EN    EN EN 
 
EN    EN  COMMISSION OF THE E UROPEAN COMMUNITIES 
Brussels, 17.9.2009 
SEC(2009) 1137 final 
  
COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 
 
Accompanying the 
REPORT FROM THE COMI SSION TO THE COUNCIL 
 
EU 2009 Report on Policy Coherence for Development 
 
 
{COM(2009) 461 final}  
 
EN 2   EN TABLE OF CONTENTS 
1. Introduction................................................................................................................ .. 3 
2. Organisational Mechanisms......................................................................................... 4 2.1. General commitment to Policy Coherence for Development ...................................... 6 
2.2. PCD Promotion in EU Member States......................................................................... 7 2.3. PCD Promotion within the Commission.................................................................... 12 2.4. PCD Promotion at EU level/Role of th e Council/Presidency and the European 
 Parliament .................................................................................................................. 15  
2.5. Partner Country Perspective....................................................................................... 17 2.6. Conclusion & Outstanding Issues .............................................................................. 20 3. Policy Areas ............................................................................................................... 2 3 
3.1. Trade ..................................................................................................................... ..... 23 
3.2. Environment............................................................................................................... 39 
3.3. Climate Change.......................................................................................................... 51  
3.4. Security .................................................................................................................. .... 61 
3.5. Agriculture ............................................................................................................... .. 76 
3.6. Fisheries ................................................................................................................. .... 87 
3.7. Social Dimension of Globalisati on, Employment and Decent Work ...................... 101 
3.8. Migration................................................................................................................. . 114 
3.9. Research and Innovation.......................................................................................... 124 3.10. Information Society.................................................................................................. 141 3.11. Transport ................................................................................................................ .. 151 
3.12. Energy ................................................................................................................... ... 159 
4. Case Studies ............................................................................................................. 169  
4.1. Conceptual and Theoretical Framework .................................................................. 169 4.2. Case Study on MDG 1 (Hunger) and PCD .............................................................. 175 4.3. Case study on MDG 6.............................................................................................. 188 4.4. The Joint Africa – EU Strategy (JAES) ................................................................... 201 
 
EN 3   EN 1. INTRODUCTION  
Since the mid 1990's EU Member States sought  to improve coordination of bilateral and 
multilateral development policies in the light of  greater integration in the Union, greater 
convergence of development objectives and limite d availability of re sources to face ever-
increasing challenges in developing countr ies. Meanwhile, globalisation, increased 
interdependence of countries and regions thro ughout the world, and the rapid expansion of 
information technologies are illuminating starkly the deve loped and emerging countries' 
diverging interests or competi ng objectives which can sometimes have dramatic consequences 
for the developing world. 
Against this background, realising that its policies in areas other than development were 
having some unintended impacts on third countr ies and building on the OECD work in this 
area, the Union formulated a concept of Policy Coherence for Development aimed at strengthening synergies between those non-aid polices and its development objectives. The 
idea was that carefully designe d and implemented EU policies would generally lead to 
increased effectiveness of development aid a nd non-aid policies, and to efficient use of 
resources, by limiting policy incohe rence and developing synergies.  
To this end, the EU committed itself to PCD in twelve policy areas
1 in 2005 and has 
endeavoured to strengthen PCD procedures, inst ruments and mechanisms at all levels since 
then. These efforts were formally embedded in the European Consensus on Development adopted in December 2005
2 and a first progress report on PCD in the Union, setting out the 
views and expertise of the Member States, was issued by the Commission in September 
20073, as requested by the Council in May 2005.  
The first report showed what the Union had done  in organisational terms and in the twelve 
policy areas, highlighting specific aspects for each policy domain, acknowledging progress 
and setbacks, identifying outstanding issues and providing a comprehensive overview. The 
report was used to improve PCD awareness in the EU through debates and discussions in a 
number of fora and in different countries. Ov erall, the document was welcomed by many as a 
valuable attempt to take stock of PCD e ndeavours in the EU confirming the EU policy 
commitment to PCD and reinforcing its lead role at international level. 
Building on the 2007 report's findings and reco mmendations, the Commission elaborated on 
PCD issues in four thematic areas (Migrati on, Research, Climate Change and Energy) in a 
Staff Working Paper published in April 2008. Tying in with the Commission Communication 
on speeding up the achievement of MDGs4, the paper, which resulted from a in-depth 
                                                 
1 May 2005 Council Conclusions on PCD. The twelve policy areas are Trade, Environment, Climate 
Change, Security, Agriculture, Fisheries, Social Dimension of Globalisation, Employment and Decent Work, Migration, Research and Innovation, Information Society, Transport and Energy. 
2 OJ 2006/ C 46/01, December 2005, Joint Statem ent by the Council and the representatives of the 
governments of the Member States meeting the Council, the European Parliament and the European 
Commission- "The European Consensus on Development", ,  
3 Com (200) 545 final and Sec(2007) 1202, 20/09/20007. EU Report on Policy Coherence for 
Development. 
4 SEC(2008) 434, 9.4.2008, European Commission, Staff working paper, "Policy Coherence for 
Development Climate Change/Energy/Biofuels, Migration and Research" 
 
EN 4   EN consultation of interested partners5, provided some options for drawing up development 
friendly policies in the four areas of focus. 
The debate that ensued from the 2007 PCD repor t and the Staff Worki ng Paper of April 2008, 
together with discussions with civil society and international organi sations on PCD issues 
(Civil society meeting on development and c oherence issues, the OECD DAC reflection 
exercises etc.) and the renewed focus on MDG in 2007/8 led to a rethinking of the EU PCD methodology for the 2009 reporting exercise and to an increas ed focus on the impact on 
developing countries.  
With the positive experience of 2007 in mind, the 2009 report takes a two-pronged approach 
to the subject matter while integrating some evidence-based PCD.. An updated analysis of 
policy changes has been compiled, based on cont ributions by Member St ates and the various 
Commission services. As such, the 2009 report c ontinues to reflect EU -wide endeavours to 
promote PCD at national, EU and international levels. 
In addition however, the 2009 repo rt presents an ove rall conceptual framework linking the 12 
EU policies to the MDGs in developing countries  and gives details of three case studies in 
developing countries and specifica lly in Africa, given the particularly dramatic situation 
therewith regard to MDGs. Two case studies focus on MDGs (MDG1 on hunger and MDG6 
on the fight against HIV/Aids) in three develo ping countries (Senegal , Ethiopia, Mozambique 
for MDG1; Rwanda, Zambia, Tanzania for MDG6 ), the third case concentrates on the Joint 
Africa-EU Strategy as a framewor k with strong PCD potential.  
With a strong focus on the impact in develo ping countries, the EU efforts to boost policy 
coherence for development should gain credib ility and political clout. By establishing 
potential and concrete linkage s between PCD efforts and prog ress in reducing poverty in poor 
countries, the report should help to further raise awareness of PC D potential among policy 
makers and more generally among the wider public.  In keeping w ith the original mandate, the 
present 2009 PCD report provides a basis for assessing PCD progres s in the EU and serves as 
an information tool to generate debate and to obtain feedback from EU stakeholders. Further, 
the linkages to progress on MDGs and to the Africa-EU strategy prov ides feedback from 
developing countries and may promote the prin ciples of PCD as a relevant development 
concept to be further explored  in policy fora in the south. 
2. O
RGANISATIONAL MECHANISMS  
Brining about greater coherence between polic ies and development objectives is a complex 
endeavour. To succeed in this task governments need certain structures and mechanisms. The 
precise nature and interplay of these varies depending on the different political systems. But 
broadly speaking there are thr ee key building blocks 1) a ge neral – preferably legal - 
commitment to PCD, and a political framework outlining the approach to PCD, 2) 
institutional mechanisms, with a specific ma ndate to promote PCD and 3) a reporting 
obligation. The OECD pictur es them together in th e policy coherence cycle6: 
                                                 
5 Such as civil society organisations, international organisations and developing country representatives 
6 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Policy Brief, Policy Coherence for 
Development – Lessons Learned, December 2008  
 
EN 5   EN 
 
 
EN 6   EN 2.1. General commitment to Polic y Coherence for Development 
EU commitment to PCD is founded as regards the legal base on arti cle 178 of the Treaty 
establishing the European Community, and in  a more general way on article 3, second 
subparagraph, of the Treaty on European Uni on as regards consistency between all the 
Union's policies and its external activities. The Treaty of Lisbon would give a solid legal base 
to Policy Coherence for Development with two articles of particular  importance. Firstly, 
article 21(2)(d) and (3) of the Treaty on Eur opean Union in the chapter on the general 
provisions on the Union's external action whic h sets out sustainable development and the 
eradication of poverty as objectiv es of the Union's external act ion. Importantly, this article 
also stipulates that the EU shall pursue this  objective in the development and implementation 
of the different areas of the Union's external action and of the external  aspects of its other 
policies. Secondly, article 208(1)  of the Treaty on the Functio ning of the European Union 
would be the new version of the 178 coherenc e article with almost identical wording. 
The political framework  has been set by the Commi ssion's Communication on Policy 
Coherence for Development in April 20057, the subsequent Council Conclusions in May 
20058, the European Consensus on Development in December 20059, as well as in the 
Council Conclusions on the EU PCD report in November 200710. PCD commitments in 
specific areas were made in particular w ith the Council conclusions on security and 
development and the Conclusion on migration both of them adopted in November 2007, as 
well as the Council Conclusions of May 2008 on Climate Change /Energy/Biofuels, Migration 
and Research.  
                                                 
7 COM(2005)134 of 12.04.2005 
8 Doc.9266/05 Council Conclusions, May 2005  
9 December 2005, OJ 2006/C46/01, Joint Statement by the Council and the representatives of the 
governments of the Member States meeting within  the Council, the European Parliament and the 
European Commission – 'The European Consensus on Development'  
10 Doc 15112/07Council Conclusions, November 2007 
 
EN 7   EN 2.2. PCD Promotion in EU Member States 
2.2.1.  General commitment, capacity and approach to PCD 
A growing number of Member States have officially committed themselves to PCD (see chart 
below11). The Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Poland and Romania have adopted 
legislation putting a specific emphasis on PCD.  Austria, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, 
Slovenia and Sweden (re)confir med their commitment to PCD in long term government 
policies and/or coalition programmes. The Iri sh Government’ Programme ‘A Blueprint for 
Ireland’s Future’, for example, commits the government to an integrated approach to 
development across all departments. Some ne w, small donors envisage specific changes in 
policy commitment to PCD in the near future.  
 
Sweden and Austria have identified focus areas  for their PCD work: Sweden specified six 
global challenges as priorities for ensuring PCD: oppression, economic exclusion, climate 
change and environmental impact, migration fl ows, communicable diseases and other health 
threats, and conflicts and fragile situations (see box below). Austria is focusing its PCD 
efforts on three themes: Environment and Deve lopment, Food Security, and Education and 
Science.  
Sweden: Six Global Challenges: A PCD Focusing Methodology. 
Prior to 2007, Sweden attempted a whole-of-gove rnment approach to PCD but this provided 
to be ineffective as the polic ies of individual government offices were not always coherent 
with each other. The problems overall stemmed from a lack of policy ownership, a poor 
understanding of PCD means in practice, and the absence of a guiding strategy for 
implementation of PCD policies.12 Sweden embarked on a new approach in 2007 whereby 
PCD efforts are focused on selected global cha llenges. It announced this new approach to 
Parliament on 17 March 2008, in  a communication entitled Sweden’s Policy for Global 
Development (Govt Comm. 2007/8:89). The six challenges selected are: Oppression, 
                                                 
11 Chart based on Member States' responses to a dedicated PCD 2009 questionnaire prepared by the 
European Commission 
12 Government Offices of Sweden, Global Challenges – Our Responsibility: Communication on Sweden’s 
policy for global development. 2008 
 
EN 8   EN Economic exclusion, Climate change and environmen tal impact, Migration flows, Infectious 
diseases and other health threats, and Conflicts and fragile situations. They have been further 
subdivided into 18 cases, each w ith clear objectives and policy implementation targets along 
with a selection of measures that are seen as necessary to  fulfil each objective. Each 
government office is responsible for developing the necessary policies and management 
processes for meeting the objectives. A global de velopment policy forum has been established 
within government offices for increasing coordi nation and coherence. All policies that have 
an impact on global development are subject to an impact assessment that evaluates the policy 
according to a “ rights perspective and the perspective of poor people on development ”. Also, 
cooperation with non-state actors is promoted  by the “actor-driven cooperation” approach, 
which focuses on developing self-sustaining re lationships between Swedish and developing 
country actors. The first performance evalua tion of Sweden’s new PCD approach will be 
conducted in 2010.  
2.2.2.  Administrative coordination and institutiona l mechanisms with a specific mandate to 
promote PCD  
A number of Member States are enhancing their capacity to  ensure PCD. Seven Member 
States took specific steps to enhance PCD capacity across government. The UK expanded the 
role of DFID and increased the number of inter-departmental units in areas such as trade and 
climate change (see box). The Netherlands intensified its focus on inter-ministerial agreements on development policy. France created a new Directorate General for 
Globalisation, Development and Partnerships, w ith a unit focusing on aid effectiveness and 
policy coherence.  
UK, Making it Happen : April 2008 an internal manage ment and delivery initiative 
In April 2008, an internal manage ment and delivery initiative ( Making it Happen ) helped to 
broaden the agenda of UK development policies to  include areas that we re previously outside 
of the development sector. The move toward s increasing PCD capacity began in July 2007 
with the doubling in size of the minist erial team for international development. 13 One of the 
major components of the government’s PCD effort  is the establishmen t of a joint DFID – 
Department of Business, Enterprise, and Re gulatory Reform Trade Policy Unit (TPU) in 
November 2007.2 This new unit places the responsibility for overseeing trade policy jointly 
on the two ministries, and a new Cabinet Comm ittee was created to increase coherence. 
Furthermore, a Justice Assistance Network was created in May 2007, as a joint effort by 
DFID, the Attorney General, and the FCO, to ensure that UK justice assistance is coherent 
and effective. 1 Also, in 2007, Her Majesty’s Treasur y (HMT) and Her Majesty’s Revenue 
and Customs started taking steps to ensure that taxation treaties are in line with the UK’s 
development objectives.1 DFID, the FCO, and HMT have also  worked jointly to develop the 
Extractive Industries Tran sparency Initiative.2 The increased coordination between ministries 
dealing with trade, migration, and financia l matters is necessary to make the UK’s 
development cooperation and policy coherence more effective. 
About 75% of Member States have improved thei r institutional decision -making processes to 
ensure PCD. A large majority of the Memb er States now have well-established inter-
ministerial or interdepartmental committees, units  or task forces specifically mandated to 
                                                 
13 DFID. DFID Annual Report 2008: Making It Happen .: http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/departmental-
report/2008/default.asp. 
 
EN 9   EN ensure PCD. Romania, for example, created the Inter-ministerial Commission for Economic 
Cooperation and International De velopment in July 2007. A number  of Member States prefer 
more informal working groups or networks. Fi nland and Portugal strengthened their role of 
the PCD Coordinator. Hungary and Portuga l established PCD fo cal points within non-
development ministries. The UK established a Cabinet Committee on Trade, chaired by 
DFID’s Secretary of State. As Finland a nd Spain had done before 2007, Austria, Czech 
Republic and Latvia have also now established independent nati onal advisory bodies to advise 
the government on PCD issues. Th ese generally consist of repr esentatives from development 
and non-development ministries, independent experts - from the private sector, NGOs, 
research - and, in the case of Latvia, repr esentatives of municipalities as well.  
Interministerial cooperation on clim ate change: the example of Germany 
Since the beginning of 2008, the German Federa l Environment Ministry (BMU) has made 
available up to €120 million, creditable agains t ODA, for Internationa l Climate Protection. 
The goal is to contribute to reducing emissi ons in a cost-effective way through increased 
energy efficiency and greater use of renewable en ergies in developing c ountries as well as to 
promote adaptation to climate change in those countries. In order to ensure coherence with 
development policy, the Federal Ministry of Finance issued a guidance note stipulating 
approval of the Federal Ministry for Econo mic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) must 
approve all decisions related to the programme’s financing. 
In accordance with increased thematic focus,  Sweden has set up new interdepartmental 
working groups for each of the six global ch allenges and the UK has established thematic 
PCD Units on Trade Policy; Returns and Reinte gration (on Migration) , Energy and Climate 
Change (at the High Commission in Delhi) and Stabilisation. Sweden and the UK have 
introduced results-based manage ment principles for designing and managing action agendas 
for ensuring PCD in thematic areas.  
Unsurprisingly capacities in national administra tions still vary between Member States. For 
some countries, PCD is not a first priority and awareness of the need for it in non-
development ministries remains low. It is noticea ble that in Member Stat es that have a strong 
policy commitment to PCD, non-developm ent ministries reportedly understand its 
implications better too. 
2.2.3.  Analysis, reporting and awareness raising 
Better use of impact assessment as well as more intensive exchanges with the European 
Parliament and a broader range of  civil society actors was identif ied as an outstanding issue in 
the 2007 PCD report. Recognising the importan ce of clear evidence for enhancing PCD as 
well as the need to involve the public, Member States made more use of impact assessments, 
strengthened their reporting mechanisms and e ngaged in a broader dialogue with parliaments 
and civil society actors. 
Seven Member States use impact assessments systematically to support effective action on 
PCD. The Netherlands focuses in particular on decision-ma king around EPAs. Sweden is 
developing measures to do impact assessment at  an early stage in the PCD decision-making 
process. The UK focuses its assessments mostly on the impact of insecurity, climate change 
and economic growth. Germany and Ireland make use of impact assessments by the European 
Commission and others. Germany un derlines the particular useful ness of Trade Sustainability 
Impact Assessments. Poland has created a speci al post on Impact Assessment within the 
 
EN 10   EN Department of International C ooperation. Romania and Lithuania expect to make more use of 
impact assessments in the near future. 
Reporting on PCD is more and more integrated  into general reporting on development policy. 
In their regular reports to G overnment, Swedish embassies and field offices provide feedback 
on PCD in partner countries based on individu al country assistance strategies. The UK’s 
International Development (Reporting and Tran sparency) Act requires the Secretary of State 
for International Development to report to Pa rliament each year, including on a range of PCD 
areas. In Germany, PCD reporting is included in the overall report which the Federal 
Government presents to parl iament once every election peri od. The most recent was the 
‘White Paper on Development Policy’ issued  in June 2008. In Ireland, the same month, 
Ireland's Interdepartmental Committee on Develo pment presented its fi rst Annual Report to 
the Minister for Foreign Affairs.. Amongst th e newer European donor s, progress reports 
frequently refer to advances made in more general ODA reporting. 
The Netherlands undertakes regular external eval uations of the work of its Policy Coherence 
for Development Unit. These evaluations assess the relevance, added value and results of the Unit's three primary: PCD screening of Dutch positions in the European Union; pro-active networking and lobbying with other directorates and relevant mini stries to define and achieve 
specific results on a limited number of current  PCD issues; and stre ngthening EU and wider 
international cooperation on PCD.  
Very few Member States report on studies analysi ng the root causes of PCD or the lack of it. 
Irish Aid commissioned research on PCD that involved comprehensive scoping of coherence 
issues across Government Departments. The resulting report, soon to be published, is 
expected to identify key policy coherence issu es and suggest which of these should be most 
urgently addressed by the Irish Government. The UK on the other hand, reports that the 
interplay between climate change, livelihoods and conflict in Darfur has led to a number of 
pioneering projects in the region based on in-d epth analyses conducted by different research 
groups, which aim to address the underlying e nvironmental causes of conflict, providing a 
long-term sustainable basis for growth in the context of pressing and immediate humanitarian 
needs. 
Awareness and transparency of PCD issues are increasing considerably in Member Sates. 
Most Parliaments are engaging much more actively on PCD issues. The UK House of 
Commons organised sessi ons on Sustainable Development in  a Changing Climate, DFID and 
China, World Food Programme and Global Food S ecurity, Scrutiny of Arms Export Control, 
Development and Trade and Cro ss-departmental Working and Af ghanistan Reconstruction in 
2008/9. Members of Parliament in many Member  States repeatedly spent a lot of time 
discussing the findings of civil society organisa tions and research institutions with expertise 
in PCD. 
Most Member States have made a big effort to raise stakeholders' awareness of PCD, to 
increase accountability and transp arency on PCD and to engage the public at large. Poland for 
example reports a steady intensif ication of the dialogue  with civil society organisations. It 
held several seminars and events and has cr eated a special web page designed to make 
knowledge and information on PCD and the risks of non-compliance more widely available. 
In the Netherlands, intensive dialogues with a wide range of stakeholders were conducted on 
PCD-related topics during the formulation of  the Government Agenda 2015. PCD was a key 
topic at a major public Africa Conference in Rotterdam in 2008, while in 2007 public 
presentations of the CDI Index were given. Th e UK continued to fund the Centre for Global 
 
EN 11   EN Development’s Commitment to Development Index (CDI) as part of their efforts to raise 
awareness within governments and among the general public of the many ways that donor 
governments affect developing countries. 
 
2.2.4.  Conclusion on the situation in Member States 
Generally speaking many Member States have continued to develop their approach, legal 
framework and practical measures to ensure PC D. Member States with an appropriate legal 
base find it easier to promote PCD. Obstacles rema in with regard to the lack of awareness of 
development issues on the part of non-develo pment line-ministries. This is compounded by 
the difficulty of providing evidence about the ul timate impact of non-development policies on 
poverty in developing countries, making it difficult to show th e results of increased PCD. 
Member States have made good progress, but desp ite these efforts, particularly by the more 
recent donors awareness and capacities needs to be further increased to  address PCD issues 
adequately. 
 
EN 12   EN 2.3. PCD Promotion within the Commission 
The Commission has gained a high profile for it s work on PCD. The latest DAC Peer Review 
of EC aid14 recognises the substantial progress made  by the Commission to  putting in place 
effective mechanisms to ensure PCD. In the reporting period the Commi ssion concentrated on 
implementing its legal and political framework, and on using its coordination and reporting mechanisms in a more effective, active and targeted way.  
The preparation of the 2007 PCD report was inst rumental in raising awareness, enhancing 
understanding and increasing ownership of PC D in the Commission and the Member States. 
Its publication has been recognised by the Member  States as a major achievement. However, 
the Netherlands found that drawing operational conclusions from the evidence provided was 
difficult and did not encounter sufficientl y broad support from Member States and 
Commission.  
In 2008, the Commission took its PCD work further by sharpeni ng, and making better use of 
Inter-service consultation (ISC) and Impact assessments (IA), both of which are powerful 
mechanisms to promote PCD.  
At international level, the Commission cont ributed to the OECD DAC Reflection Group on 
the revision of the DAC mandate, thus helping to make PCD a renewed priority for DAC in 
the future. 
2.3.1.  More effective use of impact assessments and inter-service consultations: PCD work 
plan 
Every year, the Commission adopts hundreds of new legislative proposals and policy 
initiatives, which undergo IA and ISC. In an effo rt to identify the initiatives which will affect 
developing countries, the Commi ssion now regularly establishes an informal PCD workplan, 
which lists all those EU policy initiatives and legislative propos als that are likely to have 
significant impact on developing countries. In 2 008, 26 initiatives were identified and 37 in 
2009. 
This PCD planning list has been an important st ep forward. It allows the Commission to use 
the ISC and IA in a much more effective and st rategic way and to concentrate its efforts on 
those initiatives w ith the biggest impact on developing countries. In addition, this exercise of 
jointly identifying the relevant in itiatives with the responsible civil servants has proved to be a 
very useful process for enhancing ownershi p and increasing awareness of PCD issues.  
2.3.2.  Revision of the IA guidelines 
The Commission uses impact assessment to identify likely consequences of its policy 
initiatives or legislative propos als in the economic, environmenta l and social fields. The 2007 
PCD report suggested using them to get a clea rer idea of how developing countries may be 
affected. The Commission theref ore took the opportunity to re vise the IA guidelines to 
strengthen their external dimension a nd to sharpen them as a PCD instrument
15.  
                                                 
14 OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) Peer Review of  the European Community, 2007 
15 See http://ec.europa.eu/governance/impact/index_en.htm  
 
EN 13   EN The revised IA guidelines applicable sin ce January 2009, put the Commission in a better 
position to ensure Policy Coherence for Developm ent, in so far as they call for a more in-
depth analysis of possible the ways in which EU policy initiatives might affect developing 
countries. The guidelines state that 'initiatives that may affect developing countries should be 
analysed for their coherence with the objectives  of EU development policy. This includes an 
analysis of consequences (or spill-overs) in the longer r un in areas such as economic, 
environmental, social or security policy.' Such an analysis has to differentiate between countries at different stages of development.  According to the new guidelines the impact on 
commitments arising from the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement must also be checked. The annexes to the guidelines include a specific  section on assessing impacts on developing 
countries. In addition, specific guidance is gi ven for identifying possible consequences on 
developing countries, including in  the areas of employment, food security, and natural 
resources stocks.  
These changes by the Commission also responds to requests from the European Parliament 
and the Council to strengthen the external dime nsion of IA and to improve and make better 
use the IA process to evaluate the impact  of EU policies on de veloping countries.  
2.3.3.  Institutional mechanisms: PCD unit and PCD inter-service group 
The PCD unit in DG Development continued to  play its catalysing, advising and coaching 
role for PCD. It coordinated the PCD work of  the Commission and cont ributed to making EU 
polices more development-friendly. 
The inter-service group on PCD functions as a forum for exchange of views on PCD issues. 
Its members act as interprete rs between the different polic ies. They make proposals and 
explain how development objectives can be taken into account in other policies. At the same 
time they give background on th e policies of their DGs there by promoting better mutual 
understanding and paving the way for sometim es new and innovative ways of enhancing 
synergies between policies.  
2.3.4.  Budgetary/financial issues/financing of non-development activities in developing 
countries 
Cooperation with developing countri es is no longer limited to promoting their development. 
Mauritania and the Seychelles receive more fundi ng under the Common Fish eries Policy than 
under the Development Fund (EDF). Some count ries receive considerable funding from 
European Research programmes for research  activities involving th eir universities and 
academics. Security, migration and climate change  and environment in general are other areas 
where the EU increasingly coopera tes with developing countries.  
Cooperation in these areas is mostly financed from non-development budget lines. While not 
primarily motivated by the will to support thes e countries in the figh t against poverty, such 
cooperation also has the potential to contribute to development. To  harness this potential it is 
important to ensure coherence at the policy le vel and to develop and strengthen mechanisms 
to ensure that coherence is also improved at the operational level.  
The financing instrument for development coope ration (DCI) is used partly to fund non-ODA 
activities such as some aspects of migration. However, in order to keep the thematic focus of 
the DCI on poverty reduction and the Millennium  Development Goals (MDGs), while at the 
same time taking account of the growing need to finance non-ODA activ ities in developing 
 
EN 14   EN countries, the Commission intends to fina nce non-ODA activities under the financial 
instrument for cooperation with industrialised countries, the ICI. To that end it has proposed 
an amendment in the framework of the Mid-Term  Review of the extern al action instruments 
to extend the geographical c overage of the ICI to in clude developing countries.  
 
EN 15   EN 2.4. PCD Promotion at EU level/Role of th e Council/Presidency and the European 
Parliament 
The Council Conclusions on integrating developm ent concerns in Council decision-making of 
October 2006 describe the roles of the differe nt actors in promoting PCD, emphasising that 
COREPER (the Committee of Permanent Representa tives of the Member States to the EU) is 
the main forum for ensuring PCD.  
These two main mechanisms recommended fo r promoting PCD, are the Rolling Work 
Programme (RWP) and the screening of C ouncil agendas to identify items with a 
development dimension and to ensure that develo pment concerns are fully reflected across the 
policy spectrum at all relevant stages in the decision-making process. Other mechanisms to 
promote PCD are the present report, joint mee tings both of Council work ing groups and at the 
ministerial level, and the informal EU PCD network of the EU Member States.  
The 2007 PCD report identified as one of the out standing issues the need to review and 
improve Council procedures, in particular with regard to ensuring that PCD is built into the Council working groups so that COREPER recei ves coherent submissions. The report also 
suggested institutionalisation of the PCD scr eening of Council agenda, to make the RWP 
more operational, and organisati on of more joint GAERC sessions. 
Slightly more than half of the Member States are of the opinion that PCD procedures at EU 
level have been sufficiently reviewed and improved. The others see room for further 
improvement. Member States with less expe rience of PCD are on the whole more positive 
than the ones that have been working on it fo r the last decade. For this first group, the EU 
procedures provide fair guidelines to deve lop their capacity to  ensure PCD within 
government.  
The screening exercise has been carried out by all Presidencies sin ce 2007. Several Member 
States find that even though, progr ess has been made with this exercise, the status of PCD 
screening remains unclear and specific follow-up is seen as ad hoc.  
The PCD Rolling Work Programme was prepared by the German Presidency in the first half 
of 2007. It was updated by some of the subsequent  Presidencies but not by all. Nine Member 
States use the Rolling Work Progr amme (RWP) as part of internal procedures or as a key 
reference for their PCD work. It provides an im portant tool for many Member States to help 
focus PCD work nationally, even if some of th e more experienced Member States would like 
to see it further improved or feel their esta blished procedures make it as yet unnecessary. 
Although some Member States find it a useful  tool, it has to be acknowledged that the 
preparation of this programme is  a laborious exercise, which cont rasts with its relatively low 
status as a Presidency Paper. Combined with the huge range of areas and initiatives covered 
this does not encourage follow-up and limits  the political value of the paper. 
The lack of follow-up to both exercises some how undermines the usefulness of the whole 
process. There is a need to take a more stra tegic approach: to limit the scope of the RWP but 
to be more ambitious in political terms, select  a few PCD priorities and ensure that they are 
properly tackled. 
Joint meetings both at the leve l of Council working groups and at  ministerial level to promote 
PCD throughout the EU are organised by almost al l Presidencies. Similarly to the screening 
 
EN 16   EN exercise, several Member States  find that the status  of joint sessions remains unclear and 
specific follow-up is seen as ad hoc. Germany co nsiders that joint Council sessions have made 
considerable progress, yet it recognises that  underlying conflicts be tween internal EU and 
development policy objectives persist, and may re main. Sweden points to a lack of ownership 
in non-development Council formations. The UK indicates that the joint Council sessions 
with Foreign and Defence Ministers have been useful but could be expanded also to include 
Trade, Finance and Environment Ministers. Se veral Member States stress that specific 
outcomes are still too dependent on the EU Presidency of the day. Many Member States 
suggest that the role of the Council’s Gene ral Secretariat should be strengthened, and 
interaction between different Council wo rking groups should be intensified.  
The informal PCD network of EU Member St ates met on several occasions, to ensure 
exchanges between the Member States on PCD i ssues and to give advice with regard to 
preparation of the PCD report.  
The European Parliament (EP) took a keener interest in PCD during the second half of its 
term. MEPs asked many written questions on  specific aspects of EU policies including 
migration, trade and fisheries and their imp acts on developing countri es. The EP did not 
prepare an official reaction to the 2007 PCD Report. It adopted, though, on 17 June 2008 a 
resolution on policy coherence for development and the effects of the EU’s exploitation of 
certain biological natural resources on developm ent in West Africa. Jointly with the OECD 
and the Commission the EP organised a conf erence on migration and development in 
February 2009. 
 
EN 17   EN 2.5. Partner Country Perspective 
Intensifying the dialogu e with partner countries on the synergies between EU policies and 
development cooperation programmes was identifi ed as an outstanding issue in the 2007 PCD 
report. The Joint Annual Reviews show that the Community has followed up on this. Member 
States, too, have intensified their dialogue with  partner countries on PCD issues. In parallel 
developing countries are showing a growi ng interest in PCD and new institutional 
arrangements such as the Africa-EU partners hip are increasingly used to promote PCD by 
both side. 
2.5.1.  Cotonou Article 12 consultations 
The Cotonou Agreement, which links the EU to 79 countries in Africa, the Caribbean and the 
Pacific, is probably the only international agr eement, with a specific PCD article. Article 12 
sets up a consultation mechanism to promote the coherence of Community policies which 
might affect the interests of the ACP count ries. The Community must inform the ACP 
countries in due time of its inte ntions, whenever possible in a dvance of the adoption of such 
decisions. The ACP side may request for info rmation on their own initiative. Article 12 
provides that consultations are to  be held promptly so that the concerns of the ACP countries 
can be taken into account before  any final decision is made. Af ter such consultation the ACP 
can transmit their concerns or requests for amendment in writing. The first formal 
consultation of this kind t ook place on 12 February 2009. 
The first formal PCD consultations with ACP countries 
The first formal consultations on PCD i ssues under Cotonou Article 12 took place on 12 
February 2009 at a meeting of the Joint AC P-EU Subcommittee on Trade Cooperation at the 
request of the ACP side. The meeting was co-c haired by the Ambassador of Mauritius and a 
Director from DG Trad e. The ACP Group had requested information on five Commission 
initiatives dealing with the use of pesticides, nickels substances, fisheries cold chain 
requirements, the renewable energy direct ive and the FLEGT licensing system. The 
Commission replied to concerns expressed by the ACP countries that  these proposals could 
have significant impacts on thei r export of certain products to  the EU and provided further 
detailed explanations. The Commission reassured the ACP representatives that their concerns 
would be taken into account in the preparation of these measures or in their implementation.  
The ACP representative said that the ACP countie s wanted to be involved  as early as possible 
in the preparation of all measures that might af fect their interests. They see a need for close 
cooperation between the ACP countries and the Commission, going be yond the already tight 
relationship that exists in certain areas. 
This request for formal consultations shows an increasing interest in coherence issues on the 
ACP side.. This interest is likely to grow as economic and political integration at the global 
level continues and consequently the impact of  EU initiatives on deve loping countries will 
increase. 
There is therefore a clear need for a dialogue with ACP countries aimed at identifying those 
EU initiatives which might affect their development strategies most and working out the most appropriate response/measures. The revision of the Cotonou Agreement for which both the 
EU and the ACP countries are keen to revisi t PCD provisions, will pr ovide an occasion to 
discuss this and strengthen the consultation mechanism.  
 
EN 18   EN 2.5.2.  PCD in EC cooperation programming and reporting mechanisms  
Following the introduction of a PCD section in  Country Strategy Papers in 2007, the first 
Joint Annual Reports (JARs) in 2008, prepar ed together by partner countries and the 
European Commission, made reference to one of the 12 PCD areas on 136 occasions. Three areas (trade, climate change and environmen t) made up 50% of the total – with trade 
accounting for 25% - thus highlighting the import ance of these aspects for the ACP states 
countries. Agriculture is the next most important  issue, representing 11% of the cases with a 
number of sub-themes covered (sugar, cotton, banana…). Fisheries, migration, transport and 
security follow, with around 7% each. Other them es (research, energy, tran sport and the social 
dimension of globalisation) represent between 1%  and 4% of the issues  raised. The order of 
importance of the eight key themes is broadly the same acr oss all regions. 
With regard to trade policy, the EPAs are a ma jor element reported by more than 50% of the 
Delegations. EU Sanitary and P hyto-Sanitary (SPS) standards are the second most important 
aspect in relation to trade.  
As far as climate change and environment are concerned, the main issues raised are to do with 
forestry management and protection of biodi versity. The Global Climate Change Alliance
16 
appears as well, as a key initiative for the futu re of small islands and some coastal countries. 
In agriculture, it is worth noting that the CAP subsidies are only referred to in two Joint 
Annual Reports. However some specific agricultu ral products, relevant to a number of 
developing countries, are identified such as: s ugar (in 10 reports), banana, cotton, beef or 
cocoa. 
With regard to fisheries, the partnership agreements, which include a new development 
dimension, are mentioned in si x coastal countries' JAR.  
As far as migration is concer ned, eight countries highlight its importanc e for development, 
with brain drain being seen as an acute issue, pa rticularly in health sectors, in two countries 
from Austral Africa. 
Transport policies are affecting developing countries mainly th rough issues related to air 
transport (safety standards) as  reported in two countries. Th e same standards are however 
seen in two other countries as making positiv e contribution to safety and efficiency, 
minimising transport effects on the environment.  
Security policy issues are reported in eight coun tries and mainly related to European Security 
and Defence Policy (ESDP), in connection with international military interventions with EU 
support or leadership.  
Other policy areas (social dimension of globa lisation, employment & decent work, research, 
energy, and information society) are only mentioned as PCD issues  by a handful of countries.  
                                                 
16 See chapter on climate change of this report 
 
EN 19   EN 2.5.3.  PCD in Member States' cooperation  programming and reporting mechanisms 
 
Most Member States have inte nsified their dialogues with pa rtner countries on synergies 
between (EU) non-development policies and de velopment cooperation programmes (see chart 
above17). Sweden has developed guidelines for drawing up bilateral co operation strategies 
that clearly incorporate the PCD perspective. Irish embassies are to include policy coherence 
issues in their analysis of the political, economic and development situation on the ground. The UK holds PCD discussion that involve around the thematic focus areas defined for DFID 
programmes: fragility, climate change an d economic growth. Member States with 
development programmes in neighbouring countrie s seem to be rather sensitive to applying 
PCD principles to partner country dialogues.  
At the same time many Member States are stil l in the process of de veloping their policy 
framework and procedures to refl ect internationally accepted practice.  In all, efforts appear to 
be mainly bilateral an d rather tentative alth ough some Member Stat es have specifically 
adapted their administrative rules and procedures.  
2.5.4.  The Africa-EU partnership as a new way to promote PCD 
The Joint-Africa-EU Strategy (JAES) adopted in December 2007 is the culmination of a 
process of deepening Africa-EU relations. It provides a comprehensive framework whereby 
subjects of common interest add value to existing cooperation and political dialogue. The 
JAES goes beyond traditional development c ooperation by moving away from a donor-
recipient relationship to a rela tionship in which mutual respect  and political dialogue underpin 
a genuine and effective partnership to meet common challenges together.
18 
The JAES provides an opportunity to bring about synergies between policies and avoid 
negative impacts of policies on developing coun tries thanks to regular dialogue between a 
range of stakeholders. The potential of the JA ES to put Africa and development issues on the 
agenda of other EU policy areas is the focus of the third case study examined in this report. 
                                                 
17 Chart based on Member States' responses to a dedicated PCD 2009 questionnaire prepared by the 
European Commission. 
18 European Commission Publication " Africa-Europe: the indispensable alliance ", 2008. 
 
EN 20   EN 2.6. Conclusion & Outstanding Issues  
The EU has substantially strengthened its appr oach towards PCD over the years. In a first 
phase it concentrated on the commitments for PCD. The key elements were the 2005 
Communication and Council conclusions setting out the commitments in the 12 policy areas 
and the EU Consensus on Development. The se cond phase is characterised mainly by efforts 
to fulfil these commitments, the production of the first EU PCD report and the sharpening of 
the mechanism to promote PCD such as IA and ISC, using the more effectively and raising 
awareness. In 2008, with the Staff Working Paper on PCD, the Commission explored the 
potential for development of four EU policy areas: climate change and energy, through the 
lenses of biofuels production and co nsumption, migration and research. 
 
Member States, generally speaking, are positiv e about the progress ach ieved since 2007. They 
note that the EU Consensus on Development an d successive Council conclusions have led to 
strengthening of procedures, m echanisms and resources that will be used to meet PCD 
commitments. A large majority of Member States rates progress as average, good or even 
strong19. Progress at Member States level has been  complemented by progress at EU level. 
The picture is not all rosy, though. Difficulties enc ountered at national level often spill over to 
the EU level and can be mutually reinforcing.. Me mber States point to the lack of political 
will and limited priority given to world pove rty reduction as a serious hindrance to PCD 
progress. Diverging interests can make it diff icult at times to ensure consistent Council 
messages on PCD. As the diagram illustrates, Me mber States assessments of EU performance 
differ greatly from one policy area  to the other. EU Presidencies  can play a lead role on PCD, 
but their efforts are necessarily limited to their term, often resulting in a lack of continuity 
from one Presidency to the other. PCD scr eening and joint meetings across sectors are 
important means to improve PCD within the EU, but so far there has been limited operational 
follow-up to such meetings.  
                                                 
19 Chart based on Member States' responses to a dedicated PCD 2009 questionnaire prepared by the 
European Commission 
 
EN 21   EN 
 
Based on this groundwork it app ears that a more strategic approach could be proposed. 
Reporting on PCD progress achieved in the 12 po licy areas helped to raise awareness and to 
demonstrate the importance of the broader EU policy agenda for development. The 
strengthening of the PCD instruments was necessary to better harness the potential of EU policies for development. But to make real pr ogress the EU needs to change its approach. 
Rather than monitoring the impact of all policies on developing countries the EU could promote PCD more effectivel y through a more focussed approach. The EU should select 
some key development challenges, analyse how it can contribute to ac hieving them through 
the broad array of its policies and instruments,  and ensure political mobilisation around these 
challenges.  
In this third phase the EU should also move towards a partnership approach to PCD. While 
the EU has made great efforts to better assess th e impacts of its own initiatives on developing 
countries with a view to bringing them into li ne with development objectives, the role of 
developing countries in these processes has been limited. While  some developing countries 
play an active role, others fi nd it more difficult due to their capacity constraints. The EU 
should therefore support these countries in id entifying EU policy and legislative proposals 
that might affect them, assess the possible imp acts and find ways to address their development 
concerns. The EU and developing countries co uld for instance better use the consultation 
mechanisms provided for in the impact asse ssment guidelines, the Cotonou Agreement and 
possibly also the AU-EU Partnership and strengthen them if necessary. 
Member States have also made progress i ndividually. They have strengthened their 
commitment to PCD, refined their institutional mechanisms to promote PCD and engaged in a 
deeper dialogue with society at  large. Many Member States how ever are still struggling with 
limited capacity and poor awareness. Sweden point s out that analysis a nd evaluation is still 
the least developed part of the PCD chain of work - as specified by the OECD - also in 
Sweden. There is a great continued need for mo re in-depth analysis of the complex links 
between different policy areas and their impact on development. Focussing efforts on a 
limited number of issues, as Sweden and the UK have done, might prove more fruitful.  
Outstanding Issues 
• The need for the Commission and the EU Memb er States to jointly agree on a few PCD 
priorities (based on this repor t) for the next 2-3 years. 
 
EN 22   EN • A review of the informal PC D Work Programme that could consist of the above-mentioned 
priorities and the screeni ng of the Commission's annual Legislative Work Programme 
(CLWP). 
• Better use by the EU and developing countries  of consultation mechanisms to promote 
PCD and to strengthen them when necessary 
• Commission support for developing  countries' efforts to identif y EU initiatives that matter 
for them by discussing with them the PCD priorities as well as the outcome of the 
screening of the CLWP. 
• Continued efforts to improve awareness and und erstanding of PCD, particularly on the part 
of non-development ministries. 
• The need for research, knowledge  and information on the impact  of policy (in) coherence / 
synergies to inform policy screen ing / negotiations and decisions. 
 
EN 23   EN 3. POLICY AREAS  
3.1. Trade  
Quick Facts 
• Global trade (in volume terms) is expected to fall by 2.8% in 2009.20  
• The IMF expects developing economies to grow by 3.25% in 2009, down from 6.3% in 
2008 and from 7.9 % in 2007.  
• Africa’s share of world trade has fallen from 5% twenty years ago to less than 2% today.21  
• Exports from least-developed countries (LDCs)  are estimated to have increased by about 
16% in 2007. The expansion of merchandise expor ts was even stronger for LDCs than for 
the developing countries ove r the last seven years.  
3.1.1.  Introduction  
This report is written in the midst of an  economic crisis, contracting trade and falling 
investment. Countries that are more integrated  into the global economy and world trade are 
feeling the effect of the crisis more overtly than those that are less well integrated, but all are being affected by falls in remittances and investment flows. As the global demand for commodities falls and their prices decline as a result, developing countries' export revenues 
are expected to decrease sharply leading to dete riorating external balances as well as lower 
revenues. Developing countries which are net exporters of commoditie s will suffer the most 
from plummeting commodity prices, while ne t importing countries of food, energy and raw 
materials will on the contrary see their import bills reduced. As a result, according to the 
World Bank, developing countries will face a financing gap of $270 billion to $700 billion 
this year.
22 
Even so, trade remains an important stimulus fo r growth, and helping to refuel trade with and 
between developing countries is in itself a key objective to support countries quick recovery 
from the crisis. 
While trade is not a guaranteed route to economic  growth for developing  countries, evidence 
suggests that trade and openness to  the global economy play an im portant role in  creating jobs 
and prosperity in developing countries. No country has successfully developed without 
engaging more closely in international market s. Supported by appropria te flanking policies 
within coherent national development strate gies, trade stimulates economic growth and 
thereby helps generate resources to meet the objective of poverty reduction and attain the 
other Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).  
Developing countries play an incr easingly important and active role in world trade. They look 
to trade as a vital tool in their development efforts, and the more advanced developing 
                                                 
20 International Monetary Fund, 01/28/2009, 
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/f t/survey/so/2009/num012809a.htm  
21 European Commission publication, " Africa-Europe: The Indispensible alliance ", 2008. 
22 COM (2009) 160 final, 8/04/2009 
 
EN 24   EN countries are becoming more and more importa nt actors in the gl obal economy. But not all 
developing countries have been equally succes sful in taking advantage of the potential of 
trade. 
Developing countries are increasingly promin ent in the World Trade Organization (WTO) 
negotiations. However, they are a highly divers e group often with very different views and 
concerns, and a number of different coalitions  among groups of deve loping countries have 
emerged in all negotiating fora. Whilst there ar e many aspects of EU trade policy where the 
principles of policy coherence for development are of relevance, the above is a key issue to be 
taken into account for the full integration of developing countri es, and in particular LDCs, 
into the global economy, and for the full implementation of coherent policies. 
3.1.2.  Progress towards PCD Commitments 
Through a wide range of measures and policy in itiatives, the EU aims to ensure that 
developing countries are able to benefit from  access to its own markets and from the openness 
of the global economy. It is recognised that there is no  single model for trade and 
development but that making trade work for deve lopment means tailoring policies to different 
vulnerabilities and differe nt potential strengths.  
As trade is an exclusive competence of the Community, few Member States report on steps 
they have taken to promote PCD in the area of trade at national level. In Finland and the UK, 
one minister is responsible for both development and trade.  
EU trade policy is multi-dimensional – multilatera l, regional/bilateral and autonomous. Under 
each of these dimensions, it includes elements that respond to the particular needs of developing countries. 
Examples can be found at all levels: at the mu ltilateral level through the WTO negotiations, at 
the regional and bilateral level th rough the negotiation of trade agreements with countries or 
regions such as the Economic Partnership Agr eements (EPAs) with the African, Caribbean 
and Pacific (ACP) countries and support to de veloping countries' own regional integration 
processes, and at the unilate ral or autonomous level throu gh the Generalised System of 
Preferences (GSP). In parallel to  efforts directly linked to trad e policy, the EU is also very 
actively engaged in the provision of Aid for Tr ade (AfT) to developing countries to support 
them in tackling the challenges of trade inte gration at both regiona l and global levels.  
3.1.2.1.  Multilateral negotiations 
• Doha Development Agenda 
The EU has been a strong supporter of attempts to ensure that the Doha Development Agenda 
(DDA) reflects the realities and concerns of developing countrie s. This advocacy has helped 
ensure that the Doha negotiati ons include important flexibilit ies to cater for particular 
capacities and needs of differe nt developing countries.  
For example LDCs will be free from any market  opening obligations in agriculture, Non 
Agricultural Market Access (NAMA) and serv ices, and other poorer and more vulnerable 
developing countries will also be expected to  provide only very limited commitments. These 
countries, however, stand to benefit from the market opening offe red by others. At Hong 
Kong in 2005, it was agreed that developed coun tries, and developing countries in a position 
 
EN 25   EN to do so, should provide duty- free and quota-free (DFQF) acce ss to all products from all 
LDCs by 2008, or no later than the start of th e DDA implementation period. As things stand, 
some developed countries – the EU, Australia,  New Zealand - have already implemented the 
goal of full DFQF access (or are on the way to it); others (e.g. Canada and Japan) have 
excluded a few sensitive products, but meet the interim 97% target set in Hong Kong while a 
few others (notably the US) st ill do not reach 97% coverage and/or exclude certain LDCs. 
India has introduced an expanded DFQF syst em for LDCs since mid 2008, while China has 
increased the number of tariff lines on which it grants duty-free treatment to a total of 30 LDCs. Brazil has repeatedly announced its intention to improve its market access for LDCs but no concrete measures have been taken so far.  
Important progress was made in the July 2008 Ge neva Ministerial, and tentative compromises 
were found on a wide number of issues. The new versions of the negotiating texts in 
Agriculture and NAMA, as issued in Decem ber 2008, reflect much of this progress. 
Nevertheless, further breakthrough is require d to move forward from this point and 
negotiations are ongoing. It will be particular ly important to broker a compromise on 
liberalisation initiatives  for non-agricultural se ctors, and cotton and agriculture, including 
such aspects as the Special Safeguard Mechanism (SSM). Progress on Trade-related 
Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) issues is also  needed. To that end, a coalition of over two 
thirds (about 110) of all WT O members, including the EU, as well as many developing 
countries and LDCs, submitted in July 2008 a proposal to move forward the issues of 
Geographical Indications (GI) (establishment of a multilateral GI Register and extension of 
the additional level of protection for wines a nd spirits GIs to other GI products) and issues 
linked to the disclosure of origin in patent applications (see below). 
Concluding the DDA is particularly important in  the context of the current economic crisis, 
because it is an effective means both of preventing protectionism and of boosting global 
demand for products from developi ng countries. Both of these are,  of course, fundamental for 
many developing countries, for whom the trade co mponent is an essential element of growth 
and poverty eradication strategies. 
• Trade-related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) 
The PCD challenge in relation to TRIPS lies in  ensuring the use of  Intellectual Property 
Rights (IPRs) to contribute optimally to developm ent. One issue that has attracted attention in 
recent years is that of access to medicines. The TRIPS Agreement provides flexibilities to 
WTO Members in implementing its provisions in order for them to get access to affordable 
medicines. TRIPS also require developed countries  to provide incentives to their companies to 
encourage technology transfer to least-developed country members to enable them to create a 
viable technological base. Furthermore, possibil ities exist in the Agreement for technical and 
financial cooperation on mutually-agreed te rms between developed countries and the 
developing world.  
The EC has been at the forefront of the debate on TRIPS and access to medicines. It played an 
active role in the WTO negotiati ons leading to the waiver decision of 30 August 2003 which 
temporarily allowed WTO Members to export pate nted medicines to third countries with no 
manufacturing capacity in the pharmaceutical sect or, by making use of compulsory licences.  
The EU also plays an important role in th e Intergovernmental Working Group on Public 
Health, Innovation and Intelle ctual Property (IGWG) of the World Health Organization, 
 
EN 26   EN developing a strategy to improve medicine avai lability, affordability, acceptability and access 
for those in need, particularly fo r the poor in developing countries. 
The EC was also active in WT O negotiations leading, in December 2008, to the amendments 
of the TRIPS Agreement in order to transform the waiver decision into a permanent solution. 
Moreover, the EC has taken steps to implement the waiver decision into Community legislation.
23  
In the WTO, however, limited progress has been  made in ratifying the TRIPS amendment. 
Currently 48 WTO Members (including the 27 EU Member States) have ratified the 
amendment, which means the required 2/3 thre shold has not been reached and extension of 
the current deadline of 31 December 2009 might be required. This waiver decision will 
continue to be valid until the amendment enters into force.  
The amendment has been used once; Rwanda as  a first country has notified to the WTO its 
intention to use the mechanism and import HIV/ AIDS drugs from Cana da (see further MDG6 
case study). No request has been made to the EU so far. 
Another area of PCD relevance in relation to TRIPS is genetic resources and traditional 
knowledge. In 2004 the EC submitted a detailed proposal on disclosure of origin to the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO). This  proposal sets out a way to include in 
international patent law a bind ing requirement to disclose th e origin or source of genetic 
resources and associated traditional knowledge in  patent applications. If adopted, this would 
allow States to keep track, at global level, of all patent applications with regard to genetic resources and thereby enhance transparency about uses of genetic resources  that have left the 
providing country. The EU has also suggested amending the TRIPS Agreement to include an 
equivalent mandatory requirement. As a result, patent applications would not be processed 
without completion of the disclosure requirement.  
IPR provisions may be included into Free Trade Agreements only in full coherence with the 
Doha Declaration. For example, the Doha D eclaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public 
Health reaffirms flexibility of TRIPS to ensure  better access to essential medicines. In the 
negotiations on the CARIFORUM EPA, Articles 139.2 and 147.2 make it clear that nothing in 
the agreement should be construed in such a way as to impair the capacity of the 
CARIFORUM States to promote acc ess to medicines, and that th e provisions on patents must 
be implemented and interpreted in full resp ect of the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS 
Agreement and Public Health, including the flexib ilities contained therei n and the Decision of 
the WTO General Council of 30  August 2003. Moreover, it is impor tant to mention that the 
EPAs are expected to contribute to other initiatives that are important to secure access to 
affordable medicines, such as development of local production a nd innovation capacity or 
technology transfer to ensure that loca lly produced pharmaceutical products meet 
internationally agreed standards.  
Trade in generic drugs between third countries through Europe 
The interception of shipments of medicines at the end of 2008 to developing countries in 
Europe resulted in a debate on the coherence of EU legislation on customs enforcement of 
intellectual property rights with one of the ma in objectives of European development policy, 
                                                 
23 Through Regulation 816/2006 of 17 May 2006 
 
EN 27   EN i.e. to improve access to pharmaceutical products for the poorest populations. In this context it 
is important to recall that the Commission's policy on facilitating access to medicines has not 
changed. The Commission remains attentive to a pply what is stated in Article 178 of the 
Treaty and its commitments on Policy Coherence for Development as stated in the European 
Consensus on Development.  The Commission is, together w ith Member States, further 
analysing these cases. 
3.1.2.2.  Regional and bilateral negotiations 
The EU has continued to have an important nego tiating agenda for bilateral and regional trade 
agreements with a wide range of individual count ries or groups of countries. The EU takes 
account of the development dimension by putti ng at the core of these negotiations an 
emphasis on sustainable development, addressing also social and environmental issues, and 
broader market opening, and by offering improved preferential access to the EU market for 
products originating in devel oping countries, including in so me instances - like the EPA 
negotiations - through asymmetrical schedules for respective tariff dismantling. Moreover, 
these negotiations are generally accompanie d by AfT, including Trade-related Technical 
Assistance, to support developing countries not only during the negotiating phase but also in 
taking fuller advantage of the re sulting benefits of agreements. 
EPA negotiations with ACP countries have be en a key focus of ACP EU efforts over 2007 
and 2008, and a major result was the signing of th e Caribbean EPA, the very first of its kind 
in the world (see EPA section). 
The EU is also working to further reinforce its trade relations with Latin America and Asia. In 
this context, it is seeking to support the part ners' development proce ss via broader market 
opening in the regions and greater e xport possibilities towards the EU.  
In 2007, the EU has started nego tiations for Association Ag reements with the Andean 
Community24 and Central America, and for Free Trade Agreements with India and the 
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). For the partne r countries, such agreements 
would not only offer increased access to the EU  market for goods through the dismantling of 
tariffs, they would also aim at addressing behind -the-border issues, such  as non-tariff barriers, 
sanitary and phyto-sanitary issues, or technical  regulations, with a view to promoting third 
country exports to the EU. Th ey would also foresee the progressive and reciprocal 
liberalisation of establishment and trade in  services, and include  provisions on public 
procurement and capital movement. Lastly , provisions on improved transparency in 
regulation, good governance, the rule of law, and sustainabl e development would contribute 
to realising the respective third count ries' export potential to the EU.  
Sustainability Impact Assessments (SIAs) ha ve been/are being carried out by independent 
consultants in parallel to the negotiations assessing each trade Agreement's potential 
economic, social and environmental impact whilst  suggesting possible meas ures to prevent or 
mitigate the negative and enhance the positive impact. The Commission's own views on the identified impacts and on the recommendations ma de by the independent consultants are set 
out in a Commission SIA position paper both in the context of the EC's negotiating position and by way of measures flanking the future Agreements. 
                                                
 
24 In January 2009, the Parties agreed to change th e format of the negotiations to a Trade Agreement 
between the EU on one side and those Andean countries willing to join the negotiations on the other 
side. The negotiations have been followed by Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. 
 
EN 28   EN • Economic Partnership Agreements 
EPAs replace the previous market access regime  for ACP countries and importantly involve a 
much more comprehensive approach to helping them diversify their economies, create jobs 
and contribute to their economic development.  In particular, EPAs are intended to support 
regional integration, the creation of larger regional market s and economies of scale, by 
aligning liberalisation schemes and harmonising im portant trade-related rules across countries 
within a region.25 EPAs are trade agreements at th e service of development. Removing 
barriers to trade, supporting regional markets, ensuring ACP countries and regions take on 
commitments commensurate with their development needs and ha ve adequate time to make 
reforms, sustaining trade facilitation, provi ding for wide-ranging sustainable development 
clauses, safeguards to prot ect infant industry and help ing the ACP countries meet 
international standards are all deve lopment dimensions of the EPAs. 
The objectives of the EU and ACP countries  are to agree comp rehensive trade and 
development deals - as foreseen in the Cotonou Agreement signed in 2000. The deadline was 31 December 2007, when trade preferences grante d by the EU to ACP countries under the 
Cotonou Agreement expired. However, by autumn 2007 it became clear that EPA negotiations in Africa and the Pacific would not  have been concluded in time. The EU and 
African and Pacific countries and regions theref ore decided to initial “interim agreements” 
that complied with WTO rules c overing trade in goods only. This  was aimed at securing ACP 
access to EU markets and allowed wider EPA ne gotiations to continue without any legal 
challenge from other WTO members. At the end of 2007, interim EPAs had been initialled 
with a number of ACP regions and countries in Africa and the Pacific. With the Caribbean, a 
comprehensive EPA was initialled and eventu ally signed on 15 October 2008. Signature of 
interim EPAs took place with Ivory Coast ( 26 November 2008), Cent ral Africa – Cameroon 
(15 January 2009) and members of the SADC  EPA group (Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, 
Mozambique) (June 2009). The signing of all othe r interim EPAs is expected later in 2009. 
Negotiations are ongoing with all African regions and the Pacific, with the aim of concluding 
full-fledged EPAs in 2009.  
The CARIFORUM-EC Economic Partnership Agreement 
On 16 December 2007 the European Commi ssion initialled an Economic Partnership 
Agreement with Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas,  Barbados, Belize, Do minica, the Dominican 
Republic, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Sa int Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, 
Saint Christopher and Nevis, Suriname, a nd Trinidad and Tobago (the CARIFORUM 
countries). In signing an EPA, the Caribbe an and Europe aim to build on their long-
established economic ties to fo ster growth, jobs and developm ent in the Caribbean. The EPA 
was signed in the Caribbean on 15 October 200826. The EU pledged to work with the Haitian 
government and other Caribbean partners to ensure that the conditions for Haiti to join the 
EPA are in place soon. 
What is in the EPA? 
                                                 
25 COM (2008) 604 final/2, 06.10.2008, Communication on Regional integration for development in ACP 
countries.  
26 Official Journal of the European Union, L 289, 30.10.2008 
 
EN 29   EN The CARIFORUM-EC EPA is a pioneering agreemen t in the international trading system. It 
is the first genuinely comprehensive North-Sout h trade agreement that promotes sustainable 
development, builds a regional market among developing countries and helps eliminate 
poverty. It will put the Caribbean on the map as an expanding market where traders and 
investors can find opportunities for growth  and security for their investments. 
At the centre of the EPA is the creation of an integrated regional market in the Caribbean. It 
promotes the progressive harmonisation of the external tariffs of th e CARIFORUM countries 
building on the liberalisation of  the flow of goods between the economies of the Caribbean. 
This will help local businesses create econom ies of scale and make the region much more 
attractive as a market for investment and trade. 
The EPA removes all tariffs and quotas on Caribbean exports to the EU immediately. The 
only exceptions are sugar and rice, although rice will be liberalised as from 2010.  
The EU has also agreed to open up new market s for Caribbean companies and professionals 
to offer services in the EU and for young Ca ribbean professionals to gain EU work 
experience. These go far beyond anything offered by Europe in any other trade agreement. 
On the Caribbean side there is a gradual openi ng of markets over a period of 25 years, which 
will eventually mean more competitive prices for consumers and businesses. 
Caribbean countries will now benefit from impr oved 'rules of origin' that will support the 
development of industries that import material s to make goods for onward export to Europe.  
Beyond the 165 million Euro European Development Fund regional programme for the 
Caribbean, a development cooperation declarati on in the EPA commits the EU to using its 
Aid for Trade financial support to help Caribbean countries implement the EPA. 
Since 1 January 2008, on the basis of  the EU Market Access Regulation27, all goods 
originating from an ACP country or region that  initialled an (interim ) EPA have DFQF access 
to EU markets, except for rice and sugar for which full liberalisation is being phased in. The 
Regulation also includes improved rules of origin in the areas of textiles and agricultural and 
fishery products. 
The awareness that EPAs bring about (PCD) ch allenges and opportunities requires addressing 
these and finding solutions. Flexibility a llows room to cater for concerns raised. 
As ACP countries lower custom duties on EU imports, their tariff revenue will decrease, all 
else being equal. This has raised concerns that the EPA process could undermine government 
finances. However, the issue can be managed and EPAs will be supported by measures to 
reduce and offset net fiscal impact in the contex t of overall fiscal reform to be undertaken by 
the ACP countries. First, EPA design preven ts any dramatic cha nges in revenue: as 
liberalisation is gradual, initial revenue loss will be very small, and the overall impact will be 
spread over many years. Products earmarked for fa st tariff elimination are mostly those where 
the current tariff level is already very low. Second, EPAs aim to promote growth, investment 
and diversification in ACP production as well as regiona l integration and economic 
cooperation. This means stimulating economic  growth, value added processing and new 
investment, all of which offsets fiscal loss by expanding the domestic tax base. As our 
primary concern is overall government revenue a nd not simply tariff re venue, it is vital to 
look at the net overall fiscal impact and not ju st import tariff revenues. The EU is committed 
to contributing to the absorption of  net fiscal impact of EPAs in the context of fiscal reforms: 
experience shows that internal economic refo rm and changes to tax systems can offset 
revenue losses connected to tariff eliminatio n. Revenue from tariffs can be successfully 
                                                 
27 Council Regulation (EC) No 1528/2007 
 
EN 30   EN replaced by sales, excise and other revenue taxes that do not discriminate between domestic 
and imported goods; furthermore, moving away  from dependency on tariffs is a sound 
economic policy decision. Relying on tariffs fo r revenue strangles economic growth by taxing 
essential inputs and at best provides an unpredictable and volatile source of revenue. 
Gender has not been a separate su bject in the EPA negotiations. However, it is integrated into 
various negotiation areas such as those on la bour standards and rules of origin where 
improvements have been achieved for sectors where to a large degree women are employed (agriculture, fisheries, textiles). It is also c onsidered when agreeing on flexibilities that allow 
for safeguarding food security  or infant industries. Mon itoring the impact of trade 
liberalisation on the gender dimension is consider ed an important element due to the potential 
effects of trade liberalisation on women's lives. 
In more general terms, monitoring is set to become an important part of the EPA 
implementation process. Its precise shape and fo rm will be decided by the joint institutions 
provided for by the agreements. The CARIFORUM EPA, for instance, charges the Joint Council with the task of monitoring, while provi ding extensively for the participation of 
parliamentarians and civil society in the monito ring process. According to the specific needs 
of each region, the joint institutions  will decide what monitoring is  to consist of, how it is to 
be carried out and finally draw conclusions fr om that exercise. EPAs call for a flexible 
monitoring arrangement covering the bilateral a nd regional relationships (tariffs, trade flows, 
regional exchanges) but also taking into a ccount the enabling environment in which the 
agreement is operation (domes tic politics and the world economic trading situation).  
The EU provides for substantial financia l support for regional integration and EPA 
implementation. The 10
th European Development Fund (E DF) provides funding adapted to 
ACP regional and country-specific needs, a nd additional funding is earmarked for the 
implementation of EPAs and necessary structural  and transitional change s, including in terms 
of infrastructure and customs (e.g. support to cu stoms reform). ACP countries are also major 
beneficiaries of EU assistan ce to the wider AfT agenda. 
Specifically, the EU is working with the AC P countries and regions to set up so called 
regional Aid for Trade packages. The role of th ese packages is to support the ACP countries’ 
regional integration agendas by providing a coordinated and in creased EU (i.e. European 
Community and EU Member States) financial re sponse to needs and priorities expressed by 
the ACP countries and regions, includ ing for implementation of EPAs.  
The signing of the 10th EDF Regional Indicati ve Programmes (RIPs) in November 2008 can 
be seen as one milestone in the work to establish the packages. Together with the 
Commission, the ACP regional organi sations have prepared the 10th EDF Regional Strategy 
Papers (RSPs), embedding the regional integra tion visions of the ACP countries, as well as 
the RIPs, constituting the main EC s upport to these from 2008 to 2013. The 10th EDF regional 
programmes are a basis for the EU support for regional AfT packages, although this support is 
yet to be completed by EU Member States. With €1.78 billion being allocated to regional 
integration of ACP countries under the 10th EDF, the financial envelope has almost doubled 
compared to the previous period of 2000- 2007, reflecting the EU-ACP consensus on the 
importance of regional issues for development.  
3.1.2.3.  Autonomous regimes 
• Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) 
 
EN 31   EN The GSP is an autonomous trade arrangement through which the EU provides non-reciprocal 
preferential access to the EU market to 17628 developing countries an d territories on over 
6200 tariff lines. It includes the standard GSP regime, the special incentive arrangement for 
sustainable development and good governance (G SP+), and the Everything But Arms (EBA) 
initiative for LDCs.  
The primary objective of the GSP is to cont ribute to the reductio n of poverty and the 
promotion of sustainable development and goo d governance. Tariff preferences on the EU 
market enable developing countries to partic ipate more fully in international trade and 
generate additional export revenue to support implementation of their own sustainable development and poverty reduction policy strategies.  
The EU’s GSP is updated and adju sted to the changing environm ent of the multilateral trading 
system, on a regular basis, over a ten-year. The first GSP scheme of the present cycle covered 
the period 2006-2008. The current scheme entere d into force on 1 January 2009 and will 
apply until the end of 2011. Th e new GSP Regulation (2009-2011) ensures continuity of the 
guiding principles for the GSP and was updated only in order to facilitate  the application of 
the scheme.
29 This ensures stability and transparen cy for beneficiary countries, users and 
economic operators. 
The GSP+ scheme30 offers additional preferences to vul nerable developing countries which 
have ratified and effectively implemented 27 spec ified international conve ntions in the fields 
of human rights, core labour standards, su stainable development and good governance. Under 
the current (2009-2011) GSP Regulation31, 16 beneficiary countries32 received the additional 
preferences offered under the GSP+ incentive a rrangement. For countries that did not meet 
the GSP+ qualifying criteria in 2008, the ne w Regulation provides for an additional 
opportunity for applications in mid-2010, to rece ive benefits from July 2010. This is another 
advantage under the new GSP Regulation, so that  potential applicants who did not meet all 
the criteria in 2008 are not oblig ed to wait three years before  being able to re-apply.  
The special arrangement for the least-develope d countries (Everything But Arms) grants duty 
free access to the Community market for products originating in the leas t-developed countries 
as recognised and classified by the UN. It give s to LDCs duty-free access to the EU for all 
products, except arms, ammunition and 40 tariff agricultural lines, corresponding to rice and sugar, which will be completely liberalised in September and October 2009 respectively.  
                                                
 
28 Myanmar and Belarus remain temporarily withdr awn from GSP preferences; Moldova was already 
removed from the beneficiary list at the same time as the EU granted it more far-reaching autonomous preferences under a separate legal instrument in March 2008.  
29 The new GSP Regulation provides for: an update of the wording of the GSP Regulation, a technical 
review of the list of graduated countries, an additional opportunity for GSP+ applications in mid-2010, adaptation of GSP provisions in accordance with other trade arrangements concluded with GSP 
beneficiaries and adaptation of the description of ta riff headings covered by the GSP in accordance with 
the present tariff nomenclature Annex II. 
30 GSP+ provides for suspension of ad valorem dutie s on all products (sensitive and non-sensitive) listed 
in Annex II of the GSP Regulation. In 2009 there are 6331 lines covered under GSP+ 
31 Council Regulation (EC) No 732/2008 
32 Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ge orgia, Guatemala, Honduras, Mon golia, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Peru, 
Venezuela, El Salvador, Sri Lank a, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Paraguay. Venezuela has been removed 
from the list of GSP+ beneficiaries by Commission Decision 2009/454/EC of 11 June 2009. For the 
period 2006-2008, the GSP+ beneficiary countries were the same as mentioned above except Armenia, 
Azerbaijan and Paraguay. Panama was a GSP+ beneficiary during 2006-2008. 
 
EN 32   EN • Rules of origin 
Rules of origin are used to identify the count ry of origin of a product for the purpose of 
international trade. They make it possible to trace a product back  to a specific country, so as 
to apply relevant trade treatment s to that product, including dutie s and other trade restrictions. 
Preferential rules of origin define when a pr oduct can be considered as wholly obtained or 
sufficiently transformed in a country so as to qualif y for a tariff preference as agreed in a free 
trade agreement or as set in unilateral preferences.  
The Community applies very similar preferential  rules of origin when granting autonomous 
preferences (such as the GSP and the Autonom ous Trade Measures) as well as in the EPA 
Market Access Regulation and in the framew ork of preferential trade agreements. 
The Commission is now engaged in reviewing EU preferential rules of origin, to be 
implemented first and foremost within the GSP system but then to be extended to other 
preferential trade arrangements. The first pr oposal of the Commission was presented to the 
Customs Code Committee in October 2007. As a re sult of discussions in the Committee, the 
Commission prepared a revised proposal, including a product-by-product approach, the 
possibility of cumulation with in and between regions (even between LDCs and non-LDCs), 
and the replacement of certificates issued by public  authorities with statements on origin made 
out by registered exporters. The new proposal is now being discussed within the Custom Code 
Committee and should enter into force in 2010. 
3.1.2.4.  Aid for Trade  
The EU is one of the leading providers of AfT. On 15 October 2007, the EU Council adopted 
an EU AfT Strategy aimed at s upporting developing countries inte grate into world trade. The 
strategy is a joint EU policy initiative, prov iding for a double and complementary focus on 
more resources to AfT and better  impact on development objectives , especially with a view to 
poverty reduction. The EU AfT Strategy is articu lated around the following key activities: (i) 
scaling-up total AfT in general as well as in creasing the specific funding of Trade Related 
Assistance (TRA) to € 2 billion annually by 2010, as promised by the EU in 2005 (€1 billion 
from EC, €1 billion from EU Me mber States); (ii) enhancing the impact and pro-poor focus of 
EU AfT; (iii) increasing EU-wide and Member  States’ donors capacity in line with globally 
agreed aid effectiveness principles; (iv) suppor ting the ACP regional inte gration process; and 
(v) ensuring effective monitoring and report ing to sustain the process of implementing 
commitments. In terms of volumes, the latest EU AfT monitoring report shows that the EU as 
a whole is very near to reachi ng its TRA target, with the EC ha ving already surpassed it. Total 
EU Aid for Trade, which incl udes support to economic infrast ructure and productive sectors, 
remained high at € 7.17 billion. 
Member States are very supportive of the Aid fo r Trade agenda. In fact, most Member States 
regard the AfT initiative as their main driver fo r promoting PCD in the ar ea of trade. Aid for 
Trade is seen as a win-win situation, as national interests are not at stake. On the contrary companies and expertise can be involved in  the areas where there is added value.  
Portugal has supported capacity-building initiatives to strengthen human and institutional 
resources for international trade and invest ment, namely in the area of port training, 
negotiation of international i nvestment agreements and investment for small and medium-
sized enterprises in  lusophone countries. 
 
EN 33   EN Other drivers for promoting PCD mentioned ar e the Enhanced Integrated Framework for 
Trade-Related Technical Assistance to LDCs, wh ich has opportunities to foster the provision 
of coherent Aid for Trade from major agenci es and bilateral donors to the actively involved 
partner countries.  
In their response to the PCD questionnaire, Memb er States indicate that they face difficulties 
in terms of promoting policy synergies if na tional products compete with partner country 
products. 
Furthermore, they consider it a challenge to implement coherent strategies due to lack of 
sufficient government staffing and funding for deep er research, which is needed in order to 
assess the degree of development-friendliness of trade policy. Coherent policy requires a great 
amount of (human) resources and expertise from  different units. Also, different units have 
different objectives and an additional difficulty is that trade policy is an EU competence and 
development policy is a national competence. 
Another difficulty Member States describe is the low priority that is given to trade as a tool 
for development by both donor and partner count ries, i.e. in cooperation strategies and 
poverty reduction strategies. This constitute s a challenge when donors want to improve 
coherence between trade and development. Member States report that a better identification of 
capacity-building needs in order to take better advantage of possibilitie s that arise from trade 
agreements is essential.  
Limited resources, experience and PCD awareness in ministries dealing with trade are other 
challenges encountered in promoting synergies. 
Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary Standards (SPS) 
Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary Standards (SPS) serve to ensu re that consumers have good 
quality and safe products for consumption. Whilst they ensure the necessary degrees of health 
and safety standards, adhering  to them may represent challe nges for developing countries. 
The EC supports developing countries with a range of programmes to strengthen their 
capacities to ensure compatibility with international standards.  
During a visit to Addis Abeba in April 2009 the EU Health Commissioner launched a new 
initiative "Better Training for Safer Food in Africa - BTSF-Africa." Through BTSF over the 
next two year EUR 10 million will be used to fund capacity-building activities. The key 
objective is to support food safety mainly by th e transfer of technica l expertise and policy 
advice in areas of food safety and quality across Africa. Within the cont ext of the Africa EU 
Partnership on Regional Integration,  Trade and Infrastructure, the creation of a platform is in 
process to share information and to enhance part icipation of African count ries in EU standard 
setting processes. 
Another relevant programme is the "Programme  PIP": Quality and Conformity - Fruits and 
Vegetables33 financed for a total of EUR38.8 million. The Programme aims at improving the 
capacity of the ACP horti culture sector to co mply with SPS regulations in order (i) to 
maintain the market share of ACP products in Eu ropean imports of fruits and vegetables and 
as a result (ii) to incr ease the role of horticu lture in poverty allevia tion in ACP countries.  
                                                 
33 Programme Initiative Pesticides du Comité de Liaison Europe-Afrique- Caraïbes-
Pacifique.http://www .coleacp.org/fr/pip 
 
EN 34   EN An evaluation concludes that the first phase of  the programme was very successful: (i) the 
global objective was achieved ove rall: the relevant market shares were stable between 2001 
and 2006, with export growing in absolute te rms, (ii) 90% of ACP horticultural export 
companies in 28 ACP states were supported, (iii) 100 000 small family farms have benefited 
from the programme and (iv) 80% of the programme’s expertise is now local (from ACP) 
with 166 local consultants who received capacity-building support. 
In Kenya, PIP covered a particularly wide rang e of activities and had a significant impact: it 
focused on (i) raising awareness about EU legal and commercial food safety requirements, (ii) 
training staff of private compan ies in the various aspects of food safety and traceability (more 
than thirty companies signed a memorandum of agreement), and (iii) building the capacity of 
support services to the hort icultural export sector.  
However, capacity to comply with European  regulatory and, in particular, commercial 
requirements, needs to be maintained and updated. A second phase of the programme is being 
prepared to be financed under the 10th EDF for EUR 33 million. 
Whilst most Aid for Trade is provided at nationa l level, increasing attention is being paid to 
financing regional integration (see for exampl e the section on EPAs). For example, in 2007, 
the EC and the European Investment Bank (EIB ) launched the EU-Africa Infrastructure Trust 
Fund (ITF) with a specific attention for projec ts with a clear regional dimension, to which 12 
EU Member States and the EC so far c ontributed € 150 million. Until now, the ITF has 
approved - or cleared in principle  - an amount of € 80 million in grant contributions to 
different projects, leveraging loans from EU  financiers of between €350 and 430 million, and 
attracting additional financing from outsi de the EU of approximately €650 million. 
Finland: Import Policy Stra tegy, Fall, 2008, and Aid For Trad e Action Plan (2008-2011)  
The Import Policy Strategy adopted in 2008 is the result of an integrated position taken by the 
Finnish Government that combines trade and de velopment objectives. This  approach helps to 
ensure that development objectives are ad hered to throughout all external relations. 
Furthermore, the 2008 Import Policy Strategy em phasises that Finland, and the EU, should 
increase imports from developi ng countries, in order to ensure  coherence with development 
objectives. Finland has taken a position of incr easing access to markets in both developed and 
developing countries by reducing trade barrie rs globally. The reason for advocating this 
overall reduction of trade barri ers is based upon the understanding that trade distortions have 
an overall negative effect on development, and that increasingly South-South trade is 
becoming a source of economic growth. Finla nd not only promotes importing goods from 
developing countries and reduci ng trade barriers, but also prom otes the support of developing 
country industries through ODA. Finland is aware that an overall reduc tion in trade barriers 
will not necessarily result in economic developm ent without the inclusion of assistance for 
increasing the competitiveness of developing indust ries. To ensure that the trade policies are 
coherent with development object ives, Finland has also created its Aid For Trade Action Plan 
(2008 – 2011), which among other things co mplements the Import Policy Strategy. The 
combination of a pro-development Import Polic y Strategy and an Aid For Trade Action Plan 
provides Finland with a strong po licy framework for ensuring PCD in trade. Finland has also 
advocated that PCD issues are taken into acco unt in regional trade policies by promoting 
development coherence throughout the EU. Sinc e 2007, Finland has taken significant steps 
towards ensuring PCD in trade, both nati onally, within the EU, and internationally. 
 
EN 35   EN National and regional programmes are complemented by efforts at the African continental 
level undertaken in the framewor k of the Joint Africa-  EU Strategy and in particular the 
Partnership on Trade, Regional In tegration and Infrastructure.  
Africa-EU Trade and Regional Integration 
In the First Action Plan for the implementati on of the Africa-EU Strategic Partnership, under 
the Trade and Regional Integratio n Partnership, priority actions  have been agreed in the 
following areas: 1) support the African integratio n agenda, 2) strengthen  African capacities in 
the area of rules, standards, and quality control, and 3) implement the EU-Africa 
infrastructure partnership. Concrete ongoing and planned activities include Africa-wide 
training on SPS standards, capacity-building in the area of industrial standards and 
normalisation, information seminars in support of customs reforms in Africa.  
3.1.2.5.  Other Initiatives 
• Raw Materials Initiative 
On 4 November 2008, the European Commission adopted a new integrated strategy COM 
(2008) 699 setting out targeted measures and lines of action to secure re liable and undistorted 
access to raw materials for EU industry. The Co mmunication on the "Raw Materials Initiative 
– meeting our critical needs for growth and jobs in Europe"34, which focuses on non-energy 
minerals (excluding agricultural commodities and energy raw materials), encompasses measures in three areas or "pi llars" to secure sustainable supp lies of the materials needed for 
the EU economy: (1) ensure a ccess to raw materials from international markets under the 
same conditions as other industrial competitors , (2) set the right framework conditions within 
the EU in order to foster sust ainable supply of raw materials from European resources and (3) 
boost overall resource efficiency and promote recycling to reduce the EU's consumption of 
primary raw materials and decrease the relative import dependence. 
The adoption of the Communicatio n and Council conclusions right ly underline the importance 
of fully integrating and taking account of develo pment policy in the Raw Materials Initiative. 
This will need to be pursue d throughout the implementation of  this Initiative. The EU has 
been implementing its activities to ensure undistorted access to raw materials in full 
consistency with development policy and will continue to do so. 
Many important raw materials are located in  developing countries. This creates new 
opportunities for resource-rich developing countrie s, particularly in Africa. However, their 
dependence on raw materials pric es volatility makes them pa rticularly vulnerable from 
financial, economic and social point s of view as illustrated by th e current trend with regard to 
the crisis. There are other important challenges for developing countries related to raw materials. The most relevant are (1) political stability issues, (2) governance and transparency, 
(3) management of revenues from raw materials and diversification of economic activities, (4) 
social aspects (5) environmental protection, and (6 ) trade policy.  
To improve management of public revenues, in ter alia from the raw materials sector, the 
Commission undertakes capacity-building opera tions by providing technical assistance to 
                                                
 
34 SEC (2008) 2741, 4.11.2011. Communication "The raw materials initiative — meeting our critical 
needs for growth and jobs in Europe". 
 
EN 36   EN public financial management systems in the context of its budget su pport to developing 
countries. To strengthen domestic governance a nd promote transparency in the raw materials 
sector, the 10th- EDF Governance Initiative is setting incentives for developing countries to 
implement the EITI transparency standard and adhere to the Kimberley process.  
The objective of EU trade policy in the raw material  sector is to ensure that the various trade 
policy instruments are applie d to promote open, un-distorte d and well-functioning raw 
material markets. Creating open markets and an undistorted trade system with clear and stable 
rules brings profits to all stake holders. At the same time, some trade restrictions are likely to 
be legitimate and even supported by the EU (e.g. for environmental or development purposes). This initiative prov ides an opportunity towards a more coherent, strategic and 
comprehensive approach at EU level together  with stakeholders, so  as to unleash the 
sustainable development potentia l of non-energy raw materials for developing countries. In 
addition, it is an opportunity to include the de velopment dimension in the political dialogue 
with emerging economic powers.  
• Fair Trade 
In June 2006 the European Council adopted its renewed sustainable development strategy and 
encouraged EU Member States to promote sustainable products, in cluding Fair Trade 
products. The European Parliament presen ted a report in 2006 on Fair Trade and 
Development. The report pointed out the need  for raising awareness among consumers, and 
the risk of abuse by companies that enter th e Fair Trade market w ithout complying with 
certification criteria. An expl oratory opinion in 2005 of the European Economic and Social 
Committee (EECS) looked at "cons umer assurance schemes".  
On 5 May 2009 the European Commission adopted  a Communication on the role of Fair 
Trade and non-governmental trade -related sustainability assuranc e schemes in contributing to 
sustainable development objectives
35. The Communication responded to the European 
Parliament report of 2006 and the 2005 expl oratory opinion of the EECS and followed up on 
earlier Commission documents in clarifying  the place of Fair Trade and other non-
governmental sustainability assurance scheme s in the wider EU sustainable development 
agenda. Private trade-related private sustainab ility schemes use a set of criteria to assess 
and/or guarantee the sustai nability of the products. Criteria of ten build on one or more of the 
three pillars of sustainable development; ec onomic, environmental and social development 
sometimes linking into international standards and agreements. The criteria and standards 
applied by Fair Trade are among the most co mprehensive and ambitious in terms of 
addressing a broad set of issues and conditions that impact the producers in developing countries, including in particular a minimum pri ce for the producer and a premium paid to the 
community of the producers.  
                                                
 
35 COM (2008)215 Final, 5.05.2009  
 
EN 37   EN The Communication recognises the significant developm ent of the Fair Trade36 movement 
and the significance of a European market worth EUR 1.5 billion per year. The Communication also lays out th e different policy areas where Fair Trade and other schemes 
can contribute to European sustainable developm ent objectives. It sets out main principles and 
definitions and the fundamentals for public pr ocurement of sustainable goods and services. 
Furthermore it recognizes that Fair Trade and ot her private sustainabil ity assurance schemes 
are essentially voluntary dynamic mechanisms that  develop along with societal and consumer 
awareness and demands. Such schemes should appl y standards and criteria in a transparent 
manner to allow for well-informed choices for consumers. The Communication considers that 
regulating criteria and standards could limit the dynamic element of private initiatives in this 
field and stand in the way of the further developm ent of Fair Trade and other private schemes.  
• The Export Helpdesk 
The Export Helpdesk is an onlin e service, provided by the European Commission, to facilitate 
market access for developing countries to the European Union. This instrument plays an 
important role in making the development di mension of EU trade policy operational and 
concrete by offering exporters, importers, tr ade associations and governments, free and 
practical assistance in taking better advantag e of the market access opportunities offered by 
the EU.  
The Export Helpdesk provides detailed informati on about: 1) the applicable trade regime with 
the ACP countries -including the Economic Partne rship Agreements-, the GSP as well as the 
various free trade agreements with developing countries; 2) EU and Member States' import 
requirements (such as sanitary and phytosanitar y rules, labelling rules, organic farming, 
technical standards, etc.) as well as internal taxes applicable to produc ts; 3) EU preferential 
import regimes benefiting developing countries including related documentary requirements 
and rules of origin. It also provides trade data  for the EU and its individual Member States, 
links to other authorities and international orga nisations involved in trade and the possibility 
to lodge detailed information re quests about real-life situations encounter ed by exporters. The 
Export Helpdesk is available in En glish, Spanish, French and Portuguese. 
3.1.3.  Conclusion & Outstanding Issues 
Progress in Trade PCD commitments has been made in those areas in which the EU can 
control the outcome – e.g. autonom ous preferences offered to developing countries (such as 
the GSP and the EPA Market Access Regulation). On other issues, the EU has been working 
actively towards the achievement of a successful outcome, but an effective solution is not yet 
reached. This may be an explanation to why mo st Member States assess progress regarding 
PCD commitments in the area of trade as average (see chart below
37). But 31% think it is 
good or strong, while only 5% consider it w eak. On balance, therefore, progress is 
                                                 
36 In accordance with the "Charter of Fair Trade Principles" (January 2009), Fair Trade is defined as "Fair 
Trade is a trading partnership, based on dialogue, tran sparency and respect, that  seeks greater equity in 
international trade. It contributes to sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, 
and securing the rights of, margin alized producers and workers – especi ally in the South. Fair Trade 
Organizations, backed by consumers, are engaged actively in supporting producers, awareness raising 
and in campaigning for changes in the rules and practice of conventional international trade", (set out by 
the two standard setters, the Fairtrade Labelling Organizations , FLO and the World Fair Trade 
Organization  WFTO).  
37 Chart based on Member States' responses to a dedicated PCD 2009 questionnaire prepared by the 
European Commission. 
 
EN 38   EN satisfactory, although the EU co mmitment to the applic ation of PCD in the trade policy area 
will remain an important ongoing process, give n the dynamism of inte rnational trade policy. 
 
A majority of the Member States report that PCD commitments in the area of trade entail 
some economic, social and political conseque nces for their country. Indeed, 35 % of them 
describe the consequences as strong.  
At the multilateral level, a br eakthrough in the DDA n eeds the commitment of all key players, 
including the major emerging economies. At the bilateral level, a suc cessful conclusion of 
EPAs and other FTAs depends on substantia l efforts of both parties (EU and partner 
countries) to reach agreements that appropriat ely foster regional integration and take the 
developmental dimension into account.  
Outstanding Issues 
The negotiations in different areas are ongoing a nd therefore the issues mentioned in the 2007 
report remain important for continued attention. The need to keep the momentum and continue to focus on development-friendly outcomes is obvious in relation to the  
• Doha Development Agenda 
• EPA negotiations 
• Revision of the Rules of Origin 
• Continue to address the importance of In tellectual Property Rights for development  
 
EN 39   EN 3.2. Environment  
Quick Facts 
• Around 7.3 million hectares of forest disappe ar each year (from 2000 to 2005). (FAO, 
2009) 
• Deforestation accounts for some 20% of gl obal carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions – more 
than total EU greenhouse gas emissions. (IPCC 2007; EC 2008)  
• 19% of timber imports into the EU is thought  to come from illegal sources (EC 2008)  
• Of the 306 million hectares of certified fo rests in the world (June 2007), Africa accounts 
for about 1 % (FAO 2009). Expansion has recently  taken place in the Congo basin with 4.2 
million hectares in 2009 – (IFIA 2009). 
• Up to 20% of the total burden of disease in developing countries is linked to environmental 
issues (UNEP 2007). 
• Trends in some 3,000 wild populations of spec ies show a consistent decline in average 
species abundance of about 40% betw een 1970 and 2000 (Convention on Biological 
Diversity- 2007) 
• It is estimated that 33% of the 6,500 recognized domesticated an imal breeds are threatened 
with extinction (Convention on Biological Diversity- 2007) 
3.2.1.  Introduction  
Despite global, national and local initiatives to address the worsening environmental trends, 
the unprecedented economic growth from 2001 to  2007 has had a considerable impact on the 
state of environment and natural resources in  developing countries. Deterioration of the 
environment, exacerbated by the e ffect of climate change, has a crucial impact on the majority 
of the world's poor as many depend directly  on natural resources for their livelihood 
(agriculture, forestry, fisheries)  and on ecosystems that provide va luable services (clean air, 
water…). Due to their vulnerability and low adaptation capability, poor countries have the 
greatest difficulty in coping with environmenta l degradation. Biodivers ity loss, resulting in 
disruption of agriculture; decreased fish catche s; deforestation, mainly  through the conversion 
of forests to agricultural land; land degradat ion and desertification; chemical and waste 
pollution of land and water are all tangible e ffects with tremendous consequences for the 
developing countries' ability to eradicate poverty. 
Sustainable use of natural resources and pr otection of the enviro nment are therefore 
fundamental in achieving the MDGs. Although environment is gradually perceived as a Global Public Good, the MDG 7 on environmental sustainability has no t received sufficient 
attention and is often off-track in many de veloping countries. In the face of the economic 
downturn expected from 2009 onward, funding prio rities may well shift from the environment 
to economic and social issues, with furthe r environmental degrad ation undermining the 
limited progress made so far. Additionally, atte ntion should be paid to the possible crowding 
out of other environmental issues with funding mostly going towards climate change 
adaptation. In this context,  the convergence of Environment policies and Development 
objectives is paramount both to achieve a hi gh degree of environmental protection in 
 
EN 40   EN developing countries and to he lp countries attain their deve lopment goals in a sustainable 
way.  
3.2.2.  Progress toward PCD commitments 
The years 2007 and 2008 were a turning point in EU environment policy. The long-awaited 
chemicals legislation REACH (Registration, Ev aluation, Authorisation and Restriction of 
Chemical substances)38, reforming the EU approach to chemicals, was adopted and the 
Environmental Liability Directive39 came into force. New approaches to integrating 
environment40 in Development policies within the EU were discussed41 and progress was 
made in considering environment in Trade matters. 
At Member States level, a number of countries  published new guidelines or strategies on the 
links between environment and developmen t. For example, Austria published Policy 
Guidelines on Environment and Development jo intly written by several Ministries while 
Finland worked on a new inter-ministerial st rategy on environment and development issues. 
Throughout the period the main commitments under the 6th Environment Action Programme 
have been delivered and environment issues remain ed firmly at the top of  the political agenda, 
culminating with the adoption of a Climate Change and Ener gy Package in December 2008 
that set Europe on the path to a low-carbon economy42.  
3.2.2.1.  EU Internal Development Polic ies: Toward a Green Economy 
• Sustainable Consumption and Produc tion - SCP (Marrakech process) 
The major challenge faced by economies today is  to combine environmental sustainability 
with economic growth and welfare, by decoup ling environmental degradation from economic 
growth, and to move the EU towards an  energy and resource efficient economy. The 
European Commission has been very active bot h internally (development of the SCP Action 
Plan) and internationally  through general support fo r the Marrakech Process43. EU Member 
States are actively involved in the process wi th the UK, Sweden, Germany, Italy, France and 
Finland chairing Working Groups. 
In addition, the Commission helped to la unch and support the Resources Panel while 
establishing SWITCH Asia44 to fund SCP projects and prom ote SCP policies in the Asian 
region. The SWITCH programme, with  its particular focus on SM Es, contributes directly and 
indirectly to poverty reduction by improving the living conditions of poor households in the vicinity and down-stream of sub-urban SMEs by reducing water pollution (particularly 
                                                
 
38 Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006, 18.12.2006 
39 Directive 2004/35/EC, 21.04.2004 
40 Outstanding issue from the 2007 EU Report on PCD . 
41 Council Conclusions 11474/09, June 2009.  
42 For more on this, see Chapter 3: Climate Change Policy Area. 
43 The Marrakech Process aims to establish an effi cient 10 Year Framework of  Programmes to support 
existing national and regional SCP policies and practices; the organisation of SCP National Roundtables 
(together with UNEP) in emerging economies (China, India and South-Africa) and a representation of 
the European Region in the Advisory  Committee to the Marrakech Process 
44 To respond to the need for cleaner and more energy efficient industry in Asia, the European 
Commission has launched the €70 million Switch Programme. The programme targets small and 
medium-sized businesses and promotes the use of environmentally friendly technologies and practices, 
as well as a switch in consumption patterns towards less damaging products and services.  
 
EN 41   EN improving conditions of women who traditionally have to source drinking water), solid waste, 
and air pollution.  
Additional efforts have been made by Member States. For instance, Sweden initiated a study 
on Sustainable Consumption and Production in th e countries of Eastern Europe, Caucasus, 
and Central Asia (EECCA) and South East Euro pe (SEE) countries to highlight SCP issues 
within the United Nations Economic Commissi on for Africa (UNECA) and Environment for 
Europe meeting and to promote proposals for activities on SCP in the meeting declaration.  
The Marrakech Process 
The Marrakech Process is a global process to support the elaboration of  a 10-Year Framework 
of Programs (10YFP) on sustainable consum ption and production, as called for by the 
Johannesburg Plan of Action. European countri es and the European Commission are very 
active in this process. This includes helping countries a nd regions globally to develop 
sustainable consumption and production progra mmes and policies. The draft 10 YFP will be 
discussed during the 17th and 18th meetings of the Commission of Sustainable Development. 
The Marrakech Task Forces are voluntary init iatives, all led by European governments to 
carry out a set of concrete activities that promote a shift to SCP patterns, such as eco-label in 
Africa, sustainable lifestyles, products, sustaina ble buildings and sustainable tourism. France, 
for example, is chairing the Task Force on sustainable tourism. Am ong the around twenty 
projects of this Task Forceone  of the most interesting is th e "green passport" which proposes 
to tourists a web site and paper guidelines w ith information and advises. Through the Task 
Force, France also financed capacity building pr ojects, pilot and awareness raising projects in 
southern countries. 
• Green Public Procurement 
Green public procurement (GPP) was the subj ect of a Commission Communication in July 
2008 and is defined as a process whereby public authorities seek to procure goods, services 
and works with a reduced environmental impact throughout their life cycle. Every year, public 
authorities spend almost €2 000 billion – 16% of EU GDP – buying goods and services. With 
such significant purchasing power, they can give  strong signals to the market place by asking 
for greener goods thereby stimulating the supply  of environmentally fr iendly products in 
sectors such as construction, transport, office equipment and cleaning services, with effects 
being felt even outside the EU. Commission proposed that Member  States achieve a political 
target of 50% Green Public Procurement as from 2010 
However, while focusing on the EU, the initia tive may make market access more difficult for 
products from developing countries, as these may be less likely to comply with certain 
environmental standards45. However, this effect may be mitigated by the fact that, at an 
international level, the Marrakech Task force on Sustainable Public Procurement (SPP) seeks 
to develop and implement a pr actical guidance and training toolkit on SPP in 12 to 14 
developing countries.  
                                                 
45 SEC(2008) 2124, 16.07.2008, Impact Assessment  
 
EN 42   EN Finally, public authorities in the EU are increasingly requiring verified legal wood as a 
minimum condition in their procurement policies;  this is an important incentive for trader 
partner countries to sign FLEGT agreement46.  
• Complementing REACH 
The REACH regulation was adopted in 2006 and ente red into force in June 2007. Its aim is to 
improve the protection of huma n health and the environment through the better and earlier 
identification of the intrinsic properties of chemical substances. An Impact Assessment in 
2003 and Parliament report in 2006 showed that de veloping countries, and ACP, in particular 
were only marginally a ffected by the regulation47.  
Complementing REACH, the EU agreed in 2 008 to align its legislation on classification, 
labelling and packaging of s ubstances and mixtures to w ith United Nations Globally 
Harmonised System (GHS)48. Aim is to protect workers, consumers and the environment by 
means of labelling which reflects the possibl e hazardous effects of chemicals. This new 
system will ensure that the same hazards will be described and labelled in the same way all 
around the world. Such harmonisati on and convergence with inte rnational standards makes it 
easier and less costly for developing countries to trade with the EU. Financial and technical 
support for strengthening national and regional ca pacities to implement the GHS, in particular 
in Asia, is also being provided. 
Nickel 
Since 1967, an EC Directive49 laying down common provisions  for the classification, 
labelling and packaging of dangerous substances  has continuously been adapted to technical 
and scientific progress to ensure a high level of protection of man and the environment. The 
changes decided on in the early part of 2009 constituted another important adaptation and 
included the classification of some 100 nickel compounds  as carcinogens. 
A number of developing countries  expressed concerns that this  would serve only to stigmatise 
nickel with no discernible benefit for consumer s and would lead to serious consequences for 
exporting countries, due to the need for additio nal packaging and labelling. According to the 
same countries, this would have far-reachin g regulatory and economic consequences and 
might cause protracted trade disputes. As a re sult, the Commission will further consider the 
evidence provided by the complain ing parties and assess the alle ged trade distorting effect of 
the proposed measure.  
• EU Environmental Standards 
To establish sound institutional structures and avoi d mistrust at the crit ical interface between 
environment, trade and development policy ob jectives, the alignment of environmental 
priorities between the EU and its  trading partners is essential. Therefore, the EU intends to 
conclude comprehensive agreements with de veloping regions that cover the different 
                                                 
46 Similarly, public authorities demand for fair trade products and goods produced in compliance with ILO 
convention is on the increase. See Chapter 1 on Trad e (regarding fair trade) and Chapter 7 on Social 
Dimension of Globalisation (regarding ILO, decent work etc.). 
47 Implication of Reach for De veloping Countries – European parliament study – 2006  
48 See http://www.unece.org/trans/danger/publi/ghs/ghs_welcome_e.html   
49 EC Directive 67/548/EEC 
 
EN 43   EN dimensions. This is, for instance, illustrated  in the EU-CARIFORUM Economic Partnership 
Agreement where environmental standards a nd obligations have been incorporated. 
EU-CARIFORUM Economic Partnership Agreement 
Environmental obligations and standards have been  incorporated as a central objective within 
the CARIFORUM-EU EPA. Under th is agreement the parties will promote trade in a way that 
ensures sustainable and sound management of th e environment, and will further facilitate 
trade in goods and services which are benefi cial to the environment (e.g. environmental 
technologies, renewable and energy-efficient goods and se rvices, eco-lab elled goods). 
Specific clauses oblige the parties to strive for and uphold high levels of environmental and 
public health protection through transparent processes, the us e of relevant scientific 
information, and the development of effective re gional and national standards to safeguard the 
environment. Both sides recognise the impor tance of cooperation in, amongst other things, 
providing technical assi stance to producers with a view to  meeting EU markets standards, 
facilitating trade in timber and wood products  from legal and sustainable sources, and 
promoting public awareness and educati onal programmes on environmental goods and 
services. 
3.2.2.2.  EU Global Environment Comm itments and Policy Dialogue 
Besides internal policy, the EU is active on the international level, bundling global efforts to 
address environmental challenges and promoti ng sustainable development. This commitment 
has led, and leads, to various voluntary or binding multilateral agreements that, in most cases, have implications for developing countries. 
• Environmental Governance Institution & Multilateral Environment Agreements 
Over the last two years, the EU has helped  to streamline and simp lify the various ongoing 
processes at international level. The Comm ission supported and provided inputs to the 
negotiations for strength ening International Envi ronmental Governance (IEG) in the context 
of UN reform
50.  
With regard to Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs), the Commission is strongly 
supportive of the participation of all stakehol ders and on several occasions, it financially 
contributed to boosting the partic ipation of developing countries'  representatives in official 
meetings of the different Conventions. Specific initiatives to allow Civil Society, including 
from developing countries, to be adequately represented in these meetings were also 
supported.  
Several EU Members States are also activel y involved in the Working Group on enhancing 
coordination among the Basel, Rotterdam, and Stockholm Conventions, wh ich aim to increase 
synergies between the MEAs. Denmark ha s developed high-level dialogue on the 
implementation of the Multilateral Environmen tal Agreements (MEAs) with 17 countries. 
Greece is also actively contributing to global effo rts aimed at helping developing countries to 
implement MEAs with particular empha sis on Climate Change, Biodiversity and 
Desertification. 
                                                 
50 Outstanding Issue from the 2007 Report on PCD 
 
EN 44   EN • Biodiversity 
Biodiversity is critical to deve loping countries with regard to  food security, preservation of 
natural resources and the fight against climat e change. Over the last few years, all EU 
Member States have implemented the Convent ion on Biological Diversity (CBD) and related 
MEAs through a wide range of policies and m easures. For example, Germany considerably 
increased its funding for the implementation of the CBD, initiating the Dutch-German Access 
and Benefit-Sharing (ABS) Initiative for Afri ca to support African countries in their 
negotiations towards an inte rnational regime for ABS. 
At EU level, the mid-term assessment of impl ementation of the Biodiversity Action Plan in 
200851 concluded that the EU is highly unlikely to meet its target “to halt the decline of 
biodiversity [in the EU] by 2010”52 and that at the global level, biodiversity loss is disastrous, 
with ecosystems frequently being degraded to the point where natural processes are disrupted, 
resulting in severe economic and social imp acts. The implementation of the CBD therefore 
needs to be substantially reinforced.  
In this context, the German Federal Ministry for the Environment and the European 
Commission, with the support of several other part ners, have jointly initi ated a global study: 
the Economics of Ecosystems & Biodiversity (TEEB ). The study will evalua te the costs of the 
loss of biodiversity and the associated decline in  ecosystem services worl dwide. It is intended 
to sharpen awareness of the value of biodive rsity and ecosystem services, thus promoting 
biodiversity conservation. 
• Forestry and Deforestation 
In 2008 the European Commission embarked on tw o important initiatives  to protect forests 
globally. The "forest package" comprises a proposal to reduce the risk of illegal timber and timber products entering the EU market and a Communication setting out the Commission's 
proposals for tackling tr opical deforestation
53.  
With regard to illegal timber, the Commission is  proposing to minimise the risk of illegally 
harvested timber and timber products being plac ed on the European market. The Commission 
wants to make it an obligation for traders to seek sufficient guarantees that the timber and 
timber products they sell have been harvested according to the re levant laws of the country of 
origin. The proposal will increas e incentives for legal and sustainable management and use of 
forests, especially in developing countries that  are interested in maintaining and enhancing 
their export of forest  products to the EU. 
Regarding tropical deforestation,  the Commission proposes to work in the international 
negotiations on climate change towards th e development of a Global Forest Carbon 
Mechanism (GFCM) through which developing c ountries would be rewarded for emissions 
reductions achieved by taking action to reduc e deforestation and forest degradation. 
                                                 
51 COM (2006) 216 Final., 22.05.2006.  
52 Presidency Conclusions, Göteborg European Council 15 and 16 June 2001 
53 COM(2008) 645 final, 17.10.2008 on "Addressing the challenges of deforestation and forest 
degradation to tackle climate change and biodiversity loss" and COM(2008) 644/3, October 2008, 
"Proposal for a REGULATION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL 
laying down the obligations of operators who pl ace timber and timber products on the market" 
 
EN 45   EN European Parliament resolution of 17 June  2008 on policy coherence for development 
and the effects of the EU's exploitation of certain biological natural resources on 
development in West Africa54  
With regard to timber policies, the report advocates financial support for mechanisms to 
protect forest and reduce green house gas em issions from deforestation, and calls for a 
legislation to prevent timber from illegal and destructive sources being placed on the market. 
The negative effects of deforestation on clim ate change and indige nous communities are 
identified and the report further calls on the EU to speed up the adoption of a green public 
procurement policy.  
In support of the Action Plan for Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT) 
as its response to illegal l ogging and associated trade, th e Commission adopted in 2007 the 
implementing modalities of FLEGT regulation55, particularly focusing on the voluntary 
partnership agreements (VPA). These VPA ar e legally binding agreements by which the 
partner country and the EU undert ake to work together to prom ote better forest governance, 
and law enforcement and implement a timber li censing scheme. The first FLEGT VPA were 
initialled with Ghana in September 2008 and the Republic of Congo in May 2009. 
Negotiations are ongoing with Indonesia, Malays ia, Cameroon and Liberia and new countries 
will start nego tiations in 200956 
Deforestation in the Congo Basin 
 
This graphic illustrates the most recent defore station estimates produced by the Joint Research 
Centre (JRC) from satellite images. Each circle  corresponds to the deforestation (in red) and 
                                                 
54 European Parliament Resolution 2007/2183(INI) 
55 Regulation No 1024/2008 , 18.10.2008 
56 Outstanding issue from the 2007 Report on PCD 
 
EN 46   EN the forest degradation (in yellow)  measured in a square of 10x10 km on satellite images from 
1990 and 2000. The size of the circ les is proportional to total forest c over changes, with 
purple squares in boxes with no change. Gaps correspond to missing data due to clouds. 
Regional results are heartening - the net deforestation rates in Central Africa are lower than 
previously estimated. At just 0.16% per year they  are around half the rate  of deforestation in 
South America, and less than a quarter the rate in Asia. This work was produced in the 
framework of the Observatory for Central Af rican Forests, jointly managed by JRC with 
COMIFAC, the regional political instituti on in charge of forest management.  
• International Panel for Sustainable Resource Management 
Only policies that are based on commonly agreed analysis and facts can be sustained in the 
longer term. The International Panel for Sustainable Resource Management57, founded by 
UNEP with the European Commission in 2007, is  filling a major gap in our knowledge. The 
Panel provides independent and authoritative scientific assessment of the environmental 
impacts of using renewable and non-renewable resources. It is curr ently working on: (1) 
decoupling (of economic growth from environmen tal impacts), (2) prioritisation of natural 
resources and products, (3) biofuels a nd (4) global metal flows and recycling. 
• Environmental Policy Dialogue 
As part of the Community's external polic y, environmental policy dialogues have been 
established between the EU a nd several developed as well as  emerging countries. Over the 
years, significant progress has been  made on environmental dialogue58 with emerging 
countries. Environmental dialogues ar e in place with Chin a, Brazil and India, partly at a very 
comprehensive and technical level. In addition to environment-related exchange via various 
working groups and in relation to trade policy issues, there have been advanced discussions with China on cooperation in third countries. Th is is highly relevant from the resource-use 
and development perspective. 
The EU, Africa and China: towards trilateral dialogue and cooperation
59  
"Sustainable management of the environment and natural resources is key to sustained 
growth, combating climate change and to mutual trade interests. Trilat eral cooperation linked 
to initiatives such as Extr active Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), Forest Law 
Enforcement, Government and Trade (FLEGT), the Kimberley process, could allow African 
countries to enhance local capacity to manage re sources, trade and competition in an open and 
transparent manner in order to maximise sust ainable investment and development outcomes 
notably in sectors such as forestry, renewabl e energy, energy efficiency, waste management, 
fisheries and mining." 
Regarding Brazil, under the strategic partnership initiated in July 2007 and in the joint Action 
Plan60 (December 2008), partners agreed to strength en the environmental policy dialogues, to 
work more closely together in addressing pres sing global challenges, in cluding to strengthen 
the multilateral climate change regime and to stri ve for a successful outcome of the post-2012 
climate negotiations. As for India, the EU-I ndia Summit in September 2008 adopted a Joint 
                                                 
57 Outstanding issue from the 2007 Report on PCD. 
58 Outstanding issue from the 2007 Report on PCD. 
59 COM(2008)654 final, 17.10.2008 
60 See http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/brazil/docs/2008_joint_action_plan_en.pdf 
 
EN 47   EN Work Programme on energy, clean development and climate change. However, only limited 
progress has been achieved so far. 
Some EU Member States have signed environm ental agreements with partner countries. The 
UK conducts an ongoing dialogue with emerging economies. Finland and Zambia have signed 
a Memorandum of Understanding to engage in cooperation to enhance the implementation of 
several MEAs in Zambia. Latvia’s Ministry of Environment has concluded bilateral agreements on cooperation in the field of environmental protection with Ukraine, Belarus, Georgia and Serbia. Romania has signed a Memorandum of U nderstanding with Tunisia, 
regarding cooperation in the fi eld of environmental protecti on and water management and 
Lithuania has signed an  agreement with Belarus on the im plementation of the Convention on 
Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context.  
3.2.2.3.  Development Instrument in support of Environment in Developing Countries  
• Commission Country and Regional Strategy Papers 
In 2007/2008, the Commission adopted the new gene ration of country a nd regional strategy 
papers for the period 2007- 2013. Progress was made to pr omote Policy Coherence for 
Development via the introduction of a specifi c PCD section in the papers, the joint 
programming which took place in  10 countries and the increased  use of Country Environment 
Profiles (CEP) which needed to accompany each Strategy Paper. Environmental sustainability concerns were also developed in cooperatio n sector programmes, notably by means of 
strategic environmental assessm ents (transports, sugar sector reform, sea defences) and 
through the development of guidelines for ma instreaming climate change adaptation and 
mitigation in specific sectors of cooperation. 
• Community Instrument: The ENRTP 
In June 2007, the Commission adopted the thematic strategy for the environment and 
sustainable management of natural resources , including energy (ENRTP ) with a worldwide 
scope and a total budget of €889.5 million for th e period 2007 to 2013
61. The ENRTP aims to 
integrate environmental prot ection requirements into the Commission's development and 
other external policies as well as to help promote its environmental and energy policies 
abroad in the common inte rest of the EU and part ner countries and regions62. It complements 
other EU initiatives a nd addresses problems that have a profound effect on the lives of poor 
people, in particular rapi dly degrading key ecosystems, climate change, poor global 
environmental governance and inadequate access to (and security of) energy supply. 
Environment and Sustainable Management of Natural Resources including Energy 
(ENRTP) 
In the ENRTP thematic strategy paper, five pr iorities constituting the core of the programme 
are identified for the first programming pe riod (2007-2010). Supported with a budget of 
€469.7 million, these priorities are to: (i) work ups tream in assisting developing countries to 
                                                 
61 See 
http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/where/worldwide/environment/documents/multi_annual_programme_enrtp_fr.pdf 
62 It includes two new initiatives related to climate change and renewable energy; the Global Climate 
Change Alliance (GCCA),  and the Global Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fund (GEEREF). 
 
EN 48   EN achieve the MDG7 on environmental sustainabil ity; (ii) promote the implementation of EU 
initiatives and help developing countries to meet internationally agreed environmental 
commitments; (iii) promote coherence between environmental and other policies and enhance 
environmental expertise; (iv) strengthen inte rnational environmental governance and policy 
development and, (v) support sustainable en ergy options in partner countries. 
• Members States' Bilateral Support 
Member States give a lot of support to a wide  range of environment issues in developing 
countries.. Germany assists countries in im plementing the United Nations Convention to 
Combat Desertification (UNCCD) and its internat ional regimes, while using these regimes as 
a framework for designing and implementing projects and programmes. The Czech Republic plays an active role as a leader of the regiona l initiative on financial resource mobilisation for 
strengthening the implementation of the UNCCD
63. Irish Aid supports UNEP in Mozambique 
and Rwanda in seeking to ensure that envir onmental challenges are adequately addressed in 
national evaluation and implementation processes.  
Greece: Mediterranean EU Water Initiative 
Since 2003, Greece has been the lead country fo r the Mediterranean EU Water Initiative 
(MED EUWI) which was included in the refo rmed EU Water Initia tive in 2007. Its main 
objective is "to create a higher efficiency of water-related development by providing a 
platform to co-ordinate and stream line existing and future activities” 64. To help ensure PCD 
in developing partner countri es, the MED EUWI follows a strict process of ensuring 
development cooperation is conducted according to the partner country’s long-term targets for 
water and sustainable development, integratin g national policies and strategies into the 
technical and policy work of the National Di alogues, and avoiding pa rallel projects or 
programmes by liaising with other organisatio ns and donors. Furthermore, the MED EUWI 
launched National Policy Dialogues on water-rela ted policy issues such as finance and 
planning. Through these many national, EU, and international efforts,  the MED EUWI and 
Greece have made a significant contribution towards PCD in the area of environment. 
3.2.3.  Conclusion & Outstanding Issues 
As described in this chapter, some good progres s has been made to integrating development 
concerns into EU environment policy area, at both Community and Member States levels, as 
exemplified by the Climate Change and Ener gy Package, Sustainable Consumption and 
Production, Green Public Procurement, support fo r implementation of the MEA, the forest 
package and FLEGT partnership agreements. Some Member States have developed new 
strategies to link envi ronment and development and others have initiated inter-ministerial 
coordination mechanisms. Dialogue with deve loping countries and emerging economies was 
strengthened throughout the peri od and, while adequate mon itoring, analysis and reporting 
systems are still lacking in ma ny Member States, some countries65 have developed promising 
mechanisms.  
However a few critical issues st ill have to be dealt with (suc h as International Environment 
Governance which, despite EU efforts, has w itnessed limited progress or the implementation 
                                                 
63 In the regional implementation Annex V for Central and Eastern Europe. 
64 MED EUWI. Info Note and Wo rkplan 2008. December 2007 
65 UK, Denmark and Finland 
 
EN 49   EN of the CBD in dire need of reinforcement) and additional efforts are still expected in a number 
of areas showing progress. A concerted EU position on those issues will increase the likelihood of successful outcomes. 
Consequently, most Member States rate the EU  progress on PCD in the area of environment 
as average to good (see chart below
66). 
 
EU Member States welcome in particular the effo rts that have been put into the dialogue with 
developing countries, the Action Plan for Fore st Law Enforcement Governance and Trade 
(FLEGT) and the promotion of sustainable c onsumption and producti on in the context of 
Marrakech. Nonetheless a number of countries have faced difficulties in promoting PCD. 
Conflicting mandates of the various ministries and lack of effectiv e coordination between 
sectors and across the various levels of govern ment are persistent limiting factors. Another 
difficulty, which EU Member States as well as partner countries face, is that environmental 
considerations are often seen as costs, rather  than investment and development opportunities. 
In addition, though making good progress, dialogue with developing countries is hampered by 
poor International Environmental Governance institutions, too widely spread across different, 
and sometimes competing, fora and by weak responses from partner countries when encouraged to incorporate environmental objec tives into their national development plans. 
Finally, the financial and economic crisis of 2008 will possibly result in shifting of priorities 
away from environmental concerns.  
In the future, there ought to be countless oppor tunities for synergies between environment, 
climate change, development policies and prog rammes. The wide-ranging implications of 
environmental degradation (and climate changes) are bound to affect in the short to medium 
term the lives and livelihoods of billions of people living in poverty in developing countries 
and emerging economies.  
Joint efforts and policy coherence are needed more than ever. More coherence for 
development is paramount if the "greening"  of the developed, and developing countries' 
economies is to deliver on the promises of a safer and more hospitabl e world. Globalisation 
and market forces alone will not necessarily lead the world to a more environmental and 
development-friendly path and might not deliver in timely fashion on issues such as climate 
change. Strong and converging public policie s are therefore required to provide clear 
                                                
 
66 Chart based on Member States' responses to a dedicated PCD 2009 questionnaires prepared by the 
European Commission. 
 
EN 50   EN guidance and orientation for th e public at large to allow for a rapid and smooth global 
economic transition. Policy cohere nce for development provides the appropriate tool to ensure 
that the poorest and the developi ng countries will be part and parcel of this evolution.  
Outstanding Issues  
• Global Environment Institution: the creation of an efficient UN Environment Organisation 
should be supported with a significant represen tation of developing countries and emerging 
economies. 
• Additional resources should be made availa ble for the poorest developing countries to 
tackle environmental issues. In connection with  Climate Change initiatives, new financing 
mechanism should be pursued (such as Payment for Environment/ Ecosystem Services, 
Carbon Stocking etc.). 
• Facilitate environment-friendly techno logy transfers to developing countries 
• Promote international agreement on the use of labelling and sustainability schemes for a 
growing number of natural resources and prod ucts while helping developing countries to 
limit additional cost and loss of opportunities. 
 
EN 51   EN 3.3. Climate Change  
Quick Facts 
• 11 of the last 12 years  (1995-2006) rank among the 12 warmest years  in the instrumental 
record of global mean surface temperature (since 1850) (UN IPCC 2007) 
• Global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions due to  human activities have grown since pre-
industrial times, with  an increase of 70%  between 1970 and 2004  (UN IPCC 2007) 
• According to the UNFCCC emissions increased by 2.3 %  or403 million metric tons of 
CO 2 from 2000 to 2006 (UNFCC 2009) 
• From 1990 to 2005 GHG emissions by the EU-15  decreased  by 1.5%.  Emissions by the 
EU-27  decreased  by 7.9% . (European Environment Agency (EEA) 2007) 
• By 2020  between 75 million and 250 million people  in Africa are projected to be exposed 
to increased water stress  due to climate change (UN IPCC 2007) 
• By 2020  in some African countries, yields  from rain-fed agricultu re could be reduced by 
up to  50%  (UN IPCC 2007)  
• There is high agreement on, and much evidence  of substantial economic potential for the 
mitigation of glob al GHG emissions  over the coming decades. (UN IPCC 2007)  
3.3.1.  Introduction  
Climate change is affecting all countries but the poor communities and people in Least 
Developed Countries (LDCs), Small Island Deve lopment States (SIDS) and other vulnerable 
countries, regions and areas are expected to be  hit hardest. The imp acts indeed are already 
being felt. Food and water shortages, diseas es and environmental degradation including 
biodiversity loss and decreased ecosystem functi oning are expected to be come more acute in 
the coming decades. Sea level rise, land degrad ation, increased risks of floods and droughts, 
and advancing desertification etc. will impact on the lives and livelihoods of billions of people 
in developing countries.  
Climate change has generated worldwide atte ntion since the adopti on in 1992 of the UN 
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC C), as reinforced by its Kyoto protocol 
and other policy initiatives. Gradually, the need  for developing countries to deal with the 
issues has been growing.  
While developing countries, in pa rticular the poorest, made lit tle contribution to the climate 
change effects which they are already experi encing, the more advanced developing countries, 
including emerging economies, are now considered to be an esse ntial part of a comprehensive 
and global long-term solution. Their further economic development should be based on low-
carbon plans or strategies encomp assing all relevant sectors. Fu rthermore, several developing 
countries are covered by vast areas of natural tropical forest, and other carbon rich ecosystems 
such as peatlands, wetlands and grassla nds, which hold invaluab le carbon stocks and 
biodiversity rich ecosystems providing essential services to the planet.  
 
EN 52   EN However, many developing countries, in partic ular the more advanced, are growing their 
economies at a fierce pace, while applying unsus tainable production and consumption paths, 
adding already to the climat e change burden. The development of low carbon plans are 
therefore important to contribu te to the decline in global emissions. Finally many countries, 
especially the poor, who are low emitters, and the vulnerable, do not have the financial and 
technical capacities to face the consequences an d impacts of climate change. While adaptation 
and poverty reduction remain the highest prioritie s for these countries, th ey could also take 
advantage of developing their economies along a low carbon path. 
Developing countries are a diverse group rangi ng from the poor LDCs to the new emerging 
economies and should be treated with different a pproaches reflecting the heterogeneity of the 
countries, their capacities and ove rall responsibilities. The PCD element of the EU's climate 
policies will be crucial to the success of the fight against global warming  
3.3.2.  Progress towards PCD Commitments 
3.3.2.1.  EU Climate Change Mitigation Policies  
Over the last two years, much progress has b een achieved with regards to climate change 
policies. The European Commission and EU Me mber States have es tablished concrete 
measures to ensure that development concerns are taken into account and synergies improved.  
At the level of the EU, the main policy achievement has been the adoption of the Climate 
Change and Energy Package  in December 200867. The package sets targets, by 2020 
compared to 1990, to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 20% and to establish a 20% share for renewable energy (See chapter 12 on Energy Policy). The package includes a further 
strengthened and extended EU Emission Tradin g Scheme (ETS) as a centrepiece The ETS is 
the EU's key tool for cutti ng emissions cost-effectively
68. The review of the ETS ensures that 
there is investor certainty with regard to o ffsetting credits that can be used for compliance 
after 2012 including the continued use of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the potential of new offsetting mechanisms if agreement is reached, as hoped for at the 
Copenhagen conference on a post-2012 climate framework.  
In addition, the package includes the decision on how to share efforts in the sectors not 
included in the ETS, a directive for environm entally safe carbon capture and storage (CCS) 
and directives on CO2 emissions from cars and fuel quality. The renewable energy directive, 
including biofuels, is discu ssed in chapter 12 (Energy) 
Europe has clearly established itself as world leader in the fight against climate change, 
offering a number of opportunitie s to developing countries.  
Climate Change and Security Policy 
                                                 
67 For an overview of the Package, see European Commission Press Release IP/08/1998, 17.12.2008. For 
additional information: http://ec.europa .eu/environment/climat/climate_action.htm 
68 Emissions from the sectors covered by the system will be cut by 21% by 2020 compared with levels in 
2005.A single EU-wide cap on ETS emissions will be  set, and free allocation of emission allowances 
will be progressively replaced by auctioning of allowances by 2020. Emissions from sectors not 
included in the EU ETS – such as transport, housing , agriculture and waste – will be cut by 10% from 
2005 levels by 2020. Each Member State will contribu te to this effort according to its relative wealth, 
with national emission targets ranging from -20% for richer Member States to +20% for poorer ones. 
 
EN 53   EN In March 2008, a Paper69 from the High Representative a nd the European Commission to the 
European Council addressed the interrelations between climat e change and international 
security. The joint paper identifies a number of threats (such as conflict over resources, loss of 
territory, border disputes, coas tal damages, environmentally induced migration etc.) and, in 
relation to third countries, a dvocates revisiting and reinforci ng EU cooperation and political 
dialogue instruments, giving more attention to the impact of c limate change on security. This 
could lead to greater prioritis ation and enhanced support for climate change mitigation and 
adaptation, good governance, natu ral resource management, technology transfer, trans-
boundary environmental cooperation (inter alia water and land) , institutional strengthening 
and capacity building for crisis management. 
The Communication issued by th e Commission in October 2008 addresses the challenges of 
deforestation in the context of international efforts to tackle climate change70. This document 
stresses the importance of policy coherence an d calls for a review of the impacts of EU 
policies on global deforestation71. In the international negotia tions on climate change, the 
Commission proposed to pursue the objective of halting global forest cover loss by 2030 at 
the latest and reducing gross tropical defore station by at least 50% by 2020. This would be 
achieved by creating a Global Forest Carbon  Mechanism (GFCM) which would reward 
developing countries for emissions reduc tions achieved by taking action to reduce 
deforestation and fo rest degradation. 
Fighting deforestation will need an appropriate  level of funding, some of each could come 
from proceeds of allowances auctioned in the EU Emissions Trading System. It is estimated 
that if 5% of auctioning revenue were made available to the Global Forest Carbon Mechanism 
(GFCM), between €1.5 billion and €2.5 billion could be raised in  2020. In the framework of 
the GFCM, a pilot phase could be  envisaged to test the inclusion of 'deforestation credits' 
(credits for avoided deforestation) in the car bon markets, allowing gove rnments to make use 
of these credits to help achieve th eir post-2012 emission reduction target.  
The Union's activities deployed under the ambiti ous EU climate policy will directly benefit 
the poorest and most vulnerable deve loping countries as the aim is to limit global warming 
to less than 2 °C  relative to pre–industrial levels. 
Germany and Climate Change 
Since 2007, Germany  has been providing approximately €400 million annually towards 
climate change initiatives by auctioning 10% of its European emissions allowances. From this 
amount, €120 million has been earmarked for international climate change projects, 
particularly in developing countries. This mo ney is managed by the International Climate 
Initiative (ICI), which is a fund administered by the Federal Ministry for the Environment, 
Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) of the German Government. The ICI has two 
main objectives, (i) the promoting of sustai nable energy and supply and (ii) promoting 
measures for adaptation to the impacts of c limate change and conserving biodiversity with 
climate relevance. Thematic areas of support include the development of strategies and 
                                                 
69 Council document 7249/08, 03.03.2008 
70 Outstanding Issue from the 2007 Report on PCD. 
71 See Chapter 2 : Environment Policy Area. 
 
EN 54   EN national adaptation policies as well as technical capacity development in areas such as 
transport. 72 The ICI is only one part of Germany’s overall appro ach to climate change and 
development cooperation, and is strategically  designed to support the UN climate change 
negotiations post-2012.73  
3.3.2.2.  EU Policies: Adapting to Climate Change 
The Green Paper on adapting to climate change  in Europe, adopted in June 2007, and the 
follow-up White Paper, adopted in April 20 09, are the first Commi ssion initiatives to 
strengthen adaptation efforts within the EU and beyond.  
Adaptation is of great relevance to developing c ountries, in particular to the poorest and most 
vulnerable among them. Countries that have contri buted least to the causes of climate change 
are expected to be hit hardest. This is due to  their limited financial resources and ability to 
deal with the effects of climate change im pacts. Poor communities are highly dependent on 
natural resources such as wa ter and soil, needed  for food production and drinking water. 
These natural elements are themselves affected by climate change. .  
Adaptation is now given the same importance as mitigation and this is particularly relevant 
for developing countries. While dramatically  reducing greenhouse gases remains by far the 
best and cheapest option to prevent dangerous climate change , adaptation is needed to deal 
with the effects of climate change that  are already being felt and unavoidable.  
3.3.2.3.  Post -2012 negotiation: Bali 2007, Poznan 2008 toward Copenhagen 2009. 
The EU is a prominent actor on the international scene, de veloping innovative and leading 
positions for the post-2012 negotiations to deli ver meaningful commitments in terms of 
Climate Change and Development.  
In Bali, in 2007, at the 13th UN Conference of the Parties of the UNFCC, the EU put its case 
for limiting emissions (mandatory emissions reductions by developed countries, effective 
contributions by emerging economies, strengthen ing and extending the gl obal carbon market, 
increasing cooperation on research, development and deployment of clean technologies) while 
proposing an active partnership for developing count ries to address adapta tion needs, to tackle 
the unavoidable impacts of climate change in the poorest an d most vulnerable countries and to 
reduce emissions from deforestation. The EU committed itself to doing more to mobilise the 
necessary resources, includi ng through expansion of the global carbon market and via 
instruments such as the Global Energy Effi ciency and Renewable Energy Fund (GEEREF) 
(See also chapter 12 on Energy).  
In December 2008, in Poznan, the 14th UN Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC proved 
a useful staging post on the way to the Cope nhagen Conference in 2009 where an ambitious 
new global climate agreement for the post-2012 period should be ag reed upon. Progress was 
made on operationalisation of the Adaptation Fund , which is to finance adaptation in 
developing countries thus clea ring the way for developing c ountries to receive funding to 
                                                 
72 BMU. The International Climate Initiative of th e Federal Republic of Germany. March 2009. 
73 BMU. Innovative Finance Mechanisms – Them German Climate Initiative. 
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/38/61/40633487.pdf   
 
EN 55   EN strengthen their resilience to the impacts of climate change.74 In addition, consultations on 
guidance for the operation of the Least Develo ped Countries Fund (LDCF), which is largely 
financed by the EU, were completed. As regards tropical deforestation, responsible for almost 
20% of global greenhouse gas emissions, prog ress was achieved on the future regime to 
reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, known as REDD,75 as part of the 
lead-up to Copenhagen.  Last but not least, the Poznan Programme on Technology Transfer for 
developing countries was adopted, funded by €50 million of existing resources from the 
Global Environmental Facility thus highlighting the importan ce of technology transfers and 
the need for policy synergies to be sought betw een Climate Change and Research Policies.  
Research and Climate Change 
Climate change is of growing public concern and it is an important polit ical priority of the 
European Union also in the context of international research cooperation.  The Seventh 
Framework Programme for Research and Tec hnological Development (FP7) is following 
previous Framework Programmes by putting particular emphasis on international co-
operation actions in this area.  FP7 research topics addre ss the urgent needs for sound 
scientific information on further understanding of  the climate system, im pacts, vulnerability, 
adaptation and mitigation to s upport climate change policy developments and implementation 
as well as the IPCC (Inter governmental Panel on Climate Change) process. The FP7 
Environment Programme is promoting inte rnational cooperation by encouraging ICPC 
(eligible International Co-operation Partner C ountries) participation in various topics and 
through Specific International Co-operation Acti ons (SICA) across all ac tivities of the work 
programme. Two of the many examples of succe ssful projects on climate change research 
with participation of developing countries and emerging economies are  AMMA (African 
Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis) with 21 pa rtners from Africa and HighNoon (adaptation 
to changing water resources availability in nor thern India in the face  of Himalayan glacier 
retreat and changing monsoon patterns) with key contributions from three Indian partners.  
The Communication76 towards a comprehensive climate change agreement in Copenhagen 
was adopted in early 2009 and proposes the main building blocks -mitigation, adaptation, 
financing and technology - for reaching such an agreement. These proposals were further strengthened by several Council conclusions. Their relevance for attaining the MDGs has 
been underlined.  
In preparing for the Copenhagen Conference,  scheduled for December 2009, the EU has 
recognised developing countries' needs and is prepar ed to take its fair share of the financing 
required to ensure adequate, predictable and sust ainable financial transfer s, including leverage 
of private investments, to support developing  countries in their adaptation and mitigation 
efforts. Existing channels for aid delivery  should be explored before creating new 
mechanisms. The principles of effectiveness, efficiency, equity, transparency, accountability, coherence, predictability and sound financial management should apply, as well as the need to 
                                                
 
74 The Fund is financed through a 2% levy on the sale of emission credits generated by emission-saving 
projects undertaken in developing countries under the Protocol's Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). 
75 Outstanding issue from the 2007 EU Report on PCD. 
76 COM(2009) 39 final, 28.01.2009 
 
EN 56   EN coordinate funding initiatives77, promote sharing of best practices and capitalize on 
experiences gained in this respect. 
On the subject of mitigation, the EU's view is that developing countries as a group, 
particularly the most advanced ones, should achieve a substantial and quantifiable lowdown 
of their emissions growth rate78 through the development of low-carbon plans and strategies. 
Such strategies should be supported financially  and technically in pa rticular for the poorest 
and most vulnerable countries such as LDCs and SIDS, should they choose to develop one.  
Mitigation and adaptation efforts must be su pported by much greater collaboration on 
technology research, developmen t, deployment and diffusion.  
3.3.2.4.  EU and Developing Countries 
Poor countries across the world and small low-ly ing island states such as atolls are very 
vulnerable to climate change. But even the more  advanced developing countries are likely to 
contain regions or communities that are very vulnerable. For example low-lying fertile and 
densely populated deltas acro ss the globe are very fragile (e.g. Egypt, Bangladesh) due the 
combined effects of a number of causes includ ing sea level rise, sediment depletion from 
dams constructed upstream, changes in storm patte rns, frequencies and intensities, changes in 
river flow regimes, salinisation due to ove r-extraction of natura l groundwater etc.  
While efforts to conduct dialogue with and suppor t for developing countries take place on all 
continents, the inter-linkages between Climate Change and Development are particularly important in Africa, a co ntinent that remains tr agically affected by poverty. Over the last two 
years progress has been made in setting up clim ate change priorities for cooperation and in 
identifying deliverables and joint initiat ives with the African continent.  
In November 2008, the EU-Africa Join t Declaration on Climate Change  welcomed the 
European Union’s intention to support the Af rican region in its adaptation and mitigation 
efforts, through the Global Climate Change A lliance (GCCA) and other appropriate bilateral 
and multilateral instruments of cooperation . A decision was also made to speed up the 
operationalisation of the Adaptation Fund whil e seeking to mobilise new and additional 
funding for adaptation. 
In July 2008 the Climate Change Declarati on at the EU-South Africa Summit underlined the 
partners' desire to cooperate  also on the issue of car bon capture and storage (CCS)
79. South 
Africa has been proactive in the UNFCCC nego tiations and is one of the EU's strategic 
partners for discussing the avenues l eading to a post-2012 climate regime.  
Launched in December 2007, the  Africa-EU Climate Change  Partnership80 has two priority 
actions: to build a common ag enda on climate change polic ies and cooperation and to 
                                                 
77 Such as Global Environment Facility (GEF), th e Adaptation Fund and EU development assistance, 
including bilateral actions and the Global Climate Change Alliance (GCCA), as well as the contribution 
of other multilateral development programmes and funds, notably those of the UN and the World Bank, 
such as the Climate Investment Funds. 
78 In the order of 15-30% below business as usual by 2020 
79 The Summit also agreed to the creation of an Energy Dialogue Forum (EDF) to facilitate further 
cooperation. 
80 Africa-EU Ministerial Troika 20/21 November 2008, Joint Progress Report on the implementation of 
the Africa-EU Joint Strategy and its first Action Plan (2008-2010)   
 
EN 57   EN cooperate to address land degradation and in creasing aridity and desertification. Several 
meetings of the European and African Impl ementation Teams took place in 2008 leading to 
an agreement on internal working arrangements, on the necessity to associate in the partnership climate change negotiators as we ll as development practitioners and on the 
necessary deepening of the dial ogue with Civil Society, private sector and parliaments, as 
well as other international partners.  
On the African side a strategic review is bei ng conducted in order to im prove the prioritisation 
of climate change activities covering a wide range of issues from capacity building to water resources management to adaptation in agricu lture, desertification, urban development, 
disaster risk reduction,  deforestation and sea level rise. Both the EU and African sides are 
currently working on the 2009 deliverables for the partnership. These include the CLIMDEV 
initiative designed to mainstream climate information into development planning and 
practices; the pre-feas ibility study of the Gr eat Green Wall of Sahara; capacity building 
efforts for UNFCCC negotiators (African Roadmap for UNFCCC negotiations…); the improvement of African access to  carbon credit and the carbon ma rket; the implementation of 
the GCCA and the cooperation on the definition  and implementation of EU and AU disaster 
risk reduction policies. 
3.3.2.5.  Development Policies to address Climat e Change in Developing Countries  
Several EU-level policies and programme reflect  the climate change high political priorities 
of climate change. The Joint ACP-EU Declaration on Climate Change and Development of 2009 renewed political commitments to integrate climate change issue into national poverty reduction strategies to whic h Commission and Member Stat e cooperation programme are 
aligned. Almost all EU Member States have now adopted national climate change policies 
and efforts to integrate development aspect s are underway, from the Czech Republic, which 
actively supports mainstreaming of climate change in to development cooperation, to Belgium, 
where a dedicated committee ensures clos e coordination between environment and 
development policy makers at national and regional level. At Commission's level, the 
"Disaster Risk Reduction" Communication issued  in February 2009 and the revision of the 
"Environmental Integration Stra tegy" scheduled for 2009 are end eavours toward integrating 
climate change issues into development cooperation
81.  
Apart from the support given to address cl imate change in the European Commission's 
development programmes (country and regional development programmes (NIP and RIP) for 
the period 2007-2013, IntraACP budget lines) of ke y importance to developing countries is 
the thematic programme for the environment and the sustainable management of natural 
resources, including energy, known as ENRTP, with a worldwide scope and a total budget of 
€889.5 million for the period from 2007 to 2013 (See Chapter 3 on Environment Policy). Its objective is to ensure that environment is c onsistently taken into account in the various 
cooperation instruments and to gi ve developing countries more  information on the impact of 
climate changes. Part of the funding specifi cally targets climate change support activities, 
including capacity-build ing for African countries. Other cap acity building initi atives includes 
EUroClima in Latin America which is specifica lly geared to examining the socio-economic 
impact of climate change on South American countries
82 and which is funded through the 
regional Development Cooperatio n Instrument (DCI) funds.. 
                                                 
81 Outstanding issue from the 2007 EU Report on PCD. 
82 Outstanding issue from 2007 EU PCD report 
 
EN 58   EN However the main development initiative to ad dress climate change issues was launched in 
September 2007 when the European Commissi on proposed a new alliance between the 
European Union and the poor developing countries that are most affected  and have the least 
capacity to deal with climate change. Through this Global Climate Change Alliance (GCCA)
83, the EU and these countries are working jo intly to integrate c limate change into 
poverty reduction strategies and into devel opment cooperation. In 2008, the implementation 
modalities were worked out and Vanuatu, Maldives, Cambodia and Tanzania were the first countries to be se lected for support
84. Further, thanks to the po litical dialogue dimension of 
the GCCA, African, Pacific Islands and Caribb ean countries are working towards a common 
position on tackling climate change and focusing their adaptation efforts. The EU-Africa Declaration, the Niue Declaration  for the Pacific  and the EU-Cariforum Declaration in 2008 
reflected these regions' concerns on climate change and the European Union's efforts to achieve an ambitious post-K yoto international agreement 
The GCCA, supported by Sweden, Czech Republic  and the Commission is a positive step 
taken by the EU in favour of developing count ries. Countries like Denmark, Czech Republic, 
Finland and the Netherlands have  participated in some meeti ng and discussions. In addition 
several other Member States are keen to lear n from the process of the GCCA which will need 
to actively engage with other initiatives, such as the Clim ate Investment Fund. Two other 
international initiatives focusing on developi ng countries have been launched by Germany 
and Sweden (the International Climate Initiati ve and the Internationa l Commission on Climate 
Change).  
Member States have also been very active in supporting climate change programmes in 
developing countries. The Netherlands for ex ample provided capacity building for developing 
countries and spent €19million on research and po licy-influencing activities in 2008. Sweden 
supported Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) pr ojects in Botswana, China and India, and 
capacity-building projects on CDM in Kenya, Tan zania and Uganda. It channelled its support 
mainly through the UNFCCC trust fund and fina nced the adaptation fund. It allocated more 
than SEK4 billion (circa €380 million) in addi tional support to climate-related development 
assistance over the period 2009-2011, on adaptation in itiatives in the poore st countries and on 
measures to limit the concentration of gr eenhouse gases. The UK funded a number of 
Regional Economics of Climate Change Studi es (RECCS), which explore alternative 
mitigation scenarios for key countries and developing regions, and the costs and benefit of adaptation.  
These are but a few examples of the wide- ra nging initiatives aimed at helping developing 
countries adapt to climate change.  
3.3.3.  Conclusion & Outstanding Issues  
Good progress has been made in formulating c limate change policies as their development 
dimension is becoming better understood.. Over the last two years, awareness of the key role, 
and responsibilities of developi ng countries, including emerging c ountries, in tackling climate 
change issues has made development a prime concern of policy makers. Reciprocally, the 
integration of mitigation and adaptation effort s in development cooperation has progressed.  
                                                
 
83 COM(2007) 540 final 18.09.2007 "Building a Globa l Climate Change Alliance between the European 
Union and poor developing countries most vulnerable to climate change",  
84 In 2009-2010 Jamaica, Belize, Bangladesh, Gu yana, Rwanda, Senegal, Maurice, Seychelles, 
Madagascar, Mozambique and Mali will benefit from the initiative. 
 
EN 59   EN Within the EU, the Climate Cha nge and Energy Package will o ffer important opportunities for 
developing countries in partic ular with regards to CDM, CCS, sustainable production of 
biofuels, the development of low-carbon strate gies and even domestic emission trading 
systems.  
Progress has also been made in the post-2012 negotiations wh ich should take development 
concerns into account in the run-up to the Copenhagen Conference, in December 2009. Some 
issues of interest for developing countries (e .g. related to the CDM mechanisms; the access to 
LDCF by poor countries; the futu re regime for reducing emissions from deforestation; 
facilitating transfers of clean technologies to  developing countries; financing of climate 
change adaptation and mitigation efforts, im plementation of the Africa-EU Partnership on 
Climate Change) remains to be debated and agreed upon before Copenhagen.  
Regarding the particular conc erns of LDCs and other count ries with limited adaptation 
capacities, the GCCA provides a new and formidab le platform to help the poorest developing 
countries. The regional declarat ions of 2008 in the Pacific, th e Caribbean's and Africa show a 
convergence of views and interests between deve loping countries and the EU, bear witness to 
the strong progress made in political dialogue on climate change and offer significant 
opportunities for further actions to  address climate change issues  in a context of sustainable 
development.  
Policy Coherence for Development has therefore progressed and EU Memb er States rate the 
success in promoting PCD in the area of cl imate change as average to good (see chart 
below85). Despite progress in many areas, and the political impetus given to EU climate 
change policy in 2007-2008 in the light of increas ing food prices and food security risks, the 
EU's national institutions still struggle to promote policy synergies due to an insufficient number of qualified personnel in the public and government sector, the insufficient involvement and cooperation of government institutions in the process of tackling climate change and the lack of financial resources and relevant information on the issues at stake.  
While development policies now incorporate mitigation and adaptation measures, 
implementation is still at an ea rly stage. In this context, there is scope for strengthening 
existing cooperation and build a common agenda on climate change policies.  
 
                                                 
85 Chart has been prepared on the basis of the MS responses to a dedicated PCD 2009 questionnaire 
prepared by the European Commission. 
 
EN 60   EN The Council contribution of March 200986 on the preparation for Copenhagen confirmed that 
climate change is widely seen as a major th reat to achieving the Millennium Development 
Goals (MDGs), potentially reversing progress made in the last decade. 
The post-2012 negotiation under the UNFCCC in 2009 will therefore be a critical milestone 
in the fight against climate change and th e promotion of synergies with development 
cooperation.  
Given that the financial and economic crises are likely to divert the attention and budget 
allocation of developed as well as developing countries toward s issues of immediate concern, 
it is of the utmost importance to enhance polic y dialogue, and to reinfo rce further the Global 
Climate Change Alliance, to develop a shared vision with the most vulnerable developing 
countries highlighting necessary coherence of our actions in the field of climate change, 
energy and development.  
In the near future, the economic opportunitie s offered by the "greening" of economies 
throughout the developed, emerging and developing worlds, if equitably shared between all, 
should allow the double objectives of limiting climate change and reducing poverty to be achieved through a set of complementary and c oherent policies and actions. This shared 
vision of sustainable development should help secure ambitious and innovative commitments 
to be agreed by all parties in the UNFCCC post-2012 discussions 
Outstanding Issues 
• Encourage the design of low-carbon developmen t strategies in developing countries in 
particular through capacity building. 
• Develop innovative form of financing for s upporting climate change actions in developing 
countries, including financial support to LDC and SIDS to tackle adaptation needs. 
• Support studies and research on the impact of c limate change and assist with dissemination 
of information/awareness-raising ac tivities in developing countries. 
• Reduce geographical imbalance of the CD M by increasing access of LDCs to CDM 
projects. 
• Stronger participation of developing countries  in EU and international climate change 
policies. 
• Assess the impact of trade policy for e nvironmental goods on climate change.  
                                                 
86 Council of the European Union, 2932nd GENERAL AFFAIRS Council meeting Contribution of the 
General Affairs and External Relations Council to the Spring European Council: " Taking into account 
the development dimension for a comprehensive post-2012 Climate c hange agreement in Copenhagen ", 
Brussels, 16 March 2009, 
 
EN 61   EN 3.4. Security 
Quick Facts 
• Conflicts are sometimes described as “development in reverse”.87 
• Of the 20 countries with the highest under-five mortality rate , 15 are experiencing complex 
emergencies related to conflict.88 
• At the end of a conflict the economy of a country  is on average 15% less  than at the start. 89 
• 50% of children who do not go to school live in countries affected by conflict.90 
• The cost of conflict in terms of African de velopment is estimated to be US$300 billion 
between 1990 and 2005, which is equal to the amount the continent received in 
international aid.91 
• International legal transfers of  major conventional weapons fell steadily after the end of the 
Cold War, but illicit trafficking increased ma ssively. Since 2000 legal transfers have also 
increased.92  
• Poverty is associated with weak state capaci ty and with armed violence. The greater the 
poverty and the lower the state capacity, the higher the risk of war or pervading violence.93 
• The approximate cost of a “typical” civil wa r, measured by lost GDP and reduced human 
health, has been estimated at between US $4 billion and $54 billion. 94 
• In 2006 OECD member countries spent about $6 billion on peace work, through official 
development assistance and the funding of UN peacekeeping missions.95 
                                                 
87 United Nations General Assembly, Report of the Sp ecial Representative of the Secretary-General for 
Children and Armed Conflict – Item 68 (a) on the provisional agenda – Promotion and protection of 
the rights of children , 13 August 2007, A/62/228. 
http://www.un.org/children/conflict/_documents/machel/MachelReviewReport.pdf 
88 Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, The Challenge of Reducing the Global Incidence of Civil War, 
Summary of the Copenhagen Consensus Challenge Paper , Centre for the Study of African Economies, 
Oxford University, 23rd of April 2004. p. 1. 
89 For an exploration of a number of these issues see Save the Children, Last in Line, Last in School: How 
donors are failing children in conflict-affected fragile states , (London: International Save the Children 
Alliance, 2007). 
90 IANSA, Oxfam, & Saferworld, Af rica’s missing billions International arms flows and the cost of 
conflict, 107 Briefing Paper, London, 2007.  
 http://www.oxfam .org/en/files/bp107_afri cas_missing_billions_0710.pdf 
91 Paul Collier, VL Elliott, Håvard Hegre, Anke Ho effler, Marte Reynal-Querol and Nicholas Sambanis, 
Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Develo pment Policy (Washington, DC, World Bank &  
Oxford University Press, 2003). Also quoted in, Dan Smith, Towards a Strategic Framework for  
Peacebuilding: Getting Their Act Toge ther Overview report of  the Joint Utstein Study of Peacebuilding, 
Evaluation Report 1/2004, (Oslo: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2004). 
92 Human Security Report, Oxford, Oxford University Press. 2005 
93 Idem 
94 OECD Factsheet, Evaluating Conflict Prevention an d Peacebuilding Activities, Paris, 2008, p. 1. 
95 Idem 
 
EN 62   EN • Worldwide military spending per year has reached approximately $1204 billion. These 
costs will be rising in Africa  particularly, where armed for ces' training and equipment and 
salaries are progressively advanci ng towards international standards.96 
3.4.1.  Introduction 
No one questions anymore the importance of security for de velopment and the role that 
development plays for preventing conflicts, en suring durable exits from conflicts and for 
accompanying crisis management through prot ective, confidence- building and crisis-
alleviating measures. The security development ne xus has been firmly established in the EU's 
political priorities. The 2003 European Security Strategy (ESS) and the 2005 Consensus on Development have acknowledged that there canno t be sustainable development without peace 
and security, nor sustainable peace without de velopment. Both security and development 
policy can only reach their respective objectives if they are in cohere nce with each other. 
Coherence should not be considered as an option as it lies right at the heart of the functioning 
of the two policies. 
The EU has a wide array of instruments that allo w it to intervene at the different stages of a 
conflict cycle, prevention, management and exit . By addressing the root causes of conflicts, 
by supporting peace efforts throughout the cris is and in their fragile aftermath, and by 
carrying out military and civilian missions in de veloping countries the EU makes a significant 
and unique contribution to peace and stability and to the development objectives of these 
countries.  
Acknowledging the intrinsic link be tween security and developm ent policy, this report will 
mainly look at the secu rity side and assess to what extent the EU  through its actions to 
promote security contributes to development objectives. It will however apply a wide definition of security referring to all initiative s that promote human as well as state security 
ranging from conflict prevention to post-conf lict activities and whic h are financed under 
development instruments. 
The broad agreement on the principles underpinni ng the security/develop ment nexus contrasts 
with the difficulties encountered in their im plementation. The ongoing crises in Darfur, DRC 
and Afghanistan demonstrate both the need for a nd the difficulty of ensuring such coherence. 
These difficulties in the face of complex po litical and social situations are further 
compounded by the institutional division of labour, which charges different institutions with 
different aspects of security policy and buildi ng peace. Ensuring coherence of security policy 
with development objectives goes beyond inte r-policy coordination and requires inter-
institutional coordination, t oo. The Report on the Implementation of the European Security 
Strategy of December 2008 rightly recognises th e need to further strengthen coherence, 
through better institutional co-ordinati on and more strategic decision-making.  
3.4.2.  Progress towards PCD commitments 
The EU has taken a number of steps to impr ove the security-development nexus. With the 
Council Conclusion on Security and Developm ent adopted in November 2007, the EU has 
established the comprehensive policy framework th at was identified in the last PCD report as 
an outstanding issue. The establishment of the Africa-EU Peace and Security Partnership 
                                                
 
96 Idem . 
 
EN 63   EN clearly stands out as a milest one on the road towards more  PCD. Good progress has been 
made with the follow-up to other outstanding is sues identified in the last PCD report and with 
PCD commitments in the security areas: coop eration between the different security and 
development actors, the contribution of shor t and long term security instruments to 
development in particular in situations of fragility, arms control and non-violent security 
issues such as corruption, or ganised crime and terrorism. 
Member States individually made great stri des in establishing policies and programmes to 
link security and develo pment since 2007. Austria, Finland, the Netherlands and the UK have 
adopted strategies on conflict prevention and resolution, civ ilian crisis management and 
fragile states. Portugal is currently deve loping a National Strategy on Security and 
Development. All Member States generally shar e the view that conflicts can only be dealt 
with successfully, through a comprehensive approach including military and assistance 
components of short- and long-term measures. 
3.4.2.1.  Africa-EU Strategic Partnership on P eace and Security and on Governance 
The Join-Africa-EU Strategy laid the foundation for a comprehensive and integrated approach 
towards a critical partner as the AU.. It provi des a new and much needed policy framework 
for jointly addressing challenges  including in the security area. Notably two out of the eight 
partnerships of the Strategy, th e one on Peace and Security and the one on Governance entail 
the integration of EU security interests and priorities with the ownership of political objectives of our partners. The partnershi ps through their multilevel coordination 
mechanisms, the college to college meetin gs and Ministerial troikas allow for the 
strengthening of synergies between s ecurity and development cooperation.  
The Peace and Security Partnership pursues three priorities areas: 
(1) "Dialogue on challenges to Peace and Security" ;  
(2) "Full operationalisati on of the APSA" ; 
 
(3) "Predictable Funding for Africa- led Peace Support Operations" ;  
(1) Political dialogue has proved particularly ma ture with meetings at political level 
taking place at a sustained pace, including the first meeting of the EU COPS and the 
AU Peace and Security Council. Today there is no African crisis on which the EU 
takes a position without having first cons ulted the AU. Joint EU/AU/Sub-regional 
organisations' missions are also taking place,  such as for example the joint mission 
with the Economic Community of Central Afri can States, to monitor the security 
situation in the Central African Republic in close connection with the MICOPAX operation, the multinational peac e force in that country. 
Good progress is being made with the provi sion of EU support to the Africa Peace and 
Security Architecture (APSA) and the joint deli very processes is ; ongoing activities extend 
both to the AU capacity to plan, conduct, mana ge and deploy peacekeeping operations and to 
other pillars of the APSA such as mediation capacity, co-operation on conventional 
disarmament and SSR policies, the AU Bord er Programme, operationalisation of the 
Continental Early Warning System including, po ssibly, through the French-UK initiative for a 
Common Interactive Watch and Anticipation Mechanism (MIVAC).  
 
EN 64   EN Good progress is being made with the traini ng and validation of the Africa Stand-by Force 
(Police, Civilian, Military) with a view to its the operationalisation.. 
In this architecture the role of the regions/regional brigades is essential. The primary role of 
the regions is force preparation on behalf of th e AU. Progress of the regional Stand-by Forces 
is different from one region to another. The role  of AMANI Africa in this context is crucial. 
The AMANI Africa exercise aims to validate th e readiness of the African Stand-by Force 
with a command post exercise in March/April 2010. 
Last but not least: th e implementation of this Partners hip is underpinned by a financial 
envelope of €1 billion. With funding from the African Peace Facility (APF), and the 
Instrument for Stability, the EU has he lped the AU and RECs (Regional Economic 
Communities) institutions to equip and operatio nalise their Situation Centres/early warning 
systems as well as their capacity to plan and conduct peace support operations. APF and EU 
Member State voluntary additiona l contributions continued to provide substantial funding for 
AU-led peace support operations in Sudan (A MIS), Somalia (AMISOM) and in CAR 
(FOMUC) for a total of € 400 million. A new Africa Peace Facility financing agreement 
under the 10th EDF for an amount of € 300 million was co-signed by the EC and the AU in 
February 2009.  
Most of the Member States recognise that th e Africa-EU Partnership on Peace and Security is 
not only extremely vibrant and pr oductive but can also play an important role in promoting 
PCD. They participate actively in this Pa rtnership through various types of activities 
supporting the implementation of the African P eace and Security Architecture, including the 
African Standby Forces. A number of Member Stat es contribute either with expertise or 
financially to the AMANI Africa exercise. They stress, though, that all actors need to be 
strongly committed to using the Partnership to  improve coordination and avoid duplication. A 
further point made is that for the Partnership to be genuinely effective EU Member States 
need to speak with one voice and that mo re ownership by the Africans is required.  
3.4.2.2.  Intensified cooperation 
Intensifying cooperatio n between the security  and development bodies in the Council, 
Members States and the Commissi on is an important aspect of promoting coherence between 
the two policy areas. Progress has been made  in particular through improved information 
exchange and because the Commission participat es in all Council bodies dealing with Second 
Pillar security issues such as the Political and Security Committee (PSC), the Committee for Civilian Aspects of crisis management (CIV COM), the Military Committee (EUMC) and its 
working groups (in this partic ular case since 2005, only), the Political Military Group (PMG), 
the counter-terrorism group (COTER) and the re levant geographical working groups of the 
Council.. 
The Commission services and the C ouncil secretariat have also de veloped closer relations at 
the policy making level. They agreed on a number of principles and orientations, reflected in 
joint papers , such as the one on security and development and the numerous Joint 
GSC/Commission Options Paper on particular countries or regi ons. This approach has proved 
useful in facilitating agreem ent on a joint policy and in st rengthening the links between 
security and development . 
A very innovative and important step for improved coordination and coherence was the 
creation of a new common Commission Dele gation and EUSR Office to the African 
 
EN 65   EN Union , with the European Commission Head of  Delegation being also the EU Special 
Representative (EUSR) to the AU. Wearing thes e two hats, this person has responsibility for 
both security and all other areas  falling under EC competence and is consequently in a better 
position to apply a coherent approach.  
At national level, more Member States have no w created working groups and inter-ministerial 
units, which deal specifically with the nexus between security and development. For instance 
in Finland, a working group has been establishe d to develop a civilian crisis management 
strategy, and in the Netherlands a Fragile St ate and Peace-building Unit was created to 
strengthen cooperation between various minist ries. Germany and Hungary have created an 
inter-departmental group to coordinate Pr ovincial Reconstruction Teams' (PRTs)97 activities 
across ministries.  
Intensified cooperation in the Netherlands  
The Dutch government has done a lot to prom ote better cooperation be tween security and 
development actors: 
• Joint planning: the Ministries of Defence and Foreign Affairs ha ve stepped up their 
cooperation with regard to the planning of s ecurity interventions. This has also been 
formalised in the parliamentary procedure for approval of military operations abroad: To receive approval from the Dutch Parliament for military operations abroad, the Ministries of Defence and Foreign Affairs need to jo intly plan and lead integrated security 
interventions. 
• At the political level, the Ministers of Fore ign Affairs and Defence and the Minister for 
Development Cooperation jointl y lead integrated operations. 
• Military, diplomatic and development staff ar e stationed in the field. The civilian presence 
has been expanded substantially over the last co uple of years. 
• If possible, an integrated mission will be under civilian leadership. The principle is 
‘civilian where possible, military if necessary’. 
• Secondment of staff: the Ministry of Defe nce has seconded a military adviser to the 
Ministry of Foreign Affairs a nd a development adviser has been  seconded to the Ministry 
of Defence. 
• Training: there has been a significant increa se in joint training programmes, for example 
military personnel are trained in SSR, and the use of development funds and procedures, 
and civilian staff take part in the tr aining programmes for military missions. 
 
Some Member States report major coordinatio n problems between ministries. Defence and 
development ministries do not always share the same objectives and priorities, and they have 
different structures and time frames for action. Bu t even the Member States that take a Whole 
                                                 
97 Provincial Reconstruction Teams (PRTs) consist of military officers, diplomats, and reconstruction 
experts. They work to provide improved secur ity and to facilitate reconstruction and economic 
development usually following open hostilities. PRTs were first established in Afghanistan and now 
operate there as well as in Iraq. 
 
EN 66   EN of Government Approach face difficulties im plementing it as mandates, practices and 
institutional policies still differ. Time pre ssure makes coordination more difficult. As 
immediate crisis response is often in military hands, it is a challenge to follow a more long-
term approach taking into account aspects such as  security sector reform or state building, 
especially when funds for development are already committed.  
3.4.2.3.  Short-term instruments 
The EU has launched ESDP crisis management missions in many developing countries - most 
of them being civilian missions. By building peace they provide the environment needed for 
development. 
There is an encouraging trend towards a clos er cooperation between the Council and the 
Commission on crisis management missions, notably  at the planning level. Joint fact-finding 
and needs-assessment missions bringing togeth er the Commission's assessment and planning 
teams as well as Council Civilian Response Te ams (CRTs) have taken place for example in 
Guinea Bissau and in Chad in order to plan ES DP crisis management missions. It is important 
though to establish this as a ro utine procedure and to associat e the Commission fully to both 
the planning and the implementation phase of ES DP missions in order to take account of 
development concerns and to ensure that the missions are carried out in line with the EU 
support for the development of the country concerned. 
 
EN 67   EN 
 
The Instrument for Stability  (IfS) is the Commission's main financial instrument for crisis 
management. With this instrument the Co mmission supports conflict prevention, post-
conflict, peace, reconciliation and transition pr ocesses, which are often fragile and need a 
swift response. In 2007 and 2008 €220 million we re committed for 58 actions world wide, 
most of them in developing countries. The bul k of support was provided in Africa (mainly 
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Central African Republic (CAR), Chad, Somalia - 
29%), followed by actions in Asia (mainly Afgh anistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal,  Southern Thailand, 
Aceh, East-Timor - 19%), the Middle East (Leb anon, Palestine, Iraqi Refugees in Syria – 
12%), Kosovo (€24 million) and Georgia (€17 million).  
 
EN 68   EN 
  
ESDP military missions in Chad and CAR 
The crisis management ESDP military mission  in Chad and CAR is a good example of 
how the EU promotes stability and peace th rough measures in combination with other 
instruments, and thereby prepares the ground for development. 
In January 2008, the Council decided to launc h a one-year ESDP military bridging operation 
in Chad and the Central African Republic (EUFOR Tchad/RCA) in accordance with the 
mandate set out in UN Security Council Resolu tion 1778 (2007). The force consisted of some 
3 700 troops provided by Member States as well as third countries. The mandate of EUFOR 
Tchad/RCA was to improve the situation of civi lians by protecting them from danger and by 
facilitating the delivery of humanitarian aid and the free movement of humanitarian 
personnel. The operation was part of a multidimensional effort which included a significant 
UN component , the United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad 
(MINURCAT). 
Through the Instrument for Stability, the Eur opean Commission made a contribution of EUR 
10 million to MINURCAT to finance the traini ng, equipment and support programme for the 
deployment of a new Chadian force composed of policemen and gendarmes to be deployed 
inside the refugee camps and displace d persons sites in eastern Chad.  
In addition, the European Commission a nd the Chadian Govern ment agreed on an 
accompanying programme for the stabilisation of  eastern Chad, for which an agreement was 
signed at the end of 2007. In 2008 more than 35 % of the overall programme budget (over 
EUR 10 million from the 9th EDF) was allocated to operations designed to facilitate the 
voluntary return of displaced persons from temporary camps to their areas of origin. 
 
EN 69   EN These activities are complemented by European Commission support to strengthen the 
rule of law in Chad , in particular by supporting: 
(1) the implementation of the inter-Chadian  political agreement of 13 August 2007 (EUR 
3 million from the 9th EDF), 
(2) the electoral process, which has begun with a population census (EUR 5 million from 
the Instrument for Stability), and 
(3) the programme of reform of the judicial  system (EUR 25 milli on from the EU, plus 
EUR 10 million from the Chadian Government),  with the aim of holding a broad-based 
stakeholder conference on the judiciary. 
Through these actions, which supplement humanita rian assistance and re habilitation activities, 
as well as through its political support for impl ementation of the politi cal agreement of 13 
August 2007 reached in the framework of the intr a-Chadian dialogue, as well as the 13 March 
Dakar Agreement between the governments of Chad  and Sudan, the EU helps to bring about a 
lasting stabilisation of the domestic  political situation in Chad.  
Many Member States are using Provincial Rec onstruction Teams (PRTs) to strengthen the 
security and development nexus. The case of Afghanistan is illustrative of how Member States have improved their actions by promoting dual military and civilian leadership of their 
PRTs. Denmark prepared a four-year strategy in 2008, which outlined po litical, civilian, and 
military efforts, and was the result of a broad consultative process. Similarly, Finland has created a follow-up Action Plan, which is base d on a 2007 Government Report, showing that 
small-scale security sector re form projects conducted by Finni sh civilian experts under the 
auspices of the PRTs provide a good example of combined crisis management and development cooperation , even if these development projects are short term and limited in 
nature.  
This integrated approach however has raised  concerns on the humanita rian assistance side, 
since it has resulted in severe setbacks for human itarian assistance, both  in terms of access to 
victims and security of humanitarian wo rkers, be they national or foreigners. 
3.4.2.4.  Long-term instruments 
Development cooperation instruments play an impor tant role in preventin g of violent conflicts 
and building peace. The Commission has been taking an increasingly conflict-sensitive 
approach to development coope ration. When it finances trad itional development actions it 
carries out conflict analysis and conflict impact  assessments in order to avoid any negative 
impact but also to maximise the positive impact of non-security related actions. Through the mainstreaming of the concept of conflict prevention in Country Strategy Papers and 
operational guidelines, tr aining for headquarter a nd delegation staff and c oncrete projects the 
Commission addresses the root causes of conflic ts such as poverty, weak governance and the 
deterioration of and unequal acc ess to natural resources.  
In addition, the Commission in creasingly uses development cooperation instruments to 
finance security-related activities in countries where the s ecurity situation seriously hampers 
development efforts. Such security-related activ ities include support for political governance, 
democratisation, security sector reform (SSR), the fight against arms proliferation, mediation, 
transitional justice and measures flanking crisis  management operations. In as much as these 
 
EN 70   EN security-related activit ies are financed with developmen t cooperation instruments they are 
part of a comprehensive development and poverty eradication stra tegy. Coherence with 
development objectives is therefore assured.  
With its work on governance, and the promotion of democracy and human rights, the EU 
makes an important contribution to preventing of  situations of fragility and violent conflicts. 
Internal and external security is one of the nine sectors anal ysed in the countries' governance 
profiles, which inform the dialogue on partner countries' governance reform  plans. Within the 
framework of the 10th EDF programming the Commission granted additional financial 
support – for a total amount of € 2.7 billion to countries making real efforts to improve 
governance.  
Furthermore, the long-term component of the In strument for Stability provides an innovative 
tool to respond, primarily thr ough capacity building and in clos e consultation with beneficiary 
countries, to evolving and multi-faceted security  threats and risks. Over the period 2009-2011, 
the IfS will address three major priorities for long-term action: (a) Weapons of Mass 
Destruction (WMD) – support for the EU non- proliferation strategy , (b) Trans-regional 
security threats, many of which are interconne cted, e.g. terrorism, organised crime and the 
trafficking of drugs, human beings, small ar ms and light weapons and (c) Peace-Building 
Partnership – Building capacities for effective crisis response. 
Efforts at the national level are complement ed by cooperation at the regional level. An 
example of this is the intens e political dialogue th at the EU has pursued with the Economic 
Community of West African St ates (ECOWAS) at the ministerial level. This dialogue 
encompasses all topics of relevance to peace an d security in the region, including the fight 
against drugs, migration and common efforts in times of political crisis. Other examples of 
regional cooperation are the EU's  support for the conflict prev ention activities of the Inter 
Governmental Authority on Development (I GAD), the Common Market for Eastern and 
Southern Africa (COMESA) and the East African Community (EAC).  
EU support for the Darfur Peace Process 
The EU engagement in the Darfur peace proc ess is a good example of how the EU through 
its peace efforts also promotes development.   
The EU supports the joint efforts of the AU and UN to revitalise the peace process in Darfur 
and provides support for negotia tions and related preparat ory measures, both through 
diplomatic and financial means. The EU has provided support to the UN-administered ‘Trust 
Fund for the AU-UN Joint Mediation Support T eam (JMST) for Darfur’, through a €3m 
contribution from the long-term component of the IfS and contributions from various Member 
States. Activities supported through the Trus t Fund include strengthening JMST capacity, 
facilitating the preparation of the parties for negotiations, consultations with civil society, 
confidence-building measures and public information actions. In addition, the EU finances a 
number of other projects to tackle the conflict situation in Darfur, incl uding the Justice Africa  
Programme for  Conflict Prevention and Resolution, Confidence Building and Capacity 
Building in Darfur. The EU has also backed the Darfur-Darfur Dialogue and Consultation.  
3.4.2.5.  State fragility and governance 
The need ensure coherence becomes particularly urgent in situations of  fragility. States in 
fragile situations find it difficult to move on to legitimacy, resilience, and peace because of 
 
EN 71   EN their limited resources and weak capacities. At the same time their development prospects are 
hampered by the risk of violence.  
The policy framework for addressing state fragility has been strengthened with the adoption 
of a Commission communication "Towards an EU response to situations of fragility" in 2007 
and the subsequent European Parliament resolu tion and Council conclusi ons. As follow-up to 
these policy documents, and at the request of  the Council, the Commission will present a 
comprehensive implementation plan in October 2009. A number of exercises will feed into and inform this plan: In six pilot cases, na mely Burundi, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, Haiti, 
Timor-Leste and Yemen, the Commission and Memb er States have started to gain practical 
experiences geared to a more strategic, better  coordinated and more c oherent EU response to 
the fragile situation. The Commission has also  engaged in a strategic work on budget support 
in fragile situations togeth er with the World Bank, the Af rican Development Bank and the 
IMF and has adopted new guidelines for more flexible procedures in crisis/emergency 
situations.  
At a more general level the EU has ste pped up its support for good and democratic 
governance. Governance as a sector of cooperation now represents 14% of the 10
th EDF as 
compared to 10% in the 9th EDF.  
Importantly the European Commission has es tablished a new mechanism to promote good 
governance with regard to ACP countries: the governance incen tive tranche, which has been 
created in the framework of th e Governance initi ative under the 10th EDF, worth €2.7 billions. 
This incentive-based mechanism, aims at gran ting additional financia l support to countries 
adopting or ready to commit themselves to a plan  that contains ambitious, credible measures 
and reforms. This mechanism is supported by governance profiles established for each country. A similar mechanism, the Governance  facility worth €300 million for the period 
2007-2013 has been established for countries covered by the ENPI in order to support the work of those partners who have made most  progress in implementing the agreed reform 
agenda set out in their Action Plan. 
3.4.2.6.  Fight against illegal spread and accumulation of fire arms 
Small arms and light weapons (SALW) are res ponsible for the majority of direct conflict 
deaths. An estimated 60 to 90 percent of all direct  conflict victims are killed with SALW. 
Recognising the seriousness of the situation the EU adopted a strategy to combat illicit 
accumulation and trafficking of small arms, li ght weapons and their ammunition in 2005.  
In implementing this strategy the EU has long b een financing several projects mainly at the 
regional level. Currently, the Commission manage s three major regional projects in Western, 
Central and Eastern Africa aimed at reinforcing regional capacity to fight the proliferation of 
SALW.  
In addition the EU has stepped up its efforts to  address small arms i ssues politically. SALW 
issues are included in the political dialogues th at the EU conducts with third countries and 
international organisations. In 2008, the EU adopted a reference SA LW article to be inserted 
in relevant agreements with third countries. This article will offer the legal basis for enhanced cooperation in combating the illicit trade an d excessive accumulation of SALW and their 
ammunition. 
German Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) Control Project in Cambodia 
 
 
EN 72   EN Implementing its interdisciplinary Action Plan on ‘Civilian Crisis Prevention, 
Conflict Resolution and Post -Conflict Peace-Building’, Germany is carrying out a 
project on Small Arms and Light Wea pons Control and Improved Storage of 
Ammunition and Explosives in Cambodia. The project is inter-ministerial: The 
project component regarding safe storage a nd stockpile management is carried out in 
cooperation with the Armed Forces, who are responsible for the training on the 
management and security of public stockpi les of weapons. GTZ is the implementing 
partner on the ground, and overa ll coordination and funding lie s with the Ministry of 
Foreign Affairs.  
As regards arms trade in general the EU is a fervent advocate of a legally-binding Arms Trade 
Treaty to regulate the licit trade in arms in order to  ensure that they are not diverted from their 
officially indicated purpose. On 19 Ja nuary 2009 the Council adopted a decision 
(2009/42/CFSP) on support for EU activities in order to promote among third countries the 
process leading towards an Arms Trade Treaty, in the framework of the European Security 
Strategy.  
To better control its own arms exports the EU adopted a Common Position 2008/944/CFSP in 
December 2008 strengthening the EU's arms ex port control standards. The Common Position 
constitutes a signifi cantly updated and upgraded instrume nt which replaces the Code of 
Conduct. It includes several new elements, which deepen and widen the scope of application. 
These elements include the extension of cont rols to brokering, transit transactions and 
intangible transfers of  technology, as well as the implemen tation of strengthened procedures 
in order to harmonise Member States' export policies. 
In comparison to 2007, more Member States  have taken criterion 8 of the 2008 Council 
Common Position on arms export control criteria  on board, which calls for scrutiny by 
development departments before licences for weapon exports to developing countries can be granted (UK, Lithuania, Netherlands, Sweden). Some Member States ar e in favour of signing 
an international Arms Trade Tr eaty (Finland, Netherlands).  
3.4.2.7.  Corruption, organised crime and terrorism 
The 2005 EU counter-terrorism strategy and th e 2005 drugs strategy and their respective 
action plans identify these security th reats as obstacles to development. 
Corruption is a symptom of failure of the broa der system of governance. Fighting it therefore 
involves consolidation of a Stat e's capacity to assume its fu ll functions. That is why the 
European Commission endeavours to mainst ream good governance principles including 
transparency, accountability and organisational ad equacy into the design and implementation 
of EU-funded programmes. 
Likewise, organised crime and terrorism are not necessarily addressed as such but support is 
increasingly provided through the broad sector reform programme s in the areas of justice 
and security, Security Sector Reforms (SSR). This includes police reform, justice reform, 
reform of the penal system, integrated border management  programmes. The EU supports 
projects and programmes to tackle the traffi cking in drugs along the heroin (Central and 
South-west Asia) and cocaine (Latin Americ a, the Caribbean and West Africa) routes, 
trafficking in human beings in the Black Sea basin and the Western Balkans, organised crime 
in the Sahel region, terrorism worldwide and sp ecifically in Africa, as  well as threats to 
critical maritime routes in South-east Asia and the Indian Ocean. 
 
EN 73   EN As cooperation in these fields is financed through the development cooperation geographical 
instruments it is necessarily more in line with  development and cooperation priorities of our 
partners. Complementing these cooperation activ ities, the Instrumenet for Stability (through 
its long-term component) addresses tran s-regional aspects of these issues. 
In addition to financial support,  the issues of small arms, or ganised crime, terrorism and 
corruption are addressed in the framework of the political dial ogue with almost  all partner 
countries. This has led in many instances to the inclusion ofspecific provisions in agreements 
with third countries. 
3.4.2.8.  Role of women in peace processes 
Gender has become an integral element of anal ysing conflict situations  and setting strategic 
objectives of ESDP missions a nd training on gender issues is b ecoming a routine part of the 
mission training curriculum. The framewor k for implementing UN Security Council 
Resolutions (UNSCR) 1325 and 1820 in the context of ESDP is now fully integrated in the 
documents and procedures.  
In 2008, the Commission and the Council Secr etariat jointly elaborated an “EU 
Comprehensive Approach” for the implem entation of UNSCR1325 and 1820 on women, 
peace and security, a document that focuses on the role and obligations of a regional actor such as the EU in protecting women in conflict situations and in facilitating their pro-active role as peace-builders. The Comprehensive Ap proach is complemented by the document of 
the Council Secretariat entitled “Implement ation of United Nations Security Council 
Resolution (UNSCR) 1325 as reinforced by UNSCR 1820 in the context of ESDP”.  
Despite these efforts, the recent Report on the Implementation of the European Security 
Strategy sees room for improve ment and emphasises the need to better design ESDP missions 
and operations in line with UNSCR 1325.  
A number of Member States have made progr ess in incorporating UNSCR 1325 into their 
security and development policies. Belgium, Denmark. Sweden, Portugal and Finland have 
revised, developed or are developing Action Plan s, often joint efforts of ministries, academia 
and civil society, to strengthen a holis tic approach drawing on UNSCR 1325. Finland, 
together with a number of countries, is preparin g a study on best practice and lessons learnt in 
PRTs in Afghanistan, concerning the implementation of UNSCR 1325.  
Gender mainstreaming thus becomes a common principle in both security and development 
policies. 
3.4.3.  Conclusions & Outstanding Issues 
The EU has made progress towards increased cohe rence between security and development. It 
supports peace processes in many developing c ountries politically, financially and with 
military means. However as acknowledged in the Report on the Implementation of the European Security Strategy, endorsed by the Eu ropean Council in December 2008, there is a 
need to further strengthen coherence. 
At EU level, the pillar st ructure still impedes coherent  action between military and 
development components. The different servic es of the Commission and the Council keep 
each other mutually informed, but there is room  for further improving the inter-institutional 
co-ordination, planning and decision-making pr ocesses. Proper sequencing and coordination 
 
EN 74   EN of EU activities are particul arly important as well as al ignment with partner country 
initiatives. Also, the EU shoul d increase its efforts to speak with one voice. The Africa-EU 
Strategic Partnership on Peace and Security is  clearly a milestone on the way towards more 
PCD. 
Member States rate the EU’s success in promoti ng PCD in the area of security as average to 
good (see chart below98). Some point out that joint fact -finding and evaluation missions have 
become the rule rather than the exception. Yet several Member States repeat the criticism 
raised in the 2007 re port, concerning the coor dination between Pillar I and Pillar II. They 
argue that ESDP missions and assistance programmes need to be coordinated better. Among the different Council formations, coordination o ught to be improved and an ‘early warning’ 
mechanism is needed for looming conflicts. The lack of integrated fi nancial means to support 
EU actions also causes major concerns. Moreove r, the lack of flexibility in the use of 
Community funds is criticised.  
 
Member States individually have also made progress. Many of them have developed new 
policy frameworks since 2007, and inter-ministeri al coordination has al so increased. Member 
States which have developed and implemented inter-ministerial approaches to security and development report a higher success rate, whic h has encouraged them to promote PCD 
further. However, coordination problems are not limited to the European level. Member States 
stress that the actions of indivi dual Member States in conflict  zones need better coordination.  
Overall, in the area of security, Member States  are very engaged at na tional, European and (in 
a majority of cases) also at the international level with a view to promoting PCD. Most 
Member States see the clear added value of cooper ation at EU level, which they still want to 
improve. In particular, Member States are committed to the Partnership on Peace and Security, also because they cons ider that it can improve coordi nation within the EU and with 
African partners. 
As called for in the 2007 Council conclusions on securi ty and development a nd with a view to 
implementing these guidelines, the Commission and the General Secretariat of the Council in 
close cooperation with Member States, have been  preparing an Action Plan to be endorsed in 
2009. The Action Plan provides an opportunity to  explore concrete ways in which the 
                                                
 
98 Chart based on Member States' responses to a dedicated PCD 2009 questionnaire prepared by the 
European Commission. 
 
EN 75   EN coherence, efficiency and visib ility of EU external policies and actions can be improved in the 
four key areas suggested in the Council Conc lusions: strategic planning in Brussels and 
Member States capitals, Security Sector Reform , partnerships with re gional and sub-regional 
organisations, and the relations hip between humanitarian aid and security. In order to 
effectively support peacebuilding and statebuilding objectives, th e EU actors from different 
policy communities need to strengthen joint approaches. The Implementation Plan for Fragility, also to be issued in 2009, will make additional recommendations in these areas.  
To enhance the coherence of security policy w ith develoment objectives further the following 
points are particularly important: 
Outstanding Issues 
• The need to associate the Commission fully to the planning and implementation phase of 
ESDP missions in order to take account of development concerns and improve the 
integration of civil, police and military components. 
• Security Sector reform (SSR) has been identifie d as one of the key areas of relevance in the 
security and development nexus. The EU s hould develop a common SSR policy as well as 
guidelines defining the roles and responsibil ities of the Commission and the ESDP in 
supporting SSR in partner countries.  
• Strengthen the partnership approach in secu rity operations by assessing with partner 
countries the causes of conflict in order to produce effective mandates for peace operations 
and to improve the security/devel opment nexus at country level  
• In fragile situations, the focus of developm ent cooperation should be  on the building of 
resilient States that can provide for the security of their population and sustainable 
development. A "Whole of EU" approach, br inging security, development, humanitarian 
and other actors together in an overarching coherent strategy is of  great importance.  
• Continue to promote the idea of developi ng and adopting a legally-binding Arms Trade 
Treaty to regulate the licit trade in arms 
• Strengthen the African Union and Regi onal Economic Communities’ peacekeeping 
capabilities for African-led peac e support operations by providing flexib le, predictable and 
long-term funding; operationalising the Afri can Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) 
and the African Standby Force (ASF); im proving capacity-buildin g efforts and in 
particular addressing the training needs of the ASF as jointly identified with African 
partners. 
 
EN 76   EN 3.5. Agriculture  
Quick Facts 
• As a result of the financial and economic cr isis, estimates brings the total number of 
malnourished people to about 963 million , near 15% of the wo rld population (OECD/FAO 
High Level Meeting on Investing in Food S ecurity in a Global Economy – May 2009) 
• Around 450 million farmers  in the world exploit less than 2 hectares of land. With their 
families they represent 1/3 of the world's population  (UN’s International Fund for 
Agricultural Development - 2008) 
• In Sub-Saharan Africa, approximately  72% of arable land  is classified as degraded  (FAO 
- 2006) 
• In 1960, the average hectare of arable land  supported 2.4 persons . By 2005 this figure 
had increased to 4.5 persons  per hectare and by 2050 a single hectare of land will need to 
support between 6.1 and 6.4 people  (FAO -2009) 
• The rate of growth in agricultural produc tivity is declining: it has averaged 2.3%  a year 
since 1961, but is expected to fall to 1.5%  between now and 2030 and drop further to 
0.9%  between 2030 and 2050 (FAO – 2009)  
• The EU imports close to €59 billion  worth of agricultural products from developing 
countries annually (Europ ean Commission - 2008) 
3.5.1.  Introduction 
Agricultural and rural development are fundame ntal to the European Union's objectives of 
reducing poverty, increasing food security and protecting natural reso urces. Achieving the 
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of eradicating hunger and cutting poverty by half by 2015 is paramount. However due to the food prices and ener gy crises in 2007-2008, meeting 
the target will be difficult especially given th e impact of the current financial and economic 
crisis. The European Union is the main tradin g partner of developing  countries, with higher 
annual imports into the EU higher than the ot her five other major importing countries taken 
together
99. Therefore, the EU's approach towards it s agricultural and rural development policy 
influences significantly its partners' development policies. 
                                                 
99 The US, Japan, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. 
 
EN 77   EN 
 
Source: United Nations Database (COMTRADE) 
Notwithstanding the differences among the ec onomic and labour market structures of 
developing countries, agriculture continues to be the main source of income and employment 
for rural populations. More than  50% of the populati on in developing count ries (over 70% in 
Sub-Saharan Africa) works in the agricultura l sector. While on average it only accounts for 
less than 10% of the GDP in de veloping countries, it represen ts approximately 40% in Sub-
Saharan Africa100. Furthermore, three quarters of the world's economically poor live in rural 
areas.  
In 2007 and early 2008 ag riculture and food security were  placed higher on the political 
agendas of development cooperation, especially  within the three UN Rome-based agencies 
and the G8 context. However th e relationship between Agricultu re, Trade and Development is 
complex and situations and circumstances vary a lot from one country to another. As a result, 
the impact of EU Agriculture policies on th e developing countries' food equation (see box 
below) will vary.  
The food price crisis has sent shock waves across the globe: cerea ls prices have increased and 
the era of cheap food seems over. A combination of negative supply side shocks (particularly 
high oil prices) and positive demand side effects (increased demand from emerging economies stimulated by changing consumption pa tterns) means that higher food prices are 
likely to remain a reality in the foreseeable future. As a reduction in consumption worldwide 
is unlikely, supply side adjustment s will be necessary if the steep  upward trend in agricultural 
prices is to be contained. Increasing acreage wo rldwide and raising produ ctivity, especially in 
developing countries, should be at the top of the age nda. However the new global 
environment also requires the adaptation of ex isting EU policies: the CAP is already being 
tailored to the new challenges. 
The Food Equation 
Historically, agricultural policies in the de veloped world have influenced world markets 
through low-priced food exports which, in deve loping countries, have helped feed at an 
affordable cost a growing urban population whose demand remained unmet by local 
production capacities. Domestic ag riculture access to these local urban markets was therefore 
                                                 
100 World Bank Annual Report 2008  
 
EN 78   EN reduced, further isolating rural areas from urban growth centres and modern economic 
circuits.  
Recent high food prices have caused a number of urban riots in many developing countries as 
a result of food becoming less affordable for va rious pockets of the population. Higher prices 
do not however always result in an increase of  agricultural production in affected countries101. 
Along the food chain, the transmission of higher  market prices to farmers in developing 
countries is far from being mechanical, nor automatic. Indeed, small farmers do not usually 
set the prices as these are determined  by stronger forces in the value chain. 
Following rapid urbanisation in developing countr ies the growth of supermarkets is playing 
an important role vis-à-vis the agricultural sector102. While already of importance in Asia and 
Latin America, the process is starting in some African countries with nascent urban middle 
class (Kenya, Zambia, Tanzania, Uganda, Mo zambique, Angola….). As  supermarkets are 
generally supported by transnational corporations, procurement takes place at a global level, 
usually using medium to larg e companies that can deliver large volume of goods meeting 
international standard of quality and safety. Those are mainly in developed countries where 
productivity is much higher. Small processi ng and food manufacturing firms, the most 
common form of enterprise in developing countri es, run the risk of being excluded from these 
new market opportunities, unless they adjust to new market realities.  
While the food equation emphasises domestic pr ocurement as a driver of domestic economic 
growth, to be accompanied by public policies in developing countries as well as through 
corporate effort to fulfil social responsibil ities and support farmers' organisations, it also 
highlights the need to reduce further market-d istorting measures in  developed countries' 
agricultural policies. Howeve r, the critical productivity gap between developed and 
developing countries' farming systems will re main at the heart in ternational trade in 
agricultural goods in the absence of a modified food security e quation comprising an adequate 
mix of well-targeted social program mes and sound agricultural policies. 
3.5.2.  Progress toward PCD Commitments 
3.5.2.1.  EU Response to the 2008 Food Crisis  
The EU has been at the forefront of the search  for international solutions to the problem of 
hunger in 2007 and 2008. Through the Health Check of the Common Agriculture Policy (CAP) and the mobilisation of its external cooper ation instruments, the EU has contributed to 
tackling the crisis and demonstrated its str ong commitment to poverty reduction and food 
security in developing countries, partic ularly in times of economic turmoil.  
                                                
 
101 Outstanding issue from the 2007 EU report on PCD. The effects of price increases are to be balanced: 
high prices "are beneficial for many commercial producers in both developed and developing countries. However, many farmers in developing countries ar e not linked to markets and will draw little or no 
benefit from currently higher prices" (FAO Outlook 2008). In addition, the poor, and in particular the 
urban poor in net food-importing developing countr ies, will see their purc hasing power affected 
dramatically. As in many low-inco me countries, food expenditures average over 50% of income, higher 
prices are likely to lead to growing food insecur ity and undernourishment. Conversely, lower prices 
may help urban poor to access food but will also put  pressure on the sustainability of domestic food 
production and reduce profitability 
102 Outstanding issue from the 2007 Report on PCD 
 
EN 79   EN While the reasons for the food prices crisis are numerous103, it is clear that the world's food 
needs are growing, and EU farmers must be free to supply agricu ltural products. The 2008 
CAP Health Check contributed to easing the glob al pressure on food prices by abolishing the 
requirement to “set aside” a portion of arable land, by enla rging milk production quotas to 
prepare for their eventual removal in 2015 and by scrapping the energy crop subsidies of €45 
per hectare to increase  market orientation of  agricultural production and remove distortion 
between food, feed and energy uses.  
In the course of 2008, the European Union respo nded to the challenges of food price increases 
in various ways. First, an additional €140 m illion was provided for humanitarian purposes. 
Second, where feasible development cooperation instruments were mobilised, leading to an 
additional €250 million104. Third, following a proposal by the European Commission in July 
2008, the EU established a €1 billion Food Facility (2009-2011) for rapid response to soaring food prices in developing countries
105. The Food Facility supports measures in developing 
countries that aim to encourage a positive supply response from the agricultural sector and to 
increase safety-net measures for alleviatin g the difficulties faced by the most vulnerable 
populations as regards access to food in the medium term. 
In addition, the EU continues to attach great importance to  ensuring that the Food Aid 
Convention (FAC) plays an important role as an  expression of solidarity with people in need. 
However, there is a need to increase efficiency , impact and effectiveness of food assistance. 
Food aid should be used only as a short-term instrument in em ergencies which are identified 
by an objective and credible needs assessment. A va riety of assistance t ools are being utilised 
that enable a transition to longe r-term development. With this in mind, the EU is pushing for 
renegotiation of the Convention. Preparatory work took place through informal discussions 
with FAC members on the objective, scope and f unction of the current a nd a potential future 
Convention. 
3.5.2.2.  The Common Agricultural Policy 
In a world of increased market volatility, comp ounded by the yield fluctu ations brought about 
by climate change, the Common Agricultural Polic y (CAP) provides a basic level of income 
security for EU farmers, a framework for good management of the natural environment in 
which agriculture takes place, as well as suppor t for the development of rural communities. 
The EU has carefully steered the CAP to keep it facing unfolding challenges such as the need 
to sharpen the farm sector’s competitive edge , to fend off environmental problems or respond 
to the food crisis. The Union also transposes the principles of the reformed CAP into the 
international context, looking for ways to unde rpin trade considerations and global food 
security. The CAP has changed over the last year s and a debate has already been launched the 
CAP post-2013.  
Sugar Reform and Accompanying Measures 
                                                 
103 Reduced food production worldwide, low stock levels worldwide, increasing demand world wide due to 
the development of a strong middle class in some poor and emerging countries, ill conceived 
agricultural policies in developing countries, limited yield increase since the 90's , diversion of food crop 
to alternative use (biofuels), drought and environmental hazard affecting production, financial 
speculation, increasing protectionism by a number of food-exporting countries….) 
104 € 50 million from the Food Security Thematic Programme, targeted at 12 developing countries; and € 
200 million from the EDF10 B-enveloped, targeted at 30 ACP countries. 
105 Regulation (EC) No 1337/2008, 16.12.2008. 
 
EN 80   EN Since 1975 the EU has provided preferential ac cess to its market for sugar imported from 
some ACP countries (and India) in the framew ork of the "Sugar Protocol", an agreement 
between 20 ACP countries and the EU under which the Community undertook to import a 
fixed quantity of sugar duty-fr ee, at a guaranteed price.  
In 2006, a far-reaching reform of the sugar market organisation was adopted, including a 
reduction of EU internal prices. Taking into c onsideration development concerns, and as part 
of the process of adapting to the effects of th is reform, the Sugar Protocol countries are to 
benefit from €1.284 billion in  accompanying measures ove r the period 2006-2013. These 
measures aim at strengthening the competitiveness of the sugar sector where this is a 
sustainable process, or supporting the develo pment of alternative economic activities and 
improving social resilience. In addition, after the "Sugar Protocol" expi res the ACP countries 
will benefit from wider access to the EU mark et: EPAs provides for duty-free quota-free 
access to the EU market as from 1 October 2009. Competitive ACP and LDC countries will 
be able to expand their exports to the EU  market and generate additional revenue.   
• The CAP Health Check 
Discussions about the Health Check of th e CAP in 2008 have been conducted against a 
backdrop of volatile agricultur al prices. By 2007, it was time for a review of the 2003 CAP 
reform implementation106 for a number of reasons. First, the EU had gained experience of 
putting into practice the reforms agreed in 2003. Secondly, agricultural markets had continued 
to develop as globalisation spread and intensif ied. Thirdly, it was necessary to pay closer 
attention to exacerbating challenges such as climate change, biodiversity and water management. These considerations inspired th e CAP Health Check, a package of adjustments 
agreed in November 2008 which kept the CAP true to the spirit of the 2003 reforms in 
changing circumstances and prepared  the ground for the post-2013 CAP.  
The EU and Cotton: Marginal Producer, Important Partner 
Subsidies for cotton producers in Spain and Greece are often discussed from a coherence 
perspective. Both Spain and Greece are entitled  to provide support to their cotton farmers as 
part of the accession agreements for both coun tries (1981, 1986). As a result of the EU's 
reform of its cotton regime in 2004 -applied from 2006- cotton support was largely decoupled 
from production. Following this reform, th e cotton area, the production levels, and the 
average yields in the EU decreased, the latt er due to generally less intensive production 
methods. Currently, total EU production is estimat ed at less than 1.3% of world production. 
Moreover, the EU market is completely open and there are no export subsidies.  
Furthermore, the EU supports the cotton sector  in Africa through the EU-Africa Partnership 
on Cotton which seeks to boost the competitiveness of African cotton and to lessen 
stakeholders' vulnerability. The Commission and the EU Member States have supported this 
Partnership with projects and programmes of a value of more than € 300 million. 
                                                 
106 As foreseen by a series of review clauses included in the Regulation (EC) 1782/2003. 
 
EN 81   EN In order to make farming more market-orien tated, the Health Check provides for decoupling 
of a greater share of farmers' income support payments. It has also removed constraints on 
farmers’ freedom to produce more in response to market demand.  
As a result, bulk of EU support is  no longer or is only minimally  trade-distorting: more than 
90% of direct payments are now decoupled. Income support in the form of decoupled 
payments, as opposed to incentives for produc tion, does not influence farmers' production 
decisions. . A safety net is needed only to s upport farmers if prices collapse. For commodities 
where coupled payments were kept mainly for environmental reasons avoiding land 
abandonment (e.g. beef, sheep, goat meat) the impact  on developing countries is small as the 
EU plays a minor role on internat ional markets in these sectors. 
Bananas: duty-free and quota-free 
The EU is the largest consum er and importer of bananas in  the world. About 80% of EU 
imports come from Latin America and 20% from  ACP countries. The EU is the destination 
for practically all ACP banana exports. Si nce 1 January 2006, the "Everything But Arms" 
initiative grants duty-free quota-free access fo r bananas from Least Developed Countries 
(LDCs) to the EU market. All non-LDC ACP ba nana exporters conclu ded negotiations on a 
full or interim EPA at the end of 2007 and th erefore benefit from dut y-free and quota-free 
access under the EPA trade regime. In 2008, banana imports from ACP countries into the EU 
grew by 9.7% compared to 2007 levels. 
• Export Subsidies 
In 1980, export subsidies and market support to ok up the whole CAP budget. By contrast, in 
2007, export subsidies and market support repres ented just over 10% of the budget with 
export subsidies now representing less than 2% of the CAP budget. From 2005 to 2009, the 
EU halved the export subsidy rate for beef. It has paid no export subsidies on cereals since 
September 2006 or on sugar since October 2008. E xport subsidies for fruit and vegetables and 
for wine have also been abolished following th e reforms of those sectors. Moreover, under the 
Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) fr amework (for example, with CARIFORUM, 
Central Africa, Pacific), the EU undertakes to  phase out all existing subsidies granted upon 
exportation of the agricu ltural products liberalised by the ACP countries. 
 
EN 82   EN By 2007, the EU had cut export subsidy rates to zero for all dairy products. The re-
introduction of export refunds fo r dairy products in January 2009 is a response to a dramatic 
60% decrease in world market prices, resu lting from shrinking demand and the impact on 
farmers' revenues. However, limits in terms of  volume and price on these export refunds were 
established, at levels which do not fully bridge  the gap between EU and world market prices, 
thus ensuring a limited impact on world market prices. Notwithstanding this, the EU remains 
committed to phasing out export subsidies in th e framework of the WTO's Doha Development 
Agenda – subject to parallel commitments for other types of  export subsidies from other 
developed countries.  
Export refunds along Products (Mio ECU/EURO)
02.0004.0006.0008.00010.000
Cereals Sugar Dairy Beef Others 
Source : European Co mmission (DG Trade) 
Further CAP reform will have to pay careful attention to the food equation of developing 
countries. Policy mechanisms are needed to help the EU farming sector to adapt to 
competitive pressure on open world markets and to enhance the farmers' ability to respond 
swiftly to world demand, preventing imbalances  on global markets which would have adverse 
effects on populations in poor countries. Th e debate on the CAP pos t 2013 reforms needs to 
take into consideration this complex equati on. Benefits for EU producers and consumers 
should not be against those of producers and consumers in developing countries. 
3.5.2.3.  Trade-Related Issues  
• EU Position in the WTO  
Despite progress throughout 2007-2008, the WTO Ministerial of  July 2008 failed to reach an 
agreement. Therefore, the opportunity to cut barriers to trade, open up agricultural markets 
further and boost the global economy was missed.  
The EU will continue to defend progressive liberalisation as proposed in the draft DDA 
modalities. The EU proposes a subs tantial reduction of trade-distorting domestic supports, the 
 
EN 83   EN elimination of export subsidies by 2013 and a s ubstantial opening of the developed countries' 
markets. This would help to achieve a level pl aying field in agriculture worldwide. At the 
same time, a lot of flexibility is given to developing countries to ensure that trade 
liberalisation does not impact negatively on thei r domestic markets. In particular, LDCs will 
not have to make any duty reductions and the duty reductions envi saged for developing 
countries in general are less than those for de veloped countries and with longer implementing 
periods. In addition, developing countries will be entitled to designate up to 12 % of 
agricultural products as Special Products with  no or reduced tariff cut to address food 
security, livelihood security and rural development concerns. A Special Safeguard 
Mechanism is also established to allow developing countries to temporarily increase their tariffs in order to protect their agricultural sect ors from import surges and sharp reductions of 
import prices .  
Another delicate issue is  the discussion on preference erosio n and tropical product treatment 
where two blocs of developing countries have conflicting interests: while Latin American 
countries support full liberalisa tion of tropical products, ACP count ries wish to preserve the 
value of their preference margin  on the EU and US market. The EU favours an understanding 
between these two sets of countries, concedin g the necessary time for the beneficiaries of 
preferences to adjust and gain competitiv eness while not opposing the necessary trade 
liberalisation the Doha Development Age nda should deliver as a final result. 
• Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) measures 
As tariff-barriers have been eroded, non-ta riff barriers have become relatively more 
important, such as Technical Barriers to Trad e (TBT) and SPS measures. At multilateral level 
the WTO SPS Committee has taken due action following the Doha WTO Ministerial to 
address the needs of developing countries. The Standards and Trade Development Facility has 
been created to provide for coordinated cap acity-building activities in order to allow 
developing countries to meet internationa l SPS standards, both public and private.  
The European Commission has supported the par ticipation of developing countries to the 
meetings of the World Organisation for Anim al Health, the Interna tional Plant Protection 
Convention and Codex Alimentarius Commission (FAO and WHO)
107. It has provided 
financial support to the tune of €675 000 each year. The contributions from the Commission 
and from EU Member States represent about 70% of the total available funds for such 
purpose. In addition a specific EC-funded assistance project wa s started in 2009 to allow 
African countries to prepare for and participat e efficiently in international standards setting 
bodies108. 
3.5.2.4.  Development Policies in support of Agri culture in Developing Countries  
At EU level, support for agriculture followed multiple tracks and also the global trend of 
ODA reduction in favour of this sector. The allo cations to Rural Development, Agriculture 
and Food Security (reaching 1.2 billion €) fo r 2007-2013 reversed the trend with a doubling 
of the overall funding compared to previous commitments.  
                                                 
107 Outstanding issue from the 2007 EU Report on PCD. 
108 Participation of African Nations in Sanitary a nd Phytosanitary Standard-s etting Organisations (PAN-
SPSO) 
 
EN 84   EN In May 2007 the Commission adopted the food secu rity thematic strate gy and its multi-annual 
indicative programme 2007-2010. This strategy play s a central role in the implementation of 
EU food security policy which complement s the humanitarian and the geographical 
approaches, in crisis situati ons and in development contexts . It also allowed supporting the 
strategic lines of  the Communication Advancing African Agriculture109 adopted in July 2007.  
In Africa, the Commission is highly supportive  of the Comprehensive African Agricultural 
Development Programme with a strong focu s on building the capacities of farmers' 
organisations involved and regional instituti ons as well as the African Union Commission 
(AUC). The Commission also conti nued its work on implementing the 2004 EU Land 
Guidelines110, continuing its dialogue with major act ors such as the AUC, the World Bank, 
FAO111, the International Land Coal ition and the Commission for the Legal Empowerment of 
the Poor. In 2007, the Commission fully restored its partnership with the Consultative Group 
on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and strengthened its cooperation with IFAD.  
In addition, the Commission welcomes and supports the proposal to set up a Global 
Partnership for Agriculture and Food Security, wh ich seeks to address the multifaceted issues 
of agricultural development and food security through an  inclusive consultation process for all 
actors (developed and developing countries as well as non-state  actors) taking place in the 
framework of the FAO Reform, namely the reform of the Committee on Food Security. 
Farmers' organisations in both the EU and the de veloping countries have an important role to 
play in this Partnership and the CAP experien ce could contribute to enriching the debate 
about elaborating and implementing regional ag ricultural policies throughout the developing 
world. 
At Member State level , agriculture coopera tion has continued, with Policy Coherence for 
Development in mind. The Netherlands for example, developed a Joint Strategy on 
Agriculture, Rural Economic Development an d Food Security in Developing Countries, co-
designed by the Ministries of Agriculture, Na ture and Food Quality and the Ministry of 
Development Cooperation. €350 mill ion have been committed to implement the strategy. 
Hungary for its part prepared a national strategy on agricultural  research and innovation with 
an international component addressing development issues. Greece was also involved in development programmes through support for the optimisation of cultivation systems for 
olive oil in Palestine and the creation of  agricultural schools w ith geo-information 
technologies in Egypt. Sweden undertook to su pport a capacity- building projec t within the 
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources fo r Food and Agriculture. The objective is to 
help assist the development of  improved legislative tools for the operation of the Multilateral 
System of Access and Bene fit-sharing of plants.  
3.5.3.  Conclusion & Outstanding Issues  
Recent developments in relation to the EU's agricultural policie s have been affected by the 
world wide food prices crisis of 2007-2008 which led more than 40 countries to impose 
                                                
 
109 COM(2007)440 final, 24.07.2007 
110 EU Task Force on Land Tenure, EU land policy guidelines, Guidelines for support to land policy design 
and land policy reform, processes in developing countries, 09/2004, Available: http://ec.europa.eu/development/icenter/repository/EU_Land_Guidelines_Final_12_2004_en.pdf
 
111 Particularly within the International Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development – 
ICARRD 
 
EN 85   EN emergency measures in 2008112. The crisis shed some light on the "food equation" of 
developing countries underlining th e numerous factors at  play and their intricate relationships.  
The impact of EU agriculture policy therefore ha s to be pondered carefully in the face of such 
complexities and recent adaptation of the CAP is a step in the right direction, in particular 
through the decoupling of a greater share of in come support to farmer allowing them to 
respond more adequately to demand while limiti ng market distortion. Similarly, progress has 
been made on reducing export subsidies. 
Beyond agriculture policy changes, most recen tly via the Health Check, the EU responded 
rapidly to the food prices crisis in devel oping countries by setting up, among others, the €1 
billion Food Facility, thus further demonstrati ng its strong commitment to poverty eradication 
and food security in partner countries. Those orie ntations were also promoted in the EPAs, for 
which a safeguard clause was offered to help  ensure food security, and through a renewed 
focus of the EU's development policies on agriculture. 
In the Union, the CAP Reform  and the Health Check recently ca rried out are seen as positive 
developments, even if, given the food insecu rity context of 2007-2008, a number of Member 
States still consider that more  needs to be done. This will be discussed in the coming months 
as part of the post-2013 de bate on the future of the CAP (see chart below113).  
Like Member States, developing countries also  have very different interests, depending on 
whether they are food importers, have a (pot entially) vibrant agricultural sector or are 
endowed with specific commodities. A differentia ted approach is needed to take into account 
different developing countries’ concerns.  
 
Food and Agriculture will remain high on th e international politic al agenda given the 
challenges faced over the last two years. While  the EU will ensure this is tackled in 
multilateral fora, especially via a revita lised Committee on Food Security (UN/FAO 
Committee currently under reform) which could form the initial basis for a Global Partnership and with the support of the UN High Level TaskFo rce, the core of global agriculture will 
continue to shift from the deve loped to the developing world and in particular to emerging 
                                                
 
112 FAO, World Food and Agriculture in Review 2008 
113 Chart based on Member States' responses to a dedicated PCD 2009 questionnaire prepared by the 
European Commission. 
 
EN 86   EN countries114, thus making it essential to develop a co mprehensive dialogue at global level 
through a Global Partnership on Ag riculture and Food Security  
In the short term, it is essent ial that commodity trade remain s unhampered, since barriers to 
trade in food commodities (such as export taxes and bans), in developed and developing countries alike, will only result in short-term gains while increasing market uncertainty and 
being detrimental to most net food-importing c ountries. Specific domestic  policy measures to 
reduce the impact on the very poor (e.g. safe ty nets and social programmes, targeted 
humanitarian interventions) coup led with sound agricultural policies should allow developing 
countries to cope with the food crises.  
In the longer term, agricultural po licy in the EU, and in developi ng countries, should take into 
account the constraints imposed by climate change  measures, demographic trends, changes in 
consumption patterns and the limited surfaces of new lands available for cultivation. Feeding 
the world growing population will require doubling of f ood production globally by 2050
115, 
with a fourfold increase needed in Africa. This means increasing agricultural productivity, especially in developing countries, while ensuring sustainability of production. 
Outstanding Issues 
• Continued efforts toward a development-friendly WTO Doha agreement, including a 
significant reduction of trade-dist orting support by all countries. 
• Careful monitoring of food security situati on in developed and de veloping countries.  
• Renewed efforts for development cooperation to  support agriculture and rural development 
in developing countries through adequate policie s internally elaborated following inclusive 
of all stakeholders co nsultation processes. 
• Engaging developing countries in research, innovation and dissemination of results in the 
field leading to increase agri cultural production and productivity while preserving natural 
resources and reinforcing re silience of food systems.  
• Assessment of the impact of climate change mitigation and adaptation measures on 
sustainable agricultural producti on in the EU and in developing countries. Policy synergies 
sought between Agriculture, Climate Cha nge, Research and Environment policies. 
                                                 
114 Consumption and production are growing faster in developing countries for all products (except wheat). 
By 2017, according to the 2008 Outlook from the FAO, developing countries are expected to dominate 
production and consumption of most commodities 
115 FAO, FAO Newsroom, 4.02.2009, http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/9962/icode/ 
 
EN 87   EN 3.6. Fisheries 
Quick Facts  
• Economic losses in marine fisheries resulti ng from poor management, inefficiencies and 
overfishing add up to a staggering US$50 billion per year.116  
• Production by traditional capture fisheries has reached a plateau. To meet the projected 
demand for fish and fisheries products of an expanded world population, in 2030 
aquaculture will need to produce an a dditional 28.8 million tonnes – 80.5 million tonnes 
overall -- each year just to maintain pe r capita fish consumption at current levels.117 
• Aquatic foods have high nutritional value, cont ributing 20 per cent or more of average per 
capita animal protein intake for more than  2.8 billion people, mostly in developing 
countries.118  
• In the developing world, fishi ng plays a crucial role in rein forcing household food security, 
improving nutrition, and providing income. In  light of rising world food prices and 
growing concern over the situation of some wild fish stoc ks, we can afford less than ever 
to allow IUU (illegal, unreported and unregulated) fishing to affect these communities.119 
3.6.1.  Introduction  
'All in all, the politicians charged with safegua rding the fisheries seem  to be failing. Is nobody 
getting it right?'120 This is the sobering conclusion of a special report on the sea, 'Grabbing it 
all'. Fisheries policy clearly does not enjoy a good reputation. But is it all that gloomy? Or 
have there also been some achievements? This chapter will look at how the EU fisheries policy impacts on developing countries and asse ss its contribution to their development. 
In some countries and in particular in some coastal developing countries fisheries constitute 
an important economic activity. More than 30 million people worldwide, almost all of them (95%) in developing countries, re ly directly on the fisheries sector for their livelihoods and 
another 10 million people are involved in aqu aculture. While in most countries, fisheries 
account for a relatively small share of national gross domestic product (GDP), in some small 
island developing states, namely in the Pacific, the sector can account for up to 30% of national economic revenue. Export earnings from fisheries are an important source of revenue 
for many developing countries. Total world trade in fish and fisheries products reached 57 
million tons worth US$92 billion in 2007
121. In addition, fish is an im portant part of the diet 
of many people in developing count ries and contributes a large share of total animal protein 
intake.122 
                                                 
116 FAO, FAONewsroom, 9.10.2008,.  http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2008/1000931/index.html 
117 FAO, FAONewsroom, 6.10.2008. http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2008/1000930/index.html 
118 FAO, FAO, FAONewsroom , 10.07.2008. 
http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/ news/2008/1000876/index.html 
http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/ news/2008/1000876/index.html 
119 FAO, FAONewsroom , 24.06.2008. Available: 
http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/ news/2008/1000869/index.html 
120 Grabbing it all. In: Troubled waters . A special report on the sea. 03.01.2009. The Economist. p.13 
121 FAO, La Situation des Pêches et de l'Aquacultur e, ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0250f/i0250f.pdf 
122 OECD, Policy Brief: Fisheries: 'Improving Policy Coherence for Development', September 2008 
 
EN 88   EN The EU Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) impact s on developing countries in many ways. The 
simple fact that fish move across national bor ders and depend on shared marine ecosystems 
results in the EU's fisheries policy having a glob al impact. One key element of the CFP is the 
Fisheries Partnership Agreements (FPAs) negot iated by the European Commission to ensure 
that the European fleet has access to developi ng countries waters. These agreements also 
establish a framework for cooperation on fishing issues. FPAs have many direct and indirect 
impacts on the fishing and related down- and up stream activities of de veloping countries and 
their food security situation.  
3.6.2.  Progress towards PCD Commitments 
3.6.2.1.  Fisheries Partnership Agreements 
With the reform of the CFP in 2002 and the Council Conclusions on FPAs with third 
countries of July 2004 a new and more de velopment-friendly policy framework was 
established for the FPAs. Subsequently, th e Commission has now re placed all fisheries 
agreements with FPAs. This was identified as one of the outstanding issues of the 2007 PCD 
report. 
At the time of writing (June 2009), the EU has 16 FPAs, one with Greenland and 15 with 
developing countries. Of the 15 agreements conc luded with developing c ountries 12 are tuna 
agreements which deal only with access by speci alist vessels to exploit tuna resources. The 
remaining three are mixed agreements providing access for Community fishing vessels to fish 
demersal species and small pelagic fish as well  as tuna species. The three mixed agreements 
account for 92% of the fishing agreements' budg et, with Mauritania (€86 million in 2008) and 
Morocco (€36.1 million) representing the largest financial commitments. The other country with which the EU concluded a mixed agr eement is Guinea Bissau. This was a mixed 
agreement until 2008 and it has now been renegotiated as a tuna agreement.
123 
 
                                                 
123 Convention Oceanic Développeme nt, MegaPesca Lda (2007). ‘ Contrat cadre pour la réalisation 
d'évaluations, d'études d'impact et de suivi concernan t les accords de partenariat dans le domaine de la 
pêche (FPA) conclus entre la Commu nauté européenne et les pays tiers, et plus généralement sur le 
volet externe de la Politique Commune de la Pêche : Overall evaluation study of fisheries partnership 
agreements ’ 
 
EN 89   EN 3.6.2.2.  Tuna agreements with countries in Africa124 
 
The three tuna agreements with the Solomon Is lands, the Federate Stat es of Micronesia and 
Kiribati.125 
 
Whereas the old fisheries agreements' sole objective was to ensure access to fishing 
opportunities in third countries' waters, FPAs ai m to promote responsi ble and sustainable 
                                                 
124 ibid 
125 ibid 
 
EN 90   EN fishing through a policy dialogue and financial m eans. The FPAs stipulate that the two parties 
will engage in a policy dialogue on fisheries an d jointly identify priority areas for supporting 
the sectoral fisheries policy in  the third country with a view  to introducing responsible and 
sustainable fishing. At the same time, a percenta ge of the financial contribution attached to 
the agreement is set aside for the implementa tion of this policy. The beneficiary country 
allocates and manages this percentage of th e financial contribution on the basis of the 
priorities identified within its national sect oral strategy. The two pa rties agree upon a multi-
annual plan and meet within a joint committee every year to evaluate the progress made. 
Governments often use these financial resources to improve the management and control of the fisheries activity in their waters in order to allow local communities to have a more long-
term strategy for access to fishing resources.  
FPAs have had many positive impacts on developing countries, their greatest virtue being that 
they regulate the access of the European flee t to the waters of developing countries and 
thereby contribute to better gov ernance of the fisheries sector . While this framework is not 
perfect, it certainly presents significant advantages over priv ate agreements, which have as 
their only purpose to ensure access and take no account whatsoever of aspects of sustainable 
development. Most Member States see the shift from the traditional fisheries agreement to 
FPAs as a positive step emphasising that they ar e not just about access to fisheries resources 
but about cooperation in this sector. 
• Financial contribution 
In some countries, the financial contribution re presents an important source of revenues, 
providing them with much needed  finances for their development. In Mauritania and Guinea 
Bissau the contributions paid by the Commun ity under the FPA exceed 15% of their public 
revenues. In the other countries with agreement this ratio is lower than 3%
126 but the financial 
contribution still plays an important role in terms of the balance of payments and foreign 
currency reserves. 
In two countries, Mauritania a nd Seychelles, the financial cont ribution of the FPA is greater 
than funding for the development purposes. From a development point of view these 
additional resources are to be welcomed, but they can also complicate things. When in 
Mauritania the military overthrew the governme nt in August 2008, the EU found it difficult to 
send an unequivocal political message to condemn  this clear violation of basic democratic 
principles. The EU suspended its cooperation with  the country in line with Article 96 of the 
Cotonou Agreement, but it had to pay the fina ncial contribution of the FPA due to legal 
commitments arising from this agreement. Th is case shows that the two policies and in 
particular their financial instruments should be more closely coordinated.  
                                                 
126 Convention Oceanic Développeme nt, MegaPesca Lda (2007). ‘ Contrat cadre pour la réalisation 
d'évaluations, d'études d'impact et de suivi concernan t les accords de partenariat dans le domaine de la 
pêche (FPA) conclus entre la Commu nauté européenne et les pays tiers, et plus généralement sur le 
volet externe de la Politique Commune de la Pêche : Overall evaluation study of fisheries partnership 
agreements ’, p. 130 
 
EN 91   EN 
 
• Investment 
One of the objectives of FPAs is to promote European investment  in the partner countries' 
sectors, in particular by creating joint-ventures. This seems to be difficult to achieve. In fact European investment in joint-ventures is stagnating both in count ries with which an 
agreement has been signed and in other countri es traditionally targeted by European fishing 
vessels such as Namibia or Argentina. 
127 Reasons for this include the investment climate and 
the poor infrastructure in some developing coun tries. Another factor accounting for lack of 
investment in developing count ries and particularly in non-AC P developing countries is EU 
tariff peaks for fisheries imports. The average tari ff rate for fish and fisheries products applied 
by OECD countries stands at a relatively lo w level of 4.5% and around 3% for the EU. But 
this figure does not reflect tariff peaks, or tari ff escalation where the tariffs rise as the degree 
of processing of an item increases (reach ing a maximum of 25%, although for developing 
countries benefitting from GSP preferences ta riffs for fishery products are reduced by 3,5 
points to a maximum level of 21,5%), making it mo re difficult to export fish paste or tinned 
fillet than fresh fish.128 While the levels of private investment vary according to the fishing 
category generally speaking they have  remained below expectations.  
• Employment 
The track record of FPAs in cr eating employment is also mixed.129 Onboard employment 
supported by fishing agreements wi th southern countries is estim ated at about 6 000 jobs, of 
which 1 700 are held by EU nationals and 4 300 by third-country nationals. 
                                                 
127 Ibid, p. VI summary 
128 Policy Brief. Fisheries: Improving Policy Coherence for Development. September 2008. OECD, p.3 
129 All figures and tables on employment taken from Convention Oceanic Développement, MegaPesca Lda 
(2007). 
 
EN 92   EN 
Under the mixed agreements with countries of Western Africa, the demersal fishing segments 
generate most direct employment, especially to  the benefit of third-c ountry nationals: about 2 
300 jobs, of which 400 are held by EU nationals  and 1 900 by third-country nationals. The 
tuna sector follows with almost  1 200 jobs for EU nationals and 1 800 j obs for third-country 
nationals. 
  
European tuna vessels which unl oad their catch in th ird-country harbours contribute to the 
creation of jobs in particular for women who often work in the canni ng industry. Countries 
like the Ivory Coast with about 2 4 00 jobs in the canning industry, the Seychelles with 
similar number, Ghana and Mauritius where more than 2 000 people work in the canning 
 
EN 93   EN industry as well as Madagascar with about 1 400 in the canning i ndustry, are the countries that 
benefited most. 
• Sustainability 
The European Parliament130 recognises that the EU has made some progress in ensuring the 
sustainability of fisheries res ources. While there is the perception that the EU exports its 
overcapacity to third countries and that it cont ributes to overfishing by agreeing jointly with 
the partner country on a too generous access for th e EU fleet, FPAs allow EU trawlers to fish 
surplus stocks only. The available surplus is eval uated on the basis of scientific and technical 
advice. However, the valuable demersal re sources sought after by trawlers have been 
shrinking in most countries and fl eets have taken to fishing furt her south and in deeper waters 
as stocks are fully exploited or in decline.  For West Africa an international scientific 
conference documented very significan t declines over the last decades131. Current trends in 
global nominal landings show a clear increase in collapsed stocks over the past 35 years.132 
This means that each year more stocks collapse worldwide than recover or enter the fisheries 
afresh. At current rates no new fishab le stocks will be available by 2020. 
In the case of tuna agreements the Commi ssion takes into account scientific advice and 
recommendations of the Regi onal Fisheries Management Or ganisations (RFMOs) when it 
negotiates FPAs. In the case of mixed agreem ents, with a demersal component, for which 
there are no recommendations from RFMOs, scientific committees monitor the fishing 
resources. The protocols to the mixed agreemen ts signed with West Af rican countries provide 
for an annual scientific meeting, which normally takes place prior to th e Joint Committee. On 
the basis of the conclusions of the scientific meeting, the Joint Committee can adopt appropriate measures for sustai nable management of resources . For example, a reduction in 
the fishing opportunities set out in the protocol happened in the case of Mauritania in 2004 as 
well as during the renegotiation of the protocol in 2008. 
It is true though that lack of data on fish st ocks can make it difficult to determine the surplus 
available and to ensure that fishing activities remain sustainable. To address this problem, a 
part of the funding within the new protocols is  intended to improve th e scientific advice on 
stocks. In the case of Mauritania, for instance,  the EU and the Mauritanian authorities also 
implement measures that are contained in  the cephalopod management plan, notably 
complementary biological stop periods as well as  spatial and temporary closures of fisheries 
to protect reproduction zones and juveniles. Ho wever, additional action at regional level is 
needed. The capacity of regional organisations to  assess stocks has to be strengthened. The 
Commission's Green Paper on reform of the Common Fisheries Policy published in April 
2009
133 recognises that the external dimension n eeds to be reassessed and invites comments 
on a number of crucial questions associated with sustainability, equity and governance. 
                                                 
130 European Parliament resolution of 17 June 2008 on  policy coherence for development and the effects of 
the EU's exploitation of certain biological natural resources on development in West Africa 
(2007/2183(INI)) 
131 Chavance, P. et al. (eds), 2004. Pêcheries maritimes, ecosystems et sociétés en Afrique de l'Ouest: un 
demi-siècle de changement. Actes du Symposium International Dakar, Sénégal, 24-28 juin 2002. 
OPOCE et IRD, 592 p.  
132 Froese, R., A. Stern-Pirlot and K. Kesner-Reyes, 2008. Out of new stocks in 2020: A comment on "Not 
all fisheries will be collapsed in 2048". Marine Policy , 33 
133 COM (2009)163fin, 22.04.2009 
 
EN 94   EN 3.6.2.3.  Illegal, Unreported and Un regulated (IUU) Fishing  
IUU fishing constitutes one of the most serious threats to the sustainabl e exploitation of living 
aquatic resources and marine bi odiversity. It causes depletion of  fish stocks and prevents 
future stock growth. It is estimated that the cost of IUU practices amounts to €10 billion every 
year worldwide representing 19% of the worldwide reported value of catches. 134 
This scourge proves particularly costly for developing countries as  IUU operators tend to take 
advantage of insufficient control of their nationa l waters. As a result, resources diminish and 
the countries lose potential cat ches and revenue. For these r easons, the fight against IUU 
fishing was identified as an important issue for ensuring coherence of  fisheries policy with 
development objectives in the 2007 PCD report. Given the high percentage of international 
trade in relation to to tal production, fighting IUU fishing requires intelligent regulation of 
trade and measures to prevent trading in illegally caught fishery products.  
                                                 
134 Convention Oceanic Développement, MegaPesca Lda (2007). " Assessment of the rationale of the 
measures included under the initiative against IUU Fishing " (2007) 
 
EN 95   EN 
 
135 
The EU for its part has long been endeavour ing to prevent IUU fishing. The Commission 
systematically negotiates and concludes a vess el monitoring system (VMS) protocol with 
third countries. Furthermore, a ll EU vessels are equipped with the monitoring systems. But as 
the problem continued to grow the EU  decided to intensify its action.  
                                                 
135 Convention Oceanic Développement, MegaPesca Lda (2007), p. 148. 
 
EN 96   EN On 29 September 2008 the Council adopted the IUU Fishing Regulation No 1005/2008, 
which will enter into force on 1 January 2010. Th e objective of the Regulation is to ensure 
that all fishery products traded with the EU , including processed products were caught in 
accordance with applicable laws, regulations an d international conservation and management 
measures.  
The implementation of this Regulation will be  a challenge to many de veloping countries. The 
EU, therefore, has undertaken to cooperate with and support third countries in this task. As a 
first concrete step, the Commission is info rming developing countries about this new 
Regulation, bilaterally and through regional semina rs. It has organised four two-day seminars 
in Johannesburg, Bogota, Ho Chi Minh City a nd in Cameroon for this purpose. The adoption 
of this Regulation has been welcomed by Member  States as an important step in the fight 
against the global problem of IUU fishing a nd as a vital instrument for ensuring PCD. 
FPAs also include support for developing countries  to fight against IUU fisheries. They put a 
special emphasis on increased monitoring, contro l and surveillance of fishing activities and 
earmark substantial funds to help countries eradicate IUU fishing (e.g. through the purchase 
of patrol vessels, satellite monitoring systems or radar equipment, a nd providing assistance to 
introduce or adapt the re levant legislation).  
The regional level plays an important role in th e fight against IUU fishing. For this reason the 
EU has strengthened its cooperation with the In dian Ocean Commission (IOC) in this area. 
On 23-24 January 2007, the European Comm ission and the IOC signed a partnership 
agreement in order to implement a Regional Plan for fisheries surveillance in the South West 
Indian Ocean. Both parties have also signed a Ministerial declaration which commits the 
Fisheries Ministers of the IOC to fight against IUU activities in the South West Indian Ocean. 
The general objective of this Regional Plan is  to reduce the number of IUU vessels in the 
region and to contribute to sust ainable conservation and manageme nt of the tuna resources. In 
the first three years (2007-2010), this framewor k partnership agreement with the IOC will be 
funded to the tune of € 7 million. The participants  representing the Member States of the IOC 
agreed to take immediate actions to step up the fight against IUU fishing. 
3.6.2.4.  Regional Fisheries Management Organi sation and International Agreements 
The European Union has a strong commitme nt to Regional Fisheries Management 
Organisations (RFMOs) which play a key role in the conservation a nd sustainable use of 
straddling and migratory fish stocks. The EU is a member (or a coop erating non-member or 
an observer in those to which it has not yet acc eded) in 13 RFMOs, i.e. almost all existing 
RFMOs. It has also promoted the creation of RFMOs where there was a gap, in particular, for 
straddling stocks, in the South East Atlantic, th e Southern Indian Ocean and the South Pacific. 
In order to strengthen the performance of RF MOs, the EU has been a driving force for the 
performance review of for example, the Indi an Ocean Tuna Commission, and has contributed 
actively to the revision, of the agreements es tablishing the North East Atlantic Fisheries 
Commission, the North West  Atlantic Fisheries Or ganisation and the Inter American Tropical 
Tuna Commission. In 2007, the EU was again a major initiator of proposals for RFMOs measures to deal with the conservation of fish  stocks and adopt control measures to ensure 
compliance. 
The efforts at EU level are complemented by Member States. The UK has played a leading 
role in strengthening RFMOs and is the Chai r of the High Seas Task Force which was 
established in 2003 by a small group of fisher ies ministers and international NGOs who 
 
EN 97   EN decided to work together to develop an action plan designed  to combat IUU fishing on the 
high seas. As part of the follow-up to that in itiative, the UK convened a high-level panel to 
develop a model for improved governance by RF MOs. Germany and the Netherlands support 
the capacity development of the RFMO 'Commi ssion Sous Régionale des Pêches' (CSRP) in 
Dakar, Senegal. Sweden supports Regional Fi sheries Bodies, like the Fishery Committee for 
Eastern Central Atlantic, the Fishery Committee of the West Central Gulf of Guinea and the 
South West Indian Ocean Fishery Commissi on. Through funding and secondments to these 
regional organisations, the Swedish government  aims to improve inter-governmental 
cooperation and fishery management in the region. 
The European Union has an overall policy of en couraging developing c ountries' participation 
in international fisheries fora, including RF MOs, (e.g. recent accession of Egypt, Nigeria and 
Sierra Leone to the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas) and 
their accession to multilateral agreements thr ough a process granting participatory rights to 
non-members. This has not always been successf ul, as other RFMO members may be opposed 
to such enlargement as has been the case w ith the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries 
Commission. The EU organises prep aratory meetings with devel oping countries in  advance of 
international meetings where appropriate so as  to build a wide allia nce. It also helps 
developing countries to particip ate in international meetings, through bilatera l assistance as 
part of the Fisheries Partnerships Agreements or through contributions to trust funds managed 
by multilateral organisations or RFMOs. The fact that sometimes only part of the funds made 
available is used shows the need to speed up  the implementation of a coherent sectoral 
fisheries policy. But it is also indicative of the fact that fisheries are deeply integrated into the global economy thus raising issues well beyond a s ectoral perspective, e .g. in relation to trade 
and finance policies, employme nt, social and environment po licies and much more. This 
requires a high level of skill s and transsectoral understand ing and negotiation. Thus, the 
Commission also provides capacity-building a ssistance to developing countries through 
various instruments, so that they are in a position to participate effectively in international fisheries fora as well as in the political re source allocation process at national and regional 
levels. 
Despite all these efforts, EU Member States re port that some RFMOs are still lacking support 
from partner countries. A recent study carried ou t by the Netherlands on the difficulties faced 
by developing countries trying to accede to and participate in RFMO, mi ght shed some light 
on what needs to be done to overcome these obstacles.  
3.6.2.5.  EPAs 
The Commission addresses fisheries also through its trade policy and in particular the EPAs 
that it concludes with ACP regions where fisheries play an  important role. The interim EPAs 
(iEPA) concluded at the end of 2007 with some ESA countri es – Comoros, Madagascar, 
Mauritius, Seychelles, Zambia and Zimbabwe – contain a fully fledged chapter on fisheries 
with the objectives of promoti ng responsible fishing and a more solid fisheries policy. Parties 
also agreed to work together  against illegal fishing thr ough improved monitoring. Provisions 
on cooperation for promoting joint ventures  and enhancing production capacity and 
competitiveness are included in this chapter, too. An automatic derogation of 10 000 tons for processed tuna has been granted to the ESA re gion (8 000 canned tuna + 2 000 tuna loins) in 
the iEPA. 
Fisheries in the Pacific EPA 
 
EN 98   EN The Pacific interim EPA (iEPA)  concluded with Papua New Gu inea and Fiji in November 
2007 contains provisions in support of the deve lopment of the fisheries sector in these 
countries. It introduces significan t improvements to the rules of origin for fishery products 
such as canned tuna, notably the principle of global sourcing. A ccording to this principle the 
origin is granted if the fish is processed in on-land plants of the iEPA signatories irrespective 
of the waters and vessels of the catch. This relaxation of the rules of origin is considered as an 
important catalyst for development in Pacifi c ACP countries. It has great potential for 
stimulating processing activities, attracting forei gn investment in harbou r infrastructure and 
fishery processing plants and thus supporting the generation of value ad ded in loco and of 
employment opportunities for the local popula tion. Papua New Guinea is already benefiting 
from these EPA provisions through  its project to establish a Ma rine Park in the province of 
Madang. 
3.6.2.6.  Reform of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) 
The Commission has begun a review of the CFP.  In April 2009 it issued a Green Paper to 
launch a public consultation on the CFP reform  which is due in 2012. The review will be 
based on an analysis of the achievements and shortcomings of the current policy, and will look at experiences from other fisheries manage ment systems to identify potential avenues for 
the reforming of this policy including its exte rnal aspects. The Green Paper emphasises that 
environmental sustainability must have top pr iority because it is the basis for social and 
economic benefits. This also holds true for fish ing activity in the waters of third countries. 
The reform of the CFP offers an opportunity to  re-evaluate the extern al dimension of this 
policy with a view to making it  more development-friendly. 
3.6.3.  Conclusions & Outstanding Issues 
Member States are divided on the progress ma de on PCD in the area of fisheries. They 
welcome the shift from the traditional fisherie s agreement to the FPAs and the measures taken 
to fight IUU. Member States recognise that  some progress has been made, but remain 
concerned about the reliabi lity, accuracy and timely reporting of catch data. 
Assessment
136 of progress on PCD in this policy area: 
 
                                                 
136 Chart based on Member States' responses to a dedicated PCD 2009 questionnaire prepared by the 
European Commission. 
 
EN 99   EN Ensuring the sustainability of fisheries was diffi cult enough in the past but it will be even 
more so in the future. Most stocks are overf ished and pressure for more fishing rights will 
increase. By regulating access FPAs have certainly  improved the sustainability of EU fishing 
activities but more needs to be  done. The European Parliament has made an interesting 
proposal to that end by  suggesting decoupling the level of payment for agreements from the 
level of fishing opportunities gr anted in return, which can act as a disincentive for the third 
country to reduce access when  stocks are depleted.137 
One of the key problems is the need to reig n in overfishing in th e face of continuing 
overcapacity and the harmful version of su bsidies. A combination of new valuation 
approaches and marine protected areas (M PAs) particularly for those areas where 
expectations for returns on inve stment are in excess of natu ral capacity of ecosystems to 
regenerate is a promising avenue to wards more sustainable arrangements. 
Meanwhile the often poor availability of data to assess the status of stocks adds an additional 
element of uncertainty. Reliable, accurate an d timely reported catch da ta are important not 
only to improve the scientific stock assessment of partner c ountries but also  to ensure 
transparency and a proper cost/benefit assess ment of European fisheries policies and 
particularly FPAs. However, in general, in the light of the well-documented general 
downward trends data scarcity s hould trigger particularly prude nt behaviour, not greater risk-
taking. 
The EU should therefore continue to support multilateral organisations in collecting these 
data, strengthen the monitoring and analysis cap acity of RFMOs and research institutes and 
promote networks of effective MPAs as  mandated in the Johannesburg Plan of 
Implementation for establishment by 2012. Ecosystem assessments, the development and testing of innovative valuation approaches and associated de velopment of science-based 
integrated management systems should be promoted.  
Assistance to developing countries for the formulation and implementation of sectoral 
fisheries policies in view of th e often strong interconn ections with other sectors will become 
increasingly important. Without a solid fi sheries policy embedded into wider national 
sustainable development policies, developing c ountries will not be able to harness this 
sector’s potential to contribute to their development.  
The allocation of the financial contribution under  the FPAs should be bett er aligned with the 
development strategies agreed wi th the countries/regions in th e CSPs and RSPs. Possibilities 
should be explored for integr ating the "development part" of the FPA into the commonly 
agreed EU development strategy w ith a given country or region. 
Developing countries' capacity for effective fish eries management and governance also needs 
to be strengthened so that they  can ensure that EU regulations  and other measures to combat 
IUU fisheries are enforced and illegal fishi ng is minimised. Effective enforcement through 
monitoring, control and survei llance (MCS) systems is impor tant in that respect too. 
Concretely, the EU should support developing countries in achieving compliance with the 
new Regulation against IUU fishing, which will enter into force on 1 January 2010 and in 
taking the measures required, including training of  customs officers, and should also reinforce 
its own enforcement of exis ting laws and regulations. 
                                                
 
137 EP resolution on policy coherence for development and the effects of the EU's exploitation of certain 
biological natural resources on development in West Africa of 17 June 2008  
 
EN 100   EN Stimulating private investment in third countries continues to be a challenge. To attract 
investment in the fisheries sect or in developing countries, th eir access to markets in general 
and for value-added products in particular should be increased. A more solid and stable legal 
framework will create further incentiv es for investment in Africa and  contribute to the 
development of poorer countries. However, it is important that this takes place under the right 
conditions to allow for social and envi ronmentally sustainable development. 
Finally, the regional dimension is very im portant for improving the governance of the 
fisheries sector. The idea put forward in th e Green Paper to introduce "regional forms of 
cooperation" in the FPAs, and possibly even s ubstitute the bilateral agreements should be 
explored. Most importantly, in stead of focusing on defensive mechanisms against further 
decline, which have had little or no effect on the ground, focussing on the restoration objective of the Johannesburg Plan of Implem entation (JPoI) has potential to increase 
production significantly. A forthcomi ng scientific analysis shows that current world fisheries 
production is 25 million tons of output short, be cause massive fishing of juveniles and other 
destructive practices reduce the ecosystem biomass in ways that  make it impossible to harvest 
individual stocks at Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) levels. Yet, the legally binding Law 
of the Sea Convention mandates MSY as the yardstick of fisheries management. The JPoI set 
a time-bound target for achieving these levels (2015) and its implem entation would set a 
constructive framework for a forward-looking missi on of the regional organisations as well as 
for national administrations and other stakeholders.  
Outstanding Issues 
• Reinforce the sustainability of fisheries in  particular by improving stock assessments and 
by making them more transparent  
• The need to improve market access to the EU for fisheries products from developing 
countries, including through more flexible rules of origin  
• Support the formulation and implementation of  developing countries ' fisheries policies  
• Support and cooperate with developing count ries in the fight against IUU fishing  
• Move towards the regional dimension and enha nce the capacities of regional organisations 
to assess and rebuild fish stocks to a leve l of productivity allowing harvesting at MSY 
levels mandated by the Law of the Sea and supported by the Jo hannesburg Plan of 
Implementation.  
 
EN 101   EN 3.7. Social Dimension of Globalisation, Employment and Decent Work  
Quick Facts 
• Due to the global economic crisis, global unemployment in 2009 could increase by 
between 29 (lowest scenario) and 59 million unemployed people (ILO Global Employment 
Trends Update May 2009). 
• Current projections indicate that more than 200 million workers, mostly in developing 
economies, are at risk of slipping into extreme poverty. 
• Of every 100 children in the world today, 16 ar e child labourers with 12 of those being 
subjected to it’s the worst forms of child labour and many will never go to school (ILO, 
2008). The crisis could push an increasing number of  children, in particular girls, into child 
labour (ILO, 2009). 
• Out of the 550 million working poor in the wo rld, an estimated 330 million are women – a 
share of 60 per cent (ILO, 2008). 
• In 2007, achieving full and productive employment and decent work for all, including 
women and young people (under MDG1) was include d as one of the four new targets in 
the revised MDG monitoring framework. 
• 50% of people in the world have no social protection and 1.2 million people die every year 
because of accidents at work (ILO, 2007). 
•  
3.7.1.  Introduction  
Globalisation involves changing re alities for people, deeper interconnections between policy 
areas and between countries and, consequen tly, growing integration and dependence of 
regional and national labour markets at very diffe rent levels of development across the globe.  
The economic and social impact of globalisation varies widely  across countries, sectors and 
actors. The current crisis was preceded by growing imbalances in the way globalisation 
unfolded. Too many countries and people were not sharing in its be nefits. The EU is 
committed to ensuring that both its internal and external policies are exercised in such a way 
as to contribute to maximising the benefits and minimising the costs of globalisation for all 
groups, in and outside the EU. In the EU cont ext, Social Dimension of Globalisation (SDG) 
refers to the impact of globalisation on the li fe and work of people, their families and their 
societies. Concerns and issues are often ra ised about the impact of globalization on 
employment, working conditions, income and so cial protection. Beyond these, SDG is also 
meant to promote an inclusive globalisation that benefits th e poor through adequate social 
policies. It addresses issues related to d ecent work; equal opportunities for men and women; 
lifelong learning; raising earni ngs; opportunities for young people and production processes in 
compliance with social standard s. In developing countries, S DG is a key element in reducing 
 
EN 102   EN poverty and achieving the Millennium Development Goals138. In the wake of the financial and 
economic crises, these issues are likely to be particularly acute  in developing countries where 
the vast majority of workers and small enterprises have only very limited access to social protection. 
Governments with widening public finance imbalanc es find it difficult to maintain the level of 
social expenditure; maintenance of public infras tructure is being postponed; funding for social 
safety nets is in decline just when it is most needed; and the number of unemployed and 
working poor, especially in urban areas, is increasing exponentially
139. 
In the Council Conclusions of May 2009140 it is stated that "the EU  will take targeted social-
protection measures in a gender sensitive way and support developing countries' actions to 
cope with the direct so cial impact of the cris is through the creation and strengthening of social 
protection systems and programmes, includ ing enhancement of in-kind transfers". 
In recognition of its importan ce for development, EU policie s must contribute to SDG 
objectives through complementarities and the creat ion of policy synergies.  This chapter will 
focus on the three main policy domains: social  protection, employment , with a particular 
emphasis on decent work, and gender equality.  
3.7.2.  Progress towards PCD Commitments 
3.7.2.1.  External dimensions of EU Policies 
The Lisbon Strategy was initially conceived as a way of mobilising stak eholders within the 
EU to respond to the challenges of th e knowledge economy by combining economic 
competitiveness, employment and social cohesi on. In the face of increasing globalisation and 
interdependence, complementing this internal dimension with a strong external dimension is 
essential to contribute to th e shaping of globalisation in line with the EU’s values and 
experiences141. Thanks to its experience with the sing le market, the EU can contribute specific 
expertise –social protection, employment, workers'  rights – which could be  beneficial to its 
key partners. Innovative solutions could also be  proposed to promote decent work in areas 
where the EU has strategic interests, such as  managing migration (" social protection"), 
climate change and energy ("green jobs").142  
Over the last two years, policy initiatives on employment and decent work have taken place at 
EU level, in particular: 
• In July 2008, the Commission adopted a Communication143 on the "Renewed Social 
Agenda" (RSA), built on the three pillars of access, opportunities and solidarity. The 
external dimension of the RSA underscores in  particular the guiding principle of decent 
                                                 
138 Commission Staff working document Report on the EU contribution to the promotion of decent work in 
the world SEC(2008) 2184, 22.4.2009 
139 COM (2009) 160 final, 8.4.2009 
140 Council Conclusions on supporting developing countries in coping with the crisis 18 May 2009 
10018/09 
141 As underlined in the EU Declar ation on Globalisation, adopted by the December 2007 European 
Council 
142 SEC (2008) 2184, 02.07.2008, Commission Staff Working Document report on the EU Contribution to 
the promotion of decent work in the world p. 15 
143 COM(2008) 412 final, 02.07.2008 
 
EN 103   EN work. The RSA reaffirms the Co mmission’s commitment to th e promotion of the social 
dimension of globalisation and the internat ionally- agreed agenda for decent work, 
including through cooperation with the Intern ational Labour Organisation (ILO) and other 
partners, and the mobilisation of all relevant EU policies.  
• As part of the renewed Social Agenda package, the Commission prepared a "Report on the 
EU’s contribution to promoting decent work throughout the world"144 underlining the 
efforts and challenges involved in mobilising th e EU’s internal and external policies and 
all relevant stakeholders to promote decent work for all, notably by supporting commitments at international level, shaping bi lateral relations with partner countries and 
regions, and by integrating decent work objectiv es into the EU’s trade and development 
policies.  
• In April 2007 a Staff Working Document
145 on "Promoting Employment through EU 
Development Cooperation" underscored the impo rtance of promoting full and productive 
employment and decent work for all - wi th a focus on youth and women – as the 
foundation for sustainable development and sound societies of tomorrow. The Staff 
Working Document proposes to increase EU  engagement in promoting employment 
through development cooperation within the ov erall goal of decent work. Priority should 
be given to creating new productive jobs in the formal economy as well as improving 
living and working conditions in the informal economy. The paper also serves as a trigger for a broader debate with EU Member States  on how best to promote employment through 
development policies within the overall fr amework of the Decent Work Agenda. Among 
the critical aspects of SDG, equality between  women and men is a fundamental right and a 
necessary condition for achieving the EU objectives of growth, employment and social cohesion. Although inequalities sti ll exist, internally  the EU has made significant progress 
over the last decades in achieving equality between women and men. This is mainly thanks to equal treatment legislation, gender main streaming and specific measures for the 
advancement of women.  
The EU's 2006 "Roadmap for Equality between Women and Men"
146 sets out the priorities for 
the period 2006-2010 and addresses the promotion of gender outsi de the EU. Specific aspects 
of the Roadmap were implemented throughout  2007-2008, through a numb er of initiatives 
and in particular the Communication on "Ge nder Equality and Women's Empowerment in 
Development Cooperation"147 adopted in March 2007. Th is Communication provides 
guidance for making gender mainstreaming more  effective, proposes specific actions and 
describes the various ways of promoting gender equality through the new aid delivery 
methods. In particular it call s for specific actions to addr ess the impacts of trade and 
liberalisation on decent work for women, men and children, to protect labour and civil rights 
of informal workers and to deal with other economic issues.  
The EU Action Plan on Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment in External Action is 
being prepared for adoption by the end of 2009. The importance of gender equality is also 
reflected in the Joint Africa-E U Strategy as a key element in all partnerships and national 
development strategies.  
                                                 
144 SEC(2008) 2184, 16.12.2008 
145 SEC(2007) 495, 13.04.2007 
146 COM(2006) 92 final , 01.03.2006 
147 COM(2007)100 final , 08.03.2007 
 
EN 104   EN Social Dimension of Globalisation and Migration 
In response to Council recommendations148 on SDG emphasising the importance of an 
appropriate employment policy in minimising th e brain-drain, policy in itiatives have been 
taken in the EU, in particular in relation to br ain-drain in the health sector. With the adoption 
of the EU Strategy for Action on the Crisis in  Human Resources for H ealth in Developing 
Countries in December 2005, and the Programme fo r Action to tackle the shortage of health 
workers in developing count ries (2007 – 2013) adopted in 2006, the EU recognises its 
responsibility to take steps to  meet its own objective of provi ding high-quality healthcare 
without having a negative impact on the situa tion in non-EU countries . The Commission in 
2007 prepared a proposal for a Directive to facilitate the admission of highly-qualified 
migrants into the EU149 with a clause specifically requiring ethical recruitment in sectors, such 
as the health sector, experi encing a lack of personnel.  
3.7.2.2.  Trade and Development-Related Agenda 
The EU commitment to integrate SDG into trad e policy has been implemented over the last 
two years through three main conduits: the sp ecial incentive arrangeme nt for sustainable 
development and good governance (GSP+) establ ished under the Generalised System of 
Tariff Preferences (GSP), Sustainability Imp act Assessments, and multilateral initiatives. 
• GSP+ 
The EU shares the view that there is a link between development and the respect of basic 
human, labour rights and environment and govern ance principles. Failu re to honour these 
basic standards, which are specified in various  international conventio ns, entails particular 
problems for developing countries in reaching their development objectives. This is why the 
EU created within the GSP scheme a special preferential trading arrangement to address 
positively these specific development needs thro ugh granting additional, preferential market 
access conditions for those developing countries  which have taken on board the major 
international conventions in th ese areas (the GSP+). Through this trade incentive the EU 
encourages developing countries to ratify and implement key international conventions on 
human rights, core labour standards, su stainable development and good governance. 
The promotion of these conventions as well as  their implementation is supported by the EU 
through the GSP Regulation provisions, accordi ng to which disregard for or serious and 
systematic violations of the conventions' princi ples may result in the temporary withdrawal of 
tariff preferences (during 2008 in vestigations were opened ag ainst El Salvador and Sri 
Lanka). 
For the period 2009-2011, 16 countries150 have qualified to receive the additional preferences 
offered under the GSP+ incentive arrangement. Countries that did not yet meet the GSP+ 
qualifying criteria in 2008 can ap ply until 30 April- 2010 to r eceive GSP+ benefits from 1 
July 2010.  
                                                 
148 GAERC Conclusions on Promoting Employment through EU Development Cooperation, June 2007 
149 COM(2007) 637, 23.10.2007 
150 Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Ri ca, Ecuador, El Salvador , Georgia, Guatemala, 
Honduras, Mongolia, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Sri Lanka and Venezuela. Venezuela has been 
removed from the list of GSP+ beneficiaries by Commission Decision 2009/454/EC of 11 June 2009. 
 
EN 105   EN • Sustainability Impact Assessments 
In the context of strengthening the knowledg e base and better linka ge with policies and 
stakeholders, the European Co mmission has continued to carry  out Sustainability Impact 
Assessments (SIAs) for all major bilateral and multilateral trade negotiations. Increasing 
attention is being paid to quant itative and qualitative employment  and social impacts of trade 
agreements as well as dialogue with civil so ciety groups. SIAs also aim to identify 
accompanying measures to mitigate any negative employment and social impact of future trade agreements and to enhance positive ones, and to reveal to the scope for cooperation activities in the area of trade and decent work.
151  
3.7.2.3.  International Perspectives 
Following on from the 2007 Staff Working Docu ment on Promoting employment through EU 
Development Cooperation152 and public statements, partner c ountries and regions have shown 
a growing interest in the EU's integrated ec onomic and social development approach. As a 
result, the EU has intensified its dialogue w ith low and middle-income countries, notably on 
decent work and its various components.  
• Multilateral and International Initiatives  
In 2007 and2008 the EC has consiste ntly raised employment and labour issues in the context 
of the WTO trade policy review mechanism (TPRM). This has helped build further 
understanding of the linkages betw een trade and employment. Soci al issues have also been 
addressed in the context of  WTO accession negotiations.  
The Commission has continued to contribute subs tantially to the promotion of the ILO Decent 
Work Agenda, not only through institutional coope ration with the ILO, but also by fostering 
the four strategic objectives at other interna tional fora, such as G8 events and the United 
Nations Commission for Social Development. The Commission has also actively supported 
the EU Member States for achieving the import ant ILO Declaration on Social Justice for a 
Fair Globalisation, adopted by the Inte rnational Labour Conference in 2008. 
In the face of the tremendous employment and social impact of the global economic crisis, 
this is more important than ever. The Europe an Commission has made it very clear that 
efforts on Decent Work must not be reduced, but  that, on the contrary, the Decent Work 
Agenda is also providing the right  tools to tackle the crisis.  
In 2004 a Memorandum of Understa nding on a Strategic Partnership (SP) between the EC and 
the ILO in the field of development cooperati on was concluded. The part nership is conceived 
as an evolving framework. While the original Mo U addressed cooperation in the areas of core 
labour standards, focussing in particular on ch ild labour and education,  CSR and Core Labour 
Standards, social dialogue, poverty reduction an  employment and migration and development, 
gender being a transversal issue for all areas, the High Level Meeting between the Commission and the ILO extended this scope to social protection as a separate theme, to 
ensure that all four pillars of decent work ar e covered by the partnership. It was also agreed 
that a special focus should be on the informal economy.  
                                                
 
151 European Commission; Trade Issues, Trade Sustainability Impact Assessments 03.09, Available: 
http://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/global/sia/index_en.htm . 
152 SEC(2007) 495. 13.04.2007 
 
EN 106   EN In the framework of this strategic partnershi p, the EC and ILO have increasingly up scaled 
their joint development cooperation (see section 3.7.2.4). Moreover, the Commission has taken the initiative to organise regional seminars with EC Delegations and ILO local offices (Asia 2006, LA 2007, ACP 2009). These seminars aim at implementing the joint strategic 
partnership at local level a nd to improve mutual understanding, co-operation, synergies and 
contacts. This concerns the convergence betwee n the important ILO added value in terms of 
tripartite agreed Decent Work Country Programmes (DWCP) and the EC large financial cooperation in the social sectors. 
On the other hand, many Member States have b ilateral partnership agreements with the ILO, 
and some provide core funding to the ILO. These activities have contribu ted to the adaptation 
of legislation to the most important internati onal conventions in relation to child labour. The 
ILO plays a central role in promoting the soci al dimension of globalis ation, employment and 
decent work, supported by a number of Member States. Overall the ILO has contributed to include Decent Work related concerns (notably , employment, core labour standards, social 
protection, etc) in the Poverty Reduction Strate gy Papers (PRSPs). The 2009 mid-term review 
of EC Country Strategy Papers will be an opportunity to reinfo rce the appropriate synergies 
between European cooperation and the DWCPs,  promoted by ILO and based on tripartite 
social dialogue.  
The EU also supported an OECD  project on trade and structur al adjustment, studying linkages 
between international trade and labour market ad justment. The project aims at identifying, for 
both developed and developing countries, the requirements fo r successful trade-related 
structural adjustment via the reallocation of la bour and capital to more efficient uses, while 
limiting adjustment costs.  
The OECD/DAC has put in pla ce a network working on various  aspects of pro-poor growth 
(POVNET). The European Commission has been actively participating in the task teams leading to a Policy Statement: "Making Econo mic growth more pro-poor: the role of 
employment and social protection"
153. This statement was endor sed by the OECD High Level 
Meeting in May 2009. 
• Bilateral dialogues 
The EU-Brazil Action Plan154, adopted in December 2008, addresses social and employment 
issue in a detailed manner, including in connec tion with developing countries. It foresees in 
particular the  development of triangular cooperati on to support the achievement of MDGs, 
including the eradicat ion of extreme poverty and hunger, notably through the promotion of 
full and productive employment and decent work fo r all, the promotion of gender equality and 
the empowerment of women.  
The full EPA signed with CARIFORUM addresse s employment and decent work issues. 
Member States report progress wi th a view to including ILO Co re Standards in Free Trade 
Agreements, EPAs and the Aid for Trade ini tiative. Currently nego tiations are ongoing with 
Central America and Andean countries to ag ree on a Trade and Sustainable Development 
                                                 
153 OECD, High Level Meeting in May 2009, 
Available:http://www.olis.oecd.org/olis/2009 doc.nsf/ENGDATCORPLOOK/NT00000D82/$FILE/JT0
3260525.PDF 
154 See Brazil-European Union Strategic Partnership, Joint Action Plan, 2nd Brazil - European Union 
Summit, Rio de Janeiro, 22 December 2008. Section 2.1 and 2.2. 
 
EN 107   EN chapter. This includes commitments on core labour standards and institutional arrangements 
for monitoring their effective implemen tation involving the social partners. 
• European Neighbourhood Countries 
The Commission’s 2008 and 2009 Progress Repo rts on the European Neighbourhood Policy 
(ENP) paid close attention to the external dimension of employment and social policy, 
highlighting the promotion of decent working conditions as a ‘key challenge’. Within the Union for the Mediterranean, the first Euro-Med  Employment and Labour Ministers meeting 
of November 2008 adopted an ambitious framew ork for action on employment, employability 
and decent work. Its follow-up will include th e creation of a Euro-Med Social Dialogue 
Forum. Employment and social aspects also f eature in the Communication on the new Eastern 
Partnership adopted in December 2008
155. 
• Asia 
At the second Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM) La bour and Employment Ministerial in Bali in 
October 2008, for the first time, Ministers adopted a Joint Declar ation that refers to the full 
respect and effective implementation of core  labour standards, decent work, universal 
coverage of social security rights and social dialogue. This contributed to the Declaration on 
Sustainable Development adopted by the AS EM Summit in Beijing on 24-25 October 2008 
underscoring the importance of effective implem entation of core labour standards set out in 
the 1998 ILO Declaration on Fundamental Princi ples and Rights at Work and the 2008 ILO 
Declaration on Social Jus tice for a Fair Globalisation, further adding that " promotion of full 
and productive employment and decent work for all is crucial to safeguard and improve 
people's livelihood, realize effecti ve social cohesion and achieve MDGs. " 
• Latin America 
Social cohesion is a priority in the EU-LA St rategic Partnership, as confirmed in the EU-LA 
Lima Summit (2008). The Lima Agenda encouraged  the EU and its Latin Americans partners 
to foster the identification of means of bi-regional cooperation to promote the formulation and 
implementation of effective so cial policies in order to r each social cohesion, making a 
specific reference to the reform of the social  protection systems, em ployment, professional 
and vocational education, etc.  
The 2007-2013 programming exercise  therefore put social cohe sion at the centre of the 
proposed response strategies for th e 17 countries of the region, as well as at regional level. 
Some of the areas of intervention are employme nt generation and DW (Bolivia, Chile, CAN), 
insertion of young people in the labour market  (Guatemala, Argentina), inclusion of youth 
(Guatemala, El Salvador), voc ational training (N icaragua, Argentina, Honduras), social 
assistance (Mexico, Chile). Dialogues and ex change of good practices are also being 
promoted at a bilateral level with LA middle income countri es through the Sector Policy 
Dialogues (Chile, Brazil and Mexico) and at a regional level through the Eurosocial programme, which has an "employment strand" a nd which deals with soci al protection as an 
intersectorial issue. These programmes are e ssentially aimed at helping Latin American 
governments and stakeholders to  adopt and implement the se ctor and financial reforms 
appropriate for their internal situation. 
                                                
 
155 COM(2008) 823/4, 03.12.2008 
 
EN 108   EN • African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP ) countries and African Union (AU) 
Employment and decent work including social protection are included in the Joint Africa-EU 
Strategy and its Action Plan (2008-2010) adop ted at the EU-Africa Summit in December 
2007 in Lisbon. It is one of the three pillars of the Partners hip on Migration, Mobility and 
Employment. Of primary importance is the prom otion of the decent work agenda, the follow-
up to the ILO Declaration on Social Justice for Fair Globalisation as well as support for the 
implementation of the African Decent Work Agenda 2007-2015.  
While limited progress has been registered unde r this heading at this early stage, the AU 
considers decent work as part of a broa der agenda as defined by the Ouagadougou 2004 
Declaration and Plan of Action on Em ployment and Poverty Alleviation.  
Some Member States believe th at the inclusion of ILO Core Labour Standards in Free Trade 
Agreements, Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) and the Aid for Trade Agenda is a 
success.  
CARIFORUM-EC Economic Partnership Agreement 
The CARIFORUM EPA social obligations refer to relevant international conventions and 
declarations, explicitly mentioning the ILO core labour standards under the 1998 Declaration 
are reaffirmed, as well as to the UN Declar ation on Full Employment and Decent Work. The 
Agreement safeguards the Parties' right to dete rmine their own level of  social regulation and 
labour standards. This freedom is qualified by th e affirmation of a shared ambition to legislate 
for high standards and to implement them. The ke y discipline is the undertaking not to lower 
social legislation and standard s (or failing to apply them) in  order to derive trade or 
investment benefit. There is al so a commitment not to use la bour standards for protectionist 
trade purposes. The EPA also provides for a Co mmittee of Experts and the Agreement's civil 
society Consultative Committee to play a ro le in handling issues arising from its 
implementation in this area. In addition, the services and investment chapter foresees 
obligations for the parties to ensure that inve stors act in accordance  with the core labour 
standards and do not circumvent international environmental or labour obligations arising 
from agreements to which they are parties.  
3.7.2.4.  EU Development Actions in support of SDG in Developing Countries  
• The European Commission 
The Commission will have i nvested about €1.9 billion from  1999 to 2010 to support demand-
driven social reforms or decent work-related pr ojects in the field of employment, social 
inclusion and social protec tion in partner countries. Th ese projects vary from the 
modernisation of vocational training systems to job creation initiatives, provision of support 
to social funds improving employment servi ces, tackling child la bour and trafficking, 
modernising social protection or social safe ty nets. Many of these programmes closely 
involve social partners and thus  contribute to social dialogue.  
Through the ESIP sector (Employability, Soci al inclusion and Soci al protection), the 
Commission provides support to EC  services at HQ and Delegati on levels on these issues in 
the framework of the implementation of EC de velopment cooperation and has contributed to 
the promotion of this "n on traditional" sector. A series of guidelines on core labour standards, 
DW in the informal economy, social protection, a toolkit to mainstream decent work in social 
 
EN 109   EN and non social EC development cooperation, and a training course on social protection are 
being developed. For the 2007-2013 programming period, according to an assessment of the National and Regional Indicative Pr ogrammes, priority issues broa dly related to social issues 
are foreseen in 23 partner countries (e.g. ch ild labour, anti-fraud, decent work, vocational 
training, social protection).  
The EC has signed three joint management (Financial and Administrative Framework 
Agreement (FAFA)) direct ag reements with ILO under the Employment/Social Cohesion 
Component of the DCI Thematic Programme "Investing in People" for 2007 and 2008. Two 
projects in 2007 for a total of  7.4 M€ EC contribution: (1) M onitoring and Assessing Progress 
on Decent Work in Developing Countries (4 M€) which supports governments and social 
partners in low-income and middle-income de veloping countries to have the tools and the 
capacity to monitor trends and measure progr ess on DW results over time and to apply high-
quality policy analysis; (2) Assessing the eff ects of trade on employment (3.3 M€), which 
aims to improve the methodology and build cap acity to assess the in ter-linkages between 
trade and DW with a view to designing effectiv e and coherent policies and institutions that 
respond to adjustment challenges and promot e DW. Under the 2008 IiP action plan another 2 
joint management projects with the ILO rega rding social protection/labour market and 
Occupational health and safet y, (4M€) are under negotiation.  
Investing in People has also allowed the launc hing of two calls for proposals in 2009, which 
focused on i) creating networks and exchangi ng experiences to improve labour market 
information systems (€ 6.7 M), and ii) settin g up demand-driven technical and vocational 
education and training in formal and informal economy (€5.8 M).  
Tackling child labour is present in  the cooperation activities both in terms of civil rights and 
of social protection. Among others, the EC exte rnal cooperation supports ILO in a project to 
combat child labour through e ducation (TACKLE) – an intr a ACP project including 11 
countries of 15 Million Euros and a 5 Million Euros program in Pakistan. Following up the May 2008 Council conclusions on the promotion and protection of the right s of the child in 
the European Union's external action, the Co mmission is currently conducting a study on the 
scope for additional measures to address child labour. The report will look at a range of 
possible instruments in relevant policy fields  and build on experience and knowledge gathered 
by partners and international or ganisations (e.g. ILO, UNICEF). 
In the EU Strategy on Aid for Trade adopted in 2007
156, the Commission and Member States 
jointly committed to promote the social sustainability of Aid for Trade and to explore possibilities for consultation with stakeholders, in particular local ones and small producers.  
The promotion of equality was thoroughly taken into account in several country strategy 
papers for the 10th European Development Fund (2007-2013). In addition, the ENP Action 
Plans contain provisions to promote the role of  women in economic and social progress and to 
fight against discriminations and violence towards women. Finally, the EU was at the 
forefront of efforts to put gender equality at the heart of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership. 
The Commission will and EU Member States should support developing countries' targeted 
actions to cope with the direct social im pact of the crisis through the creation and 
strengthening of social safety nets, facilitation of direct cash transfer s and enhancement of in-
                                                
 
156 See Council Conclusions of 15 October 2007 (No. prev. doc. 13070/07). 
 
EN 110   EN kind transfers. The Commission will give specifi c attention, when feasible and needed, to 
social safety nets, labour-intensive works and the reform of labour markets157.  
Though important progress has been  made in the area of EC de velopment cooperation, further 
progress is needed. The mid-term review of EC external programming in 2009 presents an 
opportunity to suggest adjustments as appropri ate on the current policy orientations, while 
respecting the principle of ownership and the demand-driven nature of development 
cooperation.  
• Member States 
Since 2007, some Member States have estab lished policy frameworks  with a view to 
promoting PCD in this area. Dutch businesse s, civil society organisations, knowledge 
institutions, individuals, severa l ministries and state secretaries signed the Schokland Pact in 
2007, which is a compilation of agreements including a specific  undertaking by the 
signatories to make a contribu tion to achieving one or more MDGs. Germany is developing a 
decent work paper comprising the four pillars  of the agenda and presenting ongoing and 
planned projects in the area. Finland has created an ad ho c Working Group to draft the 
Development Policy Strategy for the Ministry of Employment and the Economy. The group is 
coordinated by the MFA, and its aim is to in crease development cooperation policy coherence 
in the field of employ ment and the economy. 
With a view to integrating employment and decent work principles into cooperation 
agreements with developing count ries, Member States report some progress. Hungary signed 
an inter-ministerial agreement on cooperation in the field of labour, employment and social 
affairs with Azerbaijan in 2007. Hungary also organised a conference on undeclared work in 
2008, which contributed to the promotion of di alogue among Member States and developing 
countries. Germany has integrated SDG issues into sector-specific policy dialogues with 
China and India. For Germany, compliance with the ILO core labour st andards is a binding 
criterion in assessing coopera tion projects and development pr ogress of partner countries. 
During Denmark’s yearly dialogue meeting with  programme countries, the ratification and 
implementation of the ILO’s fundame ntal conventions are discussed. 
Member States have equally made some progres s in supporting more social policy actions at 
country and regional level. Denmark for exampl e has supported the creation of a High Level 
Africa Commission, which focuses on yout h, employment and economic growth. 
Member States also report some progress in  addressing decent work, gender, children and 
youth issues in development programmes, includi ng the fight against child labour, trafficking 
and sexual violence and enhancing partner countr ies’ attention and cap acity on these issues. 
The UK is supporting the Ethical Trading Initiative, an organi sation bringing together trade 
unions, NGOs and businesses, which seeks to improve working conditions in the supply 
chains of corporate members by implementi ng a code of conduct based on international 
labour standards and developing best practice in the implemen tation of those standards.  
The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) 
                                                 
157 COM (2009) 160 final, 08.04.2009 
 
EN 111   EN The EESC actively promotes the concepts of decent work, employment creation, vocational 
training, social dialogue and respect for and implementation of core  labour standards in 
opinions which it delivers and in final declar ations of seminars and conferences with 
developing countries. The Opinion on the Afri ca-EU Strategy concentrating on employment 
creation in ACP countries and promotion of  decent work and the Opinion on 'How to 
integrate social aspects into the EPAs' show th e active role played by the EESC in this area. 
The inclusion of a social chapte r and institutional provisions for the creation of a Civil Society 
Consultative Committee in the CARIFORUM-EC  EPA is a good example of integration of 
social aspects. It is the first time that an EU trade agreement includes such a provision. The 
EESC is currently working closely with the European Commission to establish the 
Consultative Committee by the end of 2009. EESC suggests to export this model to other 
comprehensive EPAs and to trade agreements with other regions 
The EESC actively promotes and supports the es tablishment or consolidation of Economic 
and Social Councils and of cons ultative bodies at the regional level. In Latin America for 
instance, the EESC has provided expertise and information in addition to an exchange 
programme of delegates between the EESC and the Mercosur Economic and Social 
Consultative Forum (FCES). W ithin the context of relations  with ACP countries, the EESC 
has over the years expressed po litical support for the ILO- Prodiaf programme of social 
dialogue at the regional level in French-speaking African countrie s. Several final declarations 
of regional seminars and all-ACP conferences have included statements to this effect. 
3.7.3.  Conclusion & Outstanding Issues 
Member States rate EU progress in the area of th e social dimension of gl obalisation as slightly 
above average (see chart below158). Several Member States welcome the EU’s commitment to 
raising important issues in international fo ra. Implementation of these commitments on the 
ground could be enhanced. Improved coordina tion across Member States could avoid 
fragmented assistance. Member States acknow ledge the amount of progress in including the 
Social Dimension of Globalisa tion in EU policy papers.  
 
The challenge of extending soci al protection in both formal and informal economies needs to 
be addressed, which also means improving cohere nce between policies in the trade, financial 
                                                 
158 Chart based on Member States' responses to a dedicated PCD 2009 questionnaire prepared by the 
European Commission. 
 
EN 112   EN and social/development sectors a nd institutions at all levels. This has become increasingly 
evident in light of the financia l crisis. Partner countries and donor s need to scale up efforts to 
develop systems of social protection with broa der and more effective coverage adapted to 
each country’s needs and circumstances. "Social protection, and more generally, protection of 
progress achieved in the MDGs in the face of risk and uncertainty should be on every country's agenda. In this resp ect, the diffusion of innovations in developing countries in the 
fields of cash transfers – so called conditional cash transfers -, guaranteed employment schemes, or new insurance products is to be encouraged".
159 
The issues that are to be tackled in the social  dimension of globalisation field (decent work, 
gender, children, youth, employ ment programmes) seem very wide-ranging and coordination 
and coherence may be very difficult to achieve. Some Member States’ responses show that a 
clear understanding of the notion of the ‘socia l dimension of globalisation, employment and 
decent work’ is lacking. The internal EU dime nsion related to the Lisbon strategy and the 
goals of the external dimension need to be id entified in a clearer manne r. A clarification of 
what the external dimension of the social di mension of globalisation,  employment and decent 
work entails is needed.  
As many Member States work with the ILO b ilaterally, this cooperation could be further 
increased at EU level also. Some  Member States have reported that understandings of ‘decent 
work’ Conventions differs at part ner country level, which should be clarified with the ILO to 
ensure that all partners are on the same wave length, and subsequently to facilitate Member 
State alignment with part ner country initiatives.  
Policy statements on the synergies between development and the social dimension of 
globalisation are lacking on se veral levels, as are coordi nation mechanisms. Adequate 
monitoring mechanisms should also be provided for.  
In light of the global economic crisis the soci al dimension of globalisation and decent work 
becomes even more important for development and for poverty reduction. Increasing the level 
of social protection, funding of social safety ne ts and using the decent work agenda as a tool 
to tackle the crisis ar e critical elements in addressing the issues. Promoting and taking account 
of the gender dimension as an automatic reflex across the board is crucial in this respect.  
Outstanding Issues 
• PRSPs are more employment-friendly, thanks to ILO involvement, but additional efforts 
are needed to incorporate core  labour standards, and othe r labour standards, where and 
when required. Beyond this, ILO should be active ly involved in improving social partners’ 
participation in countries where social di alogue is limited and further involved in UN 
reform, developing more links with UNDAFs. 
• Support the design and implementation of policies to reduce salary ineq uity and especially 
gender inequalities within countries. Particular  attention should be paid to integrating 
Social Dimension in Agricultural an d Rural policies at domestic level. 
                                                 
159 European Development Report October 2008 " Millennium Development Goals at Midpoint: Where do 
we stand and where do we need to go? " François Bourguignon et all 
 
EN 113   EN • Integrate the decent work and employment ag enda into the EU-Chi na-Africa trilateral 
dialogue. 
• Given the importance of employment as a driver of south-south and south-north 
migrations, greater consideratio n should be given to employme nt and decent work agenda 
in EU migration policies. 
• Linking employment issues with global challeng es, public policies on climate changes, in 
particular the promotion of "green" em ployment, should integrate SDG aspects. 
 
EN 114   EN 3.8. Migration  
Quick Facts 
• Today about 200 million people, roughly 3% of the world's population, are foreign 
born.160 
• Women account for 49.6% of global migrants.161  
• According to the latest estimations of  the World Bank, remittances flows to 
developing countries reached $305 billion in 2008.162  
• Sending remittances to Africa is costly. In 2006, sending $200 from London to Lagos 
cost $29, and sending the same amount from Benin to Lagos cost over $34.163 This 
often leads to the use of informal channels to send money home. 
• By 2050 33% of the population in the EU will be over 65. There will be two retirees 
per every one active person164.  
 
3.8.1.  Introduction 
Migration and mobility, if prope rly managed, contribute to the reduction of poverty in 
developing countries and thus directly or indirec tly to the achieveme nt of Millennium 
Development Goals.  
In the current global economic and financial turm oil it is crucial to keep the EU long term 
commitment to maintain an open Union, respondi ng to the needs of the EU economic systems 
and the demographic trends, within a wider gl obal perspective. Migration and mobility, as 
global phenomena, will continue . EU policies must be designe d to take advantage of the 
multiple opportunities it offers to ensure that  migration indeed benefits countries both of 
origin and of destination to maximise the deve lopmental effects of our  migration policy while 
minimising its negative side effects. 
Temporary or permanent outward migration fr om developing countries can contribute to 
poverty reduction. These countries can benefi t from reduced labour market pressures, 
important levels of migrant remittances and the transfer of knowledge and skills of migrants. 
Remittances play an important role in reduci ng poverty among recipients. For some countries 
remittances are an important source of ex ternal revenues (like India $27.0 bn, Bangladesh 
                                                 
160 World Bank, World Development Report 2009, page 150 
161 United Nations' Trends in Total Migrant Stock: The 2005 Revision. See 
http://esa.un.org/migration/index.asp?panel=4 
162 Commission Staff Working Paper accompanying the Communication: "Supporting developing 
countries in coping with the crisis. Where does th e EU go from Doha? What prospects for meeting the 
EU targets of 2010 and 2015? Annual progress report 2009 on financing for development". 
SEC (2009) 444, 8.04.2009. 
163 New Ways to Finance Development in Sub Sahara n Africa, Dilip Ratha, Sanket Mohapatra, Sonia 
Plaza, World Bank Research  Paper 4609, 01.04.2008. 
164 Shaping the Future, A Long-Term Perspective of Peop le and Job Mobility in the Middle East and North 
Africa, World Bank, Middle East North Africa (MENA) report, 16.03.2009. 
 
EN 115   EN $6.4 bn, Sudan $1.2 bn)165. Much can be done to help by de fining policies which facilitate 
links and involvement of migrant communities and diaspora groups with their countries of 
origin, including by promoting innova tive solutions for transferring money. 
One of the major downsides of migration whic h needs to be addresse d is brain drain and 
'brain waste', in particular in sensitive sect ors such as health a nd education. Brain drain 
exemplifies some of the major challenges and contradictions of  the global migration 
discourse: education and training policies in developing countries  could have an effect on 
retention and return, wh ile the efforts of developing count ries are challenged by recruitment 
policies in Europe and elsewhere.  
Impact of the global cris is on remittances flows   
The global economic slowdown is  affecting developing  countries that depend heavily on 
remittances, with Kenya for example reportedly experiencing a fall of -38% . This is partly 
due to the fact that in times of crisis, migr ation flows might slow down, but the stock of 
international migrants (and therefore th e remitters) is unlikely to decrease166, in addition, 
remittances form a small part of migrants' inco me, which they most likely will continue to 
send. Although private money, much can be done  to help defining policies which facilitate 
links and involvement of migrant communities and diaspora groups with their countries of 
origin, including by promoting innovative solu tions for transferring money. "Preliminary 
estimates suggest that Sub-Saharan African countr ies can potentially raise $1 to $3 billion by 
reducing the cost of international migrant re mittances, $5 to $10 billion by issuing diaspora 
bonds, and $17 billion by securitising future re mittances and other future receivables"167. 
Finally, gender matters. Remittanc es often benefit families who st ay behind in the countries of 
origin . Female migrants tend to send remittances o ver longer periods and the level of their 
remittances seems higher .168 
Circular migration policies are a good example of how migration can potentially be a triple 
win: the migrants may improve their skills a nd knowledge, the country of  origin can benefit 
from increased financial and know ledge transfers as well as reduced labour market pressure, 
and the country of destinati on can address temporary shortages on the labour market.  
3.8.2.  Progress towards PCD Commitments  
Since the 2007 EU Policy Coherence for Developm ent report, further progress has been made 
in terms of dialogue, partne rship and joint action. At polit ical level there is general 
recognition amongst the relevant institutiona l actors that well-managed migration can 
positively contribute to development, employme nt, mobility and growth , both in the EU and 
in third countries. This is reflected in the EU  political dialogue framework and throughout the 
instruments put in place to implement migrati on policy commitments. Migration is thus firmly 
                                                 
165 World Bank Migration and Remittances Factbook 2008 
166 Outlook for Remittance 2008-2010, World Bank Dilip Ratha, Sanket Mohapatra and Zhimei Xu, 
11.11.2008 
167 New Ways to Finance Development in Sub Sahara n Africa, Dilip Ratha, Sanket Mohapatra, Sonia 
Plaza,WorldBank Research Paper 4609, 01.04.2008. 
168 "Development and Migration from a Gender Perspectiv e" International Training and Research Institute 
for the Advancement of Women, paper presented at the Seventh Coordination Meeting on International 
Migration, UN Secretariat Population Division, Department of Social and Economic Affairs, 20.11. 
2008 
 
EN 116   EN on the European Union's policy agenda and incr easingly being integrated into other policy 
areas such as development, foreign affairs, em ployment and social affairs while development 
concerns are increasingly be ing taken into account when it comes to migration policy. 
3.8.2.1.  A comprehensive policy framework  
The Global Approach to Migra tion, adopted in 2005 provides an  overall policy framework on 
the external dimension of the European Union' s migration policy, particularly taking into 
account the migration and development dimensi on. First designed for th e Southern Migratory 
Route, it was extended in 2007 to the Eastern Migratory Route. Since its adoption, it has 
aimed at genuine partnership with third countries , full integration into the EU's other external 
policies, and the incorporation of all migratio n and asylum issues, in a comprehensive and 
balanced manner, covering legal migration, ille gal migration and migra tion and development. 
PCD commitments are fully integrated into the policy framework and featured as a key factor 
in the most recent Commission Communication on the topic169.  
These principles were reaffirmed at the hi ghest political level in  October 2008 when EU 
Member States agreed to a number of basic pr inciples of cooperation with the adoption of the 
European Pact on Immigration and Asylum. Th e Pact henceforth formed the basis of a 
common immigration and asylum policy founded on proper management of migratory flows, 
in the interests not only of the host countries bu t also of the countries of origin and of the 
migrants themselves. Implementation of the Pact will be the subject of an  annual debate in the 
European Council in the first half of 2010.  
Based inter alia on a Comm ission Communication presente d in June 2009 and broad 
consultation with stakeholders, the European  Council will adopt by December 2009 the next 
five-year work programme for freedom, secur ity and justice in the EU. This so-called 
'Stockholm Programme' will set the agenda for the years to come. Mi gration, including the 
nexus migration and development, will form an important part of this Programme.  
Member States emphasise that since 2007 the link between migration and development has 
been reinforced within their governments and their policies. The focus has mainly been on 
implementation. However, several Member States  mention limited success with their attempts 
to integrate migration into national development strategies partly becau se positive aspects of 
migration are not always recognised as such in partner countries and engaging development 
practitioners in this particul ar field has not been easy.  
3.8.2.2.  Political dialogue with Africa 
Dialogue with African partners has been particularly  active at all levels since 2007. At a 
continental level  and following on from the Tripo li Declaration on Migration and 
Development of November 2006, an EU-Afri ca Partnership for Migration, Mobility and 
Employment was adopted by the EU-Africa Summ it of Heads of States and Government in 
Lisbon in December 2007170. This Partnership reflects an agreed understanding and 
commitment on the part of African and EU count ries to jointly address migration and mobility 
issues in the framework of labour market disparities both within and between the two 
                                                 
169 Strengthening the Global Approach to Migration: increasing coordination, coherence and synergies 
COM(2008) 611 final, 08.10.2008 
170 One of eight partnerships launched along with the Joint Africa-EU Strategy approved at the Lisbon 
Summit. 
 
EN 117   EN continents. At a regional level, a Declaration on Migration and Development was adopted in 
Paris in November 2008 focusing on the manage ment of migratory fl ows along the western 
migratory route, as follow-up to the Rabat Declaration in 2006. At a national level, four 
additional political dialogue missions171 have been carried out sin ce 2007 in Nigeri a, Ethiopia, 
South Africa and Tanzania.  
As a tool to follow up concretely political dialogue, a cooperation platform  has been set up in 
Ethiopia. Its aim is to gather all actors concer ned by migration both on the EU side and of the 
partner country and to pr ovide a forum for dialogue  on the topic. In line with this concept, a 
migration dialogue forum  was set up in South Africa.  
Most Member States state that they support the EU-Africa Strategy and its Partnership on 
Migration, Mobility and Employment. Member St ates call for more pa rticipation and active 
commitment by Member States and Af rican partners in the Partnership. 
3.8.2.3.  Political dialogue with other regions  
The migration situation in Eastern Europe and Ce ntral Asia has been for long in the centre of 
interest of a number of EU MS. Ho wever, until recently their migration  initiatives focused 
largely on border management and asylum policy, while the migration/development 
dimension was less accentuated. The extension of the Global Approach to Migration on these 
regions in 2007 has changed the  approach. Following its Ministerial Conference  on "Building 
Migration partnerships", the EU is enhancing its  dialogue on all dimensions of migration. The 
impact of mobility on labour markets will also be addressed  under the newly launched Eastern 
Partnership.  
Finally the EU has also deve loped its dialogue with Asia and Latin America on migration-
related issues, notably in the EU-LAC (Latin America and Caribbean) framework. 
The EU has an extensive legisl ation regarding the protection of  migrants' rights. One of the 
issues which is r ecurrently raised in EU's dialogue with third countr ies and regions concerns 
migrants' rights, in particular in relation to  the 1990 United Nations International Convention 
on the Protection of the Rights of All Migran t Workers and Members of their Families.  
3.8.2.4.  Brain drain 
The EU's policy on addressing the shortage of health workers in developing countries is a 
good example of the EU effort to ensure that policies in Europe  are coherent with external 
action and that policy pr oposals for internal EU action to solve Europe's own challenges do 
not have an adverse impact on the situation in developing countries . The programme for EU 
action to tackle the critical shortage of health workers in  developing countries (2007-2013)172 
has a strong component dealing with internal EU  action - namely it calls  for development and 
implementation of a set of ethical principles that would guide recru itment of non-EU health 
workers and for further enabling circular migr ation as a means to favour knowledge transfers 
while addressing labour market needs.  
                                                 
171 Under articles 8 and 13 of the Cotonou Partnership Agreement 
172 COM(2006) 870 final, 21.12.2006 
 
EN 118   EN PCD challenges related to brain drain were further explored in 2008 by the Commission in a 
Staff Working Paper173, which advocates definition and implementation of country-specific 
'safeguarding skills for development' policies, ba sed on training, retention, ethical recruitment, 
return and integration. Strategies need to look across generations, including youth. The EU 
education programmes, such as Erasmus M undus and Edulink, have positive effects on 
retention, return and circular mobility. In May 2008174, the Council invited Member States, in 
partnership with the countries c oncerned, to facilitate voluntary re turn and reintegration in the 
country of origin in a ho listic and coherent manner to  advance the "brain gain"175.  
Moreover in November 2008, the Council adop ted conclusions on th e Commission's staff 
working document on the implementation of th e EU programme for action to tackle the 
critical shortage of health workers in devel oping countries, in which th e Council reiterates the 
need to strengthen the translation of the existing policy into action, especially with respect to 
the development and implementation of an EU Code of Conduct for r ecruitment of health 
workers from developing countries that woul d draw upon existing ex perience of Member 
States and the work of the WHO on a global code  of practice in this area. The report shows 
that there are indeed already examples on wh ich the EU can build, such as the "Code of 
Conduct and follow-up on Ethical Cross-Border Recruitment and Retention" signed in 2008 
jointly by the European Hospital and Healthca re Employers’ Association and the European 
Federation of Public Service Unions within th e framework of the hospitals' European Sector 
Social Dialogue Committee, or  the UK Code of Practice published at the end of 2004. 
Safeguards to avoid brain drain as  such were introduced in the Di rective to facilitate the entry 
and residence of highly skilled workers  (see below). In addition, the European Commission 
took further steps in the area of health wo rkers and in 2008 drafted a Green Paper on the 
European workforce for health. The Green Paper stresses the crucial impo rtance of scaling up 
the EU's own health workforce (this could be do ne e.g. by taking the necessary steps to ensure 
that enough doctors, nurses, engine ers and researchers are trained in Eur opean countries and 
that they have working conditions that are su fficiently attractive to discourage them from 
looking for greener pastures in othe r developed countries outside the EU176) and also proposes 
to put in place an EU-wide set of principles to guide recruitment of health workers from 
developing countries, introduce methods for mon itoring the situation, stimulate bilateral and 
multilateral agreements with s ource countries and developing mechanisms for support of 
circular migration.  Some Member States - notably France, Germa ny and the Netherlands - have begun to work 
on developing programmes which would encourage migrant health workers to return to and 
resettle in their countries of origin or enab le them to leave for extended periods without 
affecting their residency status . Further study in the EU building on research, existing best 
practices and consultation with re levant stakeholders in the EU and developing countries, will 
need to be undertaken to increase the scale of  such initiatives, to institutionalise them and to 
make "dual posting" or other op tions that stimulate circular migration sufficiently attractive 
and still workable for health workers, their families and their employers. 
                                                
 
173 Commission Staff Working Paper Policy Coherence for Development. Climate 
Change/Energy/Biofuels, Migration and Research, SEC (2008) 434/2. 
174 Conclusions of the Council 27 May 2008, 9907/08 
175 Brain gain designates the return of qualif ied persons to the countries of origins 
176 Commission Staff Working Paper Policy Coherence for Development. Climate 
Change/Energy/Biofuels, Migration and Research, SEC (2008) 434/2.09.04.2008 
 
EN 119   EN 3.8.2.5.  Labour / circular migration and increased mobility 
Since 2007, a number of initiatives have been  adopted to integrate legal migration 
opportunities into th e Union's external policies and to facilitate circular and temporary 
migration.  
The Directive to facilitate the entry a nd residence of Highl y Qualified Migrants  (also known 
as the "Blue Card directive") was approved in May 2009177. It seeks to establish more 
attractive entry and residence cond itions for third-country nationa ls to take up highly qualified 
employment in EU Member States. To this  end, it introduces a fast-track admission 
procedure, a common residence/work title ("EU Blue Card"), foresees measures facilitating the intra-EU mobility and grants a number of generous facilitating the intra-EU mobility and 
grants a number of generous socio-economic ri ghts on the basis of equal treatment with EU 
workers as well as favourable conditions for family reunification. A number of safeguards 
have been introduced to increase transparency a nd avoid brain drain eff ects in the form of a 
circular migration clause, a brain drain clause, an ethical recruitment clause and Member State 
reporting duties.  
Various initiatives were taken concerning circular migration from a development perspective 
such as the workshop on circul ar migration which the Commi ssion co-organised with the 
government of Mauritius (September 2008) followed by a workshop in Brussels in March 
2009. These workshops aim at exchanging best pr actice on circular migration to benefit 
further policy development 
A number of initiatives will be taken forward with a view to fostering increased mobility 
between the EU and third countries
178. In particular, the proposa l for a directive on a single 
application permit aims to ensure a common set of rights to all third-country workers already admitted and legally working in a Member State. Acknowledging the contribution made by 
the legal immigrant workers to the EU's economy and to help  them better integrate, the 
proposal seeks to guarantee basic socio-economi c rights on an equal footing with Member 
State's own nationals, in particular as rega rds working conditions a nd pay, education, trade 
union's rights and social security.  
Migration Information and Management Centre in Mali (CIGEM) 
CIGEM was set up in Bamako (Mali) and is fund ed by the European Union in the framework 
of its cooperation with Mali. It aims at providing concrete in formation to potential migrants 
on legal migration opportunities bu t also on the risks of illegal migration. It will also provide 
advice to the Malian government on its migration policy and support Diaspora organisations 
wanting to invest in their country of origin and prov ide information and reintegration 
assistance to returning migrants. It was inaugurated in October 2008179.  
                                                 
177 Directive 2009/50/EC of 25 May 2009 (OJ L 155, p. 17). 
178 A proposal for a directive on a single application permit for third-country nationals to reside and work 
in the territory of a Member State and a common set of rights for third-country workers legally residing 
in a Member State (COM (2007) 638 final); a proposal for a directive on the conditions of entry and 
residence of seasonal workers (scheduled for 22 July 2009); a proposal for a di rective on the procedures 
regulating the entry , the temporary stay and residen ce of Intra-Corporate Tran sferees (ICT) (scheduled 
for 22 July 2009). 
179 See www.cigem.org  
 
EN 120   EN A few Member States have developed new policie s in order to encourag e circular migration. 
Some Member States (e.g. Spain, Portugal, Ital y, France) have introduced multi-entry permits 
or facilitated re-entry procedures  to promote circular migration, mainly in the area of seasonal 
workers. The Netherlands has started a pilot project which will give migrants the possibility to work in the Netherlands and return to their co untry of origin for a longer period of time, 
without losing the right to re sidence. The Netherlands has also broadened the access of 
asylum seekers to the Dutch labour market . Similarly, Sweden has changed its policy 
concerning the allowed period of absence a nd residential rights, giving migrants the 
opportunity to return to thei r countries of origin. Portuga l introduced a law in 2007 which 
facilitates circular migration, letting migrants keep their residence permit after long absences, 
if they were active in a professional occu pation in their country of origin. Improved 
portability of social rights, the right to resi dence as well as, ultimately, citizenship may be 
core issues to favour increased migrant mobility. 
3.8.2.6.  Remittances 
The higher awareness in recent years of the importance of remittances in promoting 
development and various international initia tives are gradually becoming visible in the 
implementation of concrete measures
180. Regarding EU-specific commitments on remittances, 
significant progress has been made on ensuring more reliable data on remittances, favouring 
cheaper, faster and more secure flows of rem ittances and stimulating the development impact 
of remittances. A few examples can be mentioned181: 
• Most EU Member States have progressed since 2007 on reducing the cost and improving 
the safety of remittances. Substantial progress has been achieved with the adoption of the Payment Services Directive (PSD) in Nove mber 2007, which provide s the legal foundation 
for the creation of an EU-wide single market  for payments. While the Directive will only 
be applicable to payments made within the EU , it will be revised in 2011 and could then be 
extended to international remittances.  
• Some Member States, such as Belgium and the UK, are currently exploring the 
development of a chip-card for remittances transfers via mobile phones which would allow 
for much lower costs and an improved accessi bility given the proportion of people in 
possession of a mobile phone in developing  countries. Others, lik e France, favour the 
development by banks of services  dedicated to migrants (cre ation of specific agencies, 
insurance products). 
• Several Member States and the Commission ar e supporting developing countries in the 
establishment of policy framework more c onducive for remittances. For instance, the 
European Community supports the setting up of an African Remittances Institute in 
partnership with the World Ba nk and under the leadership of the African Union. Its core 
objective consists in providi ng capacity building for Member States of the African Union, 
remittance senders and recipients, private sector, universities, and other stakeholders to develop and implement concrete strategies a nd operational instruments to use remittances 
as development tools for poverty reduction.  
                                                
 
180 Among those main initiatives were the guidelines for the compilation of data on remittances by 
the"Luxembourg Group", the "General Principles for International Remittances Services" and the recent 
G8 initiative for a "Global Remittances Working Group" coordinated by the World Bank. 
181 For a more complete assessment, see the COM (2009) 160 Final, 08.04.2009  
 
EN 121   EN • Recent measures by some Member States su ch as the provision that money transfer 
organisations are required to inform the local law enforcemen t authorities w ithin 12 hours 
in case the person wishing to transfer funds is unable to present a resident permit, might be 
counter-productive from a development perspec tive, favouring the tran sfer of remittances 
through informal channels. 
3.8.2.7.  Diaspora  
Diaspora organisations being considered as poten tial actors in the filed of development, tools 
have been put in place to foster their involv ement in development projects. The EC-UN joint 
initiative for migration and development (€15 million) fosters exchange of experience and 
best practices among diaspora organisations, provides capacity building and supports their 
involvement in the development of their co untries of origin. Promoting dialogue and 
cooperation with diasporas is one of the ke y aspects of this programme. In June 2008 a 
workshop took place in Brussels, which highlighted -inter alia- the need for a more structured 
dialogue mechanism with African diaspora at European level. 
A number of Member States have attempted to involve diasporas in their development 
policies. They have commissione d studies to research the po ssible impact of involving 
diasporas, and they have tried to  engage the diasporas in projects in their home countries to 
develop the private sector. Belgium for ex ample, has done a study on the Congolese and 
Moroccan diaspora. France has carried out a study on migratory corridors to Morocco, Mali, Comoros and Senegal, in cooperation with the African Development Bank and the World 
Bank and is also supporting World Bank and African Development Programmes, which aim 
to increase the involvement of diasporas in de velopment matters and faci litate the transfer of 
remittances. 
3.8.2.8.  Mobility Partnerships 
Mobility Partnerships  were concluded with Cape Verde and the Republic of Moldova. 
Conceived as one of the main tools to implem ent the Global Approach, they provide a wide 
framework for cooperation as regards manage ment of migration and mobility. A similar 
Partnership is currently bei ng negotiated with Georgia.  
Mobility partnerships have an important development component. In the Republic of 
Moldova, the flagship project coordinated by th e Swedish Public Employment Service aims at 
strengthening the capacities of the National Employment Agency to support reintegration of 
returning migrants and to provide informati on on legal employment in the EU. Hungary and 
Romania organised training sessions and an ex change of experience with Moldovan public 
services, awareness campaigns for migrant wo rkers have been orga nised, and strengthened 
links with the Moldovan diaspora  have been establis hed. Also in this framework several 
Member States have concluded or are negoti ating social security agreements with the 
Republic of Moldova to ensure portability of rights. The work  on support for human capital 
development and recognition of professional qualifica tions of migrant workers (returning and 
emigrating), instrumental to counteract brain wa ste, is implemented by the European Training 
Foundation.  
As part of the Mobility Partnership with Cape  Verde, Portugal and Spain participate in the 
CAMPO (Centre for the Support of Migrants in the Country of Or igin) project, which aims to 
match skills with available jobs and to provide relevant information on migration channels so as to promote legal migration. It also supports  returning migrants’ en trepreneurship. Member 
 
EN 122   EN States assess the Mobility Partnerships to be beneficial to partner countries, as they have 
strengthened the dialogue between  all partners, common challeng es and interests have been 
identified and areas for cooperation have been singled out. 
3.8.3.  Conclusion & Outstanding Issues 
Through its Global Approach to Migration, the European Union seeks to ensu re that the 
positive benefits of migration are harnessed to bring mutual benefit to the EU and partner 
countries. The Policy Coherence for Development proc ess is instrumental in  ensuring that this 
delicate balance is advanced.  
 
Since 2007, the European Union has reinforced it s dialogue with third countries on migration 
and development issues while further integratin g mutual migration concerns and challenges in 
cooperation with these countries. Member States  rate the EU's progress as average to good 
(see chart above182). They welcome the Mobility Partnerships with Moldova and Cape Verde, 
the cooperation platform in Ethi opia as well as the Blue Card  scheme. According to Member 
States, particularly the Mobility Partnerships have the potential to improve policy coherence, 
both among participating EU Member States and the Commission. Member States consider 
the Mobility Partnerships to be beneficial to partner countries, as they have strengthened the 
dialogue between all partners, common challenge s and interests have been identified and 
areas for cooperation have been singled out. Th e real policy challenge for the coming years 
remains therefore whether the EU and its Member  States are capable and prepared to offer 
real migration and mobility options for nati onals of developing co untries seeking legal 
employment in the EU. Portability of socio- economic rights is also being addressed but 
should be further tackled in the coming years. 
Implementation has started and must continue on  a number of issues, especially remittances, 
increased mobility, stronger relationships and dialogue with diaspora or ganisations. However, 
the agenda still needs to be taken forward es pecially when it comes to facilitating labour 
migration, labour matching, the efficient transfer  and recognition of new skills and addressing 
brain drain. New issues, such as the impact of the economic crisis and climate change on 
migration, will be further explored. 
                                                 
182 Chart based on Member States' responses to a dedicated PCD 2009 questionnaire prepared by the 
European Commission 
 
EN 123   EN Outstanding Issues 
• Offering real migration and mobility options fo r nationals of developing countries seeking 
legal employment in the EU.  
-Negotiate Mobility Partnershi ps with other third countries; 
-Launch more pilot schemes on circular migr ation and undertake further study in the EU 
building on research, existing best  practices and consultation with relevant stakeholders in the 
EU and developing countries explore opti ons to stimulate circular migration; 
-Consider the establishment of further labour migration information and management centres 
in third countries; in general terms, reinforce capacities of the relevant authorities in third 
countries to manage migration and to provide information about legal migration opportunities; 
-Consider visa facilitatio n for certain groups of third-country nationals; 
-Expand best practices regarding the right to  residence and on othe r citizenship issues. 
• Further progress in the definition and implem entation of a common approach to migrants' 
rights, so as to strengthen the EU's intern ational credibility and the coherence of EU 
migration policy with its development and human rights policies. 
• Continue implementation of the migrati on and development agenda of the Global 
Approach 
-Develop and implement country specific 'safeguarding' skills for developing countries to 
address brain drain. 
-Strengthen dialogue and cooperation with dias pora groups and migrant communities; support 
the emergence of diaspora ne tworks at European level 
-Continue to promote cheaper, faster and more secure flows of remittances and stimulate the 
development impact of remittances and promote legal channels for transferring remittances, 
including by ensuring that the relevant legislation does not c ontain provisions hampering the 
effective use of these channels by migrants. 
-Recalling that introducing aid conditionality (e.g. in the context of nego tiations of bilateral 
agreements in the area of migration) is not an effective way of addressing the problem, and 
that the global approach is  the best conduct to follow. 
 
EN 124   EN 3.9. Research and Innovation  
Quick Facts  
• The global recession has meant many developi ng countries are losing markets for their 
goods, eliciting cries from their leaders for more science, technology and engineering 
graduates to improve productivity  and diversify products, so as to salve economic woes.183  
• African Finance Ministers consider scientific knowledge as a critical  factor for growth, 
employment and poverty reduction and for the competitiveness of their economies in the 
21st century. They are concerne d by the weaknesses of their higher education, science and 
technology sectors.184 
• Morocco has announced plans for a new camp us providing knowledge-b ased services to 
strengthen research and trai ning in clear technology. The campus is part of a US$219 
million clean energy industrial park to suppor t private sector investment as well as 
renewable energy companies. Building is und erway, and the campus is expected to open 
by 2010. 185 
• Ethiopia has developed a programme with Addi s Ababa University to produce 5 000 PhDs 
in 10 years.186 
3.9.1.  Introduction 
Research is not something that most people would associate immediately with developing 
countries but it is an issue of growing im portance for them. Developing countries need 
research. Firstly, because it directly contribut es to achievement of the MDGs, e.g. in the 
health and food security areas. Secondly, b ecause it transforms developing countries' 
economies, promotes growth and strengthens co mpetitiveness, thereby creating the enabling 
environment for achieving the MDGs.  
Since research is today a globa l endeavour, developing countries will need to participate in 
international research program mes (including those of the Eu ropean Union) in order to 
contribute to the solution of regional and global problems. 
That research and innovation pays off even fo r developing countries has been demonstrated 
by countries in East Asia. Their development is  often attributed to investments in knowledge 
and new technology as one key factor  explaining their success stories.187  
The UNCTAD Least Developed Countries Repo rt 2007 'Knowledge, Technological Learning 
and Innovation for Development' makes the case fo r Least Developed Countries. It argues that 
                                                 
183 Science Development Network 2009. http ://www.scidev.net/en/sc ience-and-innovation-
policy/innovation-policy/opinions/new-thinking-needed-on-innovation-infrastructure.html. 
184 UNECA 2008.  
http://www.uneca.org/ sciencewithafrica/enewsletter/swa_ enewsletter_dec_2008.html#na_cam. 
185 .  
186 The Guardian 2008.  
http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2008/may/13/highereducation.internationaleducationnews. 
187 OECD Development Centre Studies. Policy Coherence Towards East Asia: Development Challenges 
for OECD Countries, 2006 
 
EN 125   EN 'unless LDCs adopt policies to stimulate techno logical catch-up with th e rest of the world, 
they will continue to fall behind other co untries technologically and face deepening 
marginalisation in the global economy.'188  
But sometimes also difficult situation have adva ntages. As developing c ountries start from a 
low base research may have a potentially high er impact on them than developed countries. 
For example, on-farm yields of maize in six African countries (Malaw i, Ethiopia, Nigeria, 
Uganda, Mali and Mozambique) are between one quart er and one third of pot ential yields that 
can be achieved under optimal conditions. This 'y ield gap', between actual and potential is 
much less pronounced in developed countries.189 
Notwithstanding the clear benefits of investing in science, the Commission for Africa’s report 
'Our Common Interest' concluded that 'The science gap between Africa and the rest of the 
world is widening and under business-as-usual this gap will continue to grow'190. It finds that 
Africa has become increasingly uncompetitive, as a result of its weaknesses in governance and infrastructure, low capacity in science and technology and lack of innovation and 
diversification from primary products. Catc hing up has become more difficult. Barring 
significant and swift progress, the marginalisation of Africa will become an ever-greater 
problem to overcome and an ever-gr eater threat to global stability.
191 
African countries increasingly recognise the im portance of research for development. The 
first African Ministerial Conf erence on Science and Technology (AMCOST) in November 
2003 and subsequent meetings of AMCOST  in 2006 and 2007, the plan of action 
consolidating the S&T programmes of th e AU and NEPAD endorsed by AMCOST in 
September 2005, and the joint partnership on Scie nce, Information Society and Space agreed 
in December 2007 in the framework of the Joint Africa-EU Strategy, are important milestones 
on this road. 
3.9.2.  Progress made towards PCD commitments 
Since the previous Policy Coherence for Development Report in 2007, there has been 
considerable progress in the approach to c ooperation with developi ng countries. The policy 
arena has changed. Regarding Africa in particul ar, an important step was taken with the 
adoption in December 2 007 of the EU-Africa '8th Partnership' in Science, Information Society 
and Space. Moreover, a policy framework for res earch cooperation with developing countries 
more generally has been proposed in th e Commission Communica tion on a Strategic 
European Framework for International Sc ience and Technology C ooperation, adopted in 
September 2008.192 The Communication stresses that re search cooperation with developing 
countries should be aligned w ith development cooperation polic ies and the MDGs. It also 
recognises that major global challenges such as  climate change, poverty,  infectious disease, 
and threats to energy, food and water supply hi ghlight the need for effective global S&T 
cooperation to promote sustaina ble development. It proposes a partnership between Member 
                                                 
188 UNCTAD, The Least Developed Countries Report 2007, Knowledge, Technological Learning and 
Innovation for Development, p. 1. 
189 World Bank, World Development Report 2008,  
190 Our Common Interest, the report of the Commission for Africa, 2005, p. 138 
191 Idem p. 84 
192 COM (2008) 588 final, 24.9.2008, Communication from the Commission to the Council and the 
European Parliament. A Strategic European Fram ework for International Science and Technology 
Cooperation,. 
 
EN 126   EN States and with the European Community to  strengthen internat ional cooperation. The 
Communication was endorsed by the Council of the European Union in December 2008. 193 
The Commission Staff Working Paper on Po licy Coherence for Development; Climate 
Change/Energy/Biofuels, Migration and Research194 identifies concrete ways for research 
policy to contribute better to development.  Based on this paper the Council adopted 
conclusions asking the Member States and the Commission to promote research on MDG-
related issues and to give developing countries  better access to the resu lts of research. To 
strengthen the knowledge base  of developing countries it proposes to promote the 
participation of researchers from developing countries in European research programmes 
while at the same time strengthening the cap acity of developing countries in the area of 
research and by working towards more balanced  mobility of researchers between the EU and 
developing countries. 
The policy context for research and developmen t has remained the same in most Member 
States. In some of them, however, new policy frameworks have been agreed putting more 
emphasis on research for development. The German government, for example, has developed a strategy for the Intern ationalisation of Science and Tec hnology, which includes a number of 
specific development objectives. In Swed en and the UK - through the UK DFID New 
Research Strategy 2008-13 - new government le gislation has further boosted the focus on 
global challenges with an impact on development. The Swedish Government Bill on research and innovation, A Boost for Research and Innov ation (2008) highlights global development 
challenges with an indirect be aring on developing countries to a larger extent than earlier 
government bills in this area. The draft Hungary agriculture pol icy, which is to be adopted 
this year, contains an enhanced developmen t dimension. Although it does not specifically 
refer to the MDGs, it mentions the importance of Agricultural Research for Development and 
of working with Africa.  Dutch RTD and innovation policy focu ses primarily on promoting the 
Dutch and European knowledge infrastructure a nd economy as set out in the Lisbon agenda. 
Cooperation with third countries is encouraged not only from that perspective, but also in 
relation to global issues like climate change, in fectious diseases, rene wable energy, the world 
food issue, migration and security. 
3.9.2.1.  Cooperation with researchers from developi ng countries and thei r participation in 
European research programmes 
The Seventh Framework Programme (FP-7) is the major tool for the implementing of EU 
research policy. It is a se ven-year programme (2007-2013) with an overall budget of €54 
billion pursuing the objectives (laid down in the Treaty establishing the European 
Community) of strengthening the S&T basis, a nd thereby the competitiveness of EU industry 
and meeting the research needs of other EU  policies. Internati onal cooperation, including 
cooperation for development, is mainstreamed through the Programme. Almost all funded activities are selected afte r competitive calls for proposals followed by peer review 
evaluation. The years covered by the present report correspond to the first two years of 
implementation of FP-7. 
                                                
 
193 Conclusions of the Council, 2.12.08, concerning a European partnership for international scientific and 
technological cooperation (2009/C 18/05) 
194 SEC (2008) 434, 9.4.2008,Commission Staff Working Paper Policy Coherence for Development. 
Climate Change/Energy/Biofuels, Migration and Research,. 
 
EN 127   EN FP 7 is open to participation from researchers from anywhere in the world. Researchers from 
developing countries not only can participate in all programmes but can also be funded. 
At the programme level, the Commission ensures that topics relevant to developing countries 
are included in the annual work programmes. In addition to discussing research priorities with 
representatives from developing countries, experts from devel oping countries are included in 
proposal evaluation panels. As a result, the Commission finances  many projects with an MDG 
focus, particularly in the 'Health' and 'F ood, Agriculture, Fisheries and Biotechnology' and 
'Environment' thematic programmes but also in areas such as energy and transport. 
Almost all funded activities are selected after competitive calls for proposals followed by peer 
review evaluation. Projects are se lected based on the principle of  scientific excellence. This 
principle ensures that the best projects are funded a nd that projects are selected following the 
same criteria and standards. At the same time this principle often makes it difficult for researchers from developing countries to part icipate successfully in  European research 
programmes, because of low R&D capacity in th eir countries and sometimes also because of 
the lack of knowledge in Europe about pot ential partners in developing countries.   
Recognising the importance of working with developing count ries, the Commission actively 
promotes opportunities offere d by FP-7 amongst researchers from these countries. The 
Commission regularly informs people in deve loping countries about existing opportunities 
under FP-7 e.g. through video conf erences and dissemination and tr aining events and experts 
from developing countries participate in proposal evaluation pane ls. In parallel the 
Commission informs Delegations in developing  countries about the importance of S&T for 
development in order to alert them to th e possibilities of S&T capacity building through 
development funds as well as the opportuni ties for cooperation offered through the FP.   
In addition, the Commission has launched INCO-NETs which are specific outreach 
mechanisms geared to developing countries , bringing together policy-makers and 
stakeholders at bi-regional level. They pr ovide support for policy dialogues and help in 
identifying topics for collabo ration under FP-7 thematic progra mmes. They also disseminate 
information on opportunities for participation in the FP. For developing regions of the world, 
INCO-NETSs have been established for: Mediterranean Partner Countries (MIRA); Sub-Saharan Africa (CAAST-NET); Latin America (LA-NET); South-East Asia (SEA-NET). 
Others are in preparation (including for th e Central American, Ca ribbean, and Pacific 
regions).  
For countries with which the EC has a Science and Technology Cooperation Agreement
195 
issues for research collaboration are identified by Joint Committees established under these agreements. Ad-hoc workshops in the regions or participation in intern ational fora, e.g. WHO, 
the Global Forum for Health Research are othe r mechanism for selecting research topics. 
The Commission has developed specific inst ruments to promote participation from 
researchers from developing countries. The mo st effective instruments to that end are 
probably the Specific Internati onal Cooperation Actions (SICAs ). SICAs are dedicated to 
cooperation with International Cooperation Partner Countries (ICPCs). Most ICPCs can be 
categorized as developing countries, but they also include emerging economies and Eastern 
                                                
 
195 Countries with which the EC has a Science and Te chnology Cooperation Agreement: Argentina, Brazil, 
Chile, Mexico, China, India, Egypt, Morocco, Tu nisia, Jordan, South A frica, Ukraine, Russia, 
Australia, Canada, Korea, New Zealand, USA 
 
EN 128   EN European countries. SICA calls for proposals identify specific topi cs of relevance to specific 
ICPC regions (or more than one region) and re quire that the proposing consortium include at 
least two research instit utions from that ICPC region. Once a project is selected for funding, 
all partners, including th e ICPC partners are funded from the FP budget.  
Targeted opening of calls for projects is an other way to encourage participation from 
researchers from developing countries. Under targ eted openings consortia are encouraged to 
include researchers from th ird countries but it is not an absolute requirement. 
Overall funding earmarked for mainlisted applications from African participants in successful 
proposals in the first calls of FP-7 so  far amounts to more than €60 million.196 It is interesting 
to note that among the 10 African countries that have received most funding under the 
Cooperation programme in FP-7 so far there are three Least Developed Countries and that a 
country that is poor like Tan zania receives a higher amount  of funding than Cameroon or 
Kenya. These figures do not suppo rt the general criticism expr essed by some Member States 
that Least Developed Countries, due to thei r lack of institutional and human resource 
capacity, find it more difficult to access FP 7 funds than middle-income countries. 
Overview about the applications to the Coop eration Programme of FP-7 from African 
participants main listed so far 
 
197 
                                                 
196 € 52.99 million from the Cooperation programme and € 8.841 million from the Capacities programme 
197 FAB = Food, Agriculture and Biotechnology; NMB = nanotechnology and nanosciences, knowledge-
based multifuctional materials and new production processes and devices; SEC = security; SPA = 
space; SSH = social sciences an d humanities; TPT = transport. 
 
EN 129   EN Some Member States  have launched specific progra mmes for international research 
cooperation with developing count ries. The Netherlands Organisa tion for Scientific Research 
(NWO) has a specific programm, which launches open calls for MDG-related research to be 
carried out by North-Sout h research consortia.198 Dutch-South research partnerships are also 
formed by many thematic development c ooperation programmes. The UK has made a 
substantial effort to promote policy coherenc e between its research and its development 
policy through working with southern institutio ns, building southern capacity and benefiting 
local communities (see box).  
UK: Research policy to support capacity development to conduct and use  research in 
developing countries 
The DFID Research Strategy for 2008-2013 wa s launched by the Secretary of State and 
commits to increasing the UK’s Research spending to a total of £1 billio n over the five years 
of the strategy to ensure that policy is informed by the best available evidence and that 
research is stimulated by real world policy questions. DFID Research  works with southern 
institutions (not primarily with southern individu als) so any training or north-south transfer is 
aimed at building southern capacity within th eir research institutions. In addition, DFID 
focuses on supporting environments that encourag e people to use research. For example, in 
the framework of the Joint Africa-EU Strategy, the proposed new Capacity Building for better 
Governance Research in Africa programme will contribute to enhancing research capacity in 
the social sciences and assist key African institutions to become independent leaders in local 
and regional development debates. 
DFID’s Research into Use (R IU) Programme, which has been running since 2006, aims at 
maximising the poverty-reducing impact of past DFID funded natural resources research, and 
by so doing, increase understanding of how the pr omotion and widespread use of research can 
contribute to poverty reduction and economic  growth. In 2008, DFID launched a RIU 
Programme in Rwanda, which has now establis hed three commodity platforms namely for 
maize , cassava, and solanum potato. The Maize platform has introduced and multiplied seven 
hectares of an early maturing maize variety developed by ISAR (the National Agricultural 
Research Institute). Initially, at least 4 000 households  are expected to benefit from this new 
variety. Furthermore, the platform has on it s own initiative established a business arm 
(Nyagatare Maize Investment Group – NYAMIG) bringing together 30 farmers’ cooperatives 
and other shareholders from the business community. The Cassava platform has multiplied 30 
hectares of five improved cassava mosaic virus-resistant variet ies with the Rwanda 
Agricultural Development Author ity (RADA) spearheading this wor k. It is a starting point for 
developing a sustainable cassava planting materi al multiplication system, which is expected to 
benefit at least 10 000 farmers. The Potato platform has highlighted the critical issue of 
degenerated local potato varietie s and the subsequent need for high market value varieties to 
ensure profitability in potato production in Gi cumbi District. The platform has collaborated 
with RADA and a local community-based orga nisation to introduce and multiply two new 
varieties on “multitechnology” demonstration site s. It is expected that at least 25 000  people 
will benefit from this and the seed system that is being developed.  
All the  Research Programme Consortia (centres of specialisation that have been set up for 
DFID research funding around a particular rese arch and policy theme)  are actively engaged 
with the relevant Ministries and National Pr ogrammes, to ensure that key findings are 
                                                 
198 See box above on Netherlands: Support for Scie nce for Global Development, in this chapter 
 
EN 130   EN effectively communicated and put into policy and practice. The ringfenced 10% of RPC 
budgets allows the teams to make sure that this work is give n higher priority than might 
otherwise be the case.  
Member States often develop scientific and res earch partnerships with those countries they 
have a historical relationship or share a common language wit h. For some Member States in 
Eastern Europe, lower middle income countries  on their borders are important focuses of 
research collaboration and capacity building with a development dimension (Austria, 
Romania, Latvia, Hungary). 
3.9.2.2.  Research on MDG-related issues 
The Seventh Research Framework Programme  funds a considerable body of research 
contributing to the achievement of the Millenn ium Development Goals. In the area of food, 
agriculture, fisheries and biotec hnology research topics include, for example, malnutrition in 
developing countries and improved agro-for estry systems for sustainable farming. 
Within the context of FP7 and EC international cooperation on health  research the 
Commission contributes to the Millennium Deve lopment Goals, in particular the targets on 
child health, maternal health and reproductive he alth, as well as to ot her development-related 
objectives such as improving health workforce management and health service delivery. One 
of the objectives of such cooperation is to addr ess specific problems th at third countries face 
or that have a global character through call for proposals employing specific international 
cooperation actions. The 2007-2008 call for proposal s under FP7’s Health Theme will lead to 
€16.36 million being allocated to successful proposals in areas such as: strategies and 
interventions for improving reproductive health, acces s to medicines within the context of the 
deliberations of the Global Strategy and Plan  of Action on Public he alth, Innovation and IP, 
integrating diseases surveillance and health sy stems response. Examples include projects on 
health system stewardship and regulation in Vi etnam, India and China, on health equity and 
financial protection in Asia, and on equity of access and efficiency of Integrated Health Care 
Networks in Colombia and Brazil. 
Through specific international co operation actions the infectio us diseases and neglected 
diseases sections of the FP7 Health Theme are particularly relevant for MDG 6 thus 
contributing to general development objectives. Re search activities in areas of interest for 
developing countries are covere d and involve research cent res, universities and other 
stakeholders from developing countries, th ereby strengthening thei r science and technology 
capacities. The 2007-2008 call for proposals unde r FP7’s Health Theme will result in €121 
million being allocated to successful proposals with €27 million going to neglected diseases, 
in areas such as capacity building for poverty-related diseases, multiple drug resistant TB, HIV drug resistance, malaria and TB vaccine development, research for the development of a Leishmania vaccine and new tools to cont rol infectious due to Leishmaniasis and 
Trypanosomiasis. 
Major improvement in the treatment of ch ildren suffering from HIV/AIDS achieved 
Research supported with the European and Deve loping Countries Clinical Trials Partnership 
(EDCTP)199 has led to a major advance in the trea tment of children suffering from HIV/AIDS. 
                                                 
199 EDCTP: http://www.edctp.org/About_EDCTP.2.0.html   
 
EN 131   EN EDCTP funded a dosing study which led to th e tentative approval by  the Food and Drug 
Administration (FDA) of a fixed-dose anti-HIV drug specifically formulated for paediatric 
use. The new tablets are scored, crushable an d water soluble for children who cannot swallow 
tablets. The fact that all three drugs are combin ed in one tablet (which  is layered to ensure 
equal distribution of the drugs if broken in half),  and that tablets can be  stored, distributed, 
and administered easily to children represents  a significant advance in HIV treatment for 
children in resource-limited settings. The tent ative FDA registration paves the way for the 
drug to receive WHO prequalification status. Ad ditionally, it will allow programmes such as 
PEPFAR and the Clinton Foundation, which make  antiretroviral drugs available in many 
resource-constrained countries, to purchase th e drug for widespread use in HIV-infected 
children. 
Treatment of HIV/AIDS in children is a great challenge in resource-c onstrained settings. One 
of the reasons for this is the difficulty and cost  of giving paediatric fo rmulations, particularly 
syrups, of anti-HIV drugs to ch ildren. The absence of appropria te paediatric formulations 
often necessitates administering divided adult tabl ets to HIV-infected children. This can lead 
to incorrect dosing, especially under-dosing, and increases the risk of the rapid development 
of resistance to the drugs. The problem is  compounded by underlying malnutrition in these 
children, and the lack of knowledge about how malnutrition affects drug levels in the body. 
The study was carried out  by researchers from the School of  Medicine and Department of 
Paediatrics, University Teaching Hospital, Lusa ka, Zambia, along with re search collaborators 
from the Netherlands and the Medical Research  Council (MRC) Clinical Trials Unit, United 
Kingdom. Triomune Baby and J unior have already been approved in Zambia and are 
currently being used to  treat children there.  
EDCTP is a partnership between 14 EU c ountries, Switzerland and Norway, and 47 sub-
Saharan African countries, which aims to  reduce poverty by developing new clinical 
interventions to fight HIV/AIDS, malaria and tu berculosis in sub-Saha ran Africa. EDCTP was 
set up in 2003. It has an overall budget of  around €400 million for seven (2003-2010) years: 
€200 million from the Member States and €200 million from the Commission's FP budget. 
Additional co-funding is sought from other sour ces, whether public or private. Through the 
EDCTP, a political dialogue with African g overnments has been es tablished regarding 
research policies on infectious diseases, allowi ng for harmonisation of research agendas and 
common efforts on capacity building. In addition to  the clinical trials, which are the core of 
the programme, EDCTP also supports netw orking and capacity-building activities.200 
The Food, Agriculture, Fish eries and Biotechnology  theme of FP-7 finances many projects 
that are of relevance for the MDGs, partic ularly for reducing poverty, fighting hunger and 
sustaining the environment. Research topics include malnutrition in developing countries, 
improved agro-forestry systems for sustainable farming, reducing mycotoxin contamination in 
the food and feed chain, neglected zoonoses in developing countries,  and improving fish stock 
assessment methods and management systems. 
In parallel the Framework Programme provides an instrument to help co ordinate EU national 
programmes on agricultural research for deve lopment. It has launched two ERA-NETs, one 
on Agricultural Research for Development and one on Agricultural Research for the Mediterranean.  
                                                
 
200 See chapter 4.3. on the MDG 6 case study 
 
EN 132   EN Projects selected under the environment theme of FP-7 cover a wide range of research topics 
relevant to developing countries. Examples in clude projects on sustai nable livelihoods and 
biodiversity in riparian areas and mitigation and assessment of risks from volcanic impact, 
and on reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation in tr opical rainforests. 
The Energy  theme of the 7th Research Framework Program me supports research in 
developing countries though a num ber of projects that prom ote coherence between energy 
research, energy/climate cha nge and development policies.201 
Member States support research on development issu es in a number of ways. In Austria 
projects are co-funded by the KEF (Federal Mi nistry of Science and Research) and the 
Austrian Development Agency. Denmark ha s financed with around DKK 319 million 
development research in 2008 in particular in  the health area. MDGs 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 were 
selected as targeted priority research them es for 2008. In addition, research activities were 
supported through bilateral development assi stance in Denmark programme countries. 
Estonia has signed bilateral treat ies, agreements or programme s on cooperation in education 
and research with more than 40  countries or regions (incl. developing cooperation countries 
Brazil, Egypt, Georgia, the People's Republic of  China, Croatia, India,  Indonesia, Kazakhstan, 
Mexico, Moldova, Sri Lanka, Ukraine, Uruguay). 
Belgium: Integrating development objectives in to its research cooperation with Vietnam  
Belgium signed an R&D cooperation agreement (‘ Agreement for scientif ic and technological 
cooperation’) with Vietnam in 2002. Within this framework coor dinated activit ies are funded 
by the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO) and, from the Vietnamese side, the 
Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) . A joint Vietnamese-Belgian commission 
identifies the programmes for a three-year period. Projects revolving around the jointly 
identified priority theme of sustainable develo pment of Vietnam, have to do with the use of 
local bio-resources for energy, me dicine and new materials, as well as sustainable aquaculture 
and integrated water and land management in a context of mitigation and/or adaptation with 
respect to climate change. Each research project is linked to potential users of  the projects’ 
results and workshops with all stake holders are part of the projects.  
Netherlands: Support for Science for Global Development  
The Dutch Government funds WOTRO, a depart ment of the Netherlands Organisation for 
Scientific Research (NWO), focusing on Science for Global Development. All WOTRO 
research programmes issue calls for proposals, which are disseminated nationally and 
internationally. Fair and equa l partnerships between devel oping countries and EU/Dutch 
institutes or academia, and the involvement of (l ocal) end-users and policy makers are always 
a prerequisite. NGOs and governments are involved  in formulating the research question, the 
research strategy, implementation and commu nication and dissemination. An independent 
societal panel conducts the assessments of pre-proposals. In addition, an independent 
scientific committee (representatives from the scientific community) assesses the scientific 
quality. Only when both rank a pre-proposal as of high quality is this pre-proposal awarded 
with a workshop grant to develop it fully. In dependent international peers (both from the 
scientific world and from the non-scientific so cietal world) assess full proposals and both the 
                                                 
201 See the energy and climate change chapter of this report 
 
EN 133   EN societal panel and the scientific committee rank the full proposals based on the reports of the 
peers. Only full proposals that rank highest in bot h societal relevance and scientific quality are 
awarded. All successful proposals must have form ulated a communication plan directed at the 
non-scientific community and ar e evaluated on the implementati on of this plan. Because the 
WOTRO strategy has only been in place sin ce 2007, the development impact in partner 
countries is still mostly unknown. It will be evaluated in 2009 and at the end of the strategy 
(in 2010-11). However, one spec ific thematic programme on cl inical interventions (the 
Netherlands-African partnership for capacity de velopment and clinical interventions against 
poverty-related diseases (NACCA P)) started earlier and has pr oduced successful results.  
Countries such as Belgium, the UK, and Germany have increased their support to 
international institutes with  a strong southern focus, su ch as the Consultative Group on 
International Agricultural Re search (CGIAR), whose 64 me mbers support 15 international 
centers, with the objective of ge nerating cutting-edge science to foster sustainable agricultural 
development throughout the world. As a react ion to the global food crisis, Germany has 
increased its contribution to the CGIAR s ubstantially from €16.4 millionin 2007 to €17.5 
million in 2008 and €21 million in 2009. 
The European Initiative on Agricultural Re search for Development (EIARD) coordinates 
policy positions and programmes in this thema tic area between EU Member States, Norway 
and Switzerland. EIARD has advocated reform of the CGIAR, which is currently in progress 
and has the objective of further improving its e fficiency, effectivene ss and accountability to 
meet the increasing demand for food and ot her commodities in developing countries.  
3.9.2.3.  Strengthening the capacity of developi ng countries in the area of research 
Strengthening the capacity of developing countri es in the area of research was one of the 
recommendations put forward by the Blair Co mmission in 2005. It suggested that 'The 
international community should commit in 2005 to  provide up to US$3 billion over 10 years 
to develop centres of excellence in science and technology, including African institutes of technology.
202 
The EU has not lived up completely to these expe ctations but it has invested more in capacity 
building through both its development a nd its research policy instruments. 
Under the Food Security Thematic Programme of the Development Cooperation Instrument 
(DCI) the Commission has allocated € 233.1 million to agricultural research and development 
for the period 2007-2010. In the period under re view some €126 million was approved to fund 
research focusing mainly but not exclusively on MDG 1. This research is not only 'for' 
developing countries, but 'in and with' them . Ownership and leadership by research 
institutions of developing countries, as well as demand-driven research topics are given 
specific attention in the selection of projects. Increasing attention is paid to the dissemination 
of research results, so that they are fed back  into policy making and put into practice. This 
programme has substantially contributed to st rengthening developing countries' capacities in 
research.  
In 2008, with funding from the 9th European Development Fund (€30 million) and the 
European Programme for Reconstruction and Development in South Africa (€5 million) the 
                                                 
202 Our Common Interest, the report of the Commission for Africa, 2005, p. 67 
 
EN 134   EN Commission launched a €35 mill ion initiative to streng then science and technology 
innovation and capacity building in ACP countri es. The overall objective of the ACP S&T 
programme is to support ACP countries in fo rmulating and implemen ting S&T policies that 
can lead to sustainable development and to  poverty reduction through economic growth and 
progressive integration into the world economy. Under the 10th EDF an additional € 40 
million have been made available to strengthen  capacity for research in ACP countries.  
Beyond its specific capacity-buildin g projects of the EDF and th e DCI, the EU contributes 
through other initiatives to th is end, mainly through FP-7. While the FP is not a capacity-
building programme per se, some activities effectively do develop the human research 
capacity in developing countries. A good exampl e is the Poverty Related Disease College 
project. 
The Poverty-Related Disease College project: Building ca pacity through research 
projects 
This project involves nine countries: Camer oon, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, 
Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Sweden. Th e aim is to bridge the gap between the 
biological sciences, health and development in Africa. The PRD College will stimulate an 
early collaboration and enable young scientists  from Africa and Europe to do research on 
poverty related and neglected dise ases and to place science with in the context of development 
in Africa. It will include mandatory courses fo llowed by an internship in development at an 
African institution and a science exchange pr ogramme. Training capacity will be strengthened 
at 3 PRD Centres in Uganda, South Africa a nd Cameroon and involve MDs, advanced PhD 
Students or Post-Docs participan ts from Africa (12) and Europe  (12). The PRD College will 
transform every trainee scientist to a level where participants can become trainers in their own 
country, to spread knowledge  and this new approach. 
In the context of capacity building, the Africa-EU partnership will also play an important role. 
Implementing the Joint EU-Africa Partnership on Science, Information Society and Space 
will help to build the contin ent’s capacities to harness, apply and develop science and 
technology, for example by supporting the setting up of an African fram ework programme for 
research (see the section on the Africa-EU partnership below).  
Programmes that promote the mobility of resear chers can contribute to  the strengthening of 
human capacities, too. International exchanges o ffer valuable opportunities for researchers to 
learn from each other and to develop their capacities further. To ensure that the exchanges benefit the countries of origin the European  Commission's People Pr ogramme (Marie Curie 
Actions), for example, provides for return phase for scholars from ICPC countries (see 
below). 
Finally the EU contributes to increased capaci ty in developing countries through education 
programmes. The external dimension of existi ng EU programmes such as Erasmus Mundus is 
increasing and is a significant contribution to  the high quality training of graduates and 
scholars. The Edulink programme, for example,  accompanies the training of university staff 
with measures to improve infrastructure. One of the three themes that this programme is addressing is research and technology capacity  building to improve academic and teaching 
excellence. 
 
EN 135   EN 3.9.2.4.  Towards more balanced mobility of res earchers between the EU and developing 
countries 
Many developing countries are suffe ring from brain drain with th eir best researchers leaving 
for better conditions and more in teresting opportunities. To counter  this trend more balanced 
mobility of researchers between the EU and developing countries should be promoted. 
Researchers should not only leav e developing countries  but ideally these c ountries should also 
become an attractive destination for research ers. At the same time mechanisms should be 
strengthened and created to allo w researchers from developing c ountries to contribute to the 
development of their countries of origin from  abroad. The Strategic European Framework for 
International Science and Tec hnology Cooperation stresses that  researchers who come to 
Europe from developing countries must be en abled to contribute to their own countries’ 
development. Such connectivity, through networ king, or ‘return’ gran ts, would make brain 
circulation a reality. The Framework also sugges ts promoting the possib ility of establishing 
joint physical or virtual research laborato ries between the EU and third countries.203 In 2008, 
the Commission launched a feasibility study to examine the potential for establishing a network(s) of non-European res earchers in Europe – to help them maintain contacts with 
career and cooperation opportuni ties in their own countries  and thereby counter the 
phenomenon of brain- drain whil e facilitating brain circulation. The findings of the study are 
expected later in 2009. 
The FP-7 People Programme (Marie Curie Actions ) promotes the mobility of researchers, 
including also between Europe  and developing countries. So far however most of the 
participants from developing countries that were  supported by this program to come to Europe 
are from countries which already have a relativ ely strong research capacity, namely India and 
China. In 2008, of the 140 fellowships awarded to  third-country researchers to come to work 
in Europe for up to 2 years, 12 went to research ers from Latin America, 5 to researchers from 
Africa, 25 to researchers from China and 15 to  researchers from India. The figures on the 
programme funding European researchers to wo rk in a third country  also speak a clear 
language: the vast majority of applications and hence awards , involved working in the USA 
(79 grants). Outgoing scholarships were granted at the rate 1 each for Bermuda, Brazil, Chile, 
China, Egypt, Eritrea, India and Korea.  
To counter brain drain the Pe ople Programme funds a 'return phase', by helping researchers 
from ICPC countries to re- esta blish themselves in their country  of origin after an Incoming 
International Fellowship. In 2008 25 grants were  awarded, with 7 retu rning to Russia, 6 to 
China, 3 to India, 2 to Argentina and Ukrain e and 1 each to Armenia, Colombia, Egypt, Iran 
and Moldova.  
The International Research Staff Exchange (IRSES), introduced under the People Programme 
in 2008, aims at strengthening rese arch partnerships through shor t period staff exchanges and 
networking activities.  At present this covers the count ries of the European Neighbourhood 
Policy and those with which the EC has a bilateral S&T Agreement. The total of countries covered is 29, of which 22 are categorised as developing. The first call of the IRSES action 
resulted in projects with Morocco (MA), Al geria (DZ), Tunisia (T N), Egypt (EG), South 
Africa (ZA), China (CN), and India (IN). FP f unding will enable the following exchanges: 
                                                
 
203 COM (2008) 588 final, 24.9.2008,Communication from the Commission to the Council and the 
European Parliament. A Strategic European Fram ework for International Science and Technology 
Cooperation,  
 
EN 136   EN Number of researchers-months from EU MS /AC (associated countries) to AFRICA, 
CHINA, INDIA  
TN EG ZA MA DZ CN IN 
143 135 166 274 9 430 119 
Number of researchers-months from AF RICA, CHINA, INDIA to EU MS/AC 
(associated countries)  
TN EG ZA MA DZ CH IN 
190 214 132 313 20 339 93 
Hosting third-country researchers in EU Member-State institutions  is still a central part of 
international research cooperation in some c ountries, for example Germany. The majority of 
Member States have not adopted specific policie s to promote return or to specifically address 
brain drain. But Belgium, for example, runs a programme of  mixed doctorates to avoid brain 
drain: the bulk of the work is to be done in  the country of origin  with limited stays in 
Belgium. This type of grant covers doctorates undertaken partly in the country of origin and 
partly in Belgium. As a general rule, one third of the research time is spent in Belgium. Also 
possibilities for return to the home institute are a prerequisite for a postdoc fellowship in 
Belgium. The Czech Republic supports a similar programme.  
3.9.2.5.  Africa-EU partnership on scienc e, information society and space 
The Joint Africa-EU Strategic Part nership and Action Plan and the 8th partnership on 'Science, 
Information Society, and Space (SISS) in partic ular 'is poised to become the focus of a 
concerted Commission and Member States effort  for research cooper ation with developing 
countries. Its objective is to support S&T capaci ty building in Africa and implement Africa's 
Science and Technology Consolidated Plan for Action204 (CPA). 
Based on AUC priorities, as described in the CPA, the Joint EU-AU Task Force for the 8th 
partnership (which brings togeth er desk officers from the two sides) has identified a series of 
19 Lighthouse projects (of which 12 are in the science domain) - of an approximate value of 
over €160 million - to strengthen S&T capacities in  Africa. At the EU-AU College to College 
meeting in October 2008, it was agreed to focu s on six early deliverable s – of which two are 
in the science chapter of the partnership aimi ng at helping the African Union to develop its 
own scientific resources. The “African Research Grants” project will help the AUC to set up an African 'framework programme' for research to  fund African research projects selected on 
the basis of their scientific excellence. The second 'early deliverable' concerns Water and 
Food Security at basin level' and will be rea lised in 2010 via a special 'Call for Africa on 
water and food security at basin level'. It is e xpected that at least six SICAs in the areas of 
environment, agriculture and health will be sele cted to serve as a pilot case for research and 
demonstration activities to cope with food s ecurity problems while promoting sustainable 
management of land and water resources. 
In the framework of the AUC-EC staff exch ange programme a Commission official was 
seconded to the AU Commission dealing with re search. This has had an extremely positive 
                                                
 
204 See http://www.nepadst.org/doclibrary/pdfs/ast_cpa_2007.pdf  
 
EN 137   EN impact on both institutions and boosted relatio ns between the two services. The respective 
officials got to know one another and esta blish strong personal contacts that ease 
communication and cooperation easier. 
The SISS partnership serves demonstrate how the JAES potential for PCD is being 
operationalised. Traditionally not part of EU-Afr ica relations, this partnership was included in 
the JAES at the suggestion of Africa and then jointly agreed205.  
3.9.2.6.  Innovation Policy  
Innovation policy can play an important role in harvesting the results of research for 
economic development in developing countries.  The 2008 Global Economic Prospects Report 
(World Bank, 2008) stresses that innovation is an important part of the long-term answer to 
fighting poverty, disease and hunger in devel oping countries. Most of the growth in 
developing countries can be attri buted to technology, in the widest  sense, and not to capital or 
workforce. Global innovations and technologie s developed domestica lly should both have a 
role to play, but the local adaptation of al ready available technologies shows the largest 
impact.  
In the context of open innovation, globalisa tion and internationalisation of science, 
technologies and innovation, the European Commi ssion has been developi ng the international 
dimension of its innovation policy converting th e existing international network for business 
support into the new Enterprise Europe Networ k. The new network offers greater scope for 
third countries to cooperate.  In particular, th e large emerging markets, Mediterranean 
countries and Eastern Neighbour s are using the new possibili ties. Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, 
Armenia and China have already concluded cooperation agreements. 
In the area of agricultural re search for development, the Co mmission promotes an innovation 
system and multi-stakeholders approach to research involving research institutions along with civil society organisations (NGOs, Farmers Or ganisations) and private companies. A multi-
stakeholders platform between Africa and Europe has been created
206 that facilitates the 
identification of research prio rities and the submission of research proposals to the EU 
funding instruments. 
The People Programme under FP-7 supports innova tion policies in developing countries 
mainly by assisting companies in assessing inno vative technologies and by facilitating their 
contacts with companies in Europe. Resear ch companies in developing countries may 
participate in several actions under the People Programme and particularly in the Industry 
Academia Partnerships and Pathways scheme. This  scheme stimulates contacts with the EU in 
terms of research innovation through training an d mobility of relevant staff. A recent example 
is a project aimed at developi ng malaria vaccines involving unive rsities in Italy and the UK, 
together with three SMEs: Microtest Matrices Ltd from the UK, Protein'eXpert from France 
and Med Biotech Laboratories from Uganda. In volvement of the research-active company in 
Uganda aims to stimulate innovation policy in  sub-Saharan Africa in  support of MDG 6, by 
facilitating contact with academics and companies in Europe. The total budget for the consortium is approximately €1.9 million over four years. 
                                                
 
205 See chapter 4.4 of this report on the Africa-EU partnership 
206 Platform for African and European Partnership in  Agricultural Research for Development (PAEPARD) 
 
EN 138   EN 3.9.3.  Conclusion & Outstanding Issues 
The contribution that research policy can make to development is a majo r driver of research 
on issues of relevance to develo ping countries, as we ll as the awareness that global issues 
need to be tackled together with developing countries. The promotion of global standards, 
access to complementary knowledge, the developm ent of new markets and the globalisation 
of the market for researchers are other important factors. 
The Commission continues to contribute to development obj ectives through the Framework 
Programme and to ensure that  researchers from developing c ountries participate in the 
identification of cooperation topics as well as in research projects and mobility schemes. 
Information on FP opportunities is disse minated as widely as possible.  
But despite all the Commission's efforts to in volve developing countries and despite some 
important projects funded, all in a ll the participation of  researchers from developing countries 
and particularly from Africa in FP-7 has been relatively limited. Participation of African researchers in selected projects still represents  a small percentage of all the grants awarded 
both for research projects and under the mobility programmes. Also, according to some Member States, the INCO-NET instrument has no t yet proved successful in getting research 
topics of special concern to developing c ountries into the FP-7 thematic programmes.  
However, looking beyond the mere quantitativ e input into resear ch cooperation with 
developing countries FP-7 funded re search projects sometimes he lp poorer countries to reach 
their development objectiv es in decisive ways. 
A major obstacle to developing countries' involve ment in research cooperation is their limited 
research capacity and infrastructure, which can make it difficult for the researchers there to 
compete in the highly competitive framework pr ogramme. Member States in their replies to 
the questionnaire expressed sign ificant concerns about the acces sibility of FP-7 research 
funding for developing count ries and researchers. 
Part of the solution to this problem has to be  the strengthening of research capacities in 
developing countries. There is a need to pr ovide additional resources for S&T capacity 
building from the development budget to ensure that all developing co untries can build up a 
research system capable of participating success fully in FP-7 and other international research 
programmes. 
The question also needs to be asked whether the existing financial instruments of FP-7 are 
effective in promoting research cooperation w ith developing countries. Countries such as 
China, India and even a LDC such as Tanzania  seem to cope. But ma ny others do not. While 
it is important that the Commission continues to keep FP-7 open and to actively encourage 
participation from developing countries thro ugh the existing instruments, it might be 
necessary to explore new avenues that are more suitable for this particular cooperation. Closer 
direct cooperation with the Afri can Union might be one option.  
The African Union is currently building up its  research policy capacity. The EU and the 
African states should support this  process so that the AU can manage an African research 
programme and function as an in terlocuteur between African count ries and Europe, to identify 
common research priorities and jo int capacities for doing the research. 
 
EN 139   EN The FP accounts for about 6% of total public research funding in the European Union. 
Coordination with the Member St ates is therefore essential. To  that end, and as a response to 
the Commission Communication proposing a Strate gic European Framework for International 
S&T Cooperation, a Strategic Forum on Interna tional S&T cooperation has been established 
in 2009 for Member States and th e Commission to exchange info rmation and define strategic 
priorities which should lead to  joint initiatives in the future . Regarding devel oping countries, 
it is expected that the Forum will work in clos e cooperation with the 'Joint Expert Group 8' of 
Member States' representatives for the 8th Partnership of the EU-Africa Strategic Partnership. 
Member States have made progress in focusi ng research closer on development issues. Yet 
there is less evidence of Member States aligni ng their action directly to developing countries' 
priorities.. Climate change and agriculture are of ten areas of Member State focus in relation to 
research and innovation for deve lopment. Some Member States have increased their funding 
of research for development either overall (UK)  or in relation to spec ific areas, e.g. Germany 
(food security).  
There are differing views on whether the EU ha s managed the coordination of activities and 
information on research and innovation for development effectively. 
Assessment207 of progress on PCD in this policy area: 
 
Outstanding Issues 
• ensure that research programmes include mo re topics relevant to developing countries.208 
• improve dialogue by means of joint fora with developing countries to  identify research 
topics of relevance to them and to rais e awareness and mutual understanding. The fora 
should bring together politicians and civil servants as well as scientists and practitioners.  
• redouble efforts to make the Africa-EU partne rship on science, technology and space work 
as the nucleus for future EU-A frica research cooperation: 
– - strengthen the AU's research policy capacity and capacity to manage a research 
programme;  
                                                 
207 Chart based on Member States' responses to a dedicated PCD 2009 questionnaire prepared by the 
European Commission. 
208 See for example the proposal for a SICA on intellectua l property rights in the trade chapter of this report 
 
EN 140   EN – - establish an Africa-EU high level platform for dialogue to  facilitate the creation of 
a specific common decision-making platform fo r joint efforts in science, information 
society and space.  
• Improve synergy between research for de velopment and development funding for S&T 
capacity building.  
• Encourage developing countries to incorporat e S&T capacity building in their National or 
Regional Indicative Programmes for extern al assistance funds and cooperation 
programmes. This should include the gender equality aspect.  
• continue to work towards more balanced m obility of researchers between the EU and 
developing countries and s upport brain circulation: 
– - Based on the experience to be gained from the newly launched IRSES scheme, 
examine the possible expansion of the sc heme to other deve loping countries and 
regions; 
– - develop networks for non-European resear chers in Europe a nd utilise better the 
potential of the diaspora of developing country researchers in Europe, e.g. by 
creating short- or medium-term placements in African universities and research 
institutions for highly qualified diaspora personnel through sabbaticals and other 
arrangements of leave of absence from tenured positions in the host countries; 
– - establish joint physical or vi rtual research laboratories. 
• to encourage innovation  
– - Cooperate with diaspora communities to introduce new technologies in the 
framework of high-quality incubation services.  
– - Consider establishing i nnovation projects for developi ng countries following the 
Medibtikar approach with strong links to private-sector development and regional 
integration. 
– - Facilitate cooperatio n of partners in developing c ountries with the Enterprise 
Europe Network.  
 
EN 141   EN 3.10. Information Society 
Quick Facts  
• Globally, the number of mobile subscribers has increased by over a billion since 2005, 
with over 3.3 billion mobile subscribers by the end of 2007. 69 per cent of the world’s 
mobile subscribers were from developing countries.209 
• In Ethiopia, as a result of th e Rural Connectivity Project, more than 60 out of its 85 million 
citizens can access telephone, Internet and television services. 210 
• Despite this quickly changing pi cture, people in low-income countries, representing no less 
than 38 per cent of the world’ s population, make up only one per cent of the world’s fixed 
broadband subscribers.211 
• Over the past decade, the majo rity of countries worldwide ha ve initiated reforms in their 
telecommunication sector by establishing a national regulatory body, introducing 
competition and at least partially privatising their operators.212 
• The Rwandan Government views ICT as a majo r means of lifting Rwanda out of poverty 
and has developed a National Information a nd Communication (NICI) Plan. The goal is to 
transform a mainly agricu ltural economy into a Predominantly Information-rich, 
Knowledge-based Economy (or PIKE). 213 
3.10.1.  Introduction 
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have been changing our lives in 
profound ways over a very short time period. The number of fixed and mobile telephone 
subscribers jumped from 530 million in 1990 to over 4 billion by the end of 2006214. But the 
influence of ICT goes well beyond the more na rrow area of communicati on. ICTs allow for 
increased productivity and sustained economic grow th as well as improved service delivery in 
areas such as health, educati on and public administration.  
ICTs offer tremendous opportunities for developi ng countries. Where in the past phone lines 
did not exist, mobile phones for the first time make it possible for many people to 
communicate over great distances. This not only makes daily life easier but also facilitates 
access to a number of services with direct benefit for citizen s. One example is the banking 
sector. Access to banking services has improve d since people in de veloping countries can 
operate money transfers including for remittances via the mobile phone network. But even in more traditional areas of economic  activity such as ag riculture, ICTs allow farmers to increase 
productivity. Through improved access to Glob al Positioning data, farmers applying the 
                                                
 
209 ITU 2008. Report on the World Summit on Information Society Stocktaking. 
www.itu.int/wsis/stocktaking/docs/2008/WSIS-Stocktaking2008-e.pdf. 
210 Information and Communication Technology Assisted Development 2009. 
http://www.ictadethiopia.org 
211 ITU/UNCTAD 2007. World Information Society Report: Beyond WSIS. 
212 ITU 2008. Report on the World Summit on Information Society Stocktaking. 
www.itu.int/wsis/stocktaking/docs/2008/WSIS-Stocktaking2008-e.pdf. 
213 Government of Rw anda 2006. The NICI -2010 Plan. http://www .uneca.org/aisi/nic i/rwanda/rwanda.htm. 
214 The Millennium Development Goals Report 2008, United Nations, p. 48 
 
EN 142   EN precision farming concept can more 
precisely evaluate optimum sowing density, estimate fertil izer and other input 
needs, and more accurately predict crop yields. By improving access to health and education and increasing economic productivity, ICTs can play a key enabling role for the MDGs. Even the political dimension of development is 
strengthened by ICTs. They facilitate the exch ange of ideas and promote democracy, freedom 
of expression and human rights. 
The importance of ICTs for development has b een recognised also by including them as a 
target of MDG 8, to develop a global partne rship for development. Target 5 of goal 8 
underlines the need for cooperation with the privat e sector in making available the benefits of 
new technologies, especially information and communication. 
Despite their enormous opportunitie s, the impact of ICTs has remained limited because most 
people in developing countries still do not have  access to them. Mobile phones have had some 
success even though big regional di sparities remain. Penetration rates in Africa range from 
about 50 per cent in  resource-rich and resource-scarce coastal countries to 15 per cent in 
resource-scarce landlocked countri es. It is promising though that Africa had the world's 
fastest growth in new mobile phones in 2008, amounting to about 40 per cent in some Sub-
Saharan countries.
 215 216 
But the spread of the internet has been far slower. While some progress has been made in 
narrowing the digital divide betw een developing and industrialised  countries, Africa still has 
the lowest internet penetrati on rate in the world. In Sub-Saharan African countries, for 
internet users the penetration rate is belo w 7 per cent and for broadband it is under 1 per 
cent217. 
                                                 
215 African Economic Outlook 2009, p.87, OECD, African Development Bank 
216 The Millennium Development Goals Report 2008, United Nations, p. 48 
217 African Economic Outllook 2009, p. 86 

 
EN 143   EN 
 
218At the same time the quality of access is gaining in importance. The quality of access is 
determined by the access to broadband. But broa dband access, which has spurred internet use 
in developed countries, has been slow to e xpand in many developing regions. By 2006, most 
countries in sub-Saharan Afri ca had not yet commercially de ployed broadband services and, 
where available, broadband remained inaccessible to the majority of the population because of 
its very high costs.219 In the poorest region of the worl d people have to pay the highest 
internet prices. According to International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and World Bank 
estimates, the average price of a broadband c onnection in Sub-Saharan Africa is about 
USD 110 for 100 kilobit per second. In Europe a nd Central Asia the price is USD 20 while in 
Latin America and the Caribbean it is USD 7. Middle East and North African countries also 
pay below USD 30.  
The low internet penetration rates and high tariffs  stem partly from a lack of high-capacity 
international networks (see Figure 4). There is currently only one submarine fibre optic cable 
off the West Africa coast, SAT-3, that provides  a high-quality internat ional service and access 
is limited to members of the cons ortium which built the link in 2002.220 
But a more fundamental infrastructure deficits an d in particular the access to electricity seems 
to be the biggest problem: In 2006, 54 per cent of the population in sub-Saharan Africa lived 
                                                 
218 Quoted from the African Economic Outlook 2009, p.86 
219 The Millennium Development Goals Report 2008, United Nations, p. 48 
220 African Economic Outlook 2009, p. 88 
 
EN 144   EN in areas covered by a mobile cel lular signal, but the share of the population without access to 
electricity is 74 per cent221. 
 
222This limited access to ICTs has major implicat ions not only for econo mic progress but also 
for social development. The digital divide is th erefore widely seen as a cross-cutting obstacle 
to achieving the MDGs. 
3.10.2.  Progress towards PCD Commitments 
While the impact of ICT technology on develo ping countries cannot be overestimated, the 
impact of EU information society policy shows a more nuanced picture. Most of the policy 
initiatives are directed toward s the internal market; although they have indi rect effects on 
developing countries. The development of non-c ommercial electronic se rvices for example, 
such as e-government, e-learning, e-health (t elemedecin), and at a more general level the 
research promoted by the European Commissi on in the area of ICT, can bring important 
opportunities for developing countri es. Standard setting at the EU level sometimes affects 
developing countries significantl y, too. This is true, for example, for mobile phones: the 
adoption of the GSM standard a nd the parallel liberalisation of the telecom market is driving 
down prices for GSM services a nd increasing their av ailability in developing countries, too. 
The most direct effects on deve loping countries however result from EU action taken in these 
areas at the interna tional level. The policy framework for cooperation in ICTs at the 
                                                 
221 Delivering on the Global Partnership for Achi eving the Millennium Development Goals, MDG Gap 
Task Force, Report 2008, p.45 ff 
222 Ibid, p. 89 
 
EN 145   EN international level is set out in the Comm ission Communication on a Strategic European 
Framework for International Sc ience and Technology Cooperation223.  
The Commission recognises the need for the EU to support increased use of ICTs to bridge 
the digital divide. To extend the use of ICTs al so at the global level, the Commission takes a 
comprehensive approach tackling research /innovation, regulatory and capacity-building 
aspects as well as infrastructures deployment.  
Member States have not reporte d any changes in the policy c ontext. In Finland, though, co-
ordination between the MFA and the Ministry dealing with information society matters has 
been strengthened. The MFA is facilitating dial ogue between the Finnish  national information 
society programme and its development in itiatives at bi- and multilateral level. 
3.10.2.1.  Research 
Research in the ICT sector is probably the area  in which European information society policy 
has the greatest impact on developing countries. The main instrument for financing research 
in this area is the European ICT Research Programme (ICT/FP-7), which is part of the 
Seventh Framework Programme . Under FP-7, running from 2007-  to 2013, €9.1 billion have 
been earmarked for funding ICT research. FP-7 ha s an important international dimension and 
is open to participation from developing countries.224  
With FP 7 the Commission has managed to strengthen its cooperati on with developing 
countries in the area of ICT research. Thr ough the launch of specific support actions it has 
identified cooperation opportunities with sub-Saharan countries on particular research topics. 
Although FP-7 was launched only two years ago 31 projects involving sub-Saharan African organisations have been adopted in the first tw o Calls. This represents a substantial increase 
compared to the 16 projects select ed during the whole duration of FP-6. 
Technology roadmaps were also la unched to identify research track s in areas highly relevant to 
developing countries, notably in fields such as  mobile web technology, low-cost laptops and 
access infrastructures, open source software, language and speech technologies. 
In its research cooperation the Commission pays pa rticular attention to the issue of divergent 
standards as they are often an obstacle to sp reading technologies and hamper interconnection 
and interoperability. It promot es the strengthening of the li nk between results of research 
programmes and standardisation, puts more emph asis on both internat ional pre-competitive 
industrial research coll aboration and pre-standardisation co operation based on open standards.  
Sub-Saharan- African and European policy-ma kers and research organisations discuss 
possibilities for ICT research  
The first Euro-Africa Cooperation Forum on ICT Research was held on March 25-26, 2009. 
The two-day event was co-organised by the European Commission and the African Union 
Commission (AUC) with the suppor t of the EuroAfriCa-ICT proj ect, a FP-7 coordination and 
support action aiming at enhancing ICT resear ch cooperation between Europe and sub-
                                                 
223 COM (2008) 588 final, 24.9.2008, Communication from the Commission to the Council and the 
European Parliament. A Strategic European Fram ework for International Science and Technology 
Cooperation,  
224 For more information on FP-7 please s ee the research chapter of this report 
 
EN 146   EN Saharan Africa.  
 
The Forum brought together sub-Saharan African  and European policy-makers and research 
organisations to discuss collaborative projec ts in the ICT field, to identify potential 
cooperation partners, and to learn more about  the “EU-AU Partnership on Science, ICT and 
Space” (the 8th Partnership) and the EC/ AUC Programmes including about FP-7 and 
opportunities for African  participation.  
Member States, too, support rese arch on ICT issues with devel oping countries. For example, 
DFID currently supports two ma jor ICT and development programmes. The ICT4D Research 
and Capacity Development Programme, based at the Canadian International Development Research Centre (IDRC) aims to empower pe ople in Africa and Asia to address their key 
development challenges through effective use of ICTs. This programme seeks to improve the communication environment for development inte rventions, build a cohe rent international 
approach to development research in ICTs, an d help to develop the wider environment for 
research impact in developing countries through  better use of new and existing ICTs. It also 
supports the InfoDev programme, which is a th ink- tank based at the World Bank aiming to 
boost global information sharing on the role of ICTs in development. 
3.10.2.2.  International regulatory cooperation 
The European Commission and developing countrie s exchange information and best practices 
in the regulatory and policy fields. Through di alogue the EU aims at harmonising regulatory 
frameworks and promoting joint standards. A nother objective of regulat ory cooperation is to 
help to create an environment conducive to inve stment in ICT infrastructure and ICT-enabled 
applications. 
To identify topics for regulatory cooperatio n, the EU engages in policy dialogues with 
developing countries. Priorities  for regulatory co-operation in clude the establishment of 
independent and effective regulatory authoritie s, the non-discriminatory allocation of scarce 
resources, publicly available licensing crit eria and transparent award procedures, non-
discriminatory and cost-orientated interc onnection, and the use of open technologies. 
Information Society policy dialogues have been  established with mo st developing regions. 
With South East Asia the Co mmission organised an EC-ASEAN telecom regulatory seminar 
in June 2008 in Singapore. This event, attended by all regulatory agencies of South East Asia, 
raised awareness on th e basic principles that  should be embedded in  a telecom regulatory 
framework. A number of dialogue s have taken place in the past  or are planned with Latin 
American countries, such as  Brazil or Argentina.  
At the multilateral level  the Commission works together in th is respect with the International 
Telecommunication Union (ITU) and the World Bank. For example, the Commission granted 
€6 million to the ITU in 2009 fo r technical assistance on regulatory issues in Africa. 
Example: Regulatory cooperation with the Southern Mediterranean countries 
In February 2008, the Commissi on organised with Egypt the Second Euromed Ministerial 
Conferences on the Information Society in Cairo,  which was attended by representatives from 
the Southern Mediterranean countries. This wa s an important part of  the policy dialogue, 
which the Commission has developed for several years and which includes a specific method 
for approximating of the EU regulatory framewor k for electronic communications with that of 
 
EN 147   EN the ENP partners countries. Now there is a need for “hands-on” support re lated to the priority 
areas of regulation in the Information Society Chapter of the ENPI Action Plans as well as for 
multilateral workshops and networking among Nati onal Regulatory Agencies (NRAs) in the 
region and with NRAs in the EU Member States. 
In the coming years the focus of this Euro -Mediterranean cooperation will be put on: 
- fostering regional policy harmonisation; 
- assisting in the adoption of regulatory frame works and their approximation with the EU 
framework (based on the NAPT II Reference Guid elines) and enhancing the administrative 
capacities of the regulators; 
- promoting regulators' networking activities in the region and in relation to regulators in the 
EU Member States 
- promoting best practices and bilatera l activities, from regional perspective 
The Internet Governance Forum  (IGF) is one of the processe s in the context of Internet 
Governance agreed at the World Summit on the In formation Society (WSIS) in Tunis in 2005. 
The IGF is a global platform for dialogue am ong all Internet Govern ance stakeholders. It 
addresses the digital divide by giving developing countries a greater say in global internet 
governance.  
The Commission has been activel y involved in this process and supports it financially. 
Representatives of the Commissi on have been partic ipating in the open  consultations in 
preparation of the IGF meetings and in mee tings of the IGF's multi-stakeholder advisory 
group.  
Some Member States , like Sweden, Finland, and Latvia are engaging in supporting global 
initiatives to create a better gl obal policy environment or techni cal standards for ICTs and are 
discussing harmonisation in in ternational fora such as ICANN and ITU. Although these 
initiatives are often led by mini stries outside the field of de velopment and foreign affairs, 
development ministries feel that these initia tives will ultimately create global public goods 
that developing countries will also benefit from. 
3.10.2.3.  Partnerships 
The EU-Africa Partnership is a key element in the Commission's strategy to reduce the digital 
divide. Two aspects stand out: infrastructure and training. 
The EU-Africa Partnership on Infr astructures supports deployment  of physical infrastructures 
in the fields of transport, en ergy, water and ICT to promote interconnectivity at continental 
level. A sum of €5.6 billion from the 10th Eu ropean Development Fund (EDF, 2008-2013) is 
being allocated to support this  Partnership and an innovative financial instrument, the EU-
Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund has been cr eated. The Trust Fund brings together the 
European Commission, EU Member  States, the European Inve stment Bank, and European 
Development Financing Institutions, who can pool  their respective efforts and resources to 
directly co-finance relevant projects. The Trus t Fund provides grants  that will attract and 
leverage additional funds from other donors and pr ivate investors. In the ICT field support has 
already been given to the deployment of the Eassy submarine backbone on the east coast of 
Africa. These new submarine cables in eastern Africa will provide in ternational broadband 
 
EN 148   EN capacity and drastically reduce communication costs. Recently, eight ICT projects were 
submitted for consideration for consideration, covering support for depl oyment of additional 
backbones, in line with the ICT Infrastructures Master Plan developed by the AUC as well as 
support measures in the fields of e-policies and regulation, primarily proposing interaction between African and European regulators. 
225 
The EU-Africa Partnership on Science, Inform ation Society and Spac e complements activities 
envisaged in the Partnership on Infrastructures with key capacity-building initiatives in support 
of ARAPKE, the African Regional Action Plan  for the Knowledge Ec onomy, adopted at AU 
level. Five flagship projects have already been  identified. They include activities to support the 
development of local content and e-applicat ions, human resources aspects (training IT 
professionals, promoting digital literacy), reinfo rcement of scientific capacities notably through 
the deployment of regional research and education networks. Out of these five priority projects two were chosen as early deliv erables of the Partnership: th e ‘African Internet Exchange 
System’ and ‘Africa Connect’ (see box).  
Africa-EU partnership projects to improve th e dissemination and use of the Internet in 
Africa 
Africa Connect is designed to support the developmen t of regional research and education 
networks in Sub-Saharan Af rica and their interc onnection with the European GEANT2 
                                                 
225 African Economic Outlook 2009, p. 90 
 
EN 149   EN network. GÉANT2 is the high-bandwidth, academic Internet serving Europe’s research and 
education community. Connecting over 30 m illion researchers, spanning 34 European 
countries and linking to a number of other wo rld regions GÉANT2 is at the heart of global 
research networking. Interconn ection with this hi gh-capacity and high-speed network and 
more connected African networ ks will enable better collabora tion both within and with the 
African research community.  
GEANT initially connected research networks in  industrialised countries (North America and 
Japan) and now has new links to  China, India, Latin America,  South East Asia, Northern 
Africa, South Africa, the Middle East and the Ba lkans. This extension serve the research and 
education communities in the different region s of the world and has paved the way for 
platforms of cooperation in many fields across these regions and with Europe.  
African Internet Exchange System (AXIS)  is designed to support the establishment of a 
continental African internet infrastructure th rough national and regiona l internet exchange 
points. Internet exchange point s at national and regional level are crucial for the development 
of the internet in Africa, generating huge cost s savings by keeping lo cal traffic local and 
offering better quality of service and new a pplications opportunities. AXIS activities will 
include technical assistance on planning, regulator y/policy issues, as well as human training 
to achieve this objective. 
3.10.3.  Conclusions & Outstanding Issues 
The EU has made great strides in promoti ng an inclusive Information Society. It has 
intensified its research cooperation with deve loping countries in the area of ICT and has 
stepped up its cooperation on regulatory issues  with them. Internet  expansion is also 
addressed by the African Union (AU) and European  Union (EU) as part of their new strategic 
partnership for Science, Information Societ y and Space. Through this partnership the EU 
supports the building of infras tructure and the strengthening of capacity in developing 
countries for ICTs. 
Assessment226 of progress on PCD in this policy area: 
 
                                                 
226 Chart based on Member States' responses to a dedicated PCD 2009 questionnaire prepared by the 
European Commission 
 
EN 150   EN Member States are undertaking several initiatives related to the information society and 
relevant to development. In Finland the main dr iver for promoting synergies is reported to be 
a balanced process of global development that  supports information so ciety policy aims both 
in developing and developed countries, as we ll as opening up possibiliti es for co-operation. 
Difficulties from the ministry point of view are pa rtly administrative due to restricted scope of 
the mandate at the national level and lack of ca pacity (human, financial) . Both factors restrict 
international participation and project activity. At the national level, policy dialogue between 
ministries, especially co-ordinators of informa tion society policy and foreign ministry, is not 
adequate yet, and needs to be organised. 
On a positive note, Member State ministries and agencies whose primary focus is information 
technology within countries ar e genuinely involved in prom oting ICT in developing and 
transition economies. In many cases it is these ag encies and ministries rather than foreign 
ministries or development ministries which a ppear to be the ones pr imarily engaged in ICT 
issues with or for developing and transi tion economies, also at the global level. 
The EU-AU Partnership on Science, Information Society and Space of the Joint Africa-EU 
Strategy does offer some potential that is begi nning to be exploited to promote EU-wide PCD 
in this field. It does so by providing a fram ework, yet there needs to be more technical 
capacity within the joint expert group (JEG). 
There is also a tendency for Member States, including Germany, Nether lands and the UK, to 
engage in supporting global agencies working on ICT issues. 
Outstanding Issues 
• Identify jointly with developing countries priorities for joint research in the area of ICT. 
• Intensify research cooperation in the area of ICT with de veloping countries in  particular by 
including specific actions (sectorial 'C oordination and Support Actions' (CSAs) and 
Specific International Cooperation Actions (SICAs), etc) based on European and 
developing countries' specific interests, in the revised FP- 7 Work Programme for the ICT 
Theme. 
• Continue the policy dialogue with developing countries on issues including the promotion 
of the establishment of independent and effective regulatory authorities, the non-
discriminatory allocation of scarce resour ces, publicly available licensing criteria and 
transparent award procedures , non-discriminatory and cost -oriented interconnection, and 
the use of open technologies. 
• Increase efforts to expand both basic (such as electricity supply)  and specific ICT 
infrastructure. 
• Use the Joint Africa-EU Partnership on Science, Information Society and Space to build 
infrastructure and to strengthen capacity in the area of ICT 
 
 
EN 151   EN 3.11. Transport  
Quick Facts 
• ACP countries allocate as much as 30% of the total EDF programmable funds to 
transport.227 
• For African landlocked countries, transport costs can be as high as 77% of the value of 
exports. Landlocked developing countries take an additional 22.9 days for goods to be 
imported and 28.6 additional days for goods to be exported. Physical infrastructure, or 
ports and inland transport, acc ounted for only a quarter of th e delays while pre-arrival 
documents, customs and inspections accounted for 70 % of total delays.228 
• It is estimated that 40-60% of people living  in developing countries live more than 8 
kilometres from a healthcare facility. 229 
• A strong relationship exists betw een transport constraints and in ability to break out of the 
poverty cycle. This is particularly acute fo r women who have fewer opportunities and less 
access to means of transport230 
3.11.1.  Introduction  
Trade, access to goods and services and the fr ee movement of goods and persons rely on the 
means and ways to be able to move. Transpor t makes it happen; it provides for the circulation 
of the system. Transport demands in develo ping countries continue  to grow. A sound 
transport infrastructure is cr ucial for internationa l trade and economic development and is 
considered a tool for poverty reduction. Investing in transport infrastruc ture creates new jobs, 
maintenance of roads is normally labour-intensi ve in ACP countries and the creation of roads 
literally opens routes for rura l poor households to seek jobs  elsewhere and for access to 
market and services.  
Historically transport sector s upport for the ACP countries has b een concentrated  on the road 
sector, particularly in Africa where more than  90% of passengers and freight are carried by 
road. Moreover, a substantia l part of public budgets in ACP countries are used on 
construction and rehabilitation of roads. Loans can be difficult to obtain from international 
development banks and comes ate a cost, so that  grant funding such as that provided by the 
EC offers a very attractive opportunity to cover some road infrastructure costs. ACP countries 
therefore frequently request that significant proportions of  their total programmable 
allocations go to the road sector.  
                                                 
227 See http://ec.europa.eu/development/policies/9interventionareas/infrastructure_en.cfm 
228 United Nations Special Adviser on Africa and High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, 
Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States, Cheick  Sidi Diarra, at the 
World Bank's Annual Sustainable Development Network Week in Washington on 21 February 2008. 
See http://www.unohrlls.org/en/orphan/593 /21.02.2008  
229 In World Bank Transport for Health Access, June 2008. See 
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/T OPICS/EXTTRANSPORT/ EXTTSR/0,,contentMD
K:20835940~menuPK:2274762~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062~theSitePK:463716,00.html 
230 Conclusion World Bank, 2006, Gender and Rural Transport Programme GRTI in Sub Saharan Africa". 
See http://www4.worldbank.org/af r/ssatp/Resources/HTML/Gen der-RG/module4/index-p2.html  
 
EN 152   EN However, in line with the Communication 'pro moting sustainable transport in development 
cooperation' which is the basi c guidance document concerni ng support for transport in 
developing countries, an integrated multi-mode l approach, encompassing all transport modes 
is advocated when considering the transport networks of other c ountries. Support can be 
provided to develop any mode of transport, if partner countries consider this to meet their 
priorities.  
As an example, increasing attention in promo ting sustainable transport in development is 
being paid to the development impact of avia tion, particularly in a continent as vast and 
diverse as Africa. World air cargo traffi c grew 5.1% in 2007, following 3.2% growth in 
2006231. The growth trend is however decreasing due to the impact of the economic crisis but 
in general air transport remains strong. Europe is Africa's largest air trade partner. In the 
period 1997-2007, Africa's air trade with Europe gr ew at 4.0% per year and is expected to 
continue to grow.232 But issues related to compliance with international standards, particularly 
in relation to safety, need to be addres sed to ensure further sustainable growth. 
Maritime transport is another example, important for international trade, since more than 80% 
of international trade in  goods being carried by sea. Due to th e financial crisis, there has been 
a decline in the demand for seaborne trade and a consequential fall in freight prices. But the 
financial crisis has also put strain on cred it and export demand for ACP products. The net 
result will probably be th at developing countries will  suffer from this decline.233 Reliance on 
this mode of transport requires investments in port infrastructure, providing safety and 
security measures and in gene ral keeping up with continuously changing norms and standards.  
Improved maritime, in-land water ways, land and air transport infrastructure bring economic 
and social benefits. All these elements are cr ucial for achieving the MDGs. The downsides of 
better infrastructure and incr eased access need to be addre ssed as well through what the 
World Bank calls 'inclusive transport', making sure the poor, women, elde rly and the disabled 
are addressed in transport policies. Engendering mobility, the role of female transport workers, ensuring environmental sustainability and addressing health-related hazards like the 
spreading of HIV Aids and reducing road fatali ties are important elements when considering 
investments in infrastructure. Partner countries ' public authorities, pa rticularly in Africa, 
increasingly recognise the need to pay attention to transport issues.  
These complex interactions require that EU tran sport policies take due account of the impact 
on developing countries. 
3.11.2.  Progress towards PCD Commitments  
3.11.2.1.  Transport Policy Initiatives 
EU Transport Policy takes the principles of PC D into consideration. Development needs to be 
taken into account in the exte rnal dimension of transport.
234  
                                                 
231 Biennial World Air Cargo Forecast (WAC F) 2008-2009, - Boeing Company. See 
http://www.boeing.com/co mmercial/cargo/wacf.pdf 
232 Idem page 65 and 69 
233 Annual UNCTAD Review of Ma ritime Transport 2008. See 
http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/rmt2008_en.pdf 
234 2001 White Paper on European transport policy for 2010: time to decide, COM (2001) 370 of 
12.09.2001 and the Mid-term review, COM(2006) 314 final of 22.06.2006 
 
EN 153   EN The November 2007 Council conclusions on Policy Coherence for Development invited the 
EU to continue monitoring and improving PC D in Transport. The ongoing 'sector policy 
dialogue' in the focal areas of support in partner countries provi des the basis for a dialogue on 
what areas of EU transport policy impinge on developing countries and what should be done 
to improve policy coherence to promote develo pment. Multi-donor partic ipation would enable 
the adoption of a 'sector programme' approach including such matters as transport sector 
strategy, encompassing all transport modes and identifying partner countries' need for aid, 
commercial funds/loans and priv ate sector investment.  
Tanzania Sector Budget Support (JAR 2007) 
As Chair of transport sector donors, th e Commission Delegation led the Development 
Partners' side at the first Infr astructure Sector R eview held in Octobe r. This provided 
encouraging results, with all sub-sectors represented, and serious progress was made 
towards establishing government leadership on  a sector-wide approach. On the other hand, 
further work is needed on the financing of the sector (especially regional roads), on cross-
cutting issues (especially environment and th e overall issue of logistics, encompassing 
intermodality and interoperability) and most im portant of all on institutional capacity 
building.  
Strengthening cooperation between Europe and Africa is the core of  the Communication on 
partnership between the Eu ropean Union and Africa.235 It aims to connect  the Trans-European 
and African networks. The Comm ission will make available the experience it gained from 
European Transport Policy to its African pa rtners. This seeks to contribute to the 
implementation of a more efficient transport system, assisting in th e development of the 
African continent in order to face the challenges of poverty, environmental degradation and 
migratory imbalances.  
Integration of the gender dime nsion and other cross-cutting i ssues is a work in progress. 
Gender differences are relevant  in the design and developmen t of sustainable technologies 
and in sectors such as transport236. The ‘Transport’ them, has shown significant progress 
under FP-7 implementation. Gender relevance of  transport research content has been 
embedded in the Work Programme wherever appl icable and suitable. In addition and as 
regards the greening of transport, under the FP-7 the EU is committed to reducing 
environmental and noise pollution.  
Limited progress was made with regard to th e extension to developing countries of the 
benefits of the European satellite navigation system Galileo/EGNOS (European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service
237), the air traffic management modernisation programme 
                                                 
235 COM (2009) 301 final: "Partnership between the European Union and Africa. Connecting Africa and 
Europe: working towards strengthening transport cooperation", 24.06.2009 
236 Gender Mainstreaming in the 6th Framewor k Programme Reference Guide for Scientific 
Officers/Project Officers 
237 Extension of EGNOS to Africa would offer improved navigation performance. Other advantages are the 
improvement of efficiency of civil air transportation in Africa, expansion of trade with EU and other 
countries, development and integration of regions di fficult to access (e.g. serv ed by small airports), 
enabling better use of less equipped airports, promotion of regional technical and scientific cooperation, 
encouragement of development of local and national industries and services, key enabler for future 
transport and non-transport applica tions (e.g. railways, precision agri culture, …) increasing safety (e.g. 
reduction of flight-into-te rrain type of accidents). In order to do  so, some technical requirements would 
need to be in place,  notably the deployment of additional ground stations and control centres. Current 
 
EN 154   EN SESAR, the Single European Sky Initiative an d the Air safety: Cooperative Development of 
Operational Safety and Continuing Airworthin ess Programme (COSCAP), mentioned in the 
2007 report.  
3.11.2.2.  Joint Africa-EU Strategy 
The inadequacy of infrastruct ure on the African continent se verely constrains economic 
growth and hampers human and social developm ent. As regards road safety, the African 
continent has the highes t road fatality/population rate in the world. Road tr ansport accounts 
for 90% of interurban transpor t but physical links and services  are inadequate . Rail network 
coverage is sparse and interconn ectivity of networks is low. Many maritime ports struggle to 
offer competitive services while inland waterw ays are poorly integrated into transport 
networks.  
The need for greater interconnec tivity is embedded in the Join t Africa-EU Strategy (JAES) 
adopted in December 2007 and the Partners hip on Trade, regional integration and 
infrastructure and builds on the Communication Interconnecting Africa238. Africa and the EU 
will aim at increasing interconnectivity by invest ing in and improving infrastructure along the 
trans-African road transport corridors and associ ated regional road and rail networks. These 
corridors were identified by NEPAD and are vital for import and export for land-locked 
countries. International corridor transport is how ever often costly and not necessarily reliable 
due to insecurity, conflict a nd underdeveloped infrastructure.  
The overall length of the eight trans-African road transport corridors is about 40 000 km. On 
these corridors roughly 4 800km (12%) were maintained and re habilitated under the national 
programmes of the 8th and 9th EDF (1995-2007)  and approximately 6 400km (16%) of the 
corridors needing heavy mainte nance and rehabilita tion will be considered under the 10th 
EDF (2008-2013). 
The first estimate of committed amounts under th e NIP 8th and 9th EDF is about €1.2 billion; 
i.e. about €100 million a year. Over the 10th EDF period and on the eight corridors, we 
consider that those commitments will reach €1.5 billion; i.e. about €300 million per annum. In addition, support to corridors wi ll be provided by RIPs (install ation of joint post borders, 
transport facilitation programmes) and substan tially by the Infrastructure Trust Fund (ITF). 
The start-up phase of the Partnership is s upported through a €10 million allocation, to assist 
the AU in the preparation of projects, and some  of the planned initial activities have been 
implemented and enhanced cooperation with other partners interested in the area of African 
infrastructure development will be further explored in the future 
The EU-Africa Partnership on Infrastructure brings Member Stat es, the Commission and 
African partners together; it has the potential to raise awareness on PCD issues related to transport among EU practitioners but it is too early to report on the coordinating function as 
the Partnership is still evolving.  
                                                                                                                                                        
 
status in aviation: en-route and non-precision landing based on GPS only is limited in performance and 
safety. The required navigation performance is available only to a few carriers equipped with 
sophisticated on -board GPS-based avionics.  
238 COM (2006) 376, 13.07.2006 
 
EN 155   EN 3.11.2.3.  Future Perspectives  
There are quite a number of activities in progre ss in the area of transport. The implementation 
of the 10th EDF transport programmes, implementa tion of projects identified for funding 
under the Infrastructure Trust Fund, expansion of ITF resources via allocation under the 10th 
EDF intra-ACP resources and additional loan f unds from project financiers. In addition, the 
execution of the demand-driven Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa (PIDA) 
239 and the Africa Infrastructu re Country Diagnostic (AICD)240, funded through a multi-donor 
trust fund – including € 750 000 from the 9th EDF - are worthy of mention. PIDA and AICD 
should help develop a coherent diagnosis of Africa's problems in  infrastructure and provide 
for a continent-wide investment  programme to move forward with agreed priorities. The 
AICD is reaching its final stages and the flagship report will be issued in July 2009. 
In April 2009, the EU-Africa Aviation Summ it in Windhoek took place, laying the foundation 
for enhanced cooperation on civil aviation, and developing a roadmap for possible concrete 
cooperation activities particularly in such area s as security and safety and ensuring that 
appropriate regulatory frameworks are in place.  
The European Commission will also reinforce it s assistance in the es tablishment of "Trans-
African Networks" by drawing on the experience of the tools which have been developed 
within the Trans-European Transport Networks".  For example the establishment of a system 
of coordinators, similar to the ones of the TEN -T could help the AU Co mmission to ensure a 
coordinated development of the eigh t trans-African transport corridors.241  
3.11.2.4.  International Dimension of EU Transport Policy 
The EU is committed to contribute and enhance its participation to International Maritime 
Organisation (IMO) and the Internationa l Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).  
The EU continues to support measures to im prove access to ports in a holistic manner 
including port inspections and e nvironmental as well as safety measures. Better working and 
living conditions on board ships are ensured through the adoption by the EU of the ILO 
Maritime Labour Convention of 2006.  
                                                 
239 PIDA is a holistic framework for connecting African  infrastructure plans incl uding energy, water and 
transport and involving major stakeholders lik e NEPAD, UN-ECA, Regional Economic Communities 
and the African Development Bank. PIDA will enable  Africa to have continental sector strategic 
policies and programmes. Its objectives are to: esta blish a strategic framework for the development of 
regional and continental infrastructure in the areas of  energy, transport, ICT and trans-boundary water, 
based on a development vision, strategic objectives and sector policies; establish an infrastructure 
investment programme (short, medium and long term) around priorities established by Regional 
Economic Communities; and prepare an implementation strategy and process including, in particular, a 
priority action plan. 
240 AICD is a study of 44 Sub-Saharan countries which w ill assist individual countries in benchmarking the 
relative performance of their infrastructure sector and formulating their own country-specific strategies in the light of regional experience. It will assi st donors in designing appropriate support for 
infrastructure reform, finance, regulation and investment. Furthermore, it allows an improved 
evaluation of the collective effort s to meet Africa’s needs by esta blishing a baseline of the current 
situation on the continent. Finally it acts as a core reference document on all strategic issues relating to 
infrastructure and hence a vehicle for building consensus about the ap propriate response to Africa’s 
infrastructure problems . 
241 Seehttp://africa-eu-partnership.org/au-
eu/pages/templates/focus.jsp;jsessionid=6860C088E4988C0D58F4F4ED4D13F1DF?filename=focus 
 
EN 156   EN The IMO's Maritime Safety Commission discusses a number of issues related to maritime 
security and safety matters. The need for protection of ships agai nst piracy and robbery off the 
coast of Somalia for example and the adoption of  amendments to the International Convention 
for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) were among the items at the top of the agenda during 
the 85th session, at the IMO's London Headquarter s, from 26 November to 5 December 2008. 
In air transport progress has been made in setting up Community Aviation Agreements. As 
opposed to traditional bilatera l air services agreements, these Community agreements 
systematically provide for inter-modality/co-modality. This is particularly relevant to countries involved in the European Neighbourhood Policy and the Union for the Mediterranean. These agreements also consider all areas relevant to air tr ansport in a coherent 
way (economic issues such as the increased market access; social issues including working 
conditions of personnel; environmental issues like CO2 emissions, et c.). Improved dialogue 
on the external effects of the transport policy is a key element in the agreements. The flow of information from and to developing countries  is one of the key challenges regarding the 
promotion of synergies .  
The European Commission is striving to enha nce coordination with the African Development 
Bank and the World Bank, as the main financiers of transport in Africa.  In the meantime the 
Commission continued as the lead donor of the Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy 
Programme (SSATP). SSATP is a partners hip of 35 Sub-Sahara n countries, Regional 
Economic Communities and donors that facilitates the development of transport policies and 
implementation strategies to strengthen economic growth and reduce poverty. In addition, an amount of €0.75 million was allocated to assist the AU to advance the implementation of the 
Yamoussoukro Decision concerning the liberalis ation of access to air transport markets in 
Africa.  
Within the ENPI, new regional programmes in partner countries along the eastern border of 
the EU received funding to support, among other things, the be neficiary countries' 
administrations in the implementation of air a nd land transport safety and security measures. 
Progress was also made improving internationa l transport in the Black Sea region, the 
Caucasus and Central Asia. Ambitious projects were launched to improve maritime links with the neighbouring countries, no tably through the development of 'Motorways of the Sea' a 
concept aiming at introducing new intermodal ma ritime-based logistics chains in Europe, for 
the Black and Caspian Seas. Specific expertise was also dedicated to the transport of dangerous goods and Liquefied Petroleum Gas along the Europe Caucasus Asia Transport 
Corridor, while intensive training and support wa s provided to the region's freight carriers. 
The objective is to crea te an effective transport market involving the EU and its neighbours. 
In the Mediterranean region, to  support the economic and soci al development of the region, 
the Commission encouraged the creation of a regional Euro-Mediterranean transport infrastructure network allowing more functiona l and efficient transpor t connections between 
the two shores of the Mediterra nean. A new initiative will c onsolidate the political dialogue, 
carry out analyses concerning regulatory reform , infrastructure planning and assessment of 
financing needs and support the implementation of priority projects. Particular efforts will be 
made to establish Motorways of the Sea.  
In 2008, the Commission adopted a new progr ammes for the support of ASEAN with the 
ASEAN Air Transport Integration Project whose purpose is to develop the institutional frameworks and to strengthen institutional capac ities within ASEAN with a view to achieving 
a safe, secure and sustainable ASEAN Single Aviation Market  by 2015 based on high 
regulatory standards.
 
 
EN 157   EN Member States' Contribution to PCD in Transport 
A number of Member States have establis hed new programmes to promote PCD since 2007. 
Lithuania has created the Baltic Black Seas Tr ansport Corridor and a Coordination Council 
for the Corridor with Belarus and Ukraine in 2008. These initiatives improve Belorussian and 
Ukrainian mobility. Lithuania is seeking to c onnect the Viking project (connecting Lithuania, 
Belarus and Ukraine) to the TRACECA (Transport Corridor Europe Caucasus Asia). To this end, discussions with Turkey have been launc hed. Lithuania has also hosted a seminar to 
inform Belorussian government officials about EU  transport policy and b ilateral cooperation.  
Portugal has signed a Memorandum of Unders tanding (MoU) with the civil aviation 
authorities of Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea Bissau, Mozambique, Sao Tome e Principe 
and East Timor, aiming to establish the “P ortugese Official Language Countries Civil 
Aviation Authorities Community (CAACL). In  addition, Portugal has signed shipping 
agreements with all Portugese-speaking countries  with the aim of meeting their needs in the 
port and maritime sector, and particulary assi sting entities responsib le for regulating and 
supervising the maritime and port sectors.  
Germany has commissioned the project “Infra structure Capacity Building Initiative for 
Regional Economic Communities in Africa”, which aims to assist RECs in Sub-Saharan 
Africa in establishing regional transport infrastructures.  
The Czech Republic reports that its railway  project in Indonesia and urban transport 
programmes in Kabul and Bishkek have cont ributed to a more balanced intervention  logic 
targetting all transport modes. The Netherlands is carrying out a capacity-building programme with several countries on aviation safety an d on bilateral maritime cooperation with the 
Philippines.  
The Malta Maritime Authority has discussed areas for cooperation on port and maritime 
issues with North African EuroMed countries. 
3.11.3.  Conclusion & Outstanding Issues 
Assessment
242 of progress on PCD in this policy area  
                                                 
242 Chart based on Member States' responses to a dedicated PCD 2009 questionnaire prepared by the 
European Commission. 
 
EN 158   EN 
 
Overall, PCD progress in the area of transport is  rated as average. Increasingly, the issue of 
coherence is being addressed by more balanced interverventions across transport modes, in 
particular in Sub-Saharan Africa, and links to cross-cutting issues. However, beyond the 
regional and international connections, the issu es of local access in Sub-Saharan Africa and 
transport choices in ru ral and urban areas, though covered by Community aid, require perhaps 
more attention. Stepping up efforts to increase coverage would be needed as these links are 
crucial for reducing poverty and accelera ting growth in Sub-Saharan Africa.  
Any progress with regard to PCD promotion woul d require some type of policy framework at 
every level. None of the Member States men tion inter-ministerial coordination mechanisms 
within Member States on transport and developm ent, which might be an indication of the lack 
of awareness of this link between the two area s. Monitoring and analysis mechanisms also 
seem to be lacking across the spectrum.  
Promising overarching initiativ es are difficult to identify in this area, as transport 
development cooperation programmes are sti ll very fragmented. Policy Coherence for 
Development could assist in addressing this fr agmented external dimension of EU Transport 
policy. EU initiatives could aim for more coor dination and cooperation in this area. Better 
frameworks are needed at all levels to set out goals and initiatives. The Partnership on 
Infrastructure could be an impor tant starting point if the actors involved used the opportunity 
at hand.  
Outstanding Issues 
• Continue to develop the cohere nt policy dialogue on transpor t with partner countries and 
raise awareness of the link between development and transport 
• Continue to address the fragmented extern al dimension of the EU transport policy  
• Develop monitoring mechanisms with a view to promoting PCD in transport  
 
EN 159   EN 3.12. Energy  
Quick Facts 
• Nearly 2 billion people are without access to m odern energy services (UNDP 2007)  
• World energy demand will expand by 45% between 2006 and 2030 with coal accounting 
for more than a third of the overall rise. (WEO 2008)  
• China and India will account for 51% of th e increase in global primary energy between 
2006 and 2030 (WEO 2008)  
• Wind has been the fastest growing renewable el ectricity source worldwide, with an average 
annual growth rate of 24% over the period 1990-2005 (WEO 2008)  
• World CO2 emissions from fuel combustion are projected to increase by almost 45% from 
2006 to 2030 if policies don’t change (WEO 2008)  
• About 80 developing countries […] grow and process sugarcane, a high yielding crop in 
terms of photosynthesis efficiency that  can also be used to produce ethanol (IFPRI 2006)  
3.12.1.  Introduction  
Energy policies worldwide will be a key determ inant of developing countries' ability to 
achieve the Millenium Development Goals (M DGs). The oil price boom in 2008 has shed 
new lights on the dependence of our economies on affordable energy. However, while the 
developed world and the emerging countries have, to some extent, the financial capacity to 
weather oil price fluctuations, and expected in crease in the future, oil-importing developing 
countries have seen their public expenditure dram atically affected, sometimes to the detriment 
of other public spending. Be yond this direct impact on budget matters, access to  energy is 
critical to economic development, growth, poverty reduction and better social services 
provision.  
Access to affordable and sustainable source of  energy is therefore pa rt of the development 
solution for developing countries. This will also help to curtail rising emissions of 
greenhouses gases consistent w ith the climate change policy objectives. Policy synergies can 
be developed in the context of  the 2007 Energy Policy for Europe243, which aims at 
integrating Europe's energy and development polic ies in a "win-win" game. In this context the 
EU will support developing countries in promo ting sustainable and secure supply and use of 
energy. Enhancing the coherence of EU energy policies with developm ent objectives will be 
paramount in an energy world characterised by increasing demand and serious constraints on 
traditional supplies  
                                                 
243 Com (2007) 1 final, 10.01.2007 
 
EN 160   EN 3.12.2.  Progress towards PCD Commitments  
3.12.2.1.  Policy Context 
In the context of the 2007 Energy Policy fo r Europe, the second Strategic Energy Review244, 
adopted by the Commission in November 2008 em phasised that external energy dimensions 
must be given political attenti on in the EU's external relations  and highlighted the importance 
of the "EU's 20-20-20 strategy"245. With regards to devel oping countries, the Review 
recognised the EU's need to assess the increasi ngly important role of Africa, to step up its 
energy relationships with Africa and promote re liable energy partnerships  with suppliers, as 
well as its assistance in regional integration of electricity markets and the promotion of 
renewable energy. 
The adoption of the EU Climate Change and Energy Package246 in December 2008 was a 
landmark, highlighting the inte ractions between energy and climate issues. The provision 
regarding 10% share of renewable energy, including biofuels, in th e transport sector in the EU 
by 2020 is of particular relevance to devel oping countries. However, energy-efficient 
production capacities as well as tr ansmission and distribution netw orks will also contribute to 
enhanced security of energy supply in developi ng countries. These countries will benefit from 
the EU’s efforts to diversify energy supply and to develop energy–efficient and renewable 
energy technologies247. In this context, in June 2008, the G8 countries (with China, India and 
South Korea) and the Commission establishe d the International Partnership on Energy 
Efficiency Cooperation (IPEEC), a framewor k for international cooperation which will 
facilitate actions yielding in  high energy efficiency gains. 
• The Renewable Energy Directive 
Renewable energy and sustainable biofuels development is a key focus of the EU's 
cooperation with developing count ries. Renewable energy could i ndeed be a preferred choice 
for power generation not only for th e urban areas but also for the rural and isolated areas, with 
considerable distances from national grids.  
Regarding biofuels, their use has been promoted  in the EU as a way to reduce dependence on 
imported oil and to reduce Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the transport sector since 
2003. In 2007, the overall share of biofuels in road transport in the EU reached 2,6%. In December 2008 an agreement was reached on the new Renewable Energy Directive
248, which 
includes in particular the bindi ng targets of a 20% overall shar e of renewable energy in 2020, 
and a 10% share of renewable energy in transport.  Biofuels are expected to contribute to both 
these targets. Although these goa ls could be met by EU biofue ls production, the share of 
imports is expected to grow and might come  from developing countries, as some tropical 
crops have a comparative advantage in te rms of GHG savings potential. To limit 
                                                 
244 COM/2008/0781 final ,13.11.2008 
245 The EU is committed to 20% greenhouse gas (GHG) re duction, to the sourcing of 20% of its overall 
energy mix from renewable energy and to a sa vings target of 20 % of total primary energy 
consumption, all this by 2020. 
246 The December 2008 Climate and Energy Package is  presented in Chapter 3 on Climate Change. See 
European Commission Press Release IP/08/1998, 17.12.2008 for an overview. For additional information: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/climate_action.htm 
247 Outstanding issue from the 2007 Report on PCD 
248 COM(2008) 19 final, 23.01.2008 
 
EN 161   EN environmental risks in developing countries  and the EU, the Directive provides for a 
pioneering and far-reaching sustainability scheme for biofuels.  
With the adoption of the Renewable Energy Direct ive all EU Member Stat es will now apply a 
common sustainability scheme. The scheme w ill for the first time oblige all EU biofuel 
producers or importers to comply with clear e nvironmental criteria, and to report on a number 
of additional effects, including possible economic and social im pacts within the EU and in 
third countries. Among the reporting and monitoring requirements, some are specifically meant to monitor the impacts of  increased biofuels producti on in third countries. These 
include the requirements for economic operators to report on measures to protect soil, water 
and air quality, in the EU and in third countries  where biofuels are produced. In addition, the 
Commission is committed to monitoring the la nd use changes associated with increased 
production of biofuels and the impacts on the availability and price of foodstuffs in 
developing countries, as well as  wider development issues.  
Staff Working Paper on Climate Chan ge, Energy – The Biofuels – April 2008 
The Commission elaborated on the multiple dimensions249 of EU biofuels po licy in relation to 
development in a Staff Working Paper250 issued in April 2008, which provided some options 
for a development-friendly EU biofuels policy:  "The EU should help developing countries to 
benefit from the opportunities created by the biofuels market for fighting poverty, while 
maintaining careful monitoring of the impact it can  have on third countrie s, in particular in 
terms of food security, access to land and the environment. Against this background, one of 
the recommendations proposed is regular monito ring of the European biofuels policy fully 
including the development dimension".  
While the subject remains a contentious issue in  the EU, some Member States are active in 
this field. Germany for instance worked on an in ternational certification system for biofuels 
and biomass to avoid conflicts of objectives an d undesired side effects. Sweden for its part 
supported the Biofuel Task Force in Tanzania, where modern laws an d regulation are being 
developed in accordance with EU policies, and cooperated with Brazil on bioenergy. France 
also maintained a scientific cooperation on biof uels with Brazil. Finally, the creation of a 
dedicated agency to promote renewable energy globally (IRENA) by Germany, Spain, 
Denmark and Latvia is another important development. The International Renewable Energy 
Agency (IRENA) was officially establis hed on 26 January 2009 in Bonn. It is an 
intergovernmental body (136 States have signed the Statute of the Agency, amongst them 45 
African, 36 European, 32 Asian, 14 American count ries and 9 States from Australia/Oceania) 
which "aspires to become the main driving fo rce for promoting a rapi d transition towards the 
widespread and sustainable use of renewable energy on a global scale. As the global voice for 
renewable energies, IRENA envisages prov iding practical advice and support for both 
industrialised and developing countries, thereb y helping to improve frameworks and build 
capacity. Moreover, the Agency intends to faci litate access to all relevant information, 
including reliable data on the potentials for renewable ener gy, best practices, effective 
financial mechanisms, and state-of-t he-art technological expertise".251 
                                                 
249 Outstanding issue from the 2007 Report on PCD 
250 COM(2008) 177 final and SEC(2008) 434.09.04.2008"The EU – a global partner for development: 
Speeding up progress towards the Millennium Development Goals",  
251 See www.irena.org   
 
EN 162   EN 3.12.2.2.  Dialogue with Partner Countries and Regions 
• The EUEI  
During the World Summit on Sustainable Developm ent in 2002, the EU launched an initiative 
to support the provision of adequate, affordable and sustainable energy se rvices in developing 
countries, the EU Energy Initiative for Pove rty Reduction and Sustainable Development 
(EUEI) 252. The Commission and the Member States have stepped up their support to the 
EUEI since 2007, creating new financing instrume nts, such as the ACP-EU Energy Facility 
(cf. section 3.12.2.3). 
The value of the EUEI in improving coordinatio n in the Union is widely acknowledged. The 
Initiative has helped raise th e profile of energy on the deve lopment agenda and offers an 
important platform for dialogue and coordination. However, there is still a need to strengthen 
EUEI funding and increase dialogue  with beneficiary countries.  
The EUEI-PDF 
The EUEI- Partnership Dialogue Fa cility (EUEI-PDF) is an init iative of six Member States 
aiming at supporting the development of policies a nd strategies for the promotion of access to 
energy at national and regional level. These ar e based on dialogue within and between partner 
countries, their regional orga nisations, EU Member States and the European Commission. 
Germany and the Netherlands are the main contributors to the PDF253. The European 
Commission will support expansi on of the PDF's activities rela ted to implementation of the 
Africa-EU Energy Partnership, focusing on s upporting stakeholders and policy dialogue. 
• Africa-EU Energy Partnership 
In December 2007, leaders of the EU and Afri ca adopted a Joint Africa-EU Strategy. An 
Action Plan for the period 2008-2010, including an  EU-Africa Energy Partnership, was also 
agreed upon. This Partnership builds on the pr evious work undertaken through the EUEI and 
extends its coverage to wider i ssues such as energy security.  
Joint mission of Commissioners Michel and Piebalgs to Africa  
In September 2008, European Commissioners Pieb algs and Michel unde rtook a joint mission 
to Africa to communicate the im portance of the Africa-EU Energy Partnership and to reach an 
agreement on its concrete and effective implemen tation. This first-ever vi sit of an EU Energy 
Commissioner to Africa was an initiative comb ining development and energy strands of EU 
cooperation with the region.  
                                                 
252 The goal of the EUEI is to cont ribute to providing access to energy necessary for the achievement of the 
Millennium Development Goals. It does so by helping raise political awareness of the important role 
energy can play in poverty reduction, clarify the need for energy services for poverty reduction and sustainable development, encourage the coheren ce and synergy of energy-related activities and 
stimulate new resources from the private sector, financial institutions, civil society and end-users. 
253 See www.euei-pdf.org 
 
EN 163   EN In September 2008 a Joint Statement was signed by the African Union Commission and the 
European Commission on the Implementation of the EU-Africa Energy Partnership254, setting 
the priorities, with careful c onsideration given to the econom ic viability of  initiatives 
supported or financed255, for EU-Africa energy cooperation  in five main areas: energy 
security; regional integration and energy infrastructure; inte rconnections within Africa and 
between Africa and the EU; th e promotion of an enabling e nvironment for private-sector 
investment; improving access to energy servi ces, exploring Africa's renewable energy 
potential in a sustainable way and improving energy efficiency. 
EU Member States are closely associated, in th e spirit of the Partne rship, and technical and 
political dialogue and exchange of views ha ve taken place: Austri a and Germany are co-
chairing the EU Implementation Team where othe r Member States are also represented. The 
Partnership provides a platform which allows institutions on both sides to communicate more 
efficiently, focusing on Africa's energy needs and potential. As a result better coherence in 
EU's action in the regi on is being achieved.  
With a view to implementing the above priori ties, a regular policy dialogue will continue 
throughout 2009 and will focus on putting in place the appropriate institutional 
implementation set-up. This should include the building up of an African Implementation 
Team.  
The EU and Nigeria 
The establishment of a regular energy policy di alogue with Nigeria with in the framework of 
the EU-Nigeria political di alogue is one of the EU's priorities. It is situated in  the context of a 
wide strategy of increased political engageme nt and cooperation with Nigeria. The mutual 
interest in enhancing bilateral relations in th e energy sector was one of  the highlights of the 
EU - Nigeria Foreign Affairs Ministerial troi ka meetings held in May 2008 and in June 2009. 
This dialogue, which involve s the Commission and EU Member  States, will enable the 
discussion of cooperation on energy issues and will strengthen the political and development 
dimension of EU energy cooperation with third countries. 
• Other Bilateral Energy Dialogues 
Among the numerous energy dialogues established with third countries256, European 
Commission cooperation with China on energy has been the focus of increasing attention in 
2007 and 2008. The College visit to Beijing in April 2008 cr eated a momentum for both 
parties to tackle energy issues at the highest  political level. They committed themselves to 
actively pursue cooperati on on topics such as clean coal, energy efficiency and renewable 
energies.  
The EU-China Energy Dialogue  
The Commission is implementing with its Chinese counterpart a research programme on 
Carbon Capture and Storage thus allowing th e development of a promising sustainable 
technology. The Commission also promotes clean coal techno logies for existing power plants 
                                                 
254 African Union Commission and European Commission launch an ambitious Africa-EU Energy 
Partnership, 08.09. 2008. 
255 Outstanding issue in the 2007 report on PCD. 
256 Including developing countries in Asia, Latin America, Africa and Middle East 
 
EN 164   EN through the organisation of dedicated worksh ops and the formal se tting up of a Working 
Group on Clean Coal. In 2009, a Euro-China Clean Energy Centre, target ing businesses, and a 
Training Institute for Clean and Renewable En ergies (ICARE), providing advanced training 
to master fellows, will be established. In the meantime, in June 2009 the European 
Commission adopted a Communication on "Demonstrating Carbon Capture and Geological 
Storage (CCS) in emerging developing countr ies: financing the EU -China Near Zero 
Emissions Coal Plant project"257.,  
During the EU-Brazil summit in December 2008, an  Energy Chapter was included in the EU-
Brazil Joint Action Plan. Five main priorities are at the core of th is bilateral dialogue: 
exchange of experiences and consultations on competitive energy markets; energy efficiency and demand management; joint research effort s in second generation biofuels; promotion of 
sustainable biofuels at the in ternational leve l; promotion of EU-Braz il industrial cooperation 
on low carbon technologies paying pa rticular attention to safe and sustainable technologies. 
• Instruments to implement EU Energy Policies in Developing Countries 
In June 2007, the Commission adopted the th ematic programme for the environment and 
sustainable management of natural resources , including energy (ENRTP) and its multi-annual 
indicative programme 2007-2010 . This strategy aims to promote the EU's energy policies 
abroad in the common interest of the EU and partne r countries and regions (See Chapter 3 on 
Environment Policy).  
Among other initiatives, the programme supported the Global Energy Efficiency and 
Renewable Energy Fund (GEEREF), which was created in 2007, w ith an allocation of €20 
million. The objective of GEEREF is to pool pu blic and private funds through an innovative 
public–private partnership so as  to offer new risk-sharing an d co-funding options for various 
investors in the areas of energy efficiency and renewable energy.  
Global Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fund (GEEREF) 
The GEEREF is an innovative ri sk capital fund which uses limited public money to mobilise 
private investment in energy efficiency an d renewable energy proj ects, in developing 
countries and economies in transition. The GEEREF funding, totalling €22 million in 2008, is 
channelled into two commercial funds, one fo cusing on projects in su b-Saharan Africa, the 
other on Asia, with a primary focus on India. Both funds will invest equity in renewable 
energy projects such as wind energy generati on, small hydro-electric generation, biomass and 
methane recovery. 
The European Commission258 and many EU Member States contribute to the Extractive 
Industries Transparency Initiative ( EITI ), which is a coalition of governments, companies, 
civil society, investors and international organi sations that aims to strengthen governance in 
the extractive industry sector by improving tr ansparency and accountability, particularly 
through verification and full publication of co mpany payments and government revenues 
from oil, gas and mining. These revenues once accounted for can contribute, through more 
transparent state budgets, to financing activities that aim at poverty reduction.  
                                                 
257 See COM(2009) 284 final, 25.6.2009 
258 For the period 2008-2010 the Commission is contributing €530,000 to this initiative through its 
participation in the World Bank Multi-donor Trust Fund for EITI 
 
EN 165   EN Since May 2008 the Commission has become a member of the Global Gas Flaring 
Reduction public-private partnership (GGFR)259. GGFR, also supported by France and the 
UK, brings together representatives of gove rnments of oil-producing countries, including 
many developing countries, state-owned compan ies and major internat ional oil companies260. 
GGFR aims to improve energy efficiency by unloc king the value of wasted gas. The focus of 
the initiative is on major flaring countries and regions261 and of particular relevance to Africa 
where energy needs are particularly acute.  
Over recent years some projects focusing on capacity building and training in developing 
countries were supported by the COOPENER  programme, which was the external 
component of the Commission's "Intelligent  Energy – Europe (IEE) programme" and 
addressed the role of sustainable energy for pove rty alleviation in developing countries. It was 
launched in 2003 in the framework of the EU Ener gy Initiative and integr ated into the ENRTP 
in 2007.  
These initiatives and partnershi ps are all aimed at increasing investments in the field of 
energy efficiency or renewable energy and at re ducing negative impacts in the field of energy. 
3.12.2.3.  Development Policies and Instruments in s upport of Energy in Developing Countries  
At EU level, the support to en ergy has increased w ith its inclusion as a priority area in 
development policy and the awareness created by the ACP-EU Energy Facility. While support 
is provided to many developing countries, particul ar attention has been paid in recent years to 
Africa, as the most needy region in terms of energy access.  
The ACP-EU Energy Facility, funded to th e tune of €220 million by EUEI since 2005, is 
designed to co-finance projects that deliver ener gy services to poor rural and peri-urban areas. 
The main activities performe d are related to energy production, transformation and 
distribution, to extension of existing electricity grids and to "soft" activities such as governance, capacity building or feasibility st udies. The Energy Facility also finances a 
Capacity Building Programme (2008-2013), with  the aim of supporting the African Power 
Pools and the Africa Forum for Utility Regulators..  
The EU-Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund (ITF) is the main instrument implementing the 
Africa-EU Infrastructure Partnership. It was se t up by a number of Member States (for a total 
of €40 million) and the Commission (€108 million) to provide support (grants, interest rate 
subsidies, guarantees) to priority regional infras tructure projects in Africa. A majority of the 
projects supported by the ITF have been in the energy sector, including major investment 
projects such as the Capriv i Interconnector between Namibi a and Zambia and the Felou 
Hydro Power Plant on the Senegal river.  
Energy activities are also supported under the National and Regional Indicative Programmes 
adopted in 2007. Fourteen ACP countries
262 have included energy in their national indicative 
programmes. In addition, the regional programme s, in particular for "Eastern and Southern 
                                                 
259 With a contribution of €270,000 
260 Outstanding issue in the 2007 Report on PCD. 
261 Gulf of Guinea, Russia and Caspian region , Middle East, Latin America, East Asia 
262 Burkina Faso, Burundi, Chad, Cook Islands, Ivor y Coast, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, 
Palau, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Tonga and possibly Guinea Bissau and Liberia. 
 
EN 166   EN Africa", “West Africa" and "Southe rn Africa-SADC”, are open to provide financing to energy 
projects. 
Several EU Member States are actively i nvolved in cooperation pr ogrammes and projects 
with developing countries. In terms of ODA disbursed in the energy sector, Germany and 
France263 are the biggest contributors. Germany is involved in the energy sector in 50 
countries worldwide and promotes synergie s between energy and development. The UK 
contributed voluntary grants of £750 milli on in the period 2007-2009. The Czech Republic 
and Austria, among others, have supported programmes promoting access to sustainable 
energy sources in Vietnam, Yemen, Serbia a nd Mongolia and, more generally, in Africa and 
in the Central American region.  
A number of Member States have also streng thened analysis and monitoring mechanisms in 
the energy field. The Irish Aid Advisory Boar d commissioned a repo rt on biofuel production, 
which was used to inform all other relevant departments of the issues surrounding biofuel 
production in developing countries. France an d the World Bank have financed a study on 
urban transport in China, taking into consid eration environmental and energy aspects for 
sustainable development.  
Netherlands: Development of a Biomass Action Plan 
The Netherlands has made significant efforts si nce 2007 to enhance capacities for the use of 
biomass as an energy source both nationally and w ithin developing countries. The goal of this 
Biomass Action Plan is "to stimulate, support and facilitate the promotion of the sustainable 
production of biomass for energy purposes, as fa r as possible internationally anchored, on the 
basis of a ‘ level playing field ’ and to make good use of the opportunities presented to 
developing countries". The Netherla nds has set strict goals for the use of biomass, in line with 
EU commitments, and has decided to use this opportunity to assist developing countries in 
this sector264, through support for sustainable produc tion of biomass, for both national and 
international use, with an emphasis on certific ation and monitoring of production. Taking into 
consideration the development as pects, production of biomass ha s strong potential to increase 
PCD in the Energy Sector. 
3.12.3.  Conclusion & Outstanding Issues  
Over the last two years, energy has become a key political priority for the EU and more 
political attention has been paid to Energy and possible synergies with Development have 
been sought. One key energy policy initiativ e since 2007, the Climate Change and Energy 
Package, will affect developing countries in a number of ways265 and in particular through its 
biofuel aspects which will generate for develo ping countries opportunities and challenges that 
need to be carefully balanced. The sustainabilit y scheme attached to the EU biofuels policy 
has been elaborated ta king into consideration the resulti ng concerns related to potential 
environment degradation, social tensions an d food availability in poor countries. The 
development dimensions of the biofuels polic y have been considered in the context of 
ongoing efforts by the EU to enhance Policy Coherence for Development. Reciprocally, 
                                                 
263 With €800 million and €600 million a year respectively. 
264 Global Sustainable Biomass Fund, March, 2009. 
http://www.senternovem.nl/globalsustainablebiomass/index.asp 
265 See also Chapter 3 on Climate Change policies 
 
EN 167   EN development policies in specifi c developing countries could be  implemented in synergy, 
helping countries where good potential exists  to develop biofuels production and use. 
Beyond the policy level, rapid progr ess has been achieved on othe r initiatives as exemplified 
by the higher priority given to energy in coun try development programmes; the setting up of 
an energy dialogue with Africa through the Af rica-EU Energy Partnership, and with other 
developing countries, including  emerging countries (e.g. China,  Brazil); the enhancement of 
EUEI through the introduction of new instrume nts (e.g. providing funds for a second Energy 
Facility266); and the adoption of a thematic pr ogramme to support, inter alia, energy 
programmes (the ENRTP). 
At EU level, Member States are satisfied w ith the progress in the area of energy (see chart 
below267). However there is large scope for maximising the positive impact of the EU energy 
policy, in particular through the strengthening of EUEI, seen as  an important platform for 
dialogue and coordination; thr ough increased dialogue with bene ficiary countries and through 
further research on reducing the costs of "green " technologies. Conflicti ng political priorities 
and diverging interests of EU Member States often remain an obstacle to PCD and there is 
little synergy between EU countries' policies, although in some specific cases, such as 
biofuels, a number of Member States' in itiatives are converging. Finally, as policy 
coordination and monitoring mechanisms at nati onal level are usually weak, a strengthened 
EUEI, at EU level, could usefu lly assist with the task of overall coor dination, ensuring that 
development concerns are taken into accounts in all energy-related EU initiatives.  
 
Future energy policies in the EU will be key to ensuring the sustainable economic 
development of the Union and its response to climate change. They will also help the EU 
efforts to assist developing countries in reach ing the MDGs. Indeed, no development will take 
place if access to energy sources is not secured.  Progress achieved so far in terms of social 
and economic development, in developed and developing countries alike, will be jeopardised by the constraints on affordable energy supply. Improving energy efficiency, diversification 
and renewable energies are all valid strategies in the long term for all countries, but different 
countries' specific endowment in energy resources will make convergence of agendas towards 
                                                
 
266 To the tune of €200 million from the 10th European Development Fund (EDF) 
267 Chart based on Member States' responses to a dedicated PCD 2009 questionnaires prepared by the 
European Commission. 
 
EN 168   EN sustainable energy policies more complex. Politi cal dialogue therefor e with all countries, 
developed and developing, will therefore be required.  
In the meantime, EU policies should ensure th at local energy needs are met to the maximum 
extent via sustainable energy sources. Ther e are synergies between EU and developing 
countries' policies which need to be harnesse d (e.g. biofuels). Such complementarities will 
contribute to better access to sustainable energy for all part ners while allowing important 
climate changes targets to be met. Unde r these conditions, economic development can 
continue and should assist with delivering on the dual goals of eradicating poverty through 
better access to energy and to  keeping climate changes within acceptable parameters. 
Outstanding Issues 
• Implementation of the energy policy prioriti es through the various instruments and 
programmes should continue to aim at increa sing developing countries' access to modern 
energy services. 
• Political dialogue with deve loping countries on energy efficiency, carbon capture and 
storage, renewable energy and dive rsification should be enhanced. 
• Research policy should assist developing count ries in developing efficient, adapted and 
environmentally friendly technologies, while ensu ring that the research results can be acted 
upon. 
• Low carbon technology transfers should be faci litated to allow deve loping countries to 
catch up with efficient and clean technologies. 
• Develop monitoring mechanisms at both natio nal and EU level to measure impact on 
developing countries of en ergy policies in the EU. 
• In developing countries research  activities should be enhan ced and better linked to the 
development policies, in order to foster the development and uptake of advanced and 
environmentally friendly technologie s, adapted to local conditions. 
• Development policies and progra mmes should be geared to en abling developing countries 
willing to engage in biofue ls use and production, both for domestic and export markets, 
while closely monitoring the effects on food security and other potential social and 
environmental consequences. 
 
EN 169   EN 4. CASE STUDIES  
Beyond the policy level which is covered in the first chapters, the following section 
introduces a tentative framework to assess EU policies' impact on MDGs at a methodological 
level: a matrix showing relevant interactions  is proposed followed by a short assessment of 
EU Security Policy impact on development. Th e next two chapters present a more detailed 
assessment of impacts on MDG1 (hunger) and MD G 6 (fighting HIV/AIDS). Turning to an 
international cooperation instrument, the fina l chapter highlights th e PCD potential of the 
recently approved Joint Africa-EU Strategy. 
This EU initiative to explore the possibility of  assessing the impact and results of PCD has to 
be seen in connection with the OECD wo rk on the elaboration of a new assessment 
methodology aiming at improving the development dimensions of polici es and exploiting 
potential positive synergies between those policies and development efforts. 
4.1. Conceptual and Theoretical Framework 
4.1.1.  The Conceptual Framework 
The EU Research Paper on the ''MDGs at Midpoi nt: where do we stand and where do we need 
to go?''268 is a starting point for deve loping a conceptual framewor k to assess PCD impact in 
developing countries. The approa ch stresses the importance of three clusters of policies, 
namely the global context, development assist ance, and domestic polic y, that are important 
for achieving MDGs.  
While understanding interactions be tween these three clusters is key to assessing progress on 
MDGs, the PCD focus is more specifically on the interactions between the development assistance policies and other policies of the EU as highlighted below (Fig.1)  
                                                
 
268 Bourguignon, F. (et al.). 2008b. MDGs at Mid-Point: Where do we Stand & Where do we Need to go? , 
http://ec.europa.eu/development/icenter/ repository/mdg_paper_final_20080916_en.pdf ,  
 
EN 170   EN Figure 1: Key Policy Interactions and progress on MDGs 
Donor Dev Assist
EU/EC 
Dev AssistNon-
EU/ECGlobal context
Other 
EU/EC
policiesOther 
Non-EU/EC 
policiesPartner’s policies
MDG/dev
policiesNon dev 
policies
Progress 
on achieving 
MDGsAlignment
PCDPCD
Harmonisation Harmonisation
 
A further refinement to this model structures the approach to the case studies in a way that 
facilitates comparison. Three broad determin ing factors for food security and access to 
retroviral drugs were iden tified, as shown in Figure 2. 
• Availability of food/ medicine; 
• Access to food/ medicine; 
• Contextual factors such as social conditions (health and education levels), institutional 
capacity and governance issues in the sector, natural environment, etc.269 
                                                 
269 This approach is inspired by and adapted from the Forum for Food Security in Southern Africa (2004)  
 
EN 171   EN Figure 2: Key policy interactions for MDG1 (reducing hunger) and MDG 6 (fighting HIV/AIDS) 
Donor Dev Assist Global contextPartner’s policies
Case studies: 
Determining factors 
for achieving 
food security/ 
access to drugs
PCD
ContextAccess Availability
 
The various factors influencing progress on th e two MDGs considered in the case studies 
have different weights depending on the local c ontext. However, the t ypes of policies that 
have an impact on the three determining factor s are the same as those in the overall model: 
domestic and external (EU and internationa l) policies, development and non-development 
policies.  
4.1.2.  Understanding the impact of EU policies other than aid 
A framework for assessing PCD- sensitivity in EU policy 
Such a framework should allow for systematic exploration of the effects, positive or negative, 
that EU policies other than aid might have on development, and more specifically on the 
achievement of the MDGs. This is at the heart of the impact assessment process which is used 
in EU policymaking270. While very often the emphasis is on the potential negative impact, the 
framework also encourages the identification of  possible synergies, potential positive impacts 
on development, in addition to the core  sector objective of the policies.  
The application of this framework by policymak ers would help make the development case or 
‘MDG-friendly case’ for proposed EU policies. This would allow specific policies to open 
more fully to dialogue with outside parties su ch as development specialists or the policy 
makers of partner country.  
Identifying potential areas for PCD investigation 
To be thorough in assessing PCD implications of EU policies, policymakers can focus 
specifically on the MDGs, and consider whethe r and how policies are likely to affect the 
partner countries’ ability to achie ve each of the first seven MDGs271.  
                                                 
270 Impact assessments are used regularly as a tool by planners in many administrations including the 
European Commission. 
271 The 8th MDG is the Global Partnership for Developm ent which relates to development policies 
formulation and implementation and, as such, is not related to PCD. 
 
EN 172   EN The first step in such a process is to identify  which of the 12 priority  areas of policy might 
conceivably have an impact on the country’s ability to achieve the MDG in question. Conceptually the identification of potential eff ects can be proposed in li ne with the following 
matrix: 
Table 1 : Potential effects of EU policies on developi ng countries’ efforts to achieve the MDGs272  
 MDGs 
 
 
EU policies in 
12 PCD 
priority areas MDG 1: 
Eradicate 
Extreme 
Poverty & 
Hunger MDG 2: 
Achieve 
Universal 
Primary 
Education 
 MDG 3: 
Promote 
Gender 
Equality / 
Empower 
Women MDG 4: 
Reduce 
Child 
Mortality 
 MDG 5: 
Improve 
Maternal 
Health 
 MDG 6: 
Combat 
HIV/AIDS, 
Malaria & 
Other 
Diseases MDG 7: Ensure 
Environmental 
Sustainability 
 
Trade XX I  I  XX X 
Environment XX X I X X  XX 
Climate 
Change XX X I X X  XX 
Security XX XX XX XX XX XX X 
Agriculture XX X X X X X X 
Fisheries XX X X I X I XX 
Social 
Dimension of 
Globalisation X I X I X I  
Migration X X X I X X I 
Research X X X X X X X 
Information 
Society I I I I I I I 
Transport I I   I  X 
Energy  I   I  X 
The indications in the two columns for MDG1 and MDG6 in this table relate to the analysis 
carried out for the two case studi es covered in the following ch apters. A rapid review of the 
potential relationships between the MDGs and th e 12 PCD priority areas allows us to sketch 
some additional indications in the other five  columns (MDGs 2-5 and 7): for example, EU 
policy on Climate Change is likely to have some impact on the achievement of all the MDGs as climate change affects everyone. EU Inform ation Society policy coul d potentially improve 
access to information in any sector which can be vital for the achievement of all MDGs, but the impact is likely to be less direct or less st rong than, for instance, with Security policy. EU 
Migration policy might also encourage the dr ain of skilled personnel away from developing 
countries where they are needed to achieve certain MDGs. By way of illustration, EU Security policy is further presented below as an example of how the PCD sensitivity 
framework might work.  
The markings proposed in the matrix are at this  stage very crude indica tions of the relevance 
and strength of the expected inter-linkages. They are based on the 2007 EU report on PCD. 
While those indications need to be thoroughl y reviewed, through specific studies on the 
various links proposed, the core of the approach also needs to be further enhanced. Such work 
                                                
 
272 The overview in this table is based on the repres entation of the EU policies in the first Biennial EU 
report on PCD (2007). A strong and direct influence on the MDG in question is identified by one or two 
Xs depending on the perceived strength of the potential influence. An “I” indicates that the EU policy area probably has an important indirect influence on the required enabling environment for attaining the 
MDG. In most cases of “I”, the indirect influe nce is because the EU policy in question affects a 
country’s perspective for economic  development, which in part will affect income-related MDGs.  
 
EN 173   EN is currently undert aken in the context of the OECD273 and will form the basis of future EU 
efforts in this field.  
The example of EU Security policy 
European Union policy in the ar ea of security has in the past  few years been guided by the 
European Security Strategy (ESS) of 2003 supplemented by the December 2008 Report on its 
implementation274. The policy thus outlined is essentially multi-lateral in approach, which 
emphasises the need for partnerships and rec ognises that the EU ha s a global role in 
contributing to global security and supporting mu ltilateral frameworks such as the UN and the 
OSCE. It underlines the need to  tackle global challenges such as energy security and climate 
change and a series of specific threats such as WMD275, terrorism and organised crime. It also 
explicitly refers to th e development and security  nexus, and quotes the 2005 European 
Consensus on Development’s  reference to the close linkage between the two policy areas and 
recognises the need for coherent approaches.  
The ESS takes into account areas of specific importance for achieving some of the MDGs. 
Poverty reduction (MDG1) is a clear concern, as is the empowerment of women (MDG3) and 
public health (MDGs 4, 5 & 6) including pand emics such as HIV/AIDS (MDG6). More 
specific links to child mortality (MDG4) and maternal health (MDG5) are not made, but the 
link between these and security does not need spelling out. Various issues which relate to 
environmental sustainability (MDG7) such as climate change, landmines and tensions over water and raw materials extraction are also mentioned. Universal primary education (MDG2) 
is not mentioned specifically, but  the impact of conflict on infr astructure and state fragility 
clearly links through to the provision of educa tion facilities. This quick overview shows that 
PCD elements have been considered in the formulation and reporting of the policy. 
4.1.3.  Limitations of Conceptual Framework  
The difficulty of making strong causal links between EU non-development policies towards 
these countries and their capacitie s to achieve MDGs is known as  the "attribution problem".  
Experience from the field work conducted on the case studies on MDG1 and MDG6 shows 
that it is generally possible to identify the key f actors in each of the po licy clusters considered 
(global context, development assistance, domestic  policy) but that the weight and the relative 
importance of the three cl usters in relation to th e impact in developing countries is difficult to 
gauge. This is a methodological difficulty, an element of uncertainty, which will remain 
central to PCD assessment in the future
276.  
                                                 
273 OECD SG/PCD(2009)4, 27.05.2009, Framework & Assessment Methodology for PCD, Draft report 
274 Council of the European Union, 11.12.2008, Report on the Implementation of the European Security 
Strategy – Providing Security in a Changing World, S407/08 
275 WMD: Weapons of mass destruction  
276 Attribution is a critical enabler of effectiv e response to incoherencies and to synergies . Therefore the 
attribution problem must guide any assessment to estimate trends and impacts on development 
objectives. Several aspects should be considered: the attribution of intended effect (of limited relevance 
as development is, by definition, not the main objective of non-development polices), collateral effects 
(of high relevance as these turns into damages or positive spill-over) and the temporal aspects (time 
horizon of impacts following non-aid policy implementation). 
 
EN 174   EN The case studies nevertheless provide interesting evidence of the inter-relationships between 
policies. At the same time they point toward s the need for more detailed research and 
investigation that would help policy makers and programme administrators to formulate and 
implement policies in different areas that are supportive of development. 
 
EN 175   EN 4.2. Case Study on MDG 1 (Hunger)  
4.2.1.  Objectives 
In order to attempt to test the linkages betw een EU policies and MDG 1, country case studies 
were commissioned early in 2009 in Ethiopia, Mozambique and Senegal. Countries were 
selected with the aim of coveri ng a variety of food s ecurity situati ons in Sub-Saharan Africa, 
the region most affected by hunger277. Some effects of Agriculture and Trade policies have 
been assessed in all three countries, as thes e are key EU policies affecting – directly or 
indirectly - food security in developing count ries. On a case by case basis, Climate Change, 
Fisheries and Energy policy areas were also considered278.  
Given the limited sample of countries, th e objective was not to offer general policy 
recommendations279 but to provide some broad illustra tions of non-aid policy impact on the 
MDG1 objective. In line with  the United Nations approac h, MDG1 on Hunger was assessed 
by the proportion of the popula tion whose food intake falls below the minimum level of 
dietary energy requirements. Another indicator is the prevalence of  underweight children 
under 5 years of age. Both these elements have been considered in the country case studies 
through interviews conducted in the selected coun tries with a wide range of stakeholders such 
as government officials, non-governmental orga nisations, donors, international institutions, 
private sector representatives,  think tanks and universities. 
4.2.2.  Theoretical Framework  
In order to explore causal factors behind the MDG1 targ et on hunger, the broader UN food 
security definition was used: ‘food security, at the individua l, household, national, regional 
and global levels [is achieved] when all peopl e, at all times, have physical and economic 
access to sufficient, sa fe and nutritious food to meet their dietary need s and food preferences 
for an active and healthy life'280  
Against this background, a combination of two theoretical ´lenses´ on factors determining 
access to food has been used for the study, with attention paid to the interplay between the 
policies and activities involving th e government at various levels  and other key stakeholders 
at international and lower levels, including the pr ivate sector. The lenses reflect the two main 
paradigms that currently prevail on global hunger and food security. 
                                                 
277 Ethiopia as a landlocked country with a rather precarious natural environment, Mozambique as an 
overall MDG success story with recen t media attention on food security  and biofuel cultivation, and 
Senegal as a more urbanised country, mo re economically integrated with the EU. 
278 These policy areas are energy/biofuels, climate ch ange in the case of Ethiopia and Mozambique, and 
fisheries in Senegal. 
279 Data sets that can statistically demonstrate po licy impacts on food security conditions and the 
prevalence of underweight are usually lacking. From a conceptual point of view the extrapolation of 
identified EU policy impacts to national-level impact s in terms of MDG1 achievements is not advisable 
for a number of reasons: (a) the specificity of the illu strated impacts; (b) in-country variations in food 
security dynamics across geographical regions, rural-urban divides, and between socio-economic strata; 
(c) attribution problems related to the multi-factorial na ture of food security that is determined by both 
availability, access and utilization of food each with their un derlying factors; (d ) attribution problems 
related to the co-existence of various policy frameworks (domestic policies, EU non-development 
policies, other countries’ non-development policies, and donor development cooperation support); and (e) recent changes in the overall global economic context.  
280 FAO (1998), Rome Declaration on World Food Security and World Food Summit Plan of Action. 
http://www.fao.org/wfs/index_en.htm 
 
EN 176   EN • The trade-based approach focuses on agriculture  and fisheries activities in developed and 
developing countries. The rapi dly increasing economic integr ation at regional and global 
levels results in much larger impact of market competition, which particularly poses new challenges for small-scale producers in deve loping countries, depending on the degree of 
integration of the countries' economies. A diff erentiated approach is therefore necessary, 
taking into consideration the heterogeneity of developing countries (Least Developed 
Countries (LDC), Small Island Developing Stat es (SIDS), landlocked countries, etc). With 
regard to MDG1, for the rura l poor still stricken by hunger the progressing globalisation 
and market integration processes are am ong the most important context variables.
281 
• The ‘right to food’ approach focuses on small- scale farmers, fishermen, pastoralists and 
indigenous people and their ac cess (‘entitlement’) to produc tive resources including 
support services from the government. The a pproach extends to the right of national 
governments to protect and regulate domestic agricultural production an d trade in order to 
achieve sustainable development objectives282. 
The development of functioning agricultural markets (both nati onal and international) is 
essential. For instance, domes tic production in developing count ries cannot always feed the 
growing demand of large urban populations. Ava ilability of food on the international market, 
and trading arrangements between consumers a nd suppliers, are necessary to ensure that 
developing countries' populations have effective access to affordable food283. 
4.2.3.  EU Agriculture and Trade Policies  
4.2.3.1.  The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) 
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) aims at fa ir standards of living and income stability 
for the agricultural community in EU countri es. Since the early 1990s, a process of reform284 
has taken place in response to a changing Eur opean and international context. The 2003 CAP 
Reform285 was a milestone in this process leading to  decoupling of direct aid to EU farmers 
from their production levels, in order to create a sustainable fa rmers’ support system in line 
with global market prices286. The 2008 CAP Reform Health  Check further identified 
                                                 
281 Vermeulen, S., J. Woodhill, F.J. Proctor and R. Delnoye. 2008. Chain-wide learning for inclusive 
agrifood market development: a guide to multi-stakeh older processes for linki ng small-scale producers 
with modern markets. London: International Institute for Environment and Development and 
Wageningen: University and Research Centre. http://www.cdic.wur.nl/NR/rdonlyres/DFDA8928-9664-
4EF3-A593-C5E3023D3164/66662/00iipublication.pdf  
282 Windfuhr, M. and J. Jonsén. 2005. Food Sovereignty: towards democr acy in localized food systems . 
Heidelberg: FIAN / Rugby: Practical Action Publishing. 
283 Idem.  
284 EC, Enlargement, See http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/the-policy/from-6-to-27-members/index_en.htm .  
285 EC. CAP reform – a long-term perspec tive for sustainable agriculture.  See 
http://ec.europa.eu/agricultu re/capreform/index_en.htm . 
286 EC (2006a), Commission Regulation (EC) No 1301/2006 , 31.08.2006. The Reform brought significant 
adjustments in market measures (first in the sectors of  cereals, dairy and rice, a nd later on for olive oil, 
cotton and tobacco, sugar, fruit and vegetables and wi ne); a decoupling of dir ect payment compatible 
with WTO in the arable crops, beef and dairy sectors by introduction of farm support through the Single 
Payment Scheme (SPS, see http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/ capreform/infosheets/pay_en.pdf  for a short 
introduction), and a shift of funds towards the Rural Development Fund, the second pillar of the CAP. The Single Area Payment Scheme (SAPS) was intr oduced in the new Member States before the 
introduction of the SP S to facilitate smooth adjustment to the EU  because of their sp ecific agricultural 
situation. In 2006, DG AGRI drafted a rolling Action Plan focussing on technical simplification of the 
 
EN 177   EN adjustments to the CAP in order to simplify and increase the effectiveness of the policy and to 
allow the agriculture sector to better respond to curren t market opportunities and new 
challenges (See Chapter 1: Agriculture Policy).  
A number of possible CAP influences on deve loping countries, and on African, Caribbean 
and Pacific (ACP) countries in particular, have been cited287 by academics such as: reduced 
attractiveness of EU market  prices for some key raw agricultural e xports from ACP 
countries288 such as sugar (as a result of the abolition of most of the EU market intervention 
mechanisms); shifting from trading bulk commod ities to marketing of differentiated products 
within specific EU market segments; enhanced  price competitiveness of EU exports leading 
to increased competition between products im ported from the EU and ACP products at 
national and regional levels. Fi nally, though not related to CAP as such, a possible impact on 
food security for developing countries is expected  from the food- safety  standards and related 
procedures for control, imposed  by national authorities or priv ate-sector actors, as these 
increase the compliance cost of introducing go ods into the develope d countries' markets, 
including the EU. 
In spite of the above, EU policies, the CAP and Trade in particular, have had positive impacts: 
the CAP, and the gain in agricultural productiv ity in Europe over the last decades, has made 
affordable food available on the world market, allowing net food-importing countries to feed 
their population at a lower cost. Additionally, th e EU remains as of today by far the biggest 
trading partner of developing countries, w ith €59 billion worth of  agricultural products 
imported annually, and with a number of preferen tial trade regimes in place with a wide range 
of developing countries. The EBA and EPAs will c onsolidate the EU as the main importer for 
developing countries. 
4.2.3.2.  EU Trade Policy toward ACP Countries 
Since 2001 WTO members289 have been involved in a new round of global trade talks under 
the Doha Development Agenda (DDA). In agricu lture, the main focus is tariff liberalisation, 
reduction of trade-distorting support and the even tual removal of export subsidies. The EU 
has actively promoted measures to protect th e interests of ACP countries, including better 
trade rules for cotton, special treatment of sm all and vulnerable econo mies, provisions on 
preference erosion and Aid for Trade. The EU ha s substantial offers on the table, including to 
phase out export subsidies for agricultural goods by 2013290, and a complete untying of food 
aid from the agricultural trade policies of de veloped countries. Any agreement reached at 
WTO level will have an effect on the area of agriculture.  
The Cotonou Agreement, signed in 2000 between th e EU and ACP countries, provides for the 
negotiation of new comprehensive trade and de velopment arrangements that offer a better 
                                                                                                                                                         
CAP Reform in order to achieve streamlining an d greater cost-effectiveness without changing the 
underlying policies.  
287 Fautrel V. 2007. EPAs and CAP reform: interactions and key challenges. E ntwicklung & ländlicher 
raum,  6: 8-9. http://archiv.rural-development.de/uploads/media/ELR_dt_08-09_01.pdf  
288 This effect of the CAP is mainly present in markets for cereals, oil seeds, sugar and dairy, but does play 
a small or negligible role on markets for fruits an d vegetables, meat, cocoa products and fresh flowers.  
289 Of the case study countries, Mozambique and Senegal are WTO members but Ethiopia is not. 
290 Hong Kong Ministerial December 2005 “ The final declaration requires elimination of agricultural 
export subsidies by 2013, a date acceptable to the European Union (EU), which accounts for about 90 
percent of such spending.” (Agreement Reached on Incremental Advances in WTO Negotiations, 
UNOHRLLS, December 2005). 
 
EN 178   EN chance of delivering on poverty reduction than the old unilateral tariff preferences. Those did 
not have the expected results in terms of development and poverty issues. These ‘Economic 
Partnership Agreements’ (EPAs) comprise tr ade-related rules, de velopment co-operation 
aspects, services and WTO-compatible agreemen ts for the asymmetric elimination of barriers 
to trade, i.e. full liberalisation from day one as far as the EU is concerned and less than full liberalisation over a 10- to 15- year period for the ACP countries. This would lead to the 
creation of free-trade areas with  and within ACP regions coveri ng essentially all trade. EPAs 
allow ACP countries to exclude certain products provided that 80%  of all trade is liberalised 
by the end of the transition period. ACP count ries in the LDC category will continue to 
benefit from the Everything But Arms (EBA) scheme under the Gene ralised System of 
Preferences (GSP)
291, providing for duty- and quota-free access to the EU market for all 
goods with the exception of arms and ammuniti on. The three selected countries currently 
benefit from EBA arrangements. 
Table 1 - 2007 Trade Statistics  for Case Study Countries292 
 Main Export commodities to the 
EU Main Import commodities 
from the EU 
Ethiopia Coffee (46.7%) 
Hides and skins and leather (14.4%) 
Cut flowers (12.7%) 
Cane sugar (3.9%) Machinery (41%) 
Chemicals (17%) 
Mozambique Base metals (84%), mainly 
aluminium 
Tobacco (9%) 
Fish (4.4%), mainly prawns Machinery (38%) 
Metal products (12%) 
Senegal Fish (46%) 
Livestock and vegetable oils (15%), 
mainly groundnuts 
Vegetable products (11%) Mineral products (33%) 
Machinery (18%) 
 
Given the trade characteristics (see Table 1) and the Everythi ng But Arms scheme in place for 
all three countries, benefits and/ or challenges in the area of f ood security associated with the 
EPA are thought to be limited in the short term. Indeed as most of the imports into the three 
countries from EU are non-agricu ltural and exports of agricultu ral products to the EU already 
benefit from duty-free quota-fr ee access, EPA impact on agricultural goods trading with the 
EU, and therefore on availability and affordability of food products  in the three countries, is 
expected to remain limited, at l east in the short-medium term.  
                                                 
291 The Generalised System of Preferences is an au tonomous trade arrangement through which the EU 
provides non-reciprocal pr eferential access to the EU market to 176  developing countries and territories, 
See http://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/global/gsp/pr230708_en.htm   
292 EC trade statistics, Bilateral trade relations, See http://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/bilateral/data.htm   
 
EN 179   EN 4.2.4.  Elements from the Country Case Studies 
The potential implications of the Agricult ure and Trade policies for ACP countries, as 
hypothesised in the literature mentioned above, are occurring to some degree in the three 
selected countries.  
Impact on sugar:  As prices have declined due to the CAP Sugar Reform (for Ethiopia, 
Mozambique), although remaining well above world market prices, some impacts are 
possible. These are, however, balanced by the opportunities to increase exports provided by 
the elimination of all quot as (under EBA in Ethiopia a nd EPA or EBA in Mozambique293). 
The potential for preference erosion, related to increased competition amongst developing 
countries, also exists for tobacco (EU tari ff for third countries 11-14%) from Mozambique 
and for processed vegetable oil (6-13%) from Se negal. For other agricultural export crops in 
Ethiopia like coffee (0%)294, cut flowers (3-5%) and hides and skins (0%), potential 
preference erosion is very limited.  
Shifting away from trading bulk commodities to marketing of differentiated products within 
specific EU market segments . This effect is indeed seen in Ethiopia where new markets are 
entered. This is however in response to the government policy focus on stimulation of export-
oriented horticulture (cut flow ers and fruits and vegetables), principally for export to the EU. 
Other examples are organic honey production in Ethiopia and citrus in Mozambique. Coffee 
is also a very important sector, with some vari eties protected by trademarks as a way to create 
value added. These trends underline the relativ e openness of the EU market for ACP exports 
and should be seen in the light of an ove rall drive for product diversification by ACP 
countries in general.  
Enhanced price competitiveness of EU expor ts and enhanced competition between EU and 
ACP products . As the main imports for all three select ed countries are non-agricultural (see 
Table 1 ), the effect at macro-level is not confirmed or is at best limited. At micro-level, in 
Senegal, where agricultural imports take pl ace, the increased competition with locally 
produced goods could be seen as a problem . Some studies published by NGOs have 
highlighted case of tomatoes and onions imports from the EU into Senegal which were taking 
away market shares from local producers295. Further study would, however, be needed to 
ascertain the overall impact, taking into co nsideration the competitive and comparative 
advantages of producers and the positioning of non-EU exporters to the countries concerned.  
Regarding the increased difficulties of introducing goods into the EU market due to stringent 
food- safety standards and re lated control procedures the effect is appare nt and, based on the 
case studies conducted, the impact on smaller produ cers is more evident (for example in the 
export of vegetables and fruits from Ethiopia,  Mozambique and Senegal, and in the fish and 
crustacean sector in Mozambique and Senegal). This should, however, be considered in the 
context of the multiplication of private standards and changing consumer preferences which have accompanied the development of EU food safety standards over the past few years. 
While continuing to support developing countri es in adapting to SPS standards, the EU 
                                                
 
293 In the interim SADC EPA imports from Mozambi que into the EU are duty-free quota-free (except 
transitional period for sugar).  
294 No roasted coffee can be exported  to the EU on duty free basis. 
295 EU onions for instance were considered by local consumers of superior quality. Import ban imposed by 
Senegal during the months of onions production in the country is expected to led to an increase of local 
production 
 
EN 180   EN policies could further seek to co-ordinate and in fluence private standard  setting to ease the 
burden on developing countries' pr oducers. In that context, th e European Commission issued 
in May 2009 two Communications on Fair Trade296 and on Agricultural Product Quality297, 
which are highly relevant to the issue. 
Box 1: Ethiopia 
Ethiopia exports a range of goods to the EU, which is its main trading partner for agricultural 
export crops. There are no substantial imports of agricultural goods from the EU to Ethiopia. 
Apart from the impact of the EU Sugar Reform in terms of reduced market attractiveness (but 
counterbalanced by an elimination of quantita tive restrictions on sugar exports to Europe 
under EBA), Ethiopian imports and exports will hardly be influenced by the CAP Reform, in 
the framework of the EPA, as the main tr aded goods are not much affected by the new 
changes. There are, however, openings offered by enhanced access to the EU sugar market 
(see Box 6 below), improved rules of origins under the EPAs for a number of goods, 
Geographical Indications298 and development tools etc. wh ich should impact indirectly, 
through enhanced development opportunities, on  MDG1 in the country. Certain pro-poor 
effects may contribute to MDG1 achievement, in particular through competitive agricultural 
export production in rural areas (e.g. empl oyment generation through expansion of 
horticulture). 
Ethiopia has applied for WTO membership and participates in the EPA negotiations. Based 
on the field visit commissioned to the country th e EPA short-term benefits to Ethiopia relating 
to trade in agricultural goods are rated as be ing limited and with negligible direct impacts on 
MDG-1 achievement. Ethiopia indeed already has its duty- and quota-free access to the EU 
market under EBA (although with less beneficial  rules of origin than in EPA and no 
contractual obligations  on the EU side).  
Box 2: Mozambique 
The negative short-term impact on revenues due to  the EU Sugar Reform and reduced sugar 
prices would be counterbalan ced by the unlimited market access for Mozambican sugar to the 
EU under EPA combined with the substantial ma rket potential for bioethanol produced in 
Mozambique299. 
Overall, the CAP Reform has limited im pact on MDG-1 achievement in Mozambique  as there 
is relatively little trade integration for agricultural products between the EU and 
Mozambique300. This could rapidly change however  when the plans for expansion of 
                                                 
296 COM(2009) 215 final, 5.5.2009, "Contributing to Sustainable Development: The role of Fair Trade and 
nongovernmental trade-related sustainability assurance schemes"  
297 COM(2009) 234 final, 28.5.2009, "Communication on agricultural product quality policy" 
298 The EU-CARIFORUM EPA for exampl e already includes a chapter on  Geographical Indications (GI) 
protection that established mutual recognition of  national system of GI protection and assures 
coexistence of GIs and tradem arks, where appropriate.  
299 In the SADC EPA context, Mozam bique also received an additiona l allocation of 20 000 tonnes. 
Mozambique is a low cost sugar producer. Its sugar exports to the EU have already significantly 
increased these last years and are expected to furt her increase after the full liberalisation of the EU 
market access as from October 2009 
300 Only for tobacco and shrimps there are significant volumes of import from Mozambique to the EU. 
However, tobacco is less relevant for assessing  the impact of the CA P Reform since trading 
opportunities are first of all influenced by current EU health enhancement policies for reduction of 
 
EN 181   EN agricultural production in Mozambique take off a nd the country turns into  a net- exporter of 
food commodities. Although Mozambique could be affected by some preference erosion as a 
result of changing trade agreemen ts with a number of partners  as well as other countries 
having attained improved trade agreements w ith lower or zero tariff access to the EU, thus 
diminishing the comparative advantage of th e EPA status, there could be good marketing 
potential on the EU market for oil seeds and horticultural crops301 (like vegetables, tropical 
fruits and citrus). The overall effect of expa nsion of agricultural production in Mozambique 
on MDG-1 is expected to be po sitive due to jobs and income creation effects in the export 
production sector for attractive EU market segmen ts (e.g. biofuels), particularly in poor rural 
areas where poverty is concen trated (e.g. employment an d poverty reduction through out 
grower schemes for biofuels).  
Mozambique is an LDC and already benefits from free access to the EU under EBA but, in 
recognition of the wider opportunities, it signed, in June 2009, an interim EPA302. Within the 
SADC EPA group it is negotiating towards a full EPA. Potential impacts of trade 
liberalisation on food security (and thus MDG-1 achievement) in Mozambique are expected 
to be positive: losses in customs revenue are expected to have a negative impact but these 
effects are expected to be compensated by c onsumer surplus generated through lower prices 
of imports. Given that Mozambique mostly trades with its regional partners, competitive 
pressure is expected to increase through tari ff liberalisation within SADC. Indeed, based on 
the case study conducted in the country, it is e xpected that imports fr om South Africa will 
increase. The regional EPA, however, is not expect ed to lead to real changes with regard to 
EU imports.  
Box 3: Senegal 
Senegal is highly dependent on food imports and a number of European products are 
prominent on the market. Examples of these include onions, potatoes and dairy products 
which are all, to a greater or lesser extent, in  competition with local products thus requiring 
local producers to adapt. There are considerable ag ricultural exports to  Europe (groundnuts 
and groundnut oil, fruits and ve getables), but apart from some  producers, for instance in the 
horticulture sector, who have been able to or ganise themselves to meet EU standards, 
compliance with quality and traceability norms  is problematic. Producers are therefore 
vulnerable to European competition and generall y not well placed to take advantage of 
openings in European markets. EU food safety and food quality matters  therefore have an 
impact on agricultural livelihoods and on th e country achieving MDG1. Some producers, 
however, have been able to take advantage of  European market opportunities by adapting to 
EU standards and using these as an opportunity to add value to their products and enter new 
markets.  
                                                                                                                                                         
smoking. Shrimps exports to the EU are regulated by the Common Fisheries Programme (CFP) and the 
Fisheries Partnership Agreement and could have been an interesting topic within the Mozambique case 
study but this was not studied due to time constraints.  
301 There are stringent SPS and other non-tariff barriers for trade in horticultural crops (e.g. the need for 
certification of the whole value chain).  
302 This also applies to a number of other LDCs in Africa.  In fact nearly half of the African countries that 
initialled an EPA arrangement are LDC.  
 
EN 182   EN Senegal, together with its EC OWAS partner countries is in  the process of negotiating a 
comprehensive EPA with the EU303. Short-term trade benefits fo r the country are expected to 
be limited, given that it already benefits from EBA, but a positive impact would emanate from 
the accompanying regionalisation, enhanced trade -related rules and policy reform (the country 
currently has high tariff protection in place).  
4.2.5.  Impact of EU Fisheries, Climate Change, Energy Policies on MDG1.  
4.2.5.1.  Fisheries 
Since 2002, the aim of the Common Fisheries Po licy (CFP) has been to  promote sustainable 
development of maritime activities as well as the sustainable expl oitation of fisheries 
resources within and beyond Community waters304. Two main strategies are: (a) coordination 
in order to ensure synergy between the maritime policy and other EU policy areas; and (b) the development of cross-cutting policy tools. A key component of the CFP is the use of bilateral 
fisheries agreements between the European Co mmunity and third countries. These agreements 
help the European industry to count on a subs tantial additional supply of fish, and provide 
employment in Europe and the partner countries.  
A number of shortcomings have been pointed out
305 indicating that agreements were drawn up 
with considerations more focused on fish than on development, with li ttle formal opportunity 
for input from ACP countries . In addition  PCD in bilateral agreements could be rendered 
ineffective if other bilateral partnerships on fi sheries are not sufficiently taken into account.  
Box 4: Senegal 
From 1979 to 2006 the EU had fish eries agreements with Senega l. These agreements were 
widely seen by civil soci ety actors as simply serving the n eeds of the EU, by gi ving its fishing 
boats access to fish in already depleted waters  even though by the end of the period covered, 
EU fishing boats' catches amounted to only about 2-3% of total catches in Senegalese waters. 
The agreements did, however, provide some fina ncial compensation which was at least partly 
used by the government to finance fisheries protection measures. With the decline in EU 
fishing in Senegalese waters and the expiry of the last protocol to the agreement this financial 
support stopped and the Ministry is now even more under-resourced than before and poorly 
placed to regulate fishing and protect fi sh resources in Senegalese waters.  
In 2006, the two parties did not re ach an agreement to renegotia te the protocol which could 
have helped to tackle the serious fisheries pr oblems Senegal is faced with. These are due in 
particular to over-fishing and illegal fishing in Senegalese waters by boats from all over the 
world and also by an estimated 10 000 to 15 000 Senegalese motorised wooden canoes 
(pirogues) that according to the Ministry's data, account for 80% to 90% of the national 
                                                 
303 At a regional workshop in February 2009, a road map was agreed for elaboration of programmes in line 
with the West African Community Development Programme and the EPA Development Programme 
The current discussion is mainly on the EPA Development Programme, but also on substantive issues 
like the non-execution clause, export subsidies, rules of origin, and technical barriers to trade. See: 
http://www.acp-eu-trade.org/ library/files/TNI_EN_8-2.pdf , p. 13. 
304 European Commission, The mission of the Directorate General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries 
,19.01.2009, See http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/fisheries/mission_en.htm   
305 Egenhofer, C. (et al.). 2006. Policy Coherence for Development in the EU Council, Strategies for the 
Way Forward. Brussels: Centre for European Studies.  
 
EN 183   EN catches. This situation illustrates why, in 2008, the EU adopted a new regulation306 aimed at 
preventing, and eliminating illegal, unreported a nd unregulated fishing giving Member States 
the right to refuse imports of fisheries products  without catch certificate. The regulation will 
enter into force in 2010.  
There are therefore possible synergies betwee n the EU’s fisheries policy and Senegal’s 
fisheries sector, which needs to ensure sustai nable exploitation of Senegal marine resources 
for the benefit of its people. The sector is  important in the economy and sustains many 
livelihoods with employment for both men in fishing and women in processing and 
marketing. Fish is also an important source of protein in the Sene galese diet so while 
European markets do offer opportunities for the s ector, it is also important that consistent 
measures are taken to ensure that enough fish st ays on the Senegalese market. While there are 
no clear indications yet that MDG1 is affected, there is a lack of fish on the home market to 
satisfy domestic needs. Unless responsible and su stainable management of  the fisheries sector 
is ensured, Senegalese households will have to ch ange the types of fish  they eat as certain 
fish, traditionally part of the national diet , are now being almost entirely exported. 
4.2.5.2.  Climate Change 
The EU is leading by example (in particular with the adoption of the Climate Change and 
Energy Package in December 2008) in the global fight against climate change and is a firm 
supporter of the Kyoto Protocol. In this context, the field st udy paid attention to the Clean 
Development Mechanism (CDM), an arrangeme nt under the Kyoto Protocol which allows 
industrialised signatory countries to invest in projects that reduce emissions in developing 
countries (where such reductions generally can be achieved at a lower cost). This has been 
supported by the EU since its in ception and efforts should continue  to make the scheme more 
accessible to a wide range of developing countries. 
The CDM has the potential to engage African countries in the global solution to climate 
change in a way that can benefi t economic development. However,  a paltry 2% of all Carbon 
Emission Reductions (CERs) or carbon credits w ithin the CDM have been achieved in Africa 
due to limited capacity to take advantage of the scheme and low awareness307. Approval of 
CDM projects requires establishing baselines (e.g. in the energy sector, transport sector, etc.), 
markets and market studies, finance and fi nance plans, imported equipment and import 
licences308 etc., activities that lie outside of the ex pertise and comfort zone  of Ministries of 
Environment. A new open-ended World Bank - Eu ropean Investment Ba nk (EIB) initiative, 
the Carbon Fund for Europe (CFE),  aims to make it easier for Af rican countries to participate 
in the CDM  by purchasing carbon credits fr om projects eligible und er the Kyoto Protocol’s 
CDM. It is also able to guar antee funding after the expiry of the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 up to 
                                                 
306 Council Regulation (EC) No 1005/2008, 29.10.2008 
307 The current CDM project pipeline consists of over 4200 projects of which 1530 projects have been 
registered and 43 are currently requesting registra tion. Of these 1530 regi stered projects, the big 
majority (1081 projects) is in Asia and the Pacific, while Africa has only 29 registered projects (50% of which are in South Africa). See http://cdm.unfccc.int/Statistics/index.html   
308 An issue of current debate is whether an exception can be made for LDCs with regard to the EU import 
thresholds for CERs (in analogy to Lomé trade preferences).  
 
EN 184   EN 40% of the total fund. Various EU  Member States are also investing in other Carbon Funds 
for developing countries administered by the World Bank309. 
Box 5: Ethiopia and Mozambique 
Studies show that Ethiopia is one of the coun tries most vulnerable to climate change in 
Africa310. Ethiopia’s CDM project submissions so fa r have not been successful. In 2008, three 
project notes were prepared for submission to the CDM for biomass energy production from 
cotton stock and castor husk, a landfill gas combustion and generation scheme for a solid 
waste site, and improved stoves across the country311. The projects will have the potential to 
positively impact on food security and MDG-1 achievement, especially if linked to out-
grower schemes or non-farm employment crea tion. As an example Spain supports the Humbo 
Assisted Natural Regeneration Project, in Sout h Western Ethiopia, with  creation of farmer-
managed carbon sinks that also support biodiver sity goals.  
Like most African countries, Mozambique was f ound not to have the capacity to attract CDM 
projects. There have been unsuccessful attempts  to enter the scheme in the context of the 
SASOL natural gas pipeline but "additionality" could not be demonstrated and there was no 
baseline for carbon reduction estimates. There are opportunities in Mozambique to benefit 
from the CDM, in the area of biofuels or in “cl eaning” the plants to process the immense coal 
resources of the country. Forest conservation an d avoidance of deforest ation are also areas 
with high potential, although the activity is cu rrently excluded from CD M funding. In order to 
enable the Government to take advantage of such opportunities, donors have identified 
capacity development of the Government as a key area of support in th e environment field, 
including the capacity to desi gn a comprehensive climate cha nge strategy, to attract CDM 
projects, and to formulate pos itions in international fora312. Mozambique is a pilot country for 
the EU’s Global Climate Change Alliance (G CCA) with developing countries, a core 
component of the Africa-EU Joint Strategy ’s Partnership on Energy/ Climate Change. 
4.2.5.3.  Energy 
The 2009 Renewable Energy Directive confirms  the EU's commitment to promoting 
renewable energy. The EU is to obtain 20% of  its energy needs from renewable sources by 
2020, and to ensure that 10%  of transport fuels come  from renewable sources. 
The ambitious 2006 EU Strategy for Biofuels313 aims notably to promote biofuels in both the 
EU and developing countries and to support de veloping countries where biofuels production 
                                                 
309 E.g, the Community Development Carbon Fund (a.o. supported by Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, 
Netherlands, Italy and Austria), the Bio Carbon Fund  Tranche 1 (a.o. supported by Spain), the Danish 
Carbon Fund, Spanish Carbon Fund, Italian Carbon Fund, and Netherlands CDM Facility.  
310 Yesuf M, S Di Falco, T Deressa, C Ringler, and G Kohlin. 2008. How can African Agriculture Adapt to 
Climate Change? Insights from Ethiopia and South Africa. " The Impact of Climate Change and 
Adaptation on Food Production in Low-Income Countries".  Evidence from the Nile Basin, Ethiopia. 
IFPRI Research Brief 15-11. See www.ifpri.org/pubs/ib/r b15/rb15_11.pdf.  
311 Among other things improved stoves have gender-specific benefits both in terms of women’s health due 
to cleaner emissions and in freeing up  their time from firewood collection 
312 The UK is funding a TA to the Ministry of Environment; Mozambique is a pilot country under the 
World Bank’s Pilot Programme fo r Climate Resilience (PPCR) which includes activities on CDM; 
UNDP has recently presented a new adaptation initiative for Mozambique;  
313 COM(2006) 34 final, 08 .01.2006. See: http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriSer v.do?uri=CELEX:52006DC0034:ES:HTML  
 
EN 185   EN can stimulate sustainable economic growth314. The need for continuous monitoring of the 
impacts of sustainable biofuels promotion is id entified, as a balance has to be struck between 
food provision and energy needs. The 2009 Renewa ble Energy Directive addresses this issue 
(See also Chapter 12 Energy Policy). 
Growing EU demand for biofuels can provide new opportunities for the production and export 
of biofuels and agricultural f eed stocks. The combination of overall stimulus to agricultural 
production and expanding domestic and export mark ets for biofuels, can provide significant 
benefits for countries (substant ial agricultural production; energy security at national level; 
development and poverty reduction in rura l areas; improvements in the national macro-
economic situation through reduced oil import bills  and raised foreign exchange earnings). 
However, it is also important to recognise that  there can be conflicting interests, both among 
countries (net agricultural e xporters vs. importers) and among population groups (agricultural 
producers vs. consumers; large-scale commercia l producers vs. subsistence farmers, etc.). 
Box 6: Ethiopia and Mozambique  
Ethiopia encourages biofuels production primar ily to meet its growing domestic demand315. In 
relation to the "food versus fuel" debate, a centr al component of the Bi ofuels Strategy is the 
restriction whereby only marginal lands are allo cated to biodiesel prod uction so as to avoid 
crowding out of food production. The Government wants to deve lop Jatropha, castor crop and 
palm tree production for biodiesel (first for import substitution, later on also for export to the 
EU market), while the fi rst two crops can also be cultivat ed through out-grower schemes. The 
by-products are planned to be used for fertilizer and ener gy production. A recent simulation 
study on Jatropha production in Ethi opia indicated that the declin e in agricultural production 
of food crops will be limited. A specific study in dicates that Ethiopia's biodiesel production is 
expected to have a lim ited effect on household food consump tion levels, and as  such will not 
affect MDG-1 achievements316.  
The main drivers of biofuels production in Mozamb ique are the external markets, particularly 
the EU  but also the emerging Southern  African market for bioma ss for electricity generation 
and bio-ethanol producti on. In early 2008, Mozambique  started a campaign to mobilise 
people to engage in plantation of Jatropha for fu rther processing into biodiesel. This led to a 
flocking of interested investors that recognised the country’s pot ential linked in particular to 
ample land being available to expand productio n. The production of bioethanol and biodiesel 
is believed to have great potential to contribute to poverty alleviation (MDG1) in 
Mozambique  if environmental and social sustainability criteria are sufficiently taken into 
account. This will happen if local stakeholders in sugar-growing areas (including out grower 
smallholders who produce for the refinery  plant and the labourers on the large sugar 
plantations) have opportunities to  engage in biofuels cultivat ion, if food security conditions 
                                                 
314 Among others, through a Biofuels Assistance Package for developing countries and through assistance 
to ACP countries that are affected by the EU sugar reform for development of bioethanol production.  
315 See e.g.: http://www.unep.org/urban_e nvironment/PDFs/Meskir.pdf   
316 Lashitew AA (2008) , Competition between Food and Biofuel Production in Ethiopia : A Partial 
Equilibrium Analysis. MSc Thesis, Wageningen University, March 2008,  
) 
 
EN 186   EN are not negatively affected and if marginalisation of local communities is avoided when lands 
are converted into commerc ial biofuels plantations317. 
4.2.6.  Conclusions  
Elements gathered from the field studies  confirm that depending on the country’s 
characteristics, a set of positive and negative welfare impacts can and may occur in relation to the CAP Reform and Trade. 
• EU market preferential margins for some ag ricultural bulk commodities have been reduced 
although this is counterbalanced by the unl imited market access provided for under EBA 
(and EPA). In this context, there may be ce rtain pro-poor effects wh ich will conceivably 
contribute to MDG1 achievement, in part icular through competitive agricultural export 
production for attractive EU market segmen ts from countries like Mozambique and 
Ethiopia. 
• The three countries can increase price compe titiveness of their domestic production and/or 
shift to more differentiated products with hi gher value- added. S ynergy exists between 
domestic policies favouring dive rsification and the expected  CAP impact on agricultural 
trade (from trading bulk commodities to ma rketing of differentiated products within 
specific EU market segments). 
• Adaptation of developing countries to food- sa fety standards and related procedures for 
control has allowed strong business developm ent in specific cases  (horticulture in 
Ethiopia). These are however not only relate d to EU food safety matters as demanding 
measures are also imposed more and more by the private sector (e.g. supermarket chains). 
However, small producers, the vast majority of producers in devel oping countries, may be 
excluded from new market opportunities to the exte nt that they are less able to adapt to 
required standards (e.g. flowers in Senegal). This will require greater efforts by the countries concerned and the donor community to bring these producers on board. Progress 
in poverty reduction may be limited if market  conditions only allows medium to large 
firms to remain on the market. Aid-for-Trade  interventions already help countries to 
address this issue. 
For other relevant EU policy areas in relation to food security in ACP countries, the case 
studies have highlighted the fo llowing (potential) impacts: 
• With no fisheries agreement in place between th e EU and Senegal, the impact is mainly 
through the high market demand for fish. There is potential for synergies between an EU 
Fisheries Partnership Agreement and the Se negal fisheries policy, which needs to be 
reinforced and supported. 
• Mozambique and Ethiopia have not been very  successful in attracting investments based 
on the CDM. The Carbon Fund for Europe (C FE) aims to support better use of the 
potential of African countri es in CDM and should allow synergies to be developed 
between EU priorities and development needs in both countries. In principle, attracting 
                                                
 
317 Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Workshop on Bio-fuels , "Bio-fuels in Ethiopia ", Meskir Tesfaye 
Asfaw, 28-29.06.2007, Nairobi, Kenya.  
http://www.wwf.se/source.php/1203702/Mozambique _biofuel_report_June2008_Bio_fuels_draft.pdf   
 
EN 187   EN CDM funds or (EU-financed) Carbon Funds is expected to have a positive impact on 
MDG1 hunger target achievements,  especially if linked to ou tgrower schemes or non-farm 
employment generation. 
• Biofuels are currently nearly entirely produced from crops th at can also be used for food 
purposes, which may threaten the availability of food at affordable prices in developing 
countries. The Renewable Energy Directive' s monitoring and reporting requirements limit 
any negative effects on food security and access to food in developing countries. 
Mozambique and Ethiopia are both scaling up biofuels production, with expected positive 
impacts on poverty reduction in Mozambique  and a negligible effect on MDG1 
achievement in Ethiopia. 
 
EN 188   EN 4.3. Case study on MDG 6 
4.3.1.  Access to HIV treatment is still a problem  
HIV/AIDS continues to be a major problem  in many developing countries. In 2007 an 
estimated 33 million were living with HIV worldwide, illustrating the vastness of the problem and the need to combat HIV/AIDS. Ever y day around 7 500 people are still becoming 
infected with HIV and 5 500 di e from AIDS, mostly due to a lack of HIV prevention and 
treatment services.
318  
The scale of the problem was recognised when th e fight against AIDS was identified as one of 
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Ta rget 2 of MDG 6 seeks to achieve, by 2010, 
universal access to treatment for HI V/AIDS for all those who need it. 
Some progress has been made towards this ta rget. Antiretroviral (ARV) treatment services 
were expanded and the number of people who die from AIDS has started to decline, from 2.2 
million in 2005 to 2 million in 2007.  
Despite the progress that has been made towards achieving MDG 6, the HIV prevalence 
figures are still alarming and th ere is a pressing need for a co mprehensive response to provide 
all patients with the treatment needed. Ensuring  a constant and reliab le supply of medicines 
for all patients on ARV treatment is important, too, for another reason: an interruption in 
treatment of only one month could already lead to the HIV virus developing resistance to the 
drug combination used. Hence, developing coun tries require a stable and timely supply of 
ARVs at the lowest possible price.  
                                                 
318 The Millennium Development Goals Report 2008, United Nations, p. 28,29 
 
EN 189   EN 
319 
4.3.2.  Access to essential dr ugs in general and AIDS/HIV tr eatment/drugs in particular 
ARVs are part of essential medicines. The adopt ion of the concept of essential medicines in 
1977 introduced the field of pharmaceuticals to ne w principles of equity, cost-effectiveness, 
good governance and attention to the needs of the poor a nd disadvantaged. Essential 
medicines have been defined by the World H ealth Organisation (WHO) as those medicines 
that satisfy the priority health care needs of the population. They  are selected with due regard 
to public health relevance, evidence on e fficacy and safety, and comparative cost-
effectiveness. Essential medicines are intend ed to be available within the context of 
functioning health systems at a ll times in adequate amounts, in  the appropriate dosage forms, 
with assured quality and adequate informa tion, and at a price the individual and the 
community can afford.320 
                                                 
319 The Millennium Development Goals Report 2008, United Nations, p.29 
320 World Health Organization, See http://www.w ho.int/medicines/services/essmedicines_def/en/ 
 
EN 190   EN Access to essential medicines, including ARV treatment, is influenced by a number of 
factors:321  
- Political will of governments, producers and patients; 
- Availability of the right drugs of ensured qualit y, at the right place, at the right time, in the 
right quantities; - Affordability (financing, pricing); - Appropriateness (fixed dose combination, dosage form, storage conditions, etc); 
- Rational prescribing (therapeutic guidelines); - Rational use and adherence by patients; - Intellectual Property Rights (patents , copyrights, trademarks etc.). 
In order to explore possible action to improve access, WHO’s essential medicines approach 
identifies four factors.  
5 Essential Medicines and Pharmaceutical Policies
Practical implications of the access framework
1. Rational
selection
4. Reliable
systems2. Affordable
prices3. Sustainable
financing
ACCESS TO
ESSENTIAL MEDICINESAccess
 
Rational selection  at national level is needed to focu s on a basic package that covers the 
priority healthcare ne eds of the population. If selection criteria like efficacy, safety and 
comparative cost-effectiveness are used, consid erable savings on pharm aceutical expenditure 
can be made while equitable access to essentia l medicines can be assured. Tools like essential 
medicine lists and evidence-based treatment guide lines are still absent or not updated in many 
developing countries.  
Medicines are the largest health  expense for poorer households  and are the second largest 
public health expenditure in develo ping countries after human resources. Affordable prices  
are therefore a key issue.  
Reliable access to medicines cannot be based on individual out-of-pocket payments, hence 
health insurance or social secur ity systems are needed to provide sustainable financing . 
                                                 
321 Barriers to Access and how to remove them, presentation by Dr Hans Hogerzeil, WHO, 2008, on which 
much of this paragraph is based 
 
EN 191   EN Donations (public or private, domestic or external) and out-of -pocket payments can only be 
acceptable as temporary measures. 
Even when rationally selected and low-priced essential medicines are available, it is the 
health-care system  that determines whether the client w ill benefit from them as the quality of 
medicines, diagnosis, treatment , dispensing and patient adhere nce all need to be optimal. 
Patient adherence to treatment is crucial not only for the patient’s cure but also for public health reasons. This is particularly true in the case of AIDS treatm ent, where non- adherence 
can quickly result in deteriorat ion of the patient’s condition and the development of resistance 
to the medicine. 
4.3.3.  The impact of EU policies on access to HIV/AIDS treatment 
The policies determining access to HIV/AIDS treatment are developing countries' own 
policies, development cooperation, the broader EU  policies and the global context. Starting 
from the assumption that amongst the EU policie s, trade policy, and in particular Trade 
Related Aspects of International Property Ri ghts (TRIPS), research and migration policies 
had most impact on the achievement of MDG 6, the study focused on these three policy areas. 
In an effort to identify concrete  results in developing countries, field visits were undertaken in 
Tanzania, Zambia and Rwanda. 
4.3.3.1.  The role of TRIPS in ensuri ng access to HIV/AIDS drugs 
Most of the poorer developing c ountries do not have manufacturi ng capacity to  produce drugs 
needed to fight HIV/AIDS. They rely heavily  on import of general medicines for ensuring 
access to ARVs. But even when countries have the manufacturing capacity to produce ARVs 
they can only proceed to produce those drugs  under certain conditions. Access to ARVs 
therefore becomes dependent to a large exte nt on trade policies on  access to essential 
medicines, and in particular the WTO agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual 
Property Rights (TRIPS).  
• TRIPS provisions for issuing licences for pr oducing and trading essential medicines… 
Intellectual property rights are the rights given to persons over  the creations of their minds. 
They usually give the creator an exclusive right  over the use of his/he r creation for a certain 
period of time. New innovations such as drugs can  be protected through patents. Patents give 
the inventor or owner of the idea the exclusiv e right to certain bene fits deriving from their 
original idea . A patent can guarantee a 20-year period of monopoly, which allows a 
manufacturer to recoup the incurred research and development costs and derive profits from 
the investments made. 
The social purpose of intellectua l property rights is to provid e protection for the results of 
investment in the development of new techno logy, thus giving the incentive and means to 
finance research and development activities.  A functioning intellectual property regime 
should also facilitate the transfer of technology in  the form of foreign direct investment, joint 
ventures and licensing. The exclusive rights given are generally subject to a number of 
limitations and exceptions, aimed at fine-tuning th e balance that has to be found between the 
legitimate interests of righ t holders and of users.  
The entry into force of the TRIPS Agreemen t in 1995 marked the emergence of political 
debates on the impact of inte llectual property rights on development, focussing on the 
possible social costs that enforcement of IPR regimes may have for the developing world. The 
 
EN 192   EN main focus of this controversy has been the impact of patent protection on the price of 
medicines. From the outset, the EU has been at the forefront of th e debate on TRIPS and 
access to medicines.  
The discussion in the WTO first led to th e adoption of the Declaration on the TRIPS 
Agreement and Public Health at the Doha Ministerial Conference of November 2001. The 
Declaration clarifies the relationship between TRIPS and public health policies of WTO members and rebalances its interpretation. This  Declaration facilitate s access to affordable 
medicines for developing countries by reaffirmi ng the rights of developing countries to use 
so-called TRIPS ‘flexibilities’ (or ‘public health safeguards’ as the WHO calls them) in the 
interest of public health.
322  
The most significant and known flexibility available under the TRIPS and the Doha 
Declaration is compulsory licen sing. A compulsory licence is an authorisation granted by 
government to an economic op erator to use a patent pr otected technology, without 
authorisation of the right holder. This allows develo ping countries with manufacturing 
capacities in the pharmaceutical sector to produce medicines under compulsory licensing 
under the conditions set by TRIPS. 
The 30 August Decision which takes the form of a provisional “waiver” temporarily solved an 
outstanding issue of the 2001 Doha Declara tion; allowing for WTO members to export 
patented medicines to third countries with no manufacturing capacity in the pharmaceutical 
sector, by making use of compulsory licen ces. On 6 December 2005, the WTO General 
Council submitted an amendment to the TRIPS Agreement to the WTO members for acceptance. This amendment would make permanent the waiver decision.  
While from 2005 all developing countries will have  to comply with TRIPS, Least Developed 
Countries (LDCs) are not obl iged to implement pharmaceu tical-related TR IPS provisions 
until 2016 and can therefore get medicines wit hout paying any royalty to patent holders. 
LDCs which have implemented TRIPS, can use th e inbuilt flexibilities to get medicines at 
affordable prices. For example, they can pr oduce medicines under compulsory licensing under 
the conditions set by TRIPS and for those LDCs which have no manufacturing capacity in the 
pharmaceutical sector, can import generic medicines under compulsory licence as provided for in the WTO waiver decision of 30 August 2003.  
The importance of these flexibil ities will continue to grow. Cu rrently many people living with 
HIV/Aids in developing countries are using such ARVs, which is commonly referred to as 
‘first-line treatment’. Antiretro viral drugs that were patented  before 1995 are not covered by 
the TRIPS agreement, and will remain available as generics if national patent legislation in developing countries allows this. But people undergoing anti retroviral treatm ent tend to 
develop intolerable side effects or start to deve lop resistance. Once this happens, they need to 
switch to a different drug combination, called second-line treatment (post-1995 patented) for 
which TRIPS makes it very difficult to produ ce generic equivalents during the 20 years of 
patent protection.
323 
                                                 
322 These flexibilities include compulsory licensing, government-use licences, parallel importation and 
Bolar exceptions. See http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e /trips_e/factsheet_pharm02_e.htm   
323 Bannenberg, W. 2005. Trade, Health, Medicines & AIDS: TRIPS to development? The Hague: 
Netherlands Ministry for Development Cooperation.  
 
EN 193   EN The EU played a leading role in the WTO de liberations that led to improvements of the 
TRIPS Agreement facilitating access to esse ntial drugs for developing countries, and 
transposed the waiver decision on compulsory  licensing into Community legislation through 
Regulation 816/2006 of 17 May 2006. The case study looked into the question whether the 
flexibilities built into the TR IPS Agreement have helped deve loping countries to ensure 
access to HIV/AIDS treatment . 
• and how these provisions affected access to HIV treatment: the case of Zambia, 
Tanzania and Rwanda 
Zambia and Rwanda have both made use of TRIPS provisions to improve access to HIV 
treatment in their countries. Their cases are interesting because they illustrate the extra 
difficulties of making use of the TRIPS flex ibilities for reasons other than IPR. 
Zambia made an attempt in 2004 to produce firs t-line ARVs. The government declared 
HIV/AIDS a national emergency324 and awarded an exclusive compulsory licence to the 
company Pharco Ltd. However no ARV drugs we re produced at its manufacturing plant due 
to the reliance on external funding and the fact that the conditions for procurement through external funding such as the Global Fund were  not met: the production plant did not conform 
to the World Health Organi sation’s current Good Manufactur ing Practice (cGMP) and the 
ARV drugs that were to be produced ha d not been pre-qualified by the WHO.  
The case of Zambia also demonstrates the grow ing importance of the TRIPS flexibilities. Due 
to increased resistance to first-line treatment in Zambia, many patients will have to shift to 
second-line treatment, which averages around USD400 per patient per year. In 2015, ensuring 
access to ARVs would need resources that go far beyond the present budget, with estimates 
ranging from USD190 688 800 (USAID) to USD218 407 488 (NAC).  
Rwanda took a different route. In May 2007, the Rw andan authorities no tified the WTO that, 
based on their evaluation of public  health needs, Rwanda intende d to import 260 000 packs of 
an AIDS medicine to be manufactured by the Canadian manufacturer Apotex, Inc. After 
Rwanda’s notification Apotex t ook the necessary steps to obtain an authorisation to produce 
and eventually export the medici nes. This process tu rned out to be particularly cumbersome 
as it involved five patentees a nd nine patents. In the end the Rwandan health authorities 
selected Apotex, but only for a part of its  bid because the funding for this procurement 
required USA Federal Drugs Authority certifica tion, which Apotex FDC did not have. For the 
remaining part of the procurement an Indian  supplier (USA FDA certified) was selected 
although its prices were higher. In this case,  therefore, the use of one of the TRIPS 
flexibilities was not possible for Rwa nda to ensure wide access to ARVs. 
Tanzania  has not yet made use of the TRIPS flex ibilities, but might do so in the future. 
Similarly to Zambia, Tanzania has some li mited production facilities and has been 
formulating  imported active pharmaceutical ingredient s (APIs) into generic first-line ARV 
drugs. These APIs are imported from China and are off-patent.
325 In 2006, the German NGO 
Action Medeor was awarded a grant of 5 718 870 euro by the European Commission from the 
European Development Fund for a project titled “Technology transfer an d local production of 
                                                 
324 Zambia’s letter is available here: http://lists.essential.org/pipermail/ip-health/2004-
September/006959.html  
325 Losse, Schneider and Spennemann (2007) ‘The Viability of Local Pharm aceutical Production in 
Tanzania.’ Eschborn: GTZSee,  http://www2.gtz.de/dokumente/bib/07-0300.pdf  
 
EN 194   EN high-quality and affordable fixed-dose antiretroviral drug”. This project, carried out in 
collaboration with the Tanzanian Pharmaceuti cal Industry, revolves around the preparation 
and launch of a manufacturing facility for the production of affordable high-quality second-
line ARVs in Arusha, Tanzania. According to the National AIDS Council of Tanzania, the first batch of ARVs produced by this factory has recently been procured by the Tanzanian 
government. In the further preparation of the pr ogramme, consideration is  likely to be given 
to use of TRIPS flexibilities th at can facilitate the production of  these drugs. With the external 
assistance provided through this project the Tanzanian governmen t expects to have prompt, 
sustainable access to locally produced, affordab le, high-quality key pharmaceuticals for the 
treatment of HIV/AIDS patients. Although it is s till too early to judge, there appears to be 
some scope for Tanzania to explore and use TRIPS flexibilities and make progress towards 
MDG 6.  
• General assessment 
The three examples show how difficult it is to  use the TRIPS flexibilities. In Zambia the use 
of these flexibilities has not resulted in improved access to HIV treatment in the case of 
Rwanda the objective of ensuring wide access wa s not met but some drugs could be imported 
into the country. The reasons for this relate not only to the TRIPS Agreement but to other issues such as procurement and financing rules which complicated the use of the flexibilities. 
Although it is still too early to  say, it seems that Tanzania may be able to overcome the 
identified obstacles and make progress towards MDG 6 using TRIPS flexibilities, due also to 
development assistance. 
• A patent pool to make intellectual pr operty rights work for development?  
To address the issue of multiple patents and th e high drug prices that can result from them, 
some EU Member States together with other co untries are exploring the possibility of patent 
pools. The purpose of a patent pool for medici nes is to improve affordability of second-
generation drugs by lowering th e barriers to market entry for generic drug manufacturers 
while maintaining royalties  to patent holders.  
In 2006 UNITAID was created as an internatio nal drug purchase facility by France, Brazil, 
Chile, Norway and the United Kingdom. UNITAID  also functions as a forum for dialogue 
about the need to facilitate access to drugs for the world's poorest people as part of the fight 
against the major pandemic diseases. In addi tion to France and th e UK as founders, Spain, 
Luxembourg and Cyprus have since confirme d their membership of the facility.  
In order to improve the affordability and accessib ility of new and better adapted drugs it was 
agreed to explore the option of  a patent pool. UNITAID has set up a Task Force to design the 
structure for the medicines patent pool and develop the necessary instruments for its 
implementation. UNITAID expects to encourage voluntary contributions from patent holders 
and potential licensees for products to be used  in low and middle income countries. It is 
expected that the UNITAID Board will shortly a pprove the creation of a licensing agency for 
the patent pool. This would form the basis fo r the eventual creation of the pool, which would 
require one or two years to be set up. 
 
EN 195   EN 4.3.3.2.  The role of research policy 
Since 1983, research co- operation on health with developing  countries has be en part of the 
European Commission's overall research ag enda under its regular research budget and 
continues to be one of the main prior ity areas within co-operation programmes. 
• EU support for health research in Tanzania 
In its research part the case study focussed on Ta nzania as a country that has been benefitting 
from relatively high funding from European resear ch programmes in particularly in the health 
area. In fact Tanzania is the LDC that has received most fund ing under FP-7 so far and ranks 
just after South Africa and Morocco. 326 
Tanzania has also been receiving European funding to boost health and HIV/AIDS research 
from other EC financial instruments as well as from other EU donors. 
The study mainly looked into research project s funded under FP-6, the predecessor of FP-7 
covering the period 2002-2006. Several FP-6 funde d research projects relating to HIV/AIDS 
have been carried out in Tanzania. The followi ng table gives an overview of projects, periods 
and budgets.  
Table 2: Selected EU-funded health res earch projects involving Tanzania 
CTL-Mediated Protection from HI V-1 Infection in a High-Risk 
Cohort in Tanzania  2002 -
2005 €1 050 000 
Study of Immunogenicity of DNA HIV-1 env, gag and pol Plasmid 
Vaccines Boosted with MVA in Tanzania: HIV Vaccine Immunogenicity Study 2002 -
2005 €1 200 000 
 
Promoting Sexual and Reproducti ve Health. School-Based 
HIV/AIDS Prevention in  Sub-Saharan Africa 2002 -
2006 €1 310 000 
 
Strategies for health insurance mechanisms to address health 
system inequities in Ghana, S outh Africa and Tanzania (SHIELD) 2006 -
2009 €2 000 000 
A multidisciplinary alliance to optimise schistosomiasis control 
and transmission surveillance in sub-Saharan Africa (CONTRAST)2006 -
2010 €2 900 000 
Effects of ARVs on African health systems, and maternal and child 
health (ARVMAC) 2006 -
2010 €2 400 000 
Strengthening fairness and accountability in priority setting for 
improving equity and access to quality  health care at district level 
in Tanzania, Kenya and Zambia 2006 -
2010 €1 770 000 
Poverty Related Diseases-Colle ge: International Programme on 
BioMedicine and Development 2008 -
2011 €1 403 013 
Targeting HIV integration co-factor s, targeting cellular proteins 
during nuclear import or  integration of HIV 2008 -
2012 €2 939 672 
                                                 
326 For more information about EU research policy pl ease see the research chapter of part 1 of this 
document 
 
EN 196   EN  
Funding from the European and Developing Countries Clinical 
Trials Partnership Agreement covering Tanzania (EDCTP)  Variable €24,999,582
Total:  
 €41 972 267
• Examples of positive results through EU-supported Research 
The study identified impacts of three projects in particular, the European and Developing 
Countries Clinical Trials Partnership Agr eement (EDCTP), the FP-6 funded ARVMAC, and 
the SHIELD projects. 
The EDCTP (last item in Table 1) was set up w ith the aim of accelerating the development of 
new or improved drugs, vaccines and mi crobicides against HI V/AIDS, malaria and 
tuberculosis in Sub-Saharan Af rica. EDCTP supports projects wh ich combine clinical trials, 
capacity building and networking. Th e aim of integrating these th ree activities is to ensure 
that developed countries’ capacities are utilised  to successfully conduct clinical trials in a 
sustainable way. The EDCTP incl udes 14 participating European Union (EU) Member States 
plus Norway and Switzerland along with sub- Saharan African countri es. The partnership 
helps EU Member States to integrate and coordinate their own national research and 
development programmes and form partnershi ps with their African counterparts. The 
partnership aims to ensure synergy and optim al use of resources, and create a win-win 
situation for all involved. The ongoing and pla nned clinical trials under EDCTP have the 
potential to provide important evid ence for future care and treatment . ECDTP-supported 
research has already led to c oncrete improvements in the treatment of children suffering from 
HIV/AIDS in Zambia.327 
The programme on the effects of ARVs on Afri can health systems (ARVMAC) has produced 
very interesting findings that are relevant for informing effective health policies, in particular 
with regard to the linkages between HIV child survival, gender inequities and reproductive 
health and the undermining of household economies . HIV/AIDS is found to increase infant 
and child mortality up to 40%. Women are 4-25 times more vulnerable to HIV transmission, 
and on average 10 years younger than men when infected while making up the majority of 
people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) in Sub- Saharan Africa. Lack of integration of anti-
retroviral drugs with antena tal care (ANC) and low access to second level care (e.g. caesarean 
section) limits access to effective prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT), and 
increases maternal mortality.  
The project 'Strategies for health insurance mechan isms to address health system inequities in 
Ghana, South Africa and Tanzania' (SHIELD) has allowed for a systematic comparison of formal and informal health insurance institutions  in Tanzania. The preliminary findings so far 
include the high amount of ‘ out-of- pocket’ payments by us ers of the Tanzanian health 
system, as well as the low enrolment of Tanz anian citizens in the Co mmunity Health Fund, 
dropping below 2% in some Councils . In addition to the conclusi on that present arrangements 
benefit the formal sector most of all, the study has also picked up signs of poor populations 
having to make payments for health servi ces that legally shoul d be waived, but are 
insufficiently monitored in practice. Such findings can inform policy-relevant 
                                                
 
327 See also the box p. 120 in the Research chapter of this report 
 
EN 197   EN recommendations with regard to exploring more  sustainable health financing schemes that 
ensure access to health services , including HIV/AIDS medicines.  
• General assessment 
These important projects, which either already contribute to fighting HI V/AIDS or have the 
strong potential to do so, have nevertheless to be implemen ted in a context of limited 
coordination between the different actors. A more or less comprehensive overview of 
HIV/AIDS research, whether biom edical, health systems, or so cial science oriented, is not 
available in Tanzania and not actua lly sought after by its Government.328 The Development 
Partners Groups for Health (DPGH) and AIDS (DPG-AIDS) have been established for the 
purpose of facilitating donor ha rmonisation and coordination. Ne ither of the groups sees 
research as a specific topic to  feature systematically on their agendas and they are not aware 
of the range, magnitude and focus of ongoing research.  
Currently there is no effective National Health Research System in place in Tanzania despite 
the existence of various official organisa tions and legal bodies which have received 
considerable capacity-building s upport. This has led to very limited, if any, coordination of 
research and seriously hampers the utilisation of research re sults in policy development. 
Political will to bring about re al coordination is lacking, both  on the Tanzanian side and on 
the EU side. Thus, despite the im portant contributions of EU re search policies there are still 
many opportunities to further improve the cohere nce of EU research policies working towards 
attainment of the Union’s development objectives.  
Three factors can explain the lack of devel opment impact of European support to health 
research in Africa, with partic ular reference to the lack of coherence between research and 
development cooperation interventions:329 
• “The most vulnerable populations lack the cap acity to fight against these three infections 
[HIV/AIDS, Malaria and Tuberculosis]. Research  on these diseases is particularly difficult, 
due to a lack of trained personnel and of infr astructure, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. 
Without such capacity, researchers cannot proper ly contribute to fighting these diseases 
and support the local population. 
• While many European countries do have rele vant research programmes for sub-Saharan 
Africa on the three diseases, they entail bi lateral North-South collaborations, and lack 
proper coordination with other European pa rtners. This fragmentation hampers the 
development of an appropriate approach to helping African research ers and populations to 
combat these diseases. 
                                                 
328 Although the National Institute for Medical Resear ch (NIMR), under the Ministry of Health, has 
formally been given the authority to coordinate and oversee all medical  research in the country, its 
online database has not been updated since 2007. Besides its regulatory mandate NIMR carries out 
commissioned research projects. The Tanzanian Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH) 
is the national agency, under the Ministry of High Education, Science and Technology (MHEST), 
entrusted with the responsibility of co-coordinating and promoting science and technology development 
activities in the country. A public data-base of comple ted and ongoing research related to HIV/AIDS (or 
any other health field) is, however, currently not operational.  
329 COM(2008) 688 final, p.3, 30.10.2008, Communicati on on the Progress Report on the European and 
Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership Programme.  
 
EN 198   EN • Finally, European research activities in sub- Saharan Africa are condu cted with no clear 
synergy with development aid and cooperatio n programmes, which invest considerable 
funds in public health capacity." 
Therefore, despite the aforementioned positive examples the study concludes that the impact 
of EU-funded research projects could be much higher on development. A lack of coordination 
and mutual awareness sometimes makes it difficu lt to create true synerg ies between research 
and development policy. 
4.3.3.3.  The role of migration policy 
An adequate staffing level is an  important aspect of every f unctioning health system and of 
ensuring access to treatment. Without sufficient staff treatment cannot be ensured even when 
drugs are available. Besides barr iers like the distance to a health facility, poverty and stigma, 
the extreme shortage of health workers particul arly in rural health facilities forms a major 
obstacle to further progress towards MDG 6. 
Ironically, the increased efforts to fight HIV/AIDS risk exacerbating the problem. The 
extraordinary donor investment in vertical AIDS treatment programmes equalling almost a 
doubling of the total current heal th budget in several African count ries is expected to have 
significant implications for health systems a nd even compound the staff problem. How will 
the African health systems with already very low staffing levels  cope with the high ambitions 
of these programmes330. In Tanzania for example it is estimated that between 17 000 and 33 
000 health workers or 35-70% of the current hea lth workforce (48 500) would be required to 
deliver ART at planned coverage level331.  
In Zambia, too, the extreme shortage of health wo rkers particularly in ru ral health fa cilities is 
a major obstacle. In 2005 there were only 600 doctors in 2 300 positions (74% vacancies) and 
6 000 nurses in 16 000 positions (63% vacancies), with a strong rural/urban disparity, leaving 
various rural health centres with no staff at all.332  
The factors that cause the increasing number of vacancies in Zambia include low and late 
payment, and very unfavourable working cond itions, leading to cons iderable levels of 
absenteeism of existing staff. Migration to European and neighbourin g countries has been 
significant although reliable figures  are not available. It is estimated that about 50% of 
Zambia-born doctors practise overseas.333  
• EU migration policy 
The EU is conscious that its migration and hea lth policies might influe nce staffing levels in 
health systems in developing countries. In No vember 2008, the Council adopted conclusions 
on the Commission's staff working document on the implementation of the EU programme 
for action to tackle the critical shortage of h ealth workers in developing countries, in which 
                                                 
330 Van Damme, W., K. Kober and M. Laga. 2006. The real challenges for scaling up ART in sub-Saharan 
Africa. In: Aids 2006. 20: 653-656.  
331 Kurowski, C. et al. 2004. Human resources for health: requirements and availability in the context of 
scaling-up priority interventions in low-income countries. Case studies from Tanzania and Chad., in 
HEFP working paper No. 01/04. 2004, LSHTM Health Economic and Financing 
332 Government of Zambia (2005) 
333 Clemens, M. A. and Pettersson, G. 2008. New data  on African health profe ssionals abroad. In: Human 
Resources for Health 2008, 6:1 
 
EN 199   EN the Council reiterates the need to strengthen the translation of the exis ting policy into action, 
especially with respect to th e development and implementation of an EU Code of Conduct for 
recruitment of health workers from develo ping countries that would draw upon existing 
experience of Member States and the work of the WHO on a global code of practice in this 
area. This has been developed further in the Commission's Green Paper on the European 
workforce for health drafted in 2008 which, ap art from stressing the crucial importance of 
beefing up the EU's own health workforce, also  proposes to put in place an EU-wide set of 
principles to guide recruitment of health workers from developi ng countries, introduce 
methods for monitoring the situation, stimulat e bilateral and multilate ral agreements with 
source countries and develop mechanis ms for supporting circular migration.  At national level 
the UK introduced its own code of practice in  2004 for the international recruitment of 
healthcare professionals334.  
Regardless of their importance a nd visibility codes of conduct are just one of many tools, and 
as the evaluation of the effectiv eness of the UK code of practice335 adopted in 2004 shows, 
they need to be accompanied by appropriate meas ures to address pull factors, to improve the 
capacity of developing countries to train, manage and retain h ealth workers, and to develop 
mechanisms for supporting circular migration that would be of benefit to the migrating health 
workers, health systems in developing countries and the EU.  
The Council Directive ‘on the c onditions of entry and residence of third-country nationals for 
the purposes of highly qualified employment’, popularly known as the Blue Card proposal, is 
trying to address some of these points. While primarily aiming to deal with shortages of 
highly skilled labourers in the EU, the pro posed Directive also includes a number of 
safeguards and flanking measur es to avoid any negative im pact on developing countries’ 
ability to achieve the MDGs. Fo r example, the proposed Directive intends to offer migrants 
the possibility of a "time-out", allowing temporary return to thei r country of origin or a move 
to any other country. This crea tes a favourable environment for circular migration and builds 
on the existing efforts of some Member States - notably France, Germany and the Netherlands 
– that have begun to work on developing progr ammes which would encourage migrant health 
workers to return and resettle in their countrie s of origin or be able to leave for extended 
periods without affecting their resi dency status. Yet it is too early  to find concrete evidence of 
these provisions working out in practice and it will almost certainly take more effort to build on the existing initiatives, increase their scope and make them sufficiently workable for health 
workers, their families and their employers. 
• General assessment 
These positive developments are, however, too recent to show any impact already. Beyond 
them, the case study found little  evidence that the EU through its policies has contributed to 
reducing migration of health workers from the three African countries to the EU so far.  
4.3.4.  Conclusions: the influence of  TRIPS, research and mi gration policies on MDG 6  
The influence of the specified EU policy ar eas on access to ARVs can be summarised as 
follows: 
                                                
 
334 Departement of Health, " Code of practice for the international recruitment of healthcare 
professionals" , 12.2004, 
Seehttp://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/ Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/D
H_4097730  
335 Idem.  
 
EN 200   EN Table 3: Conclusions: EU policies’ influence on access to medicines 
Rational selection of ARV Affordable prices for ARV 
EU Research policies: No results have 
reportedly become available through EU-supported research projects  that have directly 
contributed to a more rational selection of treatment regimens. Se veral ongoing projects 
do have the pot ential, when data become 
available, to influence the rational selection 
of ARVs. PCD in this area will thus be 
feasible if more coordination between research and develo pment cooperation 
policies is ensured. 
 The EU's commitment to introduce 
flexibilities into the TRIPS Agreement has been an important element in ensuring affordable prices of drugs. In the case of Rwanda there is a concrete evidence that this has improved access to treatment.  
The EU’s support to UNITAID’s current 
preparations for a patent pool for ARVs is a crucial avenue to ensure access to affordable medicine in the future. Supporting this would increase PCD of the EU’s trade policies.
  
Sustainable financing of ARV Reliable health and supply systems for ARV 
EU Research policies: One of the main ways to 
address sustainable fi nancing of essential 
medicines is through health insurance and social security systems. The ongoing FP-6 funded SHIELD project st udies the f easibility 
of health insurance systems in Tanzania and specifically refers to access to HIV/AIDS care and treatment
. 
 EU Research policies: Probably the most 
complex component for access to essential medicines is an effective healthcare system that is available, accessible, appropriate and affordable. The FP-6 funded ARVMAC research project studies the health system aspect of access to ARVs and the possible negative consequence of  relative high (donor) 
interest in the scaling up of HIV/AIDS care and treatment. These studies can make an important contribution in the area, provided that the coordination between research and development cooperation policies and operations is improved.  
EU Migration policies: the availability of 
well trained and motivated health cadres is crucial to ensuring adherence, monitoring and where needed transition from one ARV regimen to the next. Although efforts have been made to make EU migration policies more conducive to brain circulation, towards more PCD is not yet strong enough to 
‘enforce’ these safeguards in practice.  
 
 
EN 201   EN 4.4. The Joint Africa – EU Strategy (JAES) 
4.4.1.  Introduction  
Since the adoption of the Jo int Africa-EU Strategy (JAES)  in December 2007, the long-
standing cooperation between the two continen ts has been extended beyond the boundaries of 
Africa, beyond development policy and beyond inst itutional actors. This new framework has 
also been an important step towards treati ng Africa as one and putting into practice the 
principle of division of labour to further en hance coherence and co mplementarity of EU 
action.  
While the commitment to Policy Coherence for Development (PCD) is made explicit in the 
JAES document (sections 11, 53, 72, and 73), it is the underlying principles of partnership and 
equality (jointly set priorities  and objectives), th e people-centredness (extending the dialogue 
and cooperation to non-institutional actors) a nd the multi-thematic nature that are key 
elements for PCD. Though it is st ill too early to judge  the actual bearing of the JAES, all its 
innovative features make it an interesting case for studying the Strategy 's (potential) impact 
on PCD. 
The analysis below is structured according to the OECD Policy Coherence Cycle as described 
in the organisational chapter of this Repor t. The interaction between three types of 
mechanisms namely 1) setting and priori tisation, 2) coordinating policy and its 
implementation and 3) monitoring, analysis and reporting are key in (political) processes and 
from a 'whole-of-government' perspective to pr omote policy coherence for development. The 
JAES’s potential to improve syne rgies between different policy ar eas is examined as well as 
the value and potential offered by the partnershi p(s) at African and European levels in 
addressing global issues rele vant to the PCD agenda.  
4.4.2.  The JAES and its potential for strengthening coherence 
With respect to the Africa-EU Strategic Partne rship, EU Member States are confident that 
once implementation is fully under way, the JA ES will be conducive to strengthening 
coherence of non-development policies with development obj ectives. The results of a 
questionnaire (see diagram below) demonstrate th at the partnership on Peace and Security is 
seen as an example of successf ul EU alignment. In the areas  of Environment and Climate 
Change, several Member States have indicate d their interest in im proving the governance of 
the global environmental system and also consider  that a concerted EU position will increase 
the likelihood of success. Some doubts have been raised, however, about the Social 
Dimension of Globalisation, Rese arch and Innovation, Informati on Society and Transport (see 
diagram below). The lack of an articulated EU  position and cooperation ag enda in these areas, 
and the fact that where no common EU policy ex ists the Member States tend to channel their 
efforts for achieving PCD through non-EU intern ational fora, might be the underlying reason 
for such reservations.  
 
EN 202   EN 
Is the Joint Africa-EU Strategy conducive to strengthening coherence between selected 
policy areas and development objectives?
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%
Yes No N.A.
Trade and Development
policies
Environment and
Development policies
Climate Change and
Development policies
Security and Developmentpolicies
Agriculture and Development
policies
Social Dimension andDevelopment policies
Migration and Development
policies
Research and Development
policies
Information Society and
Development policies
Transport and Developmentpolicies
Energy and Development
policies
 
Source: Synthesis of EU member-state responses to PCD Questionnaires 2009 
• Setting and prioritising objectives 
The JAES and its Action Plan have signif icantly contributed to putting Africa and 
development objectives firmly on the agenda of EU policy areas that have not traditionally played an important role in EU-Africa relatio ns in the past. The partnership on Science, 
Information Society and Space (SISS) is a case in  point. It responds directly to the African 
side’s request to develop its capacities in this  domain and has promoted  closer collaboration 
on the European side between the relevant Co mmission services (DGs Development, Relex, 
EuropeAid, INFSO and RTD) and Member States . Among the early outcomes of the SISS 
partnership, the cooperation of the Joint Rese arch Centre with the AUC on African Global 
Monitoring for Environment and Security constitutes a good example of PCD practice 
whereby EU research capacity has been used to further development objectives.  
The Joint AU-EU Declaration on Climate Ch ange, identifying concrete opportunities for 
further cooperation and dialogue  in the run-up to the Climat e Conference in Copenhagen, 
agreed within the Climate Change partnership,  can also be regarded as an important PCD 
outcome. France and Morocco, as lead countries pl aying an active role in this partnership, as 
well as the African and European Commissions  have worked closely to forge a common 
agenda and set joint objectives. The Joint Decl aration merges environm ental objectives with 
development measures and assistance. 
Migration, Mobility and Employment (MME) is  yet another JAES partnership that has 
revealed the capacity of the Joint Strategy to co ntribute to the PCD age nda. A project entitled 
'Link emigrant communities for more deve lopment' was launched in The Hague on 23-24 
June 2009 within the framework of this partne rship. More initiatives and projects are under 
consideration. These include facilitating mobility  of students within Africa (through mobility 
 
EN 203   EN schemes such as the Nyerere programme) and between Africa and Europe (through 
programmes such as Erasmus Mundus)336 and a proposal to work towards the establishment 
of an EU-African Diaspora Network  to ensure better dialogue with African Diaspora in 
Europe and stronger involvement of the Diaspor a in the development of  their countries of 
origin. 
While priorities that can contribute to the PCD ag enda can be identified in other partnerships 
as well, the main challenges for multiplying th ese examples of good PCD practice appear to 
be, at the political level, the degree of commitme nt by the actors to fully engage in the process 
and, at the technical level, th e limited thematic expertise of the Joint Expert Groups (JEGs) 
established for the respective partnerships’ implementation. Information flow with and 
participation from line-ministries and administ rations in the Joint expert Groups (JEGs) has 
remained low, with so far mostly officials fr om Foreign Ministries attending meetings. This 
demonstrates that the JAES process has not yet been fully integrated in the EU and African 
Member States' national political frameworks, a nd that more progress is needed to ensure 
better alignment. 
• Coordination and implementation 
The JAES working structures are innovative, favouring better c oordination and division of 
labour. The frequency and quality of formal a nd informal contacts under the JAES process, 
both at political and at technical level, has allowed Africa and the EU to improve institutional 
cooperation and national coordinatio n within the EU and in Africa as well as between the two 
continents. For instance, AUC and EC actors have  in particular expres sed appreciation of the 
quality of dialogue on the si tuation in Madagascar, result ing in EU support for the AU 
position in the International Contact Group. Al ong the same lines, the joint EU PSC and AU 
PSC meeting held in 2008, and now to be held on ce a year is seen as formalising the enhanced 
dialogue on a broad range of Peace and Security issues. Although there is divergence on some 
issues – from universal jurisdiction337 to the question of unconstitutional change - European 
and African stakeholders particularly valued th e dialogue and exchange of  views attributed to 
the JAES process. 
Within the European Commission, significant e fforts have been made to strengthen the 
coordination and cooperation between the different services involved in JAES 
implementation. The network of designated Focal Po ints has been particul arly useful to share 
information and align positions and initiatives across different Directorates General. Good 
progress has also been made in  bringing together th e thematic and geog raphic experts on the 
various partnerships, to mainstream the JAES  priorities in the programming of the many 
Community instruments and in the mid-term review of the European Development Fund's 
national and regional indicativ e programmes. However, the situation is not entirely 
satisfactory when it comes to "treating Africa as one": additional efforts are required to ensure 
coordination since geographic (and cooperati on) responsibilities for Sub-Saharan and 
Northern Africa are shared across several se rvices. This would reinforce operational and 
                                                 
336 www.study-in-europe.org 
337 The last 2008 AU/EU Troika Meeting, on the initiative of COAFR, established a technical ad hoc 
expert group to ‘clarify the respective understanding’ on the African and EU side on the principle of universal jurisdiction and to issue recommendations for ‘fostering a better mutual understanding 
between the AU and the EU of the purpose and th e practice of universal jurisdiction’. A report was 
released in April 2009. 
 
EN 204   EN policy coherence and facilitate the design of truly pan-African proj ects, initiatives and 
policies.  
Within the Council of the EU, the Africa Working Group (AWG),  which serves as a cross-
pillar coordinating and monitoring body for impl ementation of the JAES , has met with the 
European national experts leadi ng the implementation process in order to review  progress in 
the thematic partnerships and to address cross- cutting issues. This work has been instrumental 
in ensuring the necessary transparency and information flow, both between Brussels and 
national capitals and between JEGs (in whic h only a limited number of Member States 
participate) and the full EU-27 format. The AWGhas also started to meet regularly with the 
AU's Representative to the EU , and with the Group of African Ambassadors in Brussels. 
However, the same 'geographical divide' persis ts between Northern Africa (dealt with in the 
Maghreb-Mashrek Working Group) and sub-Sahara n Africa (within the AWG's remit), while 
other key issues such as development-po licy, the Cotonou cooperation framework, or (2nd 
pillar) Peace and Security issues and (3rd pillar) Migration are covered by various other 
Groups. Nevertheless, by bringing  Member States together under a new frame and in informal 
meetings, the JAES institutional architecture en courages information flows and exchanges, 
which are the first step towards enhan ced aid effectiveness at EU level.  
On the African side, with the 53 African Memb er States, the African Union Commission and 
the Regional Economic Communities,  coordination and the ability to act and speak with one 
voice has been also a challenge. Yet, some st akeholders have reporte d that the JAES in 
general and some thematic partnerships in par ticular have contributed to acting as a catalyst 
for the beginning of discussions between Afri can stakeholders on fu rther articulating and 
consolidating common pan-African positions and priorities.  
• Monitoring, analysis and reporting progress 
The JAES and Action Plan (AP) monitoring prov isions were not explic itly designed for PCD 
monitoring, as their scope goes "beyond deve lopment". However, the multi-layered, multi-
stakeholder design of the JAES provides signif icant potential for PC D monitoring. For this 
potential to be realised in practice, once the JAES has matu red from its initial phase, PCD 
monitoring needs to bui ld on existing and evolving processe s, such as the ones existing under 
the Cotonou Agreement provisions and those av ailable at Member State level. The JAES 
website338 demonstrates a good degree of  transparency in sharing information on official and 
semi-official documents and the use of the we bsite for PCD monitoring purposes could be 
further explored.  
The involvement of Parliaments339, other institutions and bodies such as the EESC340 and 
ECOSOCC341, the Committee of the Regions342 and local authorities, the Regional Economic 
                                                 
338 Africa and Europe in partnership, http://africa-eu-partnership.org 
339 Cf. The European Parliament report and resolu tion on "One year after Lisbon: The Africa-EU 
partnership at work" by rapporteur Maria Martens, 24.03. 2009.  
340 Cf. Opinion of the European Eco nomic and Social Committee on the EU -Africa Strategy, by rapporteur 
Gérard Dantin , 18.08.2008. 
341 Cf. AU ECOSOCC Report "Second AU-CSO consultation on the implementation of the Africa-Europe 
partnership" 3-5.03.2009, Nairobi, Kenya 
342 Cf.Working Document of the Committee of the Regions Commission for External Relations and 
Decentralised Cooperatio n on "One year after Lisbon: the Africa-EU Partnership at work", by 
rapporteur Jean-Louis Destans, 16.02.2009. 
 
EN 205   EN Communities (RECs) and civil societ y –through the EU CSO Steering Group343 and the AU 
CSO Steering Committee, but also the trade union confederations344 and research networks 
such as EARN- opens new channels for inte raction, public scrutiny and accountability, 
between institutional actors and NSAs on EU-A frica relations. In addition, this broad 
involvement raises public awaren ess of the JAES and is anothe r step towards an increased 
commitment to PCD.  
The role of the European Parliament and Pan- African Parliament was recognised and ensured 
in the institutional structures to monito r the JAES and AP implementation. However, 
increased engagement of Civil Society Orga nisations (CSOs) will be crucial for PCD 
monitoring of the different partnership pol icy areas and to hold to account different 
implementing partners, including the CSOs them selves. The European Peacebuilding Liaison 
Office, for instance, has suggested that the Pe ace and Security Partnership needs to focus 
more on the development-rela ted side of security. Conduc ting PCD monitoring jointly, 
between the African and EU sides, would best exploit the potential of the JAES for PCD. 
Innovative ways to achieve a long-term solution that foster s synergies with existing PCD 
monitoring systems need to be explored. 
4.4.3.  Conclusion 
In relation to the three types of mechanisms of the PCD cycle and in  terms of generally 
accepted practice and progress made on their use to  date, the findings suggest that the JAES 
has very good potential for promoting PCD. Th e design of the JAES features many aspects 
suited to pushing forward the PCD agenda in  terms of objective se tting, policy design and 
coordination and monitoring mechanisms. The a dded value of the JAES as a process to 
promote PCD within the EU lies in particular in its (i) promotion of whole-of-government 
cooperation within the EU, (ii) joint Africa-EU nature, and (iii)  outreach and transparency to 
other actors, including civil society. 
Given the short time frame since its inception a nd operationalisation, it is  not surprising that 
the JAES has shown some, but limited impact  on PCD outcomes to date. The JAES shows 
mixed progress in effectively putting PCD-relevant  aspects into practice. Expectations must 
be kept realistic given the wi der challenges associated with JAES implementation. Some 
recommendations to promote further PCD can be  made. Increased engagement and sense of 
ownership of all stakeholders would provide more opportunities  for PCD promotion. This can 
be done through intensified dialogue  and jointly assessi ng needs in and between the different 
partnerships and by inclusion of expertise from  development agencies and ministries beyond 
the development and foreign affair s spheres. Participation of civ il society organisations at an 
early stage would enhance opportunities to rais e awareness and provide scope for increased 
PCD monitoring and reporting systems.  
The JAES, once fully developed, embraced by all stakeholders and implemented, will 
encourage synergies between policies and avoi d negative impacts of policies on developing 
countries. It could serve as a basis for debate s about the future of the Cotonou Partnership 
Agreement and its possible declination into ge ographic cooperation instruments. Finally, the 
regular dialogue between all actors  involved in the JAES is inst rumental for gaining a better 
                                                 
343 Cf. Proposal for Civil Society’s engagement in the implementation and monitoring of the Joint EU-
Africa Strategy, 29.07. 2008. 
344 Cf. ETUC/ITUC Declaration "Decent work at the heart of the EU-A frica Strategy", 20.02. 2009.  
 
EN 206   EN understanding of challenges and could feed into the debate on regional and in-country 
division of labour instruments.  Clustering various policy fields  might also assist in early 
detection of possible incohere ncies, enabling early change towards a more coherent and 
consistent approach taking better account of development concerns.  
Annex 1: List of Acronyms 
ABS Access and Benefit-Sharing  
ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific  AfT Aid for Trade  AFUR Africa Forum for Utility Regulators AICD Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic  AIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndrome AMCOST African Ministerial Conference on Science and Technology  AMIS AU-led peace support operations in Sudan  AMISOM AU-led peace support operations in Somalia  AMMA  African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis ANC Anti-retroviral drugs with antenatal care  AP Action Plan  APF African Peace Facility APIs Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients  APSA African Peace and Security Architecture  ARV Anti-retroviral medicine  ARVMAC Anti-ritrovial medicine Maternal and Child ealth  ASEAN Association of S outheast Asian Nations  
ASEM  Asia-Europe Meeting  ASF African Standby Force  AU African Union  AUC African Union Commission  AWG Africa Working Group  AXIS African Internet Exchange System  BELSPO Belgian Federal Science Policy Office  
BMU Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety of the 
German Government 
BMZ Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development  CASS Chinese Academy of Social Sciences  CBD Convention on Biological Diversity  CCS Carbon Capture and Storage  CDI Commitment to Development Index  CDM Clean Development Mechanism  CERs Carbon Emission Reductions  CFE Carbon Fund for Europe  CFP EU Common Fisheries Policy  CFSP Common Foreign and Security Policy CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research  CGMP Current Good Manufacturing Practice  CIGEM Migration Information and Management Centre in Mali  CIVCOM Committee for Civilian Aspects of crisis management  
 
EN 207   EN CLWP Commission's annual Legislative Work Programme  
CN China  COMESA Common Market for East ern and Southern Africa  
COMIFAC Commission des forets d'Afrique centrale CONTRAST Control and transmission surveillance  
COSCAP Cooperative Development of Operationa l Safety and Continuing Airworthiness 
Programme  
COTER Counter-terrorism group  CPA Consolidated Plan for Action  CRTs Council Civilian Response Teams  CSAs Coordination and Support Actions CSOs Civil Society Organisations  CSRP Commission Sous-Regionale de Pêches  DCI Development Cooperation Instrument  DDA Doha Development Agenda  DFQF Duty Free and Quota Free  DPGH Development Partners Group for Health  DRC Democratic Republic of Congo  DWCP Decent Work Country Programmes DZ Algeria EAC East African Community  EBA Everything But Arms EC European Commission ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States  EDCTP European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership  EDF European Development Fund  EEA European Environment Agency EECCA Eastern Europe, Caucasus, and Central Asia  EG Egypt EIARD European Initiative on Agricultural Research for Development  EIB European Investment Bank  EITI Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative  ENP European Neighbourhood Policy  ENRTP Environment and Sustainable Management of Natural Resources including Energy  
EP European Parliament EPAs Economic Partnership Agreements  EPLO European Peacebuilding Liaison Office  ESA Eastern and Southern Africa  ESDP European Security and Defence Policy   
ESS European Security Strategy  ETS Emission Trading Scheme  EU European Union  EUEI EU Energy Initiative for Poverty Reduction and Sustainable Development  
EUFOR Tchad/RCA EU Force in Chad and the Central African Republic  
EUMC European Military Committee  
EUSR EU Special Representative  
 
EN 208   EN EUWI EU Water Initiative  
FAC Food Aid Convention  FAFA Financial and Administrative Framework Agreement FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FCES Economic and Social Consultative Forum  
FDA Food and Drug Administration  FLEGT Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade  FOMUC Force Multinationale en Centrafrique FP(6 or 7) Framework programme (6 or 7) FPAs Fisheries Partnership Agreements  GCCA Global Climate Change Alliance  GDP Gross Domestic Product  GEEREF Global Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fund  GFCM Global Forest Carbon Mechanism GGFR Global Gas Flaring Reduction public-private partnership  GHG Green House Gas GHS United Nations Globally Harmonised System  GI Geographical Indications  GPP Green Public Procurement GRB Gender Responsive Budgeting  GSP General System of Preference  
GSP+ General System of Preference with spec ial incentive arrangement for sustainable 
development and good governance 
ICCAT International Commission for t he Conservation of Atlantic Tunas  
ICI International Climate Initiative  ICPCs International Cooperation Partner Countries  ICT/FP7 European ICT Research Programme  ICTs Information and communication technologies  IDRC Canadian International Development Research Centre  IEE Intelligent Energy – Europe programme IEG International Envir onmental Governance  
iEPA Pacific interim EPA  IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFIA Interafrican Forest Industries Association IFPRI International Food Policy Research institute IfS Instrument for Stability  IGAD Inter Governmental Authority on Development  IGF Internet Governance Forum  
IGWG Intergovernmental Working Group on Public  Health, Innovation and Intellectual 
Property  
ILO International Labour Organisation  
IMO International Maritime Organisation  IN Indian  IOC Indian Ocean Commission  IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPEEC International Partnership on  Energy Efficiency Cooperation 
IPRs Intellectual Property Rights 
 
EN 209   EN IRENA International Agency for Renewable Energies 
IRSE International Research Staff Exchange  ISAR National Agricultural Research Institute ISC Inter-service consultation  ITF EU-Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund  ITU International Telecommunication Union  IUU Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing  JAES Africa-EU Strategy  JAR  Joint Annual Report  JEG Joint Expert Group  JMST Joint Mediation Support Team  JPoI Johannesburg Plan of Implementation  JRC Joint Research Centre  KEF Funding by the Federal Ministry of Science and Research LAC Latin American and Caribbean LDCF Least Developed Countries Fund  LDCs  Least Developed Countries  MA Marocco MCS Monitoring, Control and Surveillance  MDGs Millennium Development Goals  MEAs Multilateral Environmental Agreements  MED EUWI Mediterranean EUWI  MINURCAT United Nations Mission in t he Central African Republic and Chad  
MIRA Mediterranean Partner Countries  MIVAC Common Interactive Watch and Anticipation Mechanism  MME Migration, Mobility and Employment  MoENV Greek Ministry for Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works ,  MoFA Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs MOST Ministry of Science and Technology  MoU Memorandum of Understanding  MPA Marine protected areas  MRC Medical Research Council  MSY Maximum Sustainable Yield  
NACCAP Netherlands-African partnership for capaci ty development and clinical interventions 
against poverty-related diseases  
NAMA Non Agricultural Market Access  NGO Non Government Organisation NICI National Information and Communication  NIP National Indicative Programme NRA National Regulatory Agencies  NWO Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research  NYAMIG Nyagatare Maize Investment Group  ODA official development assistance OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PAIPO Pan African Intellectual Property Organization  PAP Pan-African Parliament  PCD Policy Coherence for Development 
 
EN 210   EN PDF Partnership Dialogue Facility  
PEFC Programme for the Endorsement of  Forest Certification Schemes  
PIDA Preparatory activities and studies PIDA Programme for Infrastructu re Development in Africa  
PIKE Predominantly Information-rich, Knowledge-based Economy  PMG Political Military Group  PMTCT Prevention of mother -to-child transmission  
POVNET Pro-Po or Growth 
PRT Provincial Reconstruction Teams PSC Political and Security Committee  PSD Payment Services Directive  RADA Rwanda Agricultural Development Authority  REACH  Registration, Evaluation, Authorisati on and Restriction of Chemical substances 
RECCS Regional Economics of Climate Change Studies  RECs Regional Economic Communities 
REDD Programme on Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation in Developing 
Countries 
RFMO Regional Fisheries Management Organisations  RIPs Regional Indicative Programmes  RIU Research into Use  RSA Renewed Social Agenda RSPs Regional Strategy Papers  SADC Southern Africa Development Community SALW Small arms and light weapons  SCP Sustainable Consumption and Production  SDG Social Dimension of Globalization  SEE Sout East Europe SHIELD Strategies for health insurance mechanisms  SIAs Sustainability Impact Assessments  SICA Specific International Cooperation Action  SIDS Small Islands Developing States SISS Science, Information Society and Space  SME Small and Medium Entreprises SOLAS International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea  SPS Sanitary Phytosanitary  SSATP Sub-Saharan Africa Tr ansport Policy Programme  
SSM Special Safeguard Mechanism  SSR Security sector reform  TACKLE Combat child labour through education TBT Technical Barriers to Trade  TEN-T Trans-European Transport network  TN Tunisia TPRM Trade policy review mechanism  TPU Trade Policy Unit  TRA Trade Related Assistance  TRIPS Trade-related Intellectual Property Rights  TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training  
 
EN 211   EN UA Union Africaine 
UK United Kingdom UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification 
UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa  UNEO United Nations Environment Organisation  UNEP United Nations Environment Programme  UNFCCC United Nations Framewor k Convention on Climate Change 
UN's United Nations UNSCR United Nations Security Council Resolution  VMS Vessel monitoring system VPA Voluntary Partnership Agreements  WEO World Energy Outlook WHO World Health Organisation WIPO World Intellectual Property Organisation  WMD  Weapons of Mass Destruction  WSIS World Summit on the Information Society WTO World Trade Organization  ZA South Africa