EN    EN EN
 
EN    EN  EUROPEAN COMMISSION 
Brussels, 28.3.2011 
SEC(2011) 391 final 
COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 
Accompanying the White Paper - Roadmap to  a Single European Transport Area – 
Towards a competitive and resou rce efficient transport system 
SEC(2011) 358 final 
SEC(2011) 359 final 
COM(2011) 144 final 
 
EN 2   EN TABLE OF CONTENTS 
COMMISSION STAFF WORKI NG DOCUMENT Roadmap to  a Single European 
Transport Area – Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system.....................1 
Introduction................................................................................................................... ..............7 
I – Current trends and future ch allenges: Growing out of Oil ....................................................9 
1. A look at the recent past ...............................................................................................9 1.1. More efficient, safe and secure transport…..................................................................9 
1.2. …but no structural change to reduce oil dependency and CO
2 emissions .................10 
1.3. Encouraging recen t developments..............................................................................10 
2. Assessing transport trends: business as usual is not sustainable ................................11 
2.1. Increasing oil price and pe rsistent oil dependency .....................................................12 
2.2. Growing congestion and poorer accessibility.............................................................12 2.3. A deteriorating climate and local environment...........................................................14 
3. Future challenges and constraints...............................................................................15 3.1. Growing competition in world transport markets.......................................................15 3.2. A tight carbon budget for the transport sector ............................................................17 3.3. Strong requirements for infrastructure investments ...................................................19 3.4. The need for a new approach on mobility ..................................................................20 
II – A vision for 2050: an integrated, sust ainable and efficient mobility network ...................21 
1. A great opportunity.....................................................................................................21 2. An integrated vision for the various transport segments ............................................22 
2.1. Driving conventional cars and trucks out of the cities ...............................................22 2.2. Multimodal interurban travel......................................................................................26 2.3. A green and efficient freight core network.................................................................28 2.4. Improving the door-to-door experi ence in long-distance travel .................................30 
2.5. A global level-playing field for intercontinental freight.............................................31 3. Putting it all together: fe atures and advantages of a new mobility concept ...............32 
III – Strategy: policies to steer change......................................................................................3 6 
 
EN 3   EN 1. An efficient and integrated mobility system...............................................................36 
1.1. A Single European Transport Area.............................................................................36 1.1.1. A true internal market for rail services .......................................................................37 1.1.2. Completing the European aviation sector...................................................................40 1.1.3. A maritime “Blue Belt” and a suitable framework for inland navigation ..................44 1.1.4. Further integrating the road freight market ................................................................46 1.1.5. Multimodal transport of goods: the development of e-Freight...................................50 1.2. Promoting quality jobs and better working conditions...............................................51 1.2.1. A social code for mobile road transport workers........................................................52 
1.2.2. A Social Agenda for wa terborne transport .................................................................53 
1.2.3. A socially responsible aviation sector ........................................................................54 1.2.4. An evaluation of the EU approach to j obs and working conditions across transport 
modes.......................................................................................................................... 55 
1.3. Secure Transport.........................................................................................................5 6 
1.3.1. Cargo security.......................................................................................................... ...57 
1.3.2. High levels of passenger securi ty, low levels of hassle..............................................59 
1.3.3. Land transport security ...............................................................................................60  
1.3.4. ‘End-to-End’ security .................................................................................................61  
1.4. Acting on transport safety: sa ving thousands of lives ................................................62 
1.4.1. Towards a ‘zero-vision’ on road safety ......................................................................62 1.4.2. A European strategy for civil aviation safety .............................................................65 
1.4.3. Safer shipping .......................................................................................................... ...66 
1.4.4. Rail safety ............................................................................................................. ......68 
1.4.5. Transport of dangerous goods ....................................................................................70 1.5. Service quality and reliability.....................................................................................70 
1.5.1. A better enforcement of passenger rights ...................................................................70 
1.5.2. Seamless multimodal travelling and integrated ticketing...........................................72 1.5.3. Ensuring an uninterrupted mobility followi ng disruptions in the transport system ...73 
2. Innovating for the future: technology and behaviour .................................................74 2.1. A European Transport Research and Innovation Policy.............................................74 2.1.1. Vehicles for the future ................................................................................................7 6 
 
EN 4   EN 2.1.2. A comprehensive alternative fuel strategy .................................................................78 
2.1.3. Permeating the transport system with  advanced information technology ..................80 
2.2. Promoting more sustainable behaviour ......................................................................86 2.2.1. Fuel and vehicle efficiency labelling..........................................................................87 2.2.2. A certified carbon footprint calculator .......................................................................87 2.2.3. Lower speeds for cleaner and safer transport .............................................................87 2.2.4. Eco-driving training and applications.........................................................................88 2.3. Integrated urban mobility ...........................................................................................89 2.3.1. A new type of urban mobility.....................................................................................89 3. Modern infrastructure and smart funding ...................................................................95 3.1. Transport infrastructu re: territorial cohesion and economic growth ..........................95 
3.1.1. Exploiting the strengths of the individual modes .......................................................96 3.1.2. TEN-T policy review: from individual proj ects to an integrated European network.99 
3.1.3. Ex-ante project appraisal ..........................................................................................105 3.2. A coherent funding framework.................................................................................107 3.2.1. Trends in transport infrastructure financing .............................................................107 3.2.2. Transport sector financing needs ..............................................................................107 3.2.3. A new funding framework for transport infrastructure ............................................108 3.2.4. Private sector engagements.......................................................................................110 3.3. Getting prices right and avoiding distortions............................................................111 3.3.1. “Polluter pays” for external costs .............................................................................112 3.3.2. “User pays” for infrastructure costs..........................................................................118 3.3.3. Aligning taxation with trans port sustainability goals ...............................................119 
3.3.4. Transport infrastructure and transpor t services: subsidies and State aid..................121 
4. The external dimension.............................................................................................124 
4.1. Extending internal market rules and rein forcing the transport dialogue with main 
partners .....................................................................................................................12 4 
4.2. Promote energy efficiency and climate change goals in multilateral forums...........124 4.3. An international dialogue on transport security........................................................124 4.4. Extending our transport and infrastr ucture policy to our neighbours.......................125 
4.5. Intensifying cooperation to re move transport barriers..............................................126 
 
EN 5   EN List of initiatives  
1. A true internal market for rail services ...................................................................................................... 40  
2. Completion of the Single European Sky ..................................................................................................... 42  
3. Capacity and quality of airports ................................................................................................................. 43  
4. A maritime “Blue Belt” and market access to ports ................................................................................. 45  
5. A suitable framework for inland navigation .............................................................................................. 46  
6. Road freight ............................................................................................................................... ................... 49  
7. Multimodal transport of goods: e-Freight .................................................................................................. 51  
8. Social code for mobile road transport workers ......................................................................................... 52  
9. A Social Agenda for maritime transport .................................................................................................... 53  
10. A socially responsible aviation sector ....................................................................................................... 54  
11. An evaluation of the EU approach to jobs and working conditions across transport modes .............. 56  
12. Cargo security ............................................................................................................................... .............. 58  
13. High levels of passenger security with minimum hassle ......................................................................... 59  
14. Land transport security ............................................................................................................................. 61  
15. ‘End-to-end’ security ............................................................................................................................... .. 62 
16. Towards a ‘zero-vision’ on road safety .................................................................................................... 64  
17. A European strategy for civil aviation safety ........................................................................................... 66  
18. Safer shipping ............................................................................................................................... .............. 68  
19. Rail safety ............................................................................................................................... ..................... 69  
20. Transport of dangerous goods ................................................................................................................... 70  
21. Passengers’ rights ............................................................................................................................... ........ 71  
22. Seamless door-to-door mobility ................................................................................................................ 73  
23. Mobility Continuity Plans .......................................................................................................................... 74  
24. A technolo gy roadmap ............................................................................................................................... 84 
25. An innovation and deployment strategy ................................................................................................... 85  
26. A regulatory framework for innovative transport .................................................................................. 85  
27. Travel information ............................................................................................................................... ...... 86  
28. Vehicle labelling for CO 2 emissions and fuel efficiency .......................................................................... 87  
29. Carbon footprint calculators ..................................................................................................................... 87  
 
EN 6   EN 30. Eco-driving and Speed limits ..................................................................................................................... 88  
31. Urban Mobility Plans ............................................................................................................................... .. 92 
32. An EU framework for urban road user charging ................................................................................... 92  
33. A strategy for near- ‘zero-emission urban logistics’ 2030 ....................................................................... 94  
34. A core network of strategic European in frastructure – A Euro pean Mobility Network ................... 102  
35. Multimodal freight corridors for sustainable transport networks ....................................................... 105  
36. Ex-ante project evaluation criteria ......................................................................................................... 106  
37. A new funding framework for transport infrastructure ....................................................................... 109  
38. Private sector engagement ....................................................................................................................... 111  
39. Smart pricing and taxation ...................................................................................................................... 123  
40. Transport in the Worl d: The external dimension ................................................................................. 126  
 
 
EN 7   EN Introduction 
Transport is the foundation of any economy as it constitutes the heart of the supply chain. 
Without good transport networks, a proper functioni ng of the internal market is not possible. 
Transport infrastructure inve stments boost economic growth; create wealth; enhance trade, 
geographical accessibility and the mobility of people. They are a highly effective engine of 
job creation. As other world regions are launchi ng huge, ambitious infrastructure investment 
programmes, it is crucial that Europe  maintains its competitive position.  
Transport is also a key ingredient for a hi gh quality of life, making places accessible and 
bringing people together. Besides its role as a facili tator, the transpor t industry in itself 
represents an important part of the economy: in the EU it directly employs around 10 million people and accounts for about 5% of GDP; many  European companies are world leaders in 
infrastructure, logistics, traffic manageme nt systems and manufacturing of transport 
equipment. 
Market integration, economic grow th and transport activity are strongly related. In the EU, 
efficient transport connections have facilitate d the creation and deepening of the internal 
market. Each of the EU enlargements was ac companied by a strong growth of transport 
activity. Still, a lot needs to be done in order to  effectively unite the transport systems of the 
eastern and western part of the Europe a nd make the enlargement a physical reality. 
The link between internal market and transpor t was clearly recognised from the beginning of 
European integration. Transport policy was included, as one of  the common policies, in the 
Treaty of Rome. A trans-European network pol icy was added by the Maastricht Treaty in 
1992 to help achieve the EU intern al market and cohesion objectives
1. 
In that same year, 1992, the Commission publis hed a White Paper on the common transport 
policy, which was essentially dedicated to market  opening, in line with the priorities of the 
time. Almost ten years later, the 2001 White  Paper emphasised the need for managing 
transport growth by achieving a more ba lanced use of all transport modes. 
This White Paper takes again a global look at developments in the transport sector, at its 
future challenges and at the policy initiatives th at need to be consider ed. Transport continues 
to be a core element of economic development,  territorial and social cohesion, but has to 
meet new challenges:  
• Since the last enlargement, European transp ort policy needs to cover almost the whole 
continent and 500 million citizens. 
• The context is one of recovery from the d eepest world economic crisis since the 1930s. 
The crisis had followed a sharp increase in the price of oil and of other commodities, 
which was a symptom of growing imbalances in the use of global resources.  
• At the same time, the international community agrees on the need to drastically reduce 
world greenhouse gas emissions. 
                                                 
1 Presently, transport policy is governed by the provis ions of Title VI, Articles 90 to 100, of the Treaty 
on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). 
 
EN 8   EN The challenge of establishing a more resource efficient economy is particularly demanding 
for the transport sector, which continues to rely almost entirely on oil, has emitted 34%2 
more greenhouse gases in 2008 than in 1990 and remains a major source of noise and local air pollution.  
The present White Paper takes on the challeng e of seeking a deep transformation of the 
transport system, promoting independence from oil, the creation of modern infrastructure 
and multimodal mobility assisted by smart manage ment and information systems. It is put 
forward together with a Communication provi ding a roadmap to a low-carbon economy by 
2050 and a new Energy Efficiency Plan 2011 and forms an integral part of the ‘Resource 
Efficiency’ initiative of the Commission.  
The document is organised in three main parts: 
• “Part I – Current trends and future  challenges: Growing out of Oil ” identifies the 
challenges that the transport system is likely  to face in the future , based on an evaluation 
of developments in the recent past
3 and on an assessment of current trends4. It clarifies, in 
particular, the limits on greenhouse gas emissions th at transport will have to respect in the 
context of the action against climate change.  
• “Part II – A vision for 2050: An integrated, sustainable and efficient mobility network ” It 
then tries to formulate a plausible and desi rable way for the transport system to meet 
those challenges and to deliver better mobility services to citizens and businesses with a 2050 horizon. The vision is accompanied by goals intended to guide policy action in the next decade.  
• “Part III – Strategy: Po licies to steer change ” is the operational part of the White Paper. 
It describes the initiatives that need to be ta ken into consideration in the next ten years to 
meet the goals set in Part I, put the transpor t sector on a sustainabl e path and bridge the 
gap between vision and reality.  
                                                
 
2 This figure includes emissions from international aviation and maritime transport. 
3 A detailed analysis can be found in Annex 2: “Ex Post evaluation of Transport Policy 2001-2010” of 
the Impact Assessment on the White Paper “Roa dmap to a Single European Transport Area – 
Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system”.  
4 A description of how transport could evolve up to 2050 if new policies did not intervene to modify the 
trends (reference scenario) can be found in Annex 3:  “Reference scenario (201 0-2050)” of the Impact 
Assessment on the White Paper “Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – Towards a 
competitive and resource efficient transport system”. 
 
EN 9   EN I – Current trends and future challenges: Growing out of 
Oil 
1. A LOOK AT THE RECENT PAST  
1.1. More efficient, safe and secure transport… 
1. The last decade was marked by an intens e transport activity matched by an equally 
intense transport policy agenda. The EU enlargement and the ever increasing integration of global markets have boos ted freight volumes. The mobility of 
Europeans has also grown despite the high level of congestion in many cities. 
2. EU transport policy has helped transport be come more efficient, safe and secure. 
Market opening  has been particularly successful  in road and, spectacularly, in 
aviation where liberalisation in the 1990s set off an unprecedented growth in both 
the number of passengers flown and the number of routes served inside the EU.  
3. Transport has become a lot safer . The number of people killed in road accidents 
was about 40% lower in 2010 than in 2001, although progress was short of the 50% target. Maritime transport safety was al so improved through successive legislation 
which, among others, outlawed the use of single hull oil tankers and created a pan-
European system of traffic monitoring. Ne w dedicated agencies  in air, rail and 
maritime transport oversee the safety of EU transport operations.  
4. People are at the centre of EU trans port policy. To ensure high level of service 
quality  and good working conditions , legal requirements make sure that neither 
passengers nor workers are unduly affected  by increasing competitive pressure in 
the transport markets. The EU has establis hed a set of passenger rights, first in air 
transport, later in rail and recently also  in waterborne and coach transport.  
5. Security  has become a European transport policy issue after 11 September 2001. 
EU security rules in air and maritime transport have meanwhile been adopted 
covering regulatory standard s and inspection regimes. 
6. National infrastructure had previously par tly ignored the needs of the EU internal 
market. This has led to the establishment of the TEN-T policy . After the EU 
enlargement in 2004, 30 projects were prioritised. Some of them have been completed, with very positive effects for the regions involved. The European high-speed rail network is developing and ha s shown remarkable success on certain 
connections. Many TEN-T projects are how ever facing planning complications and 
budgetary constraints. The leverage of EU  financing is proving to be too weak.  
7. International ties  have been strengthened. A Common Aviation Area (CAA) is 
being created with neighbouring countries. Comprehensive air transport agreements 
have been signed with the USA in 2007 and with Canada in 2009. A Transport 
Community Treaty for South-Ea stern Europe has been ne gotiated. The adoption of 
the Maritime Labour Convention at the In ternational Labour Or ganization (ILO) in 
2006 – the new ‘Bill of Rights’ for seafar ers – has been actively supported by the 
 
EN 10   EN EU. Europe’s representation in internati onal institutions such as International 
Maritime Organization (IMO)  and International Civil Aviation Organization 
(ICAO) would be more effective if the EU spoke with one voice, but Member 
States are reluctant to accept such an approach. 
1.2. …but no structural change to reduce oil dependency and CO 2 emissions 
8. Transport continues to be nearly fully  dependent on fossil fuels  as energy source. 
It is the only sector where greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have almost 
continuously grown over the last 20 years and are now about one third above their 
1990 levels. Technical progress has deliver ed greater energy efficiency, but not 
enough to offset rising traffic volumes.  
9. The successive tightening of  vehicle emission standards (“Euro” classes) and 
improvements in fuel quality significantly reduced transport-re lated emissions of 
pollutants and particulates. Nonetheless, pollution still exceeds legal limits in many 
urban and other sensitive areas: further ac tion is needed to improve air quality. 
10. The poor environmental performance of th e transport system is also linked to 
transport patterns presently dominated by road in both freight and passenger transport. The more efficient and clean er rail and waterbor ne modes failed to 
exploit their potential in th e medium to long distances, which represent two thirds 
of driven kilometres and of emissi ons. Some factors might explain the low appeal 
of alternatives to road transport : 
– Investments to modernise the rail networ k and transhipment facilities have been 
insufficient to address the bottlenecks in  multimodal transport. Modal networks 
are badly connected. TEN-T policy has l acked financial resources and a true 
continental multimodal perspective; 
– At the beginning of the 21st century, the railways were the only transport mode 
in the EU that had not been opened up to competition. Legislation prescribing 
market opening in rail freight transpor t as of 2007 and in international rail 
passenger transport as of 2010 has been im plemented slowly and incompletely in 
the large majority of Member States. En forcement has been inadequate. National 
passenger markets, that represent the largest share of the business, are still largely closed. The lack of competition he ld back service quality and efficiency; 
– Short sea shipping faces higher administ rative burdens compared to the land-
based modes. National borders continue to cause inefficiencies and additional costs in rail. 
– Charges and taxes do not fully reflect the societal costs of transport. Attempts to 
internalise transport externalities and to remove tax distortions have so far been 
unsuccessful. 
1.3. Encouraging recent developments 
11. Some of the most effective measures to pr omote the sustainability of the transport 
system have taken the longest time to define and adopt. However a number of 
important decisions have now been taken:  
 
EN 11   EN – In 2009, in the context of the Climate and Energy package, the EU set itself the 
mandatory target of reaching a 10%-sha re of renewable energies used in 
transport5 by 2020, and lowering the greenhouse ga s intensity of fuels by 6% by 
20206;  
– In 2009, the EU adopted a Regulation on CO 2 standards for new passenger cars7 
and in December 2010 the European Parliament and the Council reached agreement on the final text of the vans Regulation. The impact will be significant, but will take some time to be fully evident since this is dependent on the existing fleet being replaced. The incl usion of aviation in the EU emission 
trading scheme (EU ETS) from 2012 onwar ds will also provide incentives to 
reduce CO2 emissions and will ensure that forecast growth in emissions is offset 
by equivalent reductions in other sectors; 
– In 2008, the Commission proposed a strate gy covering all transport modes for 
the internalisation of the most important external costs, namely those linked to: congestion, GHG emissions, local pollution and noise. For road freight transport, 
the Commission proposed amending the Directive on charging heavy goods vehicles – the so-called ‘E urovignette Directive’ – to allow Member States to 
integrate in distance-based charges th e cost of air and noise pollution. The 
European Parliament and the Council are now negotiating th e final version; 
– In October 2010, the EU was at the forefr ont in forging a global agreement in 
ICAO involving 190 countries to redu ce the impact of aviation on the 
environment and introducing a framew ork for market based measures. 
12. It is still too early to fully appreciate the impact of these measures, but they have set 
in motion a process of transformation in the sector that it is now vital to continue, deepen and extend to the 2050 horizon. 
2. A
SSESSING TRANSPORT TRENDS : BUSINESS AS USUAL IS NOT SUSTAINABLE  
13. Some of the unresolved problems of the pa st are likely to be exacerbated by current 
trends. This is shown by the Commi ssion’s analysis of possible future 
                                                 
5 Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the 
promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing 
Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC, OJ L 140, 5.6.2009, p. 16–62. The binding target is set only 
for land-based transport modes. However, the use of renewable energy sources in aviation and maritime transport can contribute voluntarily to the achievement of the 10% target. 
6 Directive 2009/30/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 amending 
Directive 98/70/EC as regards the specification of petrol, diesel and gas-oil and introducing a mechanism to monitor and redu ce greenhouse gas emissions an d amending Council Directive 
1999/32/EC as regards the specification of fuel used by inland waterway vessels and repealing 
Directive 93/12/EEC 
7 Regulation (EC) No 443/2009 of the European Par liament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 setting 
emission performance standards for new passenger cars as part of the Community's integrated 
approach to reduce CO2 emissions from light-duty vehicles (23 April 2009). 
 
EN 12   EN developments given a scenario of unchange d policies (the ‘Ref erence scenario’ in 
the accompanying Impact Assessment8). 
14. This scenario assumes that in 2010-2020 the economy will recover from the 
sluggish growth of the previous decade and revert to historical average growth rates 
(2.2% per year), thanks to the higher productivity growth assumed in Member 
States that are catching up. The GDP growth rate is however projected to slow 
down to 1.6% per year as of 2020 because of demographic ageing and the related 
reduction of the working-age population9. 
2.1. Increasing oil price and persistent oil dependency 
15. Increasing demand and extraction costs will affect the level and volatility of oil 
price. Global oil demand is projected to  grow from 84 million barrels per day 
(mb/d) in 2009 to about 100 mb/d in 2035, according to International Energy Agency (IEA)
10. The transport sector  accounts for almost 90% of the predicted 
increase in oil use and China alone would account for half of the global increase in 
oil use for transport. The Reference scen ario assumes a relatively high oil price 
environment compared with previous projections11 – 59 $/barrel in 2005 rising to 
106 $/barrel in 2030 and 127 $/barr el in 2050 (in year 2008-dollars)12. 
16. In the EU, transport depends on oil and oil products for about 96%13 of its energy 
needs14. In the Reference scenario oil products  would still represent 90% of the EU 
transport sector needs in 2030 and 89% in 2050. 
2.2. Growing congestion and poorer accessibility 
17. Without policy change, total transport activit y is expected to continue growing in 
line with economic activity. Freight transport activity is projected to increase, with 
respect to 2005, by around 40% in 2030 and by little over 80% by 205015. 
Passenger traffic would grow slightly less than freight transport (34% by 2030 and 
51% by 2050).  
18. The various modes would in general keep their relative share in the absence of 
significant policy changes. Road transport w ould maintain its dominant role in both 
passenger and freight transpor t within the EU, with passenger cars still contributing 
more than two thirds to total passenger transport in 2050. 
                                                 
8 For a more detailed description of the Reference scenario see Annex 3 of the Impact Assessment on 
the White Paper on Transport “A Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area”. 
9 European Commission, DG Economic and Financial Affairs: 2009 Ageing Report: Economic and 
budgetary projections for the EU-27 Member States (2008-2060). EUROPEAN ECONOMY 2/2009, 
 http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/publication14992_en.pdf. 
10 International Energy Agency (2010), World Energy Outlook 2010. 
11 The oil price projections are th e result of world energy modelling with the PROMETHEUS stochastic 
world energy model, developed by the National Technical University of Athens (E3MLab). 
12 These projections are close to those of the IEA: in its publication “Energy Technology Perspectives 
2010” the IEA assumes 115 $/barrel in 2008 prices for 2030 and 120 $/barrel for 2050. 
13 The corresponding figure worldwide is very similar: 95%. 
14 European Commission, EU Energy and Transport in Figures, 2010 
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/publica tions/statistics/statistics_en.htm. 
15 Freight transport activity includes international maritime transport. 
 
EN 13   EN 19. High congestion levels would seriously affect road tran sport in several Member 
States by 2030 without effec tive countervailing measures such as road pricing. 
While urban congestion will mainly depend on car ownership levels, the extent of urban sprawl and the degree of availabi lity of public transport alternatives, 
congestion on the inter-urban network w ould be the result of growing freight 
transport activity along specific corridors, in  particular where th ese corridors cross 
urban areas with heavy local traffic. 
20. Congestion costs are project ed to increase by about 50%  by 2050, to nearly € 200 
billion annually in the Reference scenario. 
21. European skies and airports will be satu rated. Aviation is expected to grow by over 
50% for passengers and by 125% for freight until 2020.  
22. The current situation in  terms of accessibility
16 in the EU suggests that there is a 
marked division between centr al and peripheral areas as  regards their transport 
connectivity and costs. Peripheral areas ha ve higher average costs of transport, 
owing not only to the need for longer trips, but also to the more expensive or less 
efficient transport solutions  that are available.  
                                                 
16 Accessibility here is based on the concept of “potential accessibility”, which assumes that the 
attraction of a destination increases with size, and declines with dist ance, travel time or cost. More 
specifically, accessibility is defined as the generalised transport costs from zone i to zone j for 
segment r (commodity group or trip purpose) in year t, weighed with the traffic volumes. 
 
EN 14   EN 
 
Source: TRANSTOOLS model 
Figure 1: Change in accessibility between  2005 and 2030 in the Reference scenario 
23. The likely increases in fuel costs and c ongestion levels noted above will lead to 
further divergences in accessibility. Many pe ripheral areas, particularly in the new 
Member States, will remain poorly connected  to the European transport network. 
They will suffer disproportionately more fr om congestion and high fuel cost (Cf. 
Figure 1 below), given their high dependen ce on few low-capacity road axes and 
regional air connections. Indeed, in the ne w Member States ther e are currently only 
around 4.500 km of motorway s and no high speed rail lines; the conventional 
railway lines are often in poor condition. 
2.3. A deteriorating climate and local environment 
24. In the Reference scenario, the share of CO 2 emissions from EU transport as a 
proportion of all EU emissions would c ontinue increasing, to 38% by 2030 and 
almost 50% by 205017, due to the relatively lower decline of CO 2 emissions from 
transport compared to power generation and other sectors. Overall, CO 2 emissions 
from transport would still be 31% highe r than their 1990 level by 2030 and 35% by 
                                                 
17 The CO 2 emissions include international maritime and aviation but exclude combustion emissions 
from pipeline transportation, ground activities in airports and harbours, and off-road activities. 
 
EN 15   EN 2050, owing to the fast rise in the tran sport emissions during the 1990s. Aviation 
and maritime transport would contribute an increasing share of emissions over time. 
25. In the absence of new policies, renewa ble energy sources in transport would 
increase to just 13% by 205018 and electric propulsion in road transport would not 
make significant inroads19.  
26. External costs of transport would continue to  increase. The rise in traffic would lead 
to roughly € 20 billion increase in noise related external costs (+40%) and € 60 billion in the external cost of accidents (+35%) by 2050. 
27. NO
x emissions and particulate matte r would drop by about 40% and 50%, 
respectively, by 2030 and roughly stabilise af terwards. As a result, external costs 
related to the emission of air po llutants would de crease by 60% by 2050. 
3. FUTURE CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS  
3.1. Growing competition in world transport markets 
28. European economic actors must confront a larger number of global competitors. 
The World is moving ahead in all fields and the profound changes proposed in this 
White Paper should not only be seen as an  opportunity for increasing efficiency, but 
also as a necessary condition for maintaining the competitiveness of the European transport and logistics sector  which needs to stay one of Europe’s growth engines. 
29. European transport equipment manufact urers have for a long time enjoyed a 
comfortable lead over the rest of the worl d, sharing world markets with few, mostly 
American and Japanese, competitors. This was possible thanks to their superiority in specific engineering technologies and c ontinuous investment in infrastructure. 
Today, this lead is shrinking as other countries are heavil y investing in research and 
development (R&D) and infrastructure. China’s R&D spending has been growing 
for several years at double digit rate and th is year China is expected to become the 
second largest R&D power in the world, we ll ahead of major EU Member States. 
Moreover, while China is making a concerte d push in the most promising cutting-
edge areas, European resear ch efforts remain diffused. 
30. The air transport system and its supply chain, including the high-tech aeronautical 
industry, are an important contributo r to the European economy and to the 
competitiveness of Europe as a region
20. European airlines and airports are among 
                                                 
18 The share of renewables in transport reported here follows the definition from the Directive 
2009/28/EC.  
19 The Reference scenario, which was finalised in early 2010, does not take into account the re-launch 
(following Commission Decision 2010/C 280/08 of 14 October 2010) of the CARS 21 initiative 
(Competitive Automotive Regulatory System for the 21st century). This initiative may trigger a higher uptake of electric propulsion vehicles by 2050 than in the Reference scenario, where it is projected to 
be negligible. 
20 The vital importance of Aviation for the European economy and our societies was highlighted in 2010 
during the Icelandic volcanic eruption in April. 5 days of European airspace closed, involving 100,000 
flights cancelled, 2 million passengers stranded and billions of losses for the economy show to what 
extent Europe depends on an efficient and well functioning air transport sector. 
 
EN 16   EN the world leaders, as is the European aer onautical industry. It  will be increasingly 
challenging to maintain this position on th e global marketplace, owing to capacity 
constraints in Europe and massive investme nts in air transport infrastructure in 
other regions. Maintaining a competitive European air transport system and the key role of Europe as intercontinental air tran sport hub will have a wider importance for 
the European economy. 
31. In high speed rail, the Chinese – so far re lying on European, Canadian or Japanese 
technology – have developed their own trai ns. The EU needs to keep pace with 
global technological developments and maintain its competitive advantage in high value-added transport industries. 
32. Although China is already the biggest car producer in the world, European 
companies are still among the world leaders in conventional cars, trucks and buses. 
They are also investing in the development of alternative fuel so lutions and electric 
cars. In China, buyers of electric or plug- in hybrid vehicles receive considerable 
incentives. Such actions are expected to help China achieve its goal of producing 
one million electric vehicles per year  starting from 2020. Without appropriate 
framework conditions to make innovative so lutions economically viable, European 
manufacturers risk lagging behind global competitors. 
33. In shipbuilding, Asian players have a dom inant position in the production of cargo 
vessels. Europe is technology leader on passenger ships, special purpose vessels 
such as dredgers and in large parts of the global marine equipment industry. Shipyards and equipment suppliers are indispensable elements for maritime 
transport and logistics. At the same time th ey provide the technical solutions to the 
much needed reduction of GHG and other em issions from shipping. It is therefore 
important that Europe retains compet ence and at least a critical mass of 
shipbuilding. 
34. European logistics companies – currently  undisputed world leaders – also risk 
losing market shares. For years, they have benefited from the excellent infrastructure, a history of free trade, and little red tape at home. Today, European 
infrastructure is increasingly congested and alternatives appear elsewhere. By 
comparison, China already has the largest hi gh speed rail network in the world, 
while North African ports – more flexible than their European counterparts – have 
taken over large shares of the transhipment business. Among the 20 biggest airports by passenger numbers and cargo volume,  only six and four respectively are 
European. The centre of gravity of the worl d’s transport infrastructure is gradually 
shifting towards Asia. Continuous invest ment in transport infrastructure and 
simplification of administrative procedures ar e needed to contain this erosion of the 
importance of the EU as the world’s logistics platform, without which European logistics companies will lose their global leadership. 
 
EN 17   EN 3.2. A tight carbon budget for the transport sector 
35. In October 2009, the European Council s upported the objective of reducing GHG 
emissions in the EU by 80 to 95% by 2050 compared to 1990 levels21. The 
Commission has analysed global scenarios22 that would allow meeting the 2ºC 
objective in a cost efficient way. The result s, in line with work of the IPCC, show 
that halving world emissions by 2050 co mpared to 1990 implies reducing EU 
domestic emissions23 by around 80% by 2050 compared to 199024. This target sets 
out the boundaries also for devel opments in the transport sector. 
36. The modelling analysis has shown that the transport sector needs to prepare itself 
for a reduction of its emissions by ar ound 60% below 1990 le vels in 2050. This 
would correspond to emissions cuts of around 70% below today’s levels. 
EU Transport greenhouse gas emissions in 200825 
The contribution of the various modes to the G HG emissions of the transport sector was as 
follows in 200826: 71.3% came from road, 13.5% from maritime, 12.8% from aviation, 1.8% 
from inland navigation and 0.7%27 from rail transport.  
While there is no fully reliable data on the split of total emissions into passenger and freight 
transport, research shows th at passenger transport account s for around 60% of the total28. 
Travel surveys show that the overwhelming majo rity of trips (97.5%) are ‘short’ distance 
(not longer than 100 km). The remaining 2.5% of  trips account however for more than half 
(53%) of all passenger kilometres (pkm)29. Concerning the division between urban and non-
urban transport, estimates point to around a qua rter (23%) of transport emissions coming 
from urban areas30,31. 
                                                 
21 According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Clim ate Change (IPCC), developed economies will need 
to be nearly carbon-free by 2050 to avoid disastro us effects of GHG emissions on the climate: B. 
Metz et al. (eds), Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the 
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007. 
22 COM (2011)112. Roadmap toward s a 2050 low-carbon  economy and the accompanying impact 
assessment. 
23 Adding up emissions from all sectors excluding international maritime and land use. 
24 Such an objective would require that total EU emissions are reduced from about 5080 Mt CO 2 
equivalent in 2008 (excluding international maritime bunkers and LULUCF) to around 1120 Mt CO 2 
equiv. in 2050. 
25 At global level, transport produced 22% of global CO 2 emissions in 2008 (6604.7 Mt of CO 2), being 
the second-largest sector after el ectricity and heat generation. CO 2 emissions from transport are 
dominated by road, with about 73% of emissions, followed by international maritime (9%) and aviation (7%). The rest (about 11 %) originates from domestic navigation and aviation, rail and 
pipeline transport. Source: Intern ational Energy Agency (2010), CO
2 Emissions from Fuel 
Combustion 2010, OECD/IEA, Paris. 
26 These figures include international aviation and maritime, but exclude combustion emissions from 
pipeline transportation, ground activities in airports and harbours, and off-road activities. 
27 This figure only includes emissions from diesel use, but not from electricity use. Looking at final 
energy consumption by transport mode, electricity  represents about 66% of the energy consumption 
by rail. 
28 Source: PRIMES-TREMOVE and TREMOVE transport models. 
29 Source: TRANSTOOLS model. 
30 Total emissions include international bunker fuels. 
31 Source: PRIMES-TREMOVE and TREMOVE transport models. 
 
EN 18   EN Roughly the following shares in GHG emissions can be identified32: 
(1) Urban transport of people and freight: resp onsible for ~23% of emissions, is mostly 
performed by cars (16% of total transport em ission), followed by buses (0.5%), motorcycles 
(0.5%) and freight vans (6%). Cycling and wa lking account for 13% of urban pkm with no 
emissions; 
(2) Interurban and regional travel (up to 500 Km): responsible for ~33% of emissions, is 
mostly performed by cars (~29% of total tran sport emission), followed by planes (~2%) and 
motorcycles (~1%). Coaches and buses, rail and inland navigation provide all together 
around 1%;  
(3) Intra-EU and regional freight transport (long and medium distances): responsible for 
~23% of emissions, is mostly carried by ro ad (about 19% of total transport emission), 
followed by maritime (~2.5%)33, and inland navigation and rail which contribute together 
around 1.5%;  
(4) Intercontinental and intern ational travel (over 500 Km): responsible for over 10% of 
emissions, it is essentially performed by aviation; 
(5) Intercontinental freight tran sport: responsible for ~11% of  emissions, it is dominated by 
maritime transport. 
Share in
transport
emissionsUrban
travel
17%Urban
freight
6%
Inter-
urban
travel
33%
Inter-
continental
travel 10%Inter-
urban
freight
23%
Inter-
continental
freight
11%Freight
40%Passengers
60%
 
Figure 2: Shares in EU Transport gree nhouse gas emissions in 2008 (estimates). 
                                                 
32 For the purpose of identifying opportunities for redu cing GHG emissions from transport, th e transport 
system has been broken down into five broad segments. The figures are rough estimates (~), since precise data are not always available for these categories. 
33 Owing to lack of statistical data, the split of CO 2 emissions from maritime  between intra-EU and 
extra-EU is a tentative estimation bound by a high degree of uncertainty. A recent review by CE Delft 
showed that intra-EU CO 2 emissions from maritime could represent between 22% and 54% of total 
maritime emissions. (Source: CE Delft (2009), Technical support for European action to reducing 
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from inte rnational maritime transport). 
 
EN 19   EN 37. Analysis of transport emissions data s hows that the largest source is passenger 
transport – in particular cars, which are re sponsible for approximately two-thirds of 
road transport emissions. However, while car emissions are declining, road freight 
emissions are still increasing. Another ch allenge – in a more forward-looking 
perspective – lies in air and maritime transport, which are foreseen to have the highest growth rates in emissions (150% and 110% over 1990 levels respectively 
by 2050, compared to 13% for road transport in the Reference scenario). 
38. Transport emissions can be seen as the product of three broad components: 
transport activity levels, the energy intensity of transport activity and the greenhouse gas intensity of the energy used in transport. Deep cuts in emissions 
will require acting on all three factors as it is un likely that technological 
improvement alone will allow for the 60% reduction by 2050. 
39. Traffic volume has been the strongest driver  of transport emissions. It is the other 
side of the coin of market integration and of a well functioning transport system. 
Traffic volumes can be curbed through demand management instruments, which should not become an impediment to ec onomic efficiency, regional cohesion or 
freedom to travel, but rather a way of pr oviding valuable alternatives to mobility. 
40. The energy efficiency component can be  improved by using the most efficient 
(combination of) modes and by improving the efficiency within each mode: this is 
the idea embedded in th e concept of co-modality
34. Improving the attractiveness 
(and thus modal share) of the most effi cient modes, deepening modal integration 
and improving load factors would all reduce energy use and are at the focus of the 
initiatives for the achievement of a Singl e Transport Area described in Part III. 
41. The third element requires action on the GHG intensity of the energy used in 
transport. The low-carbon fuel standard established in the Fuel Quality Directive 
aims to start this process.  This can involve either a dopting lower carbon fuels in 
existing engines or introducing new types of  engine technologies that can use low-
carbon energy. Decarbonisation can only be ulti mately achieved if alternative, low-
carbon fuels are widely used by ever more  efficient vehicles together with 
appropriate infrastructure and systems. 
3.3. Strong requirements for infrastructure investments 
42. The cost of EU infrastructure that w ould be required to match the demand for 
transport is estimated at over € 1.5 tril lion for 2010-2030. However, in the coming 
years and decades there will be an incr easing difficulty in finding the means for 
investing in transport infrastructure: 
– an ageing society implies that larger amount of resources will be absorbed by 
social security expenditure; 
                                                 
34 The concept had been introduced in 2006 in the Commission document “Keep Europe moving – 
Sustainable mobility for our continent. Mid-term review of the European Commission’s 2001 
Transport White Paper”. SEC(2006)768. Co-modality wa s defined as the efficient use of different 
modes on their own and in combination.  
 
EN 20   EN – the 2008-9 economic crisis has severely h it public budgets and private lending. It 
will leave a legacy of long consolidation processes; 
– the introduction of vehicles  powered by alternative fuel s and the greater use of 
public transport will reduce revenues fr om excise duties on gasoline and diesel. 
43. These developments will intensify the d eclining trend in transport infrastructure 
financing from government budget, which, befo re the financial crisis, was to some 
extent compensated by an increase in private sector financing. The financing gap needs to be filled through combined efforts by the governments, the EU, financial institutions and through new capital mark ets models and new pricing mechanisms, 
such as congestion pricing. The overall funding mechanism needs to turn more 
towards the ‘user pays’ principle. 
44. Poor transport infrastructure is an imped iment to the economy. Numerous studies 
confirm the relationship between geographi cal accessibility and economic growth. 
In particular, a recent study
35, based on an example from Germany, shows that 
connection to the high speed rail netw ork significantly increases the economic 
growth rate of cities. 
3.4. The need for a new approach on mobility 
45. To conclude, business as usual is not a vi able option: increasi ng transport costs for 
businesses will hamper economic growth, the tight carbon constraint on the EU economy will not be kept, and citizens will be  restricted in their individual mobility 
and impoverished by more expensive access to goods and services.  
                                                
 
35 Ahlfeldt, Gabriel M. and Feddersen, Arne (2010) From periphery to core: economic adjustments to 
high speed rail. London School of Economics & University of Hamburg. (Unpublished), 
http://eprints.lse.ac.uk. 
 
EN 21   EN II – A vision for 2050: an integrated, sustainable and 
efficient mobility network  
1. A GREAT OPPORTUNITY  
46. The global economy is ever more characte rised by the emergence of new powerful 
players. The future prosperity of our contin ent will depend on the ability of all of its 
regions to remain part of a fully inte grated world economy. Efficient transport 
connections will be vital in making this happen. Curbing mobility is not an option.  
47. Preserving mobility will only be possible by making it sustainable. The European 
transport system has developed in a cont ext of generally ch eap oil, expanding 
infrastructure, technological leadership and limited environmental constraints, but now has to adapt to different framework conditions. The projected growth of the 
emerging economies and of world populati on is bound to put pressure on natural 
resources. As discussed in Part I, if no action is taken, transport will remain almost 
completely dependent on oil and particular ly vulnerable to two powerful drivers: 
the growing imbalance between global de mand and supply of oil and the need to 
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 
48. Moving away from oil will be inevitable. This is not only a great challenge, but also 
an opportunity for rethinking the way mobility  is organised in our society and for 
addressing a number of othe r serious and yet unresolved concerns: high levels of 
congestion, noise and air pollution in cities ; thousands of deaths and millions of 
injuries on European roads. Equally Eu rope’s security will be enhanced by 
diversifying away from a dependence on oil supplies increasingly from unstable 
parts of the world. 
49. Moreover, technological ch allenge also provides a great opportunity. A deep 
transformation can bring about considerable progress in a transport system that is 
otherwise heading, at best, for only marg inal improvements in efficiency. Service 
levels need not be compromised in the face of the new constr aints. Structural 
changes in transport can improve the quality of life and of the environment while at the same time preserving people’s freedom to travel and the competitiveness of EU 
industry. 
50. Transforming transport and making it mo re efficient, cleaner, safer and more 
reliable will not be possible with just a small number of selected interventions. 
Transport is a complex system that is based on the interaction of infrastructure, vehicles, information technology, rules and behaviour. All these elements must be 
part of a common vision for change. 
51. Solutions that are impracti cable or have little impact  if adopted by only few 
individuals and operators, can become effective if they are at the heart of a new 
system: mass production can lower the co st of clean technologies; the frequency 
and security of public transport will incr ease if there are more users; sufficient 
volumes can justify dedicated freight co rridors ensuring more reliable transport; 
 
EN 22   EN more bicycles and fewer vehicles on the road make cycling more pleasant and less 
dangerous. 
52. A transformation of transport is also a great opportunity for vehicle and equipment 
manufacturing industry and for logistic ope rators, since other regions of the world 
will face similar constraints on resources, while global demand for mobility keeps 
growing. The best technology will benef it from an expanding market for its 
commercialisation. 
53. Personal mobility and, notably, road tr ansport are a global issue. The IEA36 projects 
the number of cars in the world to incr ease from around 750 million today to more 
than 2.2 billion by 2050. These cars would ha ve to be much cleaner and more 
efficient than today. China is already th e world largest car market, but also has a 
programme of massive invest ments in railways. Being capable of serving these 
international markets will be crucial for the EU industry. On the other hand, 
delayed action and timid introduction of new technologies could condemn the EU 
transport industry to irreversible decline. 
54. More generally, the ability to minimise the use of previously abundant resources 
will be the key to future competitivene ss. In line with the flagship initiative 
“Resource efficient Europe ” set up in the Europe 2020 Strategy37, the paramount 
goal of European transport pol icy is to help establish a system that offers high 
quality mobility services while using less res ources. In practice, transport has to use 
less energy, cleaner energy and better exploit a modern infrastructure. 
55. The following sections demonstrate how to meet those challenges while 
maintaining the balance between economic , social and environmental concerns. 
The vision inspires the strategy of Eur opean Transport Policy in the coming 
decades and provides the basis for concre te proposals for the immediate future. 
Naturally, it is based on today’s availabl e information and understanding of likely 
technological developments. There will be inevitable surprises, but we must make 
many choices in the immediate future – which infrastructure to build, which 
technology to invest in, what equipment to  buy – which will have consequences for 
several decades to come and must be guide d by a vision of the future: a ‘wait and 
see’ approach cannot be afforded. At the sa me time, given future uncertainties, it is 
important to ensure that policy is suffic iently flexible and robust to cope with 
unexpected developments.  
2. AN INTEGRATED VISION FOR THE VARIOUS TRANSPORT SEGMENTS  
2.1. Driving conventional cars and trucks out of the cities 
56. The urban context poses the biggest challenge s to the sustainability of transport. 
Cities currently suffer the most from congestion, poor air quality and noise 
exposure. Urban transport is an important  source of transport emissions. 69% of 
                                                 
36 International Energy Agency (2010), Energy Technology Perspectives 2010. 
37 COM (2010) 2020, EUROPE 2020 A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. 
 
EN 23   EN road accidents occur in cities38. At the same time, the subsidiarity principle cautions 
for a careful approach at the European level. 
57. The urban dimension will become even more important as the percentage of 
Europeans living in urban ar eas is projected to  increase from 74% today to around 
85% in 205039. The design of sustainable cities is one of the great est challenges of 
policy makers. 
58. Fortunately, the urban environment offers many alternatives in terms of mobility. 
Switching to cleaner energy is facilitated by the lower requirements for the range of 
vehicles40. Public transport choices are more wide ly available, as well as the option 
of walking and cycling. Demand manageme nt and enlightened land-use planning 
can also contribute significantly to lower traffic volumes. 
59. Today, in Europe, cars are the most popular passenger mode41. The success of cars 
can be traced back to their multi-functiona lity: they provide door-to-door, always 
available and weather-proof transport, with  the additional benefits of privacy and 
capability of covering both short and long distances. However this multi-functionality has a significant drawback: the private car is rarely the optimal 
transport mode to use from an energy efficiency perspective. According to data from the UK
42, 60% of cars on the road have on ly one occupant. The percentage 
grows to approximately 85% fo r commuting and business trips. 
60. In the coming decades, owing to lack of urban space and increasing costs of energy 
and infrastructure use, travel should not  continue to be centred on multi-purpose 
vehicles that typically r un under-utilized. Smaller, light er and more specialised 
passenger vehicles are likely  to become widespread. La rge or long-range vehicles 
will increasingly be used only when these characteristics are needed. 
61. In urban areas, walking and cycling, toge ther with public transport, often provide 
better alternatives not only in te rms of emissions, but also of speed43: they could 
readily substitute the large share of trips which cover less than 5km. In addition to 
lowering greenhouse gas emissions, they bring major benefits in terms of better health, lower air pollution and noise emi ssions, less need for road space and lower 
energy use. Accordingly, facilitating walking and cycling should become an integral part of urban mobili ty and infrastructure design. 
                                                
 
38 Source: European Road Safety Observatory – Care database – 2009 data. 
39 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs/Population Division (2009), World 
urbanisation prospects – The 2009 revision, http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/index.htm 
40 Recent trial of electric vehicles in  the UK revealed that the average daily mileage of users is 23 miles 
(37 km). http://www.cabled.org.uk/ 
41 Passenger cars carried out 82% of all passeng er transport on land measured in pkm.  
42 United Kingdom Department for Transport, 2008, Transport Trends: 2008 edition. 
43 The recent feasibility study for a central London cycle hire scheme considered that cycling is time-
competitive with all other modes over distances up to 8km.  
 http://www.tfl.gov.uk/assets/downloads/businessand partners/cycle-hire-scheme-feasibility-full-report-
nov2008.pdf .  
 A web based quantitative study amongst both cyclists and non cyclists undertaken in 2006 also found 
that speed is perceived to be one of the main positive ‘drivers’ of cycling to work in Central London. 
Source: TfL, 2008, Cycling in London. 
 
EN 24   EN 62. Public transport has to gain  a higher share than today in the transport mix, become 
easily accessible for everyone and fully inte grated with non-motorised modes. The 
use of integrated electronic tickets and smart cards can provide public transport 
operators and authorities with real time st atistical data on users’ behaviour. While 
respecting legislation on personal data protec tion, this information can be used both 
to optimise the planning of th e service and to design mark eting strategies aimed at 
increasing the use of public transportation. 
63. Public transport could also  be boosted by a wider range of options, some based on 
existing concepts (trolleybuses) or on new ways of operating the service (Bus Rapid 
Transit44; use of smaller buses outside rush hours; ‘transport-on-demand’ through 
advance reservation systems). Information on the available choices and the ability to purchase tickets is bei ng revolutionised through pe rsonal mobile communication 
devices. Perceived waiting times
45 can be drastically reduced, eliminating the 
uncertainty and frustration of not knowing when the next bus or train will arrive. 
The higher share of travel by collective tr ansport can allow increasing the density 
and frequency of service and the reinforcement of urban-rural links, thereby generating a virtuous circle fo r collective transport modes. 
64. In Europe, an important factor is the ‘g reying of the population’, which will require 
transport services to be adapted to an increasingly ageing population. Elderly 
people, aged 65 or more, will account for 29% of the total population by 2050 as opposed to 17% today. Around one in six people in the EU has a disability
46,47. 
Quality, reliability, security  and accessibility, notably for persons with reduced 
mobility, safety of public transport will be essential to the greater uptake of public 
transport. 
65. For many, personal transport will however re main the only alternative due to the 
complexity of their daily journey. Using more fuel-efficient vehicles will be a 
necessity. Reducing the weight and size of cars will be crucial for saving energy under stop/start city traffic conditions a nd for reasons of space – but lightweight 
downsized vehicles can introduce safety comp atibility issues with large vehicles, so 
collision avoidance, guidance systems a nd partial segregation may be needed. 
These will also help elderly drivers. 
                                                
 
44 Bus Rapid Transit is public transport service operated by buses, typically on dedicated lanes with high 
frequency and longer stop spacing. 
45 Research suggests that passengers perceive waiting times to be greater than actual waiting times at a 
bus stop, and therefore real-time passenger in formation systems could potentially reduce the 
perceived waiting time for buses when providing accur ate information. Source: Mishalani et al. 2006. 
Passenger Wait Time Perceptions at Bus Stops,  Journal of Public Transportation . Vol. 9, No. 2, 2006 
pp.89-106. 
46 European Commission, DG Economic and Financial Affairs: 2009 Ageing Report: Economic and 
budgetary projections for the EU-27 Member States (2008-2060). EUROPEAN ECONOMY 2|2009, 
http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/ publication14992_en.pdf. Th e “baseline” scenario 
of this report has been established by the DG Economic and Financial Affairs, the Economic Policy 
Committee, with the support of Me mber States experts, and has been endorsed by the ECOFIN 
Council. 
47 European Commission, DG Employment: People with disabilities have equal rights – The European 
Disability Strategy 2010-2020, 
http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=738&langId=en&pubId=591&type=2&furtherPubs=no 
 
EN 25   EN 66. New engines using cleaner energy sources  should help to reduce GHG emissions 
while contributing to other goals. Everyday commuting or shopping trips do not require the extended range that some new t echnologies are still unable to offer, and 
captive fleets of urban buses, taxis and deliver y vans are particularly suitable for the 
introduction of alternative propulsion sy stems and fuels. These could make a 
substantial contribution in reducing the carbon intensity of urban transport while 
providing a test bed for new technologi es and opportunity for early market 
deployment.  
67. Finally, town planning, access regulation in cluding Low Emission Zones, stricter 
controls on parking, pricing policies and alternative forms of accessibility 
(eGovernment, tele-working, et c) could signifi cantly influence mobility choice. 
Town planning and appropriate governance, at the level of func tional urban areas, 
are crucial. They should aim at the creation of compact cities, favouring good 
coordination between transport planni ng, brown field regeneration and new 
settlements. The use of standard technol ogies (for example for electronic tolling) 
and of common criteria (for example on the type of vehicles that are admitted in Low Emission Zones) would help reduce pr oduction costs and fa cilitate users’ 
compliance. 
68. As regards freight transport, cities will have to better exploit the potential for 
optimising urban logistics. This can be achieved through a change in the planning and organisation of the ur ban transport system, the widespread deployment of 
alternative vehicles and pr opulsion systems and the full  use of the potential of 
modern information technologies. 
69. The interface between long distance and la st mile transport could be organised 
more efficiently by the consolidation of freight at multimodal logistics centres 
located on the outskirts of cities, possibly coupled with distribution centres and collection points within the city. The aim is  to limit individual deliveries, the most 
‘inefficient’ part of the j ourney, to the shortest possibl e route. Companies may need 
to share their loads in an effort to re duce empty and inefficient runs. Information 
technology would assist sim ilar practices with better ca rgo and travel planning and 
tracking and tracing capability.  
70. The last mile delivery could be performed with smaller and cleaner trucks. The use 
of new engines and energy carriers – electric, hydrogen and hybrids – will 
necessarily be part of the strategy to reduce th e carbon intensity of city logistics. 
New engines would also have  the advantage of silent operation, allowing a greater 
portion of freight transport w ithin the urban areas to take  place at night time. This 
would ease the problem of road conges tion during morning and afternoon peak 
hours. 
71. Altogether, urban transport is where there is the largest sc ope for a different type of 
mobility and for abatement of emissions. Estimates suggest that emissions of urban passenger transport could be reduced by up to 88%
48 relative to a scenario at 
unchanged policies through a combination of measures related to fuel efficiency 
                                                 
48 Source: Impact Assessment on the White Paper on  Transport “A Roadmap to a Single European 
Transport Area”.  
 
EN 26   EN standards (44% reduction), decarbonising energy suppl y (42% reduction), spatial 
planning and shift to slow modes a nd to public transport (2% reduction). 
72. Whereas each city would have its own preferred strategy for the substitution of 
conventional petrol and diesel vehicles – with different emphasis on soft modes, 
public transport and clean vehicles – their gradual phase out and eventual 
elimination from the urban environment is the necessary ingredie nt of any strategy 
aiming at a significant reduction of oil dependence and greenhouse gas emissions. 
Interoperable technologies and technical  standards would be needed to avoid 
fragmentation and loss of scale economie s, whilst respecting the subsidiarity 
principle. Action by Member States and at local level is crucial.  
2.2. Multimodal interurban travel 
73. Approximately 63% of car emissions re late to travel on non-urban roads and 
motorways, representing 73% of total car travel on passenger-kilometre basis49. 
Non-urban road travel is also the responsible  for the most fatalities, i.e. 61% of the 
total50. This is also a major segment of activ ity for railways (both conventional and 
high-speed) and coaches, which provide a safer and cleaner way of moving over 
medium and long distances. 
74. In the future, more efficient vehicles, new engines and a wider use of renewable 
energy in power generation will enhance th e performance of all modes. Aviation 
can improve through greater recourse to ne w generation medium-sized aircraft for 
regional flights, better air traffic management and possibly biofuels.  
75. There is also scope to improve the e fficiency of rail locomotives. Further 
electrification of railway lines would have to be considered. At present, 50% of the 
EU rail network and 80% of pa ssenger traffic is electrified51. Where further 
electrification is not economically viable, more efficient locomotives and other 
alternatives to diesel traction (e.g. biofue ls, hydrogen) may offer routes to reducing 
air pollutant and GHG emissions.  
76. For road vehicles, range issues mean that  the ability for some new technologies to 
play a role in this segment is more limited. Nevertheless, it is estimated that up to 
30% reduction in CO 2 emissions for passenger cars could be achieved with current 
technology, and there is more potential fr om further technological development 
including greater electrificat ion of propulsion systems. Do wnsizing of cars can also 
play an important role in ensuring the same  level of mobility in this segment with 
lower energy consumption and GHG emissi ons. Finally, better traffic management 
can also contribute to better energy use. 
77. Technological improvements across modes can be expected to save energy and to 
cut emissions per passenger-kilometre by up  to 90% in 2050 in interurban and 
                                                 
49 Source: PRIMES-TREMOVE and TREMOVE transport models. 
50 Source: European Road Safety Observatory – Care database – 2009 data. 
51 Community of European Railway and Infrastructure Companies (2010), A closer look at the railways: 
Annual Report 2009-2010; http://www.cer.be/media/2011_CER_2009-2010_Annual_Report.pdf 
 
EN 27   EN regional travel (up to 500 km)52. However, this will not  solve the problem of 
congestion, which would worsen with  the growth in travel volumes, 
notwithstanding the introducti on of advanced traffic ma nagement technologies.  
78. More sustainable and efficient interurban tr avel also requires a systematic choice in 
favour of the most efficient mode among th e public and privat e transport means. 
Despite progress in all modes, their relative position in terms of energy efficiency is 
unlikely to change, owing to their intrinsic characteristics53, so in order to achieve 
further energy savings and emission reducti ons in interurban passenger transport, 
coaches and railways will need to take a greater share in traffic, partly substituting cars and planes. The creation of the Single European Railway Area is essential to 
this purpose.  
79. Regional aviation would remain a sensible  option for peripheral areas that do not 
have high traffic volumes or alternative c onnections, but in othe r cases rail could 
offer a better alternative for journeys of up to 3-4 hours. Increasing use of high 
speed lines mean rail should be competitiv e over much greater distances. High 
Speed Rail could undertake some 176 billion more passenger kilometres by 2050, relative to 2005, outpacing th e increase in aviation (some 67 billion passenger 
kilometres) for journeys below 1,000 km
54. But high load factors are essential: the 
environmental performance of an empty train is very poor. 
80. Promoting better modal choices will requ ire greater integration of the modal 
networks: airports, po rts, railway, metro and bus stati ons, car hire spots and parking 
areas, should increasingly be merged and conceived as multimodal connection 
platforms for passengers. 
81. Better modal choices will also have to be  guided by prices that reflect all costs 
associated to transport. This is a necessa ry development also in  view of the funding 
needs of transport. Road users would need to become accustomed to paying for the 
infrastructure they use and the negative externalities they generate. An interoperable system for electronic tolling – associated with or  relying on a single 
open in-vehicle platform for all applications – should id eally become available in 
all vehicles. 
82. Preparing ahead of a journey should become  easier, and travelling simpler. Online 
travel planners can provide passengers w ith complete door-to-door information in a 
concise and easy-to-understand manner. Passenger online information and booking 
systems including electronic payment and, pos sibly, integrated ticket or payment 
systems for all means of transport will facilitate journeys comprising different modes. Real time information could be in stantly provided in case of delays or 
disruptions expected to occur on th e remaining legs of the journey.  
                                                
 
52 Source: Impact Assessment on the White Paper on  Transport “A Roadmap to a Single European 
Transport Area”. 
53 Airplanes have to spend extra energy to keep airborne. Cars have a larger frontal area per person than 
coaches, which matters over long distances where most energy is used to win air resistance. Trains have an even smaller frontal area per person and the additional advantage of low rolling resistance. 
54 Source: Impact Assessment on the White Paper on  Transport “A Roadmap to a Single European 
Transport Area”. 
 
EN 28   EN 83. An aged society will demand transport serv ices that are safe, secure, comfortable 
and user-friendly. In the transport system of  the future, it would the possible to limit 
the occurrence of acci dents to close to zero. This can  be achieved by  the universal 
application of Intelligent Transport Systems that will enable ubiquitous communication between infrastructure a nd vehicles, and among the vehicles. 
Automatic collision avoidance system s on-board vehicles can minimize the 
probability of collision also with pe destrians, cyclists or objects. 
84. When travelling across the EU, citizens s hould be able to take advantage of 
common general principles of passenger right s applied in all transport modes. In the 
occurrences of major delays or trip cancellations, they s hould benefit from 
protection of their rights including appr opriate compensations. Better and more 
integrated modal choices and Intelligent Tr ansport Systems are likely to facilitate 
the transfer, exchange and sharing of  the personal information relating to 
passengers. As a consequence, it will be necessary to ensure data protection and 
transparency in relation to all such processing of personal data. 
85. In conclusion, there is ample margin for organising intra-EU travel in a safer and 
cleaner way (83% CO
2 emissions reduction relative to a scenario at unchanged 
policies by 2050), mostly through decarbonis ing energy supply (45%) and energy 
saving technologies (35%). 
2.3. A green and efficient freight core network 
86. Intra-EU freight transport is mostly carried by trucks (47.3%), followed by 
seagoing ships (37.8%), rail (11.2 %) and inland waterways (3.7%)55. Trucks 
dominate inland EU freight transport w ith a 76.1% share of the tonne-kilometres 
and about 94% of the CO 2 emissions. Air cargo has, by comparison, a marginal 
share of volumes, alt hough it carries a signifi cant share of value56.  
87. One of the great challenges fo r transport is to reduce the environmental impact of 
intra-EU freight transport without sacrific ing its efficiency. The key to efficient 
transport is the consolidation of large vol umes for transfer over long distances, in 
between the so-called first and last m iles. Waterborne and rail transport are 
particularly suited for this, as is seen elsewhere in the world. While encouraging the use of the most efficient solution in all di stances, it is above some 300 km that a 
significant rebalancing should take place, with 30% of road freight shifting to 
multimodal solutions by 2030, and more than 50% by 2050. 
88. These long-hauls could use specially devel oped freight corridors optimised in terms 
of energy use and emissions, but also attr active to operators for their reliability, 
limited congestion and low operati ng and administrative costs.  
89. These corridors would represent the freight part of a ‘core netw ork’ or backbone of 
the EU transport system. They would link major urban centres and ports, and 
integrate regular services on sea, on rail fr eight lines and on inland waterways, plus 
                                                
 
55 For air and sea: only domestic and intra-EU-27 transport is included (Source: European Commission 
(2010), EU Energy and Transport in Figures). 
56 Data on the value of goods carried by air exist only for exchanges with third countries, where aviation 
accounts for 0.6% of the total volume , but for 22% of the total value. 
 
EN 29   EN road transport assisted by traffic management tools, capability for alternative fuels 
and multi-modal hubs. Such corridors woul d need to offer simplification of 
administrative procedures, optimisation of schedules to cargo tracking and tracing. 
The administrative burden linked to multimodal freight transport should, 
accordingly, be considerably reduced. Form alities related to the transport of goods 
could be performed only once – independent of the number of transhipments – and electronically. 
90. An efficient management of intra-EU freight flows cannot be fully achieved 
without the removal of obstacles of admini strative or regulatory nature. Full market 
opening would have to be accompanied by uniform enforcement of common safety, 
security, environmental and social legislation. The systematic exchange of information between national supervisory authorities would allow a smooth follow-
up after the detection of an infringement, ensuring an effective, non discriminatory 
and dissuasive enforcement policy across the whole EU territory. 
91. Removing barriers to market entry and moda l integration would strengthen the role 
of multinational and multimodal logistic operators. Users would have a wider choice among transport services and their providers. 
92. Multimodal transport would have a greater role in long distance freight transport 
(over some 300 km), but the large part of  the shipments that take place over short 
and medium distances
57 would mostly remain on trucks. In view of this, it is 
important to improve their efficien cy, for example through enabling better 
aerodynamic performance, and to encourag e development and the uptake of new 
engines and cleaner fuels.  
93. The use of sustainable biofuels would reduce the emissions from road freight 
transport. By 2050, biofuels could repres ent around 40% of en ergy consumption in 
long distance road freight, where elect rification has a lower potential. However 
producing these biofuels so as to achieve significant levels of GHG savings remains 
challenging. Road infrastructure may in the future be equipped with automatic guidance systems. This technique woul d save energy as well as minimise 
congestion and accidents. 
94. Some containerised freight tr ansport could be shifted to inland waterways and short 
sea shipping where there is still spare cap acity. The energy effici ency of the vessels 
would be improved. Switching to alternative fuels such as liquefied natural gas 
offers some GHG reduction potential as  well as air pollution benefits.  
95. Considerable investment would be need ed to expand the capacity of the rail 
network. Rail freight may grow by an a dditional 360 billion tonne-kilometres by 
2050, that is, an 87% in crease relative to 2005
58. Rather than building new lines, 
much can be achieved with an upgrade of  the existing network by increasing speed 
(in particular in the east ern part of the EU), deploying ERTMS, creating city 
bypasses, establishing sidi ngs and terminals allowing for 1,000 m trains, and 
                                                 
57 More than half of all goods (in terms of weight) in road transport are moved over distances below 50 
km and more than three quarters over distances below 150 km. 
58 Source: Impact Assessment on the White Paper on  Transport “A Roadmap to a Single European 
Transport Area”. 
 
EN 30   EN widening the loading gauge on main corridors. New rolling st ock with silent brakes 
and automatic couplings should gradually be introduced. 
2.4. Improving the door-to-door exp erience in long-distance travel 
96. Air transport is the only transport m ode that is capable of competitive 
intercontinental passenger transport. At  the moment, there are no practical 
alternatives in sight for these long distances. 
97. Currently, European airlin es carry about 30% of wo rldwide air passengers. The 
geographic position of Europe allows the Euro pean air transport system not only to 
connect Europe’s citizens and businesses with  the rest of the world, but also to be 
an air transport hub for the traffic between other regions of the world. 
98. In the future, the importance of air transpor t will continue to gr ow. EU air transport 
activity would more than double betw een 2005 and 2050 (some 120% increase). 
For medium distance travel (below 1,000 km) High Speed Rail would increasingly 
compete with aviation (though for low traffic inter-regional routes small aircraft may retain an advantage), so almost all the increase (90%  by 2050) in the air 
transport activity would origin ate from journeys above 1,000 km
59. 
99. In aviation, the growth of transport can be  reconciled with ambitious environmental 
objectives through the inclusion of aviati on in the EU ETS, the Single European 
Sky, SESAR and the Clean Sky project.  
100. In order to face rising competition and to maintain its position as a global platform 
for passenger and cargo trans port, Europe will need to in vest in airport and other 
infrastructure capacity. Modern air traffi c control technologies are foreseen to 
increase flight capacity and safety. Ex isting intercontinen tal hubs should be 
provided with the necessary  infrastructure and tec hnology upgrades to absorb 
volumes much higher than today. All major airports should be linked to the railway 
network, preferably high speed. Efficient connection to closest urban centres must 
be ensured with adequate rail and bus services. By reinforcing and developing the safety record of European aviation, flying to, from and via Europe will continue to 
be an attractive componen t of global airline travel. 
101. Travel time optimisation should also take into consideration pre- and post-flight 
time in an effort to improve the overall door -to-door travel expe rience. With the use 
of modern and passenger frie ndly technologies the hassle  associated with personal 
security screening should be reduced to th e minimum. Integrated travel information 
will allow passengers to check at any time and place the status of their flight and 
adapt travel arrangements. 
102. In this vision, long haul air transport continues to grow substantially. The impact of 
planes on the climate will have to be reduced in line with EU CO
2 reduction goals. 
Fuel burned per seat in today’s new aircra fts is 70% less than that of early jets60. 
                                                 
59 Source: Impact Assessment on the White Paper on  Transport “A Roadmap to a Single European 
Transport Area”. 
60 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 1999. Special Report on Aviation and the Global 
Atmosphere. Section 9.2.2 
 
EN 31   EN Recent reports indicate that technology i nnovation could lead to fuel efficiency 
improvements compared to today of th e order 35-45% by 2025 and 60% by 2050. 
More efficient air traffic management (A TM) and operations could contribute an 
additional reduction of between 6 and 13% per flight by 202061. The remaining 
energy needs of future aircrafts will be covered with renewable energy such as 
second and third generation biofuels. 
2.5. A global level-playing field for intercontinental freight 
103. In intercontinental freight transport, the vast majority of goods by volume is carried 
by sea. This is unlikely to change in th e coming decades: intercontinental trade will 
continue to rely almost exclusively on maritime transport, which will continue to be a global business. The challenge for Europe  is two-fold: reduce negative impacts of 
transport by promoting quality shipping while maintaining and possibly extending 
market shares of EU operators. Progressi ng towards these goals requires first of all 
a global level-playing field with comm on rules and high standards that are 
universally applied and enfor ced on a flag neutral basis. 
104. Maritime standards are developed and agre ed through internati onal organisations 
and bilateral or multilateral negotiations with  international partners. EU-level action 
will focus on proposing new ideas, deve loping common EU positions and voicing 
these positions in  a uniform way.  
105. By 2050, the entry points into European markets will multiply. Certain ports will 
develop or become major intercontinent al hubs along the nor thern and southern 
coastlines, avoiding at the same time unnecessary traffic cr ossing Europe. A 
possible melting of the sea-ice in parts of the Arctic Sea may open up new and 
shorter shipping routes to the Pacific. As  a consequence, Arctic ports in Norway 
and possibly Russia may become new gateways into continental Europe. 
106. The role of international hubs has to be s een also in a context of increased use of 
Short Sea Shipping for intra-EU freight tr ansport. Ports have a major role as 
logistics centres and require efficient multimodal connections. 
107. Although maritime is on average the best performing mode in terms of GHG 
emissions per tonne-km, the increasing volum es of emissions cannot be neglected: 
by 2050, the activity level is projected to double, and intra and extra-EU maritime 
taken together would represent about  24% of all transport emissions. 
108. There is substantial scope to improve the environmental record of shipping through 
both technology and better operation. A report
62 commissioned by the International 
Maritime Organisation assessed the potential reduction of CO 2 by using known 
technologies and practices – excluding the us e of low-carbon fuels – in the range of 
58% to 75% by 2050, depending on the ship t ype. A recent report by IEA deems 
                                                                                                                                                      
http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc_sr/?src=/Climate/ipcc/aviation/index.htm  
61 For the European airspace, total savings due to improved en-route design and flight planning 
represented approximately 36,000 tonnes of fuel in 2009, corresponding to 120,000 tonnes of CO2. Eurocontrol (2009), Performance Review Report. 
62 Buhaug, Ø. et al. 2009. Second IMO GHG study 2009; International Maritime Organization (IMO) 
London, UK. http://www.ce.nl/publicatie/s econd_imo_ghg_study_2009/941   
 
EN 32   EN feasible to reduce CO 2 emissions in shipping by up to 40% per tonne-km by 2030 
and by up to 60% per tonne km in 205063. 
109. The use of low GHG biofuels, projected at some 40% of the maritime bunker 
fuels64, can add to the energy efficiency gains. Overall, the emissions from 
maritime bunker fuels could be cut by 40% by 2050 compared to 2005 levels. 
110. Apart from CO 2 emissions, maritime transport will also have to address problems 
linked to air pollution. LNG and biogas have  the potential for replace bunker fuels 
as major energy source, in particular for short sea shipping. Renewable energy 
(wind and solar) or fuel cells could be  used for propulsion and for running onboard 
equipment. 
3. PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER : FEATURES AND ADVANTAGES OF A NEW MOBILITY 
CONCEPT  
111. The well-being of people and the competitiveness of businesses in Europe will 
continue to depend on the ability to access opportunities using an efficient transport 
system. Surveys on business investments consistently indi cate good transport 
connections as one of the most relevant cr iteria in the decision  over the localisation 
of an economic activity. Similarly, a we ll performing transpor t system features 
prominently among the characteristics of citi es that are ranked high in the surveys 
on quality of life.  
112. Clean engines and alternative fuels will constitute a decisive factor in making 
mobility less polluting and less dependant on oil, contributing at least half of 
overall GHG emission cuts in tr ansport. The technological r ace for clean vehicles is 
a global one and remaining a frontrunner is vital for the EU manu facturing industry. 
113. Clean fuels would not address all chal lenges and their use will have to be 
reconciled with resource efficiency constr aints. Vehicles must also become more 
energy efficient: using less energy will be equally important as using cleaner  
energy.  
114. It will be necessary to optimise each jour ney with respect to energy use through a 
generalised increase of load factors, a sy stematic utilisation of the most efficient 
mode and more integrated approaches  to land-use and transport planning. 
115. The modal mix has to be better adapted to  the particular needs of each journey and, 
in the case of passengers, to the overall tr avel experience. This will only be possible 
in a system that is high ly integrated, and that is  based on a continuous and 
ubiquitous exchange of information. The use of information technology to optimise 
                                                 
63 The emission reductions result from a combination of: improved new build vessel designs (30%); 
improved maintenance and technical retrofit (20%); and operational improvements (40%). IEA, 2009, 
Transport, Energy and CO 2. Moving Toward Sustainability.  Chapter 8. 
 http://www.iea.org/w/bookshop/add.aspx?id=365  
64 Source: Impact Assessment on the White Paper on  Transport “A Roadmap to a Single European 
Transport Area”. 
 
EN 33   EN all aspects of personal travel  and freight transport is likely to become one of the 
most distinctive traits of future transport systems. 
116. Consolidation of volumes entails greater use of buses, rail a nd air transport for 
people and wider recourse to waterborne  and rail transport for freight. In both 
cases, speed might be traded in exchange  for reliability and lower costs. For 
passengers, the use of high quality collectiv e transport might also represent an 
opportunity to better exploit travel time. 
117. Private cars will still repres ent a popular way of getting around, but would be used 
more moderately and account for a lower pe rcentage of journeys. With appropriate 
pricing of infrastructure a nd of externalities, driving a car would cost more, but 
drivers would get a better se rvice in terms of non-conge sted roads, easier parking 
and safer travel. For urban transport, i nnovative solutions such as Personal Rapid 
Transit and ultra-compact autonomous el ectric networked vehicles may provide 
cost-effective, emissions-free individual transport – especially for urban journeys that on public transport woul d require several changes. 
118. The problem of congestion will not disa ppear through the introduction of cleaner 
engines and fuels alone. A better integrati on of all modes of transport in a truly 
multimodal vision, together with more extensive use of information and communication technologies will not only allo w greater energy effi ciency, but will 
also be the key to a more efficient e xploitation of the tr ansport network. The 
transport system is likely to evolve towards the model of the telecommunication sector, where multinational operators provide their services over a network that integrates seamlessly different technologies  (Fibre optics, Satellite, ADSL, WiFi…) 
adapted to different circumstances, while  ensuring guaranteed service level and 
notably guaranteed availability. 
119. An integrated transport system where logi stic operators provid e a wide spectrum of 
services and seek skilled professionals would also create fa vourable opportunities 
for workers. Convergence in social cond itions will allow to base competition on 
service quality and resource efficiency ra ther than on the minimisation of labour 
costs. 
120. Modal integration will call for more investme nt in infrastructure and for integrated 
management of cross-border and multi-moda l infrastructure. This development can 
already be observed along certain freight corridors. Infrastructure managers would 
have to increasingly consider their busine ss in the context of a multimodal network 
that has to serve multiple service providers. Greater separation between infrastructure managers and service provi ders could contribute to more efficient 
network exploitation, but appr opriate incentives for investment need to be ensured. 
121. In parallel, an increasing separation between passenger and freight traffic can be 
expected, which would facil itate the optimisation of tr affic flows with different 
needs and characteristics. 
122. Greater efficiency can offset growing c ongestion costs. Less private traffic on the 
roads would particularly benefit freight. Personal mobility would also be enhanced by greater quality and availa bility of public transport.  This would also reduce 
accidents, noise and improve air quality. 
 
EN 34   EN 123. To develop consistently with this vision, the transport system will have to reach 
certain goals in terms of de ployment of sustainable fuel s and propulsion systems, in 
terms of optimisation of logistic chains a nd modal choices and in terms of efficient 
exploitation of the network. The box below presents ten such goals, which should 
be interpreted as benchmarks, guiding pol icy action and helping assess progress 
towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system.  
Developing and deploying new and sust ainable fuels and propulsion systems 
(1) Halve the use of ‘conventionally-fuelled65’ cars in urban transport by 2030; phase 
them out in cities by 20 50; achieve essentially CO 2-free city logistics in major urban 
centres by 203066. 
(2) Low-carbon sustainable fuels in aviati on to reach 40% by 2050; also by 2050 reduce 
EU CO 2 emissions from maritime bunker fuels by 40% (if feasible 50%67). 
Optimising the performance of multimodal  logistic chains, including by making 
greater use of more energy-efficient modes 
(3) 30% of road freight over 300 km should shift to other modes such as rail or 
waterborne transport by 2030, and more than 50% by 2050, facilitated by efficient 
and green freight corridors.  To meet this goal will also require appropriate 
infrastructure to be developed. 
(4) By 2050, complete a European high-speed ra il network. Triple the length of the 
existing high-speed rail network by 2030 and maintain a dense railw ay network in all 
Member States. By 2050 the majority of me dium-distance passenger transport should 
go by rail. 
(5) A fully functional and EU-wide multimoda l TEN-T ‘core network’ by 2030, with a 
high quality and capacity network by 2050 and a corresponding set of information 
services. 
(6) By 2050, connect all core network airports to the rail network, pr eferably high-speed; 
ensure that all core seaports are sufficie ntly connected to the rail freight and, where 
possible, inland waterway system. 
Increasing the efficiency of transport a nd of infrastructure use with information 
systems and market-based incentives  
(7) Deployment of the modernised air tra ffic management infrastructure (SESAR68) in 
Europe by 2020 and completion of th e European Common Aviation Area. 
Deployment of equivalent land and wate rborne transport management systems 
                                                 
65 The term ‘conventionally fuelled’ refers to vehi cles using non-hybrid, internal combustion engines 
(ICE). 
66 This would also substantially reduce other harmful emissions. 
67 Cf. Commission Communication “A Roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in 
2050”, COM (2011)112. 
68 In accordance with the Eu ropean ATM Master plan: 
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/a ir/sesar/deployment_en.htm 
 
EN 35   EN (ERTMS69, ITS70, SSN and LRIT71, RIS72). Deployment of th e European Global 
Navigation Satellite System (Galileo). 
(8) By 2020, establish the framework for a Eur opean multimodal transport information, 
management and payment system. 
(9) By 2050, move close to zero fatalities in road transport. In line with this goal, the EU 
aims at halving road casualties by 2020. Make sure that the EU is a world leader in 
safety and security of transpor t in all modes of transport. 
(10) Move towards full application of “user pa ys” and “polluter pays” principles and 
private sector engagement to eliminate distortions, including harmful subsidies, 
generate revenues and ensure financi ng for future transport investments. 
124. The following “Part III – Strategy: Po licies to steer change”  of the White Paper 
identifies the initiatives that could facil itate the achievement of these goals and the 
transition towards the new type of transp ort and mobility broadly outlined in the 
previous paragraphs. The various actions a nd measures indicated in this strategy 
will be further elaborated. The Commissi on will prepare appropriate legislative 
proposals and implement the necessary policy measures. Each of its proposals will be preceded by a thorough impact assessm ent, considering EU added value and 
subsidiarity aspects. 
                                                
 
69 In accordance with the European Deployment plan for ERTMS: cf. Commission Decision 
C(2009)561. 
70 In accordance with the EasyWay 2 Implementati on Plan: cf. Commission Deci sion C(2010) 9675.  
71 Directive 2002/59/EC establishing a Community vessel traffic monitoring and information system (OJ 
L 208 of 5.8.2002), as amended by Directive 2009/17/EC (OJ L 131 of 28.5.2009). 
72 Cf. Directive 2005/44/EC. 
 
EN 36   EN III – Strategy: policies to steer change 
1. AN EFFICIENT AND INTEGRATED MOBILITY SYSTEM  
125. The EU has opened to competition most of its transport markets since the 90’s, but 
barriers to a smooth functioning  of the internal market persist. The objective for the 
next decade is to create a genuine Single European Transport Area  by eliminating 
all the residual barriers between modes a nd national systems, easing the process of 
integration and the emergence of multinational and multimodal operators. 
126. Addressing inefficiencies within individua l modes is important from a transport 
system perspective, since a poorly performi ng mode or interface is not only harmful 
in the absence of alternatives, but can al so act as the weak link that compromises 
the functionality of a multimodal chain. 
127. The achievement of a fully integrated transport system is delayed today by a 
number of remaining regulatory and market  failures. Regulatory barriers to market 
entry, technical incompatibilities betw een modes, burdensome administrative 
procedures or indeed imperfect and outda ted legislation are th e biggest problems. 
128. Open transport markets and a more compe titive environment can create tensions if 
the prevailing employment and working cond itions as well as safety and security 
standards are too diss imilar at national level. A hi gher degree of harmonisation and 
enforcement of social rules as well as measures to enhance minimum standards of service and of users’ rights must be an integral part of the strategy for the Single 
European Transport Area.  
129. In the following sections, proposals are formulated which address some of these 
issues. They are grouped in  five broad categories: 
(1) Removal of regulatory, administ rative and technical barriers 
(2) Measures related to the quality of jobs 
(3) Security aspects 
(4) Safety aspects 
(5) Measures related to th e quality of services 
1.1. A Single European Transport Area 
130. A crucial condition for meeting the goals pr esented in Section II.3 – particularly 
with respect to the development of multim odal transport for passengers and freight 
– is the removal of all obstacles of admini strative or regulatory na ture that still hold 
back each transport mode. 
131. In certain segments of the transport industry – notably rail domestic passenger 
services, road cabotage and port services  – markets are still not fully open to 
competition. In other segments such as rail freight transport, the poor implementation of existing rules and other barriers keep deterring market entry. 
 
EN 37   EN Different technical specifications and lack of interoperability hinder the 
development of multimodal intelligent transport systems and the operation of cross-border services, particularly  in rail and in air traffic management. Different 
administrative requirements – such as different liability regimes and multiple transport documents – increase the cost of international and multimodal operations and have an impact on the commercial sp eed of freight flows. There is still 
considerable scope for improving the effici ency of the transport system through the 
removal of regulatory, administra tive and technical barriers.  
1.1.1.  A true internal market for rail services 
132. A necessary condition for establishing a Single European Transport Area is the 
creation of Single European Railway  Area, by completing the market opening 
process, including the award of public serv ice contracts, strengthening the role of 
the European Rail Agency, enhancing the separation between infrastructure 
managers and service providers, and developi ng an integrated approach to freight 
corridor management. 
Completing the market opening process 
133. Although the Commission considers that modal shift towards environmentally 
friendlier modes, notably rail, will be neces sary to meet emissions and fuel security 
targets, this should be achieved by ensu ring a level playing field across modes and 
by making rail services efficient and attractive. The lack of competition to incumbent operators, which often enjoy a de facto monopoly situation on the 
national market, is one of th e reasons explaining the low quality and efficiency of 
services. Evidence from countries where th e opening of the rail market is most 
advanced shows that improved and innovative  services have led to a rising market 
share of rail. 
134. Whereas markets for rail freight services have been fully opened to competition 
since January 2007
73 and those for international passe nger transport services as of 1 
January 201074, domestic passenger transport remains largely closed to 
competition. 
135. The Commission has recently published a study  on the regulatory options available 
for domestic passenger market opening75. The study concludes that genuine market 
opening will have considerable positive im pacts on the rail s ectors throughout the 
EU. The evidence supports the Commission view that market opening will lead to innovation and improved quality, so genera ting increased passenger levels. In a 
growing market, employment levels can be maintained alongside efficiency gains. 
                                                
 
73 As provided for in Directive 2004/51/EC, amending Council Directive 91/440/EEC of 29 July 1991 
on the development of the Community’s railways. In practice, however, many barriers still exist 
including those stemming from the incomplete and incorrect implementation of Community law by 
Member States. 
74 Council Directive 91/440/EEC of 29 July 1991 on the development of the Community’s railways, as 
amended inter alia by Directive 2007/58/EC. 
75 Everis, Study on Regulatory Options on Further Market Opening in Rail Passenger Transport, Final 
Report, 09/09/2010. 
 
EN 38   EN Based on the findings of this study and other input, the Commission will put 
forward a new initiative on domestic pa ssenger transport market opening in 201276. 
Open procedures for public  service obligations (PSO) 
136. The rules on the provision of services  in the framework of public service 
obligations are laid down in specific pieces of legislation for air services77, inland 
transport78 and maritime transport79. For inland transport, Regulation 1370/2007 
excludes the rail sector from the oblig ation to award public service obligation 
contracts through an open tendering procedure. Thus , most local and regional 
services, as well as a potentially signifi cant share of long-distance services, are 
operated under PSO but attributed to operators through direct award. The 
introduction of open procedures to award the service – the so-called competition for 
the market instead of competition in the market  – could lead to more attractive and 
innovative services at lower cost.  
137. Regulation 1370/2007 requires Member States  to provide the Commission with a 
progress report with regard to the award of public contracts by June 201580. On the 
basis of these reports and other studies and lessons from the air and maritime sectors, the Commission will propose an  initiative for th e introduction of 
competitive tendering for public service cont racts, aimed at ensuring the efficient 
provision of high quality services. 
Governance and enforcement: a stronger role for the European Rail Agency, 
unbundling and infrastructure managers 
138. Prior to market opening, competition regulation was very limited in the rail sector, 
and safety regulation often undertaken by incumbent rail ope rators. To make 
market opening effective, but at the same time ensure that safety levels were 
maintained and improved, specialised na tional institutions we re created by EU 
legislation. This system includes the Nati onal Safety Authorities (NSAs) and the 
Regulatory Bodies. The Commission receiv es frequent complaints that this 
decentralised system, while justified to cater for the still remaining technical differences between national rail systems, is not adequate to ensu re the creation of a 
real European market for rail services. 
139. For example, the NSAs are responsible for the certification of the railway 
undertakings and the authorisation to place vehicles and subsystems into service. 
                                                
 
76 Communication from the Commission concerning the development of a Single European Railway 
Area, COM(2010) 474. 
77 Articles 16-18 of Regulation (EC) No 1008/2008 of the European Parliament and the Council of 24 
September 2008 on common rules for the operation of air services in the Community (Recast), 
 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriSe rv.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:293:0003:0020:EN:PDF .  
78 Regulation (EC) No 1370/2007 of the European Parliament and the Council of 23 October 2007 on 
public passenger transport service by rail and by road and repealing Council Regulations (EEC) Nos 1191/69 and 1107/70, 
 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriSe rv.do?uri=OJ:L:2007:315:0001:0013:EN:PDF
.  
79 Article 4 of Council Regulation (EEC) No 3577/ 92 of 7 December 1992 appl ying the principle of 
freedom to provide services to maritime trans port within Member Stat es (maritime cabotage), 
 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/Lex UriServ/LexUriServ.do?ur i=CELEX:31992R3577:EN:HTML . 
80 Cf. Article 8(2) of the Regulation. 
 
EN 39   EN The approach to safety certification and au thorisation is based on the principle of 
mutual recognition and should, in principle, allow the free provision  of rail services 
and circulation of trains across the EU. Ho wever, the current legislative framework 
allows NSAs to make further checks before accepting certificates and authorisations granted by other NSAs. Th is leads to considerable delays and 
substantial cost burdens for rail operators . The Commission is considering how to 
address this problem: it appe ars it will be necessary to strengthen the role of the 
European Railway Agency, and review th e share-out of responsibilities between 
NSAs and the European Agency. 
140. The task of the Regulatory Bodies is to ensure fair and non-discriminatory access to 
the rail network and to rail-related serv ices and to check whether charging and 
capacity allocation principles are properly applied. However, the Member States’ regulatory bodies encounter difficulties in carrying out their supervision duties over 
infrastructure managers, often owing to a lack of staff and other resources. 
Difficulties are compounded in cases wh ere the regulatory body does not have 
sufficient independence from the infras tructure managers, incumbent rail 
undertaking or the ministry which exer ts ownership rights over the incumbent 
operator. The recent proposal for a recast of the first railway package
81 provides for 
the extension and reinforcement of their powers as a first step to addressing this issue. However, further action is necessa ry, perhaps creating a network of national 
regulatory authorities.  
141. In some Member States, close structural integration of infrastructure management 
and rail service operation by the historical or incumbent operator persists. This may result in operational decisions being taken to protect incumbents against newcomers 
and in income from track access char ges being diverted to support service 
operators. The Commission considers much of this is contrary to existing rail 
legislation and is pursuing a number of infri ngement cases as a re sult. The first rail 
package recast also includes provisions to  address key problems. Nevertheless, the 
Commission believes that fu rther action will be required  to ensure fair and non-
discriminatory access to the rail infrastruct ure and to rail-relate d services. On the 
basis of further evaluation, it will make a pr oposal to ensure an effective structural 
separation between infrastructure mana gement and rail service provision. 
142. The Commission recognises that while the current regulatory ap proach should be 
successful in creating competition between train operators, infrastructure management remains a natural monopoly. While  this is inevitable on a local scale 
(it would not be cost effective to build competing infrastructure) the Commission, in coordination with regulatory bodies, w ill keep infrastructure management under 
close scrutiny, to ensure it is efficient a nd that pricing and investment decisions are 
consistent with the goal of fostering ra ilway development and effective competition 
in the provision of rail transport services. 
143. In the long term, the Commission consider s there may be a case to establish pan-
European infrastructure managers, ensu ring co-ordinated development along key 
corridors, but allowing competition or benchmarking between different route managers. 
                                                
 
81 Proposal for a Directive establishing a single  European railway area  (recast), COM(2010)475. 
 
EN 40   EN Integrated approach to freight corridor management 
144. Rail freight should be most competitive vi s-à-vis road over long distances, where 
the costs of transhipment for first and last -mile delivery are relative small compared 
to total shipping costs. But this is not the EU experience: instead, the operational 
and technical barriers to inter-state traffic (particularly the establishment of new freight flows), and a tendency to prioritize passenger services, of ten leads to rail 
freight being seen as ex pensive and unreliable. 
145. Technical barriers are being addressed through Commission legislation based on 
the basic interoperability and safety directives. To overcome some of the 
operational barriers, Regulation 913/2010 – which entered into force on 9 
November 2010 – establishes a European  rail network for freight based on 
international freight corridors. 
146. The Regulation foresees the coordinati on between all parties and countries 
involved, namely on the allocation of cross-border capacity, on the timing of investment, on infrastructure standards and on the determination of track access 
charges. The Commission will have to monitor progress and ensure that the integrated management of corridors func tions well in practice. The reasons for 
developing freight dedicated rail corridors and the advant ages of such an approach 
are discussed more in deta il in Section 3 below.  
1. A true internal market for rail services 
• Open the domestic rail passengers market to competition, including mandatory award of 
public service contracts under competitive tendering. 
• Achieve a single vehicle type authorisation and a single railway undertaking safety 
certification by reinforcing the role of the European Railway Agency (ERA). 
• Develop an integrated approach to freight corridor management, in cluding track access 
charges. 
• Ensure effective and non-discriminatory a ccess to rail infrastructure, including rail-
related services, in particul ar through structural separa tion between infrastructure 
management and service provision82. 
1.1.2.  Completing the European aviation sector 
Seamless air travel through a Single European Sky 
147. The European aviation sector is one of th e best performing parts of the European 
economy. Creating a single market, extend ing this to our immediate neighbours, 
allowing for competition, negotiating balanced open skies agreements with other parts of the world, furthering technologica l advances and enforcing high standards 
in terms of quality, equity and environm ental performance have contributed to 
strengthening the sector. But global compe tition is increasing and much can be lost. 
                                                
 
82 The preferred options for unbundling should ensure the development of competition, continued 
investment and efficiency in th e cost of service provision. 
 
EN 41   EN 148. Recent events, such as the volcanic ash crisis83, but also the overall growth 
perspective84 prove how urgent it is to move to wards an even better integrated EU 
airspace. The Single European Sky (SES) le gislation, since the a doption of the first 
package in 200485 and the revision and extension of the legislation in 2009, has 
broken with the tradition of a national,  fragmented approach in air traffic 
management (ATM) and of intergovernmen tal coordination shifting towards a truly 
genuine European framework, with effec tive cooperation between Member States, 
the European institutions and agencies, Eu rocontrol and stakehol ders and with an 
efficient social dialogue. Recognising th at the performance of the European 
aviation system is dictated by its weakes t links, the emphasis is placed increasingly 
on the performance of the network at European level. 
149. The SES initiatives aims at tripling capaci ty, reducing ATM costs per flight by half, 
improving safety by a factor of 10 and re ducing the environmental impact of each 
flight by 10%86. A key enabler for accelerating th e full implementation of the SES 
is the deployment of new ATM tec hnologies and procedures (SESAR). 
150. The SES acquis  include: 
– The creation of a Network manager f unction to manage scarce resources 
(airspace design, transponder code allocations, radio frequencies) from a pan-European perspective; 
– The establishment of Functional Airspace  Blocks to optimise provision of air 
navigation services (ANS) at the leve l of air navigation service providers, 
regardless of state boundaries; 
– The introduction of a Performance Scheme  aiming at increasing the performance 
of ANS in four key performance areas:  safety, environmental targets, cost 
efficiency and flight efficiency. 
151. The Performance Scheme needs to be implemented from 2012 to 2014; the Single 
Network Manager function will be created in 2011; and the Functional Airspace 
Blocks should be established by 2012. De livering the SES w ithin the agreed 
milestones is of the utmost importance for the future of European aviation
87. 
152. In the context of the creation of a single Network Manager function, the 
relationship between the Eur opean Union and Eurocontrol88 needs to be redefined 
to establish the legal and financial framework for the latter organisation to support 
the Single European Sky policy. The current voluntary scheme of Eurocontrol for 
                                                 
83 Information note to the Commission on the impact of the volcanic ash cloud crisis on the air transport 
industry, SEC(2010)533 of 27.04.2010. 
84 See above para 98. 
85 Regulations (EC) 549/2004, 550/2004, 551/2004, 552/2004, OJ L96, 31.03.2004, p.1-26, as amended 
by Regulation (EC) 1070/2009 of 21.10.2009, OJ L300, 14.11.2009, p. 34 
86 Routes for intra-European flights are some 15% less efficient than domestic flight routes; on average, 
aircraft fly 49 km longer than strictly  necessary due to airspace fragmentation. 
87 Declaration from the High level Conference on th e Roadmap towards implementing the SES, Madrid 
25-26.02.2010. 
88 The European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (Eurocontrol) is the intergovernmental 
organisation responsible for coordinating and planning air traffic control in Europe. 
 
EN 42   EN the implementation of the SES should be co nsolidated through an inter-institutional 
framework in line with the Single Sky regulation. 
2. Completion of the Single European Sky 
• Achieve a truly seamless Single European  Sky and deploy the future air traffic 
management system (SESAR) in the agreed timeframe. 
• Establish the appropriate legal and financia l framework to support the Single European 
Sky policy, consolidate the relationship betw een the European Union and Eurocontrol. 
More efficient use of airport capacity 
153. Airports play a capital role in the aviation chain. Their well-functioning and 
efficiency is a key economic parameter fo r their airlin e clients and for businesses 
that work in close coordination with th em – such as independent groundhandlers. 
They are central for the su ccessful delivery of the Single European Sky reform. 
154. The lasting success of the European Aviation market is also dependent on the 
ability to tackle the cap acity challenge, and its negative impacts on the economy, 
passenger experience and delays. Despite th e impact of the financial and economic 
crisis on the aviation industry and on tra ffic levels, long-ter m trends point to 
capacity constraints on the ground and in the sky. In its survey of 138 airports in 
2008, Eurocontrol has highlighted that, desp ite a 41% increase in airport capacity 
between 2007 and 2030, 11% of demand w ill not be accommodated in the most 
favourable scenario and 25% in the most challenging one. 19 airports will function 
at full capacity 8 hours/day in the form er case; 39 airports in the latter89.  
155. Whilst for certain airports there is a need for additional infrastructure, some 
congestion problems can be tackled by a bette r system of slot allocation. Currently, 
airport slots are allocated on an administ rative basis as prescribed by Regulation 
95/9390. This Regulation, which aimed at ensuri ng that access to congested airports 
was organized through a system of fair, non-discriminatory and transparent rules for the allocation of landing and take -off slots, has been amended in 2004
91. The 
amendment contained a number of techni cal improvements – such as provisions 
with regard to enforcement, clearer defi nitions, better monitoring tools and stricter 
sanctions against abuse or non-complia nce with the allo cation rules.  
156. Nevertheless, problems remain: the ability of new entrants and of growing carriers 
to compete with established carriers is impe ded due to a lack of available slots from 
the pool. At those airports where demand consistently exceeds capacity, pool slots 
tend only to be available at  unattractive times or are no t available as series. This 
impedes the optimal use of airport capacit y. There is, moreover, a lack of certainty 
regarding the legal framewor k of the secondary trading and there are concerns over 
the degree of independence of slot coor dinators. A study on the implementation of 
                                                 
89 Source: EUROCONTROL Long-Term Forecast: IFR Flight Movements 2008-2030.  
90 Council Regulation 95/93 of 18 January 1993 on common rules for the allocation of slots at 
Community airports, as amended by subsequent legal acts, 
 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ .do?uri=CONSLEG:1993R0095:20090630:EN:PDF  
91 By Regulation (EC) No 793/2004. 
 
EN 43   EN the Slot Regulation including mechanisms for primary slot allocation is underway 
and is expected to bring recommendations for a change in the policy to be proposed 
by the Commission.  
157. Apart from better use of airport capacity, we need to deal with the foreseen increase 
in the demand for air transport. Part of the answer can be high speed trains which 
provide a suitable alternative to short haul- and feeding flights, freeing up capacity 
for longer flights. This will however re quire a much more effective integration 
between the two modes. Rail-air infrastructur al nodes will have to be developed to 
ensure seamless transition of passengers from the train to the plane. More importantly, the great challenge will be to allow access, integration and efficient use of data by all actors to support bi-moda l air-rail travel. The Commission will 
study possible options and pr opose initiatives aiming at these goals. At the same 
time, the Commission will continue to wo rk on other approaches to deal with 
capacity problems in the context of the Community Observatory on Airport 
Capacity. 
Ground-handling activities in airports 
158. Ground-handling services contribute to the e fficiency of air transport. The market 
for ground-handling services has been gradually opened by Directive 96/67/EC
92. 
The Directive stipulates that in the larg er EU airports access to the market for 
suppliers of ground-handling services is open and that for certain categories of 
services, in the case where the number of suppliers is limited; this number of suppliers may be no fewer than tw o for each category of service. 
159. According to studies carried out by the Commission so far
93, main objectives of the 
legislation were achieved: the number of  providers has increased, prices have 
tended to fall, while, according to the ai rlines, the average quality of services 
improved. 
160. However, negative aspects persist: it remain s difficult for new pr oviders to enter the 
market where the airport manager or the dominant carriers offer their services. In 
addition, certain provisions of the Directive are sometim es subject to different 
interpretations. The Directive is also ques tioned by some stakeholders as regards its 
social, safety and security aspects. Fina lly, the recent experiences with difficult 
winter weather conditio ns have also demonstrated that airports are part of a system 
where certain quality sta ndards and emergency plans need to be developed 
including all actors. The Commission will make a proposal  to clarify and improve 
the conditions for market entry also with th e aim of ensuring that all airports meet 
minimum quality standards. 
3. Capacity and quality of airports 
• Revise the Slot Regulation to favour mo re efficient use of airport capacity. 
                                                 
92 Council Directive 96/67/EC of 15 October 1996 on access to the groundhandling market at 
Community airports, 
 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriSe rv.do?uri=CONSLEG:1996L0067:20031120:EN:PDF .  
93 Both studies are available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/a ir/studies/airports_en.htm .  
 
EN 44   EN • Clarify and improve conditions to enter and provide quality services, including 
groundhandling: ensure that al l actors in an airport sy stem meet minimum quality 
standards. 
• Airport Capacity – develop an approach to deal with futu re capacity problems including 
better integration with  the railway network. 
1.1.3.  A maritime “Blue Belt” and a suitabl e framework for inland navigation 
161. Maritime transport accounts for more than a third of all intra-EU freight transport 
activity. In contrast to other transport m odes, transport by sea between EU ports is 
often still considered as going beyond the ex ternal borders of the Internal Market, 
thus requiring extensive administrative pr ocedures (e.g. customs, veterinary and 
plant protection controls, port formalities). 
A “Blue Belt” for short sea shipping 
162. Following the Commission’s Action Plan to establish a European maritime 
transport space without barriers94, customs procedures will be facilitated for certain 
companies as of 1 January 201295, and port formalities as of 19 May 201296. The 
objective is to facilitate intra-EU mariti me transport in a “Blue Belt”, the sea area 
surrounding the European Union. In this Bl ue Belt, intra-EU ma ritime transport can 
be operated with as little administrative burden as possible, a nd “Blue Lanes” (i.e. 
fast-track procedures) will be created in ports for Comm unity goods to ensure their 
speedy transit. Monitoring t echnologies, notably those developed by the European 
Maritime Safety Agency based in Lisbon (E MSA), will be used to control vessel 
movements and integrate them in seamless logistics chains originating and terminating in EU territory
97. 
163. As part of the effort to simplify the procedures in maritime transport, the 
Commission will shortly examine the possibi lity to exempt experienced captains, 
under certain conditions and in certain ports, from the obligation of using pilot 
services when manoeuvring in the port  (Pilot Exemption Certificates). 
Reducing administrative costs through eMaritime 
164. Many ports use advanced information systems, but there is almost no 
interoperability between these port informa tion systems. Often, the same data have 
to be provided (manually) at  each port call, resulting in waste of time and data 
errors. The e-Maritime initiative will prom ote interoperability between the systems 
of all maritime transport stakeholders, in cluding shippers, logi stics operators and 
ports’ and inland waterways’ administrative authorities. 
                                                 
94 COM(2009) 10 final of 21.1.2009. 
95 Commission Regulation (EU) No 177/2010 amending Regulation (EEC) No 2454/93 laying down 
provisions for the implementation of Council Regulation (EEC) No 2913/92 establishing the 
Community Customs Code. OJ L 52 of 3.3.2010. 
96 Directive 2010/65/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council on reporting formalities for 
ships arriving in and/or departing from ports of the Member States, O.J. L 283 of 29.10.2010. 
97 In a further step, facilitation for Community Good s transported on ships navigating between EU ports 
but calling during the journey at a non-European port will be addressed. 
 
EN 45   EN 165. The e-Maritime initiative will also build on relevant EU directives – such as the 
Directive establishing an EU Vessel Tra ffic Monitoring and Information System 
(SafeSeaNet)98 – and be aligned with the advan ced electronic m eans of managing 
and exchanging transport related informati on such as e-Customs and e-Freight; it 
would need open links to other modal syst ems in the spirit of an integrated 
intermodal transport system. 
Market access to ports 
166. While many ports operate in a competitive environment, technical-nautical and 
cargo-handling services are of ten restricted to monopolies or to a few established 
operators. The Commission’s attempts to  open market access to port services99 
were rejected by the European Parliament. In line with stake holders’ requests, the 
Commission has not put forward a ny further legislative proposal100. It is currently 
applying and enforcing the ba sic rules of the Treaty in the port sector, and closely 
monitoring the market development. Should th is situation reveal to be insufficient 
or generate uncertainty, legislative proposals might be considered again101. 
167. Competition between ports can be significan t and calls for a level-playing field. 
Information on funds that pub lic authorities ma ke available to any port should be 
transparent. Under Directive 2006/111/EC102, the obligation to maintain separate 
accounts – between the activitie s that receive public fi nancing and those which do 
not – already exists for ports with an  annual turnover above € 40 million. Since a 
large number of ports – some of which ve ry relevant to the European transport 
system – have a smaller turnover, the Co mmission will evaluate the need to lower 
this threshold. Furthermore, as existing ad ministrative structur es in ports differ 
widely, it is necessary to introduce some common reporting and accounting 
principles. Concession holders play also a fundamental role regarding efficiency of 
ports. In this context, it is  important to ensure  that the conditi ons under which Port 
authorities select concession holders are fully transparent and competitive. 
4. A maritime “Blue Belt” a nd market access to ports 
The European Maritime Transport Space without Barriers should be further developed into a 
“Blue Belt” of free maritime movement in and around Europe, and waterborne transport 
should be used to its full potential. 
• Integrate the use of monito ring tools by all relevant au thorities, ensure the full 
interoperability between ICT sy stems in the waterborne sect ors, guarantee the monitoring 
of vessels and freight (Blue Belt) and set up appropriate port facili ties (“Blue Lanes”). 
                                                 
98 Directive 2002/59/EC. 
99 E.g the proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of  the Council on market access to 
port services, COM(2004) 654 final. 
100 Cf. Communication on a European Ports Policy, COM(2007) 616 final. 
101 Commission staff working document: Impact Assessment on the Communication on a European Ports 
Policy, SEC(2007) 1339, 18.10.2007.  
102 Commission Directive 2006/111/EC of 16 November 2006 on the transparency of financial relations 
between Member States and public undertakings as well as on financial transparency within certain 
undertakings, OJ L 318, 17.11.2006, p. 17–25. 
 
EN 46   EN • Establish a framework for the granting of P ilot Exemption Certificates in EU ports. 
• Review restrictions on provision for port services. 
• Enhance the transparency on ports’ financing,  clarifying the destin ation of public funding 
to the different port activities, with a vi ew to avoid any distortion of competition. 
Further removing the hurdles to fully usin g the potential of inland waterway transport 
168. The inland waterway transport market is fully liberalised since the 1990s. Due to 
the fact that the European inland waterw ay network cannot be considered complete 
without the participation of  third countries (in partic ular for the Danube and the 
Rhine), the overall regulatory framework is fragmented, and some barriers to the 
internal market remain or have emerged.  
169. The institutional framework in Europe is  dispersed among various actors: the EU, 
its Member States, third countries, Inte rgovernmental River Commissions based on 
international agreements (e.g. for the Rhin e and for the Danube), the UN-ECE. This 
structure sometimes leads to overlapping activities and creates inefficiencies.  
170. The comprehensive action programme fo r the promotion of inland waterway 
transport NAIADES, launched by the Commission in 2006, is recognised for 
having created a momentum for a common European policy, based on legislative, 
coordination and support measures. The Comm ission will ensure the continuity of 
the implementing measures and address new challenges thro ugh a comprehensive 
approach involving all rele vant actors and providing support where needed: e.g. 
strengthen the market position of inland waterway transport by integrating it in multimodal logistics, improve its envir onmental performance, and deploy new 
technologies including River Information Services (RIS)
103. 
5. A suitable framework for inland navigation 
• Establish an appropriate fram ework to optimise the Internal Market for Inland waterway 
transport, and to remove barriers that prev ent its increased use. Assess and define the 
necessary tasks and mechanisms for their execution, also with a view to the wider 
European context. 
1.1.4.  Further integrating th e road freight market 
171. Road transport dominates the commercial transport market, but at the same time it 
is a fragile and highly fragmented sector com posed of a vast majority of very small 
undertakings whose profit margins are dire ctly dependant on labour costs and on 
the fluctuation of oil prices. To reap the full benefits of open markets and ensure its 
social acceptance, it is nece ssary to work towards establishing a level playing field 
concerning rules on social standards, sa fety, and road use charging – and their 
enforcement. 
                                                 
103 Cf. section 2.1.3 below. 
 
EN 47   EN Harmonised enforcement of rules for professi onal road transport 
172. Road transport undertakings face unequal treatment in different Member States 
owing to divergences in the control and sa nction systems. This creates unnecessary 
administrative burdens and uneven conditi ons of competition, as well as raising 
safety concerns. To address these problems, the Commission will propose to 
harmonise and enhance the enforcement policies so that in the Single European Transport Area operators are treated on an  equal footing when facing checks and 
when infringing the social, technical, safe ty and market rules established at EU 
level. 
173. The checks of social rules should be ma de more cost-effective. While rules on 
driving time and rest periods are of para mount importance to pr event accidents due 
to driver fatigue and to safeguard driv ers working conditions, firms that do not 
comply with these rules can gain a sizeab le undue competitive advantage. The basis 
of the controls carrying out by national enforcement or police officers during 
checks are the data recorded by the tachographs. The tamper-proof digital tachograph fitted since 2006 on all new vehicles generate more trustworthy data. Cases of manipulation and frauds have however been found. While the 
administrative burden for undertakings wh ich comply with the rules should be 
reduced, the EU should make sure that th e controls become fully effective in 
preventing and detecting manipulatio n or misuse of the tachographs. 
174. The current regulations on access to the market and admission to the profession
104 
already foresee the creation of a European register of road transport undertakings. 
The necessary measures to put it in operation through the interconnection of national registers have to be taken before the end of 2012.
105 The European register 
will allow exchange of information on infringements committed by non resident 
undertakings. 
175. As a first step, this register will focu s on exchange of information on the serious 
infringements as prescribed by the legi slation, but subseq uently, the Commission 
intends to make a proposal for the informati on contained in the register also to be 
used to target checks and in real time dur ing roadside checks (e.g. control of the 
validity of the licence). As a result, checks will become quicker, more targeted and 
the overall administrative burden on thos e undertakings which properly comply 
with the rules will considerably diminish. 
176. Enforcement of EU legislation requires that  sanctions in case of infringement are 
proportionate, non discriminatory and effective. A recent report106 showed the 
existence of substantial differences in the Member States in terms of type of penalties, categorisation of infringements and fines applie d in the field of social 
road transport legislation. For the same infringement, a road transport undertaking 
can receive a fine up to 10 times higher in one country than in another. The 
                                                
 
104 Regulation (EC) No 1071/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009 
establishing common rules concerning the conditions to be complied with to pursue the occupation of 
road transport operator and repealing Council Directive 96/26/EC. 
105 Art. 16 (5) of Regulation (EC) No 1071/2009. 
106 Report from the Commission analysing the penalties for serious infringements against the social rules 
in road transport, as provided for in the le gislation of the Member  States (COM(2009)225). 
 
EN 48   EN Commission will propose to harmonise these sanctions. The European 
Parliament107 has already asked the Commission to  make use of the provisions of 
the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU, which allow establishing minimum rules 
with regard to the definition of crim inal offences and sanctions, where the 
approximation of criminal laws and regul ations proves essential to ensure the 
effective implementation of a Union policy. 
177. The work of the enforcement bodies in the Me mber States plays an essential part in 
the application of the legislation. Many diffe rent authorities are involved depending 
on the institutional set up of each Member State; these include police forces, ministries of transport and of labour, and dedicated enforcement agencies. A 
harmonised approach on the minimum traini ng of enforcement officers would lead 
to a more homogeneous application of the EU legislation. It w ould also favour the 
exchange of information, for example on techniques to detect manipulations of 
tachographs, and to disseminate more syst ematically the information on regulatory 
progress at European level. The Commissi on will therefore make a proposal aiming 
at the harmonisation of the training of enforcement officers. 
Road cabotage for freight 
178. Road cabotage is the possibility for an operator to carry goods within a Member 
State other than the one in which it is establ ished. It is a way for operators to reduce 
their empty returns after an internati onal trip and seek business opportunities 
particularly in cross-border areas. Howe ver, given the differences still existing 
across the European Union, particularly on taxation and social rules, it is feared that a full opening of cabotage could result in  a significant shift in jobs between 
countries and generate additional traffic.  
179. The rules on access to market a dopted by the legislator in 2009
108 strike a balance 
between these two considerations. Hauliers  willing to perform national transport 
operations in another Member States on a systematic basis can do so by creating a 
subsidiary in this Member State, so that they are submitted to the same rules as their 
competitors. Those who prefer not taking this step are allowed up to three cabotage operations within a limit of seven da ys after an international transport
109. These 
rules offer more flexibility than the previous ones adopted in 1993110, but they still 
restrict hauliers in their choice of contracts for optimal routing. 
180. The Commission considers that, given th e pressing needs to ensure market 
efficiency and the proposed steps to harmonise enforcement of rules, further opening of the market should be pursued. 
                                                
 
107 Report on penalties for serious infringements against the social rules in road transport, INI/2009/2154 
(Ranner report). 
108 Regulation (EC) N° 1072/2009 
109 The three cabotage operations can e ither all take place in the country of unloading of the international 
operation, or as a maximum of one operation per country in other Member States. 
110 Member States could prevent an undertaking from performing cabotage during one year after one 
month of cabotage operations. 
 
EN 49   EN Maximum weights and dimensions of road vehicles 
181. The maximum size and weight of road  vehicles are governed by Directive 
96/53/EC111. The Directive – which sets minimum standards and maximum sizes 
and weights that vehicles must respect to ha ve access to the road networks of all the 
Member States – was conceived in the 1990’s to accompany the opening of the international road transport market. 
182. The evolution of containerisation, th e need to ensure the economic and 
environmental efficiency of transport a nd the development of aerodynamics devices 
to improve the energy efficiency of vehicles  call for a fresh look at  this legislation.  
183. Some in the road industry argue that signi ficantly heavier and longer trucks would 
bring efficiency gains, and could be used  without jeopardising safety or damaging 
infrastructure. Further independent work  is currently being undertaken for the 
Commission to assess the issue and determine conditions for progress. 
184. It does in any case appear to the Commi ssion that there would be a good case for 
limited change to the current dimensions, to allow fitting (or retrofitting) vehicles with aerodynamic devices that could reduce fuel consumption
112. Limited changes 
may also be necessary to accommodate new standards of intermodal vehicles and to 
deal with electric vehicles. 
6. Road freight 
• Review the market situation of road freight transport as well  as the degree of convergence 
on, among others, road user charges, social and safety legislati on, transposition and 
enforcement of legislation in the Member St ates, with a view to further opening road 
transport markets. In particular, the elimin ation of remaining re strictions on cabotage 
should be pursued. 
• Review the rules on the tachograph to make it more cost-effective, give access to the EU 
register on road transport unde rtakings to police and enfor cement officers when they 
carry out roadside checks; harmonise sanc tions for infringement to EU rules on 
professional transport; harmonise training of enforcement officers. 
• Adapt the legislation on weight and dimens ion to new circumstances, technologies and 
needs (e.g. weight of batteries, better aerodyna mic performance), and to make sure it 
facilitates intermodal transport and the re duction of overall energy consumption and 
emissions. 
                                                 
111 COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 96/53/EC of 25 July 1996 laying down for certain road vehicles circulating 
within the Community the maximum authorized dimensions in national and international traffic and the maximum authorized weights in international traffic, 
 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/Lex UriServ/LexUriServ.do?ur i=CELEX:31996L0053:EN:HTML
.  
112 Loosening current stringent restrictions on vehicle length would allow more aerodynamic design of 
the trucks, and the retrofitting of devices such as boa t tails that can produce a drag reduction of 12%. 
This would bring about fuel savings of about 6%. Sharpe, R.B.A. (2009) Technical options for fossil 
fuel based road transport Paper produced as part of contract ENV.C.3/SER/2008/0053 between 
European Commission Directorate-General Environment and AEA Technology plc; 
http://eutransportghg2050.eu/cms/assets/EU-Transp ort-GHG-2050-Paper-1-T echnical-options-for-f-
fuel-road-transport-11-02-10.pdf . 
 
EN 50   EN 1.1.5.  Multimodal transport of goods: th e development of e-Freight 
185. The simplification of freight and transport information ex change could substantially 
reduce the cost of multimodal transport. This  concerns in particular the possibility 
for economic operators to provide inform ation only once – in electronic form – 
(‘single window’) and to have the goods a nd vehicles controlled only once and at 
the same place (‘one stop administrative shop’)113. Such development will require 
connecting and completing the networks fo r the exchange of information between 
administrations and for facilitating the acces s to this information by businesses.  
186. This vision of a paper-free, electronic fl ow of information associating the physical 
flow of goods with a paperless trail bu ilt by ICT includes the ability to track and 
trace freight along its journey across tran sport modes and, in line with the EU 
competition rules, to automate the exchange of content-related data for regulatory or commercial purposes. This will be ma de more practical and affordable by 
emerging technologies such as radi o frequency identification (RFID)
 and the use of 
global satellite navigation systems such as Galileo. 
187. Freight should be identifiable and locatable regardless of the mode it is transported 
on. A necessary condition for this is that  standard interfaces within the various 
transport modes are put in place and their interoperability acro ss modes is assured. 
The Commission will create the appropria te legislative framework for the 
deployment of tracking and tracing t echnologies and other technological 
components contributing to the e-Freight concept, while ensuring the appropriate 
technical security for the protection of pe rsonal data and the compliance with data 
protection legislation. 
188. Currently, different modes of transport us e different transport documents (CMR for 
road, Bill of Lading for maritime, etc…), a situation which creates administrative 
costs for multimodal transport and puts it in an unfavourable position in comparison 
to single mode transport. To promote multimodal transport, it is therefore essential to create a single transport document for the carriage of goods in any mode. Within 
the overall framework of e-Freight
114, the single transport document will be digital. 
As transport documents are to a large exte nt a reflection of the applicable legal 
regime to the contract for carriage of the goods, these two actions are dealt with 
together. In order for a single transport document to be established, the underlying 
liability regime needs to be created. 
189. There current weaknesses and gaps in liabi lity regimes are both within sectors and 
across sectors. The absence of a European  liability regime for relations between 
railway undertakings and infrastructure mana gers represents a barrier to the entry 
on the rail market by operators of other Member States. Rules on liability have 
typically developed along modal lines, and this creates friction costs at the nodes, 
between two or more transport modes since this is where one modal liability system 
comes into contact with another. The recently adopted ‘Rotterdam Rules’ UN 
                                                 
113 Communication from the Commission of 18 Octobe r 2007: Freight transport Logistics Action Plan, 
COM(2007) 607 final, 
 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexU riServ.do?uri=COM:2007:0607:FIN:EN:PDF . 
114 Idem., p.3. 
 
EN 51   EN Convention115 deals with multimodal transport involving a sea leg. It has been 
signed by a limited number of EU Member  States. Any comprehensive multimodal 
proposal of the Commission will have to take the global convention into account. 
7. Multimodal transport of goods: e-Freight 
Create the appropriate framework to allow tr acing goods in real time, ensure intermodal 
liability and promote clean  freight transport:  
• Put in practice the concepts of ‘single window’ a nd ‘one-stop administ rative shop’; by 
creating and deploying a singl e transport document in electronic form (electronic 
waybill), and creating the appropriate fram ework for the deployment of tracking and 
tracing technologies, RFID etc.). 
• Ensure that liability regimes promote rail, waterborne and intermodal transport. 
1.2. Promoting quality jobs and better working conditions 
190. The transport sector employs 10 million people which amount to 4.5% to the total 
employment in the EU. The human factor  is a crucial com ponent of any high 
quality transport system. The efficient f unctioning of the transport system would 
not be possible without well trained and highly motivated workers who are satisfied 
with their jobs.  
191. In an ageing society where the labour force will soon start shrinking, transport 
labour force is ageing more than the aver age of the economy (26% aged over 50, 
versus 22%). There is consensus that labour and skill shortages will become a serious concern for transport in the futu re. Skills on new technologies (IT, green 
energies), on sustainable ways of transpor t, or on customer care cannot be taken for 
granted and obtained easily. E ducation and training will be essential. Even before 
the recent economic crisis, the sector had suffered from skill shortages and a tight 
labour supply. 
192. Today’s share of female workers in the tran sport sector is lower than the average in 
the economy (21% vs. 35%). An analysis of the reasons of this imbalance will be 
undertaken and, on this basis, specific measur es to render the sector more attractive 
to female workers will be proposed.  
193. The underlying objective of the w hole set of EU social rule s in the transport sector 
is the protection of transport workers ag ainst adverse effects on their health and 
safety caused by inadequate working c onditions. High standards of working 
conditions and good career prospects across modes and countries are necessary to 
preserve the human capital in the sector. However, diverging social standards at 
national level hamper the harmonized social development of European transport. Such a variety of rules increases the vulnerability of mobile workers, encumbers transport operators with heavy bureaucracy, distorts competition and renders some pieces of EU law difficult to enforce. Conve rgence in this field would be essential. 
                                                
 
115 United Nations Convention on Contracts for the international carriage of goods wholly or partly by 
see,  
 http://www.rotterdamrules2009.co m/cms/uploads/pdf/Ch_XI_D_8.pdf .  
 
EN 52   EN 194. Equally, poor industrial relations in part s of the EU transport industry, and the 
resulting strikes and other disruptions, ha ve a very significant economic cost, as 
well as disrupting the lives of indi vidual passengers and undermining the 
competitiveness of the modes most affecte d. Improved but realistic social dialogue 
is vital. It will be important to align the competitiveness and the social agenda in order to prevent social conflicts, which have proved to cause significant economic losses to the sectors concerned. 
195. The transport system has to cope with gl obalisation. Since labour costs represent at 
least one third of the overall cost of tr ansport operations, employers reduce these 
costs in particular by redi recting recruitment towards third countries or other 
Member States where work is less expens ive. In this respect, unfair competition 
should be avoided through act ion aimed at raising minimum standards both in the 
EU and internationally.  
1.2.1.  A social code for mobile  road transport workers 
196. To fully exploit the Internal Market and to contribute to the wider policy objectives 
of sustainable transport in terms of road  safety, fair competition and good working 
conditions of mobile workers, it is crucia l to ensure a harmonise d set of transparent 
social, security and competition standards (social code) in road transport evenly applicable throughout Member States.  
197. Such a common social code would not only improve the social situation of around 5 
million road transport workers, but would c ontribute to the further integration of the 
market. The thorough application of ade quate social standards would directly 
contribute to creating a sustainable tran sport system and would eliminate an 
important obstacle to the liberalisation of cabotage. 
198. A social code should be speci fically addressed to mobile  workers and employers to 
make them liable or co-liable – as a ppropriate – for compliance with common 
minimum working standards. It should cover such issues as: terms and conditions of employment, health insura nce and care, a better organi sation of work and resting 
periods of drivers to enable the reconciliation of their work and family life, as well as gender equality.  
199. The social code should also address the problem of disguised self employment, 
which creates legal uncertain ty and vulnerability of cer tain groups of workers not 
covered by any social protec tion rules. Member States, wi th participation of social 
partners, shall be encouraged to excha nge practices and e xperiences on how to 
identify and counter disguised self-employment.  
200. For the sake of simplification and bett er efficacy, the social code should be 
established by means of a so cial dialogue agreement in the road transport sector 
with the possibility of it be ing transposed into a Counc il decision. This would also 
guarantee that standards are tailored to the re al needs and capabilities of all sides of 
industry. 
8. Social code for mobile road transport workers 
 
EN 53   EN • Encourage and support the dialogue between social  partners in view of an agreement on a 
social code for mobile road transport worker s, addressing also th e problem of disguised 
self-employment. 
1.2.2.  A Social Agenda for waterborne transport 
201. The growing shortages of seaf arers have become an issue of global concern in light 
of the recent rapid growth of the maritime industry. This situati on affects also many 
countries in the EU, and in a similar way the inland waterway transport sector. The 
ensuing declining maritime know-how in EU  may also affect the efficiency of 
maritime clusters that depend on seafaring expertise.  
202. Urgent action is therefore necessary. The Commission will present a set of 
proposals within a “Social Agenda for the Maritime Transport” aimed at 
reinforcing the attractiveness of the maritime profession in the EU, promoting the employment of European seafarers in or der to preserve the know-how in Europe, 
and increasing maritime safety.  
203. In global competition, flags applying low labour and safety standards have an 
unfair competitive advantage.  This can only be counteract ed with the development 
and enforcement of a good in ternational framework. A d ecisive step in this 
direction was the adoption of the IL O Maritime Labour Convention (MLC) in 
2006. An agreement of the European so cial partners laying down the MLC’s 
standards related to minimum requirements for seafarers to work on board a ship 
has been integrated into EU law, there by complementing existing EU legislation on 
employment and social matters
116. With a view to a harmonised enforcement, 
further reflection is needed to define and implement the respective responsibilities of the Flag state, the Port state as well as the labour supplying state in order to be 
able to control the working and living c onditions on board ships calling at EU ports, 
regardless of their flag and of  the nationality of the crew. 
204. The competencies of crews on board EU ships – including non-European seafarers 
– are a crucial element for safety, securi ty, the protection of the environment and 
quality shipping and are regulated at EU  and international level (the STCW 
Convention adopted by the International Maritime Organisation – IMO); these provisions are regularly upgraded  to adapt them to new technologies and changes in 
the industry. In the same way well trained port workers, satisfied with their working 
conditions, are essential for the safe, secure  and efficient operation of ports. Both 
issues will be equally addre ssed in the Social Agenda.  
9. A Social Agenda for maritime transport 
• Implement the measures identified for acti on in the Maritime Social Agenda, following 
up to the Commission’s Strategic goals a nd recommendations for the EU’s maritime 
transport policy until 2018. 
                                                 
116 Directive 2009/13 of 16 February 2009. 
 
EN 54   EN • Enhance the enforcement of the Maritime La bour Convention (MLC) of  the International 
Labour Organization (ILO) with regard to Flag States, Port  States and labour supplying 
States.  
• Include all or part of the cu rrently excluded seagoing workers within the scope of several 
EU labour law directives or gr ant them an equivalent level of protection by other means. 
• Update the seafarers traini ng Directive (2008/106/EC) fo llowing a revision of the 
International Maritime Organization (IM O) Convention on the training and the 
certification of seafarers (STCW Conventi on). Establish a mutually recognisable 
framework on the training of port workers in different fields of port activities. 
1.2.3.  A socially responsible aviation sector 
205. Aviation employment is increasingly of a transnational nature, a tendency that with 
the on-going consolidat ion of the sector will continue and even accelerate in the 
coming years. Some form of supervision of  the applicable soci al standards in the 
aviation sector could become necessary, in particular as regard s flying personnel, 
for which the nature of the contracts and a pplicable social legislation varies from 
one Member State to another. 
206. Legal clarity could be enhanced as to the la w applicable to the mobile staff in civil 
aviation, notably for the flying personnel belo nging to an airline based in several 
Member States. In particular, it should be clarified to whic h extent Directive 
1996/71/EC concerning the posting of work ers, as well as Regulation (EC) No 
593/2008 on the law applicable to contr actual obligations, concern the flying 
personnel. At the same time, European Works Councils in the transnational EU 
airlines should be enhanced through the implementation of Directive 2009/38/EC 
on the establishment of a European Works Council117. 
207. The implementation of the Single European Sky gives rise to specific concerns for 
the air traffic management (ATM) sector . The Madrid conference on Air transport 
held in February 2010 endorsed a roadmap th at highlighted the need for specific 
consultation mechanisms at Union leve l on the social dimension of ATM. 
10. A socially responsible aviation sector 
• Establish a mechanism to analyse the impact  of regulatory developments on working 
conditions in the air transport sector. 
• Establish Europe-wide minimum service and qu ality standards for workers in the whole 
aviation value chain (including ATM and gr ound handling). Encourage the European 
social partners to address the issue of pr evention of conflicts and of disturbance of 
minimum service in the whole aviation value chain. 
                                                 
117 Directive 2009/38/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 May 2009 on the 
establishment of a European Works Council or a procedure in Community-scale undertakings and 
Community-scale groups of undertakings for the purposes of informing and consulting employees, OJ 
L 122, 16.5.2009, p. 28. 
 
EN 55   EN 1.2.4.  An evaluation of the EU approach to j obs and working conditions across transport 
modes 
208. Together with European social legislat ion, European social dialogue is a major 
instrument for improving labour standards and modernising labour markets – a tool 
from which the transport sector has largely benefited118. Social partners have a first-
hand idea of the conditions in the workpl ace. This makes social dialogue an 
instrument of choice which should conti nue to be supported a nd facilitated by the 
Union. With the soon to be ended exception of  seaports, all modes of transport have 
set up social dialogu e committees. Further encouragem ent is needed underlining the 
fact that negotiated agreemen ts between social partners have the possibility of 
being transposed into EU law. The Comm ission’s role, according to Articles 154 
and 155 TFEU, is to promote and support such collective agreements at European level, and, if requested by their signat ories, to propose implementing them by a 
Council decision. 
209. The inland navigation sector, which is increasingly faced with a shortage of 
personnel, notably nautical crews and entrepreneur-successors, provides a good 
example. Social partners are working on recommendations for improved working and living conditions on-board  of vessels, on specific working time arrangements, 
on EU job profiles and manning requirements and the establishment of minimum standards for training and education as we ll as on recommendations against social 
dumping and unfair competition in th e inland waterway transport sector. 
210. The Commission intends to promote social dialogue and agreements between social 
partners on the issues mentioned above also in the aviation sector
119. The ‘Civil 
Aviation’ Sectoral Social Dialogue Comm ittee would be the appropriate framework 
to pursue this work. 
211. Finally, in the railway sector, Direct ive 2005/47/EC lays down the working 
conditions of mobile workers engaged in in teroperable cross-borde r services. It is 
also based on a social dialogue agreem ent which provides for minimum standards 
concerning working conditions, driving times  and rest periods for international 
transport. The question of the number of c onsecutive rest periods away from home 
and of compensation for such rest away from home is curren tly under renegotiation 
between the social partners, while the en forcement of the working time rules and 
the need to harmonise working conditions al so for domestic rail services still need 
to be assessed.  
212. Despite progress achieved so far, working conditions and social standards in the 
transport sector are still perceived as less advantageous than in the economy as a whole. For all its merits, the social dial ogue approach has its weak points which the 
Commission should contribute to strengthen, in colla boration with the social 
partners. Some capacity building may be required in some cases, stronger commitment of the parties in other cases. The Commission should support and facilitate a much deeper analysis accordi ng to its institutional role in the social 
                                                
 
118 SEC(2010) 964 “On the functioning and potential of European sectoral dialogue”. 
119 A precedent exists in the European Agreement on the Organisation of Working Time of Mobile 
Workers in Civil Aviation, concluded on 22 March 2000 by employers’ and employees’ associations 
in the civil aviation sector and implemented by Directive 2000/79/EC. 
 
EN 56   EN dialogue process. Such an evaluation will also indicat e more clearly the limits 
beyond which social dialogue must be complemented with conventional law 
making. 
213. The evaluation should also identify opportuni ties for increasing the quality of work 
in transport as a whole. Positive spill-over can be expected to come from the exchange of best practice between the m odes in fields such as promoting gender 
equality, preventing labour accidents, a nd language and logistics training. Skills 
required from workers in different mode s can be similar, notably regarding 
logistics, where training has to meet a fast pace of technological and economic 
change. An improvement in the qualifica tions of the logistic s professions would 
result in a better performance of modal chains and more informed decisions on 
modal choices. It would also increase la bour mobility and career perspectives 
within and between the modes. 
214. A particular role in the training effort, to make it much better focussed, could be 
played by social partners with the cr eation – building on the experience coming 
from the new strategy on clean and energy- efficient vehicles – of a Skills Council 
for the exchange of informa tion on skill needs and best pr actices on training. Such a 
multi-modal platform with expertise coming from all transport modes could help avoid damaging skill shortages by indicating in time the need to dedicate additional 
training efforts to a given field. 
11. An evaluation of the EU approach to jobs and working conditions across transport 
modes 
• Conduct an appraisal of the sect oral social dialogue proce sses taking place in the various 
segments of the transport sector to the end of improving social dialogue and facilitating 
its effectiveness. 
• Ensure employee involvement, in partic ular through European Works Councils, in 
transnational companies in the sector. 
• Address quality of work in all transport modes, with respect to, notably, training, 
certification, working conditions and career development, with a view to creating quality 
jobs, developing the necessary skills and st rengthening the competitiveness of EU 
transport operators. 
1.3. Secure Transport 
215. The terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 le d to an international consensus on the 
need to improve transport security. The forums for this international effort were the International Civil Aviation Organisati on (ICAO), the International Maritime 
Organisation (IMO) and the Worl d Customs Organization (WCO). 
216. The EU now has substantial legislati on in the area of aviation and maritime 
transport security, where measures ha ve been developed for protecting both 
passengers and cargo. In relati on to land transport securit y, efforts have been made 
to spread best practices, for exampl e in emergency planning, through regular 
contacts with Member State officials. 
 
EN 57   EN 217. At the EU level, transport security tran slates into two main strategies: policy 
formulation and regulation, and monitori ng (inspection) activities, covering 
national competent authorities, airports, ports and port facil ities and ships, to ensure 
correct implementation of the acquis . The scope of current inspection regimes will 
need to be assessed and if necessary modified. The quest ion of financing transport 
security will finally need to be solv ed. Consideration should be given to the 
application of Article 222 TFEU, which envi sages the Union and its Member States 
acting jointly in a spirit of solidarity if a Member State is the subject of a terrorist 
attack or the victim of a na tural or man-made disaster. 
218. A common approach and a single set of rule s in the EU is essential for high level 
security in the EU. In aviation, this appro ach not only provides for high levels of 
security to citizens, but al so allows that passengers,  baggage and cargo travelling 
within the EU benefit from “One Stop Secu rity”. It means that in principle no 
further controls are required at EU transf er points once security controls have been 
performed at the EU airport of departure. The effect of One Stop Security in terms 
of eliminating redundant standards and pro cedures is a major ‘value added’ of 
European security policy. The same can be said about the Commission’s inspections of EU airports and po rts, conducted in accordance with the acquis . 
Proposals enhancing security will need to protect privacy and personal data. 
1.3.1.  Cargo security 
Action Plan on air cargo security 
219. When, on 30 October 2010, viable explos ive devices were found in cargo 
shipments originating from Yemen and tran sferring to US-bound flights at airports 
in Germany and the UK, the need for furt her strengthening air cargo security in 
Europe had become clear
120. Following the incident, a high-level group drafted a 
report with an action plan to close secu rity gaps and to develop a further co-
ordinated approach at EU and internationa l level for additional security measures. 
The report was endorsed by Council in December 2010 which asked for a speedy implementation of the action plan and a progress report for summer 2011. 
220. The Commission intends to bring forward legislative proposals notably in relation 
to cargo originating from outside the EU. The proposals will draw on experience 
gained within the EU and internationally so far and will also take into account methods applied within the customs sector  with the Authorised Economic Operator 
(AEO) programme. They will follow a risk based approach and require improved data quality of advance information about shipments while further improving 
supply chain security in third countries: through mutual recogn ition of security and 
trade programs of relevant third countries in  order to benefit from security controls 
that already exist in third countries. Any new approach must mitigate the risk of 
consignments departing from third countri es for the EU and have minimal impact 
on transfer cargo handl ing at EU airports. 
                                                
 
120 In 2005, the EU Customs Code was amended – in accordance with the WCO SAFE Framework of 
Standards to secure and facilitate global trade – to  introduce strengthened Safety and Security rules 
involving a common EU Risk Management framework, advance cargo information and the EU 
Authorised Economic Operator (AEO) program. 
 
EN 58   EN 221. The Member States and the Commission s hould as a matter of urgency strengthen 
the compliance monitoring of the cargo and mail rules. The Commission has to date 
made 30 cargo inspections at Member Stat e airports and the results of these 
inspections show that implementation of EU rules must be improved. The number 
of EU inspections will be increased and Member States must take action to strengthen national monitoring programm es. The proper implementation of cargo 
rules is linked to effective staff traini ng. Standardised training packages for staff 
involved in air security en sure robust and harmonised security. Capacity building 
on transport security in third countries must  receive greater attention in EU external 
assistance programmes, including through workshops with the support of bodies 
such as the European Civ il Aviation Conference (ECAC). 
Enhanced security of cargo in ports 
222. In response to the increased security con cerns, and in particular the September 11 
events, many countries took unilateral actions in order to tackle potential threats. 
The United States, for example, introduced  a 100% scanning requirement for US-
bound maritime cargo at export, to be implemented by 1 July 2012. In an extensive Impact Assessment performed in 2008, the Commission pointed out that “ if 100% 
scanning at export was implemented in Eu ropean ports, it would be excessively 
costly, would be unlikely to improve global security, would absorb resources 
currently allocated to EU security intere sts, and would disrupt trade and transport 
within the EU and worldwide ”
121. 
223. On this basis, the EU does not consider  implementing 100% scanning of containers 
at export. It advocates sh ifting the policy focus toward s developing a package of 
measures to cope with the wide diversity of security risks and address supply chain security not only from a national perspe ctive but also as a global and complex 
challenge. This alternative package would nevertheless be based on the principle 
that all exports, as well as imports, undergo comprehensive and effective multi-layered risk management processes usi ng a range of methods and technologies 
commensurate to the risks associated with  specific consignments. No consignment 
would go unassessed. 
224. As an integral part of the multi-layered risk management policy, the intention of the 
EU is to intensify inte rnational cooperation to ma ximise effectiveness and 
efficiency of the foreseen measures. The Commission will count in particular on the 
constructive cooperation with the US. 
12. Cargo security 
• Implement the Action Plan on Strengthening Ai r Cargo Security, defi ne new rules on Air 
Cargo screening as necessary and enha nced security of cargo in ports. 
• Complete an EU-wide one-stop security system for air cargo. 
                                                 
121 Cf. Secure trade and 100% scanning of containers, Commission staff working document, SEC(2010) 
131 final. 
 
EN 59   EN 1.3.2.  High levels of passenger security, low levels of hassle 
225. A common European aviation security polic y has been develope d in the aftermath 
of the 9/11 attacks. The rules have been updated regularly to address evolving risks 
and threats. On 25 December 2009 the attempted terrorist attack with hidden explosives on Northwest Airlines flight  253 from Amsterdam to Detroit reminded 
once again of the limits of aviation security.  
226. These incidents highlight the fact that avia tion security is faci ng ever evolving or 
new types of threats; threats to which th e traditional security methods applied at 
airports may not always give an adequa te and efficient re sponse. EU aviation 
security legislation requires control methods and equipment standards to be constantly improved in order to apply up- to-date security measures. EU Member 
States are invited to test  innovative equipment and methods. For example, some 
started to trial and deploy s ecurity scanners at  their airports, a recent technology 
capable of identifying prohibited articles , such as knifes or explosives, carried 
under clothes or right on the skin. 
227. Still in 2011, the Commission is expected to  make a proposal for allowing airports 
to use security scanners
122 – under certain conditions – as a regular screening 
method. The Commission’s internal asse ssment that will accompany any legal 
proposal must justify the need for defi ning and imposing common EU standards, 
requesting basic detection performance and ensuring compliance with European 
fundamental rights and health provisions. 
228. Common EU standards contain the underlying principles fo r aviation security. They 
allow for ‘One Stop Security’ within the EU where, in principle, no further controls 
of passengers, luggage and cargo are required  at EU transfer poi nts once security 
controls have been performed at the EU airport of departure. As of April 2011, the 
One Stop Security arrangement is in prin ciple extended to passengers originating 
from US airports with the potential to create an even wider area of passenger 
facilitation and security. 
229. Currently available security scanners have  the potential for enhancing the quality 
and efficiency of security checks, but ot her, still more innovative technologies are 
in the pipeline. While the Commission is in general looking fo r smarter ways of 
applying controls to passengers and thei r luggage, it also works on the development 
of more effective and effi cient technology such as mode rn scanners for luggage, 
including liquids, or persons, explosive de tection systems or smart chips. such 
technologies should underpin the developmen t of a ‘Check point of the future’ – 
such as security corridors which would allow a high number of passengers being 
controlled with minimum hassle. Exploring new methods of control is critical to 
enhancing security at a ll points in the process. 
13. High levels of passenger security with minimum hassle 
                                                 
122 Communication from the European Commission to the Council and the European on the use of 
security scanners at EU airports, COM (2010) 311. 
 
EN 60   EN Promote improved screening methods, fully re specting fundamental ri ghts; such methods 
should underpin development of a ‘Check point of  the future’ – such as  security corridors 
which would allow a high number of passengers  being controlled with minimum hassle and 
intrusion. They should also support security provision in other vulnerable areas such as 
major transport interchanges.  
• Promote, also through funding, the developmen t of more effective and privacy-friendly 
technologies (scanners, detector s of new explosives, smart ch ips, etc) as well as more 
privacy-friendly solutions in existing technologies. 
• Define common detection performance sta ndards and certifications procedures for 
detection equipment. 
1.3.3.  Land transport security 
230. Land transport security has been handled differently from air and maritime 
transport security, owing to its decentral ised character, but also reflecting the 
current absence of a legal basi s for EU action, as well as  the lack of a leading and 
legally competent international organisati on (like IMO or ICAO) to deal with the 
subject. 
231. Land transport, in particular  urban transport, has incr easingly been targeted by 
terrorism and organised crime in the last de cade. This has been the case in relation 
to urban and commuter rail transport (Madrid bombings in March 2004, London 
bombings in July 2005), and to  long-distance rail (failed a ttack on regional trains in 
Germany in July 2006). The cost, both in hu man lives from terrorist attacks and in 
economic terms due to organised crime targeting the transport of goods, is high. 
232. While EU competence in relation to urban transport security is limited, personal 
security in the urban context is a key fact or to increase the attractiveness of public 
transport. The development of land transpor t security policy mu st reflect political 
obligations, legal bases and specificities of  each sector of land transport. Security 
must not be an obstacle to the flow of transport and trade a nd support the further 
opening of the markets. 
233. In line with the need to better address all aspects of land transport security, the 
Commission’s work with National Focal Poin ts on Urban Transport Security should 
be extended to cover local and regional rail, as well as high-speed rail. The 
establishment of a permanent expert group on land transport security is envisaged, 
also as a forum for exchanges of view s with stakeholders, taking account of 
previous experience in the areas of aviation and maritime transport security. 
234. A shortcoming of the current ‘modal’ approach to security is that it does not take 
sufficiently into account the increased vulnerability of multimodal transport hubs. 
Consideration should therefore be given to the setting of security standards also for 
these facilities. 
235. The European Commission has in close cooperation with the Member States 
developed an EU Chemical, Biological, Ra dioactivity and Nuclear (CBRN) Action 
 
EN 61   EN Plan123, which introduces an all-hazard approach  to reduce the threat of and damage 
from CBRN incidents of accidental, natura l or intentional origin, including acts of 
terrorism. In view of the new integrated a pproach set out in the Internal Security 
Strategy124, the forthcoming Communication on Transport Security Communication 
will, in 2011, further develop ideas on how best enhance the level of security in transport, in particular for major transport hubs and public transport. 
14. Land transport security 
• Work with Member States on the security of land transport, establishing as a first step a 
permanent expert group on land transport se curity and introducing further measures 
where EU action has added value. Special focus will be put on urban security issues. 
1.3.4.  ‘End-to-End’ security  
236. While many tools for protecting cargo securi ty exist in the European Union, there 
are currently no rules in place for the Eur opean land transport supply chain in its 
entirety. In principle, one could imag ine monitoring and screening each cargo 
shipment all along the logistics chain, but  such an approach would nevertheless 
increase security related costs to unsus tainable levels and could still prove 
inefficient. The Commission promotes a less costly and potentially more effective solution of profiling economic operators ba sed on their level of compliance with 
certain reliability criteria. 
237. The Commission proposes to build upon the experience gathered with AEOs and 
‘known consignors’ to develop an ‘end- to-end’ security management system 
involving a harmonised Joint Risk Assessmen t of operators involved in a entire 
transport supply chain, independently of  the transport mode used. ‘End-to-end’ 
security certificates delivered to compliant  operators would entitle them to benefit 
from security facilitations related to operations at any stage of the supply chain. To 
avoid duplication of efforts and reduce red tape, the ne w certificate would equally 
be integrated in the existing systems fo r secure maritime and air transport.  
238. The initiative would aim at enhancing suppl y chain security in order to provide 
greater protection for all European frei ght transport against possible terrorist 
attacks, without impeding the free flow of  goods. The system would be based on 
risk management and not on the eliminati on of risk. Procedures for restoring the 
functioning of the supply chain after a major terrorist attack or any other distortion 
linked to security would th erefore be integrated in the design of European and 
national Mobility Continuity Plans
125. 
239. Finally, international cooperation must be fu rther strengthened in all the aspects of 
transport security where joint efforts can bring considerable synergies (such as the exchange of intelligence information on international terrorism) and where national 
competences are not clearly defined (f or instance navigation on international 
waters). 
                                                
 
123 COM(2009) 273 of 24 June 2009. 
124 COM(2010) 673 of 22 November 2010.  
125 The topic of Mobility Continuity Plans is explored more in details in part 3.5.3. “Ensuring an 
uninterrupted mobility following disruptions in the transport system” 
 
EN 62   EN 15. ‘End-to-end’ security 
• Increase the level of security along the s upply chain without impeding the free flow of 
trade. ‘End-to-end’ security ce rtificates should be considered  taking into account existing 
schemes. 
• Joint Security Assessment covering all modes of transport. 
• Integrate potential effects of terrorist and cr iminal attacks in the preparation of mobility 
continuity plans (cf. Initiative 23)  
• Pursue international cooperation in the fi ght against terrorism and other criminal 
activities like piracy. The external dime nsion (cf. Initiative 40) is crucial. 
1.4. Acting on transport safety: saving thousands of lives 
1.4.1.  Towards a ‘zero-vision’ on road safety 
240. Road safety is a major societal issu e and a great concern to citizens and 
governments all across Europe. Although significant improvements have been reached in the framework of the third European action programme for road safety up to 2010, much still needs to be done to get to a ‘zero-vision’. 
241. As a contribution to this ambitious goa l, and as outlined in its new policy 
orientations on road safety for 2011-2020
126, the Commission proposes to halve the 
overall number of road deat hs in the European Union by 2020 starting from the 
results reached in 2010. 
242. Meeting this target will re quire defining a strategy of ac tions on road injuries and 
first aid, targeted actions for specific categories of road users while at the same time 
addressing new societal challenges ahead. 
243. Within the next ten years, road safety policies will have to adapt to emerging 
challenges and concerns such as popul ation ageing, urban congestion, increasing 
unsafe behaviours (drugs, medicines, use of  mobile phones while driving, etc.), and 
a potential decline in public resources devoted to the maintenance of road 
infrastructure. Enforcement remains a key factor in creating the conditions for a 
considerable reduction in the number of deaths and injuries. The cross-border 
exchange of information on road safety offences on which a proposal127 is currently 
examined in the European Parliament and in the Council represen ts a first attempt 
to better addressing the issu e at European level. Furthe r steps might be envisaged, 
building on the experience gained once the proposed Directive will be applicable. 
Road safety technology 
244. Technology is expected to cont ribute a great deal to the improvement of the safety 
record of road transport. A wider deployment of Intelligent Transport Systems that can detect incidents, support traffic superv ision, and provide information to road 
                                                
 
126 COM (2010) 389 final. 
127 COM(2008) 151 final of 19.3.2008. 
 
EN 63   EN users in real time will considerably impr ove traffic safety. In the near future, 
cooperative systems allowing vehicles  to communicate with both road 
infrastructure and other road users, will also  contribute to better road safety. It is 
important to accelerate the deployment of advanced in-vehicle driver assistance systems and safety and security-related ITS systems
128. 
245. The possibility of extending the implementation of advanced driver assistance 
systems such as lane departure warni ng, anti collision warn ing or pedestrian 
recognition systems by retrofitting them to existing commercial and/or private 
vehicles should also be further assesse d. Accelerated deployment and broad market 
take-up of such safety enhancing applica tions needs to be s upported in order for 
their full potential to be unleashed. 
246. ITS technology should also contribute decisi vely to improving the effectiveness and 
speed of rescue, and in particular through the adopt ion of the pan-European 
emergency call service fitted to vehicles, eCall. Technological developments, such 
as in-vehicle systems providing real-tim e information on prevailing speed limits 
could contribute to improve speed enfor cement. Since light commercial vehicles 
are becoming increasingly numerous on the roads, which also increase the risk that they get involved in accidents, the fitting of speed limiters on such vehicles should 
also be examined along the lines already identified by the Commission. 
247. After being placed on the market, vehicles s hould continue to meet safety standards 
throughout their lifetime. The current system of roadworthiness testing
129 needs to 
evolve to include checks on the elect ronic safety devices  and new propulsion 
systems of the vehicles of the future. Th i s  w i l l  a l s o  r e q u i r e  the setting up of a 
European electronic platform with a vi ew to facilitating the access to the 
information necessary for performing su ch tests by testing centres and other 
involved parties. Also, the obligation to  regularly test the vehicle should be 
extended to powered two-wheelers in an e ffort to reduce the number of accidents 
involving this type of vehicles. 
A comprehensive strategy on road injuries 
248. Road safety strategies traditionally focu s on the reduction of road fatalities. 
However, road injuries are often overl ooked and have become a major health 
problem. In 2009, about 1,500,000 people were injured on the roads of the European Union, with huge econom ic and human costs to society. 
249. Reducing the number and the severity of injuries by improving emergency and 
post-care services will be one of the prior ity actions in the EU for the next decade. 
Therefore, the Commission will develop the elements of a comprehensive strategy of action concerning road injuries and first aid, with the help of all relevant actors. 
Initially, it would seek to find a common understanding of definitions and concepts relating to casualties (notably the defini tion of major and mi nor injuries), to 
improve and harmonise data collection and to identify courses of  action to improve 
prevention and intervention, including their socio-economic impact. On this basis, 
                                                
 
128 Cf. section 0 below on ITS. 
129 Cf. Directive 2009/40/EC as amended by Directive 2010/48/EU. 
 
EN 64   EN specific actions could be identified, su ch as exchanges of good practices, 
development of intervention guides, prom otion of the creation of mixed rescue 
units between Member States, etc., and a m easurable injuries reduction target could 
be set. 
Training and education 
250. The current approach as regards driver  training remains too fragmented and 
specialised. The Commission proposes to promote a wider approach and sees 
education and training as an overall process, a lifelong ‘educational continuum’. The Commission also intends to  extend training and educat ion to all road users and 
to encourage traffic education and trai ning offers adapted to each age group. 
251. The driving licence test should not be re stricted to checki ng the candidate’s 
knowledge of the Highway Code  or his/her ability to carry out manoeuvres. In 
order to increase the safety of pow ered two-wheelers and to reduce the 
consequences of accidents, the Commissi on will promote riders’ education on the 
need and advantages of using personal pr otective equipment, airbags, eCall and 
advanced braking systems, and will fore see appropriate anti-tampering measures. 
252. In addition, once the provisions of the Third Driving Licence Directive
130 become 
fully applicable, the Commission will define guidelines on driver education in order 
to include minimum standards for instru ctors in cooperation with the Member 
States. 
Vulnerable users 
253. Vulnerable road users represented 45% of  all road deaths in 2008. The safety of 
cyclists and pedestrians is mainly re lated to urban management, where local 
authorities have the competence to carry out most of the actions. But significant scope remains for a concerted action within the implementation of the 
Commission’s Urban Mobility Action Plan. For elderly people, several measures 
will be envisaged such as ensuring fitness to drive, conceiving appropriate infrastructure design and si gnalling, and providing adequa te passive safety devices. 
To improve the safety of motorcyclists, the Commission will encourage research and technical developments aimed at incr easing the safety of powered two wheelers 
and reducing the consequences of accidents.  On-going efforts to better adapt road 
infrastructure to powered two-wheelers (e.g. safer guardrails) will also be 
continued. 
16. Towards a ‘zero-vision’ on road safety  
• Harmonise and deploy road safety technology – su ch as driver assistance systems, (smart) 
speed limiters, seat-belt reminde rs, eCall, cooperative systems and vehicle-infrastructure 
interfaces – as well as improved road worthine ss tests including for alternative propulsion 
systems. 
                                                 
130 Directive 2006/126/EC of 20 December 2006 on driv ing licences (Recast), OJ L403 of 30.12.2006. 
Member States shall apply the provisions as from 19 January 2013. 
 
EN 65   EN • Develop a comprehensive strategy of action on  road injuries and emergency services, 
including common definitions and standard classifica tions of injuries and fatalities, in 
view of adopting an in juries reduction target. 
• Focus on training and education of all users; promote the use of safety equipment (seat-
belts, protective clothes, anti-tampering). 
• Pay particular attention to vulnerable us ers such as pedestrians, cyclists and 
motorcyclists, including through safer in frastructure and vehicle technologies. 
1.4.2.  A European strategy for civil aviation safety 
254. Although the EU has a high standard of avia tion safety, it is still not the safest 
region in the world. The safety performance of the Member States also varies. With 
the increasing complexity of the aviation se ctor, and growing volum es of air traffic, 
the EU will need to maintain constant vigi lance to preserve and further improve its 
safety record. In order to achieve this, the EU should m ove to a safety management 
system that is pro-active, evidence-base d and takes action in advance to prevent 
accidents from happening. 
255. Such a system must necessarily rely on a basis of prescriptive rules, complemented 
by performance-based rules and oversight. It requires consta nt collection of 
information to enable hazards to be iden tified and risks measured and mitigated. To 
this purpose safety information must be complete, in standard form, analysed to 
extract the pertinent safety facts, and made  readily available to the decision-makers. 
At the moment this is still not the case, and the EU aviation safety strategy should aim at putting in place the means to build such a system. 
256. For a consistent implementation of the EU-wide strategy across all aviation 
domains, the system approach  is essential. Having established a Safety 
Management System covering all aspects of aviation activity, the EU will have to develop performance targets for the va rious domains. In addition, common 
priorities and objectives for the Union as a whole and for Member States should be defined and revised regularly. The central role of the European Aviation Safety 
Agency (EASA) will have to be developed. 
257. The deployment of the technological ar m of the Single European Sky – SESAR – 
will contribute to enhancing the safety level in air traffic over Europe. It is 
important that adequate Eu ropean legislation supports the timely, coordinated and 
effective deployment of th is innovative technology and that compatibility is 
ensured with standards developed else where in the world, and notably with 
NextGen in the United States. 
258. A robust aviation safety system in the EU has direct implications for Third 
countries, both for operators flying to a nd from the EU and for the aeronautical 
industry. It will therefore be necessary to cooperate with third countries, in 
particular the US, to achieve regulatory c onvergence, mutual recognition in case of 
equivalent safety levels, and to give tec hnical assistance to countries in need for 
support. 
 
EN 66   EN 259. The EU will have to work closely with IC AO in order to achieve safety goals set by 
the international aviation community. In this respect, the Memorandum of 
Understanding on a Global Safety Information Exchange, signed in September 2010 by the Commission with the Internati onal Air Transport Association (IATA), 
the International Civil Aviation Organiza tion (ICAO) and the US Department of 
Transportation (DOT) paves the way to the creation of a comprehensive global 
information exchange system which will contribute to improving aviation safety 
and greater transparency of safety info rmation. Furthermore the transition by ICAO 
towards the Continuous Monitoring A pproach (CMA) as a new methodology for 
overseeing aviation safety across the worl d, offers great opportunities to better 
identify and mitigate safety risks, while focusing the resources of ICAO and Member States on where they are most needed. 
17. A European strategy fo r civil aviation safety 
European aviation safety is high but not the best  in the world. Our aim should be to become 
the safest region for aviation. In order to do so, we will develop a comprehensive European 
aviation safety strategy, building on the work of the European Aviation Safety Agency 
(EASA), which includes th e following aspects: 
• Improve the collection, quality, exchange and analysis of da ta by reviewing legislation on 
occurrence reporting in civil aviation. 
• Adapt the regulatory safety framework to  the development of new technologies 
(SESAR). 
• Ensure the implementation of the EU aviation  safety strategy consistently across all 
aviation domains. 
• Promote transparency and exchange of safety information with ICAO and other 
international aviation partners, in particul ar in the framework of the Global Safety 
Information Exchange initiative;  cooperate with non-EU countries, in particular the U.S., 
on safety matters on regulatory convergence, mutual recognition and technical assistance. 
• Develop a Safety Management System at EU level that incorporates safety performance 
targets and measurements in order to iden tify the risks and to achieve continued 
improvement in safety levels. 
1.4.3.  Safer shipping 
260. EU action in the field of maritime safety and protection of the environment 
complements the international framework as defined within the International 
Maritime Organisation (IMO). The transposi tion of IMO rules into the EU legal 
system ensures their enforcement across the entire European Union. In addition, the 
EU plays an important role in improving international standards by initiating and 
contributing directly to their adoption at international level. 
Passenger Ship Safety 
261. There is increasing waterborne mobility and leisure activity in the EU, where 22 out 
of 27 Member States are coastal countri es, with 4 being island states. There are 
 
EN 67   EN more than 200 million passengers on board ships in the EU every year. Major 
accidents involving passenger ships in EU wa ters are thankfully rare, but if they 
happen they can be terrible tragedies (H erald of Free Enterprise, Estonia). A 
proactive approach to passenger ship safety is essential.  
262. With this in mind, simplification and clar ification of the complex EU regulatory 
framework – with due account to the releva nt IMO rules – will facilitate the work 
of Member State authorities. Techni cal innovations and developments at 
international level also need to be taken into account. Safety rule s need to reflect, 
among others, that passenger ships are no l onger only built from steel but also from 
other materials, such as Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP). Finally, with over 70% of 
the world’s ro-ro passenger fleet operati ng in EU waters, and taking into account 
the increasing size and capacity of passe nger ships, emphasis must be put on 
ensuring the safety of such craft. The Commission will work in close collaboration with EMSA on a modernisation of the passe nger ship safety legislation to face 
these challenges. 
Enhancing SafeSeaNet and sharing f unctions for coastguards in the EU 
263. The European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) has received the task to manage 
SafeSeaNet, the central tool of the Eur opean maritime information system for the 
surveillance of ships and of data on dangerous goods. Furt her work will be done to 
enhance the features of SafeSeaNet in pa rticular by satellite-based information as 
well as ensuring compatibility with River Information Services (RIS) and the e-Maritime initiative and openness to other modal systems. The objective is to 
develop SafeSeaNet into the core system  for all relevant maritime tools supporting 
maritime safety and security and the protection of the marine environment from ship-source pollution. It will thus pr ovide the essential contribution to the 
establishment of a common information shar ing environment for the surveillance of 
the EU maritime domain
131. 
264. The idea of a European Coastguard has already been discussed between the 
European institutions. Certain Coastguard functions could benefit from coordination at European level or be perf ormed more efficiently at European level 
(e. g. the EU LRIT data centre). In full resp ect of the principles of subsidiarity and 
proportionality, the Commission will ex amine several options: structured 
cooperation between Member States, ad hoc  or permanent coordination of Member 
States coastguards, handover of certain functions to EU bodies. 
An EU register and EU flag for EU shipping 
265. The need to ensure a level playing field for the EU maritime industry and to 
guarantee a high level of safety for the be nefit of EU citizens calls for a uniform, 
high level of quality for EU flags. At the moment, there are still EU flags in the 
grey and black list of the Paris Memo randum of Understanding on Port State 
control. 
                                                
 
131 COM(2009)538 and COM(2010)584. 
 
EN 68   EN 266. Directive 2009/21/EC on compliance with flag  State requirements represents a first 
step in this directio n. The Commission will co ntinuously monitor the 
implementation of this Directive and will assess the overall level of performance of 
EU flags.  
267. Furthermore the position of the European sh ipping sector is being challenged by the 
impressive growth of the maritime transport sectors of emerging economies in Asia and elsewhere. Those competitors have the advantage of cheap financing and labour, huge ship-building fac ilities and the biggest and more rapidly developing 
ports in the world. While the competitive a dvantage of European maritime transport 
is based on a quality approach with strict safety, security, environmental and social 
standards, in the medium- or  long-term there is a danger that the EU could become 
dependent on maritime transport services provided by third countries. 
268. A European Register (implying an EU flag) could be created to serve as a tool for 
sustaining the competitive advantage of Eu ropean maritime transport services. It 
would not challenge the existing registers (flags) of the EU Member States. It 
would provide for a sign of recognition,  similar to those used today by the 
European aviation industry. In  essence, the EU sign would represent a quality label 
certifying safe, secure, environmentally friendly ships manned by highly qualified 
professionals. A favourable treatment for sh ips qualified for the European register 
could be considered. Ships in the Register could bene fit from reductions on, inter 
alia, port dues related to environmental performance, lo wer insurance costs or less 
frequent inspections. 
269. The idea to establish in th e long term a European regist er and flag for ships could 
also apply to the inland wa terway fleet. A step in this  direction has already been 
made by the standardised “European Vesse l Identification Number” (ENI) and the 
development of a European Hull Database. 
18. Safer shipping 
• Work with the European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) to modernise passenger ship 
safety legislation. 
• Develop SafeSeaNet into the core system for all relevant maritime information tools 
needed to support maritime safety and s ecurity and the protection of the marine 
environment from ship-source pollution.  
• Assess the feasibility of the creation of an EU register and EU flag for maritime and 
inland waterway transport. In essence, the EU sign would repr esent a quality label 
certifying safe, secure, envi ronmentally friendly ships manned by highly qualified 
professionals.  
• Assess the feasibility of shared functions fo r coastguards in the EU, in particular, to 
ensure maritime safety, security  and environmental protection.  
1.4.4.  Rail safety 
270. A safe, modern and integrated railway netw ork is one of the EU’s major priorities. 
The European Railway Agency (ERA) was se t up to help create this integrated 
 
EN 69   EN railway area by reinforcing safety and inter operability. ERA also acts as the system 
authority for the development of the Eu ropean Rail Traffic Management System 
(ERTMS), which is the single signalling standard eventually to be deployed 
throughout Europe132. The gradual opening of the railway market in the EU has not 
had any negative effects on the overall level of safety. Railways remain a very safe 
mode of transport in which a risk of a seri ous accident for passengers is kept to the 
very minimum. 
271. The development and improvement of railway safety is mainly an issue for the 
railway undertakings and infrastructure managers. Through the certification system 
these two main players should demonstrate that they have in place a system to manage safety and satisfy requirements for the safe operation on the relevant 
network. 
272. However, other players such as wagon keepers or maintenance workshops also 
contribute to rail operations. This is why in 2006 a debate was open in the rail sector on the relations to be establishe d between certified and non-certified players 
and the opportunity to extend the regime of  mandatory certification to the latter. 
273. In order to progressively achieve a harmoni sed safety certification of all entities in 
the sector, the Commission will also eval uate the feasibility of relying on a 
European standard for designing and impl ementing safety management standards. 
The Commission intends to enhance the ce rtification of entit ies involved in the 
manufacturing and maintenance of safety cr itical components used in the rolling 
stock and the infrastructure. 
274. A number of common safety targets and common safety methods were adopted by 
the Commission in the last two years. It  is important that ERA follows up the 
correct application of these measures. It is also important that indicators are 
monitored and that results of investig ation following important accidents are 
discussed at European level. The dramatic  accident of Viareggi o (Italy) of 30 June 
2009 led to the adoption of an action pl an with several measures already 
implemented or under development, in cluding a Task Force on freight wagon 
maintenance focusing on wagon axles’ maintenance. That Task Force already delivered concrete results, but also show ed that it is important to avoid that 
National Safety Authorities, in the afterm ath of serious accidents, adopt measures 
that create new barriers and hamper the deve lopment of the internal market for rail. 
19. Rail safety 
• Progressively achieve a sector-wide approach to safety certification in the rail transport 
sector, building on existing approaches for infrastructure managers and railways 
undertakings and evaluating the possibil ity to rely on a European standard. 
• Enhance the role of ERA in th e field of rail safety, in pa rticular its s upervision on 
national safety measures taken by National Safety Authorities a nd their progressive 
harmonisation. 
                                                 
132 The proposals for accelerating th e implementation of ERTMS are central to rail safety and are 
discussed in section 0 below. 
 
EN 70   EN • Enhance the certification and ma intenance process for safety critical components used to 
built rolling stocks and railway infrastructures. 
1.4.5.  Transport of dangerous goods 
275. Rules for ensuring the safe transport of  dangerous goods have been developed 
independently for each transport mode. The rules for maritime transport emanate from the International Maritime Organisation. The rules for rail have been established by OTIF, the Inte rgovernmental Organisation fo r International Carriage 
by Rail. Rules for road and inland navigation result from the work of UN-ECE, the Economic Commission for Europe of the Un ited Nations. Therefore, a cargo to be 
transported by different means of transpor t is subject to cumulating rules, thus 
leading to complications and additional cost s compared to a transport using a single 
mode. This is particularly inconvenient for maritime transport of containers despite 
sea transport being particularly well-suite d for such low-cost-high-risk cargo. The 
Commission therefore intends to streamline the rules to ensure interoperability 
between the different modes for the transport of dangerous goods. 
20. Transport of dangerous goods 
• Streamline the rules for the intermodal tr ansport of dangerous goods to ensure 
interoperability between  the different modes. 
1.5. Service quality and reliability 
276. The quality of passenger tran sport services is an aspect  that will gain increasing 
importance in the coming years, in view of the ageing of the population and of the 
need to promote more resource efficien t public transport. Attractive frequencies, 
reliability and intermodal integration are th e main characteristics of service quality. 
The availability of information over travelling time and routing alternatives is equally relevant. Finally, quality consists al so in the ability to provide the elderly, 
disabled persons and transport users with special needs with a high-standard level 
of services. 
1.5.1.  A better enforcement of passenger rights 
277. Currently, general passenger ri ghts, including the rights of disabled passengers and 
passengers with reduced mob ility are governed in the EU acquis for air, rail, sea 
and inland waterways transport as well as for transport by bus and coach. Due to the distinct characteristics of the diffe rent transport modes and their markets – 
differences on the company size, revenue s and number of routes as well as 
differences in the length and the conditions of the trip – the precise contents of 
these rights vary, but the typology of rights gua ranteed by the four existing 
regulations for transport by air, rail, waterways and road are comparable: namely 
the right to information, reimbursement, re-routing, assistance while waiting to 
travel, and compensation under certain c onditions. The Commission will present a 
Communication on these common principles applicable to all passenger rights.  
278. In the short term, the objective is twofold:  to significantly improve the application 
of the existing legal frameworks through uni form and consistent interpretation and 
a more harmonised and efficient enforcem ent at EU level, notably through the 
 
EN 71   EN network of National Enfor cement Bodies; secondly, to contribute to develop a 
worldwide approach to passenger care by including appropriate provisions in 
bilateral and multilateral international agreements. 
279. The Commission will review the existing m odal passenger rights legislation with a 
view to define a minimum set of passenge r rights common to all transport modes, 
both through binding and non-binding inst ruments. The Commission will also 
assess the need to adopt new legislativ e measures aiming at modernisation or 
clarification of cer tain provisions on air passenger rights, also covering airline 
bankruptcy and problems related to  the mishandling of luggage. 
280. The Commission will then work for fu rther improvements for passengers with 
reduced mobility (PRM), not only through their specific rights, but through a better 
access to infrastructure.  
281. Currently there is no European  legislation on the rights of passengers which, in the 
course of one journey, use two or mo re transport modes and have bought the 
different tickets under a single purchase contract. Such travellers may be exposed to 
higher costs in the case of delays (because of missed connections) or loss of luggage (because the final de stination is not at the end of the route on which the 
luggage was lost). The Commission w ill work on promoting and developing the 
concept of integrated tickets and may, ther efore, propose to include the question of 
the rights of passengers with integrated tickets on multimodal journeys on any of the current or future legislative frameworks. 
282. The Commission envisages to propose a single EU regulation (an “EU Codex”) 
covering all issues related to passenger ri ghts for all modes of transports, which 
might include rights in case of disruption of travel, price transparency vis-à-vis 
consumers and non-discrimination, treatm ent of PRM, misha ndled luggage, and 
more harmonised enforcement measures and sanction schemes. 
21. Passengers’ rights 
• Develop a uniform interpretation of EU La w on passenger rights and a harmonised and 
effective enforcement, to ensure both a level playing field for the industry and a European 
standard of protection for the citizens. 
• Assemble common principles applicable to  passengers’ rights in all transport modes 
(Charter of basic rights), notab ly the ‘right to be informed’, and further clarify existing 
rights. At a later stage, consider the a doption of a single EU framework Regulation 
covering passenger rights for all modes of transports (EU Codex).  
• Improve the quality of transport for elderly people, Passengers with Reduced Mobility 
and for disabled passengers, including be tter accessibility of infrastructure. 
• Complete the established legislative fram ework on passenger rights with measures 
covering passengers on multimodal journeys with integrated tickets under a single 
purchase contract as well as in the event of transport operator’s bankruptcy. 
 
EN 72   EN • Improve the level playing field at internati onal level through the incl usion of care quality 
standards in bilateral and multilateral agreements for all modes of transport, with a view 
to further passengers’ rights also  in the international context. 
1.5.2.  Seamless multimodal travelling and integrated ticketing 
283. Swift travel across Europe should be seamle ss with single tickets  or billing systems 
and door-to-door information readily available. The challenge is to access, integrate and use the data to deliver meaningful real  time and personalise d travel information 
services to the user. This is especial ly needed for cross border and multimodal 
travel. 
284. In line with the ITS Action Plan
133 and following the adoption of the necessary 
specifications under the ITS Directive in  support of EU-wide multimodal travel 
information services134, it will be essential to ensure EU-wide multimodal travel 
information platforms that could provide possible commercial services. Access to 
public information shall be available to pr ivate operators who can provide this and 
other value added services. 
285. New forms of electronic ticketing on mob ile devices (smart cards, mobile phones, 
etc.) gradually take over from the old paper ticket. To use the full possibilities that the new technologies offer, it is vital to ha ve interoperable systems in place. Much 
is left to be done, as each mode has developed its own solutions, sometimes local, sometimes global as for air transport. 
286. For public transport the IFM project
135 has set up a road map to European 
interoperability and showed the interoperabi lity of three main national systems. The 
next step will be further pilots and a se t-up of the needed framework on a European 
level. For the rail sector, the ticke ting component of TAP-TSI needs to be 
developed and implemented. 
287. The successful liberalisation of air transport in the EU has lead to strong 
competition and a dynamic market where consumers can benefit from the many travel options available to them. Re gulation (EC) No 1008/2008 on common rules 
for the operation of air services in the Community and Regulation (EC) No 80/2009 
on a Code of Conduct for Computerised  Reservation Systems (CRS) include, 
respectively, provisions concerning the disp lay of travel options in CRS and price 
information for air transport services when these are offered to consumers. These provisions are aligned with the objective of safeguarding price transparency in the 
airline sector and to allow consumer s to compare prices in a competitive 
environment. 
288. Recent commercial developments in air tran sport services include  increased direct 
distribution by airlines – wh ich falls outside of the CRS /travel agency channel – 
                                                
 
133 Action Plan for the Deployment of Intelligent Transport Systems in Europe, COM(2008)886 of 
16.12.2008. 
134 Directive 2010/40/EU on the framework for the deployment of Intelligent Transport Systems in the 
field of road transport and for interfaces with other modes of transport, OJ L207 of 6.8.2010 
135 The “Interoperable Fare Management Project” (IFM- Project) is an FP7-funded  project that aims to 
make public transport networks more user-frie ndly by facilitating access, http://www.ifm-project.eu. 
 
EN 73   EN and the unbundling of ancillary services. This means that services that used to be 
normally included in the total price of the ticket now have to be purchased 
separately. Such industry practices can contribute to  the development of a 
competitive air transport sector and to greater consumer choice, but need to be monitored to avoid possible abuses. 
22. Seamless door-to-door mobility 
• Define the measures necessary for further in tegrating different passenger transport modes 
to provide seamless multimodal door-to-door travel. 
• Create the framework conditions to promote the development and use of intelligent 
systems for interoperable and multimodal scheduling, information, online reservation 
systems and smart ticketing. This could include a legislative proposal to ensure access of 
private service providers to travel  and real time traffic information. 
1.5.3.  Ensuring an uninterrupted mobility follo wing disruptions in the transport system 
289. The ash cloud crisis in April 2010 and the weather-related disruptions towards the 
end of 2010 have shown that the capacity  of the EU transportation system to 
tolerate and absorb disruption triggered by natural or man-made disasters is not 
sufficient to fulfil its basic function, which is to ensure a seamless mobility of people and goods. It has therefore highlighted  the need to build greater resilience 
into Europe’s transport system to pr eserve the mobility of passengers and 
businesses in case of disruptive events. 
290. The lessons drawn suggest that, besides obsta cles of a more structural nature such 
as missing links in the transport network a nd the lack of Single Transport Area, the 
vulnerability of the EU trans port system can be attributed to the inadequate level of 
preparedness and cooperation between all acto rs, which has been felt at three levels. 
291. First, at this stage, no Member State ha s currently in place emergency mechanisms 
to preserve the mobility of passengers and goods in case of a major disruption of its 
transport system. At the same time, since there is no systematic coordination between the existing business continuity pl ans of transport operators, the mobility 
of passengers and goods – especially cross-border – is not necessarily ensured in crisis situation. This low leve l of preparedness has resulted  in a lot of ‘operational’ 
obstacles to a timely and efficient re-rout ing of passengers and goods (no ease of 
restrictions such as night or week end bans…) and has led to a suboptimal use of 
crisis-dedicated resources. 
292. Second, there is evidence that the information management (access to information 
as well as sharing and communication of information to/between involved actors) which is a key factor in crisis situations is not sufficiently efficient. As a result, the quality of information made available to  transport users, ma rket operators and 
Member States is not adequate for th em to take well informed decisions. 
293. Third, the reaction of Member States has be en mostly unilateral and uncoordinated. 
As a result, solidarity between Member Stat es was limited, and wh ere existent, only 
occurred at bilateral level. Increase d cooperation would have accelerated 
 
EN 74   EN considerably the recovery phase and would have allowed the re-routing of transport 
users in a more effective and timely manner. 
294. In the aftermath of the ash cloud crisis, the European Commission proposed the 
development of an EU-wide mobility plan for passengers and goods to be activated in case of a sudden transport crisis in th e EU triggered by natural or man-made 
disasters or terrorist attacks. 
295. Among the measures aimed at preserving th e mobility of passengers and goods in a 
crisis situation, the Commission will explor e possible ways to enhance the level of 
preparedness of the different actors c oncerned, including Member States, industry 
and international partners, to increase th e efficiency of information management 
and to improve institutional cooperati on. The temporary lifting of operational 
restrictions such as ni ght flight restrictions  or weekend bans for trucks could also be 
envisaged to facilitate the full use of remaining capacity for the transport of goods. 
23. Mobility Continuity Plans 
• Ensure the definition of mobility plans to ensu re service continuity in case of disruptive 
events. The plans should address the issue of prioritisation in the use of working 
facilities, the c ooperation of infrastructure managers , operators, national authorities and 
neighbouring countries, and the temporary adop tion or relaxation of specific rules.  
2. INNOVATING FOR THE FUTURE : TECHNOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR  
296. Changing the current transport paradigm , and achieving the goals presented in 
Section II.3 with respect to the devel opment and deployment of sustainable fuels 
and propulsion systems and to the improvement s in the efficiency of transport and 
of infrastructure use, cannot rely on a single technological solution, but rather 
requires a new concept of mobility supporte d by a cluster of new technologies.  
297. It is also important to develop the re lated social, business and organisational 
innovations. Indeed, considering the future challenges, technology can be expected 
not only to help perform more  efficiently the same actio ns as today, but also to 
satisfy the same needs in different ways. For this reason, this section brings together the technological and behavioural aspects. 
2.1. A European Transport Research and Innovation Policy 
298. Technological innovation can help the transi tion to a more efficient and sustainable 
European transport system by acting on th ree main factors: ve hicles’ efficiency 
through new engines, materials and design;  cleaner energy use through new fuels 
and propulsion systems; better use of network and safer operations through 
information and communication systems. 
299. Until now, transport research and innovati on policy did not adequately support the 
development and deployment of the key tec hnologies that are needed to develop the 
EU transport system into a modern, effici ent and user-friendly system. A rethink of 
policy is therefore necessary. A systems’  approach is required, taking care of 
 
EN 75   EN infrastructure and regulatory requirements, coordination of multiple actors and 
large demonstration projects to  encourage market take-up 
300. Internationally, Europe has to seek wi n-win cooperation with partners who are 
already competitors in many fields of transport. In air transport this is the case with the USA and especially China. We shoul d promote European standards, supporting 
them through public and private partnerships  in R&D. In parallel we must make 
sure that the European commitment to realise the Single European Sky, includes international cooperation in order to ensu re interoperability  across the globe. 
Partnerships such as the EU-USA Me morandum of Cooperati on on civil aviation 
research support a strong and cr edible role of Europe in  global standard setting. 
Opportunities for a global approach are to be explored as rega rds the development 
and uptake of sustainable low-carbon fuels in aviation. 
301. In rail, the focus is on interaction with Asia, where China appears as a main partner 
and competitor especially regarding hi gh speed trains. There is a window of 
opportunity in the next 5 years to make ERTMS the international standard. That 
will help our rail equipment industry to compete in the Asian, US and possibly Latin America markets. In road transport, Japan is a key partner in the development 
of alternative energy engines and in ITS, but cooperation is needed with multiple actors, particularly at demonstration leve l. Research cooperation on fuels cells for 
heavy duty vehicles proved to  be fruitful with Australia and USA. Similar steps can 
be taken for the development and demonstration of bio-ethanol engines, where China and Brazil are our key partners . In urban traffic and decarbonisation, 
CIVITAS FUTURA will be an area of fu ture development especially with 
Mediterranean countries. 
302. The automotive sector is considered one of the largest cor porate investors in 
research and development. Other sector s of the transport industry, such as 
aeronautics, space, shipbuilding and civi l engineering, also make substantial 
investments in the development of ne w technologies. The energy industry is 
investing in research on alte rnative fuels and delivery systems. However, the efforts 
of the industry are not always successful  because of the difficulties in the 
demonstration and pre-commercial phases of the innovation chain, often due to the 
high number of stakeholders involved or to the magnitude of the required efforts 
(for example, a demonstration project for a new generation of merchant ships 
would require several hundred million Eu ros). Initiatives stimulating both 
innovation and market take-up are need ed to overcome these challenges. 
303. The necessary framework conditions must be established in order to support the 
market introduction of promising technologies
136. The European Union has an 
important role to play through setting long-term objectives, establishing open standards, promoting interoperability, co -ordinating expenditures, encouraging the 
application of best practic es, and ultimately through defining a clear and stable 
legal and regulatory framework. The Europe  2020 Flagship initiative: ‘Innovation 
Europe’ proposes to do so by strength ening every link in the innovation chain. 
                                                
 
136 COM(2009) 279 final, Communication “A sustainable future for transport: Towards an integrated, 
technology-led and user  friendly system”. 
 
EN 76   EN 304. A research framework for transport in th e form of a Strategic Transport Technology 
Plan (STTP) could contribute to tackling these problems and better align transport 
research and innovation with EU object ives. Following the approach of the 
Strategic Energy Technology Plan, the STTP would establish a technology 
roadmap identifying areas where joint Eu ropean research and innovation efforts 
will bring the greatest European added value. 
2.1.1.  Vehicles for the future 
305. Vehicles in all transport modes need to become cleaner, safer and more silent. The 
transport system overall will need to beco me safer and more secure. In many cases, 
the new materials, propulsion systems (elect ric, fuel cells, etc)  and ICT tools to 
manage and integrate the complex systems required for this ra dical transformation 
have already been developed. The technologies  are available but need to make their 
way promptly to wider deployment. In a ddition to supply-side measures, green 
public procurement, such as foreseen  under the Clean Vehicle Directive for 
publicly owned fleets, can be  an effective instrument137. Generally speaking, public 
and commercial fleets could become the ea rly adopters that are needed to create 
critical mass. In particular, the high pot ential of electromobility, be it through 
hybrid vehicles or pure battery based cars or light commercial vehicles for shorter 
trips, needs to be exploited. 
CO 2 and energy efficiency standards 
306. The success of the EURO standards on conventional pollutants demonstrates that, 
in the presence of market fa ilures, technological standards can be an effective way 
of accelerating the introduction of cleaner  vehicles, by providing fixed targets for 
the industry and avoiding ‘wait and see’  strategies of manufacturers. Minimum 
standards can thus be instrumental in maintaining Europe’s position as a global 
trend-setter. 
307. Together with the Climate and Renewable Energy Package of 2009, the EU put in 
place a regulation on CO 2 emission standards for new passenger cars, setting 
binding targets for 2012/2015 and 2020. Howeve r, such standards are currently 
non-existent for other vehicle categories and modes, such as locomotives and 
railcars, vessels and aircraft.  
308. A reliable and realis tic method is needed to certif y the fuel consumption and CO 2 
emissions of complete heavy duty vehicles as well as trailers and semitrailers. The 
Commission has started work on the devel opment of such a method. As for rail 
vehicles, the average weight  – and thus energy consum ption – has been increasing 
over time due to a perceived need to improve ride comfort138. Whereas an 
                                                 
137 Cf. Clean Vehicle Port al: www.cleanvehicle.eu 
138 According to a recent study, a 10% increase in train mass resulted in energy consumption increases of 
0.5-1% for high-speed trains; 2-3% for long distance/conventional trains; 5-7% for suburban trains 
and 6-8% for urban trains . Hazeldine, Pridmore, Nelissen and Huls kotte (2009) Technical Options to 
reduce GHG for non-Road Transport Modes. Paper 3 produced as part of contract ENV.C.3/SER/2008/0053 between European Commission Directorate-General Environment and 
AEA Technology plc; http://www.eutransportghg2050.eu/c ms/assets/UPDATED-EU-Transport-
GHG-2050-Paper-3-Technical-options-for-non-road-modes-30-10-09.pdf   
 
EN 77   EN improvement in energy efficiency has not been a main concern of the rail sector, 
the situation might well change in the future139. 
309. The International Maritime Organisation ha s prepared a draft text on mandatory 
requirements for an Energy Efficiency Design Index for new vessels and on the 
Ship Energy Efficiency Management Pl an for all ships in operation. While 
agreement on these items could not yet be  reached, the EU will continue to work 
towards adoption of the index, as it will continue to actively support a global agreement on tackling CO
2 emissions. 
310. As regards air transport, the ICAO Assemb ly has requested the development of “ a 
global CO 2 standard for aircraft ” by 2013140. The Commission will provide its full 
support to the international negotiations. 
311. The energy efficiency of vehicles should continue increasing in  the long term to 
ensure that the available energy supply from alternative fuels can match the 
expected increase in  transport demand. Presently implemented and proposed CO 2 
standards imply limits on energy consump tion only as long as the main supply 
comes from fossil sources. With decreasing CO 2 intensity of transport fuels, fuel 
consumption could go up again. Therefore,  energy efficiency standards may in 
future need to replace the present CO 2 standards. The combination of targets for the 
CO 2 intensity of transport fuels and standard s for the energy efficiency of vehicles 
should ensure that the two objectives of decarbonisation of transport and substitution of oil by alternative fuels are achieved simultaneous ly, and in a cost 
efficient way.  
Standards for controlling noise pollution 
312. The World Health Organisation concluded that noise has emerged as the leading 
environmental nuisance and represents th e third biggest environmental burden of 
disease (after air pollution and exposure to Second Hand Smoke)
141. Transport 
noise, particularly from road traffic, but  also from rail and aviation, is a major 
contributor to noise pollution in urban ar eas. While type-approval noise limits for 
road vehicles, including their tyres, have been tightened over the years, the overall 
exposure to noise generated by road vehi cles has not improved due to increasing 
traffic volumes. Electric or hybrid vehicl es could help in providing a solution. 
Noise pollution from railways remains one of the main barriers for expanding their use in urban areas and along densely populat ed rail freight corri dors; and aircraft 
                                                
 
139 According to a study, aluminium car bodies, articulated trains and lightweight coach interior 
equipment could each achieve weight savings of 2%  to 5% on a single vehicle and 1% to 2% if 
applied to the whole fleet. It was estimated that double deck trains and wide body trains could achieve savings greater than 10% on a singl e vehicle and 2% to 5% for the whole fleet. The same study also 
proposed benchmarks in terms of ‘best in class’ weight per seat. CE Delft suggested that for high-
speed trains (where a higher mass is necessary fo r stability) the Japanese Shinkansen at 537kg/seat 
should be the target. In contrast, for suburban trains 342kg/seat would be the benchmark. Buurgaard 
Neilsen et al (2005) Tracks for Energy Saving, CE Delft in: Hazeldine et al. 2009. 
140 2010 ICAO Assembly Resolution (A37-19) paragraph 24(e). 
141 Health and environment in Europe: Progress a ssessment, Copenhagen, WH O Regional Office for 
Europe 2010; http://www.euro.who.m ťen/what-we-do/health-topics/envirorimental-health/Climate-
change/publications/2010/health-and-environment-in-europe-progress-assessment   
 
EN 78   EN noise is often the reason for the difficu lty of expanding airpor t capacity at major 
European hubs. 
313. Moreover the role of L-category vehicles (m opeds, motorcycles, quads etc.) is of 
particular importance for certain  conventional pollutants and noise142. 
314. It is also crucial that the method of m easurement of energy consumption, noise and 
air pollutant emissions fully reflects real  world use in order to avoid perverse 
incentives for manufacturers143. 
Potential new or unconventional transport systems and vehicles  
315. Looking forty years ahead, it can be fo reseen that certain radically new 
technologies and concepts will emerge over the next decades. Based on a recent assessment carried out for the Commission
144, it has been found that  in particular in 
road transport there appears to be the largest number of options145. In rail transport, 
magnetic levitation seems to be the only t echnology that could be deployable at a 
relatively early stage in light of the experience of Transrapid and recent 
developments in Japan146. In waterborne transport mainly wind-based concepts but 
also LNG and nuclear energy could have  a significant impact on emissions and 
appear to be deployable in the medium-t erm. Widespread deployment of many of 
the unconventional technologies for avia tion seems however unlikely until 2050, 
although the development of alternative fuels for aviation is accelerating. Other possibilities such as unmanned airborne  vehicles and unconventional freight 
delivery systems (pneumatic pipelines etc) could be more closely examined in this 
context.  
2.1.2.  A comprehensive alternative fuel strategy 
316. The transport sector is for 96% dependent on oil. Alternative l ong-term options for 
substituting oil as ener gy source for propulsion in transport are electricity, 
hydrogen, and liquid biofules. Synthetic fuel s can be seen as a technology bridge 
                                                
 
142 For example, hydrocarbons emitted by L-category vehicles are estimated to reach approximately 55% 
of total hydrocarbon emissions of the road transport sector by 2020, if no additional measures will be 
introduced. This is mainly due to the significant re ductions of hydrocarbon emissions from the other 
road transport categories. Mopeds are already toda y one of the most significant contributors to 
hydrocarbon emissions, anticipated to be at 36% of total emissions by road transport by 2012. 
143 The average efficiency of an engine is strongly related to the way it is used. In Europe, the New 
European Driving Cycle (NEDC) is the official driving cycle used fo r vehicle type approval, but there 
is some discrepancy (typically 10-20%) between the fuel consumption as measured on the NEDC and 
that in real world driving Sharpe, R.B.A. (2009) Technical options for fossil fuel based road transport Paper produced as part of contract ENV.C.3/SER/2008/0053 between European Commission 
Directorate-General Environmen t and AEA Technology plc. 
 http://eutransportghg2050.eu/cms/assets/EU-Tran sport-GHG-2050-Paper-1-T echnical-options-for-f-
fuel-road-transport-11-02-10.pdf 
144 Wynn, D and Hill, N. (2010) Review of potential radical future transport technologies and concepts. 
Task 9 Report VI produced as part of contract ENV.C.3/SER/2008/0053 between European Commission Directorate-General Envir onment and AEA Technology plc; 
http://www.eutransportghg2050.eu/cms/assets /EU-Transport- GHG-2050-Report-VI-Radical-
technologies-and-concepts-04-06-10-FINAL.pdf 
145 EXPLAIN: dual mode transit, electric trolley-trucks, self-drive vehicles 
146 http://english.jr-central.co.jp/company/c ompany/others/eco-report/_pdf/p38-p41.pdf ; 
http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nb20080826a3.html 
 
EN 79   EN from fossil to biomass-based fuels; meth ane (natural gas and biomethane) as a 
complementary fuel; and LPG as supplement. 
317. The different transport modes, require differe nt options for alternative fuels. It is 
generally thought that road transport c ould be powered by electricity over short 
distances, hydrogen and methane up to me dium distances, and biofuels/synthetic 
fuels, LNG and LPG over long distances. Ra ilways could be furt her electrified or 
use biofuels. Biomass-derived kerosene appe ars, at the moment, the only alternative 
for aviation. Waterborne transport coul d be powered by biof uels (all vessels), 
hydrogen (inland waterways and small boats ), LPG and LNG (short sea shipping), 
LNG and nuclear (deep sea). 
318. There are growing indications that the indirect land use impact of first generation 
biofuels might question the GHG benefits of some of these fuels. More advanced biofuels, based on waste and algae and requiring less primary resources, will need to come to market, and their use shoul d focus on the modes where the use of non-
liquid fuels can not be an alternative, such as aviation and long-distance road 
transport. Hydrogen and fuel cell tec hnology development and market preparation 
are supported by a Joint Technology Initiative. The European Green Cars initiative
147 gives priority support to electric vehicles and the further optimisation of 
the internal combustion engine. The Co mmission is also undertaking a study to 
investigate the feasibility and the impact  of the use of alternative fuels in 
aviation148. 
319. Reaching a higher share of alternative fuel s in transport’s energy demand has long 
been one of the EU’s policy objectives due  to growing concerns  about security of 
energy supply. However, the market uptake of alternative fuels has been slow and 
fragmented across Member States149. 
320. As part of the Climate and Renewable En ergy Package of 2009, the EU has agreed 
on a binding target requiring that the sh are of renewable energy reaches 10% by 
2020 in the final energy use of transport150, and that fuel suppliers progressively 
reduce the greenhouse gas intensity of the energy that they supply for the road 
sector to achieve a 6% lower GHG inte nsity by 2020. To achieve these targets 
Member States have been providing financial incentives, as currently available alternatives are not price competitive with oil. 
321. In order to further facilitate the efforts of Member States, and of the transport and 
energy industry, the Commission will put forward in the second half of 2011 a comprehensive alternative fuel strategy that is in line with the objective of resource-
                                                
 
147 http://www.green-cars-initiative.eu. 
148 SWAFEA–Sustainable Way for Alternative Fuels and Energy for Aviation  
http://www.swafea.eu/Hom e/tabid/38/Default.aspx  
149 Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) was the first alternative fuel in the market; it has currently a total 
share of 3% and it is offered at 27,000 filling sta tions in Europe, particularly in the Netherlands, 
Poland and Bulgaria. Natural gas has been introduced as motor fuel first in Italy in the 1940s, but has 
then remained at a constant market share of around 2%; a strong build-up of natural gas filling 
stations and cars has been seen in Germany in rece nt years. Biofuels benefited strongly from subsidies 
in Sweden and Germany. 
150 Directive 2009/28/EC of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources 
and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC. 
 
EN 80   EN efficiency of the Europe 2020 strategy, and will help the EU to put an end to oil 
dependency in the longer term. 
322. EU action is particularly necessary as hi gh-level coordination is required across 
multiple policy areas – transport, energy, clim ate and environment, industrial, trade, 
agriculture, employment, health and consum ers, research – and stakeholders – the 
automotive industry (vehicle manufacturer s and suppliers), fuel and energy 
suppliers, grid managers, component ma nufacturers, infrastructure managers, 
network operators, scientific  and standardisation bodies, EU, national and regional 
authorities, municipali ties and consumers. 
323. The relationship between vehicles capabl e of running on alternative fuels and the 
appropriate refuelling infrastructure is often described as a ‘chicken and egg’ 
problem. The EU should take a leading role  by working with Member States at 
national and regional levels on the gradual build-up of charging and refuelling infrastructures. Ensuring interoperability a nd reliability is requ ired for the EU-wide 
free circulation of vehicles , vessels and aircraft that  are powered by alternative 
fuels. Not only the road ne twork, but airports and ports  will need to be upgraded 
and modernised in order to  allow for the transition.  
2.1.3.  Permeating the transport system with  advanced information technology  
Further developing the modal systems… 
324. Many applications of ICT (Informa tion and Communication Technology) to 
transport exist in all modes and prove thei r utility in improving transport efficiency 
by making vehicles and the in frastructure more intelligent. Increasingly, these 
systems are also at the heart of market integration since they are essential to 
transport operations and the lack of in teroperability creates a barrier between 
borders. On the other hand ICT can simplify and harmonise administrative 
procedures and thus reduce the cost associated to tran s-border operations. 
325. In road transport , Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) are an important tool to 
achieve policy objectives, such as in creased safety and lower congestion, as 
underlined in the Action Plan for the De ployment of Intelligent Transport Systems 
in Europe (the ITS Action Plan
151) and the related ITS Directive152.  
326. Overall it is estimated that the benefit of ITS in terms of road safety and congestion 
on roads can amount to a 10% reduction in fatalities per year (3,500 lives) and 10% 
reduction in congestion costs (€ 12.3 billi on). In addition ITS can contribute to 
environmental and climate change objectiv es through the improvement of energy 
efficiency, a more efficient use of infr astructure and vehicle capacity, and by 
allowing to choose the most efficient transport mode for a given route. 
327. In the last decade, on-board telematic units have been introduced in road vehicles to 
control, report, command or record ev ents. Specific applications exist for 
commercial vehicles such as the digita l tachograph, or electronic tolling. For 
passenger vehicles more and more sophis ticated applications are added to the 
                                                 
151 Cf. footnote 133. 
152 Cf. footnote 134.  
 
EN 81   EN existing control functions. Work to try a nd standardise the interfaces of such in-
vehicle platform and, ideally, to build an ar chitecture that would enable the parallel 
operation of different such applications  (safety, tolling, information, etc…) on 
single open platform is ongoing. 
328. Indeed, a critical success factor for th e wide-spread introduc tion of road user 
charging will be the ability to provide road  users with one single electronic tolling 
service. Today a truck from Lisbon to Bratislava via Lyo n, Milan, Munich and 
Vienna needs at least 7 different contract s with toll operators and 7 on-board units, 
and this in addition to at least a digita l tachograph and an on-board computer. To 
avoid such a proliferation of devices and simplify the life of drivers, the EU has 
already adopted a Directive setting up a European Electronic Toll Service which 
now needs rapid implementation153. 
329. Work to standardise the interfaces of an el ectronic in-vehicle platform and, ideally, 
to build an architecture that would enab le the parallel operation of different 
applications (safety, tolling, information, etc…), has been the subject of past 
research projects and is currently been fu rther analysed within the context of the 
ITS Action plan. The automotive industry and the telecom sector have been coming closer to each other to address such issu e, but a clear regulato ry boost is necessary 
to promote the introduction of such platform on all vehicles by 2020. 
330. Building on this platform, relying on the re gulatory framework for the exchange of 
transport and data informati on, it is also important to de ploy a set of mature road 
ITS applications for which specifications are being designed from the ITS Directive 
and should be ready by 2014. The harmonised deployment of critical road safety 
and security-related information services  must be ensured by appropriate legal 
instrument. 
331. The development of cooperative Intellig ent Transport Systems, based on an 
exchange of information between vehi cles and the road infrastructure 
(infrastructure to infrastructure (I2I), vehi cle to infrastructure (V2I) and vehicle to 
vehicle (V2V) communications), is progres sing rapidly. In addition to the required 
technical feasibility, it is e ssential to evaluate the impact  of the introduction of such 
systems to the wider community of stakeh olders, and notably road infrastructure 
authorities and telecom ope rators. Building on the resu lts of EU-funded research 
projects, field operational trials, current standardisa tion work, and relying on 
specifications to be developed through the ITS Directive, the Commission will 
further support the development of such systems, leading to a viable deployment 
model by 2020. 
332. In rail transport , control-command and signalling, as  well as traffic management 
systems are still often incompatible betw een Member States and represent one of 
the reasons borders are still a major barri er, hampering the development of rail in 
Europe. This has led to the creation of a European Railways Traffic Management 
System (ERTMS). Today, ERTMS encompasses two main components: 
                                                
 
153 (EETS) – Directive 2004/52/EC on the interoperability of elect ronic road toll systems in the 
Community, OJ L166 of 30.4.2004. 
 
EN 82   EN – GSM-R, the radio system used for exchanging voice and data information 
between the track and the train; 
– ETCS, the European Train Control System154, harmonising the speed control 
systems, the divergences in which constitute today one of the major technical problems for trains running on international routes. It is  made up of an on-board 
and a trackside module. 
333. Signalling systems bring about considerab le economic advantages because they 
allow more trains to operate safely on a given section of track than would otherwise 
be possible with other me thods of safe working. ERTMS will replace the many 
incompatible systems that exist on the European network by a single system which is more modern, more sophisticated, safer and compatible at EU level. 
334. With a view to ensure that the main  European lines are equipped within a 
reasonable time period, the Commission has se t concrete requirements for lines to 
be equipped by specific dates
155. In practice, the main freight hubs should be 
interconnected over the period 2015-2020. 
335. Furthermore, there will be a need to de velop the next genera tion of rail traffic 
management systems which will contribute  to transform the present technologies 
into an integrated rail traffic management system. 
336. Also in waterborne transport  the use of ICT tools can lead to optimisation of 
routes and better fleet and cargo planning. This is ind eed one of the aims of e-
Maritime and of River Information Servic es. The advantages of the e-Maritime 
initiative in reducing administrative costs in shipping were described in section 0 
above. 
337. River Information Services (RIS) stands for harmonised information services in 
support of traffic and transport manageme nt in inland navigation, providing 
geographical, hydrological and administ rative information on the waterway and 
enables the electronic reporting of cargo and voyage data and the tracking and 
tracing of vessels. The information provi ded supports amongst others navigation, 
traffic management, accident abatement, fleet management, transport planning, 
execution and monitoring156. Some studies on inland wa terways transport report 
that through such measur es a reduction in emissions of around 40% could be 
possible.  
                                                 
154 Decision 2006/679/EC concerning the technical specification for interoperability relating to the 
control-command and signalling subsystem of the trans-European conventional rail system and 
Decision 2006/860/EC concerning the technical sp ecification for interoperability relating to the 
control-command and signalling subsystem of the trans-European high-speed rail system, 
155 Commission Decision of 22.7.2009 amending Decision 2006/679/EC as regards the implementation 
of the technical specification for interoperability relating to the control-command and signalling 
subsystem of the trans-European conventional rail system. 
 http://ec.europa.eu/transport/rail/inte roperability/ertms/doc/edp/edp_en.pdf .  
156 RIS are regulated through Directive 2005/44/EC – which defines binding rules for data 
communication and RIS equipment as well as the minimum level of RIS Services – and through the Commission Regulations defining the technical guidelines and specifications identified under the 
Directive. The Directive provides the framework for the deployment of harmonised and interoperable 
RIS systems and services.  
 
EN 83   EN 338. Maximising the benefits of RIS require a continued deployment of RIS services and 
systems, the further development of servic es and specifications, the integration of 
new technologies, the exploi tation of RIS data for logi stical purposes and the 
interoperability and interconnectivity w ith other modal traffic and transport 
management systems such as SafeSeaNet  to achieve continuous monitoring and 
support to sea-river transport. 
339. In aviation , SESAR is the technological compone nt of the Single European Sky – 
as described in Section 0 above – and the best example of how traffic management 
systems underpin market integration. Ind eed, because of the global nature of air 
transport, interoperability issues go  beyond the EU. Cooperation with the US 
NextGen157 is becoming operational, and the two world region s will lead the overall 
ATM modernisation and performance improve ment at global (ICAO) level. Europe 
has therefore a unique chance to determin e new global standards. Cooperation with 
further international part ner countries will open bus iness opportunities for the 
European industry. 
340. The case of aviation is not isolated. In maritime, rail and road there are also 
opportunities to develop products that set international standards and open up new 
markets for EU manufacturers.  
…and integrating them in a common fr amework: the European Integrated 
Multimodal Information and Management Plan (EIMIP) 
341. One fundamental barrier affec ting equally the transport of  passengers and of freight 
is the limited or very inefficient, if at al l existent, exchange of operational, traffic 
and travel data among the various stakehol ders, even more so across the modes of 
transport. This is no longer viable in a wo rld where, increasingl y, transport is not 
only about moving people or goods from point  A to point B, but about knowing in 
real time where people and goods are. 
342. For multimodal freight operations, knowi ng the exact locatio n and real-time 
capacity of multimodal exchange platform s between rail, road and inland water 
transport would allow an optimised plan ning of freight transport operations, 
including the cross-modal end-to-end traceability of the transported goods. 
Likewise, for passengers transport it is no longer acceptable that road traffic 
information or traffic management remain confined to a single regional centre and 
are not shared with the adjacent conurbat ions or regions. Similarly, passengers on a 
given journey should dispose of all possible real-time information (e.g. on train, metro, parking, car-sharing, bicycle sharing) to  allow them to select ‘en-route’ the 
best possible travel option. 
343. For both freight and passenger transport, users want to be able to buy multimodal 
transport services through integrated ticketing. Whereas specific initiatives have been taken to improve the situation and wh ich should lead to preliminary results, 
                                                
 
157 NextGen is an umbrella term for the ongoing transformation of the United States National Airspace 
System basically shifting the ground-based system of air traffic control to a satellite-based system of 
air traffic management. http://www.faa.gov/nextgen/ 
 
EN 84   EN mostly at modal level by 2015158, the general availability, interoperability and 
sharing by stakeholders of the relevant tr ansport data and information, which would 
facilitate and boost the creation and upt ake of ICT solutions, is still missing. 
Building on those initiatives, it is crucial to set the general framework that will 
complement and foster synergies between all existing initiatives in all modes. 
344. Accompanied by an appropriate  regulatory framework, a “ European Integrated 
Multimodal Information and Management Plan” (EIMIP) based on common open 
platforms for radio naviga tion, positioning, transport a nd traffic management and 
information systems would ensure a coor dinated use of scarce resources and 
provide integrated intermodal travel information and other value added services to 
citizens and companies. 
Fostering innovation and deployment of urban transport technologies 
345. Satellite-based applications, on-board equipment, public transport electronic 
ticketing, electric networked vehicles, fuel cells, Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), Personal 
Rapid Transit (PRT), frei ght pipelines…: there are many new technologies and 
organisational innovations that  could contribute to reduci ng congestion, emissions 
and to improve mobility in urban areas. Typically, innovations and new 
technologies in transport require criti cal mass adoption and the adaptation/upgrade 
of the transport and energy in frastructure. This can be a long-term process and is 
not without risk of stranded investments. As part of their strategy for minimising 
risk, cities should support each other in implementing and evaluating cost and 
benefits of new concepts. 
346. Market deployment requires multi-stakeh older co-operation, involving technology 
providers, energy and infrastructure providers and cities themselves – as well as support from financial bodies . The Commission will look  at ways of fostering 
partnerships for smart mobility and of building consensus on future deployment 
pathways. 
347. Large scale demonstrations of new tec hnologies are necessary  to prove their 
benefits, viability and user s’ acceptance under a broad range  of different conditions. 
They are key in preparing the ground for deployment. The CIVITAS initiative 
demonstrated the advantage of comb ining supportive policy measures with 
technology demonstrators. 
24. A technology roadmap 
Fragmentation of research and development effo rts in Europe is most harmful, and joint 
European efforts will bring the greatest European added value in areas such as: 
• Clean, safe and silent vehicles for all different modes of trans port, from road vehicles to 
ships, barges, rolling stock in rail and airc raft (including new mate rials, new propulsion 
                                                 
158 For example, the ITS Directive for road, the eFre ight initiative for freight transport, e-maritime 
initiative to be launched soon or TAP-TSI (Telema tic Applications for Passenger Services) and TAF-
TSI (Technical Specifications of In teroperability on Telematic Applications for Freight) for the rail 
sector. 
 
EN 85   EN systems and the IT and management tools to  manage and integrate complex transport 
systems).  
• Technologies to improve transport security and safety.  
• Potential new or unconventional transport systems and vehicles such as unmanned 
aircraft systems, unconventional systems for goods distribution,…  
• A sustainable alternative fuels strategy including also the appropriate infrastructure. 
• Integrated transport management and information systems, facilitating smart mobility 
services, traffic management for improved use of infrastructure a nd vehicles, and real-
time information systems to track and trace  freight and to manage freight flows; 
passenger/travel information, booking and payment systems. 
• Intelligent infrastructure (both land and space-based) to ensure maximum monitoring and 
inter-operability of the different form s of transport and communication between 
infrastructure and vehicles. 
• Innovations for sustainable urban mobility  following up the CIVITAS programme and 
initiatives on urban road prici ng and access restriction schemes. 
25. An innovation and deployment strategy 
Identify the necessary innovation strategies including the appropriate  governance and the 
financing instruments in order to ensure a rapid deployment of results developed in the 
research process. Examples are: 
• Deployment of smart mobility systems such as the air traffic management system of the 
future (SESAR), the European rail traffic management system (ERTMS) and rail 
information systems, maritime surveillance systems (SafeSeaNet), River Information 
Services (RIS), ITS, and the next generation of multimodal traffic management and 
information systems. 
• Definition and deployment of an  open standard electronic pl atform for vehicle on board 
units, performing various functi ons including road charging.  
• Development of a plan for investment in new navigation, traffic monitoring and 
communication services to allow for the inte gration of information flows, management 
systems and mobility services based on a Eur opean Integrated Multimodal Information 
and management Plan. Demonstration projects for electro mobility (and other alternative 
fuels) including recharging and refuelling infr astructure and intelligent transport systems 
focussing in particular on those urban areas where air quality levels are frequently 
exceeded. 
• Smart mobility partnerships and demonstratio n projects for sustainable urban transport 
solutions (including demonstrators for road pricing schemes etc). 
• Measures to promote increased replacement ra te of inefficient and polluting vehicles.  
26. A regulatory framework for innovative transport 
 
EN 86   EN Identify the necessary regulatory framew ork conditions through standardisation or 
regulation:  
• Appropriate standards for CO 2 emissions of vehicles in all modes, where necessary 
supplemented by requirements on energy effici ency to address al l types of propulsion 
systems; 
• Vehicle standards for noise emission levels; 
• Ensure that CO 2 and pollutant emissions are reduced under real-world driving conditions 
by proposing at the latest by 2013 a revise d test cycle to measure emissions; 
• Public procurement strategies to ensu re rapid up take of  new technologies; 
• Rules on the interoperability of charging infrastructure for clean vehicles;  
• Guidelines and standards for refuelling infrastructures;  
• Interface standards for infrastructure-to-infrastructure, vehicle-to-infrastructure, and 
vehicle-to-vehicle  communications; 
• Access conditions to tran sport data for safety and security purposes; 
• Specifications and conditions for transport re lated smart charging and payment systems; 
• Better implementation of existing rules and standards.  
2.2. Promoting more sustainable behaviour 
348. User behaviour plays a determining ro le in the success or failure of new 
technologies. Users, apart from ‘early a dopters’, are often unwilling to change their 
customary way of travelling and trans porting goods, whereas the uptake of new 
technologies might require modifying d eep-rooted habits. For example, although 
electric vehicles already on the market ma y not be suitable for long-distance travel, 
they respond to the needs of urban mobility and their use would greatly benefit local air quality. However, users of elec tric cars would have to accept switching to 
another vehicle or to pub lic transport means for their long-distance journeys. A 
different approach toward ownership of pe rsonal vehicles might also be warranted. 
Such difficulties linked to va rious aspects of our behavi our need to be recognised 
and further explored in order to make  progress towards sustainable mobility. 
349. Another aspect is that of information a nd perception. Transport users, customers of 
equipment and even operators may not have  the ability of making truly informed 
decisions for lack of relevant, correct a nd well presented data. Wrong perception or 
uncertainty may also influence decisions, as, for example, in the case of the 
overestimation of waiting times for public transport. The integrated ticketing 
system outlined in Section 1.5.2 is an esse ntial way to increase awareness of the 
users on the various options to  complete their journeys. 
27. Travel information 
 
EN 87   EN • Promote awareness of the availability of alte rnatives to individual conventional transport 
(drive less, walk and cycle, car sharing, park & drive, intellig ent ticketing etc.). 
2.2.1.  Fuel and vehicle efficiency labelling 
350. Information on the relative performance of ve hicles is particularly effective at the 
time of purchase. The car labelling Direct ive 1999/94/EC establ ishes requirements 
for the provision of consumer information for cars. However analyses159 have 
indicated that the implementation of this Directive may not have been as effective 
as desired. In addition, a more uniform approach to the provision of information and a widening of the scope to other cla sses of vehicles could be desirable. 
28. Vehicle labelling for CO 2 emissions and fuel efficiency 
• Review the labelling Directive to make it more effective. This will, inter alia, consider the 
extension of the scope to light commer cial and L-category vehicles, and the 
harmonisation of the label and vehicles fuel  efficiency classes throughout the Member 
States. 
• Support the market take-up of fuel effici ent, safe and low-noise tyres beyond the 
performance requirements set in type approval160.  
2.2.2.  A certified carbon footprint calculator 
351. Carbon- and environmental foot-printing of transport services is  an area where a lot 
of initiatives from the industry are al ready taking place. However many schemes 
have been developed by individual comp anies and do not provide data that is 
comparable with that from other sche mes. Efforts are under way to develop 
standardised methodologies and their rapid completion is de sirable to provide a tool 
to companies wishing to procure less e nvironmentally damaging transport services 
and to passengers wanting to travel in  a more environmentally friendly way. 
29. Carbon footprint calculators 
• Encourage business-based GHG certificat ion schemes and develop common EU 
standards in order to estimate the carbon f ootprint of each passenger and freight journey 
with versions adapted to different users su ch as companies and individuals. This will 
allow better choices and easier marke ting of cleaner tr ansport solutions. 
2.2.3.  Lower speeds for cleaner and safer transport 
352. Over the course of the last two centurie s, slower transport modes have gradually 
been replaced by faster ones. Based on th e quasi-constancy of time budgets of 
around 1 hour per day, travel ling at higher speed allowed people and goods to cover 
                                                 
159 ADAC e.V., 2005, Study on the effectiveness of Di rective 1999/94/EC relating to the availability of 
consumer information on fuel economy and CO2 emissions in respect of the marketing of new 
passenger cars. http://ec.europa.eu/clima/studies/transport/vehicles/docs/final_report.pdf  
160 This includes the adoption of all implementing measures of the tyre labelling Regulation (EC) No 
1222/2009. It would achieve 5% fuel savings on the total EU fleet by 2020. 
 
EN 88   EN larger distances during the same amount of  time. This clearly resulted in greater 
transport volumes.  
353. The relation between speed and European mobility and social cohesion is an 
element that should be acknowledged. Many Europeans now live and work a great 
distance away from their home regions and countries and from their families. Increasing the cost and time of travel w ould negatively affect labour mobility and 
social cohesion.  
354. At the same time, it is clear that reduci ng speed is an extremely effective way to 
reduce not only the risk of accidents but also fuel consumption. At the moment, a 
voluntary agreement limits passenger car speeds to 250km/h. A reduction in the maximum designed speed could favour the in troduction of lighter , quieter and more 
economical tyres and braking systems. 
355. The lack of speed limitation in light commer cial vehicles (vans) leads to potential 
distortions in decision making in favour of less energy efficien t but faster smaller 
vehicles. It may be desirable for such vehi cles to be speed limited in the same way 
as heavier commercial vehicles to  ensure a level playing field. 
2.2.4.  Eco-driving training and applications  
356. In addition to the regulatory and market instruments that provide incentives for 
change in user behaviour, the deploym ent of Intelligent Transport Systems 
themselves, as outlined in Section 2.1.3, ma y facilitate this shift. A number of 
Member States already promote eco-d riving through training or awareness 
campaigns, and the Commission supports  eco-driving dissemination through 
various projects
161 and it may consider the inclusion of eco-driving requirements in 
future revisions of the driving licence Directive162.  
357. With technological progress in vehicles, th e driver’s influence on fuel consumption 
will be, in longer time horizon, diminishing. ITS can however be used to enhance 
the eco-driving behaviour and especially secure its contribution to reducing GHG 
emissions by direct and real-time feedback to the driver. 
30. Eco-driving and Speed limits 
• Include eco-driving requirements in the future  revisions of the driving licence directive 
and take steps to accelerate th e deployment of ITS applicati ons in support of eco-driving. 
Fuel saving techniques should also be de veloped and promoted in other modes – for 
example continuous descent for aircrafts. 
• Examine approaches to limit the maximum spee d of light commercial  road vehicles, in 
order to decrease energy consumption, to enha nce road safety and to ensure a level 
playing field. 
                                                 
161 See e.g. Ecodriven at http://ec.europa.eu/energy/intelligent/projects/steer_en.htm. 
162 Directive 2006/126/EC of 20 December 2006 on driving licences (Recast), OJ L403  of 30.12.2006. 
 
EN 89   EN 2.3. Integrated urban mobility 
358. Europe’s cities are its main engines of economic growth, but the trend to 
urbanisation is leading to increased congestion, GHG emissions, air pollution, 
noise, wasteful consumption of energy and a voidable associated costs. Some recent 
land-use trends have increased urban sprawl, compromising sustainability.  
359. A considerable part of EU policy and legi slation relevant to transport applies to 
metropolitan as well as to other areas. EU legislation on noise and emissions from vehicles and air quality legislation are ex amples of general legislation having its 
primary effect in metropolitan areas. Other examples are rules on public procurement and on public service contract s. The refinement and development of 
EU legislation will also in the future pr ovide an important contribution to achieving 
transport policy goals in urban and metropolitan areas. 
360. Action targeted directly at transport in urban and metropolitan areas is however best 
defined and implemented at lo cal level: Europe’s urban areas are diverse and, while 
facing more or less the same challenges under different circumstances, they are at different stages of development, have  different geographic, topographic and 
weather characteristics and have different n eeds. There is a need to better integrate 
European transport policy with local ini tiatives, for example within the framework 
of Cohesion Policy. 
361. In recent years, EU policy and legislation respecting the subsidiarity principle and 
targeting urban mobility have been deve loped – including a Green Paper and an 
Action Plan on Urban Mobility
163. Significant funding has b een provided through 
the Structural and Cohesion Funds164. EU-funded initiatives, often supported by the 
Framework Programmes for research and t echnological development, have helped 
to develop and evaluate a wealth of innova tive approaches. Direct engagement of 
local authorities through th e Covenant of Mayors has proved to be a successful 
bottom-up tool to promote sustainable en ergy, including sustainable transport. The 
CIVITAS Initiative demonstrated the substa ntial benefits of networking and mutual 
learning through an integrated appro ach. Compatible rules, schemes and 
technologies facilitate implementation and enforcement. Agreeing standards at EU 
level enables volume production resulting in lower costs.  
2.3.1.  A new type of urban mobility 
362. The necessary transition from a primarily car  based personal mobility in cities to a 
mobility based on walking and cycling, high quality public transport and less-used and cleaner passenger vehicles  is the central strategic challenge for cities in the 
decades to come. In addition to this, cities  need to find solutions for a cleaner and 
safer delivery of goods and services. Th ese transformations are not only about 
transport, but are basically a transition to a new way of life in an urban environment. 
                                                
 
163 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European 
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - Action Plan on Urban Mobility, COM/2009/0490 final 
164 For example, the URBACT II programme which supp orts exchange and learning between cities, also 
supported transport-related projects. 
 
EN 90   EN 363. Most cities have been working on elements  of this transition for a long time seeking 
to compromise quality of city life and car traffic. Cities in the Netherlands and Denmark have a long tradition for promoting cycling. London and Stockholm are two well-known examples of cities applying urban road pricing. Cities with existing waterways are experimenting using them for transport of passengers, especially 
commuting. These differentiated experiences constitute a valuable knowledge pool for European cities in developing long  term sustainable city transport. 
364. Developing multi-modality in urban passenger transport will help facilitate the 
transition to a more sustainable transport system. The interfaces and links between 
urban and interurban transport, including all the information components as reflected in the ITS and Urban Mobility Actions plans, are especially important. 
365. In urban freight logistics,  research suggests that th e present management of 
terminals and interchanges is often inefficient. New business models are likely to develop. Land planning decisions on th e localisation of production and retail 
activities must be taken jointly with thos e on transport infrastructure, combining the 
various facilities whenever appropriate and feasible (e.g. shopping malls, car parks 
and collective transport terminals). Key que stions are how to attract investors and 
select locations for these facilities, what  are the respective roles of the public and 
the private sector, and what should be the quality indicators for terminals and 
interchanges. 
366. An important prerequisite for using public tr ansport is to be aware of the services 
offered and the terms and conditions. The spread of information and communication technologies interconnecting a substantial part of the European 
population increases the possibilities for providing the consumer with relevant 
travel information. Real-time information provided online or at bus and metro stops 
on the position of vehicles and their arriva l times provides vital information for 
journey planning. Similarly, mobile devices could provide real time information on 
the cost and speed of reaching a certain de stination with different (combination of) 
modes. 
Urban transport governance, Urban Mobili ty Plans and Mobility Management 
367. Achieving integrated and sustainable urba n transport is an increasingly complex 
task which touches many stakeholders and interests. Long delays in planning are often a result of insufficient involvement of  relevant actors and stakeholders in the 
planning process. Competencies for policie s which impact transport within the city 
often lie outside the local government. A greater coordination of all authorities having an influence on the transport system  is highly desirable, possibly bringing 
together the responsibilities for land-use  and transport planning, public transport, 
road use and transport infrastructure. Equa lly desirable is an extension of the co-
ordination of such authorities beyond the st rict city borders, so to cover entire 
metropolitan areas or regional transport systems and their connection to trans-regional networks. 
368. It is clear that significant changes in urban mobility require comprehensive and 
integrated actions that bring together land-use planning, road use and parking, 
transport pricing, infrastructure devel opment, public transport policy and much 
more. This has to be accompanied by sound financial planning, securing sources of 
 
EN 91   EN funding and appropriate financing mechan isms. Auditing urban transport systems 
by local authorities helps evaluate the performance of passenger and freight 
transport, and identify the main bottlenecks. Urban Mobility Plans  are meant to do 
all this, providing a coherent  framework for different acti ons. They also represent a 
primary way to promote walking, cycling and public transport. 
369. The preparation of Urban Mobility Plans also offers an opportunity for dialogue 
with the citizens, for reflection on long te rm needs and for setting goals. There are 
many cities that establish Urban Mobility Plan s, but unfortunately this is not yet the 
norm and this practice needs to be further encouraged. 
370. It is not for the Commission to develop su ch Urban Mobility Plans which are to be 
elaborated under local, re gional and national institut ional arrangements. The 
Commission can nevertheless encourage th e necessary coordination by providing 
improved forums for discussion, continuing to facilitate the ex change of best 
practices, so as to engage cities in co mmon objectives. An effective governance 
structure and an overall st rategic Urban Mobility Plan should however be 
developed for projects being submitted to EU funding, under the new principles 
promoted by the 5th Cohesion Report on regional policy instruments.  
371. Based on the ongoing work under the research  project CIVITAS and in the context 
of the Covenant of Mayors, consideration s hould also be given to  the possibility of 
establishing a European framework for such  Urban Mobility Plans. This could set 
out a planning process and t ypology of possible measures  stemming from European 
best practice to achieve sustainable ur ban transport and include monitoring of a 
select number of common targets. Such  a European framework would become 
mandatory over time for European cities and support efforts of local and regional 
authorities to promote more effective urba n transport policies. Clearly, the content 
and mix of measures to be set out in indi vidual Mobility Plans w ould be entirely for 
local and regional auth orities to decide. 
372. Cities and urban areas play a crucial role in the transformation towards a low 
carbon society. They will have to adapt th eir infrastructure to reduce carbon 
emissions while continuing to ensure  citizens’ well-being and economic 
performance. In particular, cities and urban areas will have to reduce the energy consumption and adapt energy networks. The Commission intends to launch a Smart Cities Initiative during 2011. This cross-sectoral partnership will fully 
integrate urban mobility issues. It will reinforce the search for new solutions which can serve as examples for other European  cities and display a high potential for 
replication. 
373. Mobility Management  is a narrower concept to manage the demand for car use by 
changing attitudes and travel  patterns. At the core of  Mobility Management are 
‘soft’ measures like information a nd communication, organi sing services and 
coordinating activities of different partne rs. These soft measures often help to 
promote ‘hard’ measures – for example by encouraging use of new tram lines, bike 
lanes, park and ride systems, etc. Mobili ty Management measures (in comparison to 
hard measures) do not necessarily require  large financial investments and often 
have a high benefit-cost ratio. 
 
EN 92   EN 374. Mobility Management is not only a res ponsibility of local authorities. Quite a 
significant number of companies and othe r large employers have put in place 
initiatives to address the tr affic generated by their activi ties and, in particular, the 
traffic generated by their workers and cust omers. The magnitude of change brought 
about by Corporate Mobility Management (CMM) initiatives can  be quite large 
(15-20% reduction in drive-alone travel165) and cost-effective. Indeed, these 
initiatives have the potential to save money for both employers and employees. 
31. Urban Mobility Plans 
• Establish procedures and financial support m echanisms at European level for preparing 
Urban Mobility Audits, as well as Urban M obility Plans, and set up a European Urban 
Mobility Scoreboard based on common targets.  Examine the possibility of a mandatory 
approach for cities of a certain size, according to national standards based on EU 
guidelines. 
• Link regional development and cohesion funds to  cities and regions that have submitted a 
current, and independently validated Urban Mobility Performance and Sustainability 
Audit certificate. 
• Examine the possibility of a European  support framework for a progressive 
implementation of Urban Mobility  Plans in European cities.  
• Integrated urban mobility in a possible Smart Cities Innovation Partnership. 
• Encourage large employers to develop Corporate/Mobility Management Plans. 
Urban pricing and access rules 
375. Space is a precious commodity in cities. Charging for the use of infrastructure is an 
important element in the decision over the allocation of space to different uses and 
users. Moreover, the scarcity of public funds to meet the challenges of urban 
transport infrastructure will require the development of innovative financing schemes. Differential charging according to location, time and type of transport can 
be very effective in optimising capacity, pr omoting sustainable tr avel patterns, and 
stimulating market deployment of clean and efficient technologies.  
376. Different forms of urban pricing schemes and of access restrictions will probably 
become more widespread and this can be  confusing to users and even act as a 
barrier to the free flow of goods and people. An operational and technical 
framework will likely enhance acceptabilit y, and interoperability standards for 
tolling equipment would enable large scal e production of the equipment and reduce 
production costs, while avoi ding confusion for users. 
32. An EU framework for urban road user charging 
                                                 
165 OECD / International Transport Forum (2010), E ffective Transport Policies for Corporate Mobility 
Management. 
 
EN 93   EN • Develop a validated framework for urban ro ad user charging and access restriction 
schemes and their applications, including a le gal and validated operational and technical 
framework covering vehicle and in frastructure applications.  
Urban logistics 
377. Inefficient urban logistic can result from  urban circulation of heavy goods vehicles 
(HGV) used for long-distance freight, conc entration of deliveri es at few selected 
hours of the day and sharing of infrastruc ture by local and long distance traffic. 
Technical and organisationa l innovation can considerably  improve the situation.  
378. The design of HGV is not ad apted to the requirements of the urban environment. 
While the loading factors of big trucks are optimal for consolidated interurban 
flows, they are too high for the needs of  typical end customers. The use of these 
vehicles for final deliveries implies a lot of empty runs and th e large dimensions 
and engines accentuate the problem s of congestion and emissions. 
379. The transhipment of cargo from long-distan ce trucks to cleaner urban trucks and 
vans performed in logistics centres located outside the cities has the potential to 
solve the problems listed above. Such conso lidation centres already exist in some 
branches of the economy, such as manufact uring or retail trad e, but the practice 
could be extended to other sectors to optim ise the functioning of logistics systems; 
some pilot projects support this conclu sion with very encouraging results166. 
Consolidation centres could also deve lop as multimodal hubs, facilitating the 
integration of different transport modes.  ITS will contribute strongly to assuring 
quality and reliability of delivery servi ces whilst optimising capacity and reducing 
trips. 
380. More generally, the use of alternative ve hicles for local dist ribution would have 
various advantages, including silent operation, which could lift objections to night 
deliveries and allow a more balanced use of the network throughout the day167.  
381. Another element not to be overlooked is the potential of inland waterways to reduce 
the traffic related to last-mile deliveries . Inland ports are typi cally located very 
close to the city centre and th erefore close to the final destination of the transported 
goods. Inland waterways are most effectiv e for bulk transport, which makes them 
particularly well suited for the evacuation of waste or the transport of construction 
materials, two products relevant for urban logistics. However, in many cities inland 
ports are blocked in their de velopment by expanding housing and leisure areas. It is 
                                                 
166 A report on the two pilot projects for constructio n materials in the London  area (one for Heathrow 
airport and one for the city of London) indicated savings amounting to 2% of the overall construction costs, greatly reduced loading/unloading times, re liability increase to nearly 100%, a drop in the 
number of trucks by up to 68% and in CO2 emissions by up to 75%, considerably lower material 
waste and higher productivity. Construction Logistics Consolidation Centres. An examination of new 
supply chain techniques – managing and handling construction materials , October 2004. Transport 
for London , London Construction Consolidation Centre , Interim Report, May 2007. 
167 A pilot project in the Netherland on night deliverie s, with silent certified e quipment (trucks, forklifts) 
and specially trained drivers, led to considerable time and cost savings – respectively one hour over a 
35 km distance and € 35.000 per truck/year – with very  high social acceptability. 
www.piek_international.com. 
 
EN 94   EN therefore important that c ities reserve sufficient space along the river banks for 
logistics operations to allow the presen t and future expansion of inland ports. 
382. There are many examples of innovative vehicl es and transport modes being used in 
urban freight. Local train and subway netw orks can be used during the night when 
passenger traffic is low168. Electric bicycles and tr icycles can access with light 
loads areas normally restricted to pedestrians169. These modes are unlikely to 
become true alternatives to trucks fo r mainstream urban logistics, but can 
efficiently complement them for certain specific operations. 
383. Traffic re-organisation through adapta tion of the physical and intelligent 
infrastructure can also be source of optimis ation. Multi-use lanes – used for traffic, 
parking or loading/unloading depending on the time of the day – have proven to 
enhance the capacity of the streets170. More sophisticated tools, such as online 
booking of time slots for cargo unloading, are currently being tested and could 
prove efficient. 
384. Finally, many companies from the express delivery industry are investing in the 
deployment of automatic collection points, fr om which recipients can retrieve their 
parcels at their best convenience rather than at a fixed time. The solution could be extended to other sectors, such as intern et shopping, to reduce unnecessary trips and 
time loss. 
385. The innovative solutions desc ribed above have the pot ential to c onsiderably 
enhance the efficiency of urban logistics,  but their dissemination and market uptake 
take place at a deceivingly slow speed. A major reason for this lies with the conflict 
of interest between different stakeholde rs, and in particular between logistics 
operators and residents. The public author ities have a clear role to balance the 
different needs at stake and, when needed, to compensate reside nts for losses they 
incur following the necessary expansi on of logistics-re lated activities. 
33. A strategy for near- ‘zero-emission urban logistics’ 2030 
• Produce best practice guidelines to better m onitor and manage urban freight flows (e.g. 
consolidation centres, size of vehicles in old centres, regu latory limitations, delivery 
windows, unused potential of transport by river). 
• Define a strategy for moving towards ‘zero-em ission urban logistics’ , bringing together 
aspects of land planning, rail and river ac cess, business practices and information, 
charging and vehicle technology standards. 
• Promote joint public procurement for low emission vehicles in  commercial fleets 
(delivery vans, taxis, buses…). 
                                                 
168 For example, in Paris a RER regional line is us ed for freight transport by the supermarket chain 
Monoprix: http://cata-online.fr/monoprix/rapport_dd/. 
169 Freight cycles are used for deliveries of loads of up to 158 kg in seven French and two other European 
cities. See: http://www.lape titereine.com/fr/index.php. 
170 Such solutions have notably been put in  place in Spain in Barcelona and Bilbao. 
 
EN 95   EN 3. MODERN INFRASTRUCTURE AND SMART FUNDING  
3.1. Transport infrastructure: territorial  cohesion and economic growth 
386. Transport infrastructure is a prerequis ite for the mobility of  people and goods and 
the competitiveness and terri torial cohesion of the European Union. The EU is 
endowed with a dense transport network171, but overall the resources to maintain 
and upgrade it are declining. 
387. Moreover, a considerable disparity in the quality and availability of infrastructure 
persists within the EU. The infrastructure endowment gap is most evident in the meagre 4,800 km of motorway s in the Member Sates which joined the EU in 2004 
and 2007. These new Member States do not ha ve high speed rail lines and – more 
importantly – their conventi onal railway lines are often in poor condition. This gap 
needs to be closed and an infrastructure of high and uniform quali ty should span the 
entire EU. 
388. Competitiveness, economic growth and pr osperity rely on efficient transport 
infrastructure. Several studies have anal ysed the link between infrastructure and 
economic growth. The majority of these have shown positive impacts of 
infrastructure investments on GDP, desp ite significant variations between 
countries
172. Moreover, there are indications th at particularly low endowments can 
inhibit economic growth173. 
389. Infrastructure shapes mobility. The efforts towards a more sustainable transport 
system need to include a reflection on th e required characteristics of the network 
and must foresee adequate i nvestments. Not only cleaner  fuels need the support of 
dedicated infrastructure, but, as discusse d in Section 3 above, new vehicles cannot 
be expected to be the only solution fo r the reduction of transport emissions, nor 
would they address the problem of conge stion in large part s of the network. A 
network that supports more efficient operations and a greater use of more 
sustainable modes is also needed. 
390. The challenge is thus to improve the ex isting network and render it capable of 
connecting all regions of Europe in a wa y that is efficient in economic and in 
energy terms. This can be achieved by cr eating a backbone network of selected 
corridors that carry large volumes of tra ffic with high efficiency and low emissions, 
thanks to the consolidation of large volum es, the extensive use of more efficient 
modes in multimodal combinations and the wide application of advanced technologies and low-carbon fuels. Within this backbone or ‘core network’, widely 
deployed information technology tools woul d optimise procedures (e-Freight) and 
traffic flows. 
                                                
 
171 Around 5 million km of paved roads, more than 66,000 km of which are motorways; more than 
210,000 km of rail lines, slightly more than half of which is electrified, including around 6,000 km of 
high-speed rail lines; moreover, around 40,000 km of navigable inland waterways; over 450 commercial airports and around 1,200 sea ports. 
172 See COMPETE Annex 6 
 http://ec.europa.eu/transport/wcm/infrastructure/studies/2006_10_compete.zip  for a EU perspective 
and Aschauer, David Alan (1989). “Is Public Expenditure productive?” Journal of Monetary 
Economics, 23 (2), March, 177 – 200 for evidence from the USA. 
173 5th EU Cohesion Report. 
 
EN 96   EN 3.1.1.  Exploiting the strengths of the individual modes 
Better hinterland connections for Short Sea Shipping – Motorways of the seas 
391. Indeed, the very long European coastline offers opportunities fo r a much greater 
use of short sea shipping  (notably E-W and W-NE). Seaports should not become 
the bottlenecks of global supply chai ns. A continuous improvement of the 
efficiency and infrastructure capacity  of seaports, along with the further 
improvement of their hinterland connections , is essential to meet user needs. 
Adequate infrastructure for greener fuels and energy supply for ships in ports will 
also be needed. 
392. A European infrastructure policy for por ts should pay partic ular attention to 
ensuring the availability of ports well connected to the land transport system along the entire EU coastline. For such an approach to allow over time a more balanced distribution of entry and exit flows into th e European transport system, ports would 
also need to improve further the availabilit y, quality and reliability of their services 
as developed above in Section 0 above. 
Untapped potential in Inland Waterway Transport 
393. It is also commonl y recognised that inland waterways  have a lot of spare capacity. 
The EU waterway network connects the ma jor seaports and many cities and centres 
of commerce and industry, often al ong major trans port corridors.  
394. The efficiency and competitiveness of in land navigation is largely determined by 
the quality and conditions of the wate rway infrastructure, including smaller 
waterways, where efforts need to focus on the maintenance of the waterways, the 
upgrading of certain sections to the prevai ling standard of the entire waterway link 
and the extension of the existing networ k, notably by closing gaps (‘missing 
links’)
174. The investments need increasingly to take into account the possible 
effects of climate change which are likel y to affect the navigability of the 
waterways. 
395. River port infrastructure and multimodal conne ctions are also crucial. The inland 
waterway network includes around 350 im portant inland ports, with a wide 
disparity between the Western and Eastern part of the European Union in equipment, facilities, pr oductivity and management. In many river ports in the 
Eastern part of the EU, si gnificant investments are n eeded for transhipment and 
storage facilities, whereas in the north ern range several sea/river ports are 
confronted with a lack of spare cap acity, resulting in long waiting times at 
terminals.  
396. Besides ports’ infrastructure, the quality of the connections (road, rail) to the 
hinterland is crucial. The competitiven ess of supply chains involving inland 
waterway transport often depends on the effi ciency of the port operations, since the 
costs for transhipment, pre- and end-haulag e typically add up to more than 50% of 
                                                
 
174 Examples of the latter are the Seine-Scheldt link, and in the longer term the connection between the 
Rhone and the Moselle/Rhine river systems. 
 
EN 97   EN the door-to-door transport cost s. Sufficient attention has to be paid to measures 
improving the interface func tion of inland ports.  
Rail corridors for freight and hi gh speed lines for passengers 
397. The EU has a well developed railway network , which is slightly longer than in the 
United States (215.9 versus 203.6 thousand k ilometres). However, in the EU, the 
infrastructure is shared between passengers  and freight trains. Since freight trains 
operate at slower speeds and must give right  of way to the faster passenger trains, 
they typically have long running times and suffer considerable delays in case of 
traffic disturbances. As a resu lt, the efficiency of European freight transport by rail 
is much lower than in North America, wher e most rail lines ar e freight dedicated. 
According to some estimates, while the co sts per tonne/km in the EU amount to 8 
cents, they are close to 1 cent in the US175. 
398. Such a huge difference in operating cost s advocates the creation of a freight-
dedicated network in Europe or at least of corridors wh ere rail freight would be 
given sufficient priority to become competitive. This is the aim of Regulation 913/2010 concerning the establishment of a European rail network for competitive freight, which includes the definition of ni ne initial rail freight corridors, the 
establishment of ‘one stop shops’ to request  capacity and the setting of priority 
rules for freight and passenger trains. 
399. The Regulation also foresees the implement ation of infrastructure standards and 
coordinated investments at corridor level. Harmonisati on of maximum weights and 
lengths of trains at a high level – for ex ample 1 km – for selected corridors, or 
functional sections of the corridors, w ould have positive implications for the 
efficiency of rail transport176. Demonstration projects and tests with longer and 
heavier trains are already taking place.  Coordination of investments is also 
important: in the case of the deployme nt of ERTMS along a corridor crossing 
several countries, as a longer migration period by one party would impose the costs 
of dual equipment (ERTMS & national systems) on all others. Finally, long 
distance and freight traffic s hould be as much as possible isolated from interference 
with local commuting traffi c: rail bypasses of city node s should also be in the 
priority list for investments.  
                                                 
175 COMPETE Final Report. Annex 1: Analysis of oper ating costs in the EU and the US, Version 2, 
14.7.2006, p.57. 
176 Current infrastructure is not al ways capable of accommodating such longer trains; the length of 
sidings and yard tracks is a critical issue. The ma ximum axle load on major corridors typically ranges 
between 20 and 22.5 tonnes per axle, and the possibility of harmonising it at a higher level should be considered. Larger loading gauges would contribute to higher transport effi ciency especially for 
voluminous cargo and certain types of interm odal loading units. Pos itive experience with a 
combination of enlarged loading gauges and higher axle-loads has been made in Sweden with transport efficiency – in terms of payload per train-meter – up to 50% higher than even that of North-
American double-stack container trains. Wider lo ading gauges would also enable wider, more 
efficient passenger trains. 
 
EN 98   EN 400. The impact assessment177 on the Regulation on rail frei ght corridors demonstrated 
that investments of € 3.2 bi llion on the analysed portion of the network would yield 
an internal rate of  return of 18.7%.  
401. As regards passenger rail, the development of  high speed lines is the key to absorb 
some of the medium-distance travel curre ntly performed by aviation and private 
cars. In the urban context, investments in rail, light rail, underground and trams will be necessary to reduce the use of private cars. 
Information technology to optimise road transport 
402. With respect to the rail and waterborne modes, road transport is less resource 
efficient due to its physical characteris tics such as surface friction, aerodynamics 
and engine efficiency. It is also responsible for hi gher levels of air pollution, 
congestion and accidents. However, road tr ansport has the important advantages of 
speed, flexibility and reliability and is the only mode capable of door-to-door 
deliveries. 
403. Road will presumably remain the main mode for short- and medium-range (below 
300 km) freight of non-bulk materials and – while the aim is to reduce drastically 
its role in the longer distances – it will still need to  absorb large volumes of traffic 
until the infrastructure is fully adapte d to a high share of multimodal freight. 
Similar considerations apply to passenger traffic on intermediate distances. Accordingly, infrastructure policy for road  transport needs to focus on enabling the 
use of cleaner fuels and in deploying the ICT tools to optimise traffic flows, avoid 
accidents and allow fuel-savings techniques
178. Examples of such ICT applications 
for road include information and reservat ion systems for safe and secure parking 
areas for trucks. 
Modernising the Single Eu ropean Sky infrastructure 
404. In the future, the aviation sector will have  to cope with increased demand for air 
travel while at the same time reduc ing its environmental footprint. The 
implementation of the SES is crucial for addressing these challenges. The extended 
and revised SES legislation adopted in 2009179 has led to the establishment of a 
binding performance scheme with targets agreed at EU level for capacity, cost-
efficiency and environmental performance. The performance scheme will drive the optimisation of routes and flights structur e leading to a reduction in the current 
fragmentation of the European Air Tra ffic Management system and improving the 
overall performance of the Eur opean aviation network. The SES acquis  has been 
described in Section 0 above. 
405. The SES cannot be fully achieved, nor the fu ture performance re quirements of the 
network delivered, without the synchr onised deployment of a harmonised and 
                                                
 
177 SEC (2008) 3028 of 11.12.2008. 
178 Studies suggest that platooning of trucks using electronic systems to link and to transmit information 
between them can lead to fuel savings in the order of 10-25%. Shladover, S.E. Energy Savings by 
Automated Driving,  in ITS World Congress . 2007. Beijing. 
179 Regulations (EC) 549/2004, 550/2004, 551/2004, 552/2004, OJ L96, 31.03.2004, p.1-26, as amended 
by Regulation (EC) 1070/2009 of 21.10.2009, OJ L300, 14.11.2009, p. 34. 
 
EN 99   EN modernised ATM infrastructure based on new technologies and procedures 
developed and validated in the SESAR Programme. The size of the capital 
expenditure for the deployment of SESAR is estimated at 30 bn EUR180 over the 
timeframe 2008-2025. The funding and financin g of the new ATM infrastructure is 
an issue for many stakeholders in the cu rrent economic context. It is therefore 
important to establish appropriate financ ing and funding mechanisms that facilitate 
investments that enable to pool and mana ge public and private funds for deploying 
SES technologies and procedures. Failing to  establish such mechanisms, in due 
time, would lead to non-synchronised  deployment, which would hinder the 
performance of the entire network and compro mise expected benefits. There is also 
the risk of losing ground with competing ATM modernisation initiatives, such as 
the USA’s NextGen programme. 
406. The Deployment strategy  should promote favourable conditions for stakeholders 
and private investors by reduc ing deployment risks. This strategy consists in 
implementing all system, procedural, regul atory and human enablers supporting the 
SESAR operational concept. It will require the joint efforts of stakeholders: EU 
institutions, Member States, civil/military service providers/users, airports, equipment/aircraft manufacturers, ATM sta ff and pilots. Defini ng an appropriate 
governance based on SES instruments and that ensures coordination and synchronisation of the deployment across th e stakeholders and between airborne, 
ground and space segments is cons idered as a main priority  as well as the biggest 
challenge for preparing the deployment of SES technologies and procedures. 
3.1.2.  TEN-T policy review: from individual proj ects to an integrated European network 
407. Transport infrastructures have traditionally  been developed by EU Member States. 
However, with decision 1692/96/EC of the EP and the Council
181 the EU adopted 
guidelines for the development of the tran s-European transport network (TEN-T) in 
support of Community objectives, such as f acilitating the functioni ng of the Internal 
Market and strengthening ec onomic and social cohesion. 
408. The Guidelines for the development of th e TEN-T as currently in force, include 
modal networks for road, rail, inland wate rways, ports and airports as well as 
provisions for relevant traffic management systems. 30 Priority Projects of common 
interest – which aim at removing bottl enecks and completing missing links along 
major trans-European routes – overlay th is network and have been the highest 
priority for Community action for many years. 
409. TEN-T planning and implementation has so far not been driven sufficiently by a 
coherent European design. National infras tructure planning remains to a large 
extent disconnected from planning at EU le vel, and is mainly done at a modal level 
rather than in an integrated way across countries and modes of transport. The lack of international cooperation and coordi nation typically produced a number of 
inefficiencies: lack of joint traffic forecas ts leading to differing investment plans; 
disconnected or even contradictory timelin es; lack of joint investment calculation 
                                                
 
180 European Air Traffic Management Master Plan, Edition 1 – 30 March 2009, p. 84. 
 http://www.sesarju.eu/sites/de fault/files/documents/reports/E uropean_ATM_Master_Plan.pdf   
181 As recast with d ecision 661/2010. 
 
EN 100   EN and joint financial structures; incompatible technical characteristics; inadequate 
joint management of cross-border infrastructure projects. 
410. Moreover, national and European infrastruc ture projects have largely focused on 
developing individual priority projects  rather than on creating a network. 
Infrastructure planning and assessment of  individual projects failed to give an 
accurate representation of wide r effects of infrastructure  projects and of how these 
projects contribute to the overall infrastructure network182. Also another main 
weakness of the existing priorities is that  it does not activel y promote synergies 
between policy and infrastructure measures. 
411. A corridor approach to infrastructure  investment, overcoming cross-border 
difficulties, appears promising and in line with the establishment of an efficient 
core network. Good progress on two corridor s has been achieved  in the framework 
of the multimodal Brenner Corridor Platform and the ERTMS – Rail Freight Corridor Rotterdam-Genova. Bo th structures have developed along important rail 
freight corridors, bringing toge ther stakeholders from Member States, infrastructure 
managers and transport operators that allowed analysing the traffic flows beyond 
the pure viewpoint of infrastructure development. 
Planning and implementing the new TEN-T Core network 
412. The TEN-T planning framework will be based an a dual layer planning approach, 
consisting of a comprehensive network as  the basic layer and a core network, 
overlaying the latter and representing the st rategically most important part of the 
trans-European transport network, integra ting the Eastern and We stern part of the 
European Union and shaping the Single Eu ropean transport area. It should also 
ensure adequate transport c onnections to the wo rld markets, in particular supporting 
the progressive integration of neighbouring countries into the European transport 
system (Cf. section 4.4 below). 
413. The comprehensive network would, esse ntially, result from an updating and 
adjustment of the current TEN-T and dire ctly reflect the relevant existing and 
planned infrastructure in Member Stat es. The core network, on the other hand, 
would be drawn up on the basis of a European planning methodology. 
414. The core network will represent the backbone of a European integrated transport 
system. It will ensure efficient multi-moda l links between EU capitals, entry points 
into the European transport systems and economic centres by focussing on the 
completion of missing links, mainly  cross-border sections and 
bottlenecks/bypasses, and by making extensive use of already existing infrastructure and on upgrading a nd expanding this where required. 
415. The core network shall be the result of a genuine European planning approach and 
provide for a coherent and transparent iden tification of projects  of common interest 
that contribute to accomplishing this networ k. These projects ar e of different type, 
ranging from the building of new and the upgrading of existing rail, road, inland 
                                                
 
182 See Commission Staff Working Document “The new Trans-European Transport Network Policy – 
Planning and implementation issues” (SEC (2011) 101 of 19.1.2011) for an analysis of successes and 
shortcomings of the current TEN-T framework. 
 
EN 101   EN waterway or terminal infrastructure to intelligent and innovative solutions which 
boost the efficient infrastruc ture use within an d across modes and the shift to low 
carbon transport. 
416. While representing the long term infrastructure ambition for Europe, the Core 
Network should also be set up to make avai lable in the short and medium term the 
infrastructure needed to serve the inte rnal market, by targeting key bottlenecks 
hampering the smooth functioning of the Eur opean transport market. In most cases 
the Core network should therefore be form ed of existing infrastructure. However, 
missing geographical links, mostly cross- border between national networks and 
bottlenecks and new infrastructure in the new Member States, as well as missing 
modal links connecting modes of transport,  should equally be a priority under the 
Core Network. 
417. In the medium term, the priority would th erefore not be to ma ke available high 
capacity links on the entire core network but to  adjust the infrastructure capacity to 
real traffic needs. In that context,  increased capacity stemming from modal 
integration as well as from the intellig ent use of the infrastructure through 
deployment of traffic management systems,  will also limit the need to build new 
and costly infrastructure to the above priorities.  
418. A transport system that is articulated around a multimodal backbone and that relies 
on optimal modal choices to enhance its e fficiency must benefit from efficient 
multimodal terminals placed strategically along the network. The objective is to 
minimise the number and ‘friction’ of tr anshipment operations. This ‘friction’ is 
particularly relevant in freight transport,  where cargo requires external services in 
the form of administration and handling, but is also present in passenger transport, 
where interchanges may hamper the overall feeling of comfort and security of a 
journey. Multimodal terminals for freight are required at sea and river ports and in 
correspondence to logistic consolidation centres at the outsk irts of cities. 
Multimodal stations must be developed for passenger transport in the urban context, while better rail/airport connections must  be devised for long distance travel.  
419. The availability of reliable and updated information regarding nodes and links is 
essential for an efficient in tegration of transport modes. The e-mobility initiative 
will play an important role in this regard
183. Indeed, Information and 
Communication Technology (ICT) solutions have a large potential for optimising 
the use of existing infrastructure with relatively low levels of investment and environmental impact compared to the bui lding of new infrastructure. They will 
form an integral part of the future TEN-T, and their further development both within and across modes shall be boosted. Their uptake should be encouraged by 
requiring minimum deployment ru les on TEN-T infrastructure. 
420. Galileo, the European Global Navigation Sate llite System, once operational will be 
able to support existing ITS solutions and to become the basis for the development 
of improved and more integrated applications. 
                                                
 
183 Cf. COM(2007) 607 – Green transport corridors. 
 
EN 102   EN 421. One way for transport infrastructure to c ontribute to low carbon transport is the 
provision of relevant recharging and refuelling facilities for innovative vehicle technologies according to established standard s. The ‘core network’ should test best 
practices and technologies with a view to  minimising the environmental impact of 
transport. 
422. The greening of infrastructure is an im portant parameter to consider in the 
maintenance and development of infrastruc ture. Infrastructure should be planned 
and constructed in a way to minimise land fragmentation and interference with environmentally sensitive areas, for exampl e by including eco-ducts or eco-bridges, 
multifunctional zones and ‘green’ urban elements
184. Attention should also be paid 
to construction materials, which can enhance durability, reduce maintenance 
requirements, and improve safety and CO 2 performance.  
423. Moreover, new projects and infrastructure upgrades will need to be made resilient 
to foreseen negative impact of climate ch ange such as rising sea level and more 
extreme weather including floods, droughts an d more frequent storms. They will 
also need to reflect EU legisl ation on road safety and security185. 
424. Decisions on EU funding or co-funding of transport infrastructure projects should 
take all the above elements into account. 
34. A core network of strategic European  infrastructure – A European Mobility 
Network 
• Define in new TEN-guidelines a core networ k of strategic European infrastructure 
integrating the eastern and western part of  the European Union and shaping the Single 
European Transport Area. Foresee appropriate  connections with neighbouring countries. 
• Concentrate European action on the component s of the TEN-T network with the highest 
European added value (cross border missing links, intermodal connecting points and key 
bottlenecks). 
• Deploy large scale intelligent and interoperable technologies (SESAR, ERTMS, RIS, 
ITS, etc.) to optimise the capacity  and the use of infrastructure. 
• Ensure that EU-funded transport infrastructure takes into account energy efficiency needs 
and climate change challenges (climate resilience of the overall infrastructure, 
refuelling/recharging stations for clean vehicles, choice of  construction materials…). 
A corridor approach to improve governance… 
425. The core network should have  a prescriptive nature, i.e.  Member States directly 
involved in projects – supported by a menu of instruments at Union level – shall 
make binding commitments to implement th ese projects within the agreed time 
frame. The strength of the commitment is vital for investors to maximise predictability and certainty, which will assist in minimising costs. 
                                                
 
184 ‘Green Infrastructure’ http://ec. europa.eu/environment/nature/info/pubs/docs/greeninfrastructure.pdf 
185 Directive 2008/96/EC on road infrastructure safety management and Directive 2004/54/EC on 
minimum requirements for tunnels in the Trans-European Road Network. 
 
EN 103   EN 426. To a large extent, core netw ork infrastructure exists already, but its performance 
needs to be improved. A ‘corridor approach’ will be adopted as a way to implement 
effectively core network pr ojects: a number of corrido rs, drawing on the core 
network, will be identified  and subject to development in line with evolving 
capacity needs.  
427. Infrastructure improvements and transport policy measures shoul d closely interact 
within those corridors, and their r ealisation should be implemented through 
appropriate corridor structures. These structures could br ing together the 
Commission, Member States, the regions, the local authorities, but also the 
infrastructure managers, tran sport operators, and of cour se the financiers and, when 
appropriate, neighbouring countries. They c ould also facilitate  the creation of 
Special Purpose Vehicles, anchors of any consortium-based financing arrangement, 
which could take loans or i ssue project bonds to finance pa rtly or fully the cost of 
construction. 
428. Corridors, for which corridor structures are established, should be  set-up within two 
years of the entry into force of the future Guidelines and would be determined starting from important entry points into the network, integrating the main cross-
border sections and physical bottlenecks st ill to be realised. Corresponding to the 
main trans-national traffic flows, they c ould be expected to be partially based upon 
the current TEN-T Priority Projects, th e ERTMS corridors and the rail freight 
corridors resulting from Regulation 913/2010, but should evolve to include 
multimodal corridors, integrating operat ors and, beyond the pure infrastructure, 
allow for the deployment of transport services along the corridor. 
429. Corridors could be set up under the aegis of a European Coordinator with a 
secretariat supported by Commission servi ces but also drawing on Member State 
resources. The Coordinator would be res ponsible for overall coordination issues 
following up on the implementation of the corridor in question, reporting to the 
Commission, ensuring transparency and accountability. 
430. A Multi-annual corridor Development plan  would identify, within a binding 
timetable, major needed investments and sm aller scale short term improvements; it 
should also address interoperability a nd operational bottlenecks. It would allow 
coordination of EU and national infrastruct ure policies in the transport sector and 
even synchronisation of EU and national funding. Consideration should be given to 
the adoption of such Multi-a nnual corridor development pl ans in form of a Union 
decision. As such, it would constitute a c ontract where both the Union and Member 
States would commit themselves to the improvement of the corridor. Such Development plans would ensure long term availability of public funding, needed 
in most transport infrastructure project s, and would also facilitate innovative 
funding schemes to be deployed on the co rridor, backed by tr ansport revenues 
generated from transport operations on the corridor. They would foster at project 
level the synergies and added value s ought by the Commission between EU funds 
and national sources of funding. They woul d also be a basis for public funding to 
facilitate project financing, including through appropriate legal structures. Finally, 
they would also facilitat e the governance issues linke d to revenue collection. 
 
EN 104   EN …and to support pilot projects for inn ovative and clean transport services 
431. Many policy developments and measures targeted at multimodal and innovative 
freight transport solution would be implem ented within such corridors. Regulation 
923/2009 reviews the rules govern ing the Marco Polo programme to make it more 
effective, but further review is needed to support multimodality in particular within 
the Core network corridors. 
432. One of the obstacles to the development of efficient and environmentally friendly 
multimodal transport is the lack of knowle dge of potential transport options. For 
shippers and forwarders, the complexity of multimodal transport requires either a 
higher management and administrative effo rt or a ‘leap of trust’ by outsourcing 
transport services to third-party logistic s providers. Promoting such new business 
practices would appear particularly  promising within a corridor.  
433. To better exploit the potentia l of rail transport, both single wagonload traffic and 
intermodal traffic need to be developed in terms of efficiency, reliability and 
accessibility. For Single Wagonload traffic speci al attention should be given to the 
‘last-mile’ (industrial sidings and public rail freight terminals), where a policy 
promoting the (re-)establishment and modern isation of facilities, accompanied by a 
regulative framework ensuring open effectiv e and non-discriminato ry access to last 
mile and to train formation facilities is  important to stimulate the use of rail 
transport. In addition, the use of automa tic coupling systems would considerably 
improve the efficiency and flexibil ity of rail operati ons on a corridor. 
434. Furthermore, a programme to promote th e use of available best practices and 
innovative technologies for saving fuel and emissions should be launched. The 
spread of innovation is curren tly inhibited by the highly fr agmented structure of the 
freight industry, particularly across the tail of small oper ators. A carefully designed 
programme combining awareness raising campaigns, grants and instruments to 
facilitate access to credit could correct this market failure. Through a “Clean 
Freight Partnership” involvi ng representatives of the s ector and authorities, the 
programme would first certify the potential CO 2 savings of indivi dual measures and 
launch information campaigns in promoti on offices across the TEN-T network. In a 
second step, it would support the acquisition of certified technologies for reducing 
vehicle emissions, the implementation of fl eet and advanced logistics management 
systems as well as training in eco-driving. 
435. Finally, worth mentioning is the sharp incr ease of the transport volumes in cross-
Alpine freight transport which inevitably led to problems as regards environment, 
congestion and safety186. As a result, people living in the affected areas are less 
willing to tolerate the growth of traffi c and its negative effects and are putting 
pressure on authorities to find a sustaina ble solution. While large-scale investments 
into alternative rail infrast ructure to carry large quant ities of goods have been 
initiated, discussions on new ways of ma naging heavy goods vehicle traffic have 
been launched in several Member States an d also in Switzerland, with which the 
EU has an agreement on land transport. However, it is in the Union’s interest to promote a concerted approach safegua rding the free movement of goods and 
                                                
 
186 Land transport has more than doubled during the past 20 years. 
 
EN 105   EN preventing isolated national initiatives to  the detriment of a smooth functioning of 
the whole European transport system. Building on the existing Alpine Traffic 
Observatory, the Commission will theref ore promote a coordinated reflection on 
new solutions to manage the freight traffi c across the Alps in a more sustainable 
way, which if successful could be replic ated in other geogr aphical areas with 
similar problems. 
35. Multimodal freight corridors fo r sustainable transport networks 
• Create in the context of the ‘core network’ multimodal freight corridor structures to 
synchronise investments and infrastructure works and support effi cient, innovative and 
multimodal transport services, including rail services over medium and long distances. 
• Support multimodal transport and single wagon load business, stimulate the integration of 
inland waterways into the transport system and promot e eco-innovation in freight 
transport. Support the deploym ent of new vehicles and vessels and retrofitting.  
3.1.3.  Ex-ante project appraisal 
436. The method of selecting projects eligible  for EU funding will have to evolve 
towards one which puts greater emphasis on European added value and on the contribution to the effectiveness of the ove rall EU transport system, but also on the 
compatibility with other EU policy goals, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions and loss of biodiversity. 
437. Besides demonstrating their EU added va lue, projects should also be based on 
‘services rendered’ to the users and be capable of generati ng sufficient revenue. 
Infrastructure planning in Europe has had the tendency to be based more on a 
geographical approach than on the actual se rvice needed by end us ers. It has often 
resulted in projects with weak economic viability proving difficult to finance and 
absorbing large resources – both financial and non-financial.  
438. Besides creating the needed certainty fo r private investors during the project 
assessment and authorisation phase, conditions  must be put in pl ace to allow private 
investors to make positive business cases for infrastructure projects.  
439. In the past, the lack of proper ex-ant e appraisals methodology did not allow for 
projects selection based on socio-econom ic and environmental criteria. To 
overcome this shortcoming, the Commi ssion issued a Guide on Cost-Benefit 
Analysis (CBA) in 200 2 (last updated in 2008
187) to assist Member States and to 
maximise the contribution of infrastructure  investments to the economic and social 
development of regions and cities. This method is now used by all Member States 
in the preparation of infrastructure proj ects to be co-financed by the Commission.  
440. The European added value of projects will be defined as the value of spill-over 
effects to non-investing count ries and regions. Cross-border  projects typically have 
high spill-over effects, but  lower direct economic effects compared to purely 
                                                 
187 http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/guides/cost/guide2008_en.pdf 
 
EN 106   EN national projects and therefore, they are likely not implemented without EU 
support. 
441. All projects co-financed by the EU (Cohesion, Agricultural and Fisheries Policies) 
need to contribute to EU energy efficiency and environmental goals and have to be subject to an Environmental Impact Asse ssment (EIA) or a Strategic Environmental 
Assessment (SEA) – depending on their nature. Certainty for investors requires further progress towards establishing a workable and effective framework for the environmental impacts of projects, incl uding aspects that are not presently 
considered, notably the contribution to cl imate change and climate resilience.  
442. The assessment and the authoris ation of projects has to be carried out in an efficient 
and transparent manner that limits time, cost and uncertainty – factors which usually represent obstacles for private investors to engage in infrastructure 
investments. Today, for major TEN-T proj ects, the preparatory phase – starting 
with the initial design and leading to bu ilding permit and contracting of works – 
may take twice as long as actual cons truction works. When maturity for 
construction has been reached, previous a ppraisals are often questioned on the basis 
of new elements and parties involved feel not consulted, simply because the 
procedures took years or even decades. 
443. Therefore, procedures for projects of overriding European interest should be 
streamlined, taking particular care of two aspects: the establishment of reasonable 
time limits for completing the whole cycle of procedures and continuous 
communication efforts to that implies a tr ue involvement. This may result in one-
stop-shop procedures for Strategic Impact  Assessments and Environmental Impact 
Assessments and a communication framewor k that is in line with the project 
implementation. In order to encourage Member  States to engage more with private 
sector and consider implementation of us er-pays principles, a screening of TEN-T 
project proposals to identify those with PPP potential should be included in the ex-
ante evaluation process. 
36. Ex-ante project evaluation criteria 
• Introduce ex-ante project evalua tion criteria ensuri ng that projects du ly demonstrate the 
EU added value or are based on ‘services re ndered’ and generate sufficient revenue. 
• Streamline procedures for projects of overriding  European interest, in order to ensure (i) 
reasonable time limits for completing the whole cycle of procedures; (ii) a 
communication framework that is  in line with the project implementation; and (iii) 
integrated planning which takes environmental issues into account in early stages of the 
planning procedure. 
• Introduce PPP-screening to the ex-ante evaluati on process to ensure that the option of 
PPP has been carefully analysed before a request for EU funding is being asked.  
 
EN 107   EN 3.2. A coherent funding framework 
3.2.1.  Trends in transport in frastructure financing188 
444. In the western part of the EU, investme nts in inland transport infrastructures 
steadily declined from 1. 5% of GDP in 1975 to 1.0% of GDP in 1982 and stayed 
around that level until 1995. Thereafter the de cline continued and reached less than 
0.8% in 2008, the lowest reco rded level ever. In the Ea stern part of the EU, the 
share of investments remained stagnant at around 1% of GDP until 2002 and then grew sharply to 1.9% of GDP in 2008. Howe ver, the overall tr end in the EU has 
been declining. 
445. While the western countries of the EU increasingly directed their investment 
toward rail (share of rail has increa sed from 29.5% in 1995 to 33.4% in 2008), the 
eastern EU countries invested heavily in ro ads, which increased their share of total 
inland investments from 66% in 1995 to 84.4% in 2005. However, recent years 
indicate a turn in the trend combined with significant increases in rail investments. 
Investments in inland waterways remained  steadily around 2% of total investments 
between 1995 and 2008. 
446. By comparison, the volume of inland transpor t infrastructure investment in the US 
grew by 36% from 1995 to 2001, was then steadily falling until 2007 and has been 
growing since. The data show 5% growth  in 2008 in real terms, driven by the 
federal economic stimulus programme. 
447. The overall declining trend in transport in frastructure financing from government 
budgets was to some extent offset by an in crease in private sect or financing, mainly 
through PPPs. However, the effects of the fi nancial and sovereign debt crisis are 
constraining government funding and impacti ng the capability of the private sector 
to obtain long-term bank loans. The new cap ital requirements for banks (Basel III) 
will likely continue to keep th e pressure on long-term bank lending. 
448. During the financial crisis, the increased le nding for transport projects by European 
Investment Bank (EIB) and other Multilateral Financial Institutions played a crucial 
role. EIB lending, for example, amounted to € 79.1 billion in 2009, of which € 13.9 billion was lent to projects in the trans port TENs and major transport axes, which is 
about 20% more than in 2008. Howeve r, multilateral banks, similarly to 
commercial ones, face capital constraints and cannot increas e their lending forever. 
3.2.2.  Transport sector financing needs 
449. The data on traffic volume and network length show that expenditure across 
Member States has not kept up with the growth in demand in recent years. In 
addition, investments have tended to fa vour new construction over maintenance, 
resulting in chronic maintenance backl ogs in many countries. Road traffic has 
grown much faster than road capacity in  many countries, resulting in congestion 
and increased costs in terms of travel time and delays.  
                                                
 
188 Based on International Transport Forum data: Trends in the transport sector 1970-2008, OECD/ITF 
2010. 
 
EN 108   EN 450. Transport infrastructure is not yet adequate across the EU and big funding 
requirements remain. The cost of EU in frastructure development to match the 
demand for transport has been estimated  at over € 1.5 trillion for 2010-2030. The 
completion of the TEN-T network require s about € 550 billion until 2020 out of 
which some € 215 billion can be referred to  the removal of the main bottlenecks. 
This does not include additional investment in vehicles, equipment and charging infrastructure which may require an additional trillion to achieve the emission reduction goals for th e transport system. 
451. To fill this transport infrastructure financing gap, well diversified and deep sources 
of finance both from public (EU, Nati onal and regional governments) and private 
(financial institutions and corporate) sources are required. Greater private sector engagement through new capital market s models is need ed; new pricing 
mechanisms, such as congestion pricing, for example, should be introduced and the overall funding mechanisms need to be turned more towards the “user pays” principle
189. In the meantime, public financ ing should not duplicate unprofitable 
transport infrastructures. Whilst some regional infrastructure may be necessary for local development, their duplication may only lead to waste of public resources. 
3.2.3.  A new funding framework for transport infrastructure 
452. Although considerable progress has been ma de with respect to the implementation 
of TEN-T priority projects, a completion of  the planned projects within the agreed 
timeframe of the TEN-T guidelines seems highly unlikely. 
453. The expected delay is partly due to th e available TEN-T Programme budget, which 
is limited in size and providing relatively low co-funding rates for works of maximum 30% for cross-border sections of  Priority Projects, maximum 20% for 
other sections of Priority Projects and maximum 10% for non-Priority Projects. For 
studies the TEN-T Programme budget doe s provide up to 50% co-funding for all 
projects of common interest
190. The situation is different for the Structural Funds 
(ERDF and Cohesion Fund), which provide higher amounts and higher rates of project co-funding – (85%) in convergence regions and (50%) in competitiveness 
regions. 
454. Under the current financial perspectives  (2007-2013), TEN-T projects are financed 
mostly by Member States (around 70%), w ith support from EU instruments: the  
TEN-T Programme provides € 8 billion (mai nly to co-finance preliminary studies 
due to the higher co-funding rate as explai ned above), while the European Regional 
Development Fund (ERDF) and the C ohesion Fund account for € 43 billion (co-
financing of the construction/rehabilita tion of infrastructure). The EU budget 
contribution is about 13%
191 and the EIB financing c ontributes a further 16%192. An 
                                                 
189 In a context of increasing budgetary  constraints in most European coun tries, the needed infrastructure 
investment would have to be financed by the users themselves. The German Maut – although it 
applies only to heavy duty vehicles above 12t – allows the collection of between € 4 and 5 billion 
yearly; in 2010 it covered the cost of all investments in road infrastructure at the level of the federal government. 
190 Regulation (EC) No 680/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2007. 
191 2% from TEN-T budget, 9% from Cohesion and 2% from the European Regional Development Fund. 
 
EN 109   EN integrated funding framework for transport that allows better coordination of the 
Cohesion and Structural Funds with the tr ansport policy objectiv es is needed in 
order to accelerate the implementation of infrastructure projects and increase the EU budget efficiency. In addition, Member St ates need to ensure that sufficient 
funding is available to adequately maintain  their transport infrastructure and they 
need to reflect it accordingly in their budgetary planning.  
455. Such a transport funding framework has ma ny benefits. Firstly, leveraging the EU 
funding through better coordina tion would increase the imp act and the potential of 
achieving the objectives of the TEN-T guide lines, including economic, social and 
environmental cohesion. It will build on the reflections put forward in the 5th 
Cohesion report, namely introducing conditionali ty in order to ensure that a certain 
number of key TEN-T projects of high EU added value get financed.  
456. EU funding of projects  is to a large extent alrea dy subject to conditionality, as 
foreseen in Article 13 of Regulation (E C) 680/2007 laying dow n general rules for 
the granting of Community fina ncial aid in the field of th e trans-European transport 
and energy networks. The conditionality could, for example, be subject to the 
compliance of Member States with EU law,  to the pooling of funds of EU Member 
States along corridors and to the progre ss of Member States towards the planned 
completion of the TEN-T core network.  
457. Secondly, other sources of funding and transp ort revenues can be considered in the 
context of this funding framework. Thes e funds could include revenues provided 
under the Eurovignette directive
193 as well as other schemes for the internalisation 
of external costs. Adopting as far as possi ble the ‘user pays’ pr inciple and allowing 
private investors to charge the full co st of construction a nd maintenance would 
create acceptable revenue streams, which in turn will make infrastructure 
investments more attractive to private capital.  
458. Thirdly, it allows for a coordinated effort  on the part of the Commission, the Trans-
European transport Executive Agency, a nd others (EIB and other international 
financial institutions for example) to help the Member States to develop an adequate project pipeline. 
37. A new funding framework for transport infrastructure 
• Develop an infrastructure funding framework with sufficient conditio nality to provide 
support for the completion of the TEN-T core network as well as other infrastructure 
programmes, encompassing the investment st rategies of both the TEN-T programmes and 
the Cohesion and Structural Funds, and cons idering revenues from  transport activities. 
• Provide EU support for developing and deploying technologies that improve 
infrastructure use efficiency and decarbonisa tion (new road network pricing and tolling 
systems, ITS and capacity improvement programs). 
                                                                                                                                                      
192 Overall, EIB has committed to provide at least EU R 75 billion for trans-European transport projects in 
2004-2013. 
193 Public acceptability of charging schemes would be high er in cases where revenu es from transport, or 
at least part thereof, are earm arked to infrastructure projects. 
 
EN 110   EN • Link TEN-T funding to progress towards the co mpletion of the TEN-T core network and 
on the pooling of national resources along corridors. 
3.2.4.  Private sector engagements 
459. With the pressures on public sector budget resources set to continue, unlocking the 
potential of private finances has beco me even more urgent. New financial 
instruments that can increase the levera ge of the public sector budget support 
should be developed. The project bonds in itiative, which can support the financing 
of Private Public Partnerships  (PPP) on a bigger scale, is an example of the type of 
financial instrument that addresses this issue. 
460. In many Member States, PPPs are established as valuable additional options for 
transport infrastructure investments. Th e Commission has taken a more active role 
in promoting PPPs194 and also the Monti report of April 2010195 considered PPPs as 
a viable solution to the lack of reso urces for important EU infrastructure 
investments. Nevertheless, there are ma ny Member States who lack the capacity 
and legal framework to enable a systematic approach to PPP screening and procurement. The feasibility studies necessary to determine the value for money and to manage the procurement and contract management of a PPP can be daunting. Further EU support, both financial and non-financial, could come from a 
coordination framework involving Commi ssion services, including the TEN-T EA, 
to assist in both the screening of pr ojects for PPP potential and PPP procurement 
procedures.  
461. PPPs for the transport sector can be further promoted in the context of the European 
PPP Expertise Centre (EPEC) establishe d in September 2008 as a joint Commission 
and EIB initiative. EPEC responds to public  sector needs by ensuring collaboration 
between the competent national “PPP task fo rces” and promotes best practices to 
encourage the development of PPPs.  
462. Furthermore, the EIB and the Commissi on have jointly launched two dedicated 
facilities:  
– First, the Loan Guarantee Instrument for TEN-T Projects (LGTT), which is a 
EUR 1 billion instrument supporting PPP proj ects in cases of traffic revenue 
shortfalls. To date, the LGTT has been  used in 4 PPP arrangement and 17 
projects are in the pipeline. 
– Second, in 2010, the Commission took a stake in the Marguerite Fund, which 
makes equity investments in transport and energy infrastructure projects. The Fund will operate under market conditions  and has a target size of EUR 1.5 
billion. About a third of its equity and quasi-equity investments are expected to 
be invested in companies that own or operate transport infrastructure. 
463. No viable capital market solution has emerged to replace the wrapped bond market. 
To address the gaps in debt  financing for large infrastructure projects, primarily 
                                                
 
194 Communication- COM (2009)615 of 19 November 2009.  
195 http://ec.europa.eu/commission_2010-2014/president/news/press-releases/pdf/20100510_1_en.pdf 
 
EN 111   EN financed through PPPs, and revive the infr astructure bond market, the Commission, 
in cooperation with internationa l financial institutions, can play an important role in 
facilitating the issuance of proj ect bonds by project companies. 
464. The EU project bond initiativ e can help infrastructure project promoters enhance 
the credit quality of their senior debt, thereby providing access to the institutional bond market as an alternative to the ba nk loan market, which results in more 
competitive pricing for the project financ ing. The Commission’s role will be to 
absorb a capped amount of risk in a project in order to enhance the credit quality of 
the whole project.  
465. Transport project bonds could be an inte resting long term investment opportunity 
for institutional investors such as insurance companies or pension funds. The EU project bond initiative could also be c onsidered in designing the financing 
mechanisms for large pan-European program s, such as the Single European Sky Air 
Traffic Management Research (SESAR) pr oject; following the establishment of a 
self funding, not-for-profit entity that is initially cap italized by proportional 
contributions from stakeholders. 
38. Private sector engagement 
• Establish an enabling framework for the development of PPPs: (i) introduce a formal 
screening of TEN-T projects to identify those with PPP potential, (ii) create a 
standardized and predictable PPP procurement process for TEN-T projects over time; and 
(iii) revise TEN-T regulations accordingly so as to accommodate the PPP procurement 
process and payment mechanisms. 
• In the context of the cooperation framew ork established between the Commission 
services and EPEC, encourage MS to use more PPPs, while acknowledging that not all 
projects are suitable for this mechanism, and provide relevant expertise to Member 
States. 
• Participate in designin g new financing instruments for th e transport sector, particularly 
the EU project bond initiative. 
3.3. Getting prices right and avoiding distortions 
466. Price signals play a crucia l rule in many decisions th at have relevant and long-
lasting effects on the transport system. The localisation of a factory, the outsourcing 
of an activity, the organisation of retail distribution, the purchase of a house: all 
these choices are typically influenced by th e availability and cost of transport. 
467. It is therefore important that  correct and consis tent monetary incentives are given to 
users, operators and investors, so that th eir decisions on the mode of travel, on the 
technologies to deploy or on the type of infras tructure to invest in, are also the most 
desirable from the point of vi ew of society. The internal isation of externalities and 
the elimination of distortionary subsidies are part of the effort to align market 
choices with societal concerns for sustainability. 
468. Internalisation of external co sts is also necessary to es tablish a level playing field 
between modes. This is most urgently needed between roa d, rail and aviation, 
 
EN 112   EN which are often in direct competition. Today, the charging principles applied in 
road, rail and air transport are so diffe rent, that they render impossible any 
comparison between the three modes196. 
469. An additional argument in favour of correct pricing is the increasing difficulty in 
finding the means for subsidising public transport and invest ing in transport 
infrastructure (Cf. para 19). It will be necessary, on the one hand, to find new 
sources of revenues and, on the other hand, to make sure that, on balance, public 
forms of transport and clean vehicles remain economically competitive. This could be achieved by a wider application of th e polluter-pays and us er-pays principle
197 
and by the elimination of tax distortions and unjustified subsidies. 
470. At the same time, a more visible link be tween polluter-pays and user-pays charges 
on the one hand and the use of the proceeds to fund sustainable transport projects 
on the other would enhance users’ acceptabi lity of new charging schemes. To give 
an example, a fraction of the tolling on in ternational axes coul d be earmarked to 
fund the construction of cr oss-border projects of common European interest. 
3.3.1.  “Polluter pays” for external costs 
471. The internalisation of external costs198 aims at ensuring that prices incorporate all 
relevant externalities generated by transport users. It is useful to distinguish two 
type of externalities which are typica lly addressed by different instruments: 
• The ‘global’ externality of  GHG emissions, that is linked to the use of fossil 
fuels and that can be addressed via fuel taxes or cap & trade systems; 
• The ‘local’ externalities – air pollution, noise, congestion, accidents – that can be 
addressed by charges differentiated according to place, time and vehicle 
characteristics199. 
                                                 
196 Rail pays for wear and tear on the entire network, both for freight and passengers. In road, the 
recovery of infrastructure variable costs is applie d on some roads in some Member States, but is not 
mandatory at EU level. On the other hand, on some road segments construction costs are also 
recovered (toll motorways), both from lorries and passenger cars, which is generally not the case for 
railways. Road vehicles pay very high fuel taxes, but the share of infrastructure cost recovery or 
internalisation in them is not determined. Aviation pays charges for use of infrastructure, but is 
exempted from taxation. The list of examples could be further prolonged. 
197 Cf. footnote 189. 
198 “ Transport users have to pay costs that are directly related to the use of their mode of transport (fuel, 
insurance, etc.). Such costs are considered private  in the sense that they are paid directly by the user. 
However, transport users also generate negative externa lities that involve a cost to society, such as 
delays to other drivers as a result of congestion, health problems caused by noise and air pollution 
and, in the longer term, the effects of greenhouse gas emissions on climate change, but users do not bear those costs directly (external
 costs). Such costs are real, eve n if they do not always have an 
explicit market value: expenditure on police and infrastructure management, hospital charges, public 
health spending and loss of quality of life. They are generally borne by the State and its citizens. The sum of the private and external costs of transport gives its social
 cost. Only a price based on the total 
social costs generated by the transport user will help give the right price signal and take account of 
the services used and the consumption of scarce resources ”. Extract from the Communication from 
the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the Economic and Social Committee and 
the Committee of the Regions, Strategy for the internalisation of external costs , COM(2008) 435 
final, page 3. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexU riServ.do?uri=COM:2008:0435:FIN:EN:PDF  
 
EN 113   EN 472. In the Communication on the Strategy for th e internalisation of external costs200 and 
in its Technical Annex201 the Commission has indicate d that the principle for 
charging externalities and ma king the ‘polluter pay’ should be that of marginal 
social cost pricing. It has also laid  down a common methodol ogy to charge all 
external costs across the whole transport sector. 
Internalisation of greenhouse gas emissions 
473. It can be considered th at fuel taxation as impos ed by the Energy Taxation 
Directive202 effectively internalises for road tr ansport the cost of climate change 
linked to GHG emissions. This is because fu el taxes are levied in proportion of fuel 
use and therefore of GHG emissions. Howe ver, under the current framework rules 
this is not achieved in a consistent ma nner as minimum rates as well as national 
rates in force do not set a c onsistent price signal on the CO 2 content of the energy 
products used.  
474. The Directive on energy taxation fixes mi nimum levels of excise duties on fuels 
across the European Union203. The current Directive is under revision with a view 
to determine taxation on the basis of th e energy component and of the carbon 
content rather than of the volume of fuel . The new approach w ould clearly identify 
the CO 2 element in fuel taxation and send a mo re visible price signal to the users. 
Together with a reduction in the number of exemptions, the new approach to excise 
duties would eliminate present distortions. Co-benefits in the form of lower local 
pollution levels can also be expected as optimised energy taxation would act as an 
incentive for cleaner fuels. 
475. In theory, this appro ach could further devel op by replacing the CO 2 component of 
fuel taxation with the inclus ion of land transport in an  emissions trading scheme. 
This needs to be properly assessed and co mpared with the potential disadvantages 
of this approach, such as in creased implementation costs. 
476. Air transport will be included in the EU -ETS from 2012 onwards, which will allow 
the internalisation of the CO 2 cost204.  
477. In maritime transport, climate change cost s are not internalised currently. The EU 
preferred option is to reach an international agreement within IMO on a global 
                                                                                                                                                      
199 The accident externality could also be addressed by  insurance mechanisms th at take into account the 
owner’s profile. 
200 See footnote 38.  
201 SEC(2008) 2207, accompanying COM(2008) 435. 
202 Council Directive 2003/96/EC of 27 October 2003 restructuring the Community framework for the 
taxation of energy products and electricity, 
 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriSe rv.do?uri=OJ:L:2003:283:0051:0070:EN:PDF .  
203 Op.cit, note 20. 
204 The key elements are the following: the exchange of  rights to emit will begin in 2012; every flight that 
leaves or arrives at a European airport is covered,  including those of foreign companies; in 2012 the 
emissions cap will be set at 97%, based upon a ba seline value (calculated as an average over the 
period 2004-2006) – this will fall to 95% in 2013 until 2020; 15% of permits will be auctioned, 82% 
of the allowances will be provided free of charge, and 3% will be allocated to a special reserve for new entrants and fast growing airlines. The revenue generated from auctions should be used in the 
fight against climate change, to the extent that Memb er States decide so, in line with the principle of 
subsidiarity. 
 
EN 114   EN market-based instrument such as cap and trade or a bunker fuel levy to avoid 
introducing distortions in international competition. 
Internalisation of local externalities 
478. In road transport , most of the local ex ternalities can be best internalised through 
charging the use of road infrastructure. 
479. As regard freight transport,  road charging is currently  governed at the European 
level by a directive adopted in 1999, the so-c alled ‘Eurovignette Directive’ revised 
in 2006205. The Directive concerns only heav y goods vehicles. It fixes the 
maximum charges that can be applied to vehicles at the level corresponding to the recovery of infrastructure costs – incl uding both construction costs and operation 
costs
206. The application of infrastructure charges is optional according to the 
Directive.  
480. The Commission’s proposal amending the Directive207 to enable the internalisation 
of external costs is expected to be adopted  later in 2011. It is a first and transitional 
step which will help forerunner Member Stat es to gain more practical experience in 
internalising external costs.  It must therefore be rapi dly adopted and implemented. 
However, such a framework provides only a small degree of harmonisation 
between Member States. While some Member States do not charge at all for the use 
of roads, 21 Member States implement ro ad charging, all applying different pricing 
strategies and techniques208. 
481. This ‘patchwork’ of road charges may im pede the smooth functioning of the road 
freight internal market. This is w hy the Commission in its 2008 strategy on 
internalising the transport external co sts had already envi saged reviewing it, 
considering further steps in road charging.  
482. The Commission believes that any further steps in the strategy to internalise 
external costs in road freight transport should primarily move away from such a 
patchwork and seek to accelerate the conve rgence of the national road charging 
policies. These steps will require the gr adual phasing in of a mandatory harmonised 
internalisation system for commercial ve hicles on the entire inter-urban network 
used by trans-European traffic before 2020. Such initiative will put an end to the situation of today when international ha uliers have the Eu rovignette, 5 national 
vignettes and 8 different tags and tolling c ontracts to drive on the European tolled 
roads. It will build as far as possible on the European Electronic Tolling Service 
planned to be offered as from 2013 in  the framework of the Directive on the 
                                                
 
205 Include ref. 
206 Since the 2006 revision, a modula tion of the charges is allowed depending on the environmental 
performance of the vehicle (EURO class) or on the congestion level, but within the limit of 
infrastructure costs (i.e. the differentiation of charges cannot generate additional revenue). 
207 Proposal for a Directive of the European Par liament and of the Council amending Directive 
1999/62/EC on the charging of heavy goods vehicles for the use of certain infrastructures 
COM(2008)436 final  
 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexU riServ.do?uri=COM:2008:0436:FIN:EN:PDF.  
208 Ranging from time-based charges (vignettes) to distance-based charges levied through tollbooths or 
electronic systems using Data Short Range Communication technologies or a combination of satellite 
positioning and mobile communication technologies. 
 
EN 115   EN interoperability of electronic tolling system209. With this respect, the Commission 
will also closely monitor that the pr omises made by the Directive on the 
interoperability of electronic tolls will be fulfilled at the date agreed and will take 
any initiative required if not. 
483. For passenger cars, road user charges have remained confined to motorway 
networks or isolated tolled motorway se ctions in individual Member States. They 
have therefore remained outside the scope  of European legislation, with the 
Commission limiting itself to verify that national rules comply with the Treaty principle of non-discrimination. The situ ation has now changed. Road charging 
applied to cars is increasingly considered  as a way to generate new revenue and 
influence traffic and travel behaviour, and is likely to be  implemented widely in the 
next decade. Already now, seven – and soon eight – Member States apply time-based charges, i.e. vignettes purchased to  obtain the right of using the main road 
networks for a certain period of time. 
484. As regards time-based charges, the experien ce has revealed that it may be difficult 
to assess whether such user charges levi ed on motorists are proportionate and do 
not discriminate occasional users which ar e typically tourists from other Member 
States. This situation creat es legal uncertainty for national governments applying 
them. The Commission will therefore eval uate existing time-based road charging 
schemes applied to passenger cars and wh erever necessary clarify the rules 
applicable to ensure their comp atibility with the EU Treaties. 
485. Time based charges should however be seen  as a transitional instrument to prepare 
the introduction of more efficient forms of road charging, like distance based 
charging schemes or congestion charging. Th e latter, although mo re complicated to 
implement, will be more effective to prope rly internalise external cost and optimise 
the road capacities. In order to prom ote such schemes, the Commission will 
develop guidelines for the application of internalisation charges to all vehicles, 
covering the social costs of congestion, local pollution, noise and accidents and 
provide incentives to Member States  who launch pilot projects for the 
implementation of schemes along such guidelines. 
486. The long-term goal would be that the user charges applied to all vehicles and on the 
whole network to reflect at least the marginal  cost of infrastructu re (wear and tear), 
congestion, air and noise pollution. The exis ting rules to prev ent abusive charges 
would be maintained and the revenue coul d be used to finance projects which 
reduce the externalities of transport.  The Commission will also encourage 
appropriate schemes to fully account for the external costs of accidents; it is argued 
that more accurate insurance schemes (suc h as pay-as-you-drive ) would be the right 
tool for this purpose. 
487. In railways , the 2001 Directive on in frastructure charges
210, allows the 
internalisation of environm ental costs on top of the in frastructure costs only on 
condition that “ such charging is applied at a com parable level to competing modes 
of transport ”, i.e. to road. The Directive also  allows charging for scarcity of 
                                                 
209 Directive 2004/52/EC  
210 Op. cit. , note 2. 
 
EN 116   EN capacity during periods of c ongestion, but subject to the submission of a plan for 
solving the capacity problem. 
488. Particularly relevant in the case of rail is the noise externality. Noise is one of the 
most widespread public health threats in industrialised countries, not only a matter 
of comfort. The contribution of rail trans port to noise pollution (with freight trains 
as the largest source) is c onsiderable, with about 10% of the population exposed to 
significant noise levels. The European Un ion has already acted  on this issue, 
adopting measures in the environmental211 and rail interoperability fields212. 
However, given the long lifetime of rolling stock, it will take several years before 
overall noise emissions can be reduced significantly if no additional measures 
addressing the existing fleet are introduce d. A retrofit programme, would allow to 
set up ambitious rail noise legislation a nd to ban noisy wagons within a decade213. 
489. In 2010, the Commission made a proposal fo r noise-differentiated infrastructure 
access charges214 – an intermediate step which allows some degree of 
internalisation – but does not in corporate the full cost of the noise externality in the 
infrastructure access charge.  
490. All in all, before 2020, the Commission will develop a common approach for the 
internalisation of noise a nd local pollution costs on the whole rail network. Later 
on, if earlier measures do not reach their objective, it will propose the phasing of a 
mandatory internalisation system in para llel with similar proposals for the road 
sector. 
491. In aviation , there is currently no internalisation of local externalities such as 
aircraft noise and NOx. Directive 2009/12 defines the airport charge as a levy 
collected for the benefit of the airport managing body and paid by the airport users 
for the use of facilities and services, whic h are exclusively provided by the airport 
managing body and which are related to land ing, take-off, lighting and parking of 
aircraft, and processing of  passengers and freight. 
492. The Directive allows airports to ‘modulat e’ their charges as a function of public 
policy requirements and several Member Stat es already make us e of this provision 
by, for example, modulating charges for flights causing environmental nuisance 
(time of day, aircraft type). However,  the underlying philosophy of the Directive 
(based on the ICAO approach) is cost-relat edness, i.e. the charges collected should 
relate to the cost of pr oviding the necessary infrastructure. Similarly, airport 
charges do not take into account the cost of  congestion, being th e same regardless 
of the hour at which a flight is operated (peak or off-peak hour).  
                                                 
211 Environmental Noise Directive 2002/49/EC providing for noise maps and action plans. 
212 TSI Noise, introducing noise limit values for new and renewed vehicles. 
213 The impact assessment to the proposal on retrofitting existing wagons (SEC(2008) 2203) 
demonstrated the very high EU added value of the initiative. The benefits for the affected population, 
in terms of reduction of externalities, are currently estimated at € 9 billon. The estimated costs of the 
measure would reach € 700 million and the additional co sts in terms of maintenance are estimated at € 
400 million. Member States invest each year seve ral hundred millions in ‘passive’ noise reduction 
measures. 
214 COM(2010) 475 of 17.9.2010. 
 
EN 117   EN 493. In maritime transport , other than the GHG emissions from shipping, covered 
earlier in this document, externalities from shipping include sulphur and nitrous 
oxide emissions (SOx, NOx), noise (at sea and at berth), and po llution (e.g diffuse 
oil pollution, litter and wast e water, introductio n of alien/invasive species through 
ballast water). 
494. Port charging can be a policy instrument for encouraging the use of less polluting 
ships as already provided in Directive 2000/ 59/EC, which foresees that the fees for 
reception of ship-generated waste may be re duced if a ship can demonstrate that it 
produces reduced quantities of ship-generated waste215. The Commission is in 
favour of such a sustainable approach216, which could be fine-tuned to allow clear 
identification of the nature and scop e of external costs internalised. 
495. As for local noise and air polluti on, the Commission adopted in 2006 a 
recommendation on the promotion of shore-si de electricity for use by ships at berth 
in EU ports217. Shore-side electricity means providing electricity to ships at berth in 
ports from the national grid instead of ships producing electricity using their own 
engines. This eliminates local air and noise  emissions from ships’ engines while at 
berths in port218. While promoting the use of cleaner types of fuels, is also 
important to follow a path towards ‘zero em ission/zero waste ship s’ as described in 
the EU’s Maritime Transport Strategy until 2018. 
496. The international character of  shipping makes it difficult to internalise the cost of 
air pollution at sea. The Baltic Sea and the North Sea and English Channel and 
recently parts of the US and Canadian co astlines (200 miles) were designated as 
Sulphur Emission Control Areas, where a st rictly regulatory approach was adopted 
through the mandatory use by 2015 of distilla te fuels (0.1% mass sulphur content in 
fuels). Including other fragile areas, such as the Mediterranean or Black Sea, on the 
list of protected environments will be advocated. Anyhow, a gl obal switch to low 
sulphur fuel (0.5%) will become  progressively mandatory by 2020. 
497. A major part of inland waterways  navigation in Europe takes place on the Rhine 
and its tributaries where it is subject to  the rules of the Mannheim Convention. 
Article 3 thereof, stating that “ no duty based solely on navi gation may be levied on 
vessels or their cargoes or  on rafts navigating on the Rhine or its tributaries ”, has 
been interpreted as forbi dding any charges on navigation – including internalisation 
of external costs. Any revisions of these rules will have to go  through international 
negotiations, as contracting parties to the Convention in clude Switzerland which is 
not an EU Member State. Similar pr oblem exists on the Danube – another 
important trans-European inland waterway, the navigation on which is governed by 
                                                 
215 Directive 2000/59/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 November 2000 on port 
reception facilities for ship-gener ated waste and cargo residues – Commission declaration,  
 http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/Notice.do?val=236999:cs&lang=en&list=236999:cs,&pos=1&page=1&nbl=1&pgs=10
&hwords=&checktexte=checkbox&visu=#texte .  
216 Communication from the Commission on a European Ports Policy, COM(2007) 616 final, 
 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexU riServ.do?uri=COM:2007:0616:FIN:EN:PDF  
217 Commission Recommendation 2006/339/EC of 8 May 2006 on the promotion of shore-side electricity 
for use by ships at berth in Community ports, 
 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriSe rv.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:125:0038:0042:EN:PDF .  
218 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/transport/ships.htm  
 
EN 118   EN a Convention in which Croatia, Moldova, Ru ssia, Ukraine and Se rbia take part 
along EU countries. The Commission will develop by 2020 an approach to the 
internalisation of external costs in  IWT; it will later examine mandatory 
application. 
3.3.2.  “User pays” for infrastructure costs 
498. Since externality charges could be le vied in connection with the use of 
infrastructure, externality charges and ch arges for recovering or  pre-financing the 
cost of infrastructure are currently a ddressed by the same pieces of legislation 
(Eurovignette Directive219, Railway infrastructure charges Directive220). 
499. Whereas marginal social cost pricing can a pply also to variable costs linked to the 
use of infrastructure (namely wear and tea r), other principles are generally followed 
in recovering fixed cost of infrastructure  (construction costs) that do not depend on 
the use. The presence of wider socioeconom ic benefits and of positive externalities 
justifies some level of public funding, but the ‘user-pays’ principle is increasingly 
adopted, also in view of the need fo r the consolidation of public budgets.  
500. In railways, according to the 2001 Di rective on infrastructure charges221, user 
charges must be set at the cost that is di rectly incurred as a result of operating the 
train service. The charging of mark-ups to  obtain full infrastructure costs recovery 
is allowed but only if it can be demonstrated that “ the market can bear it” . The 
Directive also allows infrastructure ch arges modulations to take into account 
environmental costs. In practice, these charging principles ar e applied in very 
different ways by Member States and the act ual level of charges continues to differ 
considerably. This is why the Commissi on proposal to recast the existing rail 
market access legislation issued in September 2010222 contains more detailed 
provisions clarifying how such principles must be implemented. 
501. Airport infrastructure and operating costs are partly recovered via aeronautical 
revenues (airport charges), non-aeronautical  revenues (revenue from shops rentals, 
car parks, for example) and by airport se lf-financing means. As a result of the 
creation of the European aviation ma rket in 1992 and of the introduction of 
competition at European and international le vel, European airports are increasingly 
operated as ‘normal’ businesses in a competitive environment, although the 
situation of hundreds of airpor ts in the European Union is very diverse. European 
legislation, in the form of the airport charges Directive 2009/12, takes into account 
the diversity of European airports and fi nancing modes and does not seek to impose 
one single financing system for infrastr ucture financing and operating costs. The 
                                                 
219 Directive 1999/62/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 17 June 1999 on the charging of 
heavy goods vehicles for the use of  certain infrastructures as amended by Directives 2006/38/EC and 
2006/103/EC. 
 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriSe rv.do?uri=CONSLEG:1999L0062:20070101:EN:PDF .  
220 Directive 2001/14/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 26 February 2001 on the 
allocation of railway infrastructure capacity a nd the levying of charges for the use of railway 
infrastructure as amended by subsequent legislation, 
 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriSe rv.do?uri=CONSLEG:2001L0014:20071204:EN:PDF .  
221 Op. cit. , note 2. 
222 COM(2010)474 of 17 September 2010 
 
EN 119   EN Directive is to be transposed by Marc h 2011 and the Commission will report on its 
implementation by 2013.  
502. In maritime transport, the situation regard ing infrastructure charges widely differs 
among Member States depending on the ports system in place, with operational and 
investment costs being sometimes recove red through port charge s, concessions and 
other earnings; in other cas es, construction and dredging costs are directly borne by 
the state. The Commission insists on the need for more transparency on the different items that compose port dues a nd on the level of charging, as well as for 
greater correspondence with relevant costs. It will continue to monitor the level of 
port charges and their relation to unde rlying cost. The Commission may consider 
further actions in this field if market c onditions and developments would so require. 
503. In the future, transport users are lik ely to pay for a hi gher proportion of 
infrastructure construction costs than it is presently the case. This would contribute to less distorted modal choices and more  efficient decisions on organisation and 
localisation of activ ities. The recuperation of cons truction costs should be done 
over a period that is consistent with the economic life of the facility. Concession schemes might be considered, as well as pre-financing through congestion charges 
in case of extension works. 
3.3.3.  Aligning taxation with trans port sustainability goals 
504. Many branches of transport are treated favourably in terms of taxation, in 
comparison to the rest of the economy : tax treatment of company cars, VAT 
exemptions on international sea and air tran sport, etc. Some of these arrangements 
can provide conflicting incentives with respect to the efforts to improve the efficiency of the transport system and reduce its external costs. The following 
proposals have the aim of suggesting pos sible corrections to achieve greater 
consistency between the various elements of transport taxation. 
Company cars 
505. Company cars are defined as passenger li ght-duty vehicles, which companies lease 
or own and which employees use for th eir personal and business travel. They 
account for roughly 50 percent of a ll new passenger car sales in the EU
223. 
Company car taxation include s, among other elements, th e fiscal treatment of 
benefits in kind to employees, rules on th e separation between private and business 
use and capital allowance regimes for empl oyers. The situation in most Member 
States is that the taxation regime for co mpany cars artificially promotes the use of 
such cars beyond merits. In particular, wh en looking at the tax treatment of the 
fringe benefits related to the use of company cars at the employee level, it can be 
observed that these benefits are in most EU  member States undertaxed compared to 
what would be the tax neutral treatment. 
                                                 
223 Copenhagen Economics, 2009, Company Car Taxation. Subsidies, welfare and environment.  
 http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/resources/documents/taxation/gen_info/economic_analysis/tax_
papers/taxation_paper_22_en.pdf  
 
EN 120   EN 506. The consequences of this distortion are significant. A recent study224carried out for 
the Commission estimated that direct tax re venue losses may approach 0.5% of EU 
GDP (€ 54 billion) for the 18 EU Member  States included in the study. Welfare 
losses from distortions of consumer choice resulting in an increased car stock, higher car prices and increas ed fuel use are substantia l, perhaps equal to 0.1 to 
0.3% of GDP (€ 15 billion to € 35 billion). CO
2 emissions are boosted by incentives 
to buy more fuel and larger cars, by about 21-43 Mt (equivalent to around 2-5% of 
road transport emissions). 
507. The Commission will assess a possible revision of company car taxation to 
eliminate distortions and favour th e deployment of clean vehicles.  
Vehicle taxation 
508. At present, there is little EU legisl ation on passenger car taxation and Member 
States apply diverse national rules. Vehicle taxation (circulation taxes and 
registration taxes) is not only linked to the environmental performance of the 
vehicle, but also to parameters such as  value, cylinder capacity, engine power and 
weight. However, the majority of the Me mber States has introduced car taxes, 
during the last years, which are di fferentiated on the basis of the CO 2 performance 
of individual passenger cars. This situation may be a s ource of distortions on the 
Internal Market, possible double taxation, tax- induced cross-border transfer of cars, 
administrative procedures, extra costs, ti me losses and various obstacles for both 
the European citizen and the car industry and trade225.  
Value added tax 
509. At present, transport services, like any other service supplied by a taxable person 
within the EU, are subject to VAT. Where VAT is applied, the supply of passenger transport is taxed pursuant to where the transport effectively takes place, 
proportionate to the distances covered and may be subject to a reduced rate of a 
minimum of 5% by the Member States
226,227.  
510. The EU VAT legislation nevertheless l eaves scope for passenger transport to 
continue to be exempted through derogations accorded to Member States. Currently, the practices applied by Me mber States differ greatly. While for 
international passenger transpor t, sea and air are exempt of  VAT in the whole of the 
EU-27, VAT is payable on inland waterways, rail and road transport in Belgium, 
Germany, Spain and the Netherlands. Fran ce levies VAT on inland waterways, 
                                                
 
224 Idem Footnote above. 
225 COM (2002) 431, Communication on Taxation of Passengers cars in the European Union - options for 
action at national and community levels  
226 The information on the current VAT rates applied in the EU Member States is available at:  
 http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/resources/doc uments/taxation/vat/how_v at_works/rates/vat_rate
s_en.pdf 
227 In 2005, the European Commission consultation paper on VAT concluded that “The current rule 
governing passenger transport services, which is taxation according to the distance covered, has 
proven to be very impractical and difficult to apply in an internal market without fiscal borders. It implies that a coach company which transports tourists from Paris to Amsterdam needs to apply 
French, Belgian and Dutch VAT to each relevant pa rt of the journey, and pay the corresponding 
amount of VAT to the tax authority of each  of these respective Member States.”  
 
EN 121   EN Greece and Austria do so on rail and road transport, while Poland and Slovenia on 
road transport only228. In addition, exemptions related to international transport, 
allowing certain passenger transport providers to purch ase some goods and services 
free of VAT, have been in force since the introduction of VAT for international sea 
and air transport. This means that the VAT treatment of passenger transport combines different exemptions, depending on the kind of means of transport used to provide the transport and the place wher e the transport is deemed to take place. 
511. Those exemptions result in a complexity of the current VAT system applicable to 
passenger transport and it is que stionable if these rules ensure a level paying field in 
the sector. It is therefore important for the good functioning of the internal market 
and of the competition between modes to harmonise VAT rules in the transport sector. A study
229 carried out for the Commission in 1997 found that “ By 2005, the 
estimates suggest that High Speed Rail (HSR) might have anywhere between 36,203 
and 295,900 fewer passengers if the existin g VAT-induced distortion was not 
removed. This distortion represen ts up to 1.3% of HSR traffic… ” . 
512. In December 2010, the Commission adopted a Green Paper on the future of VAT230 
by which it launched a public consultation on how the EU VAT system can be strengthened and improved, to the benefit of citizens, businesses and Member States. In the light of the complexity of  the VAT treatment of passenger transport 
and the possible economic distortions it mi ght provoke, the topic is addressed in 
those reflections. 
3.3.4.  Transport infrastructure and transport services: subsidies and State aid 
513. The transport sector receives a great number of explicit or implicit subsidies. The 
construction of transport infrastructure – apart from concession motorways – is mostly funded from public money. Oper ators of passenger c onnections to/from 
remote or underdeveloped areas receive co mpensations in the framework of Public 
Service Obligations (PSO)
231. In the case of railways, even connections between 
densely populated areas can be subsidise d. It is estimated that in cities the 
operational costs of public transpor t are subsidised at around 50%.  
514. Whereas there may be circumstances in whic h external benefits of transport justify 
subsidies from an efficiency perspective, it  is important, particul arly at times when 
public funding becomes scarce, to assess the merits of subsidies to infrastructure 
and to operational costs.  
515. The question of whether public funding of transport infrastructure constitutes State 
aid within the meaning of Article 107§1 of the TFEU is regular ly raised. Existing 
                                                 
228 European Commission, DG TAXUD. 2010. VAT Rates Applied in the Member States of the 
European Union, 
 http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/resources/docum ents/taxation/vat/how_vat _works/rates/vat_rate
s_en.pdf  
229 KPMG. 1997.A study of the VAT Regime and Co mpetition in the Field of Passenger Transport, 
 http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/reso urces/documents/pass_ tran_kpmg_final.pdf   
230 “Towards a simpler, more robust and efficien t VAT system”, COM(2010) 695. Commission Staff 
Working Document SEC(2010) 1455 supplements the Green paper  
231 Cf. discussion on PSO in part III.1 A single transport area: removing the remaining barriers to 
effective co-modality. 
 
EN 122   EN guidelines on state aid in railways232 and airports233 only cursory address the issue, 
concentrating on the assessment of compatibil ity of State aid measures with Article 
107§3 of the TFEU. As a result, the state ai d character of a publ ic intervention in 
infrastructure building is regulated by the jurispruden ce of the Courts. 
516. In many cases the private sector might l ack the incentives and/or the financial 
capability to provide transport infrastructure  at an optimal level from the point of 
view of society. This is part icularly the case of ‘basic’ infrastructure that has a life 
span and amortisation time that exceed the time horizon acceptable for private 
investors or for which the costs cannot be  recovered by adequa tely charging users 
(e.g. breakwaters in ports)234.  
517. As the issue of the State Aid nature of th e public funding of basi c infrastructure and 
of the parallel profitability of commercia lly funded activities ma y lack clarity, the 
Commission will aim at provi ding clarification and uniform treatment of public 
funding to transport infrastr ucture. The clarification of the legal framework, 
however, does not detract from the need to apply a comprehensive and uniform cost/benefit analyses to different infras tructure projects to identify funding 
priorities. 
518. Public budgets also intervene in funding transport services. Apart from the case of 
non-profitable links with remote areas perf ormed for public service reasons, several 
transport activities are deemed worthy of  support because of, for example, their 
lower environmental impact or social functi on (rail, public transport). In the future, 
the possibility to charge for transport externalities would modify the relative 
position of the different modes and possi bly eliminate the need for correcting 
imbalances via subsidies to operations.  
519. Public funding is also provided in case of activities exposed  to international 
competition. This is notably the case of maritime where the role of the Commission 
is to assess what forms of public support might be useful in promoting safe and 
environmentally sound shipping and employ ment of Europeans on board ships and 
on shore without adverse effects on compe tition in the internal market. Since 1989 
the EU’s aim has been to encourage the re-flagging towards EU registers and the enhancement of the European maritime clus ter. The international dimension of the 
maritime industry and the persisting risk that European ship-owners might leave Europe substantially weakening the Eur opean maritime cluster and its knowledge 
and employment basis, make the issue of public support for the industry particularly important. Fierce internat ional competition and the lack of an 
international level-playing field for shippi ng – which have justified the granting of 
State aid so far – are still there to a large extent. Guidelines on State aid to maritime 
                                                
 
232 Communication from the Commission: Community guidelines on state aid for railway undertakings, 
2008/C 184/07, part 2: Public financing of railway undertakings by means of railway infrastructure funding. 
233 Communication from the Commission: Community guidelines on the financing of airports and start-
up aid to airlines departing from regional airport, 2005/C 312/01. 
234 These types of issues are referr ed to in economics as ‘market fa ilures’ due to the existence of 
incomplete financial markets, public goods’ characteristics, large indivisibilities and positive network 
externalities. 
 
EN 123   EN transport have been adopted in 1997 and in 2004. A review of the latter should be 
carried out in 2015/2016. 
39. Smart pricing and taxation 
Phase I (up to 2016) 
Transport charges and taxes shoul d be restructured. They should underpin transport’s role in 
promoting European competitiveness, while the overall burden for the sector should reflect 
the total costs of transport in terms of infrastructure and external costs. 
• Revise motor fuel taxation with clea r identification of the energy and CO 2 component. 
• Phase in a mandatory infrastructure charge  for heavy-duty vehicl es. The scheme would 
introduce a common tariff structure and cost co mponents such as the recovery of wear 
and tear, noise and local pollution costs to  replace the existing user charges.  
• Evaluate existing car road charging schemes a nd their compatibility w ith the EU Treaties. 
Develop guidelines for the application of in ternalisation charges to road vehicles, 
covering the social co sts of congestion, CO 2 – if not included in fuel tax – local pollution, 
noise and accidents. Provide incentives to Member States who launch pilot projects for 
the implementation of schemes along such guidelines. 
• Proceed with the internalisation of external  costs for all modes of  transport applying 
common principles while taking into account the specificity of each mode. 
• Create a framework for earmarking revenues fr om transport for the development of an 
integrated and efficient transport system. 
• Issue guidelines providing cl arification concerning public f unding to the different modes 
of transport and to transport infrastructure, where necessary. 
• Reassess transport taxation where necessary , namely by linking vehicle taxation to 
environmental performance, reflecting on po ssible way forward to review the current 
VAT system concerning passenger transpor t, and revising company car taxation to 
eliminate distortions and favour th e deployment of clean vehicles. 
Phase II (2016 to 2020) 
• Building on Phase I, proceed to the full and mandatory internalisation of external costs 
(including noise, local pollution and congestion on top of the mandatory recovery of wear 
and tear costs) for road and rail transport. Internalise costs for local pollution and noise in 
ports and airports, as well as for air polluti on at sea, and examine mandatory application 
of internalisation charges on all inland wate rways on EU territory. Develop market based 
measures to further reduce GHG emissions. 
 
EN 124   EN 4. THE EXTERNAL DIMENSION  
4.1. Extending internal market rules and rei nforcing the transport dialogue with 
main partners 
520. The international role of the EU is pa rticularly important for maritime and air 
transport, which are intrinsically globa l industries. To maintain a prominent 
position in these markets in the next decades , Europe needs to speak with one voice 
in those instances that bring together governments, industry representatives and 
regulators at a global level.  More effective coordinati on between Member States 
needs to be ensured. In that respect, new opportunities of the EU’s representation in 
international forums as foreseen under th e Lisbon Treaty shall be fully explored. 
521. Strategic and sectoral dial ogues are already in place with some of our major 
partners like the United States, Russia, Ch ina, Japan, Canada and Australia and we 
intend to extend them to Brazil, India and South Africa. The emerging economies 
will play an increasing role in  commerce with the EU but th ey also need an in depth 
modernization of their tran sport system. The EU could then share its transport 
expertise, use its technical leadership a nd promote its interoperability standards 
worldwide. 
4.2. Promote energy efficiency and climate change goals in multilateral forums 
522. Efforts carried out by the EU to reduce CO 2 and other pollutant emissions, as well 
as to improve energy efficiency, would be  ineffective, and its competitiveness 
would be undermined, if its main partners  do not follow similar strategies. It is 
therefore of crucial importance to promot e the EU strategies through the main 
existing international forums (such as the International Transport Forum) or 
organisations (like ICAO or IMO), as we ll as through regular bilateral dialogues. 
We should also join efforts and funds in  the field of research with our main 
transport partners to develop more ef ficient transport systems and vehicles. 
4.3. An international dialogue  on transport security 
523. Following the 9/11 attacks, a lot has been done – under the initiativ e of the EU – to 
develop counter measures (at first in air transport, but quickly followed by similar measures in maritime) to prevent such dramatic event to take place again. Terrorism is a global threat and can only be successfully tacked internationally. 
Therefore internationa l cooperation and harmonisation of security and privacy rules 
and practices are of utmost importance  at the bilateral (e.g. EU–US transport 
security dialogue) or multilateral level (ICAO, IMO). 
524. Action is also needed to c ounter the risks of piracy, where EU action should focus 
on early prevention measures to put in place in the zones at risk. An integrated approach should involve the EU’s main pa rtners and the countries concerned and 
include better monitoring, strengthened information exchange, capacity building and fighting poverty and corruption as the root causes of this kind of threat. 
 
EN 125   EN 4.4. Extending our transport and infras tructure policy to our neighbours 
525. Closer economic integration and increased mobility of goods and passengers with 
our neighbours will be one of the key challe nges that Europe will have to face in 
the future. New trends and routes in trans port might gain greater importance in the 
coming decades and this will definitely ha ve an impact on the development of the 
infrastructure that connects with these rout es and it will also have an impact on the 
development and the change of locati on of the main gateways to the EU. 
526. The extension of the major trans-Europ ean transport axes to the neighbouring 
countries has been an important objective for the Union and is also a shared interest 
with the neighbouring countries. In this context, while developing the intra-EU rail 
freight corridors for speedy and competitive cross-border transport, their extension 
to neighbouring countries s hould be actively pursued. 
527. The Commission is therefore preparing a Communication to set conditions for a 
renewed transport policy with its neighbouri ng partners. The objective is to provide 
a single policy umbrella for promoting transport infrastructure and market 
development in the EU’s neighbourhood thro ugh transport, enlargement, foreign 
and neighbourhood policies with various politic al and financial initiatives, to make 
transport more efficient and to bring it closer to the EU’s standards. 
528. The ash cloud crisis in April 2010 show ed the vulnerability  not only of the 
European transport system, but also of  the links to its neighbours. This 
demonstrated the need for even greater in ternational efforts to ensure assistance 
mechanism and increase resilience of the system.  
529. The EU has in the recent past establ ished successful tr ansport cooperation 
frameworks at regional level with its  main partners. EUROMED, with the 
Mediterranean countries, the Northern Di mension Partnership for Transport and 
Logistics (NDPTL), the South-East Eur ope Transport Observatory (SEETO), as 
well as the EU-Africa transport forum. Th e aim of such cooperation frameworks is 
to provide customized mutual answers on is sues that affect transport development 
in these areas. Such partnerships should be extended in the future as they have 
shown to be not only a powerfu l tool to strengthen trans port relations, but also to 
improve political regional cooperation. The model of the Western Balkan Transport 
Treaty could be used to extend EU rules to other neighbouring countries. 
Cooperation with neighbouring partners in shared sea-basins is also important. 
530. The completion of the European Common Aviation Area, covering 58 countries 
and a population of 1 billion, would creat e a truly integrated aviation market 
covering the EU and its closest regions. It would provide unified regulatory 
approaches in safety, security and other areas of importance to aviation, giving a 
concrete expression in transport to the Union’s neighbourhood policy. 
531. Finally, such cooperation should also incl ude research and i nnovation partnerships 
to find common answers to the challenges re lated to interoperability of transport 
management systems, security and safety. 
 
EN 126   EN 4.5. Intensifying cooperation to  remove transport barriers 
532. EU companies face a number of restricti ons when trying to expand their businesses 
in third markets. In this context, wide ning market access for EU transport industry 
products needs to go hand in hand with the efforts to eliminate trade barriers. 
Promotion of shared social and environm ental standards is needed to allow the 
transport sector to become truly global and to avoid unfair competition, while there is a need to adopt common technical st andards on a world ba sis (that could be 
based on EU ones) to strengthen the competitiveness and the sustainability of the transport industry as a whole. 
533. In aviation, the comprehensive air transpor t agreements with the United States and 
Canada can be considered as a benchmar k for the whole sector globally. However, 
the time has come to expand this polic y to Europe’s other major economic and 
commercial partners, in particular in As ia, Latin America and the Middle-East. For 
maritime transport, it is al so vital to improve exchange s and cooperation with major 
countries worldwide, reflecting the globa l nature of the shipping business.  
534. Another step to improve competitiveness of the EU is through engagement with our 
trading partners to eliminate the barriers to investment, to attract international 
capital to aviation, thereby normalising the sector by allowing mergers and 
acquisitions like in any other sector of the economy. Furthermore reduce 
administrative burdens for carriers, and to  ensure maximum efficiency in customs 
or other procedures when entering the EU . Creating a framework for exchange of 
transport documentation and clear, simple and efficient procedures could lead to 
establishment of dedicated fast transport corridors between the EU and its trading partners. 
535. With regard to maritime transport, after the repeal of the exemption for liner 
shipping conferences on trades to and from the EU, the Commission is taking 
appropriate steps to advance the removal of price fixing exemptions for liner 
conferences that exist in jurisdictions outside the EU
235. 
536. The Arctic region has come into the focu s of many countries, not  only linked to its 
natural resources, but also in view of Arctic co mmercial navigation, opening new 
and shorter shipping routes. Concerted in ternational action is required to match 
commercial activities with the aim to protect this maritime basin. 
537. Last but not least, Europe needs to speak with one voice in the relevant 
international transport orga nisations. Its economic power and its integrated policies 
should be reflected legally in a global framework. Full membership of the EU in 
ICAO, IMO and other international bodies, would better project our policies and 
defend our interests. 
40. Transport in the World: The external dimension 
                                                 
235 See Council Regulation (EC) No 1419/2006 of 25 September 2006 repealing Regulation (EEC) No 
4056/86 laying down detailed rules for the application of Articles 85 and 86 of the Treaty to maritime 
transport, and amending Regulation (EC) No 1/2003 as regards the extension of its scope to include 
cabotage and international tramp services, recital 11. 
 
EN 127   EN Transport is fundamentally intern ational. Because of this, most  actions in this White Paper 
are linked to challenges related to the deve lopment of transport beyond the EU borders. 
Opening up third country markets in transport services, products and investments continues 
to have high priority. Transport is therefor e included in all our tr ade negotiations (WTO, 
regional and bilateral). Fl exible strategies will  be adopted to ensure  the EU’s role as a 
standard setter in the tran sport field. To that end, the Commission will focus on the 
following areas of actions: 
• Extend internal market rules through work in international orga nisations (WTO, ICAO, 
IMO, OTIF, OSJD, UNECE, the international river commissions etc) and where relevant 
attain full EU membership. Promote Eu ropean safety, security, privacy and 
environmental standards worldwide. Reinforce the transport dialogue with main partners. 
• Complete the European Common aviation area of 58 countries  and 1 billion inhabitants. 
Conclude comprehensive air services agreem ent with key economic partners (Brazil, 
China, India, Russia, South Korea etc.) and el iminate air transport i nvestment restrictions 
in 3rd countries. Promote SESAR technology deployment in the world.  
• Take action in multilateral forums and bilateral relations to promote policy targeted at the 
energy efficiency and climate change goals of this White Paper.  
• Continuously use multilateral (in ICAO, IMO and WCO) and bilateral layers to tackle the 
issue of terrorism, envisaging international agreements and enhanced security dialogues 
with strategic partners, starting with the US . Cooperate on joint threat assessments, 
training of third countries o fficers, joint inspections, pira cy prevention, etc. Ensure 
recognition of the EU concept of ‘one stop security’ system  internationally. 
• Develop a cooperation framework to extend our transport and infrastructure policy to our 
immediate neighbours – to deliver improved infr astructure connections and closer market 
integration – including in the preparation of mobility continuity plans. 
• Cooperate with Mediterranean partners in  the implementation of a Mediterranean 
Maritime Strategy to enhance maritime safety, security and surveillance.  
• Take appropriate steps to advance the re moval of exemptions for liner shipping 
conferences outside the EU. 
• Build on established research and innovation pa rtnerships to find common answers to the 
challenges related to interopera bility of transport manageme nt systems, sustainable low-
carbon fuels, security and safety.