered a crime, and even where it is illegal, perpetrators often go unpunished.[84] Together with the other UN partners, the EU successfully contributed to the adoption of Agreed Conclusions in which all forms of violence against women and girls are condemned, without any exceptions based on culture, tradition, or religion.

While continuing to strive towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals, the EU continued refining its position on the post-2015 agenda. In its Communication entitled 'A Decent Life for All - Ending Poverty and Giving the World a Sustainable Future', published in February 2013[85], the Commission highlighted the role that women must play in the new post-2015 overarching framework and the need to remove all forms of barriers to equal participation. It stated that the framework should put “particular emphasis on moving towards a rights-based approach to development, on reducing inequalities, as well as on the promotion and protection of women’s and girls’ rights and gender equality”. These principles were reaffirmed and reinforced in the Council Conclusions on “The overarching post-2015 agenda”, adopted in June 2013[86]and setting out the EU’s common position for negotiations on the post-2015 agenda. The EU identifies three concrete themes which would contribute to the common aim and which need to be emphasised in a post-2015 framework: 1. Women’s economic and social empowerment which are central to gender equality and economic development. 2. Elimination and prevention of all forms of violence against women and girls, combining legislative and non-legislative measures. 3. Promotion of women’s equal participation and representation in decision making processes at all levels, in all spheres, and elimination all forms of discrimination hindering them.

The EU Plan of Action on Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Development 2010-15[87] outlines the Commission’s, the European External Action Service's and Member States' commitments to supporting developing countries' efforts to improve the situation of women regarding equal rights and empowerment. The third implementation report, published in 2013, concludes that gender equality is increasingly mainstreamed in various fields (e.g. infrastructure). Furthermore, the number of sectors that use sex-disaggregated indicators has increased this year, from 5 to 18, including sectors providing water and sanitation, agriculture and forestry, regional development, environment, and public finance. The report also explains that almost all EU Delegations maintain regular dialogue with civil society, in order to get their input for future programmes.

In the context of the EU Plan of Action on Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Development 2010-15, a gender perspective is being integrated into every step of a water and sanitation project in Chad. In practice, this means that women are recruited among the project staff and are equally involved in the decision-making process about where drinkable water sources should be located and the price of water supply. Furthermore, a “gender team” was created in the ministry in charge of water and sanitation, and gender training is being provided to several stakeholders involved in the project’s implementation.

The EU Delegation in Guatemala organises an annual Human Rights Defenders Forum that includes special sessions for women human rights defenders. A series of training sessions on gender concepts and the integration of gender into the project cycle have been provided to 24 civil society organisations. In Madagascar, the EU Delegation holds monthly meetings with NGOs funded through the European Instrument for Democracy and Human Rights (EIDHR). These meetings facilitate the exchange of information and discussion about a gender-related topic.

In fragile states, the EU continues to provide support for capacity building on the UN Security Council Resolutions 1325 and related resolutions, focusing on increasing the participation of women in all United Nations peace and security efforts and addressing sexual violence in conflict.[88] In this context, a cross-regional "Women Connect across Conflicts" programme[89], concluded in June 2013, aimed to enhance the capacity of women’s human rights advocates to effectively and meaningfully engage, influence, and mobilise to dialogue on security and peace issues nationally and regionally, in South Asia (Afghanistan and Pakistan), the Southern Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia) and Central Asia / Fergana Valley (Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan).

In its document Gender in Humanitarian Aid: Different Needs, Adapted Assistance[90], published in 2013, the European Commission outlined its approach to gender equality in humanitarian aid. It aims to improve the quality and effectiveness of humanitarian assistance by promoting actions that effectively respond to the specific needs of women, girls, boys and men. In order to support policy implementation and coherence, a gender-age marker was designed to foster and track gender- and age- sensitive programming and will be applied to all funded actions in 2014.

The 3rd Ministerial Conference on Strengthening the Role of Women in Society in the Euro-Mediterranean region was successfully concluded on 12 September 2013 with the adoption of a Ministerial Declaration. In addition to re-affirming commitments and obligations set at the Istanbul (2006) and Marrakesh (2009) conferences, the ministers have committed themselves to developing measures to achieve specific objectives in the following main areas: equal participation of women and men in political, economic and social areas of life; fighting against all forms of violence and discrimination against women and girls; changing attitudes towards women and challenging stereotypes. The ministers also agreed on a dedicated follow-up mechanism, which will involve regular stock-taking on progress made in implementing the measures.

The 2013 European Neighbourhood Policy Package[91], adopted in March, focused on progress made in implementing the partner countries’ reform agenda, as well as on the EU’s commitment to provide stronger political, financial, and economic support. The Communication states that there is much room for improvement in terms of gender equality in the East. Furthermore, cultural and social discrimination against women remains a problem in the South. In order to enhance sustainable democracy, it is crucial that the transition process and constitutional reform do not hinder progress on gender equality in the law and in society.

In its annual Enlargement Package, published in October 2013[92], the European Commission indicates that more needs to be done to improve the position of women and ensure gender equality in the pre-accession countries. In terms of significant developments in the enlargement process, Croatia became a Memb er State on 1 July 2013, having fulfilled the accession requirements. In the context of accession negotiations with Montenegro, so-called screening meetings (explanation of the EU acquis to the candidate country) on chapter 19 "Social policy and employment", which covers inter alia gender equality, were carried out in spring 2013. In the context of accession negotiations on chapter 23 on "Judiciary and Fundamental rights", Montenegro adopted an action plan that includes measures in the area of gender equality.

6. Horizontal issues

Institutional mechanisms within Member States

Achieving gender equality requires strong governance and institutional mechanisms, including effective government structures, independent bodies for promoting equal treatment of women and men in accordance with EU law[93], adequate resources, gender mainstreaming tools and the dissemination of sex-disaggregated data and information.

In 2013, the European Institute for Gender Equality published an overview of the institutional mechanisms for promoting gender equality in the EU and their evolution since 2006. This review highlights some progress but also some challenges. The resources allocated to gender equality (in terms of number of employees in national administrations) have decreased in 11 Member States, increased in another 11s and remained the same in three. Trends are therefore uneven. They are also ambivalent as regards gender mainstreaming: 15 Member States have made progress in developing gender mainstreaming, but the use of tools such as gender impact assessment and gender budgeting is still not very common. When it comes to independent bodies for promoting of equal treatment for women and men, the report documents a tendency to merge the gender equality body with bodies dealing with discrimination on other grounds (age, disability, religion or belief, sexual orientation, ethnic origin). In this context, the Council (EPSCO) adopted Conclusions on the "Effectiveness of institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women and gender equality" and called to maintain strong institutional mechanisms for promoting gender equality.

The European Research Area engages equally the Member States and research institutions in promoting gender equality through institutional changes. The aim is to remove barriers that hinder women’s careers and limit the integration of the gender dimension in research content. The Commission has established strong collaboration with funding agencies and research organisations, including universities, making significant steps ahead on their gender equality agenda in particular through Gender Equality Plans. However, the first ERA Progress report published in September 2013 revealed great disparities among Member States and clearly recommended Member States to implement comprehensive strategies of institutional change. An expert report on “Structural change in research institutions: enhancing excellence, gender equality and efficiency in research and innovation” identifies the remaining problems and the structural changes that are necessary to advance gender equality in research and innovation.[94]

EU financial instruments supporting equality between women and men

The EU’s new Multi-Annual Financial Framework (MFF) covering 2014-20, which was adopted in 2013, reflects the EU’s commitment to promoting equality between women and men. A part of the new programme, Rights, Equality and Citizenship Programme[95], on which a political agreement was reached at the end of 2013, will be dedicated to equality between women and men. This Programme is the successor of three 2007-2013 programmes: the PROGRESS Programme (Gender Equality and Anti-discrimination strands), the Daphne Programme and the Fundamental Rights and Citizenship Programme.

The objectives of the REC Programme include the following:

· to promote equality between women and men and to advance gender mainstreaming;

· to prevent and combat all forms of violence against children, young people and women, as well as violence against other groups at risk, in particular groups at risk of violence in close relationships, and to protect victims of such violence.

The programme aims to achieve these objectives through financing the following types of actions: analytical activities; training activities; mutual learning, cooperation, awareness-raising and dissemination activities; and support to key stakeholders. Throughout the implementation of the REC Programme, appropriate and fair distribution of funds between different areas shall be ensured. This distribution will take into account the level of funding allocated to different policy areas under the 2007‑2013 programmes (ex-PROGRESS, ex-DAPHNE III, ex- Fundamental Rights and Citizenship Programme).

The European Structural and Investment Funds (ESIF) will support Member States in promoting gender equality. They will do this by providing funding for ‘equality between men and women in all areas, including in access to employment, career progression, reconciliation of work and private life and promotion of equal pay for equal work’, and through projects that are not under the specific gender investment priority but contribute to gender equality in a more transversal way. Moreover, the gender perspective will be included throughout the preparation and implementation phases of all programmes, including the monitoring, reporting and evaluation phase. In addition, under the new programming period, a ‘dual approach’ that includes gender mainstreaming and the programming of specific actions will be mandatory in all European Social Fund (ESF)[96] programmes.

In Horizon 2020[97] - the new European Framework Programmes (FP) for Research and Innovation adopted in 2013 - gender will be addressed as a cross-cutting issue in order to correct deficiencies and promote gender equality along three objectives:

• Improving female scientists´ careers,

• Ensuring gender balance in decision making and

• Integrating gender analysis in research content and programme[98].

Gender equality should also be taken into account in the management of all EU financial instruments. In a Joint Declaration, the European Parliament, the Council and the Commission agreed that the annual budgetary procedures applied for the 2014-20 MFF will integrate, where appropriate, gender-responsive elements, and take into account the ways in which the EU’s overall financial framework contributes to more gender equality (and ensures gender mainstreaming).’[99]

Raising awareness of remaining gender gaps

The European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) released a gender equality index on 13 June 2013[100]. This new tool is the first attempt to catch existing inequalities between women and men at EU level in one single overview. It presents the current gaps between women and men in one single index composed of six core areas (work, money, knowledge, time, power, health) and two satellite areas (intersecting inequalities and violence). In addition to a country-by-country comparison this index will make it possible to assess the evolution of gender equality over time. EIGE plans to update the index every other year and is already working on its improvement in preparation for the next edition in 2015.

Statistical annex

Table 1: Employment rate of population aged 20-64 (as %) – men and women – in 2012, 2008 and 2013Q3, and the corresponding gender gap (in percentage points)

|| Women || Men || Gender Gap

2002 || 2008 || 2013Q3 || 2002 || 2008 || 2013Q3 || 2002 || 2008 || 2013Q3

EU28 || 58.0 || 62.7 || 62.8 || 75.4 || 77.9 || 74.8 || 17.4 || 15.2 || 12.0

BE || 55.8 || 61.3 || 63.1 || 74.0 || 74.7 || 72.2 || 18.2 || 13.4 || 9.1

BG || 52.3 || 65.4 || 62.2 || 59.4 || 76.1 || 68.3 || 7.1 || 10.7 || 6.1

CZ || 62.3 || 62.5 || 63.9 || 80.9 || 82.0 || 81.5 || 18.6 || 19.5 || 17.6

DK || 73.1 || 75.5 || 73.4 || 82.3 || 83.9 || 78.7 || 9.2 || 8.4 || 5.3

DE || 61.9 || 67.8 || 72.7 || 75.6 || 80.1 || 82.2 || 13.7 || 12.3 || 9.5

EE || 64.5 || 72.8 || 69.6 || 74.5 || 81.7 || 78.0 || 10.0 || 8.9 || 8.4

IE || 59.6 || 64.1 || 60.5 || 81.8 || 80.4 || 71.5 || 22.2 || 16.3 || 11.0

EL || 46.6 || 52.5 || 43.5 || 78.7 || 80.4 || 63.4 || 32.1 || 27.9 || 19.9

ES || 47.6 || 58.3 || 53.3 || 77.7 || 78.1 || 63.8 || 30.1 || 19.8 || 10.5

FR || 61.9 || 65.5 || 65.9 || 75.6 || 75.5 || 74.1 || 13.7 || 10.0 || 8.2

HR || 50.9 || 55.2 || 50.8 || 66.3 || 70.7 || 59.5 || 15.4 || 15.5 || 8.7

IT || 44.9 || 50.6 || 49.5 || 74.0 || 75.4 || 70.1 || 29.1 || 24.8 || 20.6

CY || 64.7 || 68.2 || 61.7 || 86.2 || 85.2 || 72.7 || 21.5 || 17.0 || 11.0

LV || 63.0 || 72.1 || 68.3 || 71.4 || 79.7 || 72.9 || 8.4 || 7.6 || 4.6

LT || 63.9 || 68.8 || 68.8 || 70.8 || 75.5 || 72.5 || 6.9 || 6.7 || 3.7

LU || 55.4 || 60.1 || 63.7 || 80.8 || 77.2 || 79.1 || 25.4 || 17.1 || 15.4

HU || 54.3 || 55.1 || 57.2 || 69.0 || 69.0 || 71.0 || 14.7 || 13.9 || 13.8

MT || 34.4 || 39.4 || 50.4 || 81.0 || 78.2 || 79.5 || 46.6 || 38.8 || 29.1

NL || 66.8 || 72.2 || 71.5 || 84.6 || 85.5 || 81.3 || 17.8 || 13.3 || 9.8

AT || 64.1 || 68.6 || 71.3 || 79.6 || 81.7 || 81.3 || 15.5 || 13.1 || 10.0

PL || 51.4 || 57.3 || 58.2 || 63.6 || 73.0 || 73.0 || 12.2 || 15.7 || 14.8

PT || 65.7 || 67.0 || 62.7 || 81.8 || 79.4 || 69.4 || 16.1 || 12.4 || 6.7

RO || 56.8 || 57.3 || 57.3 || 70.1 || 71.6 || 73.1 || 13.3 || 14.3 || 15.8

SI || 63.8 || 68.5 || 63.6 || 74.1 || 77.4 || 72.5 || 10.3 || 8.9 || 8.9

SK || 57.2 || 60.3 || 58.0 || 70.2 || 77.4 || 72.3 || 13.0 || 17.1 || 14.3

FI || 70.4 || 73.1 || 72.2 || 74.8 || 78.4 || 76.0 || 4.4 || 5.3 || 3.8

SE || 76.6 || 77.2 || 77.9 || 80.3 || 83.5 || 83.4 || 3.7 || 6.3 || 5.5

UK || 67.5 || 68.8 || 69.3 || 81.6 || 81.8 || 81.0 || 14.1 || 13.0 || 11.7

Source: LFS, Eurostat

Table 2: employment rate in full-time equivalent of population aged 20-64 (as %) – men and women – in 2012, 2008 and 2013Q3, and the corresponding gender gap (in percentage points)

|| Women || Men || Gender Gap

|| 2002 || 2008 || 2012 || 2002 || 2008 || 2012 || 2002 || 2008 || 2012

EU-27 || 50.8 || 54.3 || 53.6 || 74.5 || 76.3 || 72.4 || 23.7 || 22.0 || 18.8

AT || 53.3 || 55.2 || 55.6 || 78.1 || 79.9 || 78.7 || 24.8 || 24.7 || 23.1

BE || 46.5 || 51.5 || 51.5 || 72.7 || 73.2 || 70.9 || 26.2 || 21.7 || 19.3

BG || 52.5 || 64.9 || 59.5 || 59.7 || 75.9 || 65.2 || 7.2 || 11.0 || 5.7

CY || 61.8 || 65.0 || 60.6 || 87.1 || 85.2 || 74.1 || 25.3 || 20.2 || 13.5

CZ || 60.9 || 60.7 || 60.5 || 81.1 || 81.9 || 79.9 || 20.2 || 21.2 || 19.4

DE || 48.8 || 51.8 || 55.2 || 73.8 || 77.1 || 78.3 || 25.0 || 25.2 || 23.1

DK || 66.6 || 68.4 || 64.3 || 81.2 || 81.2 || 75.0 || 14.6 || 12.8 || 10.8

EE || 62.4 || 70.4 || 66.2 || 74.6 || 81.1 || 74.4 || 12.2 || 10.7 || 8.2

ES || 43.4 || 52.5 || 47.7 || 77.5 || 77.4 || 62.8 || 34.0 || 24.9 || 15.2

FI || 67.3 || 68.9 || 67.8 || 74.6 || 76.6 || 73.4 || 7.2 || 7.6 || 5.6

FR || 55.3 || 58.8 || 58.2 || 75.0 || 74.1 || 72.1 || 19.7 || 15.3 || 13.9

GR || 45.3 || 50.2 || 42.7 || 79.5 || 80.7 || 64.2 || 34.2 || 30.5 || 21.5

HR || 48.9 || 53.1 || 48.5 || 65.4 || 70.0 || 59.6 || 16.5 || 16.8 || 11.1

HU || 53.6 || 54.0 || 54.8 || 69.9 || 68.6 || 67.5 || 16.3 || 14.6 || 12.8

IE || 51.4 || 55.0 || 50.0 || 80.7 || 79.2 || 64.5 || 29.3 || 24.2 || 14.5

IT || 41.7 || 44.8 || 44.0 || 73.2 || 74.1 || 69.7 || 31.4 || 29.3 || 25.6

LT || 63.2 || 67.8 || 66.2 || 71.7 || 75.4 || 68.5 || 8.5 || 7.6 || 2.3

LU || 48.5 || 50.1 || 55.1 || 81.0 || 76.6 || 77.3 || 32.5 || 26.5 || 22.2

LV || 62.7 || 71.9 || 64.7 || 70.9 || 80.1 || 69.2 || 8.2 || 8.2 || 4.4

MT || 32.4 || 35.5 || 42.5 || 81.5 || 78.8 || 78.5 || 49.1 || 43.2 || 36.0

NL || 44.4 || 48.7 || 48.1 || 79.6 || 79.9 || 76.1 || 35.2 || 31.2 || 28.0

PL || 50.3 || 55.4 || 55.8 || 63.8 || 73.3 || 72.4 || 13.5 || 17.9 || 16.6

PT || 62.9 || 63.4 || 58.8 || 82.9 || 79.7 || 67.8 || 19.9 || 16.3 || 9.0

RO || 57.1 || 56.0 || 54.8 || 71.1 || 70.9 || 70.4 || 14.0 || 14.9 || 15.6

SE || 69.4 || 68.7 || 69.1 || 79.1 || 81.1 || 79.5 || 9.7 || 12.4 || 10.4

SI || 63.2 || 66.1 || 61.6 || 74.1 || 76.8 || 71.0 || 11.0 || 10.7 || 9.4

SK || 56.4 || 59.4 || 56.0 || 69.5 || 77.2 || 71.9 || 13.1 || 17.7 || 15.9

UK || 53.5 || 55.5 || 54.8 || 79.0 || 78.9 || 76.2 || 25.4 || 23.4 || 21.4

Source: LFS, Eurostat

Figure 9 - NEET rate (%) by type and gender; youth aged 15-29, by country, 2012

Source: Eurostat, LFS

Table 3: Gender pay gap in unadjusted form in %

|| 2007 || 2008 || 2009 || 2010 || 2011 || 2012

EU28 || || 17.3 || 17.2 || 16.2 || 16.3 || 16.4

BE || 10.1 || 10.2 || 10.1 || 10.2 || 10.2 || 10.0

BG || 12.1 || 12.3 || 13.3 || 13.0 || 13.0 || 14.7

CZ || 23.6 || 26.2 || 25.9 || 21.6 || 22.6 || 22.0

DK || 17.7 || 17.1 || 16.8 || 15.9 || 16.3 || 14.9

DE || 22.8 || 22.8 || 22.6 || 22.3 || 22.2 || 22.4

EE || 30.9 || 27.6 || 26.6 || 27.7 || 27.3 || 30.0

IE || 17.3 || 12.6 || 12.6 || 13.9 || 11.7 || 14.4

EL || 21.5 || 22 || || 15 || ||

ES || 18.1 || 16.1 || 16.7 || 16.2 || 17.8 || 17.8

FR || 17.3 || 16.9 || 15.2 || 15.6 || 15 || 14.8

HR || || || || 15.5 || 17.6 || 18.0

IT || 5.1 || 4.9 || 5.5 || 5.3 || 5.8 || 6.7

CY || 22.0 || 19.5 || 17.8 || 16.8 || 16.4 || 16.2

LV || 13.6 || 11.8 || 13.1 || 15.5 || 13.6 || 13.8

LT || 22.6 || 21.6 || 15.3 || 14.6 || 11.9 || 12.6

LU || 10.2 || 9.7 || 9.2 || 8.7 || 8.7 || 8.6

HU || 16.3 || 17.5 || 17.1 || 17.6 || 18.0 || 20.1

MT || 7.8 || 9.2 || 7.7 || 7.2 || 6.2 || 6.1

NL || 19.3 || 18.9 || 18.5 || 17.8 || 17.9 || 16.9

AT || 25.5 || 25.1 || 24.3 || 24.0 || 23.7 || 23.4

PL || 14.9 || 11.4 || 8.0 || 4.5 || 5.5 || 6.4

PT || 8.5 || 9.2 || 10.0 || 12.8 || 12.5 || 15.7

RO || 12.5 || 8.5 || 7.4 || 8.8 || 11 || 9.7

SI || 5.0 || 4.1 || -0.9 || 0.9 || 2.3 || 2.5

SK || 23.6 || 20.9 || 21.9 || 19.6 || 20.5 || 21.5

FI || 20.2 || 20.5 || 20.8 || 20.3 || 19.6 || 19.4

SE || 17.8 || 16.9 || 15.7 || 15.4 || 15.8 || 15.9

UK || 20.8 || 21.4 || 20.6 || 19.5 || 20.1 || 19.1

Source: Structure of earnings survey, Eurostat, EU28 (including Croatia as of 2011)

Table 4: Percentage distribution of couples by share of female earnings, 2011 (income for 2010)

Five categories are distinguished:

- One-earner couples where a woman does not work;

- Dual-earner couples where a woman contributes less than 45% of the combined earnings;

- Dual-earner couples where both partners have roughly similar earnings (i.e. a woman earns between 45% and 55% of the combined earnings);

- Dual-earner couples where a woman contributes more than 55% of the combined earnings;

- One-earner couples where a man does not work.

Country || Woman has no earnings || Woman earns less than man || Roughly equal earnings* || Woman earns more than man || Woman is the only earner

AT || 22.0 || 54.3 || 13.6 || 7.2 || 2.9

BE || 17.7 || 46.3 || 20.9 || 9.2 || 5.9

BG || 16.7 || 44.2 || 17.8 || 14.6 || 6.8

CH || 16.6 || 61.8 || 12.8 || 7.0 || 1.9

CY || 21.5 || 48.8 || 17.8 || 9.6 || 2.3

CZ || 24.0 || 47.7 || 19.0 || 7.3 || 2.1

DE || 20.4 || 53.2 || 11.8 || 9.3 || 5.3

DK || 6.7 || 44.4 || 28.5 || 14.6 || 5.9

EE || 19.4 || 45.1 || 16.7 || 12.9 || 5.9

EL || 37.8 || 31.2 || 16.6 || 7.6 || 6.9

ES || 32.4 || 33.5 || 15.4 || 9.5 || 9.2

FI || 10.5 || 50.5 || 18.4 || 15.5 || 5.2

FR || 12.8 || 50.1 || 20.5 || 13.5 || 3.2

HR || 28.9 || 31.4 || 18.2 || 12.1 || 9.5

HU || 24.9 || 37.0 || 21.2 || 13.3 || 3.6

IS || 6.6 || 56.3 || 19.6 || 15.2 || 2.3

IT || 38.4 || 37.5 || 13.7 || 6.8 || 3.6

LT || 19.6 || 32.4 || 12.3 || 26.1 || 9.7

LU || 25.1 || 46.9 || 15.8 || 8.9 || 3.4

LV || 18.1 || 38.2 || 12.5 || 22.0 || 9.3

MT || 49.4 || 29.8 || 11.2 || 7.9 || 1.8

NL || 15.3 || 59.4 || 13.9 || 7.8 || 3.7

NO || 6.1 || 60.7 || 20.1 || 10.4 || 2.7

PL || 25.1 || 39.1 || 16.0 || 15.4 || 4.4

PT || 21.8 || 41.0 || 18.6 || 11.6 || 7.0

RO || 29.8 || 33.8 || 27.1 || 5.9 || 3.4

SE || 7.1 || 53.2 || 22.8 || 13.1 || 3.9

SI || 9.0 || 43.8 || 22.3 || 20.3 || 4.7

SK || 16.8 || 46.1 || 22.5 || 10.4 || 4.2

UK || 18.4 || 48.5 || 16.6 || 10.5 || 6.0

Note: * It is considered that a woman has roughly equal earnings with her partner if her share constitutes 45-55% of the combined earnings. The calculations are based on the annual employee cash or near cash income (PY010g). Sample size for each groups is reported in Table 1B in Annex 1.

Source: EU-SILC 2011, own calculations

Table 5 People at risk of poverty or social exclusion (in % of the total population), men and women

|| Women || Men

|| 2008 || 2009 || 2010 || 2011 || 2012 || 2008 || 2009 || 2010 || 2011 || 2012

EU28 || || || 24.8 || 25.4 || 25.8 || || || 22.6 || 23.2 || 23.8

BE || 22.4 || 21.8 || 21.7 || 21.5 || 22.2 || 19.1 || 18.5 || 20.0 || 20.4 || 21.0

BG || 46.4 || 48.1 || 50.9 || 50.5 || 50.9 || 43.0 || 44.1 || 47.3 || 47.7 || 47.6

CZ || 17.2 || 15.7 || 16.0 || 16.9 || 16.9 || 13.3 || 12.3 || 12.7 || 13.7 || 13.7

DK || 17.0 || 18.2 || 19.0 || 19.5 || 18.9 || 15.7 || 17.0 || 17.7 || 18.2 || 19.1

DE || 21.6 || 21.2 || 20.9 || 21.3 || 21.1 || 18.5 || 18.8 || 18.6 || 18.5 || 18.1

EE || 24.3 || 25.5 || 22.0 || 22.9 || 24.4 || 18.9 || 21.1 || 21.5 || 23.2 || 22.3

IE || 24.7 || 26.4 || 28.1 || 29.8 || || 22.7 || 25.0 || 26.5 || 29.0 ||

EL || 29.8 || 29.0 || 29.3 || 32.3 || 35.2 || 26.3 || 26.1 || 26.0 || 29.6 || 33.9

ES || 25.7 || 25.4 || 27.5 || 28.0 || 28.1 || 23.4 || 23.5 || 26.0 || 27.3 || 28.4

FR || 19.7 || 19.7 || 19.9 || 19.9 || 19.6 || 17.3 || 17.1 || 18.4 || 18.6 || 18.4

HR || || || 31.6 || 33.1 || 33.3 || || || 29.8 || 31.5 || 31.2

IT || 27.2 || 26.4 || 26.3 || 29.9 || 31.7 || 23.2 || 22.8 || 22.6 || 26.4 || 28.0

CY || 25.9 || 26.0 || 26.3 || 26.4 || 29.0 || 20.5 || 20.9 || 22.8 || 22.8 || 25.1

LV || 36.6 || 39.4 || 38.6 || 40.3 || 36.8 || 31.4 || 36.0 || 37.6 || 39.9 || 35.5

LT || 29.7 || 31.4 || 33.8 || 33.3 || 33.4 || 25.3 || 27.3 || 32.9 || 33.0 || 31.4

LU || 16.7 || 19.6 || 17.7 || 18.0 || 19.4 || 14.2 || 16.0 || 16.5 || 15.6 || 17.3

HU || 29.0 || 30.0 || 30.3 || 31.4 || 33.0 || 27.3 || 29.1 || 29.4 || 30.5 || 31.8

MT || 21.0 || 21.4 || 21.2 || 22.2 || 23.2 || 18.2 || 19.0 || 19.4 || 20.6 || 21.2

NL || 15.5 || 15.9 || 16.0 || 16.6 || 16.3 || 14.3 || 14.3 || 14.1 || 14.9 || 13.6

AT || 20.3 || 18.9 || 18.4 || 18.5 || 19.6 || 16.8 || 15.0 || 14.7 || 15.2 || 17.3

PL || 31.2 || 28.6 || 28.5 || 27.7 || 27.3 || 29.9 || 27.0 || 27.0 || 26.6 || 26.1

PT || 26.8 || 25.8 || 25.8 || 25.1 || 25.9 || 25.0 || 24.0 || 24.8 || 23.8 || 24.6

RO || 45.3 || 44.2 || 42.1 || 41.1 || 42.6 || 43.0 || 41.9 || 40.8 || 39.5 || 40.7

SI || 20.3 || 19.1 || 20.1 || 21.1 || 20.8 || 16.6 || 15.1 || 16.5 || 17.4 || 18.3

SK || 22.0 || 21.1 || 21.6 || 21.7 || 21.3 || 18.9 || 18.0 || 19.6 || 19.5 || 19.7

FI || 18.9 || 17.9 || 17.7 || 18.5 || 17.4 || 15.9 || 15.8 || 16.0 || 17.3 || 17.0

SE || 16.1 || 17.5 || 16.6 || 18.0 || 19.8 || 13.7 || 14.4 || 13.4 || 14.2 || 16.6

UK || 24.7 || 22.8 || 24.2 || 24.1 || 24.8 || 21.7 || 21.1 || 22.1 || 21.4 || 23.4

Source: EU-SILC, Eurostat

Table 6 : Early leavers from education and training: % of the population aged 18-24 with at most lower secondary education and not in further education or training, by sex

|| Women || Men || Gender Gap

|| 2002 || 2008 || 2012 || 2002 || 2008 || 2012 || 2002 || 2008 || 2012

EU28 || 14.9 || 12.7 || 10.9 || 19 || 16.7 || 14.4 || 4.1 || 4 || 3.5

BE || 11 || 10.6 || 9.5 || 17.1 || 13.4 || 14.4 || 6.1 || 2.8 || 4.9

BG || 19.4 || 15.5 || 13 || 22 || 14.1 || 12.1 || 2.6 || -1.4 || -0.9

CZ || 5.9 || 5.4 || 4.9 || 5.4 || 5.8 || 6.1 || -0.5 || 0.4 || 1.2

DK || 8.2 || 10 || 7.4 || 9.9 || 15 || 10.8 || 1.7 || 5 || 3.4

DE || 12.5 || 11.2 || 9.9 || 12.5 || 12.4 || 11.3 || 0 || 1.2 || 1.4

EE || 9.4 || 8.2 || 7.1 || 16.9 || 19.8 || 14 || 7.5 || 11.6 || 6.9

IE || 11.2 || 8 || 8.2 || 18 || 14.5 || 11.2 || 6.8 || 6.5 || 3

EL || 12.5 || 10.9 || 9.1 || 20.6 || 18.5 || 13.7 || 8.1 || 7.6 || 4.6

ES || 24.2 || 25.7 || 20.8 || 36.8 || 38 || 28.8 || 12.6 || 12.3 || 8

FR || 11.9 || 9.5 || 9.8 || 14.9 || 13.5 || 13.4 || 3 || 4 || 3.6

HR || 6.9 || 3.3 || 3.6 || 9.2 || 4.1 || 4.6 || 2.3 || 0.8 || 1

IT || 20.5 || 16.7 || 14.5 || 27.8 || 22.6 || 20.5 || 7.3 || 5.9 || 6

CY || 11 || 9.5 || 7 || 22.3 || 19 || 16.5 || 11.3 || 9.5 || 9.5

LV || 11 || 10.7 || 6.3 || 22.7 || 20.2 || 14.7 || 11.7 || 9.5 || 8.4

LT || 11.4 || 4.7 || 4.6 || 15.4 || 10 || 8.1 || 4 || 5.3 || 3.5

LU || 19.6 || 10.9 || 5.5 || 14.4 || 15.8 || 10.7 || -5.2 || 4.9 || 5.2

HU || 11.9 || 10.9 || 10.7 || 12.5 || 12.5 || 12.2 || 0.6 || 1.6 || 1.5

MT || 49.7 || 25.7 || 17.6 || 56.5 || 32.6 || 27.5 || 6.8 || 6.9 || 9.9

NL || 13.8 || 8.8 || 7.3 || 16.8 || 14 || 10.2 || 3 || 5.2 || 2.9

AT || 10.2 || 9.8 || 7.3 || 8.7 || 10.4 || 7.9 || -1.5 || 0.6 || 0.6

PL || 5.6 || 3.9 || 3.5 || 8.9 || 6.1 || 7.8 || 3.3 || 2.2 || 4.3

PT || 37.2 || 28.6 || 14.3 || 52.6 || 41.9 || 27.1 || 15.4 || 13.3 || 12.8

RO || 22.1 || 16 || 16.7 || 23.9 || 15.9 || 18 || 1.8 || -0.1 || 1.3

SI || 3.2 || 2.6 || 3.2 || 6.8 || 7.2 || 5.4 || 3.6 || 4.6 || 2.2

SK || 5.8 || 4.9 || 4.6 || 7.6 || 7.1 || 6 || 1.8 || 2.2 || 1.4

FI || 7.6 || 7.7 || 8.1 || 11.8 || 12.1 || 9.8 || 4.2 || 4.4 || 1.7

SE || 8.9 || 6.8 || 6.3 || 11 || 9 || 8.5 || 2.1 || 2.2 || 2.2

UK || 17.1 || 15.6 || 12.4 || 18.1 || 18.3 || 14.7 || 1 || 2.7 || 2.3

Source: LFS, Eurostat

Table 7: Tertiary educational attainment by sex, age group 30-34

|| Women || Men || Gender Gap

|| 2002 || 2008 || 2012 || 2002 || 2008 || 2012 || 2002 || 2008 || 2012

EU28 || 24.4 || 34.2 || 39.9 || 22.5 || 27.8 || 31.5 || -1.9 || -6.4 || -8.4

BE || 39 || 48.6 || 50.7 || 31.5 || 37.4 || 37.1 || -7.5 || -11.2 || -13.6

BG || 28.8 || 34.5 || 33.6 || 17.7 || 19.7 || 20.5 || -11.1 || -14.8 || -13.1

CZ || 11.4 || 15.9 || 29.1 || 13.7 || 14.8 || 22.4 || 2.3 || -1.1 || -6.7

DK || 39.4 || 41.8 || 52.6 || 28.7 || 36.8 || 33.7 || -10.7 || -5 || -18.9

DE || 21.4 || 27 || 32.9 || 26.8 || 28.3 || 31 || 5.4 || 1.3 || -1.9

EE || 33.6 || 39.6 || 50.4 || 22.5 || 28.6 || 28.1 || -11.1 || -11 || -22.3

IE || 33 || 52.5 || 57.9 || 30.9 || 39.8 || 44 || -2.1 || -12.7 || -13.9

EL || 24.8 || 27.9 || 34.2 || 21.9 || 23.4 || 27.6 || -2.9 || -4.5 || -6.6

ES || 35.8 || 44.7 || 45.3 || 31 || 35.3 || 35 || -4.8 || -9.4 || -10.3

FR || 34 || 45.2 || 48.6 || 29 || 37.1 || 38.5 || -5 || -8.1 || -10.1

HR || 17.6 || 21.4 || 28.8 || 14.8 || 15.8 || 19.4 || -2.8 || -5.6 || -9.4

IT || 14.2 || 23.5 || 26.3 || 12 || 14.9 || 17.2 || -2.2 || -8.6 || -9.1

CY || 36.1 || 52.9 || 55.5 || 35.9 || 41.3 || 43.6 || -0.2 || -11.6 || -11.9

LV || 22.1 || 34.9 || 48.1 || 12.4 || 19.3 || 26.2 || -9.7 || -15.6 || -21.9

LT || 29.6 || 48.6 || 56.7 || 17 || 31 || 40.3 || -12.6 || -17.6 || -16.4

LU || 21.5 || 42.7 || 48.9 || 25.6 || 36.9 || 50.4 || 4.1 || -5.8 || 1.5

HU || 16.1 || 26.3 || 35.5 || 12.8 || 18.6 || 24.7 || -3.3 || -7.7 || -10.8

MT || 8.2 || 21.5 || 24 || 10.3 || 20.7 || 20.7 || 2.1 || -0.8 || -3.3

NL || 29.3 || 41.8 || 44.6 || 27.8 || 38.5 || 39.8 || -1.5 || -3.3 || -4.8

AT || || 22.4 || 26.6 || || 21.9 || 26 || || -0.5 || -0.6

PL || 16.7 || 35 || 46.5 || 12.2 || 24.4 || 31.9 || -4.5 || -10.6 || -14.6

PT || 16.9 || 26.4 || 30.1 || 9.1 || 17 || 24.3 || -7.8 || -9.4 || -5.8

RO || 9 || 17.1 || 23.2 || 9.1 || 14.9 || 20.5 || 0.1 || -2.2 || -2.7

SI || 29.1 || 38.4 || 49.6 || 12.9 || 24.3 || 29.5 || -16.2 || -14.1 || -20.1

SK || 11.2 || 17.6 || 28.2 || 9.7 || 14 || 19.4 || -1.5 || -3.6 || -8.8

FI || 49.3 || 56.6 || 55.4 || 33.4 || 35 || 36.7 || -15.9 || -21.6 || -18.7

SE || 31.2 || 47.7 || 53.7 || 25.5 || 36.6 || 42.4 || -5.7 || -11.1 || -11.3

UK || 30.7 || 41 || 50.2 || 32.4 || 38.3 || 44 || 1.7 || -2.7 || -6.2

Source: LFS, Eurostat

Table 8: Formal childcare by age group - % over the population of each age group

|| Below 3 years old || From 3 years to minimum compulsory age

|| 2007 || 2008 || 2009 || 2010 || 2011 || 2007 || 2008 || 2009 || 2010 || 2011

EU28 || || || || 28 || 30 || || || || 84 || 83

BE || 44 || 43 || 33 || 36 || 39 || 100 || 99 || 99 || 99 || 98

BG || 8 || 11 || 8 || 7 || 7 || 59 || 67 || 55 || 54 || 60

CZ || 2 || 1 || 3 || 2 || 5 || 69 || 69 || 64 || 71 || 74

DK || 70 || 73 || 73 || 78 || 74 || 97 || 96 || 84 || 90 || 98

DE || 17 || 19 || 19 || 20 || 24 || 86 || 90 || 88 || 92 || 90

EE || 15 || 17 || 25 || 21 || 19 || 86 || 88 || 93 || 92 || 92

IE || 24 || 24 || 20 || 29 || 21 || 86 || 85 || 87 || 90 || 82

EL || 10 || 12 || 11 || 8 || 19 || 65 || 55 || 58 || 69 || 75

ES || 40 || 38 || 36 || 38 || 39 || 92 || 95 || 94 || 95 || 86

FR || 27 || 40 || 41 || 43 || 44 || 93 || 96 || 95 || 94 || 95

HR || || || || 8 || 15 || || || || 42 || 51

IT || 25 || 28 || 25 || 22 || 26 || 90 || 91 || 93 || 87 || 95

CY || 18 || 26 || 22 || 24 || 23