***** 
** J* COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 
Brussels, 13.10.1999 
COM(1999) 505 final 
1999 
REGULAR REPORT 
FROM THE COMMISSION 
ON 
HUNGARY'S 
PROGRESS TOWARDS ACCESSION 
*********************** 
Table of contents 
A. Introduction 
a) Preface 
b) Relations between the European Union and Hungary 
Development under the EU-Hungary Europe Agreements (including bilateral trade) 
Accession Partnership/NPAA 
Pre-Accession aid : Phare 
Phare Management system 
Twinning 
The negotiations/Screening process 
B. Criteria for membership 
1. Political criteria 
Introduction 
Recent developments 
1.1. Democracy and the rule of law 
The Parliament 
The Executive 
The Judiciary 
Anti-Corruption measures 
1.2. Human rights and protection of minorities 
Civil and political rights 
Economic, social and cultural rights 
Minority rights and the protection of minorities 
1.3. General evaluation 
2. Economic criteria 
2.1. Introduction 
2.2. Economic developments 
Macroeconomic developments 
Structural reforms 
2.3. Assessment in terms of the Copenhagen criteria 
The existence of a functioning market economy 
The capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within Union 
2.4. General evaluation 
3. Ability to assume the obligations of membership 
3.1. Internal market without frontiers 
The four freedoms 
Competition 
3.2. Innovation 
Information society 
Education, training and youth 
Research and technological development 
Telecommunications 
Audiovisual 
3.3. Economic and fiscal affairs 
Economic and Monetary Union 
Taxation 
Statistics 
3.4. Sectoral policies 
Industry 
Agriculture 
Fisheries 
Energy 
Transport 
Small and medium sized-enterprises 
3.5. Economic and social cohesion 
Employment and social affairs 
Regional policy and cohesion 
3.6. Quality of life and environment 
Environment 
Consumer protection 
3.7. Justice and home affairs 
3.8. External policies 
Trade and international economic relations 
Development 
Customs 
Common foreign and security policy 
3.9. Financial questions 
Financial control 
3.10. General evaluation 
4. Administrative capacity to apply the acquis 
4.1 Administrative structures 
4.2 Administrative and judicial capacity : key areas for the implementation of the acquis 
C. Conclusion 
D. Accession Partnership and National Programme for 
the Adoption of the Acquis: global assessment of 
implementation 
1. Accession Partnership : assessment of short and medium-term priorities 
2. National Programme for the Adoption of the Acquis — Assessment 
Annexes 
Human Rights Conventions ratified by the candidate countries 
Statistical Data 
A. Introduction 
a) Preface 
In Agenda 2000 the Commission said it would report regularly to the European 
Council on progress made by each of the candidate countries of Central and Eastern 
Europe in preparations for membership and that it would submit its first report at the 
end of 1998. The European Council in Luxembourg decided that 
"From the end of 1998, the Commission will make regular reports to the Council, 
together with any necessary recommendations for opening bilateral intergovernmental 
conferences, reviewing the progress of each Central and East European candidate 
State towards accession in the light of the Copenhagen criteria, in particular the rate at 
which it is adopting the Union acquis." "In that context, the Commission will 
continue to follow the method adopted by Agenda 2000 in evaluating candidate 
States' ability to meet the economic criteria and fulfil the obligations deriving from 
accession." 
The European Council in Vienna invited the Commission to present its further 
progress reports with a view to the Helsinki European Council. 
This Regular Report on Hungary follows the same structure as the Commission's 
1997 Opinion. It 
- describes relations between Hungary and the Union, particularly in the framework of 
the Association Agreement; 
- analyses the situation in respect of the political conditions set by the European 
Council (democracy, rule of law, human rights, protection of minorities) 
- assesses Hungary's situation and prospects in respect of the economic conditions 
mentioned by the European Council (functioning market economy, capacity to cope 
with competitive pressures and market forces within the Union) 
addresses the question of Hungary's capacity to adopt the obligations of 
membership, that is, the acquis of the Union as expressed in the Treaty, the secondary 
legislation and the policies of the Union. This part gives special attention to nuclear 
safety standards as underlined by the Cologne European Council. 
It also covers judicial and administrative capacity as requested by the Madrid 
European Council which underlined the necessity for the candidate countries to adapt 
their administrative structures so as to guarantee the harmonious implementation of 
Community policies after membership. 
The report takes into consideration progress since the 1998 Regular Report. It looks 
at whether intended reforms referred to in the 1998 Regular Reports have been carried 
out and examines new initiatives, including those directly related to addressing 
Accession Partnership priorities. The report contains a separate section which 
examines the extent to which Hungary has addressed the short term priorities and 
started to address the medium term priorities set out in the Accession Partnership. 
While the assessment of progress in meeting the political and acquis criteria focuses 
on that which has been accomplished since the last Regular Report, the economic 
assessment is based on a longer term evaluation of Hungary's economic performance. 
The assessment of progress made in adopting the acquis has been made on the basis 
of adopted legislation rather than legislation which is in various stages of either 
preparation or Parliamentary approval. This approach ensures equal treatment for all 
the candidate countries and permits objective assessment and comparison between 
countries in terms of concrete progress in preparation for accession. 
This report draws on numerous sources of information. The candidate countries were 
invited to provide information on progress made in preparations for membership since 
the publication of the last Regular Report. Their presentations at the meetings held 
under the auspices of the Europe Agreement, their National Programmes for the 
Adoption of the Acquis, the information provided in the context of the analytical 
examination of the acquis (screening) and in the negotiations were additional sources 
of information. Council deliberations and European Parliament reports and 
resolutions1 have been taken into account in the preparations. The Commission also 
drew on assessments made by various international organisations and in particular on 
contributions from the Council of Europe, the OSCE and the international financial 
institutions as well as non-governmental organisations. 
For the European Parliament the rapporteurs are A. Oostlander and E. Baron Crespo; Co-rapporteurs: 
M. Aelvoet, J. Donner, O. Von Habsburg, E. Caccavale, F. Kristoffersen, M. Hoff, C. Camera 
Gonzales, P. Bernard-Raymond, R. Speciale, J. Wiersma, J.W. Bertens, B. Malone. 
b) Relations Between the European Union and Hungary 
Developments under the EU-Hungary. Europe Agreement (including bilateral trade) 
Hungary has continued to implement the Europe Agreement correctly and contributed 
to the smooth functioning of the various joint institutions. 
The Association Council will meet in December 1999. An Association Committee 
meeting was held in February 1999. The system of sub-committees continues to 
function as a forum for technical discussions. 
Since the issuing of the last Commission's Report the Joint Parliamentary Committee 
comprising representatives of the Hungarian and European Parliament met once in 
February 1999. 
Hungary's trade with the EU has continued to increase. Hungarian exports to the EU 
rose from 11.7 billion Euro in 1997 to 14.5 billion Euro in 1998 and Hungarian 
imports from the EU from 13.6 billion Euro in 1997 to 16.7 billion Euro in 1998. The 
most important EU exports to Hungary in the first quarter of 1999 were machinery 
and electrical goods, transport equipment and chemical products. The most important 
EU imports from Hungary were machinery and electrical goods, transport equipment 
and textiles. 
Problems related to the implementation of the Europe Agreement continue to exist in 
the agricultural sector where Hungary granted Israel more favourable conditions than 
those granted to the EU. However, Hungary has indicated that it will renounce this 
agreement with Israel upon accession. The issue of tax discrimination on spirits has 
not yet been resolved. In March 1999, the Council mandated the Commission to open 
negotiations with the associated countries on new reciprocal concessions in the field 
of agriculture. In 1999, Hungary amended the procedure for the recognition of the 
certificate for imported wines originating in the European Union and abolished 
certificate requirements to which the EU objected. 
In March 1999 the EU imposed a definitive anti-dumping duty on imports of 
polypropylene binder or baler twine originating, inter alia, in Hungary. Further anti­
dumping proceedings have been initiated on imports of steel stranded ropes and 
cables originating, inter alia, in Hungary. 
Current discussions in the institutional framework of the Europe Agreement focus 
particularly on the implementation of the Accession Partnership priorities (see below), 
and seek to achieve progress in areas like excise duties, competition/state aid and the 
transition to the second stage to the Europe Agreement. In the competition/state aid 
context, the implementation of the Europe Agreement (article 62) is hampered by the 
fact that the Hungarian Constitutional Court declared that some provisions of the 
Hungarian implementing rules for competition are unconstitutional. The legal effect 
of this ruling is suspended until 31 December 1999 and the Hungarian authorities and 
the Commission are currently working on a solution to address this issue. In the area 
of industrial and conformity assessment, negotiations on a Protocol on European 
Conformity Assessment (PECA), designed to speed up the process of aligning 
Hungarian horizontal and technical legislation in this area to the acquis, are in a final 
stage. 
In 1997 Hungary carried out a first Joint Assessment with the Commission Services 
on medium term economic policy priorities and is working on a medium-term 
economic strategy together with a second Joint Assessment. 
Accession Partnership/ NPAA 
An Accession Partnership was adopted in March 1998. Its implementation is reviewed 
in chapter D of this Report. 
In July 1999 Hungary presented a revised National Programme for the Adoption of 
the Acquis (NPAA), in which it outlines its strategy for accession including how to 
achieve the priorities contained in the Accession Partnerships (see further part D). 
Pre-Accession Aid: Phare 
In 1999 Phare was the main instrument providing financial assistance to help 
Hungary's pre-accession strategy. 
The programme is "accession-driven", concentrating support on the Accession 
Partnership priorities which help the candidate countries to fulfil the Copenhagen 
criteria. Around 30% of the Phare allocation is used for "institution building" (i.e. 
helping the countries to improve their capacity to implement the Union Acquis; see 
twinning below) and the remaining 70% is used for financing investments to 
strengthen the regulatory infrastructure needed to ensure compliance with the acquis 
and to reinforce economic and social cohesion including the effects of restructuring in 
important sectors of the economy. 
The Phare programme allocated € 1.030 million to Hungary during the period 1990-
1999. 
The 1999 Phare Programme for Hungary consists of a national allocation of € 
102,87million, concentrated on the following priorities : 
• integrating the Roma in school and employment (€ 5 million) 
• reinforcing institutional and administrative capacity in financial services 
supervision, taxation, customs, agriculture and environment, ( € 35,2 million) 
• promoting SMEs, (€ 6,2 million) 
• strengthening co-operation in Justice and Home Affairs (border management, fight 
against organised crime, visa and migration policies), (€ 13,6 million) 
• infrastructure and transport investments (€ 20 million,) 
• development of public health laboratories (€ 8 million) 
• participation in various Community Programmes (€ 10,87 million) and Tempus (€ 
4 million) 
An additional € 10 million have been allocated for a cross-border co-operation (CBC) 
programme with Austria, € 5 million for the co-operation with Romania and 2 M€ for 
co-operation with Slovakia. 
Hungary also participates in and benefits from Phare funded multi-country and 
horizontal programmes such as TAEIX, the Small and Medium-sized Enterprises 
programme and the Large Scale Infrastructure Facility. 
Since 1990 Phare has provided support in addressing key economic transformation 
and structural reform issues. It has been delivered mainly in the form of technical 
assistance and used primarily in support of institution building and policy 
development. Increasingly Phare resources have also been mobilised in the form of 
support for investment priorities identified by the Government as essential to the 
fundamental restructuring of the economy over the medium term. 
Overall the impact of Phare has been positive. Effective transfer of know-how and 
scarce equipment and financial resources has taken place in a number of important 
fields such as industrial restructuring and privatisation, SME development, trade and 
investment promotion, energy, land registration, etc. Phare support to agriculture and 
SME development has succeeded in developing sector strategies and initiating 
essential institutional and financial mechanisms servicing enterprises in these sectors. 
Phare has for example played an important part in : 
• agriculture, where Phare has supported the creation of a Rural Credit Guarantee 
Fund (€ 20 million). This fund provides guarantees for medium-term and long-
term loans to small and medium-sized enterprises which otherwise lack collateral 
for the development of basic agricultural, commercial, industrial or service 
activities. So far, over 1,200 small and medium business operations, have received 
guarantees from the Fund allowing them to consolidate their financial basis. 
• the transport sector, Phare funding for the co-financing of major infrastructure 
projects has contributed to the realisation the Government's ambitious investment 
programme currently faced with severe domestic budgetary constraints. Through 
the combined mobilisation of domestic and foreign resources a major road 
network covering 30.000 km national highway network and more than 70% of the 
vehicular traffic could be rehabilitated. 
• the area of privatisation and restructurings Phare has provided assistance 
for developing a restructuring methodology and preparing 
restructuring projects for lead industrial companies. It has contributed 
to the stabilisation of around 15000 jobs which would have been lost 
otherwise. 
Phare Management System 
The Phare management system was reformed in 1998 and 1999 to improve the speed, 
efficiency, effectiveness and transparency of Phare activities. Phare assistance has 
been implemented on a decentralised basis since it began. The authorities in the 
partner country have taken responsibility for contracting and payment of the 
assistance. However the European Community's Financial Regulation requires that 
the Commission supervise the contracting procedure and endorse any contracts 
financed from Phare signed by the partner country before they go into effect. The 
regulation co-ordinating assistance from Phare, SAPARD and ISPA, which was 
approved in June 1999 will allow the Commission to move to ex post control of 
contracting where the Financial Control exercised by the partner country is deemed by 
the Commission to be sufficient. This possibility will be reviewed on a country-by-
country, sector-by-sector basis and introduced gradually. 
In the meantime, and in order to streamline the implementation of Phare programmes, 
the Commission has transferred much of the responsibility for the supervision of 
contracting to its Delegations in the candidate countries. 
Phare implementation structures have been rationalised in Hungary to increase 
transparency and avoid dispersion of funds. This process increases the responsibility 
of the candidate countries by using, as far as possible, sustainable institutions and 
implementing agencies which will be responsible for the management and 
implementation of programmes financed from Community funds after membership. 
Since December 1998, a National Fund located within the Hungarian State Treasury 
is the central entity through which Phare and other EU funds will be channeled. The 
National Fund has overall responsibility for financial management of funds and for 
ensuring that Phare procurement rules, reporting and financial management are 
respected, and that a there is proper project information system. A Central Finance 
and Contracting Unit has also been established within the State Treasury to increase 
visibility and transparency in financial administration, accounting and payments. As 
regards the investment side of Phare, Hungary started to establish a limited number of 
Implementing Agencies which will be responsible for the implementation for specific 
projects. 
After a decline of Hungary's capacity to absorb Phare funds in the last 4 years, 
substantial efforts were undertaken to increase the overall contracting level in 1999. 
Pre-Accession Aid 2000 
During the period 2000-2006, pre-accession aid to the candidate countries will be 
more than doubled. Alongside the Phare programme, it will, as from the year 2000, 
comprise aid for agricultural and rural development (SAPARD) and a structural 
instrument (ISPA), which will give priority to measures similar to those of the 
cohesion fund in environment and transport. 
In the years 2000-2002 total financial assistance available will be € 96 million for 
Phare, € 38,1 million for Sapard and between € 70 and 100 million for Ispa, per year. 
Twinning 
One of the important challenges the candidate countries are facing is the need to 
strengthen their administrative capacity to implement and enforce the acquis. The 
European Commission proposed to mobilise significant human and financial 
resources to help them in this respect, through the process of twinning of 
administrations and agencies. The vast body of Member States expertise is now being 
made available to the candidate countries, in particular through the long-term 
secondment of civil servants. The strong support and response from EU Member 
States has meant that twinning partnerships covering a total of 108 projects involving 
all candidate countries and almost all Member States are presently being 
implemented. 
Phare funding for twinning has so far focused primarily on the priority sectors of 
agriculture, environment, public finance, Justice and Home Affairs and preparatory 
measures for the Structural Funds. 
For Hungary, 16 projects have so far been twinned under Phare. Germany is leading a 
project to assist with implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy and, 
together with Spain, is also helping to plan capacity for structural and agri-
environmental development schemes. Three environment projects cover legal 
approximation in the environmental field, the establishment and management of a 
Central Environmental Protection Fund, and the implementation of the Habitats 
Directive. In the area of finance, France is leading projects to develop a state aid 
monitoring system and to monitor foreign aid, while Austria and the UK are working 
with their Hungarian partners to adapt the tax system. The UK is leading a project 
with Germany and Denmark to support the state aid office. Justice and Home Affairs 
projects include work on the fight against organised crime, development of capacity 
to deal with asylum and refugees, border management and the training of law 
enforcement bodies. Work is also underway on Single Market issues, notably the 
development of a market surveillance system in partnership with the UK, Sweden and 
France, and of product testing and certification bodies. France is leading a project to 
establish a framework for regional development and to prepare for pre-accession 
structural assistance. 
Twinning is foreseen for six projects under the Phare 1999 programme and will cover 
the fields of agricultural statistics, financial services supervision, management of 
public finances, taxation harmonisation, asylum, and public health. 
The negotiations/screening process 
The analytical examination of the acquis (screening) has been concluded for Hungary 
except with regard to the agricultural acquis, which is foreseen to be held in autumn 
1999. 
Since the opening of accession negotiations in March 1998, Hungary has participated 
in two rounds of Ministerial negotiations. As a result of these negotiations eight 
chapters have been provisionally closed (science and research, education and training, 
small and medium-sized enterprises, statistics, industrial policy, telecommunications, 
fisheries and consumer protection) while seven (CFSP, company law, free movement 
of goods, culture and audio-visual policy, external relations, customs union, 
competition policy) remain open. 
10 
B. Criteria for membership 
1. Political Criteria 
Introduction 
In its first regular report on the progress made by Hungary in its preparations for 
membership, the Commission concluded that: 
"Developments in Hungary confirm that Hungary fulfils the political Copenhagen 
criteria. Hungary's institutions continue to function smoothly. Elections have taken 
place in free and fair conditions and allowed a smooth transfer of power in 1998. 
Continued attention needs to be paid to combating corruption more effectively and to 
improving the situation of the Roma." 
In the 1998 Accession Partnership with Hungary "Further efforts to improve the 
situation of the Roma" were also mentioned as a medium-term priority. 
Recent developments 
In March 1999, Hungary became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation 
(NATO). In November 1998, Hungary took over the Presidency of the Council of 
Europe for six months. In October 1998, local elections were held for the third time 
since 1989. These included the election of mayors, local councils, county assemblies 
and local minority self-governments. Following an amendment to the national 
minority law, all 13 minorities have elected National Minority self-governments. 
1.1 Democracy and the Rule of Law 
As mentioned in the last Regular Report, Hungary has achieved stability of 
institutions guaranteeing democracy and the rule of law. This section therefore 
describes only the most significant developments of the past year. 
The Parliament 
Some preparatory steps were taken to ensure minority representation in Parliament, a 
right laid down in the Constitution and in the law on Minorities. However, no legislation 
on minority representation has yet been passed. 
The Executive 
The Government adopted a new development programme with the aim of enhancing 
public administration in four major areas: the development and strengthening of 
regional public administration, the de-centralisation of tasks from the national to the 
regional level, the modernisation of services for the public and career development for 
civil servants including financial incentives and training. The programme also 
11 
foresees a comprehensive review of salaries which will introduce performance -
related pay. 
The Judiciary 
Vacancies in the Constitutional Court are filled as they arise ensuring that the number of 
judges is always above the constitutional minimum. 
The judiciary continues to function satisfactorily, albeit slowly, due to the high case load. 
Whilst courts of first instance were able to reduce the backlog of cases registered in 
recent years, the number of appeal cases at the Supreme Court is increasing (see chapter 
4 on administrative capacity). In general, most criminal cases take more than one year, 
whereas civil cases are usually dealt with more rapidly. Following the judicial reform of 
1997, technical facilities at the courts have been modernised and auxiliary staff 
increased. 
Since 1998 the number of posts forjudges has remained constant. The judicial reform of 
1997 also resulted in improved pay for judges and regular training programmes 
organised by the National Judicial Council and the Law Training Institute. In 1998 some 
500 judges participated in training programmes on European Integration and 
Community Law. Judges are obliged to attend postgraduate courses on EU law to which 
they are invited. 
Anti-Corruption measures 
Hungary continues to face problems with corruption. The fight against corruption is 
one of the main priorities of the Government. 
The following measures have been taken to tackle the problem. 
• New rules were introduced with the modification of the Penal Code which came 
into effect in March 1999. These strengthened public safety and made 
punishments stricter. 
• New anti-corruption units have been set up at the National Headquarters of the 
Hungarian Police and at every regional border guard directorate. In addition, the 
Hungarian Border Guards concluded an anti-corruption co-operation agreement 
with their Romanian counterparts to reinforce controls in the Hungarian-
Romanian border region. 
• The Government is carrying out a complex review of all legislation in order to 
identify loopholes which provide potential for corruption. This review will need to 
be followed up by reinforcing inadequate legislation. 
• The Council of Europe Criminal Law Convention on Corruption was signed by 
Hungary in April 1999. In May 1999, Hungary signed an agreement in the context 
of the South East European Co-operation Initiative to tackle cross border crime 
and corruption. 
• The recommendation of the OECD on Bribery in International Business 
Transactions (OECD anti-Bribery Pact) was ratified by Hungary in September 1998. 
12 
According to the report of the Chief Prosecutors Office there were 455 registered 
cases of corruption in 1998 representing a 4% increase against 1997. 
1.2 Human Rights and the Protection of Minorities 
As mentioned in the last Regular Report, Hungary broadly continues to respect human 
rights and freedom and has already acceded to the most important human rights 
conventions (see annex). The following section concentrates only on major 
developments in the past year relevant to the Copenhagen criteria. 
In spring 1999, Hungary promulgated the European Charter for Regional or Minority 
Languages and the Council of Europe's Framework Convention for the Protection of 
National Minorities. In March 1999, the third Protocol to the General Agreement on 
Privileges and Immunities of the Council of Europe came into force. Hungary also 
adhered to the Council of Europe Resettlement Fund for National Refugees. 
Hungary ratified the European Social Charter of the Council of Europe in July 1999, 
although a number of articles have not been ratified because of their financial 
implications. The ratification of the Charter is a major step in the alignment of 
Hungarian social legislation with the Treaty of the European Union. 
Civil and Political Rights 
Hungary respects the freedom of the press. Nonetheless, there are some concerns about 
the government's perceived wish to be too directly involved in the operation of the 
media, by buying a newspaper, for example. The board of trustees of the public service 
TV is currently formed solely by pro-Government members, despite the fact that the 
Media Law provides for a politically balanced distribution of seats. 
The new asylum law of March 1998 resulted in a substantial improvement in the 
asylum system in Hungary. However, following the lifting of the geographical 
reservation to the Geneva Convention as a result of the new law, asylum seekers from 
any country may now apply to the Hungarian authorities for protection. As a 
consequence, the number of asylum seekers has grown significantly. This has lead to 
an overburdened administration and a shortage of judges able to hear appeals in a 
reasonable time. Asylum seekers and refugees are nevertheless accommodated in 
reception facilities which correspond to international standards. 
Illegal migrants, on the other hand, are placed in community shelters until the Court 
decides on their expulsion. In some community shelters, hygiene and living 
conditions are sub-standard. Recommendations made by the Ombudsman for Civic 
Rights led to the closure or up-grading of a number of community shelters. 
Official Hungarian statistics show that in 1998, over 30,000 persons were involved in 
illegal migration thereof around 18,000 persons in illegal border crossing. A new 
13 
Penal Code recognising trafficking in human beings entered into force in March 1999. 
No statistics for this traffic are yet available. 
The procedure for illegal migrants is to a large extent aligned with Community 
standards. The Supreme Court is the final court of appeal. In spite of the new asylum 
law, some problems remain. For example, there is a lack of clear responsibilities 
between the Office of Refugee and Migration Affairs and the other authorities 
involved and there remains limited legal remedy in cases of expulsion or re-
admission. In view of the growing flow of asylum seekers, further efforts are needed 
to upgrade shelters and to increase reception capabilities. Further planning and 
financial resources should therefore be made available. 
The UNHCR Branch Office in Budapest awarded its 1998 Menedek (Refugee) Prize 
to the Office of the Parliamentary Commissioner for Human Rights in recognition for 
its work in general and efforts on behalf of aliens, asylum-seekers and refugees in 
particular. The Refugee Prize was established in 1995 for outstanding contributions in 
the field of human rights. 
Although the authorities have dealt with specific cases, reports of police abuse of 
suspects continue. Many ordinary people are also reported to be ill-treated by the police 
in the course of simple identification checks. Persons detained by police complain about 
abuse and harassment. 
Prisons are generally over-crowded. The prison population exceeds capacity by 40% 
and the situation in many of the prisons is still of concern, (reported by the Ombudsman 
for Civic Rights) 
Restrictions on the purchase of land by foreigners exists only with regard to arable land. 
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 
Services for disabled people remain limited. Government legislation sets out that all 
public buildings need to be made accessible by 2009. Companies employing over 20 
persons are required to reserve 5% of posts for people suffering some form of handicap. 
A new tri-partite structure for reconciliation, social dialogue and negotiation has been set 
up in Hungary at the beginning of 1999 (see chapter 3 on employment and social 
affairs). 
Minority Rights and the Protection of Minorities 
Following the general elections in Slovakia in September 1998, the Basic Treaty, 
concluded in 1996, was finally fully implemented in November 1998. A joint 
Hungarian-Slovak committee supervising the implementation of minority issues as 
specified in the Basic Treaty began operations. Both the Hungarian minority in Slovakia 
(over 550,000 people) and the Slovak minority in Hungary (around 100,000 people) are 
represented in this joint committee. 
14 
Whilst the situation of other minorities does not pose any particular problem, continued 
attention needs to be paid to the respect of the human rights of the Roma by the 
Hungarian authorities (the Roma minority numbers between 400,000 and 600,000 
people). While their situation has not worsened, it has not improved markedly. 
Roma continue to suffer widespread prejudice and discrimination in their daily lives. 
They face discrimination in access to education, employment, public institutions and 
services. Their health and housing situation remain well below those of the rest of the 
population. More than 150 segregated schools remain throughout Hungary. 
International and non-governmental organisations reported institutional prejudice against 
Roma, and the use of force by the police. According to the Hungarian Government, 
identifying the ethnicity of offenders is not allowed under the data protection law and 
thus no statistical evidence on discrimination is available. 
In order to tackle prejudices between the Roma and the police, Government set up a 
specific programme in April 1999. Under the programme, police will have an obligation 
to receive representatives of the local Roma self-government in case of complaint. 
The Ombudsman for Minority Rights has been critical about labour market access for 
Roma. He stated that there is no de jure, but there is de facto discrimination against 
Roma people looking for a job. To remedy the situation, the Ombudsman proposes 
obliging the labour centres to report on cases of discrimination against Roma, as well as 
excluding employers engaged in such practices from public works contracts. 
The Government has adopted a revised medium-term action programme aimed at 
improving the living conditions of the Roma. The programme puts particular 
emphasis on improved education and employment possibilities through extended 
scholarships along with social, health and housing measures and agricultural projects. 
It contains a communication strategy and anti-discrimination measures. Yearly action 
programmes for the implementation of the measures defined in the medium-term 
programme are worked out in coordination with the National Roma Self-Government 
and the Office for National and Ethnic Minorities. Line Ministries will have to plan 
separate budget items for the implementation of the different measures within the 
action programme. An interministerial Committee for Roma affairs headed by the 
Minister of Justice will be responsible for handling Roma issues and for supervising 
the implementation of the action programme. 
Public funding for the Roma in 1999 included € 0.5 million for the National Roma 
Government and around € 3 million for local minority self-Governments. In addition, 
€ 2 million was provided by the state for Roma Foundations. Additional support for 
the Roma minority was given through the Ministry of Education's public works 
programmes and in the framework of the development of cultural institutions and 
services for Roma. 
Following the elections of the local minority self-governments, the number of Roma 
self-governments has almost doubled. This trend can be interpreted as an increasing 
participation of Roma in public life. Specific Roma Community centres (established 
with financial support from the State budget) support local communities and 
contribute to preserving Roma culture. 
15 
Despite the steps taken, the situation of the Roma remains very difficult. Further 
attention needs to be paid to fighting the prejudices of the majority of the population, 
to ending discriminatory practices in public services, and to the full enforcement of 
the revised medium term action programme at regional and local level. These actions 
need to be accompanied by adequate budgetary provisions. 
1.3 General evaluation 
Hungary fulfils the Copenhagen political criteria. Two areas still need attention. The 
first is the situation of the Roma, where the government is beginning to implement its 
medium-term Roma action plan and needs to make available adequate budgetary 
resources. The second is the fight against corruption where recent efforts need to be 
re-inforced. 
16 
2. Economic criteria 
2.1 Introduction 
In its 1997 Opinion on Hungary's application for EU membership, the Commission 
concluded: 
"Hungary can be regarded as a functioning market economy"; "it should be well able 
to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the Union in the medium 
term". 
This finding was confirmed in the 1998 Regular Report. 
In examining the economic developments in Hungary since the Opinion, the 
Commission's approach was guided by the conclusions of the European Council in 
Copenhagen in June 1993 which stated that membership of the Union requires: 
• the existence of a functioning market economy; 
• the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the 
Union. 
In the analysis below, the Commission has followed the methodology applied in the 
Opinion and the 1998 Regular Report. 
2.2 Economic developments 
Since mid-1998, economic activity in Hungary has remained strong, inflation has 
fallen markedly and employment has grown for the first time this decade. The 
increase of domestic demand and the deterioration of the international environment 
have led to a widening current account deficit. In the wake of Russian crisis in August 
1998, the National Bank of Hungary successfully defended the country's crawling peg 
exchange rate regime. The 1998 fiscal target was met, but the government's budgetary 
performance in 1999 has been a cause of increasing concern. On structural reform, 
Hungary has continued to make progress. 
Macroeconomic developments 
In 1998, the Hungarian economy expanded by 5.1% and GDP growth became 
increasingly driven by domestic demand. The recovery of private consumption, which 
grew by 3.8%, strengthened throughout the year, and retail sales went up for the first 
time since 1993. Investment continued to be strong; capital expenditure on machinery 
increased by more than 20%. Exports also expanded strongly in 1998, by 16% in real 
terms, but their growth dropped from nearly 30% year-on-year in the first quarter to 
less than 10% in the fourth. This sharp fall is only partly explained by the drop in 
sales to Russia. Other factors were the general slowdown in world demand, the 
17 
increased competition from Asian producers on third markets and the slower 
expansion of Hungary's export capacity compared to the past. Rising domestic 
demand for investment goods and consumer durables, on the other hand, led to higher 
imports. They grew much faster than exports for the first time since the stabilisation 
package of 1995. In the last quarter of 1998, however, year-on-year import growth 
dropped markedly, as investment and consumption growth started to decline. 
Value added growth in 1998 has largely followed past trends; it increased by 12.1% in 
the construction sector, by 7.5% in transport and telecommunications and by 11.8% in 
the industrial sector. Food processing and agricultural value added contracted slightly 
in 1998, as a small increase in livestock production was offset by a fall in crop output. 
In the first few months of 1999, year-on-year industrial output growth fell below 10%. 
Unemployment fell to 7% in the last quarter of 1998 as a result of the first increase in 
Hungarian employment of the past decade. In the first quarter of 1999, it edged up to 
7.4% of the labour force. 
In 1998 the current account deficit increased to almost 5% of GDP - double its 1997 
level - and it continued to widen during the first quarter of 1999, albeit at a slower 
pace. This development was driven by two factors: the divergent trends in the export 
and import of goods and services, and the rise in profit remittances by foreign 
companies. Non-debt creating capital inflows (equity and FDI) were insufficient to 
cover the country's rising external financing needs, causing the stock of foreign debt 
to increase for the first time since 1996. Nevertheless, debt service indicators 
continued to improve. 
Inflation fell sharply to an average of 14.3% in 1998, dropped to single-digit levels in 
January of this year, and stood at 8.9% year-on-year in May. This deceleration was 
initially due to a reduction in the rate of increase of food, energy and regulated prices. 
However, more recently fuel and energy prices have started pick up. The reduction of 
inflation was also helped by the slowdown in nominal wage growth and the 
diminishing pace of the devaluation of the forint. Real wage growth was again higher 
than planned - at 3.6% - but any inflationary impact of wage increases was offset by 
more rapid productivity growth. 
The National Bank of Hungary (NBH) faced new challenges in the wake of the 
Russian crisis. The widening of the current account deficit and the unfavourable fiscal 
performance in 1999 up to now have contributed to an increase in the risk premium 
on assets denominated in forint. Nominal interest rates have continued to decline, 
with the notable exception of a spike in bond yields and lending rates at the height of 
last year's international financial turmoil. Credit growth remained buoyant throughout 
1998, reversing past trends by rising in real terms. Its most dynamic part is still loans 
to enterprises, but from mid-1998 credit growth to households also turned positive. 
Hungary has continued to operate the crawling peg exchange rate regime established 
in 1995, replacing the D-mark by the euro in the currency basket from January 1999. 
When the forint dropped to the weakened within its narrow fluctuation band in 
September 1998, the NBH reduced the monthly rate of devaluation, intervened on the 
exchange market and, eventually raised official interest rates. This successful defence 
of the forint was followed by a return of official rates to their old levels and by new 
18 
cuts in the rate of devaluation (by 0.1 percentage points in January, July and October 
1999; it now stands at 0.4% per month). Last year, the real effective exchange rate 
depreciated as a result of the steeper-than-anticipated decline in inflation. 
With an estimated general government deficit below 5% of GDP in 1998, the fiscal 
authorities consider that they have met their target. As in the last two years, higher-
than-expected central government revenues offset a higher-than-targeted deficit on 
social security. Nevertheless, for the second time in a row, the primary surplus 
declined and the operational deficit (the fiscal deficit net of all the effects induced by 
inflation) worsened. The budget for 1999 plans a general government deficit of 4% of 
GDP with a slight increase in the primary surplus. By May, however, the general 
government deficit already accumulated to more than 85% of its annual target. The 
Health Fund continues to overshoot and the budgetary performance of the central 
government has also been disappointing so far due to lower-than-expected VAT 
receipts and high spending on agricultural subsidies. 
The government has taken a series of measures in an attempt to address the fiscal 
weakness evident during the first half of 1999. In February the government decided 
to freeze the recourse to a special contingency reserve, equivalent to some 0.4% of 
GDP. In July, the government announced that it would leave both VAT and personal 
income tax rates unchanged during 2000, while the rules on VAT reclaims would be 
tightened. In an effort to compensate for the increased costs of changes in sickness 
benefit, the government also announced that it would introduce a new tax on certain 
types of insurance. 
Main Economic Trends 
Hungary 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 latest 
19 
Real GDP growth rate 
Inflation rate 
- annual average 
- December-on-December 
Unemployment rate, end-year 
- ILO definition 
General government budget balance 
Current account balance 
Foreign debt2 
- debt export ratio 
- gross foreign debt 
Foreign direct investment net inflow 
- according to EBRD 
- balance of payments data per cent 
per cent 
per cent 
per cent 
per cent of GDP 
per cent of GDP 
million ECU/€ 
per cent 
per cent 
billion ECU/6 
billion ECU/€ 
per cent of GDP 
million ECU/€ 1.5 
28.3 
28.4 
10.2 
-6.6 
-5.5 
-1837 
186 
24.5 
10.0 
3408 1.3 
23.5 
19.7 
9.9 
-3.2 
-3.7 
-1319 
144 
21.7 
4.4 
1585 4.6 
18.3 
18.5 
8.7 
-5.4 
-2.1 
-840 
97 
74 
20.9 
18.7 
3.6 
1464 5.1 
14.3 
10.4 
7.8 
-4.8 
-2059 
104 
72 
23.9 
18.4 
3.1 
1293 3.8 
14.9 
8.9 Jan-Mar 
Jan-May 
May 
-759 Jan-May 
415 
Source: National sources, OECD external Debt Statistics, IMF Government Finance Statistics, EBRD. 
Structural reforms 
A few large enterprises are still listed for privatisation, and the state is holding some 
minority stakes. At the end of 1998, the privatisation agency held stakes in some 388 
enterprises, 150 of which were undergoing bankruptcy proceedings; two-thirds of the 
privatisation agency's total equity portfolio is linked to enterprises which are to 
remain under state ownership. The privatisation agency is now also responsible for 
managing the assets which were previously in the hands the social security funds, as 
well as for the shareholdings of the state in the banking sector. The latter increased 
significantly when the bailout of Postabank - the second largest commercial bank at 
the end of 1997 - returned it to state ownership. The total revenues from divestiture in 
1998 amounted to nearly €48 million. In May 1999, a 5.7% minority stake in the 
telecommunication company MATAV was sold for € 300.2 million. 
At the end of 1998, the Ministry of Finance provided some Euro 600 million (roughly 
1.5% of GDP) for a comprehensive bailout of Postabank in order to prepare it for 
restructuring and re-privatisation. The smaller Realbank was also hit by a solvency 
crisis. After being taken over by the National Deposit Insurance Fund and 
insufficiently re-capitalised, it was filed for liquidation in early 1999. Furthermore, six 
small brokerage firms went bankrupt as the sharp drop in the stock exchange index 
following the Russian crisis revealed weaknesses in their operation. In the area of 
The first row is taken from national sources. The data in the second row are the result of 
cooperation between BIS, IMF, OECD and World Bank. This source should be more reliable in terms 
of broader coverage, avoidance of double counting, etc., as well as improved timeliness. 
20 
financial sector development, the introduction of universal banking at the beginning 
of 1999 is worth noting. 
The 1999 budget law contains a number of noteworthy improvements, such as the 
combined collection of tax and social security obligations and the incorporation into 
the state budget of four of the six remaining extra-budgetary funds. Over the medium 
term, the government envisages a further reduction in the tax burden on labour by 
cutting the marginal rates of personal income tax and by replacing general tax credits 
with specific ones, such as those for children. As a first step, the rate of social security 
contributions was also cut, accompanied by a broadening of the social security tax 
base. On the expenditure side, mean testing for family allowances was abolished and 
exemptions for higher education fees were re-introduced. The mandatory contribution 
rate to the second pillar was left unchanged, even though the pension reform law 
envisaged a rise from 6% to 7%. On the other hand, the indexation of pensions to the 
previous year's nominal wage increase was abolished ahead of schedule. 
Nevertheless, the new administration, has been slow to spell out its structural reform 
agenda in detail. Plans for the overhaul of the health sector and the approval of an 
economic strategy have suffered delays. This has pushed back the revision of the Joint 
Assessment of medium-term economic policy priorities with the Commission. 
Overall, Hungary has made further progress on structural issues, particularly in the 
area of fiscal reform. Reform within the state owned enterprise sector has continued, 
but the pace of privatisation is slowing as an inevitable consequence of the significant 
progress made in previous years. However, progress on health sector reform has been 
disappointing, while the government's decision not to increase contributions to the 
second pillar threatens the long term viability of the new pension system. 
Main Indicators of Economic Structure in 1998 
Population (average) thousand 
GDP per head PPS-€ 
per cent of 
EU average 10114 
9800 
49 
21 
Share of agriculture3 in: 
- gross value added per cent 
- employment per cent 
Investment-to-GDP ratio per cent 
Gross foreign debt/GDP per cent 
Exports of goods & per cent 
services/GDP 
Stock of foreign direct billion € 
investment, according to € per head 
EBRD 5.96 
7.5 
22.26 
47.0 
55.0 
14.1 
1395 
Source: National sources, OECD external Debt Statistics, IMF, EBRD 
2.3 Assessment in terms of the Copenhagen criteria 
The existence of a functioning market economy 
As set out in Agenda 2000, the existence of a functioning market economy requires 
that prices, as well as trade, are liberalised and that an enforceable legal system, 
including property rights, is in place. Macroeconomic stability and consensus about 
economic policy enhance the performance of a market economy. A well-developed 
financial sector and the absence of any significant barriers to market entry and exit 
improve the efficiency of the economy. 
Last year's change in government did not lead to a fundamental reorientation of 
economic priorities, confirming the existence of a broad consensus about essential 
economic policy issues. However, the decision to leave the mandatory contribution 
rate to the second pillar of the new pension system unchanged, as opposed to the 
provisions of the pension reform law, casts some doubt on the commitment of the new 
government to a key reform legacy. The new administration has sketched some 
tentative proposals for an in-depth reform of the health sector and has already carried 
out an institutional reform of the social dialogue. 
Even though external financing has so far been readily available, the current account 
deficit should be brought back to a level compatible with a non-increasing ratio of 
foreign debt to GDP. On this point, fiscal policy has been less supportive than in the 
past and efforts towards fiscal consolidation should not be relinquished. Although the 
still high government debt has continued to fall, the decline in the primary surplus has 
contributed to the deterioration of the external accounts in 1998. Co-ordination 
between Hungarian policymakers is good, as shown by their adequate response to last 
Autumn's financial turmoil. 
3 Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing. 
22 
Market mechanisms are working in most sectors of the Hungarian economy, 
underpinned by general economic stability. The large majority of prices are freely 
set; regulated prices account for 16.5% of the consumer price index. Moreover, at the 
end of 1998, the private sector accounted for some 80% of GDP and the privatisation 
process is nearly completed. Only the power transmission company MVM and 
Postabank are still up for privatisation. Yet, the government's decision to keep a stake 
in a number of enterprises, spanning a wide range of sectors, is in sharp contrast with 
the earlier accomplishments. 
Land markets are developing: a large part of the land used by larger individual farms 
and companies is leased, and part even purchased. Lease contracts grow in terms of 
duration and sophistication, improving tenure security for the farms and thereby 
incentives for investment. The main form of agricultural support is market price 
support policies, as well as credit subsidies and export subsidies. 
The establishment of new firms in Hungary remains buoyant, with the total number of 
entries increasing by 11% in 1998. Bankruptcy procedures also continue to be 
relatively efficient. Between 1992 and September 1998, there were nearly fifty 
thousands filings for liquidation; the court backlog has been reduced to less than 20% 
of all cases filed over the years. 
Contract enforcement in Hungary is good and investors generally consider the 
business climate to be positive. The regulatory framework for the largely privatised 
utility sector is advanced, although there remains a need to fine-tune regulations and 
build up experience in implementation. 
The financial sector has continued to develop, but the size of its operations leaves 
much scope for further improvements in intermediation. Competition among banks is 
strong; the spread between lending and deposit rates has fallen to 3.8% in 1998. 
Operating costs remain high and profitability varies considerably, so that further 
consolidation of the banking sector is likely. The share of classified assets fell to 7% 
in 1998, while the average risk-weighted capital adequacy ratio was 13% for large 
banks and 17% for medium-sized ones. Credit to households and enterprises is 
growing, but the access of SMEs, municipalities and house buyers to local banks 
remains difficult. Similar considerations apply to the non-banking financial sector. 
The insurance sector is growing rapidly from a low base, while institutional investors 
are expected to play an increasing role with the emergence of the new pension system. 
The combined assets of mutual and pension funds amount to some 4% of GDP at this 
point in time. The capitalisation of the stock exchange is equivalent to 12% of GDP, 
and its growth is driven by privatisation rather than new equity issues. 
Given the pace of development of the financial sector, there is a need to strengthen 
the supervision and fill in the regulatory gaps of companies which operate on various 
segments of the financial markets. In particular, the authorities should take great care 
to warrant the adequate and independent supervision of new pension providers, and 
avoid that modifications of the original pension reform plans undermine the trust of 
savers and pension funds in the new institutional arrangements. 
Hungary is a functioning market economy and the legal and institutional structures 
which underpin the market economy have been further strengthened. There remains, 
23 
however, a need to fine-tune financial regulation and to enforce its implementation. 
The sustained pursuit of reform in a stable macroeconomic environment has greatly 
enhanced the functioning of the Hungarian market economy. To preserve these 
conditions, the government should clarify its health and social security reform agenda 
and take the actions needed to ensure fiscal consolidation in the medium term. 
The capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces 
within the Union 
As set out in Agenda 2000, Hungary's ability to fulfil this criterion depends on the 
existence of a market economy and a stable macroeconomic framework, allowing 
economic agents to make decisions in a climate of predictability. It also requires a 
sufficient amount of human and physical capital, including infrastructure. State 
enterprises need to be restructured and all enterprises need to invest to improve their 
efficiency. Furthermore, the more access enterprises have to outside finance and the 
more successful they are at restructuring and innovating, the greater will be their 
capacity to adapt. Overall, an economy will be better able to take on the obligations of 
membership the higher the degree of economic integration it achieves with the Union 
prior to accession. Both the volume and the range of products traded with EU 
Member States provide evidence of this. 
Over the last decade, the competitiveness of the Hungarian economy has radically 
improved as a result of widespread enterprise restructuring, extensive green-field 
investment and high FDI inflows. The early establishment of a functioning market 
economy has been instrumental in achieving this result. Since the adjustment package 
of 1995, macroeconomic conditions have also been favourable. 
Investment has steadily risen to 23.5% of GDP last year. Hungary has an impressively 
long record in attracting FDI, which is associated with beneficial transfers of 
technology and know how. Between 1989 and 1998, Hungary has received foreign 
direct investment inflows amounting to € 14.1 billion. However, since there is a 
growing need for returns on the increasing stock of FDI, a larger part of domestic 
savings should be geared towards investments needed to catch up faster with EU 
member states. 
To a large extent, Hungary has established the institutional infrastructure and initiated 
the reforms required to reap the full benefits of private initiative in a wide range of 
activities. This includes utility services, pension provision and research and 
development. Yet, Hungary still faces many difficult challenges, among which the 
reform of the health sector. The combination of a weak institutional framework and 
adverse demographic trends will lead to a worsening of the health situation. A lack of 
reform in this area would have financial consequences, posing a serious threat to the 
long-term sustainability of the public finance situation, as well as depressing effects 
on productivity. 
Thanks to its fairly liberal trade regime and its comparative advantage in human 
capital intensive goods, Hungarian exporters have already reached an adequate degree 
of competitiveness vis-a-vis EU producers. They sell more than 70% of their exports 
on the EU markets, which in return are the source of more than 60% of Hungarian 
24 
imports. Much of this is intra-industry trade, in particular in manufacturing and, 
increasingly, the machinery industry. This trend is supported by a continuing real 
depreciation of the effective exchange rate measured in unit labour costs. Sustained 
investment and advanced restructuring, often backed by foreign capital and 
technology, have led to a re-orientation of trade towards higher value-added export 
goods. Multinational enterprises gradually integrate a larger share of the Hungarian 
economy into the global network of production and distribution by establishing 
subsidiaries, taking ownership stakes in Hungarian firms and developing a local chain 
of suppliers. 
Further improvements of the local education system and further reductions in the high 
non-wage labour costs, notably by moving ahead with the reform of the health 
system, are needed to preserve the smooth functioning of the labour market. 
In combination with a fully operational SME strategy, this would also help the 
development of small and medium enterprises. 
The number of SMEs has continued to exhibit dynamic growth. They now generate 
45% of Hungary's GDP and employ 70% of the workforce. Most of the SMEs 
operate in the services and construction sectors and have only a limited involvement 
in foreign trade. However, micro and small enterprises face difficulties which are 
partly related to fairly high administrative burdens (complexity of rules) and to tax 
burdens which are much higher than for large enterprises. The medium term strategy 
adopted in December 1998 will attempt to address these problems, in particular by 
improving both the regulatory framework and the access of SMEs to finance. 
Individual farms now use more than half of agricultural land in Hungary, but co­
operatives and companies remain important. A new form of agricultural labour 
subsidies was introduced in 1998 to stimulate agricultural employment. 
Hungary should be well able to cope with competitive pressure and market forces 
within the Union in the medium term, provided the conditions supporting investment 
growth and restructuring remain in place. It has acquired high credentials for efficient 
macroeconomic management, which has allowed high inflows of FDI, leading to a 
modernisation of the economy and the resulting trade integration in the EU. This 
reputation should not be jeopardised. Urgent measures are needed to reform the health 
system and to put public finance on a sounder footing. This will also foster the further 
development and competitiveness of the enterprise sector. 
2.4 General evaluation 
Hungary is a functioning market economy and the legal and institutional structures 
which underpin the market economy have been further strengthened. It should be able 
to cope with the competitive pressure and market forces within the Union in the 
medium term, provided it continues to make further progress in structural reforms. 
Macroeconomic stability has been maintained, inflation has fallen and economic 
growth has continued. However, the widening current account, if unchecked, could 
threaten the macroeconomic gains achieved in recent years. Progress has been made 
in a number of structural areas, most notably budgetary reform, pension reform, and 
25 
privatisation. However, recent decisions affecting the pension system have called into 
question the government's commitment to pension reform. 
The deterioration of the fiscal deficit needs to be addressed. Priority should be given 
to health sector reform which continues to be a major drain in the fiscal accounts. In 
order to ensure current account sustainability, it is important that the fiscal targets for 
1999 and 2000 are met. 
26 
3. Ability to assume the obligations of membership 
This section aims to update the Commission's Regular Report of 1998 on Hungary's 
ability to assume the obligations of membership - that is to say the legal and 
institutional framework, known as the acquis through which the Union implements its 
objectives. 
In the 1998 Regular Report on Hungary's progress towards accession, the 
Commission concluded that: 
"Hungary continues to approach the approximation process in a balanced manner. 
The rhythm of transposition has remained steady and has generally been accompanied 
by adequate institutional and financial provisions facilitating implementation. A slow 
down in the pace of transposition in certain sectors such as the environment, has been 
accompanied by an increased focus on strengthening implementation structures. This 
suggests that the objective of effective application, rather than simply transposition, is 
being meaningfully pursued. Continued priority is being placed on the completion of 
internal market legislation. Hungary has shown determination to tackle the complex 
area of justice and home affairs, putting in place a strategy and adopting measures 
which are already beginning to show results. 
While Hungary has addressed the Accession Partnership short term priorities in the 
economic reform area, in reinforcing veterinary and phytosanitary and financial 
control institutions and in justice and home affairs, insufficient attention has been paid 
to strengthening regional development structures and to the internal market priorities 
of alignment of copyright and public procurement and enforcement of state aid 
legislation." 
The presentation set out below uses the same structure as the 1998 Regular Report 
and focuses on progress made since last October. Under each heading, legislative 
decisions and progress in implementing and enforcing the legislation are reported. 
3.1 Internal market without frontiers 
The Union's internal market is defined in Article 14 of the Treaty as an area without 
internal frontiers in which free movements of goods, persons, services and capital is 
ensured. This internal market, central to the integration process, is based on an open-
market economy in which competition and economic and social cohesion must play a 
full part. 
Effective implementation and enforcement of these four freedoms requires not only 
compliance with such important principles as, for example, non-discrimination or 
mutual recognition of national legislation, but also the effective application of 
common rules, such as those designed for safety, environmental or consumer 
protection, as well as effective means of redress. The same principles apply to certain 
common rules, for example in the areas of public procurement, intellectual property 
and data protection, which are important in shaping the general framework within 
which the economies operate. 
27 
The basic principles of EU public procurement rules are already in place in Hungary 
and the current legislation is applied in a transparent manner. The procurement market 
is in principle open to European companies. However, there are still local preferences 
in place. In September 1999, Hungary amended its law on Public Procurement to 
exempt projects co-financed by EU funds from the National Preference Clause. The 
number of tenders advertised continued to increase over the last year from 4,338 in 
1997 to 4,481 in 1998 (with an increase in value of 25%) whilst the number of closed 
procedures decreased. The remaining discrepancies with the acquis relate to the value 
of thresholds, the lack of choice between open and restricted procedures, the deadlines 
for submission of tenders as well as the definition of public works and the application 
of the National Preference Clause. As to the enforcement and the remedies 
procedures, the rules for initiating proceedings and for utilities need to be further 
aligned. Despite the fact that the Public Procurement Council has launched a training 
initiative, enforcement of public procurement rules needs to be strengthened. 
The framework legislation in the field of intellectual property is to a large extent in 
line with the acquis. In September 1999, further progress has been made with the 
adoption of amending legislation which provides in particular for protection of 
computer programmes, rental and lending rights, certain rights related to copyright, 
including satellite broadcasting and cable retransmission and the legal protection of 
databases (but for sui generis databases). This law contains certain transitional 
arrangements. In November 1998, Hungary deposited its ratification instruments of 
the two new intellectual property conventions (the WTPO treaties). Hungary 
promulgated the WTO/TRIPS Agreement on intellectual property as well as the 1961 
Rome Convention on the protection of performing artists, producers of phonograms 
and broadcasting organisations. However, further and timely legislative alignment is 
still necessary in respect of Article 10 of the Directive on the term of protection. 
Further progress has been achieved as regards the enforcement of intellectual and 
industrial property rights by strengthening controls at the borders and amending the 
related criminal provisions. Nevertheless, in order to ensure more efficient 
enforcement, specific training programmes are required. Hungary will also have to 
make further efforts in the field of patents, in particular concerning pharmaceutical 
products. Hungary will also have to make further efforts in the field of patents, in 
particular concerning protection of pharmaceuticals products, in order to fully comply 
with the EU level of protection. 
As foreseen under the Europe Agreement, Hungary has applied to accede to the 
Munich Convention on the Grant of European Patents and has been invited to become 
member as of July 2002. The Trademark Law Treaty was ratified by Hungary in 
November 1998. 
Legislation in the field of company law is already aligned to a large extent. Further 
important progress has been achieved, as foreigners can now establish themselves as 
private entrepreneurs in Hungary (see chapter on free movement of persons). 
Remaining differences with the acquis are few and concern mainly the scope of the 
'nullity' provision, rules applied to groups of companies and publicity requirements in 
the case of mergers. 
In the field of accounting and auditing law, Hungary had already achieved a high 
degree of conformity. However, no further progress has been made. 
28 
In the area of personal data protection, Hungary has already achieved a substantial 
degree of alignment. A law adopted in June 1999 introduced technical amendments, 
such as the "data processor" concept beside that of data controller. In the field of 
customs, provisions on criminal investigations have been further harmonised by 
amending the Hungarian Customs Law on data handling and data protection within 
the Hungarian Customs and Finance Guard. Further legislative fine-tuning is still 
necessary. 
The four freedoms 
In its Opinion, the Commission indicated that Hungary had already made good 
progress in guaranteeing the 'four freedoms'. The subsequent Regular Report focused 
on the continued need for progress in the field of standardisation and in liberalising 
the service sector. 
Free movement of goods 
In the field of standardisation the transposition rate of European standards into 
Hungarian legislation had been rather low. Some further progress in the adoption of 
European standards has been made and a level of alignment of approximately 45% 
has been reached. However, Hungary needs to accelerate in order to reach the 80% 
transposition rate which is a pre-condition for full membership of the European 
Standard Bodies CEN and CENELEC. Detailed rules on the designation of 
conformity assessment bodies have been adopted in 1999, implementing the general 
rules in this field. 
Hungary has already put in place the general principles of the New and Global 
approach. Efforts have been concentrated on the practical implementation of 
legislation on these principles. In the sectors covered by New Approach Directives 
important progress can be noted as regards the transposition of the toys, machinery, 
lifts, pressure vessels, non-automatic weighing instruments and gas appliances 
directives. In 1999 provisions on classification, packaging and labelling of dangerous 
preparations have been adopted. Further harmonisation efforts have been undertaken 
in the sectors of foodstuffs (food additives and hygiene) electromagnetic 
compatibility, pre-packaging, recreational craft and construction products. The Law 
on Medicines for Human Use has further aligned Hungarian legislation as regards the 
distribution of pharmaceuticals. Outstanding issues relate to motor vehicles, 
pharmaceutical products, cosmetics, legal metrology, wood and crystal glass where 
additional efforts are still needed to align the Hungarian legislation with the acquis. 
Further efforts are required as regards the transposition of the directive on general 
product safety and the creation of the necessary enforcement necessary structures (see 
also the chapter on Consumer Protection). 
Free movement of capital 
29 
Hungary has already achieved significant progress in the liberalisation of capital 
movements. Medium and long term market transactions are liberalised with the 
exception of outward financial credits and certain operations on collective investment 
and undertakings. Export of Hungarian and foreign currency is possible. Resident 
foreign exchange banks have received the full right to operate on non-resident 
accounts. Following these major steps forward taken in the preceding reporting 
period, there has been a pause in further liberalisation in Hungary. 
In 1998, Hungary experienced notable short-run, knock-on effects on the capital and 
financial markets. Foreign portfolio outflows amounted to more than €1.1 billion in 
August to September 1998, concurrent with a sharp fall in stock prices and increase in 
bond yields, as well as pressure on the Forint. Based on this experience the 
Hungarian authorities, feeling the need to keep some control on short term capital 
movements, decided to revise their earlier plans to abolish, by the end of year 2000, 
the remaining short-term restrictions. No new time-frame has been given other than 
the pledge to remove all short-term restrictions by the date of accession at the latest. 
The main remaining restrictions are on the acquisition of real estate, on portfolio 
investments abroad by insurance companies and pension funds, as well as on short-
term capital movements aimed at sheltering the Forint from external pressure. 
Free movement of services 
In relation to financial services, Hungary has already achieved a substantial degree of 
alignment. In the banking sector the directives on banking co-ordination, Solvency 
ratio and bank accounts directives have been further aligned. Universal banking has 
become possible since January 1999 along with a real Time Gross Settlement System 
which should facilitate the integration of Hungary's large value payment system with 
those of Member States. Some progress has also been made as regards alignment in 
the field of electronic payment systems. Further efforts are needed in particular for the 
transposition of the Directives on Netting, Capital Adequacy and Supervision on a 
consolidated basis, as well as of the Directive on the strengthening of the prudential 
supervision of financial constructions (post - BCCI). Supervision of banking 
activities is performed by the State Supervising Authority for Money and Capital 
Market which carried out 161 inspections over the last year . In 15 cases the activity 
of the financial institutions was suspended and in two cases permission to issue value 
papers was not granted (see also chapter 4 on administrative capacity). In the 
insurance sector restrictions still exist on investments abroad as well as certain 
obligations to invest in State debt instruments. For example, life insurance companies 
must invest 30% of their reserves in State debt instruments and non-life insurers must 
maintain 40% of reserves in cash or State debt instruments. The freedom for insurers 
to set tariffs for motor insurance has been enhanced and rules concerning the supply 
of insurance have been further aligned with the acquis. The supervision of insurance 
companies has been made more effective. 
In the area of securities Hungary has already achieved a substantial level of 
alignment. As regards the UCITS directive on securities, the activity of the fund 
manager and the composition of the portfolio of the managed fund need to be further 
defined. 
30 
Although Hungary's law on money laundering is to a large extent in accordance with 
the acquis, full alignment will still require some amendments and in particular a 
phasing-out of existing anonymous accounts. 
Free movement of persons 
As concerns the freedom of establishment, Hungary had already made considerable 
progress. The entry into force in February 1999 of the law on self-employment 
represents a significant step forward. EU citizens can now establish themselves as 
self-employed persons and operate under the same conditions as Hungarians. 
Nationality requirements on foreigners wishing to establish themselves as self-
employed persons have been repealed, notably for the professions of medical doctor, 
pharmacists, and veterinarian. Limitations remain, however, particularly in relation to 
lawyers. 
In relation with the mutual recognition of professional qualification and diplomas, 
Hungary is largely in compliance with the acquis. Some progress has been made in 
the area of agricultural higher education. Further alignment is needed with regard to 
the distinction between academic and professional recognition. The necessary 
professional structures exist for most professions, although some further strengthening 
remains necessary. 
Hungarian legislation related to student mobility rights and free movement of workers 
is only partially aligned. 
Competition 
Hungarian antitrust legislation is to a large extent aligned with the acquis. Three 
further block exemption regulations on Research and Development, specialisation and 
technology transfer agreements have recently been adopted. 
The Hungarian Competition Office has a good enforcement record. In 39 cases the 
law was broken (including 30 consumer fraud cases, one cartel case and five cases of 
abuse of position, see chapter 4 on administrative capacity). Although the 
Competition office has, to date, mainly intervened to resolve minor competition cases, 
it has also efficiently prevented unfair competition in cases where important 
Hungarian companies have been involved (for example, the decision to prohibit a 
merger between the main Hungarian telecom company MATAV and a smaller 
company in the sector). 
Hungary has also progressed in the state aids field: the new legislation adopted in 
May 1999 clearly identified the State Aids Monitoring Authority. Efforts to increase 
transparency in state aid schemes have also been made, as demonstrated by the annual 
reports on State Aids submitted by the Hungarian authorities to the Commission in 
1998. These reports closely follow the methodology of the Commission's State aid 
Surveys and fulfil the criteria of transparency. Some State Aids schemes have been 
aligned with Community rules, but further adjustments will be necessary to ensure 
compliance. 
31 
Further efforts are also necessary to ensure effective implementation of state aid 
rules. Hungary should also take the necessary steps to ensure the further assimilation 
of the relevant acquis. Special attention should be given to the legal basis for the 
scrutiny of aids granted to sensitive sectors. The inventory on existing aid should be 
made more comprehensive by including information on all indirect aid measures such 
as fiscal aids. 
Undertakings with special or exclusive rights in Hungary exist in the fields of: 
telecommunications, postal services, energy, transport (railway, road), water 
management, the operation of Budapest Ferihegy Airport and Csepel Port, public 
water utilities, national public roads, motorways, management of public rivers, lakes 
and of water facilities. The relevant Community criteria related to special or exclusive 
rights are respected to a large extent but no progress has been made in the area since 
the last Regular Report. 
Conclusion 
Progress has been made in the area of company law and standardisation. In order to 
reach full membership in the European Standards Bodies, Hungary needs to continue 
efforts in this area. The short-term Accession Partnership priorities have been met. 
As to the enforcement of intellectual property rights, further efforts are necessary 
especially for copyright and patent protection. The short-term Accession Partnership 
priority has only been partially met. 
In the area of the four freedoms, Hungary has already aligned its legislation with the 
acquis to a considerable extend. Further efforts are needed, in particular, for the 
transposition and enforcement of the directive on general product safety. 
Progress has been made in relation to the State Aid acquis. The annual reports on 
State Aid fulfil the criteria of transparency but Hungary should finalise the 
assimilation of the EU State Aid rules. Special attention should be given to the legal 
basis for the scrutiny of sensitive sectors and to the adjustment of State monopolies. 
Hungary has adequately addressed the short-term Accession Partnership priority. 
3.2 Innovation 
Information society 
Hungary is actively participating in the information society. The number of homes 
having a computer has considerably increased during last year, as has the number of 
internet users. 
The 1997 'intelligent cities/regions' program, which aim to upgrade information 
infrastructure in bigger cities and regions, is in the process of being implemented. The 
Hungarian National Council for Communications and Informatics is organising the 
National Information Society Forum. 
32 
Education, training and youth 
Hungarian policy in this sector has already to a large extent been aligned with EU 
policy. 
No major legislative nor institutional developments have occurred since October 
1998. Hungary is making efforts to implement the Directive on education of children 
of migrant workers, in particular by increasing the possibilities for these children to 
have access to teaching in their language of origin and about their cultural. Special 
training is provided for teachers working in schools with a high number of immigrant 
pupils. The principle of non-discrimination, in particular on grounds of nationality, 
must be applied throughout the fields of education, training and youth. 
Diploma requirements in Hungary for the various professions and professional 
qualifications are generally in line with the acquis. Hungary has been successfully 
participating in Community's Socrates, Leonardo da Vinci and Youth for Europe 
Programmes since September 1999. Vocational training in Hungary has been 
gradually aligned with EU practices and objectives. 
In 1998-99, 3,150 students have benefited from Erasmus mobility grants to study in 
EU countries and 2,256 young Hungarians have taken part in the Youth for Europe 
programme. In 1998, 435 Hungarians have participated in exchanges within the 
framework of the Leonardo programme (vocational training). 
Research and technological development 
The present Community acquis does not require transposition into national 
legislation. The Government has increased significantly the financial support for the 
sector from 0.6% of GDP in 1998 to 1% in 1999. 
The association of Hungary with the 5th Framework Programme (1999-2002) and with 
the Euratom Framework Programme entered into force in August 1999. In order to 
prepare the successful association, several structures have recently been established in 
Hungary. The real implementation capacity will be tested during the association to the 
5th Framework Programme. Hungary has also decided to open its corresponding research 
activities to enterprises, researchers and universities from the Member States. 
Telecommunications 
Important progress has already been achieved in the Hungarian telecommunication 
sector both in terms of networks and services. Several regulatory instruments needed 
for alignment with the acquis have been adopted. 
The telecommunications sector has grown consistently. Installation of fixed 
telephones went up from five to 34 lines per 100 inhabitants during 1998 and the rate 
for mobile telephones from four per 100 inhabitants to 10. The extent of network 
digitalization increased by 12% to 81.5%. The Hungarian Government has adopted a 
33 
decision which outlines the basic principles of the info-communications infrastructure 
and services until 2005. 
The Hungarian market has been further liberalized, in particular by allowing the 
commercial provision of voice telephony to closed user groups, by authorizing the 
provision of internet services by Cable TV operators and by issuing two licenses for 
internet telephony to a private company. According to a Government decision of May 
1999 all free mobile operators received allocations for both GSM 900 and DCS 1800 
frequencies providing them with equal chances to compete in the mobile telephone 
market. The privatisation of the incumbent network operator, MATAV was 
completed. 
In June 1999, new legislation was adopted prohibiting voice telephone providers from 
having exclusive rights to establish or acquire cable television networks in their area 
of concession. This aims to promote a competitive environment after the opening of 
the voice telephony market. 
Despite the fact that a new telecommunications law has not yet been adopted, 
secondary legislation has already been implemented. 
The provisions of the acquis related to data protection in telecommunications has 
been implemented for GSM mobile networks. Tariff re-balancing is progressing 
rapidly as an important reduction of inter-connection and leased lines rates has been 
introduced. The rental fee for residential subscribers, for business lines as well as 
local call prices have been increased substantially. The main remaining issues are the 
alignment of the provisions on universal service, numbering and licensing. 
Some progress has been achieved in postal services through the signature of an 
agreement with UNEX (Unipost External Monitoring System) and the establishment 
of a department which will assume the responsibilities for licensing and supervising 
the postal sector. 
Audio-visual 
Hungarian legislation is already to a large extent aligned with the acquis. No 
significant progress has been made in this area since the last regular report. 
Hungary must define the status of broadcasting organisations and the programming of 
European works, but also the monitoring of satellite broadcasting. 
Conclusion 
Hungary has continued to put emphasis on the information society, education and 
training and research and technological development, where progress has been 
achieved with the full association to the 5th Framework Programme. Progress has also 
been achieved in the opening in the telecommunication market. Efforts need to be 
made to complete the regulatory framework, in particular in the field of licensing. In 
the audiovisual sector, further alignment is also needed. 
34 
3.3 Economic and fiscal affairs 
Economic and Monetary Union 
Hungary has indicated that it accepts and will comply fully with EMU acquis as 
defined by title VII of the EC treaty and the other relevant texts. Hungary has also 
stated that the administrative structures to implement and enforce the acquis will be in 
place. 
Hungary has made little additional progress in its preparation for participation in the 
Economic and Monetary Union. In particular, for the acquis that has to be 
implemented before accession, the National Bank can still give short-term credits to 
the central budget in order to overcome temporary liquidity problems. However, this 
remaining possibility for the direct financing of the public sector has not been used 
since 1995. The public authorities also still enjoy privileged access to financial 
institutions, most notably through the preference granted by law to Government 
securities in the portfolio composition of home and savings institutions. The central 
bank statutes still need to be aligned with the Treaty to assure the independence of the 
monetary authorities. The Commission is concerned by recent statements of certain 
Hungarian politicians which seem to question this independence. 
Taxation 
The basic elements of the VAT and excise duty structure are already in place in 
Hungary. 
Hungary has made further progress in aligning its legislation with the 6th VAT 
Directive. In 1999 it adopted a customs table following the combined nomenclature 
and tightened up the reverse charge mechanisms for certain services. The public 
services of television and radio are now exempted from VAT, except those with a 
commercial purpose. Finally, the administrative burden of SMEs have been reduced 
by introducing annual VAT declarations. 
Nevertheless, a number of discrepancies between the Hungarian VAT legislation and 
the Community rules continue to exist, notably related to tax rates. Furthermore, 
adaptations are particularly necessary in the areas of taxable persons, taxable 
transactions, VAT refunds special schemes, tax exemptions and simplification 
procedures to align fully Hungary's legislation with the acquis. Administrative co­
operation in the field of taxation between Hungary and the EU Member states is 
currently based on bilateral agreements. The scope of these agreements and 
consequently also the mutual assistance between both sides is often limited to 
avoiding double taxation. To comply by the time of accession with the relevant acquis 
on administrative co-operation and mutual assistance, Hungary will have to amend its 
legislation as regards data protection. 
In the area of excise duties, new legislation was enforced in January 1999 which 
opened up the possibility of establishing tax warehouses for commercial purposes in 
35 
Hungary. The duty suspension system was also set out more precisely. The current 
practice of levying different rates for fruit brandies and other spirits is in contradiction 
with Community rules which stipulate a single excise duty for interchangeable 
products. Other outstanding issues relate to the minimum excise duty rate for 
cigarettes, and to the duty exemptions in the field of mineral oils and the holding and 
movements of excisable goods. 
The capital tax rate on transactions needs to be adjusted to Community rules. Further 
alignment is needed in the area of taxation applicable to mergers and to parent 
companies and subsidiaries of different Member states. 
Conclusion 
Hungary has made further progress in harmonising its tax legislation with the acquis 
in the field of taxation. The establishment of a work programme for harmonising the 
Hungarian VAT system with the acquis will make an important contribution to 
achieving further progress. 
Statistics 
Hungary already compiles and provides statistics in a number of areas according to 
EU principles. Statistical co-operation with Hungary has been increasing 
progressively over recent years, both on a bilateral basis with Eurostat and in the 
framework of international organisations such as UN, IMF and OECD. 
The Hungarian Statistical Office is independent and well equipped. The independence 
of the statistical units of the agencies belonging to the Statistical Office need to be 
defined in more detail. The provisions on data transmission abroad and 
confidentiality have been further aligned in 1999. 
Hungary has already reached a high level of alignment for price statistics, labour force 
and other social surveys and business registers. Weaknesses still exist in: social, 
business, industry and macro-economic statistics. Concerning regional statistics, a 
first step towards alignment has been made by establishing seven statistical regions. 
Further efforts are needed on collecting and providing data at regional level, on 
economic environment statistics and the scope of external trade in goods. 
Much remains to be done to comply with the acquis in the field of agricultural 
statistics, particularly as concerns structural statistics and typology, fruit and wine 
production, milk and slaughter and agro-monetary statistics. As a first step, in May 
1999 a law on the General Agricultural Census was passed by Parliament. 
3.4 Sectoral policies 
Industry 
36 
Significant convergence can be noted between Hungarian industrial policy and the 
principles and objectives of EU industrial policy. Hungary's industrial policy 
continues to be based on the maintenance of a stable, open and competitive economic 
environment, offering favourable and predictable conditions for the conduct of 
profitable private business. 
Since last year, the industrial restructuring process has continued. The inflow of 
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) has been a major influence contributing to further 
transfer of technology and management know-how, the modernisation of production 
facilities and the intensification of other forms of cross-border co-operation. This is 
illustrated by the fact that Hungary has continued to attract foreign investment (see 
chapter 2 on economic criteria). Some 35,000 companies are operating today in 
Hungary with some degree of foreign capital participation: producing around one 
third of GDP, providing around 80% of the country's gross exports and employing 
one fourth of the workforce in the private sector. Trade statistics confirm the pace of 
integration with the Union. 
Restructuring is proceeding at a slower pace in Hungarian enterprises not directly 
affected by inward FDI. Hungary now needs to focus on fostering the local corporate 
sector. The large number of multinationals with manufacturing operations in Hungary 
should be a useful base for the development of a local supply industry, but at the 
moment the linkages are insufficiently developed. 
No further substantial progress has been made during the year in restructuring the 
steel industry. Hungary's major steel producer is still state-owned. To proceed with 
restructuring it is important that individual viability plans of the steel works are 
established. An important dimension of industrial policy is control of state aids (see 
competition chapter). 
Agriculture 
Agricultural situation 
While the overall economic performance in Hungary continued to show growth in 
1998 and in early 1999, the output of the agricultural sector has decreased over these 
two years. Thus, the share of agriculture in the economy is on a declining trend: the 
agriculture and forestry represent less than 6% of the GDP and employ less than 8% 
of the working population. 
After a slight decline in 1997, Hungarian exports of agricultural and food products 
managed to recover in 1998 and reached a value of € 1,038 million. This figure 
represents 7.2% of Hungary's total exports to the Community. The most important 
Hungarian export product by far is meat and meat preparation with a value of about 
€ 365 million. 
The Community's agricultural exports also rose by 2.8% compared to 1997 and thus 
amounted to € 546 million, corresponding to 3.3% of total exports to Hungary. As a 
result of these developments, Hungary's positive trade balance in agricultural and 
37 
food products with the Community reached € 493 million compared to € 488 million 
in 1997. 
In march 1999, the Council mandated the Commission to open negotiations with the 
associated countries in view of new reciprocal concessions in the field of agriculture 
which will enhance the progressive and orderly liberalisation of bilateral trade. 
Agricultural policy 
Concerning agricultural support, the 1999 Hungarian system has 4 categories of aids 
(support for market access, food safety, restructuring and modernisation) with a total 
budget of € 576 million for agricultural subsidies and € 46 million for rural 
development measures. 
Market price support policies are the main form of support in Hungary and they are 
based on a system of minimum and guidance prices. The market intervention system 
(buying-in public storage, processing and selling of intervention stocks) is combined 
with export subsidizes. In 1998, low international and internal prices for supported 
products (in particular for cereals and pig meat) led to an increase in expenditures for 
market support (exports were supported through credit, in particular for dairy products 
and pig meat, poultry meat). Direct export subsidies were used for an increased range 
of products in accordance with a WTO waiver granted to Hungary from its original 
export subsidy commitments. A reform of the export subsidy scheme has commenced. 
Export licenses are applied to certain products. Direct payments per hectare of 
agricultural land are granted to farmers producing in less favoured areas. Payments 
based on use of inputs are provided (interest rate subsidies, capital grants and fuel tax 
subsidies). A new scheme of direct payments promoting employment in agriculture 
was introduced in 1998. Income support measures for arable crops were introduced in 
1999. A system of registration of producers was introduced, which considers 
registration as a pre-condition for receiving any subsidy. 
There is not a comprehensive rural development support policy in Hungary. Aid is 
provided through individual measures and schemes (e.g. support for certain 
investment in agriculture, support for quality protection and utilisation of land, 
support for rural tourism, co-operatives and other organisations of Producers 
purchasing and Marketing certain products etc.). Programmes and budgets are 
currently annual, but the government has prepared a long-term strategy as the basis 
for multi-annual planning. 
As regards the land register, the government has started a registry campaign early this 
year to register land use (and actual users) as land ownership records do not currently 
reflect the real structure of land use or plot-size. So far 75% of cultivated land has 
been registered. A new Law provides the basis for a new agricultural census. 
Concerning the situation in the agro-food sector, progress has continued in 
restructuring and modernization of those companies, which had been privatized. 
In the field of primary processing (meat, poultry, cereals, fruit and vegetables) full 
compliance with food safety, hygiene and quality still need to be addressed. 
38 
In the veterinary sector, the animal health control system applied in the internal 
market and to imports from third countries still differs from the EU system. Under the 
current veterinary control systems, inspections are carried out at the place of 
destination, where no animal records are maintained. Border inspection posts do not 
meet EU requirements. 
The system for registration and identification of bovines is almost completed. The 
system needs to be extended to cover pigs, sheep and goats. The necessary hardware 
for setting up the veterinary information system ANEVIO is already in place in the 580 
veterinary posts throughout Hungary. 
A substantial part of the plants processing products of animal origin do not yet meet 
EU hygiene and public health requirements. A national survey of slaughterhouses and 
establishments dealing with animal products is being carried out. The hazard analysis 
critical control point system (HACCP) needs to be introduced in the food processing 
units. 
Hungary is elaborating contingency plans for animal diseases, including an action 
plan for classical swine fever. National Reference Laboratories exist for all diseases. 
As regards animal welfare legislation, various rules of slaughtering animals and 
keeping farm animals have been adopted. 
As regards the phytosanitary sector, Hungary still needs to develop plant health 
service in order to implement the Community quarantine rules, introduce a plant 
passport and protected zone registration systems and apply EC rules concerning 
marketing of plant protection products and fertilisers. Regulations on the use of 
pesticides and fertilisers were further aligned in June 1999. 
Insofar as financial procedures are concerned, the Agricultural Intervention Centre 
has been further developed and has been designated as future paying agency. It will 
also be in charge of pre-accession aid (SAPARD) from 1 January 2000. Substantial 
progress has been made in preparing the Rural Development Plan. 
As regards forestry, there is support for afforestation, conversion of forest structure 
and planting. There is no regime protecting forests against fire or atmospheric 
pollution. The system of forestry statistics needs to be developed. 
As regards the market organisations of the main agricultural products, the Hungarian 
basic management mechanisms are in place but do not reach yet full compliance. 
Hungary has achieved some progress in harmonising the fruit and vegetables sector. 
Standards for the classification of products are applied to exports from Hungary, but 
not to domestic market and imported products. No comprehensive frame exists for 
Producers Organisations, although, legal basis for the recognition, establishment, 
investment and operation of producer organisations has been recently adopted. There 
is no system of production aid for processed fruit and vegetables products. 
Concerning quality control in the wine area, progress has been made on recognition of 
EU standards with a view to eliminating complex and costly procedures previously 
applied to imports of wine from the EU. A National Board of appellations and the 
39 
Committee of Wine appellations were established in 1998. Collection of data on 
quality wine production started from the 1998 harvest. 
A support scheme exists in the beef sector (quality support for cattle for slaughter; 
support for female breeding stock and bulls and for high quality semen). The 
possibility of applying a buying-in system is established. In the pig sector, support is 
also granted and intervention buying-in for live animals is provided together with 
export refunds. In the milk sector, quotas for milk delivered to dairies or sold directly 
to consumers exist. They are transferable independently from the land. The system 
provides for intervention and for the granting of export refunds.. Subsidies for high 
quality milk and school programmes are granted. 
Conclusion 
Over the last year Hungary has made some progress in preparing to implement the 
common agriculture policy in the medium term. Although building from a strong 
base, progress in harmonisation of legislation has proceeded at a slow pace. 
The implementation of a comprehensive framework for rural development measures 
also require further efforts. 
Fisheries 
In such a landlocked country as Hungary this sector plays a very limited role. The 
basic legal framework is already in place. State aids available for fish producers in 
1999 have been regulated in accordance with the Guidelines for the Examination of 
State Aids in the fisheries and aquaculture sector. The fishing rights of waters owned 
by local authorities have also been regulated. Further efforts are necessary for setting 
up the institutions for ensuring import control of provenance and species and for 
channelling Community financial support. In addition, the institutions for: controlling 
the implementation of common marketing standards; collecting and transmitting data 
concerning the price reference regime; and applying the recognition conditions for 
producer organisations will also have to be established. 
Energy 
Energy policy 
Hungary has already adopted the main principles of the internal energy market and 
continued to make steps towards further alignment. 
The long term energy strategy adopted in July 1999 provides the framework for 
further alignment with the acquis, especially with regard to: opening the national 
electricity and gas markets, third party access to networks, the creation of an 
independent Transmission System Operator and the restructuring of the solid fuel 
sector. The new strategy also provides for the strengthening of the Hungarian Energy 
40 
Office in view of creating an appropriate and efficient mechanism for regulation as 
required by the acquis. 
The tariff structure for gas and electricity has been adapted. Electricity prices have 
been further increased and are nearing cost-recovery levels. Remaining price 
distortions particularly as concern households should be eliminated. In line with the 
international prices, gas prices have been reduced. 
Oil stocks have now exceeded the level of at least 90 days average daily internal 
consumption, but the legislation on the security and stockpiling of imported crude oil 
and petroleum products needs to be further aligned with the acquis, especially with 
regard to the rules for the calculation of the stock levels and the setting up of security 
stocks for each of the oil product categories. 
Although production and distribution of crude oil and oil products have been 
liberalised, further alignment is necessary in order to eliminate the preference granted 
to companies controlled by the State. 
Energy efficiency is still low and further efforts are needed to align with the 
efficiency acquis. In September 1999, Government adopted a new € 6.2 million 
energy efficiency programme. 
Hungary has promulgated the Energy Charter Treaty as well as the Energy Charter 
Protocol on Energy Efficiency and related Environmental Aspects. 
Hungary participates in the JOULE-THERMIE programme and has joined the SAVE 
II programme as of July 1999. 
Nuclear energy 
The Cologne European Council emphasised the importance of high standards of 
nuclear safety in Central and Eastern Europe and stressed the importance of this issue 
in the context of the Union's enlargement. It called on the Commission to examine 
this issue thoroughly in its next regular progress reports on the candidate countries. 
The present section is a response to this request. 
Hungary has four VVER 440/213 reactors in operation at Paks NPP. Nuclear power 
currently provides about 40% of the country's electricity production. The reactors at 
Paks are a Soviet-type design which is considered to be upgradable to international 
safety levels. In Agenda 2000 (1997), the Commission called upon the candidate 
countries operating such reactors to implement modernisation programmes over a 
period of 7-10 years. 
Hungary is pursuing an upgrading programme at Paks nuclear power plant. It is 
expected that after the implementation of these plant safety improvement measures 
the plant will be able to reach a level of safety which compares well with plants in 
Western European countries. Additional work is needed to ensure containment 
integrity following a severe accident. Periodic safety reviews are conducted similar to 
Western practices and have already led to an increase in safety. 
41 
Since the adoption of the Nuclear Law, which entered into force in 1997, the 
Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority has pursued an active programme of issuing 
safety guidelines. The President of the Atomic Energy Authority exercises the 
supervision in order to meet the international obligations of independent regulatory 
activities. In connection with the periodic safety reviews and the related Paks nuclear 
power plant operating license renewal, the Nuclear Safety Directorate carries out an 
extensive inspection programme. 
The attention of Hungarian authorities has been drawn to the Council Conclusions of 
December 1998 on Nuclear Safety in the Context of the Enlargement of the European 
Union, including the determination of the EU to keep under close review throughout 
the accession process the issues covered therein. In this context, Hungary, its nuclear 
regulatory authorities and nuclear operators are invited to provide regular and 
comprehensive information in response to corresponding requests from the 
Commission. 
Concerning nuclear safeguards, Hungary signed an additional Protocol to its nuclear 
safeguards agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 
November 1998. Hungary also ratified the Convention on spent fuel. 
Conclusion 
Some progress has been achieved over the last year particularly as regards the 
adoption of the new energy strategy. Nevertheless, the main recommendations made 
in the previous report still apply. Particular efforts are needed to: prepare for the 
internal energy market (electricity and gas Directives); adjust energy monopolies; 
provide access to networks; develop the Hungarian Energy Office into an appropriate 
and efficient mechanism for regulation; adjust state interventions in the solid fuels and 
uranium sectors; eliminate energy price distortions and improve energy efficiency. 
No major difficulties are foreseen for compliance with Euratom provisions. Nuclear 
safety standards including the independence and capacity of the safety authority, 
should continue to be tackled appropriately. Longer term solutions for spent fuel and 
nuclear waste need to be developed. 
Transport 
Hungary had already taken important measures both for legal and institutional 
alignment and continued its efforts to align its legislation with the road transport 
acquis. 
New legislation on motorway tolls introduced a single tolling system for high speed 
roads, including on the M3 motorway. In the area of road safety, speed limiting 
devices were made compulsory as of October 1999 for a substantial number of 
vehicles in international transport. Furthermore, new legislation has been adopted on 
training, examination and qualification of road vehicle drivers. The Government has 
begun preparations to accede to the AETR Agreement by January 2000. No 
significant further progress has been made in the areas of access to the profession of 
42 
road haulage and passenger transport operator, maximum weights and dimensions of 
vehicles, vehicle taxes and road user charges. 
Combined transport is already aligned to a large extent with the aquis and no further 
progress has been achieved. 
As regards railways, no new legislation entered in to force in the past year. The 
current poor economic situation of the Hungarian Railways appears to have had an 
unfavourable impact on the approximation of the acquis on railways transport, 
especially as regards access rights and allocation of capacity. In this respect, ongoing 
efforts to restructure the railways and to settle its debt and marketing problems should 
be encouraged. 
Because of its maritime vessels, Hungary has signed a number of international 
conventions on maritime and needs therefore to transpose the relevant acquis. A new 
law on Shipping provides the framework for harmonisation in this area. New 
legislation on shipping safety qualifications transposes the Council directive on the 
minimum level of training of seafarers. However, further efforts are necessary as 
regards maritime safety aspects. 
Inland waterway transport legislation is only partially aligned. The key problem for 
this sector is the outdated fleet capacity. This hampers Hungarian vessels in obtaining 
significant market shares in the transport service sector. 
In the area of air transport, the Law on Aviation provides the main framework for 
harmonisation in this sector, which is already quite well advanced. However, the pace 
of further alignment is rather slow. Progress in the field of market access is needed. 
There is still a nationality obligation (51% of the shares in Hungarian hands) attached 
to obtaining an air carrier license. There are no financial capacity requirements; the 
technical conditions and insurance requirements also need alignment. Legal 
transposition of the acquis related to airports (slot co-ordination) and environment 
(noise emissions) still has to be done. Hungary is a candidate member of Joint 
Aviation Authorities (JAA) since 1995 and is awaiting the conclusions of the JAA 
inspection in order to be accepted as a full member. Efforts have concentrated on the 
negotiations of a multilateral European Common Aviation Agreement (ECAA). 
Hungarian policy in the field of the Trans-European transport Network (TEN-T) 
already takes into account the objectives and priorities of the Community guidelines 
and requirements on TEN financing. Hungary is actively participating in the 
Transport Infrastructure Need Assessment (TINA) activities, which will facilitate the 
extension of TENs to Hungary. Under the road development programme major 
motorway projects in the south and east have continued. A part of the railways 
network has been renewed and the connecting link to Slovenia is being reconstructed 
Conclusion 
Hungary has continued to take measures for both legal and institutional alignment 
with the acquis. Further efforts are nevertheless needed. It is particularly important to 
speed up the restructuring of the national air carrier and of the main railway company. 
43 
Small and medium-sized enterprises 
Domestic SME policy conformed to a large extend to the Community's. As part of 
the government's medium-term economic strategy, the Hungarian government 
adopted a new four-year strategy in December 1998 and made appropriate budgetary 
allocations. Key elements of the strategy are: reduction of the administrative burden, 
reduction of wage-related costs, improvement in access to bank credits and financial 
facilities, better access to business information and improvement of training and 
education for entrepreneurs. Budgetary support to SMEs through various schemes 
amounts to around € 16-20 million in 1999. Currently, there are around 750,000 
SMEs in Hungary. This means that there are 128 undertakings per 1000 inhabitants 
which is higher than the comparative EU figure (95). In practice, 99% of the 
registered enterprises in Hungary are classified as SMEs (employing less than 250 
people). SMEs produce about half of GDP and employ around two-thirds of the total 
workforce. Most of the Hungarian SMEs are micro-sized companies (family 
undertakings). Most SMEs (90%) operate in the service and construction sectors. One 
of the main problems facing SMEs is the tax structure of the corporate sector which 
favours large multinationals. While the average tax burden of the multinationals is 
about 8% (including tax holidays) the average SME tax burden is around 17%. 
Hungary has participated in the Third Multiannual Programmes for SMEs since 
December 1998. This implies an expansion of programmes and networks (seven Euro 
Info Centres opened) and provides scope for increased contacts between Hungarian 
and EU business organisations as well as opportunities for direct business-to-business 
contacts and co-operation. This should contribute in a positive manner to the further 
European Integration of the business sector. 
3.5 Economic and social cohesion 
Employment and social affairs 
Over the last year the Hungarian unemployment rate has decreased further and stood 
at 7.4% at the end of the first quarter of 1999. Long-term unemployment represents 
the largest share and regional disparities remain considerable. Active labour market 
policies focus on vulnerable groups such as the long-term unemployed and school 
leavers. The Commission is currently carrying out an employment policy review in 
1999 with the Hungarian authorities. 
In the area of Labour Law, Hungarian legislation is already partially aligned. No 
progress has been achieved over the last year and further work is needed to secure the 
adoption of measures transposing the remaining acquis requirements, in particular, 
those on collective redundancies, wage guarantee fund, posting of workers, safety and 
health at work for temporary workers and European work councils. 
Social dialogue in Hungary is in a process of transition. Since the beginning of the 
reform towards a market economy, trade union membership has declined in Hungary, 
although the number of trade unions and employer's organisations remains too high to 
facilitate effective social dialogue. There are currently six national trade union 
44 
confederations and nine national employer organisations represented in the National 
Labour Council, which differ considerably in their membership structure and 
economic/political strength. The tri-partite National Labour Council, which replaced 
the Interest Reconciliation Council at the beginning of 1999, discusses labour issues 
including wages, but not - as its predecessor did - budgetary, tax and social insurance 
regulations. 
Equality of treatment is guaranteed under the Constitution, which also provides the 
basis for sanctions and equal rights. Implementation is guaranteed through the 
Ombudsman with recourse available to the Constitutional Court. Hungarian 
legislation is already partially aligned with the acquis in this area. 
In the field of equal opportunities for women and men, three cases of alleged sex 
discrimination were handled by the Hungarian Labour Inspectorate in 1998. This 
demonstrates that the acquis is starting to be enforced in this area and further progress 
is to be encouraged. The Law on the support of families came into force in January 
1999. In line with the equal treatment directive this states that parents raising children 
are entitled to family benefits regardless their financial situation, and without 
discrimination as between father and' mother. Hungary has been participating since 
November 1998 in the Fourth Community Action Programme on Equal Opportunities 
and projects have begun in 1999. 
Currently the Government is assessing experience to date with the three-pillar pension 
system introduced in 1998. As regards reform in the health sector, there is still no 
Government decision on how to move forward in reforming the health insurance 
system and progress in this important area is becoming urgent. 
Hungarian legislation in the area of health and safety at work is only partially aligned 
to the acquis. Over the last year only the directive on manual handling of loads has 
been transposed. Considerable work remains to be done to secure the adoption of 
measures transposing the remaining part of the acquis, especially with regard to 
workplaces, construction and mining sectors . 
Currently, between 5.5 and 8.5% of GDP is spent on health and the need for a strong 
public health system is recognised. Further efforts are necessary to improve the 
effectiveness of health care provided to vulnerable groups. A new law on public 
health provides the basis for further implementing measures and actions. Hungary is 
making efforts to improve the effectiveness of health care provided to vulnerable 
groups. Considerable preventive work is already done through the school health 
programme and the health teacher training programme. Various measures have been 
adopted to combat drug addiction, which is increasing. Public health Community 
programmes (Combating Cancer, Prevention of Drug Dependence, Health Promotion, 
Prevention of Aids) were opened to Hungary in November 1998 and projects began in 
1999. 
Conclusion 
Whilst limited progress has been achieved during the last year, Hungary is relatively 
advanced in terms of legal transposition of the employment and social affairs acquis. 
45 
Particular attention will need to be paid to the implementation and enforcement of the 
health and safety at work and labour law acquis. 
Regional policy and cohesion 
The Union supports the strengthening of cohesion, mainly through the Structural 
Funds. Hungary will have to implement these instruments effectively whilst 
respecting the principles, objectives and procedures which will be in place at the time 
of its accession. 
Despite being in an advanced state of preparation for the implementation of structural 
funds, Hungary has done little as regards concrete implementation of regional policy 
objectives. 
In 1996, average GDP per capita in Hungary was 47% of the EU average. Regional 
GDP per capita ranged from 70% of the EU average in Middle Hungary to 33% of the 
EU average in North Hungary. 
The Law on Regional Development and Physical Planning specifies the objectives, 
tasks, institutional structure and financial instruments of regional policy based on the 
cooperation of counties within regional development councils. 
Seven statistical planning regions similar to Nuts 2 were introduced in 1998. The 7 
regions will be led by Regional Development Councils. As their establishment is not 
regulated by binding law, only 5 Regional Development Councils have been 
established so far. The Regional Development Councils are responsible for the 
preparation of regional development programmes and for the evaluation of the county 
development plans. At regional level Hungary is divided into 20 counties similar to 
regions defined according to EU-methodology (NUTS III) which are led by directly 
elected County Development Councils. The Councils adopt the county development 
programmes providing the general framework for regional support measures. The 
Councils at regional and County level are not yet fully operational. 
In the field of budgetary and financial capacity, Hungary needs to review its system. 
The overall financial responsibility, measures in the case of irregularities and the 
independence of control bodies within ministries needs to be clarified. A mechanism 
focused on coordination of financial resources from different sectoral budget lines 
needs to be introduced. Certain budgetary provisions, in particular as regards co-
financing including multi-annual commitments, needs to be put into place. 
The appropriate human and financial resources are still lacking and inter-ministerial 
coordination is weak leading to delays in the establishment of the Development Plans. 
The experience in appraisal and evaluation procedures according to the structural 
funds regulations is limited. 
Conclusion 
46 
Hungary has advanced in its preparations for the implementation of structural funds 
support with a legal basis in place and many important procedures now established. 
Ineffective inter-ministerial coordination caused stagnation in the preparatory process, 
notably concerning project preparation and implementation. Improvements have been 
made, but the result of these remains to be assessed. 
3.6 Quality of life and environment 
Environment 
In 1998, Hungary adopted an ambitious programme for National Environment 
Protection including an investment programme covering the years 1998-2002, but 
achieved limited progress in 1998. 
Hungary has established an inter-ministerial committee on sustainable development, 
which involves key actors from the ministries of Environment, Agriculture, Transport 
and others and which establishes guidelines for the integration of environment into 
other sectors. 
In relation to horizontal legislation, no particular progress was made, although it 
should be noted that Hungarian legislation already complies to a very large extent with 
the access to environmental information directive. More efforts are required to fully 
align national legislation with the Environmental Impact Assessment Directive, in 
particular the scope of projects subject to an assessment needs to be extended. This is 
particularly important, as the relevant legal provisions will be applied for all projects 
financed by the Community. Particular efforts should be made to include reporting 
requirements in the corresponding sectional legislation, in order to comply with the 
reporting Directive. 
In the water sector, no progress was made in terms of legal alignment and all 
legislation still requires transposition. Nevertheless, important implementation steps 
were taken with regard to urban wastewater treatment (capacity enlargement, 
technological upgrading, sewerage development and construction of mechanical 
treatment facilities). The timetable and schedule for the transposition and technical 
needs of the wastewater treatment Directive are currently being studied and the 
impacts of the drinking water Directive being assessed. 
In the field of industrial pollution control and risk management, pollution from 
industrial plants and large combustion plants has been gradually reduced over the last 
20 years and the relevant acquis is almost fully aligned. However, alignment in the 
area of integrated pollution and prevention control will require substantial financial 
efforts to up-grade some 1000 existing installations. 
The adoption of the law on catastrophes in June 1999 transposes the acquis on the 
control of major accident hazards (Seveso II). Important implementation steps should 
be taken for its implementation. The total number of establishments coming under the 
Directive in Hungary is estimated to be around 80-100 of which around 20-40 will be 
"upper tier" establishments with an obligation to establish safety management systems 
and internal emergency plans and to produce safety reports. (The investment cost for 
47 
the industry concerned is estimated to be around € 80 million). Hungary was one of 
the first signatories of the UN/ECE convention on industrial accidents and is also the 
first of the Candidate Countries to have ratified this convention. Co-operation in the 
framework of this convention, in particular regular signatories' meetings, should 
facilitate transposition and implementation of the directive. The Directive on the 
protection and reduction of environmental pollution by asbestos still needs to be 
adopted. 
No particular progress was made in the field of air quality, where the main issues 
remain transposition and implementation of the Directive on the quality of ambient air 
and its subsidiary Directives, such as on ozone and the Directive on non-road mobile 
machinery. Institutional strengthening is required in particular as regards monitoring 
and data exchange. Identification of zones where there is heavy concentration of 
pollution is still to be carried out. Full alignment still needs to be achieved as regards 
the Vocational Organic Compounds Directive. Hungary is a party to the Convention 
on long-range trans-boundary air pollution which also requires the implementation of 
pollution abatement measures. Hungary fully participates in and implements the 
Convention. 
Hungary is already in line with the acquis on the lead content of petrol. Funds have 
already been allocated by the Hungarian Oil and Gas company to comply with the 
requirements relating to petrol. 
Currently, there are mandatory standards for noise produced by lawnmowers and 
household appliances, but construction plant equipment is not yet covered. Quality 
assurance and control started in 1998 and further progress will be needed to align with 
the acquis on noise from machinesand vehicles. For monitoring purposes the existing 
laboratories will need to be improved. 
In the sector of Chemicals and Biotechnology, there has been significant progress in 
the domain of animal protection. A new Law entered into force on January 1999 that 
further aligned Hungarian legislation with the directive on animal experiments. 
The 1998 Framework Law on Gene technology which entered into force in January 
1999 provides the legislative framework for harmonising legislation in the field of 
genetically modified organisms. The newly adopted Law on chemical safety prepares 
the ground for aligning the acquis in the sector of chemicals. The Institute for 
Chemical Safety has been created and will enhance the implementation of the adopted 
legislation. In the same field, the laboratory capacity in the Institute for 
Environmental Management has been improved. 
Despite the fact that waste management policy is granted a high priority in the key 
national environmental strategy document, no progress has been achieved over the 
last year. Waste represents the weakest sector in Hungary, as the entirety of the 
corresponding acquis needs to be transposed. The adoption of a Law on Waste 
management should be considered as a priority, since it will allow the adoption of 
subsidiary legislation on specific types of waste that are currently all missing in 
Hungary. Important implementation measures were taken with the construction of 10 
new regional landfills. It remains to be assessed if these comply with the 
requirements of the recently adopted Community Directive. Environmental product 
48 
charges were introduced for oil products, and under this system, the establishment of 
the collection and processing systems of waste oils was commenced and the collection 
system for used batteries was created. The collection system for packaging reached 
25%. 
In the field of radiation protection, progress has been limited to aligning national 
legislation to the "maximum permitted levels of the radioactive contamination of 
foodstuffs". The main acquis still needs to be transposed. A solution needs to be 
found for disposal of Paks NPP operational waste. Hungary ratified the Joint 
Convention on the Safety of the Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of 
Radioactive Waste Management. 
In relation to climate change, Hungary ratified the climate convention in 1995 and 
adhered to the Kyoto protocol with a 6% reduction target. 
In the area of nature protection a good level of protection had been already achieved 
(enshrined in the Law on Nature Protection) with an important part of territory being 
protected under various statutes. No further progress regarding transposition of the 
Habitats and Birds Directives has been made and a ban on the use of leghold traps still 
has to be introduced. Hungary is an active party to the Washington convention on 
trade in endangered species (CITES), which requires implementation arrangements 
similar to those of the acquis. Progress in this area was limited to the adoption of 
some implementing measures concerning the acquis on protected animal species. 
Hungary has established in its NPAA a detailed financing plan estimating the costs 
over 3 years to € 95 million. 
The issue of nuclear safety is dealt with in the energy chapter. 
Conclusion 
Some progress has been achieved in the areas of nature protection, pollution from 
industrial plants and large combustion plants as well as the control of major accidents. 
However, substantial efforts are still needed, in particular, in the areas of waste and 
waste management, water and air quality. Hungary has made steps to address the 
short term Accession Partnership priorities. If Hungary wants to achieve its ambitious 
target for full transposition in 2001 it will need to urgently speed up both legal 
alignment and investment in environmental technology and infrastructure. In this 
context, it would be particularly important that the budgetary provisions made in the 
NPAA are adequately reflected in the annual budget. 
Nevertheless, a number of important steps in relation to implementation are being 
taken and a very thorough and comprehensive plan, both for transposition and 
implementation (including costs analysis and investment strategies) has been 
established in the National Programme for the Adoption of the acquis. 
Consumer protection 
49 
In 1998, Hungary addressed the medium-term Accession Partnership priority on 
consumer protection when adopting the legal framework in the field of consumers and 
health protection. The law contains provisions on product liability, but the threshold 
value for product liability is still much lower in Hungary than in the Union. 
Hungary has continued to make progress in this area. Legislation has been further 
aligned in the fields of unfair terms in consumer contracts, contracts relating to the 
purchase of the right to use immovable properties on a timeshare basis, contracts 
negotiated away from business premises, and package travel, package holidays and 
package tours. However, discrepancies still exist in legislation related to misleading 
advertisements, consumer credit and indication of prices. Minor differences remain as 
regards doorstep and distance selling. 
A market surveillance system, as well as the necessary structures to implement 
product liability, were set up in April 1999 but are not yet functioning in a satisfactory 
manner. Central problems relate to the existence of pre-market control, the lack of 
competent personnel and lack of some technical equipment. The central laboratories 
of the inspection bodies are nevertheless reasonably well equipped and the testing 
instruments used are relatively modern. However, in order to ensure that the whole 
system operates smoothly, Hungary still needs to enhance consumer awareness, as 
well as producer awareness, on consumer's rights and producer's responsibilities. 
Furthermore, although Hungary already has in place the basic instruments to 
implement market surveillance (legal structures, laboratories, institutional set up), 
further institutional strengthening is necessary to reach EU standards, in particular 
through the provision of professional training and the modernisation of certain 
equipment. Efforts have also to be made to familiarise the legal profession with 
product liability related cases. 
The general inspectorate on Consumers Affairs (the Bureau of Consumer's affairs) is 
the monitoring body. 
3.7 Justice and home affairs 
The 1998 Regular Report stated that Hungary had the capacity to made progress in 
adopting the acquis, satisfied the short-term priorities of the Accession Partnership 
and had made substantial progress in the areas of legislation, asylum and border 
management. 
The Commission underlined the necessity of adopting a new law on foreigners and a 
visa policy suited to the requirements of the EU. The report recommended among 
other things, that : "an increase in human resources, with adequate pay and suitable 
training, so that the new legislation (particularly that on asylum, police cooperation 
and combating drugs, organised crime and corruption) can be implemented." 
Immigration/border control 
In the field of immigration, the 1993 law on the admission, residence and immigration 
of foreigners was amended in March 1999. It introduced the possibility for foreigners 
to be self-employed and provided a general framework for foreigners working in 
50 
Hungary. In the same law, illegal employment has been defined as a criminal act. 
Further efforts have been made concerning readmission agreements. In 1998 and 1999 
Hungary signed bilateral readmission agreements with Bulgaria and Slovenia. 
Bilateral readmission agreements came into force with France, Germany and Italy. In 
the field of admission, Hungary has concluded bilateral agreements, which aim at 
simplifying mutual exchange of seasonal workers. These new agreements include a 
provision on the issuing of a standard travel document. 
In the area of visa policy, Hungary has prepared a programme to harmonise 
Hungarian visa requirements with the acquis. The visa obligation for airport transit 
for nationals of certain countries, introduced in September 1998 in accordance with 
the relevant EU Joint Action on airport transit arrangements, has not yet been 
implemented. 
Hungary should continue progressive alignment of visa legislation and practice with 
that of the EU. 
Concerning border controls, Hungary has taken steps to implement border checks in 
accordance with EU requirements. However, the effectiveness of border control and 
the immigration services have to be improved. In this context, particularly training of 
the relevant staff and up-grading of the necessary equipment are essential. It is also 
important to provide for a direct online connection between immigration offices, 
border posts and diplomatic representations. 
Asylum 
The number of asylum seekers in Hungary has considerably increased following the 
lifting of the geographical reservation on the Geneva convention and the start of the 
crisis in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia/Kosovo. Out of the 8,521 asylum 
applications received in the first eight months of 1999, there is a serious backlog of 
4,249 where decisions are still pending. 
Much effort is still needed in the area (see chapter 4 on administrative capacity). In 
particular, the operation of the court of appeals in the case of a negative decision as 
concerns the status of a refugee needs to improve, existing reception centers need to 
be upgraded and new centers need to be set up in order to cope with the increasing 
number of asylum seekers. 
Police 
Hungary has made very significant progress in further aligning its legislation with the 
acquis. Regarding the establishment of an independent national data protection body 
according to the Europol provisions, Hungary has taken the necessary legal measures 
in 1999 in order to meet the data protection and supply criteria as well as the 
communication regulations. An independent national data protection body and the 
post of a data protection ombudsman have been created. 
As far as customs are concerned, a special department has been set up in 1998 to deal 
with 'risk analysis' and in 1999 a special unit prepared the introduction of a 
management system for analysing risks. As regards the implementing of the technical 
51 
requirements of the Schengen Information System, the Hungarian Government 
decided in June 1999 to set up an International Police Co-operation Centre housing 
the national office of Interpol, the future national office of Europol and a Central 
Information Office. 
Concerning the fight against organised crime, the Hungarian authorities increased 
efficiency, notably through training of police forces and the adoption of new laws in 
March 1999. These cover witness protection, informants and people leaving and 
denouncing a criminal organisation. Furthermore, participation in criminal 
organisations was made a criminal offence and stricter rules for punishment were 
introduced. Additionally, a comprehensive package of public safety measures ('anti-
Mafia package7) came into force in September 1999 which increases the police 
investigative and operational powers when dealing with suspected organised crime 
cases. Following the bilateral agreements Hungary has concluded with most of its 
neighbouring countries, foreign law enforcement bodies are allowed to carry out 
pursuits across the border. 
However, Hungary has not yet ratified the Council of Europe Convention on Money 
Laundering. A further up-grading of equipment and intensification of co-operation 
between police, customs and border guards is essential. Particularly, the system for 
information exchange between the different services has to be improved. Hungary 
should also continue to work on the conclusion of co-operation and mutual assistance 
agreements in the field of customs with EU Member states and its neighbouring 
countries. 
Drugs 
Hungary, a transit country for drug trafficking, is becoming a target country as 
consumption is increasing. 
The 1988 Vienna Convention on the prohibited trading of drugs and other 
psychotropic substances entered into force in November 1998. In March 1999, the 
Hungarian Criminal Code was harmonised with the acquis concerning the sanctions 
against illegal drug trafficking. Hungary foresees co-operating with EU law 
enforcement agencies on drug-related matters through Europol. As regards synthetic 
drugs, the co-operation with the industry for ensuring precursor control appears to be 
satisfactory. 
Judicial co-operation 
Regarding civil matters, in February 1999 Hungary promulgated the Strasbourg 
Agreement relating to Persons Participating in Proceedings of the European Court of 
Human Rights. 
As concerns criminal matters, the Penal Code was amended in March 1999 to combat 
organised crime more efficiently. The provisions of the EU Joint Action making it a 
criminal offence to participate in a criminal organisation were also incorporated in 
Hungarian legislation in March 1999. The definition of organised crime has been 
further harmonised with the acquis. 
52 
Hungary needs, however, to make further efforts to align legislation with the 1995 EU 
Convention on the protection of the European Communities'financial interests-and its 
protocols; in particular corporate liability needs to be defined according to EU 
standards. Particular attention should be given to enforcement of the new legislation 
on organised crime. 
Conclusion 
Hungary has made some progress in the area of Justice and Home Affairs. Significant 
progress has been made in the areas of the police and the fight against corruption with 
more measured progress on immigration, drugs and justice. However, no real 
improvement can be reported on border control and asylum. 
Further efforts are required in all the above mentioned fields and in particular on 
border control, both at border posts and on areas without border posts ("green 
border") in accordance with Schengen standards, and on asylum through the 
establishment of new reception facilities for asylum seekers, an increase of qualified 
staff and further harmonisation with the EU procedures. 
Besides, in all Justice and Home Affairs sectors, special attention should be given to 
the upgrading of equipment, including the improvement of automatic transmission of 
data system between law enforcement agencies, border checking points and. 
embassies. 
3.8 External policies 
Trade and international economic relations 
Hungary applied tariffs average 12.4 % on all products, 33.3 % on agricultural 
products 15 % on fishery products and 7.4 % on industrial products. 
In January 1999, Hungary signed the agreement on financial services of Protocol V of 
the General Agreement on Trade of Services (GATS). In November 1998, Hungary 
signed a Free Trade Agreement with Estonia and with Lithuania and in June 1999 
with Latvia. Taking into account that the rights and obligations of membership imply 
the termination of any international agreement which is incompatible with EU 
membership, the Free Trade Agreements with the EFTA and CEFTA Member states 
as well as with Turkey and Israel will have to be renounced by the time of accession. 
Outstanding issues concern the safeguard measures regime and accession to the 
plurilateral WTO agreements on Civil Aircraft, on Government Procurement and on 
Trade in Information Technology. Hungary has expressed its willing to work closely 
with the EC in the forthcoming WTO Round, with a view to aligning positions and 
policies as closely as possible. 
Development 
33 
Hungary has no special development policy, but 96% of all imports coming from 
developing countries receive trade preferences. GSP schemes exist for all products. 
Hungary has no specific budget for developing countries. The Ministry of Foreign 
Affairs has limited funds of € 80,000) which are mainly used for humanitarian 
purposes. Hungary should have no difficulties in applying the acquis in the field of 
development policy. 
Customs 
Hungary had started to align its customs legislation with the acquis. However, little 
progress in harmonising the Hungarian customs legislation has been made since 1997. 
Hungary updates its Customs Tariff annually, applying the EU combined 
nomenclature. The average of the customs tariffs applied by Hungary is 12.4% on all 
products: 33.3% on agricultural products, 15% on fishery products and 7.4% on 
industrial products. Binding Tariff Information is not applied. An expert group was 
established for the development of an integrated tariff. 
In the field of Origin of products, Hungary participates in the pan-European system of 
cumulation which has been applied since January 1999. The use of simplified 
procedures remains limited. Stricter rules on payment of customs duties and on duty 
relief are currently maintained and justified by Hungary by the need to combat fraud. 
Further harmonisation is also needed regarding regulations on customs procedures 
with economic impact. The Hungarian system for administering tariff quotas, ceilings 
and duty suspensions is only partially harmonised with the acquis. Quotas are 
allocated on a first come first served basis. 
Hungary has a large number of customs free zones (approximately 110). Any 
company can request the creation of a free zone in Hungary and some free zones 
contain only one company. The extensive use of such zones, as well as certain rules 
applied to them, are incompatible with the acquis. 
Within the headquarters of Hungarian Customs, eight 'accession task forces' were 
created in January 1999 to develop harmonised legislation and work on its 
implementation. The Hungarian customs administration has carried out a wide-
ranging computerisation programme for phyto-sanitary and veterinary products. 
Furthermore, a risk analysis system was introduced in a pilot phase with the objective 
of improving border control efficiency. The pilot phase of an Electronic data 
exchange initiative has been launched. A strategic training plan for the customs 
administration was developed in 1998. The efficiency of tax and customs duties 
collection continued to improve. Strict custom rules have been introduced to curb 
illegal tobacco and alcohol trafficking. As regards border posts, good progress has 
been achieved at the main posts which are approaching EU standards, but further 
efforts are needed for smaller posts which are short of the equipment. In December 
1998, one new border post has been opened at the international airport at Ferihegy 
and another has been re-opened at Tiszabecs at the Ukrainian border after 
modernisation in line with the acquis. 
Conclusion 
54 
The lack of progress in the customs area over the past year has been a cause for some 
concern. Further efforts are required to: the reform of the Hungarian Customs Code, 
create integrated tariff structures, introduce binding tariff information, establish 
binding information on Origin and introduce rules applying to free zones. Progress 
has been made on up-grading the major border posts, but further efforts are still 
required to up-grade small posts. 
Common foreign and security policy 
Hungary continues to orientate its foreign and security policy towards the EU. It 
participates actively in the multilateral political dialogue within the framework of the 
Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), including the regular meetings at 
political directors', European correspondents' and Working Group level. Hungary has 
regularly aligned its positions with those of the EU and, whenever invited, adhered to 
the Union's statements, declarations and demarches, including in the context of the 
UN and the OSCE. Thus it aligned itself with the common position on Kosovo, the 
ban on Yugoslav flights and the oil embargo on Yugoslavia 
In March 1999, Hungary became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation 
(NATO). In January 1999 it ratified the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in 
Europe. During the Kosovo crisis, Hungary actively supported the NATO operation 
against Yugoslavia. Hungarian soldiers participated in the humanitarian mission in 
Albania. Hungary also participates in KFOR and SFOR and sent in this context 
soldiers to Kosovo. 
In view of its full participation in the CFSP, Hungary still needs to make certain 
structural changes. In the first half of 1999 Hungary assumed the rotating presidency 
of the Council of Europe. 
Hungary strives to contribute to regional stability through a policy of good-
neighbourly relations and regional co-operation, i.a. by participating in the Central 
European Initiative, the South East European Co-operative Initiative (SECI) and the 
Royaumont process and the relaunched Visegrad-4 dialogue (involving Slovakia, the 
Czech Republic, Poland and Hungary). Relations with Romania and, following the 
general elections of September 1998 there, with Slovakia improved considerably. The 
Basic Treaty with Slovakia, signed in 1996, is now being implemented. Discussions 
on a solution to the dispute over the Gabcikovo dam project are on-going on a 
technical level without standing in the way of renewed bilateral relations. Hungary 
participates in the Stability Pact for South East Europe. In the first half of 1999 it 
assumed the rotating presidency of the Council of Europe. 
3.9 Financial questions 
Financial control 
55 
Hungary has continued to consolidate the policy framework for financial control by 
defining in more detail the scope of financial audits and the distribution of tasks 
between the State Audit Office, the external financial control body, the Government 
Control Office, the internal financial control body and the State Treasury. In addition, 
an integrated internal control policy was introduced. 
The State Audit Office acts as an external auditor independent from the Government. 
The Office will provide the accounting control of the paying agency in the field of 
agriculture, which will be established under the supervision of the Ministry of 
Agriculture and Regional Development. 
The role of the Government Control Office has been further strengthened with the 
extension of its responsibilities to the following areas: ex-post evaluation of the 
effects of decisions of the Government, control of expenditures from the Central 
Budget, control of subsidies and of the use of funds (from international donors) by all 
kinds of beneficiaries including regional and local. At the end of 1998 a new 
monitoring system was set up to monitor the different foreign aid programmes and the 
related co-financing. The administrative co-operation agreement of December 1997 
between the Government Control Office and the Commission's financial control has 
led to a first joint financial control mission in Budapest. 
The State Treasury is the accountant for the central budget and since 1998 responsible 
for foreign assistance to Hungary. It executes payments after ex-ante control for the 
Hungarian central administration, but is also responsible for a nation wide monitoring 
system for funds and certain state aids devoted to regional development. There is a 
need to improve co-ordination in cases involving several sectoral budget lines. 
Following an agreement with the Commission, the National Fund and the Central 
Finance and Contract Unit have been set up within the State Treasury. 
Conclusion 
Hungary continued to align its internal financial mechanisms at the central level, but 
further efforts are needed as regards the provision of skilled staff and of appropriate 
technical equipment. Particular emphasis should be given to the establishment and the 
strengthening of the regional and local internal audit units in view of Hungary's 
participation in the new pre-accession instruments. Within each Ministry a number of 
issues need to be clarified such as the overall financial responsibility, measures in the 
case of irregularities and the independence of control bodies within the ministries. 
3.10. General evaluation 
Hungary continues to make progress aligning and implementing the acquis in most 
sectors. In the internal market, progress has continued as regards laws on public 
procurement and intellectual property (except as regards retroactive patent protection) 
and efforts have been focused on ensuring their effective implementation. Notable 
progress has been made in adopting legislation on self-employment which removes 
restrictions on EU-individuals wanting to establish in Hungary. Although efforts need 
to pick up in transposing EU standards and to ensure the functioning of market 
surveillance, Hungary is well advanced in implementing the new approach in the 
standards and certification areas. Hungary has adopted a law on state aids which 
56 
should facilitate the development of an effective system of state aid monitoring and 
control. Progress is quite steady but slow in the agricultural, veterinary and 
phytosanitary fields and efforts need to be accelerated considerably if a sufficient 
level of alignment is to be achieved over the medium term. Hungary is relatively well 
advanced in alignment in the transport sector although the rail sector is lagging behind 
in terms of alignment and actual restructuring of the railways. Hungary has continued 
to consolidate the policy framework for financial control by defining the scope of 
audits and the distribution of tasks and responsibilities between the various 
institutions involved. 
Important progress was made in overall alignment in the VAT/excise area, but 
discriminatory provisions in the excise area are still causing problems. Further 
alignment is needed in the audio-visual areas as concerns European works and 
satellite broadcast monitoring. Aside from the fight against organised crime, the pace 
of alignment has been slow in the area of justice and home affairs, particularly with 
respect to border management and asylum. Little progress has been made with 
regard to labour and health and safety at work. There has been a noticable slow 
down in the adoption of environment legislation and no progress has been made in 
customs. Given the size of the transposition task which remains to be done in these 
sector, significant efforts need to undertaken to ensure further progress. While 
strategic plans have been adopted in the environment and energy sectors, it is 
essential that they be quickly implemented. In some areas such as regional 
development, whilst the legislative framework has been in place for some time, 
progress in implementation has been limited due to a lack of budgetary and human 
resources. 
Hungary has made steady progress in building up its administrative capacity to apply 
the acquis. Steps have been taken toward general public administration reform and 
continued emphasis has been placed on the development of specific European policy 
and law training courses throughout the administration and in the judiciary. Most of 
the key institutions needed for implementation of the internal market are in place. 
Nonetheless the administration still needs to be strengthened in specific areas such as 
state aid control, market surveillance (implementation of product liability legislation) 
and veterinary and plant health. Hungary needs to allocate sufficient budgetary and 
administrative resources to regional development and environment and improve 
capacities to use, monitor and control EU financial assistance. There is room for 
granting further independence to authorities such as the Government Control Office 
and the Communications Authority. 
Hungary has satisfactorily addressed most of its short term Accession Partnership 
priorities with the exception of administrative strengthening in regional development, 
steel sector restructuring and alignment in the environment sector. Hungary has also 
made good progress in implementing the medium term priorities. 
57 
4. Administrative capacity to apply the acquis 
This chapter updates the information given in the Commission's Regular Report of 
1998. The European Council in Madrid in December 1995 referred to the need to 
create the conditions for the gradual, harmonious integration of the candidates, 
particularly through the adjustment of their administrative structures. Agenda 2000 
underlined the importance of incorporating Community legislation into national 
legislation effectively, and more importantly, of implementing it properly in the field, 
via the appropriate administrative and judicial structures. The administrative capacity 
became a central issue in the negotiation process. 
For this year's report the Commission continued to work with the candidate countries 
to identify an illustrative list of enforcement bodies in key areas of the acquis. 
Wherever possible information is provided on the Ministry or organisation which is 
responsible for a specific part of the acquis, its legal powers, staffing levels and 
budget. As in the Member States each administration has to decide how to allocate 
scarce human and financial resources, ensuring that it has sufficient capacity to 
implement the acquis. There is no 'ideal' level of staffing and numbers alone are no 
indication of capacity to implement the acquis effectively. However, wherever they 
are available, staff numbers and changes in staffing levels are provided. It is clear 
that in areas where there is a heavy control and enforcement burden one or two people 
are not sufficient and in such cases very low staff levels can indicate a need to give 
greater priority to administrative capacity. 
Many of the enforcement structures covered in this report have only recently been 
established. They are beginning to take decisions in acquis-related areas but it is 
often too early to assess the quality and compatibility of these decisions with the 
acquis or the information needed is not available. However, in some areas it is 
possible to provide data to illustrate that the acquis is becoming a living and integral 
part of domestic decision-making. During the coming year the Commission will 
continue to work with each of the candidate countries to build up a data base on 
administrative capacity and information on enforcement which will allow the Union 
to assess operational capacity to implement the acquis. 
In the 1998 Regular Report, the Commission concluded that: 
"Hungary has continued to make progress in building up its administrative capacity to 
apply the acquis. In so doing it has addressed one of the short-term priorities of the 
accession partnership. The emphasis on training in European affairs throughout the 
civil service and the judiciary is a positive development which reflects the seriousness 
of Hungary's preparations for membership. However, administrative capacity in 
certain key areas such as standardisation, State aid control and regional development 
is weak and a concerted effort will be needed to strengthen institutions in these areas." 
4.1. Administrative structures 
The Hungarian Government has continued to take important steps towards the reform 
and strengthening of its Public Administration. Since July 1998 the role of the Prime 
Minister's Office in the overall co-ordination between the Ministries has significantly 
58 
increased. The new duties include the supervision of (i) privatisation and (ii) State 
Treasury Assets Management (KVI). The head of the Prime Minister's Office co­
ordinates governmental work and relations with Parliament. The increased workload 
of the Prime Minister's Office has been accompanied by a staff increase of 140 
people. The total is now 441. In August 1998, a new department was set up to 
strengthen co-operation with the non-profit sector in the following areas: the drugs 
situation, social problems and European integration. 
In 1998, average pay for civil servants increased by 15%. The total number of civil 
servants is 103,296 (state administration: 53,717, local government: 49.579), which 
shows a decline of 1,350 compared to July 1998. Whilst the number of state 
administration staff has again slightly increased this year (some 1,000 new employees), 
local governments have been particularly affected staff losses (some 5,000 between 1996 
and 1998). Although the professionalism and preparedness of Hungarian civil servants is 
satisfactory, the relatively high average age and the lack of language skills are a matter 
of concern. Public administration development foresees a comprehensive review of 
salaries in the public sector aimed at performance-related pay. 
Courses on the European Union continue to provide well-targeted training for public 
administration and local government staff. Special training in EU languages is provided 
to Hungarian conference translators of English, French and German. 
4.2. Administrative and judicial capacity: key areas for the 
implementation of the acquis 
The uniform application of EC law : Since 1998 there has been further progress in 
preparing the Hungarian judiciary for EU accession. In this respect, special attention 
was paid to the launching of training programmes and courses forjudges in EC law. 
In a total of 156 courts there are 2350 posts for judges (almost all are filled). In the 
last year 11 new judges were appointed, and 23 new auxiliary staff posts created. 
However, the number of technical support staff is only one third of the average in the 
EU Member states and the level of computerisation is low. According to the National 
Council of Justice around € 32 million will be needed to adequately equip the courts 
by 2004. 
Judges are appointed and can be removed on the proposal of the National Council of 
Judiciary by the President of the Republic. Only Hungarian citizens are eligible for 
the post of a judge and they have to meet certain academic and psychological 
requirements. Knowledge in EC legislation is not yet required. 
There are already 106 registered judges specialised in EU law. A further 700 judges 
are participating in a training programme. In addition, the National Council of 
Judiciary has organised several other training courses for Hungarian judges on an ad-
hoc basis. 
Budgetary support for courts amounted to € 122 million in 1999 and € 87 million in 
1998. Both in 1998 and 1999 the Government was unable to grant the budgetary 
requests submitted by the National Council for Judiciary. In 1999, these requests are 
59 
approximately seven times more than the governmental central budgetary plans 
submitted to Parliament in the draft bill on the 2000 Central Budgetary Act. 
Since 1st January 1999 the system of judicial review of administrative decisions has 
changed significantly. The two instance system of appeal was transformed into a 
single-instance judicial review mechanism. This means that these decisions by the 
county courts and the Capital Municipality Court can not be appealed legally. 
However, these decisions can be brought before the Supreme Court. This 
development has led to a significant overloading of the Supreme Court. At present 
there are 3,249 pending cases at the Supreme Court. In addition, at least 200 new 
cases reach the Supreme Court each month. The 3 tribunals of the Supreme Court can 
only decide on 150-160 cases a month. Therefore, it was necessary to set up three new 
tribunals in September 1999. Currently, the average duration of related litigation is 
about one year in the lower courts, but one and a half years at the Supreme Court. 
Under the constitution the main role of the Supreme Court should be the unification of 
the court practice and judicial guidance to the lower courts. The backlog of cases 
reduces the possibility of the Court to execute this function. Additional funding for 
training of judges should be increased in order to ensure that they are able to apply EC 
legislation by the time of accession. 
Although a number of actions have been taken to improve the function of the 
judiciary, further efforts in this area will be necessary, especially with regard to the 
backlog of court cases and the computerisation of Courts. Training of EC law for 
judges should be continued. 
Single market : The Public Procurement Council is responsible for the enforcement 
of public procurement rules. The Council answers to Parliament, to which it is 
required to report annually. The Council is independent from the Government. 
The Public procurement Council monitors the enforcement of the rules of the law; in 
particular contracts concluded. The Council defines qualification criteria; publishes 
annually the list of qualified tenders, determines the number of member of the 
Arbitration Committee; appoints the chairman of the Committee and the 
Commissioners and publishes the Public Procurement Bulletin. 
Within the Council, the Public Procurement Arbitration Commission acts as an 
independent administrative review body. It can be considered as a semi-judicial body 
as required by the Remedies Directive. The Public Procurement Council consists of 
21 members and the Public Procurement Arbitration Commission of 17. 
More than 700 complaints have reached the public procurement tribunals, but only 35 
cases were appealed to the Supreme Court for judicial review. In almost 90% of these 
cases the lower-level decisions were finally upheld by the Supreme Court. 
The increase of public procurement procedures and the decrease of negotiated 
tenders indicate that Hungary has an increasingly effective capacity to implement the 
acquis in this area. 
The enforcement of intellectual and industrial property rights is carried out by the 
Hungarian Patent Office. At the end of 1998, the number of staff was virtually the 
60 
same as in the previous year, around 263. In 1999 its budget amounted to € 8.31 
million compared with € 5.4 million in 1998. 
There are five collective management organisations administering copyright and 
related rights. These are associations formed by a representative number of right 
holders. 
The Budapest Metropolitan Court is a special court having exclusive competence to 
hear most of the industrial property cases. There are two further expert bodies (one for 
industrial property and one for copyright) administered by the Hungarian Patent 
Office providing, upon request, expert assistance to courts and other authorities. 
In general, the Office works satisfactorily, but continued improvements especially in 
training of staff and infrastructure are still needed. In the context of training, special 
attention should be paid to those prosecutors and judges dealing with Intellectual 
Property Rights-related cases, as up to now courts have often failed in imposing 
criminal sanctions and penalties. 
In the area of company law, the 19 County Courts and the Capital Court of 
Registration are responsible for the registration of companies and partnerships. 
Following the introduction of legally binding registration deadlines the number of 
pending cases have been be reduced. Currently, these deadlines are generally 
respected. The courts forward company data to the Companies Information Network, 
administered by the Ministry of Justice. The courts of registration control the 
incorporation of companies in Hungary. 
As to the new registration procedure defined in the new company law, it should be 
mentioned that the Company Register is still rather unreliable and its information 
technology system needs to be up-graded. 
In the field of accounting and auditing, the Hungarian Chamber of Auditors 
established in 1997 is responsible for: (1) representing auditors' interests nation wide, 
(2) education and the training of the auditors, (3) the application of the Rules on 
Ethics, (4) the qualification of the auditors, and (5) sanctioning infringements of the 
rules. 
There are currently 6683 auditors registered and 1537 registered auditing firms (with 
legal entity). A further 5146 individuals are authorised to provide auditing services. 
National accounting standards do not yet exist. 
The Hungarian Chamber of Auditors has good record but national accounting 
standards still need to be introduced. 
In the area of data protection, a data Ombudsman who is elected by and responsible 
only to Parliament is exclusively responsible for the protection of personal data and 
the disclosure of data considered of public interest. The Ombudsman monitors the 
implementation of law, examines complaints and ensures maintenance of a data 
protection register. He submits an Annual Report on the data protection situation to 
the Parliament. At the end of 1998 the Office of the Ombudsman for Data Protection 
employed a total of 29 staff which shows a slight increase over 1997 (25). 
61 
Data protection seems to be well enforced. 
The Hungarian standardisation body is legally fully independent of the Government. 
It is the Institute responsible for the introduction of European and international 
standards. National standards are automatically repealed on the introduction of EU 
standards. Voluntary standards may also be published in Hungarian, but shortage of 
funds prevents this in practice. Hungary therefore relies on the 'cover sheet method', 
with the text of the standard in English and the cover sheet in Hungarian. The Institute 
has a staff of 104 which shows an overall increase of some 10% over 1997 (95). 
Represented by its Standardisation Institute, Hungary is a full member of European 
Telecommunications Standardisation Institute and affiliated member of the European 
Standard Bodies CEN/CENELEC since 1992. It has applied for full membership 
which will only be possible once a 80% transposition rate has been achieved. Hungary 
applies the relevant rules of these bodies in form and content. The internal rules of 
Hungarian Standardisation Institute require a standstill at national level when 
European standardisation work is under way. 
Further efforts are needed for speeding up the adoption of the remaining EU 
Standards in order to achieve the 80% transposition rate required to become a full 
member of the European standard bodies. 
The Hungarian National Accreditation Office is a public body called the 'National 
Accreditation Committee'. This Committee consists of 55 members, representing all 
interested parties in this activity including ministries and consumers organisations. 
The technical capacity of the Office seems adequate. Participation in international 
accreditation associations is also ensured. 
Most of the institutes dealing with testing, inspection and certification in Hungary are 
public limited companies. The majority of the shares of the bodies designated for the 
implementation of EU technical regulations are state owned. 
The infrastructure of testing, inspection and certification bodies is being reinforced, 
as Hungary has started to transform its system of pre-market control into a system 
with greater emphasis on market surveillance. 
In the field of metrology, the National Measurements Office under the statutory 
supervision of the Ministry of Economic Affairs is legally responsible for 
measurements. The President of the National Measurements Office is appointed by 
the Prime Minister on the proposal of the Minister of Economic Affairs. The National 
Measurements Office has eight regional sub-offices . It also functions as an 
administrative authority, the decisions of which can be challenged in court. The 
National Measurements Office is well-staffed, currently 244 employees are working 
at the headquarters in Budapest (240 in 1997) while in the eight regional sub-offices 
232 persons are employed (229 in 1997). In 1999 its budget amounted to some € 7 
million (€ 4.28 million in 1998). 
The National Measurements Office is well staffed and seems to have a good 
enforcement record. 
62 
Supervision of banking activities and investment firms is performed by the State 
Supervisory Authority for Money and Capital Market which carries out its activities 
independently and is supervised by the Government. This body is funded by fees from 
the financial sector. Its staff has increased from 252 in 1997 to 289 in 1998. Its own 
budgetary income amounted to € 20.78 million in 1999 (€ 10.39 million /1998). The 
Chairman of the supervisory authority is nominated and dismissed by the Prime 
Minister upon proposal of the President of the National Bank and the Minister of 
Finance. Supervision covers credit institutions and financial undertakings, investment 
services providers, investment funds, stock exchanges, commodities exchange traders, 
commodity exchanges, public warehouses and specialised credit institutions. The 
current staff of 300 carry out three main types of activities: participating in regulatory 
activities, licensing of companies and public offerings, and inspections. The 
Supervisory Authority is also empowered to carry out on-site inspections. During the. 
reporting period 21 banks had comprehensive on-site inspection, 2 had targeted 
inspections and on-site inspections were conducted in 138 co-operative credit 
63 
institutions. In case of a violation of the rules by market players, the Authority is 
empowered to take measures and impose sanctions such as the withdrawal of licenses. 
In 1999 for example, the activity of the financial institution was suspended in 15 cases 
and the permission for issuing value papers was not granted in 2 cases. The Authority 
is allowed to conclude agreements with foreign supervisory authorities and has done 
so with Germany, France, Italy, Austria and Luxembourg. The information obtained 
can only be used for licensing, supervision and sanctioning purposes. Hungary is 
member of IASCO and the Basle Committee. 
The State Supervisory Authority for Money and Capital Market has also conducted 
comprehensive inspections at 29 securities traders and members of the commodity 
exchange and a targeted inspection was conducted at the Budapest stock exchange. 
The activities of 9 traders were suspended as result of detected irregularities. The 
National Supervision of Insurance is under the supervision of the Finance Minister. It 
is an independent body with its own budget. In 1998 the number of civil servants was 
45 (38 in 1997). In 1999 its budgetary revenue amounted to some € 2.2 million. A 
further 12 people are employed part time. The State Private Funds Supervision Office 
has seen its responsibilities increased as the number of people choosing a second and 
third pillar private pension fund has increased rapidly. The Agency had a staff of 102 
people in 1998. In 1999 its budgetary support amounted to € 2 million. 
In order to make inspections more efficient, co-ordination among the various 
supervisory agencies needs to be further strengthened. 
Concerning Free movement of persons, the Hungarian Equivalence and Information 
Centre within the Ministry of Education is in charge of the recognition of graduate 
and undergraduate higher education degrees, accredited higher educational 
qualifications and the recognition of scientific degrees. In July 1998 the Scholarship 
Committee was separated from the Hungarian Equivalence and Information Centre 
and by taking this step of rationalisation an important institutional requirement of EU 
accession was met. The Hungarian Equivalence and Information Centre, whose 
responsibilities have been broadened over the last year, has a staff of 12 (an increase 
of some 50% over the figure of the previous year (8)). Further staff increases are still 
needed. 
It is still of concern that most professional chambers, of which membership is 
currently compulsory, link membership to Hungarian citizenship. Only the chambers 
of architects, medical doctors, pharmacists and veterinarians do not require 
Hungarian citizenship. 
Competition : the Hungarian Competition Office set up in 1999 is responsible for the 
enforcement of competition rules. Currently, it has 115 employees (106 in 1997). In 
1999 its budgetary support amounted to € 2.1 million (1.6 million in 1998). The 
Office has broad powers to enforce competition control, including the seizure of 
documents, the prohibition of certain types of practices and the possibility of 
imposing fines including in consumer fraud cases. The decisions of the Office are 
passed by the Competition Council, which works with full autonomy within the 
Competition Office. Three-member panels within the Council designated by the 
President decide on cases. Final decisions can be challenged before the Metropolitan 
64 
Court. The qualification of the staff appears to be sufficient to enforce the 
Competition Act. 
In 1998, the Competition Office took 180 decisions. In 39 cases the law was violated 
(including 30 consumer fraud cases, one cartel and 5 abuses). In one merger case, a 
negative decision was taken (MATAV). 
State aid control is entrusted to the State Aid Monitoring Office of the Ministry of 
Finance. At present, it employs 6 staff members. It has started to receive notifications 
on aid plans. 
Whereas the Competition Office performed well, the State Aid Monitoring Office 
needs to be further strengthened in order to enable it to carry out a proper monitoring 
of State aids. 
Telecommunications : the Hungarian Communication Authority is the licensing, 
supervising, regulatory and administrative agency for telecommunications, postal 
services and frequency management in Hungary, carrying out its activities under the 
control of the Ministry of Transport. It is financed from the State budget, has a nation 
wide competence and independent accounting. The appointment of the President of 
Hungarian Communication Authority is made by the Minister of Transport on a 
proposal of the National Council for Communications and Informatics. The President 
reports directly to the Minister and has specific responsibility for regulatory affairs, 
informatics and frequency management. 
The Hungarian Communication Authority is divided into nine directorates, five 
inspectorates and the Presidential Office. The directorates provide all central 
regulatory and resource management functions. The 5 regional inspectorates deal with 
licensing and inspection. The Presidential Office is responsible for appeals against the 
decisions of the regional inspectorates. 
The staff of Hungarian Communication Authority consists of approximately 516 
persons, 269 in central directorates (the same as in 1997) and 247 in the regional 
directorates (a substantial drop from 341 in 1997). More than half the staff have 
professional qualifications (of which nearly 90% are engineers). Although compared 
to similar institutions in the EU the staff figures appear to be somewhat high, the 
figures also include people employed to work in the Hungarian Communication 
Authority's various laboratories. 
In May 1999, the Communications Authority set up a. postal department which will in 
the future assume responsibility for licensing and supervising the postal sector. 
Domestic quality control monitoring is currently carried out. The question of cross-
border/international monitoring has been addressed by Hungary's signing an 
agreement with UNEX (Unipost External Monitoring System) to allow the country to 
participate in monitoring and measuring the quality of external mail, using UNEX's 
established methods. The main 200 post offices are being equipped with on-line 
networked terminals. 
65 
In the area of telecommunications, further efforts are needed to consolidate the 
independence of the Regulatory Authority as the influence of the Government bodies 
is still noticeable in certain areas. In order to be able to face competition in the EU 
internal market, the financial aspect of the universal service obligations will need to 
be addressed and Hungary will have to develop further its postal infrastructure. The 
institutional set up in the postal sector should also cover the establishment of a legally 
separate and functionally independent regulatory authority. 
Audiovisual services : the National Radio and Television Commission ("ORTT") 
was set up under the law on Radio and Television Services. The seven members of the 
Commission are elected by a majority vote in Parliament for one four-year term. The 
members are backed up by an office of 103 civil servants. The Commission is an 
independent central public organisation with nation-wide competence under the 
supervision of the Parliament. Its role is centred on protection of the freedom of 
speech, the prevention of information monopolies, the protection of the independence 
of broadcasters as well as monitoring the principles of a free press and reporting its 
findings to Parliament. 
The Commission is empowered by Law to: evaluate broadcasting rights and tender 
bids for satellite channels; perform supervisory tasks, including the award of licences 
for commercial radio and television and the levying of fines together with withdrawal 
of licences in defined circumstances; operate a Complaints Committee (charged with 
the task of assessing complaints related to the violation of the criteria of providing 
balanced information) as well as a programme monitoring and analysis service; form 
and express opinions on the draft bills related to frequency management; and 
determine broadcasting fees. The Commission undertook approximately 500-550 
actions in 1998. 
The large number of actions seem to confirm that the National Radio and Television 
Commission has a good enforcement record. 
Taxation : the Ministry of Finance is the supervising authority of the Tax Office. At the 
end of 1998 the 24 county directorates had a total staff of 9170 which shows a significant 
increase on 1997 (8308). The Criminal Investigation Directorate was set up in January 
1999 within the Tax Office with a staff of 240. It is authorised to investigate tax evasion, 
fraudulent bankruptcy, accounting discipline, unfair economic advantage and to 
document forgery matters. Progress has been registered concerning the number of on-the-
spot checks in the retail sector and ad- hoc checks of VAT refund claims. The setting up 
of the Criminal Investigation Directorate has also contributed to improved tax collection. 
The Tax Office has improved its control capacity over the last year. 
Agriculture : the Department for Agro-Environment Management and Plant 
Protection at the Ministry of Agriculture and Regional Development, with a staff of 
17 members, has two main sections: a Division for Plant Protection which deals 
mainly with matters concerning the registration of pesticides and fertilisers, plant 
health regulations, plant protection regulations, quality control of inputs and safety 
control of outputs and a Division for Agro-Environment Management which is mainly 
concerned with legislative and administrative matters regarding soil conservation, 
66 
environmental aspects of agricultural production, water management, waste disposal, 
and nature conservation. 
The Plant Health and Soil Conservation Inspectorate operates under the responsibility 
of the Ministry of Agriculture and Regional Development. There are currently 20 
Plant Health and Soil Conservation stations (one in each county and one in Budapest) 
with a staff of 938 persons. There are also 10 specialised laboratories. 
Finally, the National Wine Qualification Institute is a joint organisation of various 
departments. It is in charge of testing and qualifying all wine and wine products in 
Hungary. The Institute has a staff of 61 which shows a significant increase over 1997 
figures (49). 
The Animal Health and Food Control Department with a total staff of 2707 and 20 
control stations (at the Ministry of Agriculture and Regional Development), headed 
by the Chief Veterinary Officer, provides the central management and control of 
animal health in Hungary. The department deals with administrative questions related 
to licences for veterinary drugs and biologicals, the import and transit of live animals, 
products of animal and plant origin which might be the carriers of disease-causing 
agents, and animal welfare during transportation and Food Hygienic and Quality 
Control. 
There are 24 veterinary border offices running 30 veterinary border inspection posts, 
most of which are manned on a 24-hour basis, which control the import, transit and 
export of animals and animal products. 
The Central Veterinary Diagnostic Institute is the central co-ordinating laboratory for 
animal disease diagnosis and also provides specialist support and a quality control 
service for the other diagnostic laboratories. At end of 1998 it had a staff of 78 (75 in 
1997). The 5 field diagnostic laboratories each cover a designated territory 
comprising 2-3 counties. 
The Control Institute for Veterinary Biologicals, Drugs and Feed serves as a central 
government advisory agency and laboratory in controlling the quality of veterinary 
drugs and biologicals intended for sale and use, regardless of whether produced 
domestically or imported from abroad. It has only diagnostic functions. The number 
of staff has not changed in the last two years: it was 75 both in 1998 and 1997. 
The Food Investigating Institute serves as the central laboratory supporting the food 
safety activities of the Ministry of Agriculture and Regional Development and its field 
stations. It comes under the direct management of the Animal Health and Food 
Control Department and the Chief Veterinary Officer. The number of staff is 
practically unchanged in the last two years: 97 in 1997 and 98 in 1998 
In the field of agricultural market regulation, the Agricultural Market Regime Office 
is responsible for the principles of market regulation and the Agricultural Intervention 
Centre has the executive function. Agricultural Market Regime Office is in charge of 
policy and regulatory matters such as marketing, export policy, buy-up regulation, 
domestic trade, international trade. It deals with animal and plant products. The 
Agricultural Market Regime Office has a staff of 42. The Agricultural Intervention 
67 
Centre is responsible for organising the payment of state refunds, operating financial 
control, and ensuring proper use of funds. It has access to the database of Hungarian 
agricultural foreign trade, through which it identifies unlawful applications of funds. 
The Agricultural Intervention Centre registers and approves applications for export 
refunds. It is still funded by the Ministry and has been nominated as the paying 
agency for SAPARD. Although the Agricultural Intervention Centre is independent 
from the Ministry, the two are closely linked and the Agricultural Intervention Centre 
influences agricultural market regulations. It has a staff of 60 and comprises four 
departments dealing with market, controlling, accounting and organisation. The 
number of staff shows an impressive increase over 1997 (26). (Its budget amounted to 
€ 2.2 million in 1999). 
The National Institute for Agricultural Quality Control is in charge of all seed quality, 
issuing of licences and quality control of breeding animals and semen. The Central 
Feed Laboratory of the Institute is in charge of diagnosing inorganic components in 
feeds. 
Progress has been made in setting up administrative structures for veterinary and 
phytosanitary control. Further efforts will be necessary in order to up-grade control 
standards in accordance with the acquis. 
Fisheries : the Department of Fishery, Wildlife and Water Utilisation is in charge of 
fishery matters within the Ministry of Agriculture and Regional Development. The 
Department is heavily understaffed (2 staff, including the head of the department). 
Each county has a wildlife and fishery inspectorate (19 units) which employs one 
fishery inspector, who is in charge of following up and intervening in fish breeding, 
illegal fishing and related matters. 
Staff in the department of fisheries, wildlife and water utilisation needs to be 
reinforced. 
Energy : the Energy Department within the Ministry of Economic Affairs is in charge 
of energy policy and has a staff of 28. The Hungarian Energy Office is a state 
administrative agency with independent responsibilities and jurisdiction on a national 
level, controlled by the Government, and supervised by the Minister of Economic 
Affairs. The activities of the Office are performed by individual departments: 
consumer protection and pricing; energy supply; internal financing; and legal and 
management. Operating costs are covered by fees levied on the energy price. It has a 
staff of 85 (1997 : 64). The main tasks of the Office are the regulation and 
supervision of gas and electricity companies with a natural monopoly position, and 
the protection of consumer interests. Regulation basically covers licences, operation 
codes, ownership questions, prices, networks and the general regulatory environment 
of the companies. (Its budget amounts to € 3 million in 1999 and to € 2.2 million in 
1998) 
The Office can levy fines, amend or withdraw licences and approve the separation, 
union or merger of the licence holder or sale of a substantial ownership share, as well 
as reduction of capital. 
68 
Hungary has to establish an appropriate and efficient mechanism for regulation as 
required under the gas and electricity Directives. In this respect the further 
development of the Hungarian Energy Office as provided for in the Government's 
new long term strategy is significant. 
Transport : the competent administrative authority in the field of transport is the 
Ministry of Transport, Communication and Water Management. In addition, the Civil 
Aviation Authority, with a staff of 86 in 1998 (52 in 1997), has responsibility for air 
transport. The Superintendent for Shipping at the General Inspectorate of Transport 
shares responsibility in the area of maritime transport. The Ministry of Transport, 
Communications and Water Management is implementing a staff reduction plan 
which decreased the number of staff by 40 persons since July 97 to currently 302. In 
1999, the Hungarian administration is planning further 3% staff reduction. 
The transport inspectorate has altogether a staff of 1,706 (1,679 in 1997), divided into 
20 geographical divisions (19 counties plus Budapest), with a central Inspectorate 
Authority located in the capital. Each local office is responsible for road and rail. Its 
operating costs are financed by fees collected for services and procedures. The 
Transport Inspectorate also conducts on-the-spot checks, verifying licences, 
documentation, and state of the vehicle (500,000 or so checks annually excluding 
excess weight and on-site inspections). Excess weight checks are conducted by the 
relevant inspectors at border inspection posts, and have a yearly figure of 28,000-
30,000. 
Hungary needs to strengthen its administrative institutions in charge of allocating 
railway capacity and monitoring the operations of railways companies. Currently the 
Railway Superintendent does not have sufficient staff to deal with this responsibility. 
As regards inland waterways, six county inspectorates perform the necessary 
navigation tasks. Some 20,000 cases a year (licensing, examining, monitoring) are 
administered by 30 people. The navigation unit of the Transport Inspectorate with a 
staff of 30 people deals with shipping, vessels port matters and maritime navigation 
issues. There are no people exclusively dedicated to inspection. Staff inspect vessels 
in addition to their normal duties. The effectiveness of the Office could be improved 
by increasing its staffing and equipment resources. 
The number of checkpoints on the Danube river needs to be increased. Navigation 
inspections are only carried out in cases of, for example, hazardous substances being 
transported on the Danube for which reporting and monitoring must be carried out 
during the substance's passage through Hungarian waters. 
The Ministry should ensure that staff reduction plans do not affect the timetable for 
transposition and implementation of the acquis. 
Employment and social policy : in January 1999 the Ministry of Economic Affairs 
was given formal responsibility for employment strategy, (in particular active labour 
market policy) and social dialogue. The Ministry of Social and Family Affairs 
remains responsible for implementing employment policy, such as operating 
employment centres responsible for job search, retraining and placement. The 
Ministry is also responsible for the development and implementation of social policies 
69 
and has been designated as the lead organisation for preparations for eventual 
participation in the European Social Fund (ESF). Since under the new ESF Regulation 
the Fund will, to a large extent, be the operational arm, at European level of the 
European Employment Strategy. The two Ministries will need to work very closely 
together. As regards vocational education and training, the Ministry of Education also 
plays a major role. 
Employment relationships are regulated by the national labour inspectorate, which 
operates as an autonomous body under the supervision of the Ministry of Social and 
Family Affairs. 
The main responsibilities for approximation of law in the field of health and safety at 
work are divided between the Ministry of Social and Family Affairs, the Ministry of 
Health, the Ministry of Economic Affairs and the State Mining Office. The National 
Labour Inspectorate, under the Ministry of Social and Family Affairs, is also 
responsible for seeing to the approximation of a small number of EC measures. 
The National Labour Inspectorate is responsible for occupational safety/safety at work 
and has an overall staff of 600 (including support staff), with about 80 based at the 
headquarters (64 in 1997) and about 400 inspectors. 200 of these inspectors check on 
labour law whilst the rest check on health and safety. The Occupational Health 
Inspectorate operates in the institutional framework of the National Public Health and 
Medical Officer's Service, and is responsible for health protection of employees and 
prevention of occupational diseases in Hungary. There are 6,881 members of staff. In 
1999 its budgetary income amounted to some € 1.28 million (€ 1.2 million in 1998). 
The National Public Health Inspectorate forms part of the Ministry of Health and its 
tasks are to improve public health and prevent diseases. The service is under the 
central National Medical and Public Health Office and its head, the Chief Medical 
Officer, reports directly to the Minister of Health and is assisted by four deputies. 
The inspectorate covers a total of 149 county/city offices plus the central office in 
Budapest. It employs some 6,731 staff (2,168 in towns, 3,085 in the counties, and 
1,478 in the National Medical and Public Health Office and other national institutes -
down from 7,905 (1992) and 7,124 (1995)). It conducts its inspections separately 
from the National Labour Inspectorate, due to differences in jurisdiction and 
approach . 
Co-operation between the National Public Health Inspectorate and the National 
Labour Inspectorate needs to be reinforced. Progress is also required in setting up 
implementation structures for health and safety at work legislation. 
Regional policy and cohesion : The law (1996) on Regional development and 
Physical Planning in Hungary provides the legal basis for regional development 
policy-making . The law foresees seven development regions in two ways. First of 
all, it is stipulated that Regional Development Councils shall be (re)established 
according to the new regulations with an identified residence (still lacking). The 
Regional Development Councils shall also set up their agencies responsible for the 
implementation of spatial development programmes. Beyond this, the amendment 
provides a solid financial base for the above by stipulating that the operational costs 
70 
of the implementing agencies shall be born by the central state budget. The 
Government is going to be authorised by Law to adopt rules on establishing the 
regulatory framework in terms of the organisational and the operational basis of 
programme-monitoring. 
Although the law provides for the setting up of new bodies, no adequate financial 
resources were, however, made available to these new organisations in order to have 
the envisaged system really functioning. The institutional set up for regional 
development is still very weak and there is lack of permanent staff in development 
councils. The target is to employ by the end of 1999 8-10 persons assisting the 
Regional Development Councils. This situation results in a rather limited 
administrative capacity. 
Environment : The Ministry of Environment exercises the main co-ordination 
responsibility in relation to environment, but the responsibilities are shared with other 
Ministries or Agencies such as the ministry of Transport, Telecommunication and 
waste management for waste management issues. The Ministry of the Interior is 
responsible for household waste management of municipalities. The Ministry of 
Health is responsible for air and water quality (drinking and bathing water). 
Responsibility for soil belongs to the Ministry of Agriculture, which is also 
responsible for forestry and game management. The National Atomic Energy Agency 
(under the responsibility of the Ministry of Economy) is responsible for nuclear safety 
issues. The National Radiation Protection and Nuclear SAFETY Agencies (under the 
responsibility of the Ministry of Health) are responsible for radiation protection. 
The Ministry of Environment is responsible for policy making and legislation, 
whereas implementation and enforcement is carried out by the Regional 
Environmental Protection Authorities. Only three lawyers work on the transposition 
of the Community environment legislation within the legal department of the Ministry 
of the Environment. 
There are 12 regional Environmental Protection Authorities , with a total staff of 1,137 
(1,134 in 1997), and 12 Nature Conservation Authorities all co-ordinated by a Chief 
Inspectorate (which falls under the competence of the Ministry of the Environment). 
There are 19 Public Health Authorities, responsible for public health issues, which 
come under the Ministry of Health. There are also 12 Water Management Authorities, 
under the competence of the Ministry of Transport, Telecommunications and Water 
Management, responsible for water quality issues and environmental disasters. The 
number of staff of the National Chief Directorate of Water Management has slightly 
declined from 115 in 1997 to 110 in 1998. Under the same Ministry comes the Traffic 
Transportation Authority responsible for traffic pollution and noise. 
Problems of co-ordination exist between all these Ministries and the allocation of 
responsibilities needs to be reviewed. Although administrative capacity in the 
environmental field is relatively good, it needs to be strengthened. 
As regards radiation protection, the Ministry of Health is the competent authority. In 
addition, there are eight "radiation protection centres", responsible for supervision and 
licensing within each county. Since the entry into force of the Atomic Law, full authority 
in nuclear safety matters is exercised by the Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority, a 
71 
central administration organisation supervised by the Government (its own budget 
amounted to € 4.9 million in 1999 and to € 3.8 million in 1998.) The director general and 
its deputy are nominated by the Prime Minister. The Joliot-Curie National Research 
Institute for Radiobiology and Radiohygiene (OSSKI) is responsible for the national 
register on occupational exposure (15000 exposed workers including 6000 in the nuclear 
industry). Concerning continuous monitoring, Hungary has set up a national 
"• monitoring and surveillance system for nuclear emergency cases, but environmental 
monitoring required for normal circumstances (evaluation of population exposure) 
still needs a legal basis. Some ninety monitoring stations are operating 24 hours per 
day. Water and soil samples are taken periodically by the Ministry of Health and by 
the Ministry of Agriculture. Aerosol samples are taken on a daily or weekly basis, 
other samples on a monthly and drinking water fortnightly basis. There are no 
contaminated sites. In 1998, Hungary's only uranium mine was closed. 
According to the Hungarian National Programme for the Adoption of the Acquis, the 
total amount of staff in the Inspectorates and other Ministries should be increased by 
1,613 to ensure full implementation of the acquis. The Hungarian Ministry of 
Environment needs an increase of approximately 52 new staff, especially lawyers, to 
ensure the completion of the legal alignment by the Hungarian target date. It is 
important that those provisions are properly implemented. 
Consumer protection : From April 1999, the Bureau of Consumer Affairs has been 
transformed into the General Inspectorate of Consumer Protection. It is responsible 
for market surveillance of all consumer products except for pharmaceuticals, health 
related products and chemicals. It is a member of the International Marketing 
Supervision Network and of the International Consumers Association. 
There are 20 regional county inspectorates (19 counties including one for Budapest). 
The General Inspectorate of Consumer-Protection has an autonomous budgetary 
chapter in the Ministry of Economic Affairs, whereas the regional offices are under 
the Public Administration Offices. Additional income comes from fines paid by 
distributors and manufacturers, but this income may only be used for publications and 
training. The number of staff in the Inspectorate was 163 in 1998, which shows a 
significant increase over 1997 (144). The 20 regional offices employ about 11 persons 
each. Institutional co-operation between the General Inspectorate of Consumer 
Protection and regional offices should be improved. 
Prior to full participation in the EU RAPEX (Rapid exchange mechanism) system the 
General Inspectorate of Consumer Protection is involved in the setting-up of a 
transitional RAPEX system between Central and Eastern European countries. The 
General Inspectorate of Consumer Protection is also preparing to set-up a Central 
Information System on Market Surveillance that will contain information on 
inadequate and dangerous products. 
Product liability legislation exists, but is not yet properly enforced. 
In the field of market surveillance, the Hungarian Customs and Finance Guard is 
obliged to refuse the customs clearance of products which are considered hazardous 
or inadequate pursuant to the product safety rules. 
Problems relate to the existence of pre-market control, the lack of competent 
personnel and lack of some technical equipment. The central laboratories of the 
inspection bodies are, however, reasonably well equipped and the testing instruments 
used are relatively modern. However, in order to ensure that the whole system 
operates smoothly, Hungary still needs to enhance consumer awareness, -as well as 
producer awareness-, on consumer's rights and producer's responsibilities. Efforts 
72 
have also to be made to familiarise the legal profession with product liability related 
cases. 
Justice and home affairs: In February 1999, the International Centre for Co­
operation in Combating Crime (National Law Enforcement Contact Point) was set up. 
A co-ordinating body and a network of liaison officers were established between law-
enforcement agencies and national security services to improve the exchange of 
information and co-ordinate action on national level. A new national police 
commander was appointed in July 1998. The Directorate Against Organised Crime at 
the National Police Headquarters was reinforced and now a total of 256 staff are 
employed including 200 officials. Some 20 organisational units are deployed at 
regional level. Hungarian liaison officers were accredited to Moscow, Kiev and 
Wiesbaden. 
The Office for Refugee and Migration Affairs is the main government agency dealing 
with refugee issues and asylum procedures. Staffing in the Office for Refugee and 
Migration Affairs has not changed: in 1998 it was 60 including 27 eligibility officers 
dealing with asylum-applications. While Hungary generally applies asylum rules in 
conformity with the Geneva Convention, there are still gaps in enforcement. A large 
number of asylum-seekers and illegal migrants, are kept in detention by the Border 
Guards. Despite funding gaps the budget of the Office of Refugee and Migration 
Affairs was cut in nominal terms by some € 120,000 in 1999. (Budgetary support in 
1999 amounts to € 3.9 million in 1999 and to € 4.1 million in 1998). This means that 
there is a shortfall in funding for the necessary staff, training and additional 
infrastructure, including expanded refugee facilities. 
The Office for Refugees and Migration Affairs continues to be understaffed and the 
situation of asylum seekers and refugees continues to be problematic. 
In 1999 the newly-established Ministry of Youth and Sports assumed responsibility of 
the Drug Co-ordination Committee in developing a national anti-drugs strategy. The 
anti-drug portfolio within the Ministry is headed by a Deputy State Secretary with a 
staff of 7. The Hungarian National Police had an anti-narcotics strategy since 1994. 
Its Department for Enforcement of Drug-Related Crime has 36 staff at HQ and 5 
regional offices. 
Progress has been made in border management and in fight against corruption. The 
capacity to handle asylum and migration questions need to be further improved 
together with facilities for refugee reception. The staff number of the Department for 
enforcement of Drug related crime is considered inadequate relative to the workload. 
Customs : the Border Guards, transformed into a law-enforcement agency in 1997, 
was entrusted with investigative powers in 5 categories of crime including organised 
crime (trafficking in human beings, document forgery). In some 10 regional Border 
Guard Directorates there are 29 investigative units. 
As regards staffing, Parliament approved a budget for staff of some 14,000 
professional staff . The current staff structure comprises : 3,000 passport-handling 
officers, 3,000 patrols, 1,500 "border hunting staff", 500 alien police officers, 450 
anti-crime cover agents. (Its budget amounted to € 95.6 million in 1999 and to € 70.6 
73 
million in 1998). 2,270 posts are not filled due to lack of financial resources. The 
Border Guard proposes to recruit some 1,500 extra staff in view of EU accession. 
From 1998, the Hungarian Customs and Finance Guard was given the responsibility 
collecting indirect taxes including excise duties. In 1998 the guards achieved record 
success in uncovering financial irregularities, with the number of cases up 14%. 
Despite increased needs, the staff level of the Hungarian Customs and Finance Guard 
grew only moderately, reaching 7866 at the end of 1998 (an increase of 270 persons 
over 1997). 
The general use of electronic forms of clearance (e.g. bar code system) needs to be 
developed to make the customs guards work more efficient. The efficiency of 
inspections could be increased further with improved risk analysis methods. 
Financial control : The State Audit Office is the supreme audit and control 
institution in Hungary. Its tasks include the control of the budgets of central and local 
governments, social security funds and all other funds financed by Hungarian 
taxpayers. It is responsible for the co-ordination of all development efforts related to 
external audits, and it has also to ensure that Hungarian audit standards comply with 
EU requirements. The State Audit Office reports directly to Parliament. Its budget 
amounted to some € 10.4 million in 1999 and to € 7 million in 1998. 
The Government Control Office was established in 1994 to control central budgetary 
organisations. In addition to this function, it controls the use of international aid funds 
provided to Hungary. It is responsible for the co-ordination of efforts aimed at the 
establishment of a financial control system in Hungary, including a proper monitoring 
system encompassing both the central and the local levels. The Government Control 
Office reports directly to the Government with only 66 staff out of which 48 are 
employed in audit work, the Government Control Office is clearly understaffed. 
Budgetary support amounts to € 1.4 million in 1999. (€ 1 million /1998). 
The audit and financial control units within each co-ordinating Ministry are not 
involved in spending activities. All central control units rely on the internal audit or 
control organisations existing within the different institutions or bodies that are parts 
of their respective budgetary chapters. Internal audit units have not however been set 
up yet in all organisations. Furthermore, when such units exist, the average number 
of staff is limited to one single person. The central audit units are entitled to contract-
out the work to audit firms of the private sector. In fact they do so in a very limited 
number of cases but this can not be regarded as a solution in the long run. These units 
report directly to the top management of the Agency and the Ministry itself. 
The Hungarian State Treasury has 860 staff, half of them in the central office in 
Budapest, half spread over the country in 20 branch offices. The State Treasury is 
responsible for state accounting. It intends to carry out more and more budgetary 
functions, including control tasks. Treasury systems are currently a fairly fragmented 
mixture of IT and manual procedures but there are plans to introduce an integrated 
online system in the future. Ex-ante control is currently performed by the Treasury on 
a very limited scale. The checks performed by the branch offices of Hungarian State 
Treasury are purely formal (authorised signatures, positive balance in the nominal 
sub-account, positive balance in the appropriation account). 
74 
Financial Control is partially in line with good practices in EU Member States. As a 
priority the Treasury needs to strengthen its control functions. The independence and 
capacity of the Government Control Office and other internal audit bodies needs to be 
improved. 
75 
C. Conclusion 
Hungary fulfils the Copenhagen political criteria. Two areas still need attention. The 
first is the situation of the Roma, where the government is beginning to implement its 
medium-term Roma action plan and needs to make available adequate budgetary 
resources. The second is the fight against corruption where recent efforts need to be 
re-inforced. 
Hungary is a functioning market economy and the legal and institutional structures 
which underpin the market economy have been further strengthened. It should be able 
to cope with the competitive pressure and market forces within the Union in the 
medium term, provided it continues to make further progress in structural reforms. 
Macroeconomic stability has been maintained, inflation has fallen and economic 
growth has continued. However, the widening current account, if unchecked, could 
threaten the macroeconomic gains achieved in recent years. Progress has been made 
in a number of structural areas, most notably budgetary reform, pension reform, and 
privatisation. However, recent decisions affecting the pension system have called into 
question the government's commitment to pension reform. 
The deterioration of the fiscal deficit needs to be addressed. Priority should be given 
to health sector reform which continues to be a major drain in the fiscal accounts. In 
order to ensure current account sustainability, it is important that the fiscal targets for 
1999 and 2000 are met. 
Hungary continues to make progress in aligning and implementing the acquis in most 
sectors. In the internal market, progress has continued as regards laws on public 
procurement and intellectual property (except as regards retroactive patent protection) 
and efforts have been focused on ensuring their effective implementation. Notable 
progress has been made in adopting legislation on self-employment which removes 
restrictions on EU-individuals wanting to establish in Hungary. Although efforts need 
to pick up in transposing EU standards and to ensure the functioning of market 
surveillance, Hungary is well advanced in implementing the new approach in the 
standards and certification areas. Hungary has adopted a law on state aids which 
should facilitate the development of an effective system of state aid monitoring and 
control. Progress is quite steady but slow in the agricultural, veterinary and 
phytosanitary fields and efforts need to be accelerated considerably if a sufficient 
level of alignment is to be achieved over the medium term. Hungary is relatively well 
advanced in alignment in the transport sector although the rail sector is lagging behind 
in terms of alignment and actual restructuring of the railways. Hungary has continued 
to consolidate the policy framework for financial control by defining the scope of 
audits and the distribution of tasks and responsibilities between the various 
institutions involved. 
Important progress was made in overall alignment in the VAT/excise area, but 
discriminatory provisions in the excise area are still causing problems. Further 
alignment is needed in the audio-visual areas as concerns European works and 
satellite broadcast monitoring. Aside from the fight against organised crime, the pace 
of alignment has been slow in the area of justice and home affairs, particularly with 
respect to border management and asylum. Little progress has been made with 
76 
regard to labour and health and safety at work. There has been a noticable slow 
down in the adoption of environment legislation and no progress has been made in 
customs. . Given the size of the transposition task which remains to be done in these 
sectors, significant efforts need to be undertaken to ensure further progress. While 
strategic plans have been adopted in the environment and energy sectors, it is 
essential that they be quickly implemented. In some areas such as regional 
development, whilst the legislative framework has been in place for some time, 
progress in implementation has been limited due to a lack of budgetary and human 
resources. 
Hungary has made steady progress in building up its administrative capacity to apply 
the acquis. Steps have been taken toward general public administration reform and 
continued emphasis has been placed on the development of specific European policy 
and law training courses throughout the administration and in the judiciary. Most of 
the key institutions needed for implementation of the internal market are in place. 
Nonetheless the administration still needs to be strengthened in specific areas such as 
state aid control, market surveillance (implementation of product liability legislation) 
and veterinary and plant health. Hungary needs to allocate sufficient budgetary and 
administrative resources to regional development and environment and improve 
capacities to use, monitor and control EU financial assistance. There is room for 
granting further independence to authorities such as the Government Control Office 
and the Communications Authority. 
Hungary has satisfactorily addressed most of its short term Accession Partnership 
priorities with the exception of administrative strengthening in regional development, 
steel sector restructuring and alignment in the environment sector. Hungary has also 
made good progress in implementing the medium term priorities. 
77 
D. Accession Partnerships and National Programmes for 
the Adoption of the Acquis: Global assessment of 
implementation 
The purpose of the Accession Partnership is to set out in a single framework: 
• the priority areas for further work identified in the Commission's Opinions, 
• the financial means available to help candidate countries implement these priorities, 
• the conditions which will apply to this assistance. 
Each candidate country was invited to adopt a National Programme for the Adoption of 
the Acquis. This sets out how it would deal with the Accession Partnership, the 
timetable for implementing its priorities and human and financial resources implications. 
Both the Accession Partnerships and the National Programme for the Adoption of the 
Acquis will be revised regularly to take account of progress made and to allow for new 
priorities to be set. 
1. Accession Partnership: Assessment of short and medium-term 
priorities 
Short-term priorities 
The short-term priorities of the Accession Partnership4 and an assessment of the 
progress made concerning their fulfilment are indicated below. 
• Economic reform: review and update the country's medium-term economic 
policy priorities within the framework of the Europe Agreement; advance 
structural reforms (particularly with regard to the health care system). 
Assessment : In 1999, Hungary adopted a medium-term economic strategy 
including sectoral strategies aiming at improving conditions for growth and 
competitiveness. As part of the structural reform, the reform of the pension 
system has been completed, although a comprehensive reform of the health care 
system has not yet been started. The privatisation process is near to completion. 
A large overshooting in the accounts of the social security funds, makes 
comprehensive reform urgent. Although there is an ongoing need for restructuring 
industries such as steel and continued attention needs to be part to structural 
reforms. On balance, this priority has been met. 
• Reinforcement of institutional and administrative capacity: in particular in 
the areas of veterinary and phytosanitary controls (particularly as regards 
facilities at the external borders), environment, customs policy, internal financial 
control and regional development. 
Assessment : In the area of veterinary and phytosanitary controls, progress has 
only been made as regards computerisation. In the field of environment, Hungary 
Council Regulation 622/98, OJ L85 of 20 March 1998 
78 
• re-organised the regional inspectorates, institution building plans have been 
developed including a detailed programme for IPPC, a new institute on chemical 
safety was established and an information data base for waste water and soil 
pollution was set up. The Hungarian customs computer system has been further 
developed and training of staff has been carried out. As regards internal financial 
control, Hungary has taken steps to reinforce control and monitoring. For the 
management of EU assistance, a National Fund and a CFCU have been set up. 
Further efforts are still necessary to establish concrete regional control units, 
reinforce control units within the line ministries and clarify the tasks between the 
latter, the local governments, the Government Control Office and the State 
Treasury in the fields of ex-ante financial control and monitoring. As concerns 
regional development, Hungary has failed to address sufficiently the short-term 
Accession Partnership priority. Adequate and sufficient human and financial 
resources are still lacking within the bodies in charge of programming and control 
functions. Budgetary efforts need to be reinforced in order to strengthen the local 
government bodies with a view to political and budgetary decentralisation. 
Therefore this priority has only been partially met. 
Internal Market: including certification and standardisation (further alignment 
of legislative measures and conclusion of a European Conformity Assessment 
Agreement), state aids (adoption of legislative framework, definition of role and 
powers of monitoring authority, enforcement) and increased transparency 
through improvement of aid inventory. Enforcement of intellectual property rights 
and further alignment of company law. Complete alignment of public procurement 
legislation to cover fully the utilities sector. 
Assessment : Further steps have been made towards meeting the short-term 
priorities of the Accession Partnership, notably with regard to company law and 
standardisation. As to enforcement of intellectual property rights progress has 
been achieved on copyright protection, but further efforts are necessary especially 
for pharmaceutical products to provide for retroactive patent protection and to 
change the practice to allow for pre-patent expiry development work carried out 
by generic companies. Hungary has also progressed in the area of State Aids by 
strengthening the State Aid Monitoring Authority and by establishing rules for ex-
ante control and improving the annual reports on State Aid which now fulfil the 
basic criteria of transparency. In the area of public procurement further steps 
have been made in aligning the Hungarian legislation by exempting projects co-
financed by EU funds from the national preference clause. Enforcement and 
remedies procedures need to be further aligned particularly as regards utilities. 
Therefore this priority has been partially met. 
Justice and Home Affairs: implementation of appropriate refugee legislation 
consistent with 1951 Geneva Convention, development of effective border 
management. 
Assessment : In 1998, Hungary addressed this priority by lifting its geographical 
reserve to the Geneva Convention. Steps have also been taken to improve border 
management. The border guard has been transposed into a civilian force and 
preparatory measures have been undertaken to develop a nation-wide and modern 
border management system in line with to EU standards. 
79 
• Environment: continue transposition of framework legislation, establishment and 
commencement of implementation of detailed approximation programmes and 
implementation strategies related to individual acts. Planning and commencement 
of implementation of these programmes and strategies. 
Assessment : While alignment in the areas of nature protection, pollution from 
industrial plants and large combustion plants as well as the control of major 
accidents is well on track, progress is slow in the areas of waste and waste 
management, water and air quality. Therefore this priority has only been partially 
met. 
Generally Hungary has made good progress in addressing the short-term priorities. 
Outstanding issues relate in particular to administrative capacity in regional 
development, the restructuring of the steel sector and the need for further alignment 
with the acquis in the area of environment. 
Medium-term priorities 
In addition to this progress made on the short-term priorities, Hungary has also moved 
ahead on the following medium term priorities of the Accession Partnership. 
• Political criteria '.further efforts to improve the integration of the Roma. 
Assessment : The Government made further efforts to improve the situation of the 
Roma by adopting a revised medium-term Roma action programme. The 
programme puts particular emphasis on education and employment and also 
foresees social, health and housing measures. Despite the steps taken, the situation 
of the Roma remains difficult and continued attention must be paid to the full 
enforcement of the new programme at the regional and local levels. 
• Economic Reform: continue to consolidate the conditions for strong investment 
growth through the sustained implementation of prudent macroeconomic policies 
and the advancement of structural reforms. 
Assessment : After meeting the 1998 target for the general government deficit, 
Hungary continued to tighten fiscal policy, increase the transparency of the budget 
through the abolition of the many separate state funds, and set aside a contingency 
reserve in case GDP growth slows down or the external accounts deteriorate more 
than envisaged. The new economic strategy provides the framework for improved 
conditions for growth and competitiveness. 
• Economic Policy: regular review of the joint assessment of economic policy 
priorities, within the Europe Agreement framework, focusing on satisfying the 
Copenhagen criteria for membership of the Union and the acquis in the area of 
economic and monetary policy (co-ordination of economic policies, submission of 
convergence programmes, avoidance of excessive deficits); while Hungary is not 
expected to adopt the Euro immediately upon accession, it is expected to pursue 
80 
• policies which aim to achieve real convergence in accordance with the Union's 
objectives of economic and social cohesion, and nominal convergence compatible 
with the ultimate goal of adoption of the Euro. 
Assessment : Hungary has already finished a first Joint Assessment in 1997 and is 
progressing on the second Joint Assessment. Hungary has also continued to 
progress in its preparation for joining Economic and Monetary Union. The 
Government deficit has been further reduced and the inflation rate has declined. 
The National Bank is pursuing an exchange rate policy which will result in the 
Forint being linked entirely to the Euro by 1st January 2000. 
Reinforcement of institutional and administrative capacity: development of 
anti fraud unit and state audit office, improved operation of the judicial system, 
training for the judiciary in Community law and its application; reinforcement of 
justice and home affairs institutions (ensuring sufficient and properly trained 
personnel in particular police, border guards, ministries and courts), reform of 
customs and tax administrations to ensure readiness to apply the acquis, the 
reinforcement of food control administration and strengthening of the nuclear 
safety authority. 
Assessment :The policy framework for financial control has been further 
consolidated by defining in more detail the scope of financial audits and the 
distribution of tasks between the various financial control bodies. In addition an 
integrated internal control policy was introduced. As regards the judiciary, special 
training programmes ad courses for judges in EU Laws have been launched. 
Progress can also be noted in the area of Justice and home affairs particularly as 
regards institution building aspects of the fight against organised crime and 
combating corruption. The Border Guards were entrusted with additional 
investigative powers including on organised crime. 
Internal Market: including further development of standardisation and 
conformity assessment bodies and establishment and operation of a market 
surveillance system, alignment of technical legislation on industrial products, 
further alignment of competition law, in particular for state aid, reinforcement of 
monitoring authorities both for competition and state aids, alignment of capital 
liberalisation, financial services, audio-visual policies and consumer protection, 
promotion of enterprise development, including SME's, alignment with the acquis 
in the fields oftelecoms, consumer protection and the internal energy market. 
Assessment : Hungary has made further progress concerning conformity 
assessment, market surveillance, the adoption of EN standards and of technical 
legislation on industrial products. In the area of state aids, new legislation has 
been adopted defining clearly the State Aids Monitoring Authority The 
transparency of aid schemes has also been improved. The enforcement practice of 
the competition Office can be considered as satisfactory whereas the State Aids 
Monitory Authority needs to be further strengthened in order to enable it to 
effectively carry out its duties. As regards the liberalisation of capital movements, 
consumer protection, telecommunication and energy, significant progress was 
achieved in 1998 and continued in 1999. SMEs have been further supported 
through a new strategy combined with appropriate budgetary allocations. 
Justice and home affairs: including implementation of migration policy and 
asylum procedures as well as the fight against organised crime (in particular 
money laundering, drugs and trafficking in human beings) and corruption, and 
clarification of admission provisions for immigrants, and to align visa policy with 
that of the EU and to complete alignment to international conventions, notably in 
view of the Schengen acquis. 
Assessment : Hungary has continued to make efforts to improve its capabilities in 
all Justice and home affairs areas, notably by adopting new legislation on 
organised crime, corruption and on admission provisions for immigrants. 
Institutional reform has continued and the various law enforcement bodies have 
been able to modernise their equipment. 
Agriculture: including alignment with the agricultural acquis (including 
veterinary and phytosanitary matters, in particular external border controls), 
attention to environmental aspects of agriculture and biodiversity. Development of 
the capacity to implement and enforce the CAP, in particular the fundamental 
management mechanisms and administrative structures to monitor the agricultural 
markets and implement structural and rural development measures, adoption and 
implementation of the veterinary and phytosanitary requirements, upgrading of 
certain food processing establishments and testing and diagnostic facilities, 
restructuring of the agri-food sector. 
Assessment: Over the last year only limited progress was made in preparations for 
gradually implementing the Common Agriculture Policy . 
Transport: further efforts on alignment to the acquis in particular on rail and 
road transport (technical controls), and to provide necessary investment for 
transport infrastructure, notably extension of trans-European networks. 
Assessment : Hungary continued to develop its infrastructure. A part of the 
railways network has been renewed and major motorway projects in the south and 
east have continued. Some progress has been made in alignment with the acquis in 
the road and rail sectors. 
Employment and social affairs: development of appropriate labour market 
structures and joint review of employment policies as preparation for participation 
in EU co-ordination; alignment of labour and occupational health and safety 
legislation and development of enforcement structures in particular early adoption 
of the framework directive on health and safety at work; enforcement of equal 
opportunities between women and men; further development of active, autonomous 
social dialogue; further development of social protection, undertake steps to bring 
public health standards into line with EU norms. 
Assessment :. The joint review of employment policies as preparation for 
participation in EU co-ordination is being carried out. In terms of legal 
transposition of the employment and social affairs acquis Hungary is relatively 
advanced. In the area of Labour Law, Hungarian legislation is already to a large 
extent aligned. At the beginning of 1999, a new institutional framework, the 
82 
National Labour Council, has been set up for the social dialogue providing for a 
tri-partite forum of social partners to consult and negotiate labour issues including 
wage issues. The social protection system is rather well developed. Progress has 
been made in the area of public health with the adoption of a new law which forms 
the basis for a series of implementing measures and actions. 
• Environment: including the development of monitoring and implementation 
control structures and capacities, continuous planning and implementation of 
approximation programmes related to individual legal acts. A particular emphasis 
should be given to waste water, waste management, air pollution and integrated 
industrial pollution control and risk management. Environmental protection 
requirements and the need for sustainable development must be integrated into the 
definition and implementation of national, sectoral policies. 
Assessment : Despite the rather ambitious law harmonisation programme, little 
progress has been achieved in 1999. If Hungary wants to achieve its ambitious 
target for full transposition in 2001 it will need to urgently speed up both legal 
alignment and investment in environmental technology and infrastructure. In this 
context it is particularly important that the budgetary provisions made in the 
NPAA are also properly reflected in the annual budget. 
• Regional Policy and Cohesion: further strengthen budgetary procedures, 
financial instruments, monitoring and control mechanisms in order to participate 
in EU structural programmes after membership. 
Assessment : Hungary continued to consolidate its internal financial mechanisms 
at the central level. 
2. National Programme for the Adoption of the Acquis 
The revised version of the Hungarian National Programme for the Adoption of the 
Acquis (NPAA) was adopted by the Hungarian Government on 29 June 1999. The 
NPAA is part of the Government's strategy 'for catching up with Europe', adopted in 
June 1999. This strategy sets out the economic framework for the NPAA. The 
planning documents required for the pre-accession financial instruments will be 
completed in the autumn and will form part of the NPAA. 
Following the Hungarian Government's strategic goal to complete preparedness for 
EU membership by December 2001, the NPAA foresees full alignment by that date, 
except in certain areas. The NPAA thus covers the period 1999-2001. 
The revised version of the NPAA follows a similar structure to the Commission's 
Opinion and First Progress Report on Hungary. It introduces each chapter with a brief 
description of the current situation of the sector, particularly highlighting the 
achievements made in 1998. 
The NPAA is in general coherent with the priorities of the Accession Partnership. The 
different tasks to accomplish the various Accession Partnership priorities are spelled 
out in a necessarily comprehensive manner and cover all aspects, such as law 
83 
harmonisation, institution building and budgetary implications. However the non-
acquis related areas of the Accession Partnership, for example the economic criteria 
of restructuring the health care system, do not appear in the NPAA which only covers 
acgwz's-related matters. These areas are supposed to be covered by the documents 
elaborated for the Joint Assessment of Hungary's Medium-term Economic Policy 
Priorities to be prepared jointly by the Hungarian Ministry of Finance and the 
Commission . Given the Hungarian working hypothesis to become Member by 2002 
no distinction is made in the NPAA between short-term and medium-term priorities. 
The NPAA covers all chapters of the acquis. It is focusing particularly on the binding 
parts of the acquis, but also covers harmonisation in the non-binding areas. The 
sections on common trade regime and data protection do not provide sufficient 
information. The information provided on the sector of banking, insurance and 
securities is too general. Clear links are consistently made between the relevant EU 
legislation and the proposed Hungarian actions. The information given in the different 
sub-chapters seems to be complete. 
In general, there is a systematic implementation timetable.. The major steps planned 
in the approximation of laws are subdivided in goals to be achieved in 1999, 2000 or 
2001. As indicated above, the NPAA does not go beyond 2001, as full harmonisation 
with the acquis is scheduled to be achieved by December 2001, except for certain 
areas. However, the scheduling for the EMU, standardisation and conformity 
assessment and energy, chapters is not clear. Some target dates, for example those in 
the field of Justice and Home Affairs seem to be too optimistic given the important 
financial implications of alignment in the sector. 
In general, institution building aspects are adequately handled in the respective 
chapters. The last chapter of the NPAA, called 'administrative capacity', provides an 
overview of the institution building actions described in detail in the relevant chapter. 
The information given is in most cases quite detailed. Budgetary needs, staff 
requirements, training aspects and the necessary technical equipment are described. In 
the market surveillance section, it is not clear how the system will be implemented on 
regional and local levels. 
The budgetary implications of the different actions are clearly spelled out for each 
sub-sector. There is always a clear division between the contribution from the national 
budget and expected Phare funding as well as expected contributions from the 
International Financing Institutions. 
The Hungarian NPAA is a good accession policy instrument, covering the key issues 
of the process. It provides for the necessary budget and is an integral part of the 
budgetary decision making process. 
84 
ANNEX 
HUMAN RIGHTS CONVENTIONS RATIFIED BY THE CANDIDATE COUNTRIES, 
JUNE 1999 
Adherence to following 
conventions and protocols 
ECHR (European Convention 
for Human Rights) 
Protocol 1 (right of property et 
al.) 
Protocol 4 (freedom movement et 
al.) 
Protocol 6 (death penalty) 
Protocol 7 (ne bis in idem) 
European Convention for 
the Prevention of Torture 
European Social Charter 
Revised European Social 
Charter 
Additional Protocol to the ESC 
(system of collective complaints) 
Framework Convention 
for National Minorities 
ICCPR (International Covenant 
on Civil and Political Rights) 
Optional Protocol to the ICCPR 
(right of individual 
communication) 
Second Optional Protocol to 
ICCPR (abolition death penalty) 
ICESCR (International 
Covenant on Economic, Social 
and Cultural Rights) 
CAT (Convention against 
Torture) 
CERD (Convention on the 
Elimination of All Forms of 
Racial Discrimination) 
CEDAW (Convention on the 
Elimination of All Forms of 
Discrimination against Women) 
CRC (Convention on the Right 
of the Child) BG 
X 
X 
0 
o 
o 
X 
0 
o 
o 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X CY 
X 
X 
X 
o 
o 
X 
X 
o 
X 
X 
X 
X 
o 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X cz 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
0 
o 
0 
X 
X 
X 
o 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X EE 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
0 
0 
0 
X 
X 
X 
0 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X HU 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
0 
0 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X LV 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
0 
0 
0 
o 
X 
X 
0 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X LIT 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
0 
o 
0 
o 
X 
X 
o 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X MT 
X 
X 
X 
X 
o 
X 
X 
0 
o 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X PL 
X 
X 
X 
o 
o 
X 
X 
o 
o 
o 
X 
X 
o 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X RO 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
0 
X 
o 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X SK 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
0 
o 
X 
X 
X 
0 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X sv 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
0 
X 
o 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X T 
X 
X 
0 
0 
0 
X 
X 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
X 
0 
X 
X 
X = Convention ratified 
O = Convention NOT ratified 
BG = Bulgaria; CY = Cyprus; CZ = Czech Republic; EE = Estonia; HU = Hungary; LV : 
Latvia; LIT = Lithuania; MT = Malta; PL = Poland; RO = Romania; SK = Slovakia; SV 
Slovenia; T = Turkey 
f^J* 
Annex 
STATISTICAL DATA 
87 
STATISTICAL DATA 
Basic data 
Population (average) 
Total area 
National accounts 
Gross domestic product at current prices 
Gross domestic product at current prices 
Gross domestic product per capita at current prices 
Gross domestic product at constant prices (nat. 
currency) 
Gross domestic product per capita1 at current prices 
Structure of production 
- Agriculture 
- Industry (excluding construction) 
- Construction 
- Services 
Structure of expenditure 
- Final consumption expenditure 
- household and NPISH 
- general government 
- Gross fixed capital formation 
- Stock variation8 
- Exports of goods and services 
- Imports of goods and services 
Inflation rate 
Consumer price 
Balance of payments 
-Current account 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 
in 1000 
10 261 10 229 10 193 10 155 10 114 
in km2 
93 030 93 030 93 030 93 030 93 030 
1000 Mio Forint 
4364.8 5614.0 6893.9 8540.7 10210.7 
1000 Mio EURO 
34.9 34.1 35.6 40.4 42.4 
EURO 
3400 3300 3500 4000 4200 
% change over the previous year 
2.9 1.5 1.3 4.6 5.1 
in Purchasing Power Standard 
7800 8100 8600 9200 9800 
% of Gross Value Added6 
6.7 
25.3 
5.1 
62.9 6.7 
26.3 
4.6 
62.3 6.6 
26.3 
4.3 
62.8 5.9 
28.1 
4.6 
61.4 
as % of Gross Domestic Product 
84.2 
58.0 
26.2 
20.1 
2.2 
28.9 
35.4 77.3 
53.8 
23.6 
20.0 
3.9 
36.9 
38.2 74.3 
52.2 
22.0 
21.4 
5.4 
38.9 
39.9 72.6 
50.6 
21.9 
22.2 
5.7 
45.5 
46.0 
% change over the previous year 
19.2 28.3 23.5 18.3 14.3 
Mio EURO 
-3 696 -1837 -1319 -840 -2 059 
Figures have been calculated using the population figures from National Accounts, which may 
differ from those used in demographic statistics. 
6 Including FISIM. 
The item "Services" includes statistical discrepancies. 
These figures include changes in inventories, acquisitions less disposals of valuables and the 
statistical discrepancy between the GDP and its expenditure components. 
-Trade balance 
Exports of goods 
Imports of goods 
-Services, net 
-Income, net 
-Net current transfers 
-of which government transfers -3 388 
6 974 
10 362 
145 
-1282 
829 
12 -1828 
9911 
11 739 
531 
-1366 
826 
10 -2 088 
11 215 
13 302 
1 186 
-1 139 
721 
-12 -1 525 
17 386 
18 911 
1 051 
-1 264 
897 
-4 -1904 
18 505 
20 409 
610 
-1 675 
910 
-41 
89 
Public finance 
General government deficit/surplus 
Financial indicators 
Gross foreign debt of the whole economy 
Monetary aggregates 
-Ml 
-M2 
- Total credit 
Average short-term interest rates 
- Lending rate 
- Deposit rate 
EURO exchange rates 
- Average of period 
- End of period 
- Effective exchange rate index 
Reserve assets 
-Reserve assets (including gold) 
-Reserve assets (excluding gold) 
External trade 
Imports 
Exports 
Balance 
Terms of trade 
Imports with EU-15 (EU-12 in 1994) 
Exports with EU-15 (EU-12 in 1994) 
Demography 
Natural growth rate 
Net migration rate 
Infant mortality rate 
Life expectancy : Males 
Females 1994 
-9.2 1995 1996 
% of Gross Domestic 
-6.6 -3.2 1997 
Product 
-5.4 1998 
; 
% of Gross Domestic Product 
69.0 65.5 60.8 46.3 43.3 
in 1000 Mio EURO 
7.1 
14.5 
30.9 5.7 
12.8 
26.0 6.0 
13.8 
24.6 6.8 
15.6 
25.3 7.0 
25.3 
% per annum 
27.2 
20.3 32.4 
24.8 28.2 
20.6 23.0 
17.6 20.1 
15.4 
(lEURO=..National currency) 
125.0 
136.7 164.5 
183.3 193.7 
206.9 211.7 
224.7 240.6 
252.4 
1990=100 
64.6 50.2 42.9 38.6 32.0 
Mio EURO 
5571 
5536 9203 
9170 7847 
7817 7703 
7676 8106 
8081 
Mio EURO 
12235.2 
8996.1 
-3239.1 11824.1 
9837.1 
-1987.0 14289.4 
12367.8 
-1921.6 18724.2 
16842.4 
-1881.8 22929.5 
20520.2 
-2409.3 
corresponding period of the previous year = 100 
102.3 101.3 97.7 101.2 101.7 
as % of total 
45.3 
51 61.5 
62.8 62.3 
69.7 62.8 
71.2 64.1 
72.9 
per 1000 of population 
-3.0 
0.0 -3.3 
0.0 -3.7 
0.0 -3.8 
0.0 -4.3 
0.0 
per 1000 live-births 
11.5 10.7 10.9 9.9 9.7 
at birth 
64.8 
74.2 65.3 
74.5 66.1 
74.7 66.4 
75.1 
90 
Labour market (ILO methodology) 
Economic activity rate 
Unemployment rate, total 
Unemployment rate of persons < 25 years 
Unemployment rate of persons >= 25 years 
Average employment by NACE branches (LFS) 
- Agriculture and forestry 
- Industry (excluding construction) 
- Construction 
- Services 
Infrastructure 
Railway network 
Length of motorways 
Industry and agriculture 
Industrial production volume indices 
Gross agricultural production volume indices 
Standard of living 
Number of cars 
Telephone subscribers 
Number of Internet connections 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 
% of labour force 
54.0 
10.7 
19.4 
9.2 52.4 
10.2 
18.7 
8.7 51.8 
9.9 
18.0 
8.5 51.2 
8.7 
15.9 
7.5 51.7 
7.8 
13.5 
6.7 
% of total 
8.7 
27.6 
5.4 
58.3 8.0 
26.7 
5.9 
59.4 8.3 
26.7 
6.0 
59.1 7.9 
27.1 
6.0 
59.0 7.5 
28.0 
6.2 
58.3 
Km per 1000 Km2 
83 83 83 83 83 
Km 
293 335 365 381 448 
previous year = 100 
109.6 
103.2 104.6 
102.6 103.4 
106.3 111.1 
96.2 112.6 
99 
Per 1000 inhabitants 
212 
173 220 
208 223 
261 227 
303 220 
335 
8.2 9 
* Provisional 
: Not available 
Source: United Nations. 
91 
Methodological Notes 
National account 
Gross domestic product per capita in PPS. Revised data use the PPP figures from the 
International Comparison Project. 
Inflation rate 
Consumer price The EU Member States have designed a new consumer price index in 
order to meet the obligations in Treaty of the EU, as a part of the preparations for the 
common currency. The aim was to produce CPIs comparable between Member States. 
The main task was to harmonise methodologies and coverage. The result was the 
Harmonised Index of Consumer Prices (HICP). 
A similar exercise has been started with Candidate Countries. In respect to 
enlargement, it is equally important that their economic performance is assessed on 
the basis of comparable indices. Some progress has already been made towards 
adapting the new rules. However, it will still take some time before genuine HICPs 
will be available in Candidate Countries, and it must be emphasised that the figures 
reported in the table are based on national CPIs, which are demonstratively non-
comparable. 
Financial indicators 
Sources 
Where possible, Eurostat questionnaire on monetary and financial statistics has been 
used as the source. Candidate Countries are asked to supply regularly an update of 
tables contained in the questionnaire. The statistics covered include foreign official 
reserves, monetary aggregates, interest rates, and exchange rates. Failing this, the 
IMF's 'International Financial Statistics' publication has been used as the source. The 
European Commission is used as the source for exchange rates against the EURO, 
where available. 
Concerning gross foreign debt, the OECD External Debt Statistics publication has 
been used as the source for 1994-6. The data for 1997-8 are the result of closer 
cooperation between BIS/ IMF/ OECD/ World Bank, and published jointly by them. 
Debt is of the whole economy, and includes both short- and long-term. According to 
the convention, the stock of outstanding debt is converted from US dollars into EURO 
at end-year exchange rates, whereas GDP is converted into EURO using annual 
average exchange rates. 
Concerning general government deficit / surplus, Candidate Countries are presently 
unable to provide reliable data on a national accounts basis. Given the lack of reliable 
data, an approximation for general government deficit / surplus is derived from the 
IMF's Government Finance Statistics Yearbook (for an explanation of methodology, 
see below). 
Method 
Reserve assets are end-year stock data. They are defined as the sum of central bank 
holdings of gold, foreign exchange, and other (gross) claims on non-residents. Gold is 
valued at end-year market price. 
General government deficit / surplus is an approximation of the national accounts 
definition, derived from data based on the IMF's GFS (government finance statistics) 
92 
methodology. The general government deficit / surplus is obtained by adding the 
consolidated central government deficit / surplus (normally including certain extra-
budgetary funds) to the local government deficit / surplus. The total is adjusted for net 
lending /borrowing for specific policy purposes, which is a financing item in the 
national accounts. GFS data are on a cash basis. 
Monetary aggregates are end-year stock data. Ml generally means notes and coin in 
circulation plus bank sight deposits. M2 generally means Ml plus savings deposits 
plus other short-term claims on banks. Total credit generally means domestic credit to 
the government (net of deposits, including non-financial public enterprises), plus the 
private non-financial sector, plus other non-monetary financial institutions. It should 
be noted that the problem of measuring the circulation of foreign currency in some 
Candidate Countries may affect the reliability of the data. 
Interest rates Annual average rates. Lending rates generally consist of the average rate 
charged on loans granted by reporting banks. Deposit rates generally refer to average 
demand and time deposit rates. 
Exchange rates Where available, the EURO exchange rates are those officially 
notified. The effective exchange rate index is weighted by major trading partners, 
with a base year of 1990. 
External trade 
Imports and exports (current prices). The data is based upon the special trade system, 
according to which, external trade comprises goods crossing the customs border of the 
country. Trade data excludes direct re-exports, trade in services as well as licences, 
know-how and patents. Since 1997, trade data includes trade between industrial 
customs free zones and foreign markets. Since 1997 also, operative leasing and repair 
are excluded from external trade turnover. The data for 1996 were recalculated 
according to the methodological changes in 1997. The data for periods up to 1996 are 
published in the original content, therefore they are not comparable with the data of 
1996 and 1997. Value of external trade turnover includes the market value of the 
goods and the additional costs(freight, insurance etc.). 
Trade classification. Until end of 1996, the recording of merchandise trade occurred 
by two types of classification in parallel: the Hungarian External Trade Classification 
(KTJ) and the Harmonised Commodity Description and Coding System (HS) 
nomenclature. The customs documentation is the statistical data source of external 
trade turnover. Since 1996, the data are collected according to the Combined 
Nomenclature. The earlier data are updated on the basis of the later processing. 
Imports are recorded on CIF basis and are captured on the date of custom clearance. 
Exports are recorded on FOB basis and are captured with the date on which the 
commodities cross the state border. 
Terms of trade. "Unit value" index calculation is used for measuring price changes in 
external trade, with the exception of heterogeneous commodity groups, where the 
sample method is applied for the price observation. Since the I quarter of 1996 due to 
the modifications in the calculation of unit value indices and the application of Fisher 
indices instead of Paasche indices, the quarterly volume indices has been changed. 
Imports and exports with EU-15. Data declared by the republic of Hungary. 
Demography 
Net migration rate. Crude rate of net migration (recalculated by EUROSTAT) for year 
X, is: population (X+l) - population (X) - Deaths (X) + Births (X). This assumes that 
any change in population not attributable to births and deaths is attributable to 
93 
migration. This indicator includes therefore also administrative corrections (and 
projection errors if the total population is based on estimates and the births and deaths 
on registers). Figures are in this case more consistent. Further, most of the difference 
between the Crude rate of net migration provided by country and the one calculated 
by Eurostat is caused by an under reporting or delay in reporting of migration. 
Labour force 
Economic activity rate (ILO Methodology), according to the Labour Force Sample 
Survey (LFS), represents the labour force as a percentage of population at working 
age (15 years or more), where: 
- Labour force: employed and unemployed persons (in the sense of the ILO 
definitions). 
- The employed: all persons aged 15+, who during the reference period worked at 
least one hour for wage or salary or other remuneration as employees, entrepreneurs, 
and members of co-operatives or contributing family workers. Members of armed 
forces are considered as employed. 
- The unemployed: all persons aged 15+, who concurrently meet all three conditions 
of the ILO definition for being classified as the unemployed: 
(i) have no work, 
(ii) are actively seeking a job and, 
(iii) are ready to take up a job within a fortnight. 
LFS monitors only person's aged 15-74. 
Unemployment rate (by FLO methodology). Percentage of the unemployed in labour 
force. 
These rates are derived from LFSS (Labour Force Sample Survey) observing the ILO 
definitions and recommendations mentioned below. 
Average employment by NACE branches (LFS). This indicator is derived from LFSS 
(Labour Force Sample Survey) observing the ILO definitions and recommendations. 
Infrastructure 
Railway network. All railways in a given area. This does not include stretches of road 
or water even if rolling stock should be conveyed over such routes; e.g. by wagon-
carrying trailers or ferries. Lines solely used for tourist purposes during the season are 
excluded as are railways constructed solely to serve mines; forests or other industrial 
or agricultural undertakings and which are not open to public traffic. The data 
considers the construction length of railways. 
Length of motorway. Road, specially designed and built for motor traffic, which does 
not serve properties bordering on it, and which: 
(a) is provided, except at special points or temporarily, with separate carriageways 
for the two directions of traffic, separated from each other, either by a dividing strip 
not intended for traffic, or exceptionally by other means; 
(b) does not cross at level with any road, railway or tramway track, or footpath; 
(c) is specially sign-posted as a motorway and is reserved for specific categories of 
road motor vehicles. 
Entry and exit lanes of motorways are included irrespectively of the location of the 
signposts. Urban motorways are also included. 
Industry and agriculture 
94 
Industrial production volume indices. Industrial production covers mining and 
quarrying, manufacturing and electricity, gas, steam and water supply (according to 
the NACE Rev.l Classification Sections C,D,E). 
Index of total industrial production includes the data of all industrial enterprises. The 
indices by branches refer to enterprises with more than 10 employees. 
Gross agricultural production volume indices. Indices were calculated using the fixed 
price basis applied for national accounts. Until 1996 the prices of 1991, from 1997 the 
prices of 1995 serve as fixed price basis in the calculation. 
Standard of living 
Number of cars. Passenger car: road motor vehicle, other than a motor cycle, intended 
for the carriage of passengers and designed to seat no more than nine persons 
(including the driver). 
The term "passenger car" therefore covers microcars (need no permit to be driven), 
taxis and hired passenger cars, provided that they have less than ten seats. This 
category may also include pick-ups. 
Connected main line Actually operating or temporarily suspended, private and 
institutional/communal main lines that connect terminal equipment to a switching 
exchange. Connected main lines (installation) include lines of subscriber's equipment, 
lines of public payphones which are open for anybody, and telecommunications 
service lines of the operator. Residential and institutional/communal subscribers have 
been defined in the tariff. Installation can also be classified by the purpose of the 
station into the classes of dwelling, business and public main lines. Mobile sets are 
excluded. 
Note: Since the passing of Hungarian Telecommunication Law Hungarian Central 
Statistical Office (like the countries of the EU ) has been collecting data of the main 
lines. Before 1993, the new Telecommunication Law, statistics surveyed main 
stations. 
Number of Internet connections. Data collection of Internet connections starts in 
1999. 
95 
Sources 
Total area, infrastructure, industry and agriculture, external trade, labour market: 
National sources. 
National accounts, inflation rate, balance of payment, public finance, finance, 
demography: Eurostat. 
96 
ISSN 0254-1475 
COM(1999) 505 final 
DOCUMENTS 
EN 17 01 11 06 
Catalogue number: CB-CO-99-514-EN-C 
Office for Official Publications of the European Communities 
L-2985 Luxembourg