COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 
Brussels, 15.11.1996 
COM(96) 557 final 
STRATEGY PAPER FOR REDUCING 
METHANE EMISSIONS 
(COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND 
TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT) 

Table of contents 
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY p o 
2. THE ISSUE p 5 
2.1 Methane p. 5 
2.2 Natural Sources p. 5 
2.3 Atmospheric concentrations of Methane p. 5 
2.4 Methane and global climate change p. 6 
2.5 Stabilization and Reduction of global methane emissions p. 6 
2.6 Elimination of methane emissions : combustion with/without energy recovery 
Economic factors connected to the adopted process p. 7 
2.7 Methane emissions in an EU context p. 7 
3. EU METHANE SOURCES AND PRESENT INVENTORIES p. 8 
3.1 Agriculture p. 8 
3.2 Waste p. 8 
3.3 Energy p. 8 
4. OPTIONS FOR REDUCING METHANE EMISSIONS. SOME MEASURES 
REPORTED BY MEMBER STATES AND THIRD COUNTRIES p. 9 
4.1 AGRICULTURE p. 9 
4.1.1 Enteric fermentation p. 9 
4.1.2 Livestock manure p. 11 
4.1.3. Description of some measures reported by Member States and Third Countries p. 12 
4.2 WASTE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL p. 12 
4.2.1 Landfills p. 12 
4.2.2 Description of some measures reported by Member States and Third p. 14 
Countries 
4.3 ENERGY p. 15 
4.3.1 Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels p. 15 
4.3.1.1 Coal p. 15 
4.3.1.2 Natural gas p. 16 
4.3.2 Combustion p. 17 
4.3.3 Description of some measures reported by Member States and Third p. 17 
Countries 
5. EU POLICY MEASURES TO BE CONSIDERED p. 18 
5.1 AGRICULTURE p. 18 
5.1.1 Enteric fermentation p. 18 
5.1.2 Livestock manure p. 19 
5.2 WASTE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL p. 20 
5.3 ENERGY p. 21 
5.3.1 Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels p. 21 
5.3.1.1 Coal p. 21 
5.3.1.2 Natural gas p. 22 
5.3.2 Combustion p. 22 
5.4 CONCLUSION p. 22 
ANNEX p. 26 
JL EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 
Methane, a global issue ? 
Since the pre-industrial era, methane (CH4) concentration in the atmosphere has grown continuously, 
mainly influenced by human activity. Methane is an active greenhouse gas which traps heat (from 
infrared radiations) and inhibits its release into space, it therefore contributes to the increase of 
atmospheric and earth surface temperatures and to the "global greenhouse effect". It is currently 
second to carbon dioxide (C02) in contributing to global warming. Increasing atmospheric methane 
concentrations account for 18 percent of the global greenhouse effect compared to approximately 66% 
for carbon dioxide (see Fig. 2). 
Objective of the Communication 
The aims of this document are to examine problems and concerns related to atmospheric methane 
emissions, to identify the main emissions sources and sinks, to introduce some cost-effective means 
to reduce these emissions and to provide a set of potential measures for incorporating into a 
Community emissions mitigation strategy. The Communication covers a series of measures that 
explicitly address the priority sectors, namely agriculture, waste and energy. 
At both the Community and international level it has been recognised that a methane reduction policy 
should be an important element of an overall climate change strategy especially in view of the fact 
that the implementation of methane reduction strategy could have a more immediate impact compared 
to measures adopted for C02. This Communication responds to this challenge by developing for the 
EU a credible strategy for reducing methane emissions which includes viable policies and measures 
and that could form a key element in the EU's developing Climate Change Policy. 
In this policy framework there are still some questions that need to be resolved on the orientation to 
take on mitigating methane emissions. An important part of this assessment would be either to achieve 
a certain reduction target within a certain timeframe (as evoked in the Fifth Environmental Action 
Programme) or to choose policy measures from a list of options having the most favourable cost-
effectiveness ratio up to a certain cut-off point. Such a cut-off point in principle could be determined 
either by a monetary valuation of the social costs caused by methane emissions or by other suitable 
methods. 
Finally, the assessment of the cost effectiveness for the proposed strategy may require further deeper 
analyses in order to develop reliable data to underpin concrete policy actions that could be undertaken 
at the EU level. 
Methane main properties 
Amongst the principal characteristics of methane which have a harmful impact on the atmosphere, the 
following are the most important. 
First, methane concentration (1.72 ppm) in the atmosphere has nearly doubled since the beginning of 
this century mainly due to human activity. 
Secondly the power with which a greenhouse gas contributes to earth global warming is normally 
expressed by its Global Warming Potential (GWP). The GWP indicates the power of a gas in relation 
to the standard substance, C02, and that by definition has a GWP equal to one. Methane's GWP is 
62 times higher than the GWP of C02, this shows the importance of reducing methane emissions. 
Thirdly, stabilization of methane concentration in the atmosphere could be reached today by a 
reduction of only 10% of the annual global anthropogenic emissions which is definitely less than for 
C02 which would require around a 60% cut in annual anthropogenic emissions. Clearly, this 
difference has repercussions on the span of policies and measures and the amount of resources that 
has to allocated in order to achieve specific reduction goals. Carbon dioxide remains, however, for the 
future the main concern for global warming. 
Another important parameter is the time methane stays in the atmosphere, 12-17 years against 50-200 
years for C02. This means that the implementation of a strategy to reduce methane emissions would 
have a more immediate impact on the global greenhouse effect compared to C02 where the benefit 
of initiatives would only be perceptible in the medium or long term. 
Finally, it must be pointed out that the simple combustion of methane transforms methane into C02 
and eliminates 95% of its warming potential. 
EU inventories 
Agriculture, waste and energy are the three main anthropogenic methane emissions sources in the EU. 
Inventories have been quantified in these sectors and are summarized below (CORINAIR 90 data). 
Agriculture (45%) stands in first position with methane production resulting from the anaerobic enteric 
fermentation (digestion) of animals (30%) and that resulting from the anaerobic management of the 
animal wastes - manures - (15%). Then follows waste (32%) where methane is generated by the 
anaerobic fermentation of organic matter trapped in landfills. Finally, methane is emitted in the energy 
sector (23%), in particular in coal mining (12%) and the production, distribution and use of natural 
gas (8%). 
EU inventories (year 1990) of main methane anthropogenic emissions sources 
Agriculture 44.7 % 10.2Mt 
enteric fermentation (digestion) of 
ruminant livestock (cattle, sheep) : 30 % 
livestock manure : 14,7 % 
Waste 31,5% 7.3 Mt 
landfills : 30,8 % 
waste water treatment (sludge) : 0,7 % 
Energy 23 % 5.3 Mt 
coal mining, transport and storage : 11,4 % 
gas production and distribution : 8,8 % 
combustion : 2 % 
transport : 0.8% 
Mt = million of tonnes 
Community strategy to reduce methane emissions 
A series of options to reduce methane emissions are set out in this paper as well as policies and 
measures that are already implemented in some Member States or third countries. Effective options 
in the most promising sectors, essentially agriculture, waste and energy, are then identified at EU, 
national, regional and local level and are proposed as potential actions to be carried out in the form 
of a Community strategy. They are briefly described below. 
In the agriculture sector, the most promising area for reducing methane emissions is animal manure 
management. Anaerobic digesters or simple covered lagoons provide an effective means to limit and 
to reduce methane emissions. In order to gain acceptance, farmers in the EU must be first made aware 
of the possibilities offered by these technologies through demonstration programmes and feasibility 
studies implemented at EU, national, regional and local levels. An EU legal obligation to install 
recovery systems should then be implemented in a later stage. This obligation would only apply to 
animal farm husbandry of a certain size (number of animals to be defined). 
In the waste sector, a distinction needs to be made between specific measures addressing new and 
existing landfills and general measures aimed at reducing organic wastes in landfills. For a new 
anaerobic landfill, action should be taken at the EU level to ensure that the operating permit is only 
given if other methane reduction options have been investigated and, where these are not feasible, that 
a highly efficient system is put into place to recover and use any methane produced. For existing 
landfills EU legislation should require their retrofitting in order to collect and to use the methane 
wherever possible. Where this is not feasible it should encourage the use of flaring. Higher methane 
recovery as well as the use and further development of appropriate technologies should be encouraged 
through additional economic incentives, both at the national and EU levels. In parallel, general 
measures to reduce the amount of organic wastes in all landfills such as minimising a generation, 
separate collection, development of recycled products, composting etc.should be taken at EU, national, 
regional, local levels. 
In the energy sector, coal production and consequently methane emissions from this source will 
continue to decline in the future and it would be extremely difficult to justify any additional 
expenditures to implement methane recovery techniques. An EU initiative should only encourage 
Member State to generate programmes promoting the application of the best available technologies 
for those coal mines that will still be in operation beyond a certain time frame (10 years for instance). 
The task is easier concerning natural gas emissions where an EU minimum leakages standard could 
be defined in order to replace the less efficient parts of the transmission and distribution networks for 
which a second initiative, taken at Member State level, should decrease methane emissions by 
increasing the pipelines networks control frequency and thus decrease natural gas leaks. 
Mitigation of the greenhouse effect and in particular mitigation of methane emissions are by definition 
global environmental issues and because of their international context need a Community approach 
rather than individual differentiated actions implemented by Member States. Nevertheless, it cannot 
be excluded that a certain number of initiatives proposed in the strategy may, because of the 
subsidiarity principle, be better undertaken at national, regional and local levels. In any event, these 
initiatives will have to respond to the coordination efforts at both international and Community levels 
in order to meet future global environmental commitments. 
Methane reduction scenarios using similar strategies are also reported in this Communication, (CITEPA 
study), the results of which are rather significant despite some uncertainties. The study comes to the 
conclusion that if similar measures were applied in the EU the resulting methane emission reductions 
could amount to 30% and 41% respectively in 2005 and 2010 in relation to their 1990 levels. 
The suggested options are illustrated in the following summary table. 
SUMMARY OF EU POLICY MEASURES TO BE CONSIDERED 
FOR MITIGATING METHANE EMISSIONS 
AGRICULTURE 
* Enteric fermentation 
- promotion of research and incentives (at EU and national level) to develop 
viable policies and measures 
* Animal manure 
- anaerobic digesters or covered lagoons (preferably with energy use, if not 
feasible with flaring) 
. 1st stage : demonstration programmes at EU, national, regional and local level 
. 2nd stage : obligation at EU level to install recovery and use systems for 
animal farm husbandry units above a certain number of animals(number to be 
defined) 
WASTE 
* General measures 
- promotion at EU, national, regional and local level of measures such as : 
. minimising the generation of organic waste, including packaging 
. encouraging separate collection of organic wastes 
. material recovery of organic waste (through operations such as 
composting) and energy recovery operations. Preference should be 
given, where environmentally sound, to the recovery of material 
over energy recovery operations. It will nevertheless be necessary 
to take into account the environmental, economic and scientific 
effects of either operation. The evaluation of these effects could 
lead, in certain cases, to preference being given to energy 
recovery. 
- economic incentives at EU and national level to promote recycled products 
* New landfills 
- EU legislation requiring, in the absence of other methane reduction alternatives, 
that new anaerobic landfills are equipped with methane recovery and use systems 
* Existing landfills 
- EU legislation requiring the retrofitting of existing landfills with systems for the 
collection and use of methane wherever possible. Support and encourage methane 
recovery processes which yield energy through economic incentives at the EU 
and national level. Where this is not possible encourage the use of flaring 
ENERGY 
Coal 
- EU recommendation to Member States for CH4 emissions reduction schemes 
promoting best available recovery techniques in coal mines 
* Natural Gas 
setting-up of an EU minimum leakages standard 
increase control frequency of pipelines at national level 
ANNEX TO THE EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 
International and Community political context 
The Intergovernmental Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC), ratified by the EC in 
December 1993, contains specific commitments to take actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions 
and to report on the estimated effects of those actions on projected emissions levels, "with the aim of 
returning individually or jointly to their 1990 levels these anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide 
and other greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol". This implies the consideration 
of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide whose concentrations in the 
atmosphere are increasing above their natural level.. 
Nevertheless, current international and Community discussions on the policy response to climate 
change have so far focused on carbon dioxide (C02) and halocarbons (CFCs). To date, less attention 
has been paid to the other greenhouse gases, including methane and nitrous oxide, partly because of 
the gaps in quantitative knowledge about their sources and sinks. Scientific knowledge has, however, 
considerably increased on all greenhouse gases and uncertainties about climate impacts have 
constantly been reduced. 
Community policy development so far 
In February 1993, the EU through its Fifth Action Programme for Environment "Towards 
Sustainability" committed itself to taking measures for assuring sustainable development. In this 
perspective, the EU recalled that methane (CH4) is one of the main agents of the greenhouse effect 
and has defined in its framework on climate change (Chapter 5) a series of actions for greenhouse 
gases such as C02, CH4, N20, CFCs... with the aim, in the particular case of methane, of possibly 
reducing its emissions. In parallel, through its Environment and Climate research programme, the EU 
aims at improving knowledge on the sources and sinks of greenhouse gases. 
In the January 1996 progress report on the implementation of the Fifth Action Programme for 
Environment, the assessment made on the climate change issue concluded that priority action is 
required at EU level to "identify impacts of greenhouse gases other than C02", it also mentioned that 
"the Commission is not on schedule to put forward an inventory of the problem and potential measures 
with reduction targets for methane and nitrous oxide". 
In June 1993, a monitoring mechanism for Community C02 and other greenhouse gas emissions has 
been established under the Council Decision (93/389/EEC). Article 7.2 specifies that for greenhouse 
gases other than C02, "national programmes for the limitation of these gases should be established 
as policies with regard to these developments". 
In the Environment Council conclusions of 15/16 December 1994, the Council "asked the Commission 
to submit as soon as possible a strategy to reduce greenhouse gases other than C02, in particular 
methane and nitrous oxide. 
Moreover, the Council Ad Hoc Group on Climate, working on the elaboration of a Community input 
to the negotiation for a Protocol process under the Berlin Mandate, is currently discussing a 
Community position in three key areas, agriculture, waste management and industry, and the 
possibility of inserting policies and measures to limit and/or reduce methane emissions in the 
Protocol. 
2. THE ISSUE 
2.1. Methane 
Methane (CH4) is a radiatively and chemically active trace greenhouse gas. Being radiatively active, 
methane traps infrared radiation or heat and contributes to the warming of the Earth. It is currently 
second only to carbon dioxide (C02) in contributing to potential future warming. Being chemically 
active methane enters into complex chemical reactions in the atmosphere, normally the presence of 
CH4 is naturally removed by the radical hydroxyl (OH) whose concentration is however continuously 
depleting, that increases not only the abundance of atmospheric methane but also atmospheric 
concentrations of ozone l and stratospheric concentrations of water vapour, which are both greenhouse 
gases. 
2.2. Natural Sources 
Variations in methane's atmospheric level over the previous 150.000 years are largely attributed to 
changes in methane emissions from natural systems, and in particular wetlands. This suggests that 
there is a risk for increased methane emissions from natural sources as climate changes in the future. 
The emissions from several of the natural sources, in particular, wetlands, gas hydrates, and 
permafrost, are strongly governed by environmental variables such as temperature and precipitation. 
Therefore, climate change induced by humans could actually trigger the release of more greenhouse 
gases from natural systems and the magnitude of future climate change could increase consequently. 
Because of the very limited action that one can undertake in this field, this paper does not discuss 
further the natural methane sources and sinks nor explores the harmful effects that human activity 
could have on these. This paper will concentrate only on anthropogenic methane emissions since these 
are one of the main causes inducing climate change. 
2.3. Atmospheric concentrations of Methane 
Atmospheric concentrations of methane are increasing. These increases are due to human-related 
activities that release methane to the atmosphere, partly also because of increases in global population. 
In 1990, the methane concentration level was approximately 1.72 ppm2 - nearly double the level 
estimated for the beginning of this century. A summary of the ice core data and direct measurement 
data showing the increase in atmospheric methane concentrations are provided in Figs 1, 2 and 3. 
Analysis of infrared solar spectra has shown that the atmospheric concentration of methane increased 
by about 30 percent over the last 40 years. 
At present, the current atmospheric amount of methane is approximately 4850 Mt3; this amount is 
thought to be increasing by about 30Mt per year. Atmospheric methane concentrations are expected 
to continue to increase, although global measurement programs indicate that the rate of increase 
appears to have slowed in the last several years. The current annual rate of increase of atmospheric 
methane is about 0.0115 ppm. 
l 
2 
3 Methane is a major concern in the formation of ozone in the troposphere. 
lppm = lppmv = 1 part per million in volume 
lppb = lppbv = 1 part per billion in volume 
lppm = lOOOppb 
1 Mt = 106t = 109kg 
2.4. Methane and global climate change 
Methane's increasing concentration in the atmosphere has important implications for global climate 
change. Methane is very effective at absorbing infrared radiation (IR) or heat given off by the earth's 
surface. By absorbing IR and inhibiting its release into space, the presence of methane contributes to 
increased atmospheric and surface temperatures, and thus to the "greenhouse effect". 
The power with which a greenhouse gas contributes to earth global warming is normally expressed 
by its Global Warming Potential (GWP). The GWP reflects how more powerful a substance is than 
the standard substance which is C02 and that by definition has a GWP equal to one. There is no 
simple way of calculating the GWP compared to C02, partly because substances have direct and 
indirect effects. As already mentioned, methane indirectly contributes to global warming by 
influencing the amount of ozone in the troposphere and stratosphere, the amount of hydroxyl (OH) in 
the troposphere and the amount of water vapour in the stratosphere. Methane's indirect effect on 
warming resulting from these chemical reactions could be comparable in magnitude to its direct effect, 
although considerable uncertainty remains4. 
The IPCC5 has recommended using a GWP of 62 which reflects both direct and indirect effects over 
a time horizon of 20 years, this means that the impact on global warming of 1 tonne of CH4 is 62 
times higher than the impact of 1 tonne of C02. If one considers the same effects over a 100 years 
time horizon, the GWP will be about 25. Over the same period, it has been estimated that 
approximately 18 percent of the greenhouse effect is due to increasing atmospheric methane 
concentrations. The total contribution to radiative forcing of all greenhouse gases in 1990 is shown 
in Fig 2. 
2.5 Stabilization and Reduction of global Methane emissions 
Since atmospheric methane has been increasing at a rate of about 30 Mt per year, stabilizing global 
methane concentrations at current levels would require reductions in methane emissions by 
approximately the same amount. Such a reduction represents less than 10 percent of current 
anthropogenic emissions. This reduction is much less than the percentage reduction necessary to 
stabilize the other major greenhouse gases: C02 requires approximately a 60 percent reduction; nitrous 
oxide requires a 70 to 80 percent reduction; and chlorofluorocarbons require a 70 to 85 percent 
reduction. 
Because methane has a relatively short atmospheric lifetime compared to the other major greenhouse 
gases, reductions in methane emissions will help to ameliorate global warming relatively quickly (CH4 
has an average residence time of 12-17 years in the atmosphere, whereas for C02 it is 50-200 years). 
Therefore, methane reduction strategies offer an effective means of slowing global warming in the near 
term. On the other hand, because of the relatively high increase in yearly concentration of methane, 
a continuation of present trends may have a long-term impact on the global temperature which could 
be almost as dramatic as that foreseen for continued increases of C02 concentrations. In conclusion, 
reduction of CH4 emissions is not only an attractive option in the short term but also a necessary 
commitment for the long term. 
4 Typical uncertainty is + 35% relative to the C02 reference 
International Panel on Climate Change 
2.6 Elimination of methane emissions : combustion with/without energy recovery. 
Economic factors connected to the adopted process. 
Methane combustion gives rise to a release of energy followed by emissions of C02 and water vapour. 
During combustion one tonne of CH4 is converted into 2.75 tonnes of C02, this means that if we 
compare on a equal basis the GWP values (before and after combustion), the pre-combustion GWP 
value of 62 (for methane) ends-up as a post-combustion GWP value of 2.75 (2.75 x GWP6 of C02). 
By converting CH4 into C02 in a combustion process, one eliminates 95% of the greenhouse gas 
effect problem since the C02 generated during the combustion will only represent 5% of the original 
methane global warming potential. To the extent that avoidance of methane emissions can be done 
through collection of CH4 and subsequent combustion with energy utilization, a double bonus can be 
achieved. Certainly, in this case, there will be no net greenhouse emissions at all because the resulting 
C02 from the combustion will be counterbalanced by the saving of fuel that would otherwise have 
been needed to cover the energy production. 
In conclusion, the use of flares (simple combustion without energy recovery) should be recommended 
for eliminating methane emissions and their associated harmful atmospheric impacts but energy 
recovery systems should be preferred, if they are economically justified. 
It should be noted, however, that out of the complete elimination of recovered methane's contribution 
to global warming, 95% of the benefit is linked to the combustion of CH4 into C02 and only the 5% 
is due to the energy saving resulting from utilising the recovered methane's energy content. In other 
words, from a climate point of view, the importance of methane recovery lies in the elimination of the 
CH4 molecules much more than in the use of the energy released during the combustion. 
This can be illustrated via the following example : if one assumed that the proposed 1 OS/barrel for 
the C02/energy tax reflects the internalization of the external cost of C02 emissions, the equivalent 
figure for methane should be in the order of 1500$ per tonne of CH4, whereas the fuel value of 
methane for industry is in the range of 240$-460$/tonne. Consequently, decisions on recovering CH4 
for instance from landfills or animal manure (biogas) should be based on a much higher shadow value 
of the methane recovered than its value as a fuel. In other terms, CH4 recovery just for flaring 
(combustion without heat recovery) will in many cases make sense if one takes into account the 
potential release of methane into the atmosphere if it had not been recovered or flared. 
2.7 Methane emissions in an EU context 
An inventory of anthropogenic methane emissions sources for the year 1990 is given in Table 2. This 
inventory is a synthesis of national specific inventories established per Member State of the EU and 
supplied to the European Environment Agency (EEA). They have been prepared under the CORINAIR 
90 data base programme and include the last updated final and provisional inventories (January 1995). 
The results are extended to the new enlarged EU; data from former West Germany and former German 
Democratic Republic are merged into one set of data for Germany. Table 3 summarizes the methane 
emissions sources per main sector in the EU-15. 
The anthropogenic methane emissions in the EU amount to approximately 23 Mt per year which 
represent about 6% of global emissions estimated at 385 Mt per year. 
C02 global warming potential is 1 by definition 
3. EU METHANE SOURCES AND PRESENT INVENTORIES 
Eleven main source sectors (including natural sources) are covered by the CORINAIR 90 summary 
given in Table 2 which shows the contribution of each sector to global EU emissions. The following 
conclusions, see also Table 3, can be deduced from the anthropogenic methane emissions. 
3.1. Agriculture 
Emissions from agriculture represent the greatest source of methane emissions in the EU. They are 
estimated at 10.2 Mt for the year 1990 and account for 44,7% of European emissions. These 
emissions come mainly from: 
enteric fermentation (digestion) of 
ruminant livestock (cattle, sheep) : 30 % 
livestock manure : 14.7 % 
3.2. Waste 
Emissions from waste treatment and disposal represent the second source of methane emissions in the 
E.U. They are estimated at 7.3 Mt for the year 1990 and account for 32% of European emissions. 
These emissions come mainly from: 
- landfills : 30.8 % 
waste water treatment (sludge) : 0.7 % 
If the emissions from unmanaged and unaccounted open dumps are taken into consideration, waste 
might become the first methane emitter in the EU. 
3.3. Energy 
Emissions from energy represent the third source of methane emissions in the EU. They are estimated 
to 5.3 Mt for the year 1990 and account for 23.3% of European emissions. These emissions come 
mainly from: 
coal mining, transport and storage : 11.4 % 
gas production and distribution : 8.8 % 
combustion : 2 % 
transport : 0.8% 
4. OPTIONS FOR REDUCING METHANE EMISSIONS . SOME MEASURES 
REPORTED BY MEMBER STATES AND THIRD COUNTRIES. 
The unique characteristics of methane emissions, described in Chapter 1, demonstrate the importance 
of promoting strategies to reduce the amount of methane discharged into the atmosphere. On top of 
that, methane is a source of energy as well as a greenhouse gas and implementing emissions control 
options could lead to additional economic benefits, see also Chapter 5. Furthermore, advanced and 
well-demonstrated technologies are today commercially available. 
Options to reduce methane emissions from major sources (agriculture, waste treatment and disposal, 
energy) will be developed further in the following pages. A summary in Table 4 of the annex 
illustrates the technical/economical aspects and the effectiveness of these options. 
In the context of the FCCC7, a compilation and a synthesis of recent national communications from 
Annex I Parties has been prepared. This preliminary review shows the present trends in policies and 
measures used by the Parties to mitigate climate change. Some 25 communications were analyzed, 12 
of them coming from EU Member States. Only key considerations about this assessment are reported 
in this chapter and cover each sector of interest that is described below. In addition to these comments, 
some actions undertaken by individual Member States are also reported. 
Anthropogenic sources of methane emissions which represent less than 1% of EU-emissions are not 
considered in this chapter (e.g. waste water treatment, rice cultivation). 
41 AGRICULTURE 
4.1.1 Enteric fermentation 
Methane is produced as part of the normal digestion process of ruminant animals (e.g cattle, sheep, 
goats) as they digest their feed in their forestomach, or rumen. Some of this methane which is exhaled 
or eructated by the animal is, on an purely energy basis, considered as a feed conversion inefficiency; 
feed energy converted to methane cannot be used by the animal for maintenance, growth or production 
of product. 
Other pseudo-ruminant animals (such as pig and horses) and humans also produce methane by enteric 
fermentation, but the total emission is small compared to the emission of ruminants. Therefore, in this 
chapter only measures for reducing methane emissions from cattle and sheep are treated. 
Three options for reducing methane emissions from ruminant livestock are presented here. 
-Livestock reduction 
A very effective option for reducing animal methane emissions is obviously the reduction in the 
animals number. However, at the European level, the actual trend for the following years, even if 
highly uncertain, indicates a slight reduction in ruminant numbers. This reduction will also be affected 
indirectly by the application of agricultural policy measures other than those aiming at livestock 
reduction. 
Framework Convention on Climate Change 
The EU indeed controls agricultural overproduction by imposing charges and by fixing of quotas. 
Existing policies have already reduced animal numbers during the past years. The milk-quota 
instrument proved to be very effective in reducing the milk surplus and dairy cattle numbers. Agri-
environmental measures such as economic incentives promoting, where appropriate, the extensification 
of animal farming contribute to lowering livestock density and may lead to livestock reduction. In the 
future, the evolution of agricultural policy may affect livestock populations, for example, the efforts 
to reduce manure surpluses may lead to the reduction of the number of animals but the maintenance 
and conservation of the landscape may require in some areas the maintenance or increase of the 
livestock density rate. 
Moreover, reducing EU methane emissions by restricting livestock numbers is only possible if 
ruminants are not raised elsewhere to compensate for reduced EU milk/meat output. In fact, at the 
global level, a transfer of production to less technologically advanced countries may even have 
perverse effects, if the manure there is treated in a less environmentally conscious way. A reduction 
of consumption of products from ruminants might be therefore an alternative to the global reduction 
of the number of animals. 
Today, even if the balance of policies and measures shows a reduction in animal numbers, it is 
difficult on the European level to assess the impacts of these measures in 2000 and beyond and to 
see to what extent and for which animal types the reduction could actually take place. However, no 
drastic changes between 1990 and 2000 should be expected. 
-Increase of feed conversion efficiency 
Some measures can be taken to improve animal efficiency by decreasing energy losses through 
methanogenesis e.g. the alkali/ammonia treatment of low digestibility straws, the supplements of 
molasses/urea multinutrient blocks, the defaunation through mineral/protein supplements. These 
nutrition options don't have much potential when applied to European livestock as most animals 
already receive a carefully composed diet which has a high digestibility and contains sufficient 
nutrients. However, some options might be applicable like an increased level of feed intake, the 
replacement of roughage with concentrates and a change in the composition of concentrates. 
An increase in level of feed intake changes rumen VFA-content8 in such a way that less acetate and 
more propionate is formed, with lower methane emissions as a consequence. The production level of 
the animal will generally increase as well. 
As roughage contains a high degree of structural carbohydrates (fibres), replacement of part of the 
roughage in the animal diet with concentrates will generally improve propionate generation and 
decrease methane production. 
If the composition of the currently added concentrates is changed towards one with less fibres, a 
methane reduction is possible. Alternatives are starch and sugars. By replacing 25 % of structural 
carbohydrates with non-structural carbohydrates a CH4 reduction of almost 20 % is predicted. 
-Increase of animal productivity 
For completeness this item, even if questionable, is presented as a third potential option. 
Methanogenic bacteria are inhibited by ammonia and by the volatile fatty acid (VFA) 
propionate. By sustaining a sufficient level of ammonia and shifting the rumen VFA-
composition towards more propionate and less acetate, methane production can be reduced. 
10 
By adding production enhancing agents to animal feed, or by injecting animals with these agents, 
animal productivity (milk, beef) can be improved, methane emissions per agricultural product can be 
decreased. Emissions reductions per unit of 5 % to 30 % have been demonstrated. Currently several 
antibiotics, ionophores and halogenated compounds are being used for production stimulation, some 
of which have a direct effect on methanogenesis in the rumen as well. 
Finally, apart from adding agents, animal production can be also improved through transgenetic 
manipulations or biotechnology reproduction techniques. 
4.1.2 Livestock manure 
If livestock manure is kept under anaerobic (absence of air) conditions and with temperatures higher 
than about 15°C, methanogenic bacteria will produce methane. At this stage, a controlled fermentation 
of manure can be started. Methane emissions from anaerobic digestion (fermentation) constitute an 
energy resource that can be then recovered. Manure management and recovery techniques enable 
methane to be collected. This recovered methane (biogas) can be either flared (combusted) or used for 
energy generation (heat and/or electricity) for on-farm purposes or for sale (see Chapter 5). As already 
mentioned in Chapter 2, the flaring process decreases by up to 95% the harmful atmospheric effect 
of the recovered methane if this gas was actually emitted, whereas methane recovery and use eliminate 
completely this harmful effect and even contribute to a greater greenhouse effect reduction by 
decreasing the overall balance of C02 emissions. The final stabilized products produced by the 
anaerobic digestion can be utilized as feed and aquaculture supplements in fish farming or as crop 
fertilizers. 
If livestock manure is kept under aerobic (presence of air) conditions (by turning the manure regularly 
or by forced ventilation), aerobic transformation of the product will take place replacing CH4 
emissions by C02 emissions. That process will lead to a stabilized compost which then can be used 
as a crop fertilizer. Clearly in this process, the energy resource and benefits of the biogas (CH4) are 
lost but its main advantage stays in the replacement of a powerful greenhouse gas by a weak one 
which leads to a drastic reduction, up to 95%, of the residual emissions' GWP (see Chapter 2). 
Generally, policy measures to reduce livestock population will have indirect consequences on the 
livestock manure reduction strategy and will subsequently greatly influence the methane emissions 
from this source. 
Two options using anaerobic recovery techniques to reduce methane emissions from livestock manure 
are presented here. 
-Covered lagoons 
Manure management in lagoons is associated with relatively large-scale intensive farm operations. 
Manure solids are washed out of the livestock housing facilities with large quantities of water, and the 
resulting slurry flows into primary lagoons. Due to anaerobic conditions the manure is converted into 
significant methane emissions, provided temperatures remain high enough. By placing an impermeable 
floating cover over the lagoon and applying negative pressure, methane can be recovered . Methane 
recovery efficiencies up to 80 % can be achieved. 
-Digesters 
Digesters are special reactors designed to enhance the anaerobic decomposition of organic material and 
thus maximize methane emissions production inside the reactor for recovery. As a rough 
11 
approximation, anaerobic digester will reduce the potential for methane emissions by two third or 
more, leaving the remaining one third of the compounds in the effluent. Methane may still be 
generated from the effluents. Therefore, efficient digesters with gas recovery systems may reduce 
methane emissions by up to 70 %, with larger reductions at longer. 
Small scale digesters are relatively simple to build and operate. As such, they are an appropriate 
strategy for small isolated farms and for regions with technical, capital, and material resources 
constraints. The recovery of high quality fertilizer from digesters may be an even more important 
benefit than the energy supplied from biogas. 
Large-scale digesters, often more technologically advanced digesters, are usually heated and require 
greater capital investment per unit. Advanced designs can greatly improve the performance of livestock 
manure digesters and can operate in colder regions. 
4.1.3. Description of some measures reported by Member States and Third Countries. 
FCCC : Approximately 10% of all policies and measures reported on CH4 were directed towards 
agriculture. Only nine Parties have provided real measures to reduce CH4 from enteric fermentation 
or livestock manure. Mention is rather made of policy instruments such as information/education 
programmes aimed at the improvement of livestock productivity and manure management. However, 
indirect measures have been reported, like the reduction of livestock population, which clearly affects 
methane emissions from enteric fermentation and livestock manure. 
Netherlands : One of the main instruments put in place in the Netherlands is a manure policy which 
will not allow more phosphate being put on the land than is taken up by the crop. This policy 
measure should result in a decrease of cattle and manure and reduce indirectly CH4 emissions from 
crops. 
Germany : Germany has enforced the Animal Husbandry Act which should lead to a reduction of 
methane emissions through the improvement of animal digestive efficiency. 
France : Considering that levels and conditions of emissions in the agriculture sector are insufficiently 
known, France has launched a research programme, in particular on enteric fermentation and manure 
management. 
4.2 WASTE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 
4.2.1 Landfills 
Methane is generated in the sub-layers of landfills as a direct result of the natural decomposition of 
organic solid waste in anaerobic condition. The organic component of landfilled waste is broken down 
by methanogenic bacteria in a complex biological process which produce methane, carbon dioxide and 
other gases, in a similar way to the storage or manure digestion. 
Several options can reduce methane emissions from landfills, some of them by up to 90 percent. These 
available options are briefly described below. 
-Anaerobic (no air) landfill management : methane recovery and utilization 
When the landfill is capped by an impermeable layer, anaerobic conditions are enhanced inside the 
landfill and methane gas generation is accelerated. Emissions of methane to the atmosphere can be 
12 
prevented by removing this generated waste gas. When recovery wells are installed inside the landfill 
and by applying a vacuum pressure the methane gas can be collected. Recovery efficiencies of 50 to 
80% are achievable, with methane concentrations varying from 30 to 70%. 
There are two options for the medium quality gas typically recovered, energy generation or flaring. 
First, the recovered landfill gas can be used to generate energy, electricity and/or heat. Electricity can 
be generated on-site or at a nearby power plant, using internal combustion engines or gas turbines. 
Landfill gas can be also used directly as a fuel source without conversion to electricity, it can be sold 
with little or no processing as a medium quality gas for local industrial, residential or commercial 
heating and energy needs or be processed into high quality gas and sold to natural gas supply systems. 
Second, landfill gas can be flared (combusted) where there is insufficient gas to justify an energy 
project or as an initial step before implementing utilization options. 
These options would eliminate either completely (up to 100%) or almost completely (up to 95%) the 
harmful atmospheric effects of methane gas emitted from landfills. 
-Aerobic (with air) landfill management 
In an aerobic landfill the ratio of CH4 to C02 production is shifted towards C02 production, as a 
consequence of the improved oxidation in the landfill. Methanogenic bacteria are prevented from 
functioning and consequently aerobic bacteria are able to convert organic waste into carbon dioxide 
and water. Instead of being fermentated, the organic waste is composted. 
In order to sustain aerobic conditions in a landfill, specific designs are necessary, as described 
hereafter. 
In semi-aerobic landfilling air can diffuse through the landfill as it is supplied through the leachate 
collection pipes located at the bottom of the landfill. Pipe diameters should be large enough to both 
collect leachate from and supply air to the landfill. Compared to anaerobic landfills a methane 
production reduction of 50% can be achieved. 
The re-circulatory semi-aerobic landfill system is an improved version of the semi-aerobic system. The 
rate of decomposition and purification of leachate is enhanced, by recirculating the leachate to the 
landfill so as to encourage aerobic bacterial growth as more oxygen and nutrients are available. 
Compared to anaerobic landfills a methane production reduction of 80% can be achieved. 
The aerobic landfill system uses an air blower to force air into the landfill layers. The air is pumped 
into landfill through separate pipes down in the landfill. With this system, methane production 
reductions of 90% are feasible. 
-Reduced landfilling of organic waste 
The reduced landfilling of organic waste can be achieved firstly by minimising the amount of organic 
waste which is generated. Where this is not possible, organic wastes should be made subject to 
recovery operations such as, for example, composting. 
In composting facilities organic waste is converted under aerobic conditions into carbon dioxide, water 
and mainly compost, which can be applied as a soil conditioner. In extensive systems the organic 
waste is just regularly turned; in intensive systems forced ventilation is applied. 
13 
It should be noted that several emerging recovery technologies are being developed which may reduce 
methane emissions from organic waste management, like the controlled anaerobic digestion (i.e. 
biogasification) to produce methane or the pyrolysis (i.e. thermal conversion) to produce oil or gas. 
Some organic waste such as paper could be made subject to its own recycling process enabling its 
reintroduction in the paper production process. Council Directive 94/62/EC on packaging and 
packaging waste already lays down criteria for the reduction and recycling of packaging and packaging 
wastes. 
The establishment of efficient recovery operations is often dependent on the availability of 
appropriately sorted wastes to feed the relevant recovery process. The separate collection of organic 
wastes will therefore need to be considered. 
Organic waste can also be made subject to energy recovery operations. Although preference should 
usually be given to material recovery operations such as composting, in certain cases the effect of this 
preference on the environment and the economy as well as technological constraints may weigh in 
favour of the energy recovery option. 
4.2.2 Description of some measures reported by Member States and Third Countries. 
FCCC : Most countries reported on measures to promote recycling and minimize waste. These were 
being implemented through regulations, policy guidelines and technical standards. Several countries 
reported on guidelines to change business practices and lifestyles, promotion of recycling and waste 
minimization, technical standards to regulate packaging and municipal waste, taxes (landfill levies, 
tariffs on wastes) as policy tools to reduce waste volumes and voluntary agreements to stimulate 
recycling in households, small business and industry. 
Several Parties reported on policies and measures to improve sewage treatment and reduce methane 
emissions from landfills, focusing on the curtailment of landfills and technical standards to reduce their 
CH4 emissions. In some cases, financial incentives have been introduced to promote the development 
of sewage treatment facilities and support projects that use biogas. 
Some countries have adopted voluntary agreements to promote recovery and use of energy from 
wastes. 
United Kingdom : UK policies aim to reduce the amount of methane from landfills by : 
- adopting policies which promote waste minimisation and recycling, including energy recovery. 
- introducing further measures to promote the use of methane from landfills as an energy source and 
the flaring of methane ( conversion of CH4 in C02) 
The government is also promoting energy recovery from waste through orders requiring public 
electricity supply companies in England and Wales to obtain more electricity from renewable sources. 
One economic instrument under consideration is introducing a levy on landfill. This could have a 
significant impact on the amount of waste going to landfill. 
Austria : In order to substitute fossil fuels with renewables energies and in particular CH4 from 
landfills, Austria has established regulations concerning the supply of electricity into the public grid 
through an ordinance on landfills. 
Finland : The waste management development programme according to the Finnish government calls 
for a rigorous reduction in the number of landfills. One aim is to have just 200 landfills by 2000. By 
14 
reducing their number, more effort and resources could be dedicated to the management and the 
supervision of the existing landfills in order to reduce their harmful environmental effects. Another 
aim is to reduce the volume of waste dumped in landfills by increasing waste recovery and reuse. 
France : Since July 1992, France has a regulation that should modify completely the present waste 
management strategy focusing mainly on waste recycling and valorisation. Accordingly, by 2002 only 
final wastes will be disposed and newly installed landfills dealing with organic wastes should recover 
and incinerate the methane emissions. 
4.3 ENERGY 
4.3.1 Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels 
4.3.1.1 Coal 
Methane is produced during coalification (the process of coal formation) and remains trapped under 
pressure in the coal seam and surrounding rock strata. This trapped methane is released when the coal 
seam is fractured and will eventually be emitted into the atmosphere or will seep back into the mine 
workings as the coal is mined. 
Because methane is highly explosive, mine air containing methane is removed from the mine 
workings, and is generally vented directly into the atmosphere. The same kind of techniques can be 
adapted to recover methane. One of the most important characteristics of mined coal is its coal rank 
which determines the gas content per unit of mass (e.g lignite versus anthracite). 
Reducing CH4 emissions from coal mining requires two types of technologies, recovering technologies 
and utilization technologies (flaring of recovered gas is also possible). 
Three recovery techniques and their associated utilization options are briefly presented here.The most 
significant methane emissions and gas use optimizations are likely to occur by employing a 
combination of these recovery strategies. 
-Enhanced gob recovery 
The highly fractured area of coal and rock that is created by the caving of the mine roof after the coal 
is removed is a gob area, it can release significant quantities of methane into the mine which 
afterwards is evacuated through the air ventilation system. If this gas is recovered before entering the 
mine, recovery becomes more efficient and ventilation requirements can be reduced. 
The main recovery techniques include the vertical gob wells drilled from the surface and the boreholes 
drilled from in-mine workings into the gob areas. Methane recovery efficiencies can range from 20 
to 50%. 
The main option for utilizing the recovered medium quality gas is on-site power generation with 
either gas turbines or internal combustion engines. Power is used directly on-site or sold to nearby 
electricity users or to supply companies. 
-Pre-mining de gasification 
Recovering the methane before the coal is mined through pre-mining degasification can be attractive 
because methane is removed before the air from the mine workings can mix with it. The two primary 
15 

recovery technologies are in-mine horizontal boreholes and.vertical wells, drilled from the surface in 
advance of mining. 
Due to its high calorific value, the recovered gas can be used in many applications such as electricity 
generation, gas distribution systems and industrial heating. It consistently contains 95 % of methane 
and can be sold in high quality pipeline systems. Methane recovery efficiencies up to 70% can be 
achieved. 
-Ventilation air utilization 
Most mine gas is released to the atmosphere through the ventilation air system which is used in 
underground coal mines for safety reasons.The methane content of the vented air must be below 5 % 
for safety reasons (frequently 0.5 %). 
In spite of its low concentration, it appears that there may be opportunities to use ventilation air as 
combustion air in turbines or boilers. However, the technical and economic feasibility has not yet been 
demonstrated. Methane recovery efficiencies can range from 10 to 90%. 
4.3.1.2 Natural gas 
Methane is the primary constituent of natural gas, and significant quantities can be emitted to the 
atmosphere from components and operations throughout a country's natural gas system. Emissions 
sources generally include gas and oil wells, processing and storage facilities and transmission and 
distribution systems. Oil wells are also natural gas emissions sources, even if small. Usually the oil 
pumped at the well-station is a two-phase mixture (liquid and gas) releasing natural gas that can be 
recovered. Emissions primarily result from the normal operations of many natural gas system 
components, such as venting and incomplete flaring (combustion) at oil and gas wells, compressor 
station operations, gas processing facilities, gas-operated control devices and unintentional leaks 
(fugitive emissions). 
Two emissions reduction strategies are briefly discussed here. 
-Reduced venting and effective flaring during production 
In oil production, the gas must be separated from the oil and the recovered gas is normally used if 
there is a demand for natural gas as an energy source. Where demand for gas does not exist, the gas 
is directly released (venting), burned off (flaring), or reinjected into the field to help maintain 
formation pressure or to "dispose" of the unwanted gases generated during oil production. Although 
venting and flaring of gases are strictly controlled and reinjecting of gas is increasingly used, 
significant methane emissions reduction from production facilities can still be achieved through 
increased effectiveness of flaring and reinjecting operations. 
Emissions from gas production arise during exploration, extraction losses and system upsets. Reducing 
emissions from these sources involves marginal improvements in existing practices that will also 
reduce safety hazards from methane leaks and reduce wastage. In this way methane recovery 
efficiencies up to 50% can be achieved. 
-Improved leak detection and pipeline repair 
Gas pipelines are subject to corrosion and subsequently develop chronic leaks. Preventing and 
repairing these leaks will reduce fugitive emissions but also achieve at the same time the following 
16 
triple bonus : increased safety of installations, reduced economic cost of gas losses and finally reduced 
environmental damages. These results can be achieved through a number of actions including 
improved leak detection and pipeline inspection, preventative maintenance and replacement programs, 
and the increased use of corrosion resistant materials (e.g., coated steels, PVC, PE). In this way 
methane recovery efficiencies up to 80% can be achieved. 
4.3.2 Combustion 
Methane emissions from stationary and mobile fossil fuel combustion sources (see Table 2) can be 
reduced by alterihg combustion processes to reduce the amount of gases produced or by using exhaust 
control technologies, such as catalytic converters, to reduce emissions of some gases after the 
combustion process has taken place. 
The feasibility of some of these options has not yet been demonstrated and, in many cases, the 
potential for reducing methane emissions has not been well quantified. CH4 emissions from fossil fuel 
combustion can be considered as a minor source category in the methane inventory (less than 3 %). 
4.3.3 Description of some measures reported bv Member States and Third Countries. 
FCCC : Policies to reduce fugitive fuel emissions associated with fossil fuel production such as coal 
mining and natural gas were reported. Such policies took the form of low-emission guidelines and 
information programmes to encourage voluntary action. 
Netherlands : Offshore fields are responsible for 80% of the methane emissions in the Netherlands. 
Measures are being discussed by government and gas producing companies, in particular regarding the 
increased use of gas on offshore platforms. 
France : Mainly for safety considerations, "GDF"9 replaced from 1990 to 1993 6000 km of the old 
gas network. The intention was to devote one billion francs per year from 1993 to 2000 to replace 
1000 km/year of the old existing network. Indirect effects on methane emissions are expected as well 
from this measure. France claims that losses might be reduced by 27kt/year for the period 1990 to 
2000. 
United Kingdom : The UK government has adopted a working assumption that methane emissions 
from coal mining, 0.8Mt in 1990, could fall by about a half by 2000. It is encouraging utilities to 
increase the proportion of methane taken from mines and will take steps to require utilities to publish 
periodic statements of their approach to limiting methane emissions. UK authorities recently 
commissioned a study to elaborate the technical potential, cost and effectiveness of possible measures 
to limit methane emissions from UK deep mined coal production. 
9 
Gaz de France 
17 
5. EU POLICY MEASURES TO BE CONSIDERED 
The aim of this chapter is to introduce and discuss the best policy options for controlling methane 
emissions from each source (agriculture, waste, energy). These options are based on some existing 
policies or studies about cost-effective measures to reduce methane emissions. However, the lack of 
literature on cost-effectiveness analysis has to be recognized. The non-availability of quantified data 
on this matter, in particular those referring to least-cost measures for society may lead to some 
concerns on a proposed methane strategy is well-founded. Additional work and studies at EU and 
Member State levels would in fact be welcome. In this context, the work performed by ECOFYS 
("Cost-effectiveness of emission reducing measures for methane in the Netherlands") should be 
highlighted. An illustration of the results obtained is given in Fig. 5. 
5.1 AGRICULTURE 
When addressing the policy measures to be considered in this sector, in particular those concerning 
the reduction of methane emissions from livestock farming, attention should be paid to the need for 
a consistent approach to all the environmental issues linked to this sector and the relevant (existing 
or proposed) legislation. 
5.1.1 Enteric fermentation 
- livestock reduction 
More accurate data on methane emissions induced by current multi-sectorial measures in the 
agricultural field are indispensable to identify clearly the potential and the need for livestock reduction 
in order to influence future policy formulation in this field. Consequently, in the short term, the 
implementation of a livestock reduction measure does not seem to be an appropriate option. 
- increase of feed conversion efficiency 
These options are available but the costs and to what extent these options can be implemented in the 
EU are unknown, currently no reliable data are available on methane reductions and their associated 
costs. An essential measure that could be considered is the reinforcement of present knowledge at EU 
and national level by promoting research or launching a new research campaign to identify more 
precisely methane emissions resulting from this option. 
- increase of animal productivity 
In some EU countries like the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany, production enhancing agents are 
currently banned for dairy cattle. In addition to this there is a strong resistance against the further use 
in livestock of production enhancing agents. This will influence the eventual implementation of such 
measure in the future. Most of the enhancing agents and the genetic techniques are still the subject of 
research and are not expected to be exploited before 2000. 
These options are not easy to express in terms of cost-effectiveness, except for the enhancing agents 
whose costs are relatively small compared to the saving achieved per animal. 
As a consequence, more research at EU and national level is needed on enteric fermentation. Therefore 
the mentioned options will not be considered as presently viable. 
It should be noted that promoting this type of technological incentive in the EU would lead to fewer 
animals but it might increase in particular the "intensive" character of animal husbandry, therefore 
disconnecting cattle keeping from land use. There are several implications of such a policy on the 
environment: 
1) a bigger concentration of animal waste (manure) could produce through excessive 
spreading on land to harmful effects on soils and waters and there would be a risk of 
conflict with the EU Nitrate Directive if the spreading threshold value is overridden. 
2) less grass and less roughage could also mean that landscape and natural features are 
negatively affected. Managed and maintained natural spaces may progressively disappear 
and lead to abandoned natural spaces (problems like erosion, biotopes, area fires may 
arise) 
3) the creation of new efficient cow species ("turbo cows") may influence their biodiversity. 
In response to this, the EU in the framework of the Agri-Environment regulation is financing (through 
farmers premiums of the EAGGF) promotion actions aimed at safeguarding the "less productive" 
animals and relocating these in their original areas and climates. 
5.1.2 Livestock manure 
The successful development of manure-to-energy facilities depends on several important regional 
factors including, the ambient temperature and climate; the economic, technical and material resources; 
the local regulatory requirements and the specific benefits of developing an energy resource and a high 
quality fertilizer. 
From the cost-effectiveness point of view, the most promising technology seems to be the installation 
of small and medium-scale power units generating heat or/and electricity that are, simple to build, to 
operate and to maintain . The energy use for on-farm (or neighbouring-farm) purposes can also be 
easily implemented. Their investment cost is relatively small and the double benefits (fertilizer and 
energy) may be quite high. However the future acceptance and development of these technologies still 
require the demonstration of their usefulness. This is why in a first stage, accompanying measures such 
as demonstration programmes, promotion campaigns, financial incentives and local feasibility studies 
should be defined at EU, national, regional and local level. In a second stage, the technology should 
be introduced through an EU obligation legislation for animal farm husbandry larger than a certain 
number of animals(number to be defined). At this stage, however, this obligation would have to be 
integrated with existing agricultural and environmental policies such as the Nitrate Directive and the 
extensive modes of ruminant farming. 
Larger-scale power units generating gas or/and electricity mainly for sale are not recognized as cost 
effective tools. Farms in the EU are in the main relatively dispersed, important transport means would 
have to be developed, first to collect the intensive manure products (mainly sludges and liquids) that 
have to be processed and secondly, after digestion, to recover the large amount of stabilized effluent 
that has to be either dispersed on lands and crops as fertilisers or used for other applications. 
The policy measures to be considered should therefore be organized in two stages : 
* Stage 1 : elaboration of demonstration programmes with public subsidies in order to 
illustrate the reliability of such equipment. Covered lagoons or anaerobic 
digesters must gain the acceptance of animal farmers by demonstrating their 
economic viability and their technical reliability. 
* Stage 2: EU obligation to introduce such technology for animal farm husbandry larger 
than a certain number of animals.( number to be defined) 
5.2 WASTE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 
Community action in this field may be best split into three areas : general measures aimed at reducing 
the amount of organic waste which is landfilled, new landfills and existing landfills. 
General measures 
A promising area for methane reduction is in reducing the amount of organic waste which goes into 
landfills. This cost-effective technique must be considered as a part of a global scheme of waste 
elimination, which gives priority to waste prevention. However, where waste arises, improved 
processing of the organic fraction should be encouraged. The facilitation of increased recovery may 
require additional measures such as the setting up of appropriate composting standards and criteria as 
well as encouraging the separate collection of organic wastes to improve the supply of appropriate 
inputs into the various recovery processes. Composting in particular has the advantage of being a cost-
effective measure which requires small investments, has low operating costs and can yield relatively 
high revenues if the end-product is of sufficient quality to be sold as a soil conditioner. Although 
preference should usually be given to material recovery unless there are environmental, economic and 
technological arguments to the contrary, energy recovery from organic waste may also be an option. 
Community measures could help to implement this process with the collaboration of regions or 
municipalities through focused information programmes, particularly where organic waste minimisation 
projects and collection schemes are concerned. 
Efforts should be made at EU level, as a first priority, to prevent the production of packaging wastes 
and in addition to reuse, recycle and otherwise recover packaging wastes. Further, the use of recycled 
materials in the packaging itself should be encouraged. Problems of price competitiveness of recycled 
products could be overcome by the introduction of economic incentives to promote their use. 
If the policy measures outlined above were to be implemented it would result in a substantial reduction 
in the organic wastes to be landfilled in the future. 
New landfills 
If other methane reduction options have been investigated and where these are not feasible, 
technologies to recover and to use the methane emitted should be installed in new landfills. With 
regard to this, upcoming Community legislation will propose that permits for new landfills will depend 
on systems for the recovery and processing of any methane produced being in place before the landfill 
is opened for business. In particular the legislation will require appropriate measures to be taken to 
control the accumulation and migration of landfill gases which will have to be collected, treated and 
used in a manner which "minimises damage to or deterioration of the environment and risk to human 
health" according to strict standards. 
20 
Existing landfills 
The policies referred to above will have relatively little impact on already dumped wastes which are 
the main CH4 emissions contributors. Therefore, specific actions must be developed in this direction. 
Account must be taken of the fact that the existing landfills were not designed to be methane 
production plants hence making their retrofitting for this purpose difficult. 
However, technologies do exist and are already in use in a limited number of sites. Measures requiring 
the application of these technologies to anaerobic landfills should be promoted. EU legislation should 
require the retrofitting of existing landfills with systems for the collection and use of methane 
wherever possible. The recovered gas could be either sold, used on site, converted into electricity or 
if none of these options are feasible, it should be flared. An upcoming Community legislation will 
require plans to be produced for existing landfill sites which include an assessment of these options. 
In the future there may also be a need for economic incentives, both at the national and EU levels, 
to encourage higher methane recovery as well as the use and further development of appropriate 
technologies. EU funds will need to be made available for research to find ways of improving 
retrofitting techniques. 
Methane recovery systems for anaerobic landfills in operation today are faced with certain problems 
when it comes to methane utilization due to the variability of its production (quality, pressure and 
flow) and the fact that it is not easy to introduce these techniques into a gas distribution network. 
Therefore, the gas recovered is generally used on site or flared, which eliminates at least 95% of the 
greenhouse effect problem caused by emitted methane gas (see chapter 2). Despite the considerable 
associated investment and operational costs involved in the recovery and use of this gas, the large 
reduction potential with regard to the greenhouse effect still makes these measures cost-effective (see 
chapter 2.6). 
5.3 ENERGY 
5.3.1 Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels 
5.3.1.1 Coal 
The recovery methods largely determine the quality and quantity of gas recovered, which in turn 
determine the possible utilization options. Developing uses for recovered methane is required if 
emission reductions are to be achieved. The sale and/or use of methane can offset the costs of recovery 
in certain cases. In addition to the reduction of methane emissions into the atmosphere, improving 
methane recovery techniques can result in safer, more productive mines with lower ventilation costs. 
EU coal production will decrease between 1990 and 2005/2010 leading to a fall in CH4 emissions. 
Moreover, existing policies in countries which are important coal producers would allow their CH4 
emissions to be reduced by 40% in 2010 compared to the 1990 level. 
Technologies for recovering CH4 are already technically available, additional emission reduction could 
be achieved by the generalization of CH4 recovery techniques. Therefore, the state of the art working 
with the best available technologies should be defined and applied as soon as possible. 
However, their application to EU coal mines is dependent on the specific nature of the mines in 
concerned Member States. EU coal production will decline in the coming years and coal mines will 
h»vc to CIONC prntficwiivclv I» p,i*iK*nil. Itict WHII rarlnr ivpiwnls a IÏIWIIU hil himlt'it lor (how* Member 
States that subsidize coal mining industry and so it would be extremely difficult to justify any 
21 
additional expenditures needed to implement CH4 recovery techniques. 
Consequently, an EU initiative should not go beyond encouraging those Member States concerned to 
establish CH4 emission reduction programmes or schemes by promoting the application of the best 
available recovery techniques for those coal mines that will still be in operation beyond a certain 
timeframe (10 years for instance). Another initiative that might be envisaged is the reinforcement of 
the financial instrument emerging from the budget line of the European Community for Steel and Coal 
(ECSC) one of whose objectives is to fund research projects promoting the best available methane 
emission reduction technologies. 
5.3.1.2 Natural gas 
Implementation of existing techniques to reduce leakages requires financing and proper incentives. 
Therefore, a first measure could be the setting-up of an EU minimum leakages standard aiming at the 
replacement of the less efficient parts of the transmission and distribution networks by appropriate 
substitution materials. This would be implemented in each Member State concerned according to a 
specific time schedule. One minimum leakages standard proposal could be 350m3/km/year. France and 
in particular GDF (Gaz De France) estimated that gas losses in modern networks using materials like 
welded carbon steel, coated steel or polyethylene may amount to 350m3/km/year whereas leakages 
in existing grey cast iron network were estimated to 3500m3/km/year. As mentioned in section 4.3.3, 
France is currently replacing of part of its old gas network. A second measure may consist in 
increasing the pipeline control frequency. A study performed by CITEPA (see section 5.4) shows that 
by doubling the control frequency in Europe to about 800 km inspected each year, (present EU 
average control is 400 km/year/man), may result in a leak rate cut of 50%. 
Unlike coal consumption gas consumption is expected to increase by 60% by 2010 compared to 1990. 
5.3.2 Combustion 
Considering the very modest contribution of combustion (less than 3%), there is no immediate need 
to adopt policy measures on this source. Moreover, as regards the transport sector, the popularisation 
of catalytic converters is expected to reduce these emissions to some extend. 
5.4 CONCLUSION 
In conclusion, the following table sets out the Commission's ideas for an action programme for 
mitigating EU methane emissions. The policy measures suggested in the previous sections for the three 
main sectors are summarized and reported in the following table. 
22 
SUMMARY OF EU POLICY MEASURES TO BE CONSIDERED 
FOR MITIGATING METHANE EMISSIONS 
AGRICULTURE 
* Enteric fermentation 
- promotion of research and incentives (at EU and national level) to develop 
viable policies and measures 
* Animal manure 
- anaerobic digesters or covered lagoons (preferably with energy use, if not 
feasible with flaring) 
. 1st stage : demonstration programmes at EU, national, regional and local level 
. 2nd stage : obligation at EU level to install recovery and use systems for 
animal farm husbandry larger than a certain number of animals(number to be 
defined) 
WASTE 
* General measures 
- promotion at EU, national, regional and local level of measures such as : 
. minimising the generation of organic waste, including packaging 
. encouraging separate collection of organic wastes 
. material recovery of organic waste (through operations such as 
composting) and energy recovery operations. Preference should be 
given, where environmentally sound, to the recovery of material 
over energy recovery operations. It will nevertheless be necessary 
to take into account the environmental, economic and scientific 
effects of either operation. The evaluation of these effects could 
lead, in certain cases, to preference being given to energy 
recovery. 
- economic incentives at EU and national level to promote recycled products 
* New landfills 
- EU legislation requiring, in the absence of other methane reduction alternatives, 
that new anaerobic landfills are equipped with methane recovery and use systems 
* Existing landfills 
- EU legislation requiring the retrofitting of existing landfills with systems for the 
collection and use of methane wherever possible. Support and encourage methane 
recovery processes which yield energy through economic incentives at the EU 
and national level. Where this is not possible encourage the use of flaring 
ENERGY 
* Coal 
- EU recommendation to Member States for CH4 emission reduction schemes 
and promoting best available recovery techniques in coal mines 
* Natural Gas 
- setting-up of an EU minimum leakages standard 
- increase control frequency of pipelines at national level 
23 
With regard to this proposed strategy, reference could be made to a study (CITEPA) financed by the 
EU and completed in November 1993. In this report, future trends of methane emissions in the EU, 
before the enlargement (EU-12), were determined for the years 2005 and 2010 from two emissions 
scenarios : 
- a first scenario called "existing policies" scenario, based on current national policies in use 
in different Member States (EU-12) in 1993, leads to a first assessment of methane 
emissions reduction as given in the following table. 
- a second scenario, more ambitious, called the "recommended Community programme" 
scenario, based on the "existing policies" scenario to which a set of complementary policy 
measures has been added, is relatively similar to the proposed strategy and leads to a 
second assessment showing a more drastic reduction of methane emissions, see also table 
hereunder. 
Observation : the set of Community actions suggested by this study as well as the results obtained 
from the emissions forecasts could be easily transposed and extrapolated to a EU of 15 Member States 
instead of 12 without changing adversely the overall conclusions brought forward by these two 
scenarios. 
It should be noted that within each sector (agriculture, waste, energy), a certain number of measures, 
launched in some Member States, already had or will have additional indirect effects on the proposed 
CH4 emissions reduction strategy, although these measures did not or will not as such address 
specifically the issue. This is the case in particular for agriculture and energy where reduced methane 
emissions are expected beyond the year 2000 because of a fall in livestock numbers reduction as a 
result of the Common Agricultural Policy and because of a fall in EU coal production. These effects 
have been taken on board in the reduction forecast assessments of the CITEPA study. 
These results are presented in the following summary table giving the reduction forecasts with regard 
to the 1990 level of CH4 emissions in 2005/2010 based on two mitigating scenarios : 
a) existing policies 
b) additional EU policy measures to be considered 
AGRICULTURE 
WASTE 
ENERGY 
TOTAL 2005 
Existing 
policies 
- 7.00 % 
- 11.1 % 
- 18.5 % 
- 10.6 % 2005 
Recommended 
policies 
- 24 % 
- 45 % 
- 24 % 
- 30 % 2010 
Existing 
policies 
- 9.70 % 
- 14.5 % 
- 25.3 % 
- 14.3 % 2010 
Recommended 
policies 
- 34 % 
- 60 % 
- 34 % 
- 41 % 
(Source : CITEPA NOV. 1993, EU-12) 
24 
As shown in this table, emissions reductions of 30% and 41% could be expected in 2005 and 2010 
with regard to the 1990 level if the so called "policy measures to be considered" scenario was 
implemented. The table shows also that in this case, compared to the "existing policies" scenario, the 
expected methane emissions reduction could also triple. However, in order to avoid any 
misinterpretation of the results emerging from the CITEPA study, the reader must be aware of the 
present lack of knowledge of several parameters concerning methane such as for instance the emission 
factors on which there is considerably uncertainty in current available data. That uncertainty is, 
therefore, reflected in the results of the study. 
25 
ANNEX 
- Figures 
- Tables 
-Bibliography 
26 
Measurements of Global Methane Concentrations 
1800H 
> n a a 
GO c o 1300-1 
8 
8 mA 
x o 
300 A • Modern record 
* Stole lea .core 
* Byid toe core 
• Dye ice core 
° Moetok KB core 
S 
0 
O* • A •* 
V 
w 108 10* 10s ic icr 
Years Before Present (1990 A.D.) 
Annual adnoepberic CH4 concentrations daring the put 16WXX>ye*n 
(derived from ice com and the NOAA/CMDL flniknurçtfittgnetworic). 10° 
Source: Oak Ridge (1990). 
Fig 1 
ppbv = ppb = part per billion (in volume"1 
r\ 
Global Contribution to Integrated Radiative Forcing by Gas tor 19901 
o aroor Dioxide 55% 
N i trous 
Ox i de : 5% 
CFCs: 11% 
Methane : 18% 
Estimated on a carbon dioxide equivalent basis using IPCC (1990a) global warming 
potentials (GWPs) for a 100-year time horizon. Anthropogenic emissions only. 
1 This chart is used to present a general understanding of methane's contribution to future warming based on 
the GWPs presented in IPCC (1990a). However, these GWPs are continually being revised due to a variety of 
scientific and methodological issues, tt is likely that the contribution of CFCs presented will decrease and that 
the contribution of other gases will be about the same or greater upon further investigation. 
fig 2 
Parts 
Per 
Million 
K^ 1.7 
1.6 
1.5 Last Two Centuries 
Atmospheric Data Enlarged View of the Last ten Years 
.ii*1 ** ii 
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 I ï JÏ 
I Atmospheric levels of methane are 
increasing at a rate of 1% per year 
i 
197* 1980 1982 1984 1986 
Last 10 years 1988 1990 
•rces. Slaulfer et al, 1985; Blake & Rovwnand, 1988 
Fig 3 
a 
c o 1650 
1550 -
1450 
1350 
1250 
1150 
1050 
950 
850 
750 
650 (a) 
OE08 
Site J 
Mizuho 
Summit (Bern) 
Summit (Grenoble) 
1 Cape Grim 1 
9 J 0.40 
0.35 
0.30 
0.25 
0.20 
0.15 
- 0.10 
- 0.05 
- 0 
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 
Year E 
5 
CD 
c 
Ô 
o 
> 
CO '•5 « DC 
1750 
<a) CH4 concentration derived from Antarctic ice cores over the past 1000 years. Direct observations of CH4 concentration 
from Cape Grim. Tasmania, are included to demonstrate the smooth transition from ice core to atmosphenc measurements. The 
radiative rorcine resulting from increases in CH4 relative to the pre-industrial period are indicated on the right-hand axis. The effect of 
overlap with N,0 is accounted for according to IPCC (1990). (b) Globally averaged CH4 concentration tor 1983 to 1993 showing the 
decline in erowth rate during 1992 and 1993. 
Fig 4 
ppbv = ppb = part per billion (in volune; 
lo 
, , . 
SET UtMEA&UUm 
Gas-production 
1 Increased gas utilization 
2 Further increased gas utilization 
3 Offshore flaring 
Gas-distribution 
4 Replace grey cast-iron network 
5 Double leak control frequency 
Animal niaiiur« 
6 Adjustment of stablc/Morngc 
7 Large-scale digestion 
8 Farmscale digestion (mesophilic) 
9 Farmscale digestion (psyduophilic) 
Landfills; waste gas recovery 
10 Electricity generation 
11 Upgrading 
12 Raring 
Landfills; reduced landfilling 
13 Composting 
14 Fermentation 
15 Incineration 
Total emission 
reduction 
kton ClVyr 
11 (1%) 
22 (2%) 
6 (1%) 
52 (5%) 
9 (1%) 
18 (2%) 
4 (0%) 
6 (1%) 
12 (1%) 
72 (7%) 
31 (3%) 
51 (5%) 
5 (1%) 
1 (0%) 
6 (1%) 
307 (31%) CO, 
emission 
reduction 
ktoo COj/yr 
0 
0 
-14 
0 
0 
0 
16 
16 
27 
158 
39 
0 
-2 
1 
96 
336 $pcaffc:].çasxs& 
:DflAûo::X^';:;::'.., 
-160 
-18 
1000 
4500 
3000 
0 
-120 
960 
1100 
-95 
-70 
16 
600 
1300 
15700 
Table Emission reducing measures for methane in the year 2000, 
as described in this study 
Sp«oHto co«t» (1000 Dflfton CH4) 
15 r 15 
10 
2O0 300 400 SO 
Avoided CH4 (kton CH4) 
Figure Supply curve of methane mitigating measures for the year 2000 in the 
Netherlands: extra/avoided C02-emissions excluded. Numbers refer to Table A. 
q. 3 
2,1 
Estimated Present Day Sinks and Sources of Methane 
(Lelieveld & Crutzen, 1993) 
Estimated Sinks and Sources of methane Mt y"1 
Sources 
Natural sources 
Natural wetlands (swamps, marshes, tundra, etc.) 125 + 70 
Termites 30 ± 30 
Oceans 10 ± 5 
Freshwater 5 ± 5 
CH4 hydrate déstabilisation 5 ± 5 
Subtotal natural sources 175 
Anthropogenic sources 
Rice fields 70 ± 50 
Enteric fermentation (mainly ruminants) 80 ± 20 
Landfills 40 ± 25 
Biomass burning 30 ± 15 
Animal wastes 25 ± 10 
Domestic sewage 25 ± 10 
Coal mining 35 ± 10 
Gas and oil drilling, gas venting, gas transmission 80 ± 45 
Subtotal anthropogenic sources 385 
Total sources 560 ± 90 
Sinks 
Reaction with OH in the troposphere 455 ± 50 
Removal by soils 30 ± 25 
Reactions with OH, Cl and O ('D) in the stratosphere 45 ± 10 
Total sinks 530 ± 85 
Atmospheric increase10 30 ± 5 
Table 1 
based on CH4 concentration measures increments 
32 
CORINAIR 1990 Summary 
(Anthropogenic sources) 
CH4 in tonnes 
Public power, 
cogeneration and district 
heating 
Commercial, institutional 
and residential 
combustion 
Industrial combustion 
Production processes 
Extraction and 
distribution of fossil fuels 
Solvent use 
Road transport 
Other mobile 
sources/machinery 
Waste treatment and 
disposal 
Agriculture 
Corinair 1990 
Total per MS A 
100 
7800 
1200 
NE 
91600 
0 
2700 
IE 
311000 
202600 
617000 B 
137 
3958 
2718 
14118 
42437 
0 
9161 
0 
4620 
262564 
339703 DK 
866 
6106 
710 
40 
11938 
0 
1811 
1056 
121600 
263123 
407250 D 
6000 
112000 
10000 
6000 
1547000 
-
70000 
2000 
2249000 
2052000 
6054000 F 
1100 
149900 
6600 
5900 
310100 
0 
22300 
600 
739500 
1611200 
2847200 FL 
1100 
6500 
2100 
AZ 
100 
NE 
1880 
7550 
67100 
163000 
249330 GR 
963 
21 
25 
1413 
363756 
0 
3733 
876 
202467 
362674 
935928 I 
3803 
16733 
9527 
7614 
347460 
0 
25229 
8154 
1302802 
1764207 
3485529 IRL 
0 
3580 
200 
0 
10180 
0 
1160 
40 
138340 
642610 
796110 L 
3 
426 
37 
0 
1628 
0 
172 
14 
3838 
17650 
23768 NL 
550 
1900 
1600 
8100 j 
940 
20 
6400 
160 
378000 
520000 
917670 ES 
8912 
44174 
7300 
3880 
683662 
0 
11446 
1629 
506711 
874158 
2141872 P 
356 
6913 
2904 
1547 
1978 
0 
1391 
169 
35180 
203662 
254100 S 
938 
9608 
4173 
14 
0 
NE 
12718 
3498 
179755 
205078 
415782 UK 
200 
500 
0 
0 
1210500 
0 
10500 
300 
1088000 
1076100 
3386100 
Table 2 
CORINAIR 1990 Summary 
(Anthropogenic sources) 
CH4 inkilotonnes(lOOOtonnes) Total for EU Total for EU 
per sector per sector ( %) 
Public power, cogeneration and 25 0,11 
district heating 
Commercial, institutional and 370 1,62 
residential combustion 
Industrial combustion 49 0,22 
Production processes 49 0,21 
Extraction and distribution of fossil 4623 20,21 
fuels 
Solvent use 0.02 0 
Road transport 181 0,79 
Other mobile sources/machinery 26 0,11 
Waste treatment and disposal 7328 32,04 
Agriculture 10221 44,69 
Corinair 1990 
Total for EU 22872 100 
Table 3 
M-
TECHNICAL OPTIONS TO REDUCE METHANE EMISSIONS 
TECHNICAL OPTIONS 
AGRICULTURE 
Enteric fermentation 
Livestock reduction 
Increase of feed conversion efficiency 
Increase of animal productivity 
Livestock manure 
Covered lagoons 
Digesters 
WASTE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 
Landfills 
Anaerobic landfill management : 
methane recovery and utilization 
Aerobic landfill management 
Semi-aerobic landfill management 
Reduced landfilling of waste 
ENERGY 
Coai mining 
Enhanced gob well recovery 
Pre-mining degasification 
Ventilation air utilization 
Natural gas 
Reduced venting & flaring 
Improved leak detection & pipeline 
repair CH4 
REDUCTION 
max % 
10 - 20 % ? 
5 - 30 % 
up to 80 % 
up to 70 % 
30 - 70 % 
over 80 % 
up to 50 % 
up to 100 % 
20 - 50 % 
up to 70 % 
10 - 90 % 
up to 50 % 
up to 80 % AVAILABILITY 
Available 
Available 
Available 
Available 
Available 
R&D 
Available 
Available 
Available 
Available 
R&D 
Available 
Available COSTS 
? 
Low 
Low/Medium 
Low/Medium 
Medium 
High 
Medium 
Low/Medium 
Low 
Medium/high 
Low/Medium 
Low 
Low/Medium 
Table 4 
S5 
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3<o 
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M