if -k COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 
Brussels, 08.05.1996 
COM(96) 197final 
REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL 
EVALUATION 
OF TEMPUS ACHIEVEMENTS TO DATE 
AND VIEWS ON 
PARTNER COUNTRIES' REMAINING NEEDS 

EVALUATION OF TEMPUS ACHIEVEMENTS TO DATE 
AND VIEWS ON 
PARTNER COUNTRIES' REMAINING NEEDS 
CONTENT 
INTRODUCTION 
L EVALUATION OF TEMPUS TO DATE 
1. Evolution of the Programme 
2. TEMPUS impacts 
3. TEMPUS policy settings 
H. A FUTURE ROLE FOR TEMPUS 
1. in the Phare associated countries 
A. TEMPUS and pre-accession 
- the Essen European Council 
- the relationship to Socrates 
B. Support for higher education policy initiatives 
C. The need to manage change and demonstrate accountability 
optimising university resources 
D. Maximising the utilisation of TEMPUS outputs 
2. in the non-associated Phare countries 
3. in the Tacis countries 
A. Key challenges for the future of higher education 
B. Strategic considerations 
C. Future orientations for TEMPUS Tacis 
IDL CONCLUDING REMARKS 
©^ 

EVALUATION OF TEMPUS ACHIEVEMENTS TO DATE 
AND VIEWS ON PARTNER COUNTRIES' REMAINING NEEDS 
INTRODUCTION 
1. In accordance with the Council Decision of 29 April 1993(OJ No LI 12/34, 6 May 
1993) a second phase of the Trans-European cooperation scheme for higher education 
(Tempus H) was adopted for a period of four years as of 1 July 1994. Article 11 of 
this Decision requires the submission of an interim report, including the results of the 
evaluation, before 30 April 1906, as well as possibly a proposal for the continuation 
or adaptation of Tempus II for the period beginning 1 July 1998. 
2. This interim report therefore aims to give information as to the achievements of 
TEMPUS to date and examines the case for a possible further phase of Tempus 
beyond the end of Tempus II in the light of the impact which Tempus has so far 
achieved on the reform of higher education in the partner Phare and Tacis countries. 
L EVALUATION OF TEMPUS TO DATE 
1. Evolution of the Programme 
3. Since its adoption by the Council on 7 May 1990 and the start of the initial pilot 
phase from 1 July 1990, Tempus has proved to be a dynamic programme which has 
been continually adapting to the changing environment in which it has been operating. 
This environment has been shaped in part by developments in and links with Phare 
and Tacis strategies, the needs and capacities of the partner countries and the policy 
framework provided by Council and Tempus Committee decisions. In addition, 
modalities have been continually improved as experience in programme delivery is fed 
back to inform future implementation. 
4. It is possible to identify three broad phases in the approach taken by the 
programme. The early phase of Tempus is characterised by the need to create, broaden 
and deepen links between those involved in higher education in the partner countries 
and the European Union. Here mobility is of primary importance as a means of 
creating a critical mass of academics and policy makers who will be willing and able 
to drive education reform in the partner countries. The next phase involves mobilising 
and channelling this potential for change into activities directed at concrete and 
sustainable reforms within higher education systems. This more structural approach 
encompasses reform or renewal of courses, curriculum development and innovation 
and the adoption of improved teaching methodologies. This phase tends to become 
progressively more challenging as the subject areas addressed increasingly reflect those 
skill needs of the labour market where there is little or no experience within the 
academic community upon which to base project activity. The third phase involves 
elevating these reforms to a strategic level where they will have an impact on 
universities as a whole and on policy-making and implementation within ministries of 
education. This implies changing to a certain extent the targeting and modalities of the 
programme as a different set of 'clients' is addressed and as vertical subject-based 
priorities are increasingly replaced by horizontal systemic ones. 
5. Against this general background, the phasing of which will vary according to the 
situation in the respective countries, it is possible to identify some key characteristics 
in the evolution of the Tempus programme. These may be summarised as follows : 
a shift from exchange and mobility as ends in themselves towards 
increasingly structural and strategic objectives. 
• an increasing degree of ownership by the partner countries. This is 
demonstrated most clearly in the dramatic growth of eligible country 
coordinators and contractors which has had the desirable effect of making 
Tempus project design and management progressively more demand driven 
rather than supply driven by the Western partners. Also relevant to mention 
here is the growing professionalism and profile of the National Tempus 
Offices(NTOs) in the Phare partner countries which have acted as an 
increasingly effective intermediary in the process of elaborating and 
articulating the agenda for reform. 
• projects increasingly determined according to national priorities. In turn 
these priorities are progressively being located within coherent national 
strategies for higher education reform where Tempus is positioned to 
address in particular those skill needs supporting overall Phare/Tacis 
country objectives. 
• modalities which have reflected this more strategic approach by adding a 
'top-down' dimension to the proven success of the traditional 'bottom-up' 
approach. 
• increasing emphasis on those horizontal issues such as university /enterprise 
links, multidisciplinarity and flexible course structures and quality of 
university management, which are aimed at improving the performance of 
the higher education sector in meeting changing demands in the labour 
market and from a variety of social partners. 
• increasing focus on the sustainability and dissemination of the growing 
inventory of transferable outputs of Tempus projects. 
2. TEMPUS impacts 
6. When considering Tempus impacts it is necessary to assess these against the 
objectives set for the programme under the terms of the respective Council Decision. 
Those for Tempus I focused on encouraging cooperation with partners in the 
Community, on the mobility of students and teaching staff and on opportunities for 
teaching and learning Community languages. Only under Tempus II which commenced 
on I July 1994 was there an explicit link made in the Decision Text with the 
objectives of the Phare and Tacis programmes in the context of economic and social 
reform. Specific objectives became more structural in terms of curriculum development 
and overhaul, the reform of higher education structures and institutions and their 
management and the development of skill-related training to address advanced level 
skill shortages during economic reform. 
7. Evidence for the impact of Tempus has been taken principally from an external 
Evaluation1, supplemented by the series of Country Monographs based on site-visit 
investigations and published by the European Commission2, the Report 'Strengthening 
East-West Inter-University Cooperation: From Assistance to Partnership' prepared by 
the CRE ("Conférence des Recteurs Européens") in collaboration with the Liaison 
Committee of Rectors' Conferences3 and Site Visit Reports involving external experts4. 
8. Despite this diversity of sources there appears to be a considerable degree of 
consistency as to the assessment of Tempus impacts and the areas where further action 
is necessary. The Evaluation concludes that 'the projects supported by TEMPUS can 
be considered by and large as successful and important for the development of higher 
education in the CEE partner countries Although a substantial contribution of 
TEMPUS I to the development of higher education in the CEE partner countries can 
be observed, further efforts will be necessary at least in some of the CEE partner 
countries to reach a level of achievement and progress in higher education renewal and 
restructuring which utilizes the potentials of the TEMPUS Programme to a fuller 
extent in order to reach the aims and objectives of the Programme'. 
9. The CRE report is very clear in its overall assessment of the Tempus programme 
within the general framework of international assistance to higher education reform: 
'Thus, East-West inter-university cooperation constitutes a highly complex and 
diversified scene and it would be wrong to view it as a scene determined by 
a single supporting agency however powerful and large it may be. 
1 (i) Evaluation of the First Phase of Tempus 1990-91 - 1993-94, Final Report, February 1996, 
(ii) Evaluation of the Second Phase of Tempus 1994-95 - 1995-96, Interim Report, April 1996, by: University 
of Kassel, Centre for Research on Higher Education, and GES Maiworm&Over, Gesellschaft fur Empinsche 
Studien bR, Kassel. 
2 Tempus Country Monograph: The Slovak Republic, 1994, by: Prof. R. Gwyn. Tempus Country 
Monographs for Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Slovenia are currenly in 
preparation. 
3 September 1994. 
4 A series of site visits were undertaken by the Commission in 1992-94 in order to carry out a 
quality audit of the Tempus programme and, in particular, of its Joint European Projects, from both an academic 
and financial point of view. For details: Tempus Site Visit Programme, Annual Report 1992-93. 
It appeared nevertheless very clearly in the course of this project that one 
supporting programme, namely Tempus, played and plays an absolutely central 
role among the different past and present cooperation schemes. For many 
institutions this was by far the most important international programme of 
East-West cooperation, not only from the point of view of the amount of 
external resources involved but also in terms of thinking about outside 
assistance. In the opinion of many, Tempus has indeed opened and developed 
more than any other process the internationalisation of Central and Eastern 
European higher education and it can be safely argued that the overall 
assessment by its beneficiaries is highly positive.' 
Similarly the Monographs state that Tempus 'has generated a high level of activity 
which has had a very positive impact on the process of innovation in Higher 
Education'. 
10. This consensus broadly extends to the assessment of the more specific outcomes 
and impacts of Tempus. Both the Evaluation and Monographs distinguish in their 
different ways between what the latter calls proem and project outcomes. With regard 
to process, the Evaluation specifies as the first and most significant outcome 'the 
integration of the CEE partners into an international community of scholars and in 
some cases of administrators. They became accustomed to and versatile in this 
framework, they were integrated into smaller and larger networks, and they received 
some training and general improvement to raise their competences and status'. 
11. Looking to the future it can be argued that through these process benefits Tempus 
has and is creating a platform for sustainable change and development within the 
higher education sector in the partner countries. For the associated countries the 
networks, skills and attitudes engendered by Tempus should have the particular benefit 
of facilitating future active engagement by the academic community in European 
Union programmes of various kinds. For the other Phare and Tacis countries these 
benefits will contribute to embedding democratic values and new perspectives within 
their higher education systems and to providing those skills important for facilitating 
reform in other areas of society. 
12. Perhaps the most important concrete outcome of Tempus projects has been in the 
area of innovations introduced into university curricula including the development of 
new courses, teaching material and teaching methodologies. Increasingly these 
activities have been subject to the framework provided by national priorities, the 
typical features of which have included: 
• the promotion of multidisciplinary studies and the development of new 
course structures, particularly short cycle bachelor degrees and postgraduate 
courses. 
• priority to subjects in certain academic areas linked to economic transition 
and democratic reform or more specifically to Phare and Tacis sector 
programmes, such as business management, public administration, 
environmental protection, agriculture and health. 
13. However within the generally favourable assessment of Tempus impact in this area 
the level and scope of impact were initially limited and have been raised under 
Tempus II. Initially, under Tempus I, most development took place at the level of 
courses or units of teaching material, that achievements have been characterised by 
selective innovation or adaptation rather than by totally new programmes and that the 
focus of impact has typically been at departmental level. Even where a university has 
various departments involved in a number of different projects there was often little 
or no synergy between them as a means for institutional reform. The Tempus I 
Evaluation states: 
'In a substantial number of departments in CEE countries, far-reaching 
curricular innovations were achieved, and the development of new teaching 
material of a strategic nature was realised frequently. Curricular development 
and other educational activities, however, varied substantially in scope and 
achievement.' 
14. Recalling the objectives set for Tempus I by the Council Decision it is indeed 
quite reasonable and understandable that the outcomes of the Tempus projects 
commencing in the first three or four years lacked the wider dimensions which are 
viewed as a clear priority for Tempus II. However the reasons for the initial lack of 
more strategic impact within institutions seem to go beyond the question of objectives 
and points to constraints which are likely to persist to a greater or lesser extent 
through Tempus II, and thus be relevant to a possible agenda to be addressed by a 
further phase of the programme. These constraints arise from the move towards 
internal fragmentation and the development of extreme forms of individual autonomy 
within higher education institutions following their release from centralised direction 
in 1989/90. Both the Evaluation and Monographs identify this lack of institutional 
cohesion and strategy as an important factor in limiting the broader impact of Tempus 
projects. For example the Evaluation refers to: 
' ...achievements on selected islands of innovation privileged to be chosen in 
the framework of the TEMPUS Programme. Spin-offs within the respective 
institutions remained moderate or mostly marginal.' 
Interestingly both qualify this view in respect of smaller universities where a greater 
degree of institutional identity and management has led to more structural reforms 
being initiated through Tempus projects. This topic of university management will be 
returned to later in the report. 
15. The need to create impact on institutions as a whole was specifically addressed by 
Tempus II. A kick-off for attempts to use Tempus as an instrument to promote 
sustainable development at institutional level has been the newly introduced 
requirement that partner country universities demonstrate how a planned project fits 
with their institutional development strategies. Another fact having contributed to a 
stronger involvement of the central levels of institutions in Tempus projects is that 
local universities can act as project coordinators in all partner countries and as 
contractors in most of them. 
The Tempus II Evaluation assesses the adaptations made as follows: 
'The function of the central level of the higher education institutions has 
gradually changed within Tempus II. Special Joint European Projects and 
complementary measures were awarded support in order to improve the 
institutional management. Furthermore the attempts to integrate Tempus 
activities into an institutional strategy could be found more often.' 
16. Although a means rather than an end in itself, the provision of equipment, books 
and periodicals appears to be a highly valued outcome of Tempus projects. The 
Evaluation speaks of new equipment being ' the pride of the respective departments 
in the Central Eastern European countries'. The acquisition of new equipment was of 
course only agreed to where it could be seen to be demonstrably supporting relevant 
educational activities and/or related infrastructure, for example PCs for management 
projects, language laboratories for languages projects or photocopying machines to 
facilitate the development of teaching materials and communications with partners. 
Both the Evaluation and Monographs confirm that such a linkage with educational 
activities in fact existed. The latter refers to the beneficial impact on teaching 
programmes of the acquisition of microcomputers and in a more general sense the 
important contribution to improved communications provided by photocopiers, 
telephones and fax machines. 
The Evaluation puts it this way: 
'While in some cases it(new equipment) was closely linked to the respective 
educational measures, it was in most cases viewed as an improvement useful 
anyway, ie. for the quality of educational activities in general, for easing future 
international cooperation, for supporting the research infrastructure, etc. 
Structural development met the highest consensus as being an important 
element of support.' 
17. Many of the same considerations apply to the provision of books and periodicals. 
To quote from the Monographs: 
' The quality of its library is an important indicator of the quality of the 
University as a whole. Tempus has made a major contribution: it has enabled 
institutions to replenish their book stocks with many titles, often from Western 
Europe and North America, which may not have been available under the 
previous regime and which would have been denied to them still, on cost 
grounds alone, without the Programme's support.' 
As with equipment, benefits accrued to both the methods and content of teaching and 
learning but it is also necessary to add that once a significant part of this 'deficit' has 
been corrected, increasing ernphasis has been put on the development of publications 
and other materials (particularly case studies) developed locally appropriate to national 
needs. 
18. Staff mobility led as much to process benefits as to achieving specific project 
outcomes. Volumes have been substantial, with about 57,000 mobility grants for staff 
being granted under Tempus Joint European Projects (JEPs), 60% of which supported 
East to West visits. The Evaluation speaks of far-reaching benefits in terms of getting 
to know partners in other countries, their activities and ways of thinking, of 
establishing networks, of improving competences moderately and of adapting to other 
styles of communication and behaviour. The Monographs state that ' staff mobility 
in JEPs (and for that matter, also student mobility) and all that it has brought in its 
wake, albeit a means rather than an end, is one of the great success stories of 
Tempus'. Some of the many associated benefits are the acquisition and up-dating of 
specialist knowledge, adoption of new teaching methodologies, experience of using 
modern curriculum development strategies and the skills to work within and manage 
projects. Project development and management skills have proved a particularly 
valuable 'enabling' tool as they have contributed significantly to partner countries 
assuming a greater degree of ownership of projects through progressively taking on 
the role of contractor. To these benefits should be added the no less important factor 
of the adoption of new perspectives and attitudes towards change and reform and the 
confidence to challenge existing structures and practices. Perhaps one caveat should 
be added to this positive analysis in that the full potential of newly-acquired skills was 
not always fully realised following return of staff to their partner country institutions. 
Once again this comes back to the consequences of institutional fragmentation which 
will be addressed later in the report. 
19. There has also been a substantial volume of student mobility with almost 27,000 
grants being awarded under Tempus JEPs. The Evaluation notes that 'student exchange 
tended to be viewed as very helpful for those actually going abroad, but altogether less 
intertwined with the other reform activities'. Certainly it has had less direct links with 
educational innovation and change although the indirect effects of students returning 
with new perspectives and attitudes, as well as with a strengthened confidence and 
ability to articulate their views and challenge the status quo should not be 
underestimated. One of the conclusions of a seminar of experts involved in the 
Tempus site visits programme was as follows : 
' Student mobility is considered by all experts as a cost effective activity as the 
formation abroad can really contribute to speeding up the pedagogical changes, 
considered both as teaching methodologies and techniques, and as 
programmes.' 
This catalysing effect of student mobility is explained by the role of returners 
influencing attitudes within departments, both among fellow students and staff 
members, often obliging the latter to consider changes to curriculum and teaching 
methods. In the context of Tempus I, perhaps the main criticism to be voiced 
regarding student mobility is that periods of study in the EU were too often not 
recognised by the parent institution, and this is an issue being addressed under Tempus 
II. Under Tempus H, student mobility projects have progressively played a smaller part 
in overall JEP activity and now are only considered within the context of establishing 
measures to facilitate future mobility and cooperation through systems of academic 
recognition and credit transfer. 
20. Each of the above outcomes is to a larger or lesser extent subject to considerations 
of continued sustainability beyond the life of a Tempus project. The programme has 
been addressing this in three ways: 
• Joint European Project (JEP) applicants are asked to propose plans for 
future sustainability as part of their project design and it is made clear that 
an assessment of the quality of these plans will be one of the criteria used 
in evaluating the overall quality of the application. Moreover, JEPs in the 
Tacis countries are only approved after successful completion of a one year 
preparatory phase which aims at analysing the precise needs to be 
addressed and preparing a viable project plan. 
• the Joint European Network (JEN) action (i.e. limited funding for 
complementary activities after the conclusion of a JEP) has been introduced 
which specifically addresses the issue of sustainability. 
• less directly but perhaps ultimately more important, encouragement within 
JEPs of developing links with and services for enterprises, particularly the 
provision of continuing education, is establishing the potential for 
institutions to generate future income and thus have their own resources not 
only to maintain equipment and stocks of publications but also to sustain 
national and international cooperation. 
21. In conclusion the evidence points to a high degree of impact and success for JEP 
projects especially when measured against the objectives set for Tempus I. According 
to the Evaluation most observers 'seem to agree that the proportion of real success 
stories is remarkable and that useful changes could be observed in most cases'. 
According to the participants themselves, when asked how satisfied overall they were 
with the achievements accomplished with their particular JEP: 
• over 90% of partner country respondents, and 
• almost 80% of EU respondents, 
expressed a high degree of satisfaction. 
3. Tempus policy setting 
22. Tempus policy decisions are taken at various levels. In each partner country, two 
major events shape the policy, namely the definition of national priorities and 
objectives for Tempus projects (in application of Article 5 of the Tempus II Council 
decision) and the allocation of funds to Tempus within the global envelope of Phare 
and Tacis funds. The main policy makers at national level are the ministries of 
education and the Phare/Tacis coordinators; other ministries may also be associated. 
In the Phare countries, the National Tempus Offices play an essential role in 
stimulating the whole process and coordinating the academic community's contribution. 
The relationships between the different actors are rather complex and were not easily 
understood in the first years. In this respect the Tempus II Evaluation notes 'a 
routinisation and stabilisation of the procedures of policy formation for Tempus. In 
contrast to Tempus I we found that decisions of key actors on the national policy level 
play a more important role in the shaping of the programme.' 
23. Most Phare countries have set up Tempus supervisory boards or advisory boards 
in which all relevant actors are represented. The Tempus I Evaluation notes: 
'The establishment of Tempus supervisory boards or advisory boards to serve 
as an arena for dialogue and cooperation of all key actors involved in Tempus 
policy decisions has turned out to be a good option for the necessary 
coordination processes. The functioning of these boards requires the 
willingness of all actors to cooperate with each other.' 
24. In the first years of Tempus the key players' participation in policy forming was 
not always well balanced. The role of ministries of education was constrained by a 
number of factors. Universities and indeed faculties were exercising their new-found 
autonomy without an effective legislative framework for higher education. There was 
also a high level of volatility within the structures and personnel of the ministries 
themselves. This situation has evolved over the years and the Tempus II Evaluation 
has found a more pro-active role of the ministries of education and a clear effort to 
better integrate the possibilities offered by Tempus in the overall national higher 
education policy. 
25. The definition of priorities and objectives for Tempus has increasingly influenced 
the scope and profile of the projects supported. Priorities can be considered as adding 
a 'top-down' dimension to the traditional Tempus bottom-up approach, thus to a certain 
extent incorporating the partner countries educational, economic and social reform 
policies in the programme. Priorities have progressively been positioned with respect 
to the overall Phare and Tacis objectives and, to some extent, sectoral Phare and Tacis 
policies Particularly in the Tacis countries, the scope and number of the priority areas 
selected were restricted by the limited resources allocated to Tempus. 
26. The Evaluation of Tempus II notes that 'increasingly detailed specifications have 
been introduced into most of the national priorities framed by statements of further 
conditions and preferences beyond the priorities themselves', and that furthermore 
'every year national priorities change to a certain degree. Changes in subject-related 
priorities are mostly due to considerations of balance and rotation. Changes in thematic 
or structural priorities are due to policy developments. Policy changes are also 
frequently reflected in the formulation of preferences.' 
27. Consideration of any continuation of the Tempus programme needs to be set in the 
appropriate financial and policy context Financial provision for both the Phare and 
Tacis programmes has been made to 31 December 1999 and as funding for Tempus 
is contained within these programmes the perspective for any possible continuation of 
Tempus must be subject to this budgetary framework. Under Tempus II the last call 
for applications will be for 1997-98 to be covered by the budget 1997, with the final 
Joint European Projects (JEPs) commencing on 1 September 1997. Thus this interim 
report focuses on the two years 1998 and 1999 as a concrete timescale for a possible 
further phase of Tempus, while identifying the factors that may contribute to a case 
for certain Tempus activity continuing beyond 1999 should funding become available. 
28. The policy and operational context leads to a certain differentiation between 
groups of partner countries when considering the future of Tempus and this 
differentiation is reflected in the structure of this interim report. 
29. The first group are the associated countries of central and eastern Europe which 
are preparing for integration into the internal market of the European Union within the 
context of a pre-accession strategy which was adopted by the Essen European Council 
in December 1994. As set out in the subsequent White Paper of May 1995 the process 
of single market integration will inter alia generate new requirements in terms of skills 
and qualifications within the labour force of the associated countries and this in turn 
will have an impact on their education and training systems. The case for any 
continuation of Tempus in this group of countries must be positioned to add distinctive 
and demonstrable value to a Phare programme which through the multiannual 
indicative planning process is being reoriented directly to support the pre-accession 
process In doing so it also needs to recognise that Tempus will have been operating 
for up to eight years in certain of these partner countries by the end of Tempus II and 
that other programmes are also supporting the process of higher education reform. 
30. The second group comprises the non-associated Phare countries which at present 
covers only Albania but which is likely soon to include also the countries of the 
former Yugoslavia provided that adequate progress is made in the areas of security and 
political development. Here Tempus will have been operating for a much shorter 
period by 1998 and consequently will have been able to make only a more limited 
impact on the reform of higher education. Rather than a context provided by a pre-
accession strategy, these countries axe likely to be facing to varying degrees continuing 
fundamental challenges in the reform of their higher education systems and more 
generally in the transition to full market economies. 
31. The third group are the Newly Independent States and Mongolia covered by the 
Tacis programme. It has only been as recently as 1993 that these states started 
gradually to participate in the Tempus programme. This needs to be viewed within the 
perspective of the huge challenges facing these countries in terms of political and 
economic reform and the relatively limited scale of the Tempus Tacis budget available. 
Following the Cannes European Council in June 1995 European Union policy towards 
these countries will be based on the twin tracks of continuing support for economic 
and democratic reform and, particularly in the case of Russia, establishing a 
'substantial relationship of partnership'. This policy is gradually being consolidated 
within a series of Partnership and Cooperation Agreements which will set a broad 
context for European Union activities in the future. 
32. The case for a further phase of Tempus will address the distinctive operating 
contexts and needs of these three groups of countries. 
* * * * 
10 
EL A FUTURE ROLE FOR TEMPUS 
1. IN THE PHARE ASSOCIATED COUNTRIES 
33. Despite the significant impact which Tempus has made and continues to make on 
the reform and improvement of higher education, the programme operates within a 
dynamic environment of changing needs and requirements. This environment is 
increasingly being shaped by the following factors: 
• the demands of the pre-accession strategy and the 'acquis communautaire'. 
• continued development of the legislative and structural framework for 
higher education and the need to implement policy at the operational level. 
• increasing pressures on universities from a range of different stakeholders, 
and the need to demonstrate institutional quality, relevance and value for 
money within a more responsive relationship with the labour market and 
social partners. 
34. To a certain extent these are areas already beginning to be addressed within 
Tempus II priorities. However it can be argued that because of the nature and size of 
the need, for example in relation to pre-accession requirements, or because certain 
areas such as reform of university management as identified by the Evaluation are 
proving slow to change and thus requiring a more sustained effort, these areas would 
remain priorities beyond Tempus II . 
35. A further phase of Tempus should be targeted to complete and consolidate work 
in these important areas, being carefully positioned so as to complement and support 
relevant Phare sector programmes and other EU activity. Where this strategy requires 
flexibility in the traditional modalities of the Tempus programme these should be 
considered to achieve greatest effectiveness. Additionally, in order to maximise the 
value of past and current investments made through Tempus, attention should also be 
given to strengthening the dissemination of the increasing inventory of project outputs 
particularly where they are supportive of the above areas and where they are 
applicable outside the university sector. 
36. While recognising the increasing contribution of Phare programmes within the 
education and training sector, it is felt that the platform skills and relationships 
developed under Tempus I and II can be a very cost-effective and efficient means of 
mobilising expertise to work in particular at the interface between policy formulation 
and practitioners in the higher education sector. Providing that they are set in a 
coherent and strategic context, carefully constructed and implemented institutional 
development projects, including pilot projects to test and demonstrate good practice, 
can support and add substance to the process of policy development and can deliver 
specific outcomes in terms of priority skill needs. 
11 
A. TEMPUS and pre-accession 
The Essen European Council 
37. The Essen European Council of December 1994 adopted a broad pre-accession 
strategy which envisaged a progressive strengthening of relations with the associated 
countries of Central and Eastern Europe through a structured dialogue and invited the 
Commission to prepare a White Paper on preparatory steps necessary for the 
integration of these countries into the internal market. It also decided that the Phare 
programme should henceforth be reoriented to support this process. 
38. The White Paper was issued in May 1995. There are of course many different 
aspects to the single market but in section 4 the White Paper makes a broad distinction 
between the process of legislative and regulatory approximation and the establishment 
of implementation and enforcement structures. In relation to the latter it states: 
' The overall picture is that the process of establishing, staffing and making 
operational all the necessary administrative structures is lagging behind the 
legislative process itself. The situation varies between the associated countries 
and from sector to sector, but there is a widespread need for more effort in this 
respect.' 
39. Even where the institutions themselves have been created the White Paper says 
that 'the trained staff to run them cannot always be found. In general, they inevitably 
suffer from a lack of experience. In this context, assistance through Tempus, the 
activities of the European Training Foundation and participation by the CEECs in the 
Leonardo and Socrates programmes will help them develop the relevant skills.' 
40. Adoption of certain EU internal market Directives into the national legislation will 
result in a requirement for staff which needs to get the adequate training at the level 
of universities. For example, the implementation, monitoring and enforcement of 
regulations on health and safety at work will require the creation of degrees in 
occupational medicine. As another example, the enforcement of Directives on animal 
and plant health calls for the creation of courses to train the future staff of 
inspectorates. 
41. In the different Phare sector reform programmes there has been a growing concern 
over the shortage of qualified staff that are able to deal with the legal and economic 
aspects of the national policies of reform. The problem is becoming more prominent 
with the prospects of future accession. There is a need for development of courses 
with a multidisciplinary approach focusing on the intersection of legal/economic 
aspects and technical contents. Cases in point are for instance agriculture economics, 
agricultural and food trade mechanisms, transport economics, environmental policy and 
legislation, economics of health services, etc. 
42. A more precise identification of the 'new professional profiles' required for each 
country will need to await the individual work programmes being developed by the 
associated countries within their pre-accession and approximation strategies. Once 
these are identified they should form an important focus for the setting of future 
national Tempus priorities. It is envisaged that the area of university activity most 
likely to be appropriate for Tempus support in this respect would be the development 
12 
or adaptation of postgraduate diplomas and/or continuing education courses at 
professional level. 
43. Education and training provided by the faculties of law will have to reflect the 
changes brought about by the incorporation of the 'acquis communautaire' in the 
national legislation. Adaptation of existing courses and introduction of new courses or 
course modules will be required. Curriculum development activities in Tempus 
projects can typically address these needs. 
44. Development of European studies and in particular European Law are obviously 
essential to support the pre-accession process. These academic areas have figured 
prominently amongst the priorities of Tempus since its inception in 1990 and many 
projects have been completed or are at different stages of operation. Some projects 
have lead to the creation of centers Or departments of European studies integrated in 
universities, sometimes as inter-faculty centers. It can be confidently stated that in 
most countries there is still need for new Tempus projects in these areas. 
45. Another important strand of integration to which Tempus could make an effective 
contribution is in the area of measures to ensure the free movement of persons within 
the single market. Parts of the legislation concerning the free movement of persons are 
closely linked to the freedom to provide services, especially those services which 
require minimum professional qualifications which in the majority of cases are 
awarded following successful study at a higher education institution. 
46. The Commission's seven sectoral Directives covering the regulated professions of 
doctors, nurses, dentists, mid-wives, veterinary surgeons, pharmacists and architects 
will have the most direct impact on the need to adapt university courses in the partner 
countries as mutual recognition depends on the previous coordination and 
harmonization of training. The White Paper sees a phased application of these 
Directives as the partner countries will need a period for adaptation during which 
curriculum reform under Tempus could certainly make a valuable contribution. 
47. The sectoral Directives are complemented by two general systems Directives for 
the recognition of diplomas and professional education and training. These Directives 
of 1989 and 1992 cover a wide range of professions and activities and-cover, inter 
alia, all diplomas which are not affected by sectoral Directives and which are awarded 
on completion of a course of higher education comprising at least three years' full-
time study or the equivalent. Examples of possible beneficiaries include teachers, 
engineers, opticians and chartered accountants. Although the general Directives do not 
require coordination of training, they do require mutual trust between the different 
national authorities and a good knowledge of each other's functioning. 
48. Institutional transparency and consistency as well as the operation of effective 
quality assessment systems greatly support the strengthening of mutual trust. The 
implications of such requirements within the broader context of improvements in 
aspects of university management are addressed later in this report but they are 
certainly areas where Tempus should continue, for a number of reasons, to make an 
important contribution. Additionally the process of gradually developing better 
knowledge regarding the general relationship between EU requirements and partner 
country diplomas as envisaged in the White Paper may illuminate areas where it would 
be desirable for some adaptation or enhancement to the said diplomas and again 
Tempus would have a role to play in this respect. 
13 
The relationship to Socrates 
49. Another aspect of pre-accession which Tempus would be able to support is the 
gradual participation of the associated countries in intra-EU programmes. Negotiations 
are already well advanced regarding entry into Socrates (as well as Leonardo and 
Youth for Europe III) and although final decisions have yet to be taken it is likely that 
participation in the Erasmus strand of Socrates will be taking place in 1998/99. 
50. In order to consider how Tempus and Socrates might most productively interface 
during this period it is first necessary to examine their different objectives and 
modalities. These can be summarised as follows : 
• Tempus is fundamentally an assistance programme providing substantial 
funds for the transfer of skills and experience from the EU to partner 
country universities while Socrates is essentially a cooperation programme 
where little transfer of resources takes place. 
• The principal objective of Tempus is to promote the development of the 
higher education systems in the partner countries in the context of 
economic and social reform while Socrates contributes to quality in 
education through encouraging trans-European cooperation with particular 
reference to promoting the 'European dimension'. 
• While curriculum and structural development are at the centre of Tempus 
activities, student mobility retains a position of central importance within 
the Erasmus strand of Socrates. Although increased emphasis is being 
given to teaching staff exchanges and curriculum development under 
Socrates these are within a relationship where all partners use the new 
curriculum. Also the funds available for such work are considerably less 
than those provided under Tempus. 
51. In terms of a possible future complementary relationship between the above 
programmes, the question posed by the above points is whether partner country 
universities are ready, in terms of their competences, to enter Socrates immediately or 
whether their are still 'gaps' when compared with EU universities that would constrain 
the cooperation summarised above. If so there may be a role for Tempus in addressing 
these areas as a contribution to facilitating entry into Socrates. 
52. Assessments of partner country institutions point to structural and management 
weaknesses as the main areas of deficiency. The importance of these for Socrates is 
underlined by the introduction of the 'Institutional Contract'. An important feature of 
this contract is the requirement for a statement of the institution's European policy 
including measures for enhancing the quality of its European operations through 
appropriate arrangements for monitoring, quality assurance and evaluation. In the 
definition of plans and the selection of activities for future cooperation, institutions 
will be expected to make an analysis of the weak and strong points of their 
international cooperation so far in terms of quality of cooperation, types of activity, 
subject area participation and geographical spread of partner institutions. Decisions are 
required on which activities should be continued, extended or abolished and this 
overall planning process is likely to entail the orchestration and management of 
consultations with a broad range of actors, academic and non-academic, across and 
perhaps also outside the university. 
14 
53. In Socrates, arrangements for full academic recognition for study periods abroad 
form will also part of the institutional policy with increasingly wide use being made 
of the European Credit Transfer System as a means of achieving this. Finally, the high 
volume of student mobility under Socrates will require well-managed and efficient 
student services to provide effective support in the areas of welfare, counselling, 
accommodation etc. 
54. All these factors will require a degree of quality and coherence in terms of 
university management which the Evaluation, CRE report, Monographs, and Site Visits 
all identify as an area of weakness in the partner countries' universities. Although 
Tempus II is beginning to address this issue, because it involves deeply- rooted vested 
interests and attitudes within institutions, the consensus points to it being somewhat 
resistant to change and requiring a more sustained reform effort which would extend 
into a further phase of Tempus. 
55. Participation in Socrates(Erasmus) from 1998 on will need to take account of the 
progress of the Tempus programme which by its very nature is much more favourable 
to the beneficiary countries from a financial point of view. The above analysis 
identifies where Tempus needs to direct a more sustained effort in order to facilitate 
the cooperation envisaged under Socrates. Thus it is proposed that for a limited 
transition period there will be a requirement for both programmes to run in parallel 
and in a complementary manner which avoids overlap (for example student mobility 
should be the exclusive province of Socrates). The balance between them will vary 
from country to country and change over time as an increasing number of eligible 
universities are able to move from a position of beneficiary of assistance to 
cooperation as an equal partner. 
B. Support for higher education policy initiatives 
56. The early 90s saw much new legislation in the partner countries which redefined 
the relationship between the state and higher education institutions in a way which 
established a high degree of autonomy within the system. This period was 
characterised by a distancing of universities from government as the former exercised 
their new-found freedom. However as the decade progresses this is being increasingly 
recognised as an inadequate basis on which to build an accountable, relevant and high-
quality higher education sector as it tended to leave in place to a large extent the 
existing, predominantly conservative old internal structures within universities. 
57. Consequently there is currently underway in the partner countries what could be 
called a 'second phase' of reform which is seeking to rebalance the relationship 
between higher education institutions, government and society as a whole, to 
emphasise responsibilities as well as rights, and above all to address the key factors 
of accountability and relevance to social and economic needs. For example in 1995 
legislation affecting the higher education sector was passed in Bulgaria and Rumania. 
This addressed such areas as the restructuring of university qualifications, the 
establishment of assessment and accreditation systems and institutional management 
obligations associated with autonomy. 
58. There is of course by now a diversity of legislative frameworks for higher 
education amongst the partner countries and each is at a different stage in relation to 
this second stage of reform. For example the Czech Republic is still working on its 
15 
new higher education law. However certain common themes are discernable within the 
current agenda for reform as governments and institutions themselves seek to address 
the above issues. This will involve in various ways challenging existing structures and 
vested interests as well as changing deeply-rooted attitudes and practices and it is 
principally for these reasons that, even where new legislation and regulations have 
been developed, implementation will call for a sustained effort at the operational level 
which is something Tempus would be well designed to deliver in the remaining years 
of this decade. 
59. A principal common theme is the need to establish effective quality control 
systems for autonomous higher education institutions. Much work, supported in part 
by Phare sector programmes, has and is being done on setting up or reforming 
accreditation systems and attention is also being given to the possibility of using 
institutional evaluation systems to inform future decisions on institutional funding 
levels. However even where legislation and structures are in place there is often a need 
to operationalise what otherwise may be in danger of remaining largely good 
intentions. Tempus can build on this work by providing a means of mobilising 
expertise at the operational level, by trialling pilot projects to optimise implementation 
strategies and by disseminating and embedding best practice within the system. 
60. Similar considerations apply to another common theme likely to remain on the 
reform agenda for some time to come, namely the development of short-cycle degree 
courses. This covers both the trend towards shorter, often three-year, bachelor first 
degrees and also the establishment of new, short, professionally and vocationally 
oriented university-level courses delivered either by existing institutions or by separate 
institutions often modelled on the German 'Fachhochschulen'. These developments are 
aimed at increasing the diversity, flexibility and relevance of the higher education 
sector and again a start on reform at the policy and structural level has already been 
made. There remains however an important role for Tempus in terms of reinforcing 
this work through assisting with the restructuring of existing cpurses, developing new 
more practically oriented study programmes, introducing innovative teaching methods 
and disseminating and embedding best practice. 
61. Higher education plays a pivotal role a country's higher education policy in the 
sense that via its teacher training institutions has a significant influence on the quality 
of primary and secondary education. Reform of those levels of education is underway 
and in some countries legislation is already in an implementation phase. The 
professional profiles of teachers are being reshaped and teacher training institutions 
are required to restructure their study programmes, for instance in order to train 
teachers able to deal with two subjects. Tempus can make a valuable contribution by 
funding cooperation projects that could act as examples of good practice. 
62. The need for greater flexibility and diversity are themes commonly heard in the 
partner countries (as well as in western Europe) and in addition to work progressing 
on short-cycle courses there is also a focus on increasing the role of interdisciplinary 
studies as a way of responding to the evolving needs of the labour market. It is 
recognised that there is still a measure of overspecialisation even at first degree level 
which leads to a skills base which tends to be too narrow for the multi-skill needs of 
today's labour markets and which tends to inhibit labour mobility and/or to meet 
changing requirements. Responsibility for reform in this area rests largely with higher 
education institutions themselves. However systemic reform also has an important 
supporting role to play in terms of the establishment credit transfer and recognition 
16 
procedures within and between institutions to facilitate the movement of students 
between different disciplines as part of a course of study. Tempus can contribute to 
this process in a number of ways: for example by providing expertise to assist with 
the development and/or piloting of systems, by imposing conditionality within its 
structural projects to encourage the institutional adoption of credit transfer and 
recognition and by giving emphasis to interdisciplinary objectives in its curriculum 
development activities. 
63. There are obviously many other issues of higher education policy where legislative 
reforms are being introduced in the different partner countries. Just to mention a few 
examples : restructuring of postgraduate education, setting up of interfaculty or 
interuniversity centers to overcome fragmentation, integration of universities and 
research institutes, creation of academic course credit transfer systems at national level, 
development of internal quality systems at universities, reform of overspecialised 
curricula, reduction of the teaching load and, in particular, the volume of contact 
hours, introduction of new teaching methodologies, etc. A variety of Tempus project 
profiles could be used to address these issues. 
C The need to manage change and demonstrate accountability: optimising 
university resources 
64. The environment in which universities are operating is becoming increasingly 
demanding. As stated in the introduction to the CRE's Institutional Quality Audit 
programme: 
' Now perhaps more than ever in their history, universities have to face a 
rapidly changing environment on which they are dependent for their 
organisational survival. Institutional planning processes to adapt to the 
changing environment and to make use of the opportunities it provides, are, by 
the same token, becoming more important for the governance of universities. 
Linking these two insights, we can conclude that management for quality is 
central to a university's strategic management.' 
65. In the partner countries, central to this changing environment is the trend towards 
greater university autonomy. While originally conceived as a political measure to grant 
greater freedom and independence from earlier ideological direction, it is now 
becoming clear that autonomy brings with it responsibilities as well as rights. As an 
expert from the Center for Higher Education policy studies puts it: 'More autonomy 
for universities requires more self-regulation, requires entirely different management 
structures, requires strong leadership, transparency and accountability'. He calls 
autonomy an 'indispensable management tool in order to be able to respond to the 
changing environment and to grasp the many opportunities...' 
66. If autonomy brings with it new obligations, these are being defined in ever clearer 
terms by a range of increasingly vocal stakeholders or constituencies which have an 
interest in the performance of the higher education sector. As well as governments 
which provide the majority of funding, there are students and their parents who 
increasingly have to pay fees, regional and local authorities, employers offering jobs 
to graduates and clients commissioning research projects or specific training courses. 
17 
67. Perhaps the two most important factors driving change within this landscape are: 
• the progressive pressure on public funding available for higher education 
institutions, and 
• the need for higher education institutions to develop closer links with 
external socioeconomic partners and to adapt more readily to changing 
labour market needs. 
68. This situation in turn requires the universities to put in place the means to both 
establish and demonstrate to their various stakeholders efficiency, effectiveness, value 
for money and relevance and to manage relationships with them in a coherent way. 
They will have to decide on priorities and be selective within a clear analysis of 
institutional strengths and weaknesses. Their ability to manage change across the 
institution will become essential. 
69. Reference has already been made in this report to the internal fragmentation that 
took place within partner country universities following the political changes of 
1989/90. In the context of die limited impact of Tempus projects on institutional 
reform, the Evaluation notes a lack of policy and management at institutional level. 
It adds: 
' Most persons involved and most external observers seem to agree that 
Tempus-supported activities during the first four years of the Tempus 
programme were more or less a matter of the respective faculties or 
departments in the partner countries. The university as an institution did not 
come into play.' 
70. In their different ways, all the reviews used as sources for this report recognise the 
factor of institutional fragmentation. Linkage to the limited institutional impacts of 
Tempus offers a further advantage and rationale for developing improved management 
skills and a more strategic approach, in terms of providing a framework for internal 
dissemination, sharing of best practice and the embedding of reform measures by 
means of institutional policies. 
71. Institutional fragmentation persists in many partner country higher education 
institutions, especially the larger ones, and it is becoming increasingly inconsistent 
with an environment of rising expectations, the requirements of which are summarised 
in paragraph 58 above. To quote from the report of an institutional site visit made in 
1994: 
' If the management skills at this university are in any way typical of Central 
and Eastern European institutions I think there is a strong case for diverting 
some of the TEMPUS funds to provide senior University managers with 
courses on strategic planning.' 
This is seriously compromising the ability to project a coherent and distinctive 
institutional profile to external stakeholders. It constrains efforts to establish 
institution-wide norms and standards which should serve to define and assure 
institutional quality both internally and externally. Also it weakens the ability of the 
institution as a whole to reflect on its own strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and 
threats, and consequently to direct efforts and scarce resources to those areas where 
they are likely to have the greatest value within a shared sense of purpose defined by 
a commonly agreed overall mission for the institution. 
18 
72. However, while strategic management is a vital means for responding creatively 
to an increasingly demanding and changing environment, it is often linked to systems 
which assure quality within the institution. Progress towards the attainment of 
objectives and goals set by strategic plans can be most effectively measured and 
managed within a framework of clear and transparent performance standards defined 
through a quality assurance system which can serve as a unifying factor across the 
institution. As stated in the CRE's Institutional Quality Audit programme: '(European 
universities) need to respond to increasing demands by indicating their willingness to 
adapt to new environmental constraints. Developing and implementing quality 
management approaches is an effective way to do so'. 
73. An OECD expert in a paper for an OECD/Phare seminar on quality assurance in 
higher education, says 'there is little doubt that quality assurance is seen in all of the 
countries concerned as a high priority for the successful transformation of higher 
education structures and practices'. He sees the following goals being addressed in 
CEE and other countries: 
• to guarantee quality and standards; 
• to improve quality and to raise standards; 
• to provide public accountability of resources expended on higher education; 
• to ensure consumer protection against inadequate or defaulting institutions. 
He also emphasises the need for commitment to quality at all levels in these terms: 
'A fundamental prerequisite to the successful implementation of any system of 
quality assurance is that there should be a dedication to quality on the part of 
all members of the institution. Formal participation by the Rector, Governing 
Body and Academic Council is not sufficient to ensure effective participation 
and cooperation by faculty heads and teaching and research staff. Likewise, 
enthusiastic support by the latter will not succeed unless the university's top 
management is also dedicated to the achievement of the goals of quality 
assurance.' 
74. Thus the management needs of higher education institutions extend beyond the 
requirements of senior managers for strategic planning skills to others involved in day-
to-day operational management, for example in the areas of finance, personnel, 
information technology and student services. Indeed it is often these non-academic 
staff who feel marginalised in comparison with the status and support given to their 
academic colleagues. However in the future success will depend not only on an 
institution's academic quality but also on the effectiveness of its internal systems for 
delivering and demonstrating value for money and high levels of efficiency in 
supporting academic activity. Put another way, there will be increasing pressure for 
these 'support services' to add demonstrable value to the operations of higher 
education institutions. This will not only involve providing the appropriate operational 
skills at various levels but also encouraging a more positive interface between the 
academic and non-academic staff in terms of greater involvement by the latter in 
institutional planning and development. 
75. An improvement in the quality and coherence of university management would 
bring many benefits, not least in the area of maintaining institutions' relevance to the 
needs of society particularly through better links with and sensitivity to labour markets 
in partner countries. This is necessary not only to sustain public support for the higher 
19 
education sector but also to provide what is likely to become an increasingly important 
source of income as pressure continues to bear down on levels of public funding. The 
CRE report calls this the service function ' of universities including collaboration with 
industry, covering such areas as consultancy provided to regional or national industry 
in its restructuring, to local authorities in their administrative reforms, by organising 
special training courses or conducting various applied research projects. Special 
attention should be paid to the contribution that universities can make to the 
development of new small and medium-sized enterprises, for example in the training 
of scientists and technologists, and to the innovative provision of professional 
continuing education and training to provide for the changing skill needs of those 
already in employment. 
D. Maximising the utilisation of Tempus outputs 
76. The Tempus I evaluation notes : "Spin-offs of educational and curricular activities 
for the same subjects and departments at other higher education institutions in the 
country have been achieved within Tempus. A certain extent of dissemination and 
adoption can be noted, although it could be improved by increased support for 
dissemination, publication of material developed within JEPs and increased 
communication and exchange." Although limited support is currently given to 
disseminating project outputs it seems that giving this aspect greater attention in the 
future would capitalise most effectively on the considerable investment already made 
by Tempus and maximise the leverage of its effects on the process of reform and 
restructuring. 
77. There are a number of different areas where benefits are likely to accrue from 
more effective dissemination, whether this be on a 'vertical' subject-related basis or 
a more 'horizontal' basis addressing perhaps teaching methodologies or the process-
related skills of project implementation and management. One such area for better 
utilisation of outcomes is within the partner country institutions where the original 
Tempus project was located. This may be more relevant to non subject-specific aspects 
of dissemination but there seems to be a clear case for the better and more systematic 
sharing of the transferable aspects of 'good practice', whether this is in the area of 
management, interpersonal or didactic skills. Any improvements that can be introduced 
to the modalities for dissemination in this respect will clearly be made more effective 
if complemented by improved staff development systems within eligible universities 
which are designed to share and embed best practice across the whole institution. 
78. Dissemination to other higher education institutions is equally important. 
Nationally this contributes to the critical mass for reform. It also provides an 
opportunity for those institutions or faculties which -have not participated in Tempus 
to benefit from of its outputs. However, particular attention in the future should be 
given to the potential for sharing Tempus results between partner countries, as this 
dimension is identified in both the Evaluation and the Monographs. Experience has 
shown that regional cooperation will work effectively only if there are clearly defined 
common interests, a high level of commitment by all partners and appropriate 
supporting modalities It is suggested that the common agenda defined by the pre-
accession process as it affects the higher education sector may well provide an 
incentive and common framework for a new phase of regional cooperation, and future 
dissemination actions should take this dimension into account. It should also be added 
that the smaller partner countries have a particular interest in regional dissemination 
20 
as a means of benefiting from the experience of the larger number of projects in other 
partner countries. 
79. Many Tempus projects have potential benefits outside the academic sector, for 
example those concerned with management or business skills or applied science and 
technology. In the context of what has already been said about maintaining the 
relevance of universities and improving links with external social and economic 
partners, it is important to encourage the use of Tempus outputs where appropriate for 
the benefit of local enterprises and local and regional authorities. Indeed such a role, 
especially if combined with harnessing the efforts of neighbouring universities, could 
be used to establish or strengthen the contribution of the higher education sector to 
regional development within individual countries. This should be part of a more 
focused strategy to support the skill needs of Phare sector projects where the role of 
universities in providing required human resource development on a sustainable basis 
should be better exploited. 
80. In all the above aspects of dissemination, it is suggested that more effective 
utilisation of the considerable investment made under Tempus I and II can be made. 
Measures to make dissemination more effective in the future should include the 
provision of improved incentives and modalities in order to stimulate greater 
commitment and more productive activity by project participants. Perhaps more 
investment should be made in establishing the needs of beneficiaries and more 
attention given to the quality of the dissemination or implementation process which 
should reflect an active involvement of and ownership by recipients. This should be 
complemented by allowing the possibility of adapting the original outputs of projects 
in order to meet more precisely the requirements of target institutions or organisations, 
by encouraging more collective activity between consortia and by supporting 
innovative alliances between academic and non-academic institutions or organisations. 
2. IN TOE NON-ASSOCIATED PHARE COUNTRIES 
81. At present this category comprises only Albania, but is likely also to include the 
republics of the former Yugoslavia (excluding Slovenia) in due course. Pending 
decisions on the form and content of EU assistance to these republics and an analysis 
of their needs it is only appropriate here to make some general comments about a 
possible role for Tempus. Even within this limited group of countries there are 
significant variations in the level of development and indeed infrastructure of the 
higher education systems which would need to be reflected in any Tempus 
programme. However there appears to be an equally strong case, if not stronger, for 
including a Tempus element within a Phare assistance package as there was for all the 
other countries of central and eastern Europe. 
82. While in some of the countries of the former Yugoslavia there may historically 
have been somewhat more contact with the academic community of western Europe, 
recent events have to varying degrees widened the gulf with the rest of the continent 
It is particularly important that universities in these countries not only establish open 
and democratic practices themselves but are also able through their future activities 
to help to project and instill such values within their societies This and the need for 
universities to contribute to the skills necessary for economic reform and 
reconstruction makes a persuasive case for the extension of Tempus to these countries 
particularly if it is carefully coordinated with Phare sector programmes and other 
assistance to the higher education sector. Experience shows that the programme will 
take some years to reach a critical mass and it is therefore recommended that JEPs, 
particularly addressing curriculum development and structural objectives, are initiated 
on an on-going annual basis over the full period of a possible future Phare financing 
commitment. 
83. The origins of higher education needs in Albania are somewhat different but no 
less pressing. Unlike most other countries in the region there is no long tradition of 
higher education, with the first university being founded as recently as 1957. The 
country and its education system has also suffered from a long period of almost total 
isolation from the outside world, and cooperation even with other communist countries 
was very limited. The effects of this situation have been exacerbated by a weak 
economy and a very small budget for higher education which has been estimated at 
approximately half that of other countries in east and central Europe in relation to 
national GDP. This has resulted in a particularly large 'deficit' within their higher 
education system which suffers still from a poor physical infrastructure and a lack of 
basic resources such as books. 
84. Against this challenging background Tempus made a relatively late start with the 
first projects being launched in 1992/93. At the time of writing only eight have been 
completed with a further four due to end in 1995/96. In these circumstances there 
seems to be a compelling case for continuing the launch of Tempus projects in each 
year within the Phare funding commitment. The Phare Multiannual Indicative 
Programme to 1999 envisages continued Tempus support to social and human resource 
development. The programme will need to address pressing needs in the areas of 
curriculum renewal, particularly where this supports Phare objectives, the upgrading 
of teaching skills, materials and facilities, and the modernisation and restructuring of 
the higher education system, including institutional management, to achieve greater 
diversity, flexibility and relevance to changing labour market needs. Moreover the 
contribution of Tempus in establishing and embedding the values of democracy and 
civil society should not be underestimated. Against this background it is considered 
that a sufficient number of JEPs to create and maintain a critical mass for change 
would need to be launched in each year that Phare funding is available to Albania. 
3. TEMPUS IN THE TACIS COUNTRIES 
85. The Council Decision of 29 April 1993 adopting Tempus II extended the 
programme to the Republics of the former Soviet Union. Preparatory activities 
commenced in 1993-94 for Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine and the first 
JEPs were launched in these countries the following year. Eligibility has been 
progressively extended to other Republics, so that currently all 13 Tacis partner 
countries take part in Tempus. Of the MECU 565 allocated to date to the Tempus 
programme since its inception in 1990, approximately 8.5% has been devoted to the 
Tacis countries, funding 240 one-year preparatory projects and 59 three-year full-scale 
JEPs. 
86. Thus it is clear that Tempus Tacis is in its early stages of development, especially 
when measured against the more than 1200 JEPs launched in the Phare countries since 
1990. This factor is reinforced when set against the huge challenges faced by the 
Tacis countries in reforming their political, social, judicial and economic structures. 
Recently a report of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development stated: 
22 
'The magnitude of the task of creating the legal, institutional and human basis of the 
market economy has been generally underestimated'. With regard to higher education 
reform, the size of the task ahead is illustrated by the fact that in Russia alone 'the 
approximately 700 universities, institutes, colleges and other higher education 
institutions, many of which have century-old history and world prestige, unite around 
six million professors, teachers, researchers, students and postgraduates' 5. 
87. When considering the future of Tempus Tacis beyond the end of Tempus II, these 
factors need to be taken into account. The following sections look in more detail at 
the principal challenges facing the future restructuring and development of the higher 
education systems of the Tacis countries and the strategic considerations relevant to 
efficient and effective programme delivery, leading to a proposed approach for a 
further phase of Tempus Tacis which will continue to make a valuable and distinctive 
contribution to the reform process. 
A. Key challenges for the future of higher education 
88. Although each Tacis country has its own specific education reform agenda, certain 
common themes, largely stemming from their common Soviet legacy, can be 
recognised in the analysis of the challenges to be addressed. The balance of these of 
course vary, for example according to the size of the country concerned, but these key 
challenges form an important background to considering the future role of Tempus. 
89. Broadly speaking, they can be divided into structural and didactic aspects, although 
it is of course important to recognise the close relationship between the two. 
Structurally, one of major items on the reform agenda is the implementation and 
management of the process of diversification, decentralisation and autonomy of higher 
education institutions. Diversification is being driven to a significant extent by the 
growing number of private-sector higher education institutions in several Tacis 
countries, although diversification is also apparent within the state sector as institutions 
seek to respond to legislative reform, financial constraints and the need to respond to 
a changing labour market. Diversification is also linked to the trend towards 
decentralisation of the financing and management of institutions. This is particularly 
relevant to the larger Tacis countries where central government is seeking to delegate 
a significantly larger role to regional and local authorities6. There is still much work 
to do in defining a satisfactory relationship between the various levels of competence 
within the new dispensation and in developing new supporting management structures 
and skills and financing mechanisms. The implications of this policy extends down to 
institutional level in the form of establishing institutional autonomy which is a 
common reform objective among the Tacis countries. However as has already been 
explained in respect of the Phare countries, although this is an essential tool to enable 
institutions to adapt to new demands and to exercise accountability to various 
stakeholders, it also requires new structures, skills and attitudes from both the 
academic and management staff of the institutions concerned. 
'Forword' of the Catalogue of Higher Education Institutions (December 1994). 
6 For example in Russia the proportion of federal funding for education had declined to 3.8% 
by 1993. 
23 
90. This process of diversification and decentralisation is putting into particular focus 
the need to control quality and to maintain a certain degree of national cohesion in the 
future operation of higher education systems. Thus priority is being given to 
developing or overhauling national systems of standards and accreditation and this is 
likely to lead to an increasing emphasis on effective ways to operationalise the 
systems developed within the framework of the various levels of competence referred 
to above. 
91. A major factor and constraint in this reform process is the dramatic overall 
reduction in the resources available for higher education. The shortage of funding is 
leading to staff demotivation, an internal 'brain drain' to other better paid professions, 
lack of basic teaching resources (such as textbooks, electronic/communication 
equipment and other material) and the inability to maintain the physical infrastructure 
(such as the repair and servicing of buildings). Living and study conditions for 
students have dramatically worsened, primarily due to lack of financial support. This 
can only put increased demands on the reform process and place even greater 
importance on skills to manage change in a proactive and cost-effective way. 
92. One important aspect of this change, as stated above, is strengthening of the 
regional and local aspects of higher education. Where the regional dimension is 
important in a Tacis country, higher education institutions are being called upon to 
play a more active and distinctive role in economic and social activity, where 
appropriate within regional development plans, including contributing through 
retraining to the conversion of the military infrastructure to civilian uses. Greater local 
involvement is to a degree an objective common to all Tacis countries particularly in 
the context of developing closer links with enterprises through, for example, seeking 
opportunities for technology transfer, consultancy and continuing education. The 
establishment of what has been called a 'service function' to be provided by higher 
education institutions7, which should address the practical needs of various regional 
and local organisations and enterprises, will however only be possible with the 
appropriate structures, skills and attitudes to develop a closer relationship with 
'external' partners. If through better and more productive links forged regionally and 
locally higher education institutions can establish greater relevance and added-value, 
this will open up the possibility of new or increased sources of funding to replace to 
a certain extent the reduced federal contribution. 
93. Higher education institutions play an important role in the training of secondary 
school teachers, for example through the approximately 100 pedagogical institutes and 
universities in Russia, and reforms within the compulsory education sector are 
resulting in priority being given to restructuring the provision of (re)training for school 
teachers. The planned reforms in Russia8 foresee a move to a multi-level structure 
providing more differentiated training opportunities, including in-service continuing 
training, as well as the introduction of new teaching methodologies and new curricula, 
particularly in the humanities. 
Report 'Strengthening East-West Inter-University Cooperation: From Assistance to Partnership' 
prepared by the CRE, pp. 16-17. 
8 Ministry of Education/UNESCO: 'National School Development Project', 1995; Ministry of 
Education: The Development of Education - National Report of the Russian Federation', 1994. 
24 
94. Key challenges in the didactic field focus on the need to reform over-specialised 
and rigid curricula, making them more relevant to the requirements of the labour 
market, modern technology and social and democratic development, as well as the 
introduction of new teaching methods. 
95. Under the rigid system of the command economy the curricula of higher education 
institutions were (and to a certain extent still are) narrowly defined by sectoral 
ministries who guaranteed a job on graduation. With the gradual disintegration of this 
system higher education institutions are left with overspecialised, often over-long and 
increasingly unneeded courses which are producing graduates with inappropriate skills 
for the new labour market (particularly in technical subjects). Moreover, because skill 
needs were formerly dictated to higher education institutions, they lack the 
mechanisms, skills and attitudes to adapt to this changing market-driven environment. 
However change is made all the more urgent by the acute financial predicament of the 
higher education sector which cannot afford to offer courses which are no longer 
relevant. Developing closer links with local socio-economic partners is a necessary but 
not sufficient condition for the modernisation of study programmes which also calls 
for the internal institutional changes referred to above. 
96. The situation is especially critical in those disciplines which were particularly 
subject to ideological influence but which in their contemporary form make an 
important contribution to economic and social restructuring. Principal amongst these 
are law and economics, although more generally the social sciences and humanities 
suffer in varying degrees the 'deficits' resulting from the communist era. 
97. Predominantly teacher-focused and fact-based teaching methods also need radical 
modernisation. Higher education institutions are seeking the know-how to replace the 
former by more participative and innovative methods offering greater variety to suit 
the different learning styles and preferences of a student-focused approach. The 
emphasis on factual teaching needs to be reformed to encourage and develop in 
students the ability for critical analysis and to equip them to explore different options 
and to take the sometimes complex decisions that will face them in their personal and 
working lives. This should be complemented by developing a readiness and ability to 
be adaptable and flexible as these will be qualities particularly required by the market 
economy. The acquisition of life-long learning capabilities will form a crucial step in 
making higher education more relevant for changing labour market demands. 
B. Strategic Considerations 
98. EU relations and cooperation with the Tacis countries are progressively being set 
within the framework of Partnership and Cooperation Agreements which focus on 
developing partnership relations of varying intensity within the context of supporting 
economic and democratic reform9. Each of these Agreements includes provisions 
relating to education and training and it is the implementation of these which should 
set the broad context for Tempus Tacis in the years ahead. 
Partnership and Cooperation Agreements have been signed with Belarus, Moldova, Kazakhstan, 
Kyrgyzstan, Russia and the Ukraine and are under negotiation with Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia. 
Exploratory discussions are being held with Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. 
25 
99. The European Council of Cannes laid out the main political themes for the 
European Union's relations with Russia, envisaging in particular a 'substantial 
relationship of partnership'. The Commission has since communicated to the Council 
its detailed proposals for future relations with Russia, the Ukraine and the 
Transcaucasian Republics, and the policy framework set by the Council's eventual 
conclusions will subsequently have to be taken into account. 
100. Tacis country programmes10 provide a more specific operational strategy for 
supporting economic and democratic reform objectives and it will be important to 
position future Tempus activity within this strategy in a way that ensures that the 
higher education sector is most effectively mobilised to contribute to these reform 
objectives. 
101. In relation to the substantial reform needs of the Tacis countries, the financial 
resources for assistance are likely to remain limited which makes it all the more 
important to seek maximum cost-effectiveness in methods of programme delivery. The 
recent introduction of national priorities should make a significant contribution towards 
providing a sharper focus on country-specific priority areas and this trend to more 
precise targeting should be further strengthened in the future through the placing of 
these priorities within increasingly coherent national and perhaps regional policy 
frameworks. The initial phase of Tempus Tacis has also shown that the competitive 
approach towards project design, selection and implementation guarantees high quality 
and cost-effectiveness, particularly when set in the framework of targeted priorities. 
102. Impact of the limited resources available can also be maximised through 
identifying key points of leverage to optimise the multiplier effect and by establishing 
the most productive synergy with other assistance activity in the higher education 
sector. This will involve continuing and further developing the policy of targeting 
centres of excellence and encouraging regional networking, while ensuring that these 
activities are carefully positioned to be complementary to and supportive of evolving 
local policy frameworks and development plans. Dissemination of project outputs will 
in general become increasingly important in the future, particularly in the context of 
creating stronger linkages with and addressing the needs of local industry and other 
non-academic organisations. 
103. Change and modernisation within higher education systems are to a large extent 
dependent on significant improvements in the standard of management at all levels. 
This encompasses where appropriate the establishment of new management structures 
and will certainly involve the development of enhanced management skills and of 
more proactive and positive attitudes to implementing change. Not only will such 
measures facilitate restructuring and reform but, equally important, they will sustain 
it. 
C. Future orientations for Tempus Tacis 
104. The policy orientations for Tempus will continue to be set through targeted 
national priorities to be defined in the general context of European Union relations 
with the Tacis countries concerned and the more specific context of Tacis 
10 The new Tacis Council regulation of 29 January 1996 provides for four-year Indicative 
Programmes 1996-99 and for more detailed Action Programmes of variable duration. 
26 
programming. Positioning future Tempus projects within a framework of strengthened 
links between the policy and operational levels will lead to more productive synergy 
between the two and will provide a clear complementary role for Tempus in those 
cases where Tacis sector programmes are supporting the process of policy 
development. 
105. The same applies with regard to the development and implementation of higher 
education policy in the Tacis countries, and indeed new higher education policies are 
needed to provide a coherent framework to maximise the value of projects at the 
institutional level. Tempus is well placed to complement Tacis activities supporting 
this process through using projects selectively to pilot, implement and embed policy 
at the operational level, for example in areas such as new educational management 
structures and practices. 
106. Support to strengthening university management will continue to be a priority in 
the future. The trend towards increasing the degree of institutional autonomy will put 
new demands on university staff, and these will be all the greater within an 
environment of greatly reduced resources. Structures and skills to manage change on 
an institutional basis will be essential as universities seek to adapt their activities to 
new labour markets, develop new relationships with local and regional authorities and 
enterprises and as they assume greater responsibility for making the most cost-effective 
use of the more limited budgets which are likely to remain the norm. 
107. Although in the future Tempus is likely to be addressing a greater proportion of 
'horizontal' issues by complementing Tacis activity as outlined above, there will be 
a continuous need to support in a focused way subject-specific curriculum 
development. Areas for support should principally be those emanating from the needs 
of establishing a market economy and building democracy, taking into account local 
requirements such as the existing capabilities and absorptive capacities of institutions 
and Tacis country objectives. Examples of those subjects where there is a convergence 
of 'academic deficit', reform-driven needs and Tacis-defined objectives are legal 
training, economics, science and technology, environmental protection and education 
for democracy (civic studies). 
108. In those Tacis countries where increasing the regional dimension of higher 
education is a priority objective, Tempus projects should wherever possible reflect this 
aspect in their design and selection. Ways should be sought to enhance the regional 
ownership and identity of projects and their linkage where appropriate to regional 
development plans. This should not only increase the relevance of projects to regional 
needs but is also likely to increase impact as the commitment of regional stakeholders 
is mobilised. 
109. Networking and outreach on either a regional or local basis is likely to enhance 
the critical mass of activity and contribute to consolidation and impact. Encouragement 
should thus continue to be given to cooperative activity between higher education 
institutions in the same area and with clear common goals. However particular 
emphasis in the future should be placed on increasing institutions' capacity to develop 
links with 'external' partners in the social and economic field, in particular industry, 
and to provide services for enterprises and local/regional authorities through for 
example technology transfer, consultancy and continuing education. 
27 
110. In the above context, continued support should be given to the dissemination of 
Tempus outputs, and as the inventory of project outputs grows over the coming years 
consideration should be given as to whether there is scope for increasing the return on 
Tempus investments made by strengthening support for this activity. In this context, 
priority should be given to establishing and deepening interaction with relevant Tacis-
supported projects. 
111. One potentially important vehicle that could effectively support networking, 
outreach and dissemination, especially where distances are large, is the use of 
electronic media which could for example facilitate wider access to project outputs, 
assist cooperative activity or offer new options for teaching methods and delivery 
when face-to-face meetings are not always possible or necessary. Russia, which could 
benefit most from this medium, is paying particular attention to providing university 
access to networked IT services. u 
UL CONCLUDING REMARKS 
112. In both the Phare and Tacis countries it is proposed that there will remain a 
valuable and distinctive role for Tempus beyond the conclusion of its second phase. 
In general this role should seek to capitalise on the Programme's strengths at the 
operational, institutional level and to use this substantial platform for change to: 
• support and develop closer synergy with higher education policy 
development and implementation. The value of complementarity could, for 
example, be further realised through the trialling of policy innovations in 
the form of pilot projects, establishing more systematic mutual feedback 
between the policy and operational levels and using institutional 
development projects and dissemination to establish and embed best 
practice. 
• mobilise and transfer, through well established networks and cooperative 
modalities, expertise within the higher education sector to address 
carefully-defined skill deficiencies in relation to Phare and Tacis reform 
objectives. 
• develop institutional capacities to manage change and to respond 
effectively to challenges within the economic anrj social environment. By 
placing particular emphasis on creating, strengthening and managing links 
with enterprises and other regional/local organisations, Tempus can 
contribute to establishing the processes, attitudes and skills necessary to 
maintain a sustainable relevance to economic and social needs. 
• capitalise on Tempus investments already made by using dissemination and 
networking to increase the critical mass for reform. 
1 For example last year a concept was elaborated for the creation of a 'National Academic 
System of Databases of Higher Education Institutions in Russia'. This will contain information on the 
main activities of higher education institutions and will be made internationally available through the 
Internet. Also the Higher Education Committee has sponsored the creation of centres of new 
information technology in 60 universities and other higher education institutions, all of them with 
access to electronic mail. In the future Tempus should make most effective use of this developing 
infrastructure in Russia and elsewhere to maximise impact in the ways outlined above. 
28 
113. Especially in the associated Phare countries, this more managed strategy will 
require some further modification to the traditional 'bottom-up' approach in favour of 
a more hands-on role in project design and monitoring. A possible scenario for the 
future is for a relatively small number of carefully positioned and negotiated projects 
increasingly addressing horizontal areas such as standards, quality, management and 
the structure of qualifications relative to the needs of changing labour markets. This 
is likely to have implications for the current policy of consortium-driven project design 
and for the degree of monitoring necessary to ensure compliance with increasingly 
demanding, specific and strategic outcomes. In the Tacis countries, the 'bottom-up' 
approach as developed under Tempus II will remain a crucial prerequisite for 
successful programme delivery. 
114. It is also envisaged that as the Tempus programme matures, especially in the 
Phare associated countries, and the emphasis shifts away from basic curriculum 
development, the requirement for full three-year JEPs may change towards shorter and 
more compact actions of perhaps no more than two years duration. Moreover 
consideration should also be given to providing more flexibility at the margins of the 
programme to enable it to be more responsive to needs arising in the shorter term, 
such as support for events which would bring together those working at the policy and 
operational levels, activities designed to contribute particular expertise to a 
problematical item on the reform agenda or initiatives to increase the impact of key 
Tempus outputs. 
115. As was stated at the outset, the timescale for a further phase of Tempus is limited 
to the period of the current Phare and Tacis financing commitments. However this of 
course does not necessarily mean that all the reform needs in higher education will be 
met by the end of the decade, especially in the Tacis countries. Even in the Phare 
associated countries, variable progress towards the requirements of accession might 
result in continuing education and training needs in certain countries beyond the end 
of 1999 to which Tempus may be able to make a valuable contribution. The size of 
the reform challenges in the Tacis countries certainly makes it likely that there will 
still be an important role for Tempus in the next decade. 
29 


ISSN 0254-1475 
COM(96) 197 final 
DOCUMENTS 
EN 16 11 
Catalogue number : CB-CO-96-206-EN-C 
ISBN 92-78-03549-1 
Office for Official Publications of thé European Communities 
L-2985 Luxembourg