EN    EN EN 
 
EN    EN  COMMISSION OF THE E UROPEAN COMMUNITIES 
Brussels, 25.11.2009 
SEC(2009) 1598 final 
COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 
Accompanying document to the: 
 
COMMUNICATION FROM THE CO MMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN 
PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL 
COMMITTEE AND THE COMMI TTEE OF THE REGIONS 
 
Key competences for a changing world 
 
PROGRESS TOWARDS THE LISBON OBJECTIVES IN EDUCATION 
AND TRAINING  
Analysis of implementation at the European and national levels 
 
  
{COM(2009) 640 final} 
 
EN 2   EN TABLE OF CONTENTS 
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... ... 6 
PART I : EU implementation of the edu cation and training 2010 work programme ................ 9 
1 The Open Method of Coordination in  Education and Training (OMC) .................... 10 
1.1 New tool for the disseminati on of peer learning results ............................................ 10 
1.2 Education and Training 2010 Coordinati on Group (ETCG), High Level Group and 
preparation of the new ET 2020 Strategic Framework .............................................. 11 
2 Progress on transversal lifelong le arning policies and instruments ........................... 12 
2.1 New Skills for New Jobs............................................................................................ 12 2.2 European Qualifications Framework (EQF) .............................................................. 13 2.3 Validation of non-formal and informal learning ....................................................... 14 2.4 Lifelong guidance ...................................................................................................... 14 2.5 Mobility................................................................................................................... ... 15 
2.6 External dimension strategy....................................................................................... 15 3 Schools ...................................................................................................................... . 16 
3.1 A European Agenda for cooperation on schools........................................................ 16 3.2 Key competences ....................................................................................................... 17 3.3 Teachers ................................................................................................................... .. 18 
3.4 Social inclusion and migration................................................................................... 19 4 Progress in implementing the Copenhagen  process for vocational education and 
training ....................................................................................................................... 19 
4.1 The Copenhagen policy framework: Assessi ng progress and preparing the future... 19 
4.2 ECVET - European credit system for VET................................................................ 21 4.3 EQARF - Quality Assurance in VET......................................................................... 21 4.4 Teachers and Trainers in VET ................................................................................... 22 5 Higher Education ....................................................................................................... 22 5.1 Progress on higher education ..................................................................................... 22 5.2 Higher education and the Bologna Process................................................................ 23 5.3 Quality Assurance in Higher Education..................................................................... 24 5.4 Other on-going initiatives to s upport the Modernisation agenda............................... 24 
5.5 University –Business partnerships ............................................................................. 24 
 
EN 3   EN 5.6 European Institute of Innovation and Technology..................................................... 25 
6 Progress on the Adult le arning Action Plan............................................................... 26 
PART II: Thematic cross-country analysis .............................................................................. 34 
1 Key Competences Framework ................................................................................... 35 1.1 The provision for key competences in national policies............................................ 35 1.2 Key Competences in the Curriculum ......................................................................... 40 1.3 Key Competences for the disadvantaged ................................................................... 70 1.4 Supporting adults in deve loping Key Competences .................................................. 78 
1.5 Teacher Education...................................................................................................... 86 1.6 Assessment of key competences ................................................................................ 91 1.7 Monitoring and Evaluation ........................................................................................ 95 1.8 Summary Conclusions on the impl ementation of Key Competences........................ 99 
2 transversal Lifelong Learning Issues ....................................................................... 103 2.1 Lifelong learning strategies (LLLS)......................................................................... 103 2.2 Establishment of lifelong guidance systems ............................................................ 105 2.3 Development of national qualification frameworks................................................. 107 
2.4 Learning outcomes based approaches...................................................................... 108 2.5 Measures to assess and validate non- formal and informal learning ........................ 109 
2.6 Conclusions on transversal lifelong learning issues................................................. 111 
3 Vocational education and training ........................................................................... 113 3.1 Attractiveness........................................................................................................... 11 3 
3.2 Relevance to labour market needs............................................................................ 119 3.3 Conclusions on attractiveness of VET and link to labour market needs.................. 123 
4 higher education....................................................................................................... 124 4.1 Income Streams in Higher Education ...................................................................... 125 
4.2. Opening up to lifelong learners................................................................................ 130 
4.3. Conclusions on income streams and the opening up of HEIs to lifelong learning .. 133 
PART III: Progress at national level ...................................................................................... 136 BELGIUM........................................................................................................................ ...... 137 
BULGARIA ....................................................................................................................... .... 142 
 
EN 4   EN CZECH REPUBLIC .............................................................................................................. 145  
DENMARK........................................................................................................................ .... 149 
GERMANY........................................................................................................................ .... 153 
ESTONIA........................................................................................................................ ....... 158 
IRELAND ........................................................................................................................ ...... 162 
GREECE ......................................................................................................................... ....... 167 
SPAIN .......................................................................................................................... .......... 172 
FRANCE ......................................................................................................................... ....... 176 
ITALY.......................................................................................................................... .......... 180 
CYPRUS ......................................................................................................................... ....... 184 
LATVIA ......................................................................................................................... ........ 188 
LITHUANIA...................................................................................................................... .... 192 
LUXEMBOURG.................................................................................................................... 1 96 
HUNGARY........................................................................................................................ .... 200 
MALTA.......................................................................................................................... ........ 204 
THE NETHERLANDS .......................................................................................................... 208 AUSTRIA........................................................................................................................ ....... 212 
POLAND......................................................................................................................... ....... 216 
PORTUGAL....................................................................................................................... .... 220 
ROMANIA........................................................................................................................ ..... 224 
SLOVENIA....................................................................................................................... ..... 227 
SLOVAKIA ....................................................................................................................... .... 231 
FINLAND ........................................................................................................................ ...... 235 
SWEDEN ......................................................................................................................... ...... 239 
THE UNITED KINGDOM.................................................................................................... 243 
CROATIA ........................................................................................................................ ...... 247 
ICELAND ........................................................................................................................ ...... 251 
 
EN 5   EN NORWAY......................................................................................................................... ..... 255 
TURKEY......................................................................................................................... ....... 259 
 
EN 6   EN INTRODUCTION 
This Commission staff working document accompanies the Commission Communication 
proposing the 2010 Joint Report on progress under the Education and Training 2010 work 
programme (i.e. the open method of  coordination in education a nd training contributing to the 
European Union's Lisbon agenda for growth and jobs). 
Context 
Every two years the Council and the Commission adopt a Joint Report on the implementation 
of the Education and Training 2010 work progra mme, including the field of higher education 
and the Copenhagen process in vocational ed ucation and training (VET). The next Joint 
Report will be adopted in Fe bruary 2010, based on the Commissi on's draft. Member States 
and the Commission had agreed that it should fo cus in particular on the progress made in 
implementing key competences policies,  following the adoption in 2006 of a 
Recommendation of the Europ ean Parliament and of the Council on key competences for 
lifelong learning1.  
This staff working document reports on the im plementation of the Education and Training 
2010 work programme at the European level (PAR T I), it contains a de tailed cross-country 
analysis of progress (PART II) and an analysis  of progress at national level (PART III).  
The 2010 Joint Report should be read together  with this report on 'Progress towards the 
Lisbon Objectives in Education and Training - Analysis of implementation at European and 
National Level' as well as the report on 'Progre ss towards the Lisbon Objectives in Education 
and Training - Indicators and benchmar ks - 2009', which are both annexed to the 
Commission's draft joint report. 
The present report is based on important cont ributions from competent authorities in the 
Member States on their different situations. It values European diversity and the unique 
opportunities which this affords, and fully respec ts the Member States' responsibility for their 
education systems. 
Aims and objectives 
The main aims of this document are therefore: 
• To describe the progress made since 2006/7 in the implementation of selected elements of 
the Education and Training 2010 work programme at the national and European levels and 
to illustrate this progress with examples of recent developments. 
• To review the state of progress in the Member States on the implementation of key 
competences in schools, vocational educati on and training (VET) and adult learning.  
• To comment on the support provided by the Key competences recomm endation to national 
key competences policies. 
                                                 
1 OJ L 394 of 18.10.2006, p. 10  
 
EN 7   EN Status and caveats 
Parts II and III of this document are based primarily on the analysis of national reports 
received from the participat ing countries in mid-2009, whic h were prepared following 
Commission guidelines. Refere nce is however also made to other Commission sources 
providing information on country  progress (in particular in formation from Cedefop and 
Eurydice).  
As the information provided in the 2009 national reports on specific measures within key 
competences, lifelong learning (LLL), vocational education (VET) and higher education (HE) 
is often not detailed, the examples cited in th e report have been chosen to illustrate the 
progress being made, rather than as examples of good or best practice. 
National reports were received by 31 out of th e 32 participating countries (Member States, 
EFTA/EEA, and candidate countries ; Liechtenstein did not report). 
Report structure 
PART I - provides an overview of the EU IMPLEMENTATION OF THE EDUCATION 
AND TRAINING 2010 work programme since the 2008 Joint Report. 
PART II – provides a cross-countr y analysis which closely refl ects the structure of the 2009 
national reports, which themselves reflect the guidelines provided by the Commission: 
Chapter 1 describes the progress relative  to the KEY COMPETENCES FRAMEWORK in 
particular: provision, curriculum, key competen ces for all, supporting adults in developing 
key competences, teacher education, a ssessment, monitoring and evaluation. 
Chapter 2 describes the pr ogress relative to TRANSVER SAL LIFELONG LEARNING 
ISSUES in particular: lifel ong learning strategies, lifel ong guidance systems, national 
qualification frameworks, learning outcomes ba sed approaches, and non-formal and informal 
learning. 
Chapter 3 describes the progress relative to VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING 
in particular: attractiveness and relevance to labour market needs 
Chapter 4 describes the progress relative to  HIGHER EDUCATION, in particular: income 
streams in higher educati on and lifelong learning. 
PART III – provides factual analyses of progr ess at national level (country by country). 
Supporting the Lisbon Strategy through education and training  
The Education and Training 2010 work programme  was adopted as a joint work programme 
of the Council and the Commission in 2001/02 to support the Lisbon process in education and 
training. Over the last seven years the Educat ion and Training 2010 work programme has, as 
the open method of coordination in this field, ma de a vital contribution towards achieving the 
overall objectives of growth and jobs. The Eu ropean Council has on va rious occasions (most 
recently in March 2008 and 2009) emphasised that education and training/lifelong learning is 
a key driver of the Lisbon Strategy.  
 
EN 8   EN Furthermore education and training is iden tified as a key element throughout the renewed 
Social Agenda for opportunities, acc ess and solidarity. This stress es the role of education and 
training in relation to children and youth; investing in people,  more and better jobs and new 
skills; mobility; longer and hea lthier lives; and combating poverty and social exclusion.  
The increased focus on education and training in the Lisbon context over the years led the 
Education Council to invite th e Commission to come forward with a proposal for an updated 
strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training in key messages 
which were endorsed by the March 2008 European Council. This was based on a specific request in the 2008 Joint Report of  the Council and the Commission.
2  
Following a comprehensive consultation process with  participating countrie s, social partners 
and other stakeholders3 the Commission adopted the commu nication: "An updated strategic 
framework for European cooperation in education and training"4 in December 2008. This was 
followed up by Council Conclusions on a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training ("ET 2020")
5 adopted in May 2009. 
The Strategic Framework introduces a few new elements in the OMC in terms of policy 
priorities and implementation. F our broad strategic objectives are identified fo r the period 
until 2020 as well as priority areas for 2009 – 2011. Implementation will be strengthened 
through more focused work on the short term priority areas, more focused peer learning, 
better dissemination of results, joint reports focused on a thematic area and including factual 
analyses of the situation in countries. This approach is also used in this staff working 
document, which has a thematic focus on Key Competences (PART II) and includes factual 
analyses of the situati on in countries (PART III). 
                                                 
2 OJ C 861, 5.4.2008,  p. 9. 
3 The consultation process is described in details in an Impact assessment: SEC (2008)3047 final  
4 COM (2008) 865 final  
5 OJ C 119 of 28.5.2009, p. 2  
 
EN 9   EN  PART  I: EU IMPLEMENTATION OF THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING 2010  WORK 
PROGRAMME
 
EN 10   EN EU IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ED UCATION AND TRAINING 2010 WORK 
PROGRAMME  
This section of the staff working paper takes st ock of the progress made at EU level to date 
since the 2008 Joint Interim Report in achieving concrete outcomes at European level and thus provides an update of the Commi ssion Staff Working papers from 2003
6, 20057 and 
20078 covering the first six years of implementati on of the Education a nd Training 2010 work 
programme. 
1 T HE OPEN METHOD OF COORDINATION IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING (OMC) 
The Education and Training 2010 work programme  has involved different activities using 
various working methods depending on the nature of the thematic priority being addressed. 
The tools have involved for example clusters, p eer learning activities, networks, university-
business partnerships and the activit ies under the Copenhagen process.  
1.1 New tool for the dissemination of peer learning results 
Peer Learning Activities (PLAs)9 have been undertaken since 2005 mainly by clusters of 
countries sharing a common interest in a thematic priority10. The current clusters have focused 
on seven topics: Modernisation of  higher education; Teachers and trainers; Maths, science 
and technology; Access and social inclusion;  Key competences; ICT; and Recognition of 
learning outcomes. As a key tool in the OMC, peer learning is also used by the Adult learning 
working group and the University-Business Forum. 
The work of the clusters and PLAs is intended to contribute, on the one hand, to the initiation 
of the policy development process at the European  level (reflection, ideas) and, on the other 
hand, to support national  policy development and implem entation of agreed European 
objectives and principles through mutual l earning and exchange of good practice.  
To disseminate the results of E&T 2010 coopera tion, and especially the results of peer-
learning, the Commi ssion has set up at special website: www.kslll.net  which opened in 2009. 
On the KSLLL (the Knowledge System for Life long Learning) all PLAs which have taken 
place are listed with a short and a long summary, a list of participating countries, and background documents
11. The KSLLL also contains the optio n for countries or other relevant 
stakeholders to post examples of good practi ce directly in the compendia developed through 
the clusters. 
                                                 
6 Commission Staff Working paper of 11 November 2003 on 'Implementation of the Education and Training 2010 programme'  
(COM (2003) 685 final). 
7 Commission Staff Working paper of 10 November 2005 on 'Implementation of the Education and Training 2010 programme'  
(COM (2005) 549 final). 
8 Commission Staff Working paper of 12 November 2007 on 'Implementation of the Education and Training 2010 programme'  
(COM (2007) 549 final). 
9 Peer learning is a process of cooperation at European level whereby policy makers and practitioners from one country learn, 
through direct contact and practical coopera tion, from experiences of their counterpa rts elsewhere in Europe in implementing 
reforms in areas of shared interest and concern. 
10 The word “cluster” is used to mean the regrouping of inte rested countries around a specific theme,corresponding to their natio nal 
policy priorities, and on which they  have expressed a desire to le arn from other interested countri es, or to share with others their 
successful or unsuccessful experiences.  
11 Throughout this chapter references to PLAs are made in terms of contributions to the work in different areas. For more specifi c 
descriptions of individual PLAs please refer to the KSLLL. 
 
EN 11   EN 1.2 Education and Training 2010 Coordina tion Group (ETCG), High Level Group 
and preparation of the new ET 2020 Strategic Framework 
The implementation and further development of  the education and training OMC has been 
carried out in close cooperation between  the Member States and the Commission. 
The Education and Traini ng 2010 Coordination Group  (ETCG) has overseen the operational 
management and implementation of E&T 2010 in a lifelong learning pers pective. Since mid 
2007, the ETCG has held five meetings and discu ssed operational issues su ch as the work of 
the clusters, the state of lifelong learning st rategies, and the bienni al reporting exercise. 
The High Level Group, which brings together political  advisers to national ministers, has held 
seven meetings since mid 2007 and discussed st rategic political ques tions relating to the 
European cooperation. 
The High Level Group  played a key role in providing Memb er States the opportunity to feed 
into the preparation of the Commission’s Co mmunication on an update of the education and 
training open method of coor dination of December 200812, which led to the adoption of 
Council Conclusions on a Strategic framework for European cooperation in education and 
training (ET 2020) in May 200913.  
In this context, also a broad consultation of countri es, social partners and stakeholders was 
carried out in 2008. The feedback gained on the E&T 2010 Open Method of Coordination 
was largely positive. The general result was th at, although some progress was apparent, the 
overall challenges and objectives for European cooperation remained valid. Also some improvements to the working methods were reco mmended in order to increase their focus and 
effectiveness. 
1.3 Monitoring and evaluating the impl ementation of the work programme 
(indicators and benchmarks) 
The 2009 Report "Progress towards the Lisbon obj ectives in education and training–indicators 
and benchmarks" which accompanies the present Staff Working Paper analyses the national 
and European performance related particularly to the set of i ndicators and benchmarks which 
exist for the period until 2010.  
In May 2009, the Education Counc il revised the current set of benchmarks as part of the 
Council conclusions on the new ET 2020 strategic framework. The revised structure includes 
five benchmarks: participation in early childhood education, low achievers in reading, 
mathematics and science, early leavers fr om education and training, higher education 
attainment and participation in lifelong lear ning. Moreover, the Education Council has invited 
the Commission to work towards concrete proposals for benchmarks in the areas of mobility and employability (for 2010) a nd language skills (for 2012).  
The Commission is also presently engaged in  development work on possible new European 
indicators in three competence areas. Concerning languages
, a first European survey is 
presently being implemented covering the fi ve most taught foreign languages (English, 
French, German, Italian and Spanish) and thr ee competences (reading, writing and listening 
comprehension). The field survey is planned to take place in 2011 and a final report on the 
results of the survey will be released in 2012. Concerni ng learning to learn skills,  a pilot 
survey has been carried out in  2008, testing an instrument fo r measuring these skills of young 
                                                 
12 "An updated strategic framework for Eu ropean cooperation in education and tr aining", COM(2008) 865 final of 16.12.2008 
13 OJ C 119/2 of 28.5.2009. 
 
EN 12   EN people. On the basis of the re sults of the pilot survey, the Commission plans to set up a 
Committee of national experts to  plan for further developm ent work. The Commission will 
report back to the Council if the European survey  on learning to learn skills is to be proposed. 
Concerning creativity skills , the first exploratory steps ha ve recently been taken by the 
Commission to plan for possible initiatives meas uring the creative skills of individuals on a 
cross-country level and identifying key indicators  on the creative capabili ties of societies.  
2 P ROGRESS ON TRANSVERSAL LIFELONG LEARNING POLICIES AND INSTRUMENTS  
Strong emphasis continues to be placed on suppor ting the 32 participating countries' efforts to 
put in place coherent and comprehensive lifelong learning strategies. This ambition was set by 
the Council and the Commission in  the 2004 Joint Interim Repor t on the implementation of 
E&T 2010 and endorsed by the 2004 European Council. 
The Commission has continued to monitor th e development and implementation of such 
strategies. It has supported national measures ai med at raising awarenes s of lifelong learning 
strategies and of European cooperation in this field. Since 2008, specific support has also 
been given to transnational cooperation in the development and implementation of such 
strategies at the nationa l and regional level. 
The following paragraphs also offer a brief ove rview of the outcomes of key instruments and 
initiatives at European level related to impr oving lifelong learning opportunities, notably the 
New Skills for New Jobs (NSNJ) initiative, th e European Qualifications Framework (EQF), 
lifelong guidance, the valida tion of non-formal and informal learning and mobility. 
2.1 New Skills for New Jobs 
In its conclusions of March 2008 and Ma rch 2009, the European Council stressed the 
importance of a better anticipation and matching of skills and jobs, in particular in times of economic crisis
14. Following the mandate of the European Council and since the 
Communication on "New Skills for Ne w Jobs" adopted in December 200815, the Commission 
has taken steps to improve the EU's capacity to anticipate skill needs, particularly:  
• Following the first assessment of future ski lls needs presented in the 2008 Communication, 
the Commission released 18 studies on sk ills needs in sectors (summer 2009). 
• Cedefop released a forecast of skills s upply (June 2009) and is working on an updated 
forecast of skills supply and demand with an  estimate of potential imbalances up to 2020 
(to be available end 2009)  
• Cedefop is also examining the potential of empl oyers´ surveys as a tool  for analysing skills 
needs.  
• In cooperation with ILO, Cedefop is undertak ing a study on "skills needs in green jobs" 
(beginning 2010). 
                                                 
14 Brussels European Council 13/14 Marc h 2008, Presidency Conclusions, 7652/1/08 RE V 1; Council Conclusions on New Skills 
for New Jobs. Anticipating and matching labour market and skills n eeds, 2930th Employment, social policy, health and consumer 
affairs Council meeting, Brussels, 9 March 2009.  
15 "New Skills for New Jobs. Anticipating and Matching Skills and Jobs", COM (2008) 868 final 
 
EN 13   EN The Commission is also raising awareness of ski lls needs, and promoting the "New Skills for 
New Jobs" agenda among its working groups, fora  and networks, to encourage Member States 
to disseminate and use information on future skills  needs, and to develop mechanisms so that 
skills needs analysis is taken on board in policy and practice.  The Commission also supports 
Member States in reforming curricula, assess ment and qualifications to provide the right 
skills, i.e. those that are most relevant to and needed by the labour market. This is being done, 
for example, through promoting the learning outco mes approach linked to the implementation 
of the EQF and the work on transversal key competences.  
Co-operation between the world of work and th e world of education a nd training is at the 
heart of the "New Skills for New Jobs" initia tive. The Commission is therefore encouraging 
innovative partnerships between all levels of education/training and business (the University-
Business Forum for example).  
2.2 European Qualificat ions Framework (EQF) 
Following extensive consultations  between Member States and various stakeholders at 
European level, the European Pa rliament and the Council adopted a recommendation  on the 
establishment of a European Qualifications Framework fo r lifelong learning in April 200816. 
The main objectives are to facilitate mobility and lifelong learning. To achieve this, the EQF 
acts as a translation device to make qualifica tions more readable and understandable to 
employers, individuals and instit utions throughout Europe. It ta kes the form of a reference 
framework providing a bridge ac ross countries and sectors, c overing general education, 
vocational training and higher education and f acilitating the validatio n of non-formal and 
informal learning.  
In order to ensure coherence and transparency in the implementation of the EQF, the 
Commission, closely supported by Cedefop, set up the EQF Advisory Group composed of 
representatives of participati ng countries and European social  partners. The Advisory Group 
has agreed on a set of criteria and procedur es to guide the referencing of national 
qualifications levels to the EQF. Working gr oups are preparing propos als on ways to support 
mutual trust in the referencing process, to a ddress sectoral developments related to the EQF 
and to establish EQF information resources.  
Since 2006, the Commission has supported, thr ough specific calls under the Leonardo da 
Vinci programme, 33 projects to test how the EQF can be effectively implemented and how 
the learning outcomes approach promoted by th is framework can be applied. These projects 
address themes such as the development of  national qualification frameworks (NQFs), 
national referencing levels and self-certification against the EQF levels, sectoral qualifications, bridging between VET and Highe r Education, promoting the validation of 
informal and non-formal learning and the involve ment of stakeholders, and the development 
of support materials. 
The cluster on the recognition of learning outcome s has also significantly contributed to the 
development of national qualifications fram eworks in Europe. Through peer learning 
activities, the cluster has explored major tre nds in countries and de fined typologies, dynamics 
and the basic concepts related to NQFs. The activities have fed into the national policy development processes, supporting policy ma kers in better und erstanding the impact, 
opportunities and challenges of NQF development.  
                                                
 
16 OJ C 111/1 of 6.5.2008. 
 
EN 14   EN The implementation of the EQF is closely coor dinated with relevant policy initiatives and 
measures within the Copenhagen and Bologn a processes, and broader developments on 
qualification frameworks at the international level. 
2.3 Validation of non-formal and informal learning  
The validation of non-formal and informal learni ng is increasingly seen as a key element of 
lifelong learning strategies and has been given priority within the Copenhagen Process, the 
Bologna Process and the Adult Learning Ac tion Plan. It is closely linked to the 
implementation of the EQF. 
Reflecting a concern as regards the quality and coherence of approaches in this rapidly 
evolving field of policy and pr actice, the cluster on the reco gnition of learning outcomes has 
systematically supported the exchange of nati onal experiences. Its pe er learning activities 
have strongly contribute d, for example, to the European Guidelines on the validation of 
informal and non-formal learning  published by Cedefop in July 200917. The guidelines 
address stakeholders at national,  regional, enterprise and local levels, and aim to contribute to 
the overall improvement of practise. They are in tended as a reference for validation practices 
in all sub-sectors of educa tion and training as well as in  enterprises and sectors.  
2.4 Lifelong guidance  
A major conference on lifelong guidance ( Gérer les transitions ) was organised by the French 
Presidency in Lyon in September 2008. The conf erence confirmed that lifelong guidance is 
perceived as a vital field for policy actions to  accompany people during many transitions they 
experience in today's economy a nd society. It underlined the im portance of generalised access 
to quality guidance services and the need to equip people with the skills necessary to take 
advantage of learning opportunities. 
Following up the conference, the French Presid ency proposed a Resolution that was adopted 
by the Council in November 2008, inviting Member States to take actio n around four priority 
areas: 
1. Encourage the lifelong acquisitio n of career management skills; 
2. Facilitate access by all citi zens to guidance services; 
3. Develop the quality assurance of guidance provision; 4. Encourage coordination and cooperati on among the various stakeholders. 
The Resolution invites Member States to take  advantage of the Eu ropean lifelong guidance 
policy network (ELGPN)
18. This network of Member States  is supported financially by the 
Commission and currently coordinated by Finland. In 2008 the network focused on 
contributing to the Lyon conference mentioned above. Its work programme for 2009 and 2010 
particularly focuses on thematic peer learning wo rk on the four priority areas indicated in the 
Council Resolution of November 2008. 
For the PLOTEUS portal on learning opportu nities, a Commission resource to support 
information and guidance services,19 a second phase started in 2008 with a view to 
interconnecting national databa ses and making them availabl e to citizens and guidance 
                                                 
17 Cedefop and DG EAC: European Guidelines on the validati on of informal and non-formal learning. Luxembourg, 2009. 
18 See: http://ktl.jyu.fi/ktl/elgpn 
19 See: http://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/ 
 
EN 15   EN operators through a common interface. Five nationa l databases were involved in the first wave 
of development; fifteen others joined the sec ond wave that will be achieved in 2010. Further 
development of Ploteus will also be linked to th e development of "Match and Map" initiative 
as part of the follow up to New Skills for New Jobs. 
2.5 Mobility 
Learning mobility and its potentia l to contribute to European cohesion and competitiveness 
has recently been the subject of considerable reflection. The Council concluded in November 2008 that "every young person should have the oppor tunity to take part in some form of 
mobility, whether this be during their studies or training, in the form of a work placement, or 
in the context of voluntary activities."  
A clear consensus exists in support of the objective of expanding mobility opportunities and 
extending them more broadly to young people. Wh at is now needed is to build on this 
consensus and define strategies to achieve  these ambitions. This is why the Commission 
adopted a Green Paper in July 2009
20 on how to promote learning mobility for young people. 
The Green Paper opens up the debate to stak eholders and the wide r public, seeking their 
views on how best to boost substantially the opportunities for young people to have a mobility 
experience.  
In 2008 the first evaluation of the Europass initiative was carried out21. The main conclusions 
were that the documents with a clear competence -based approach were the most effective and 
that their potential could be further exploited. In particular, the successful Europass CV tool 
should grow into a fully fledged CV and se lf-assessment service. Following a feasibility 
study, actual development started in summer 2009 with a view to make the service available 
to citizens by the end of 2010. Further synergy with the Eures job mob ility portal was also 
pursued, as well as with the implementation of the EQF. 
2.6 External dimension strategy 
The European Commission implements progra mmes and undertakes policy dialogue which 
have as their aim to open up the EU's educatio n systems (notably higher education) to the 
wider world. This allows European systems to participate in and benefit from the ne w global 
openness of education, in the form of increased  flows of students, educationalists and of 
ideas. 
Policy dialogue aimed at fac ilitating the exchange  of experiences and good practices is 
currently underway with a wide variety of pa rtner countries – with leading industrialised 
countries such as US, Canada, Australia, Japan, Korea and New Zealand; with newly 
emerging knowledge powers such as China, I ndia and Brazil; and with countries in the 
European Neighbourhood. 
Cooperation is also underway w ith countries in th e European Neighbour hood, in particular 
the partner countries, assist ed by the European Training Foundation for improving human 
capital development in the contex t of the EU external policies22. Policy approaches and tools 
discussed in the Copenhagen pr ocess provide an important refe rence for the modernisation of 
VET systems for countries in accessi on as well as partner countries.  
                                                 
20 COM(2009) 329 final of 8.7.2009 
21 Cf. Communication COM(2008)427. 
22 See ETF’s recast regulati on(EC) No 1339/2008 (Dec 2008) 
 
EN 16   EN Programme support for student and academic excha nge is most notably provided by the EU's 
flagship programme for worldwide academic cooperation, Erasmus Mundus. The Decision for 
the second phase of the Erasmus Mundus pr ogramme was adopted in December 2008 and 
entered into force at the beginning of 2009. The Erasmus Mundus II programme builds upon 
the success of its first phase (103 joint masters' courses an d approximately 100 partnerships 
selected and some 10000 scholarships offere d to students and academics) by aiming to 
become the EU reference programme for cooperati on with third countries in this area. Over a 
period of five years (2009-2013), just over 950 million Euros will be available for European and third-country universities to set up joint prog rammes or collaborative partnerships, and to 
grant scholarships to European and third- country students for an international study 
experience. The first call of the new phase of the programme  was launched in February 2009 
and in July 2009 50 new or renewed joint masters'  courses and – for the first time – 13 joint 
doctoral programmes were selected. Approxima tely 10,000 new grants w ill be attributed for 
the academic year 2009-2010. 
3 S
CHOOLS  
3.1 A European Agenda for cooperation on schools 
In 2007 the Commission undertook a public consultation on ‘Schools for the 21st Century’23 
that involved all relevant stakeholders and de cision makers at nationa l, regional and local 
levels. The outcomes of the consu ltation, together with the work of the clusters and relevant 
research, were the basis of the Commission' s Communication "Improving Competences for 
the 21st Century: An Agenda for European Cooperation on Schools"24 published in August 
2008. The proposed agenda is based on three areas of work:  
• Giving all pupils the competences they need  for life in our rapidly changing knowledge 
society; 
• Commitment to provide high qual ity learning for every student; 
• Work on improving the quality  of teachers and school st aff needs to continue.  
The November 2008 Council Conclusions endorsed the proposed agenda and stressed the 
fundamental role of school education in la ying the foundations for lifelong learning. In 
particular, the Council emphasised the two -fold challenge of the acquisition of key 
competences: first, more work is needed to ensure the fundamental basic skills such as 
literacy and numeracy as part of the key co mpetences and, second, enhance the acquisition of 
transversal key competences such as learning to learn, social and civic competences that are 
crucial for lifelong learning and for success in the labour market. 
On equity in education and training, the Counc il Conclusions reiterated the need to tackle 
early school leaving and foster social inclusion. This should  be achieved by, inter alia, 
ensuring transitions through improved guidance and advice, high-quality opportunities by improving early identification of learning diffi culties and by providing timely, personalised 
pedagogical approaches tailored to  individual needs. The Council also recognised the key role 
                                                
 
23 See http://ec.europa.eu/education/school21/index_en.html 
24 See http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/L exUriServ.do?uri=COM:2008:0425:FIN:EN:PDF 
 
EN 17   EN of Early Childhood Education and Care and called for a focus on cooperat ion in this area in 
the future. 
The Council Conclusions also recognised the key role of teachers and school leaders in 
making schools more responsive to today's challe nges. Joint work should include issues such 
as attractiveness of the teacher  profession, the recrui tment, placement, re tention and mobility 
policies and the professional development and support of both teachers' and school leaders' 
professions. 
3.2 Key competences  
The Cluster on Key Competences has focussed on policy aspects that can help schools and 
teachers support the acquisition of the ei ght key competences by all students.  
The policy examples examined by the cluster in dicate that with innovative pedagogies much 
can be done by individual teachers through subj ect teaching. Peer learning concludes that 
support for schools has to be sy stematic and comprehensive. The policy examples examined 
by the cluster in Hungary, Greece and Austria dem onstrated, first of all, the necessity of 
having a national lifelong learning strategy that e xplicitly indicates the essential role of school 
education as providing key competences for further learni ng and adult life. 
Secondly, policy processes need to be bot h top-down and bottom-up with effective 
communication between all actors. The implem entation of a competences-based curriculum 
should be supported by the use of research and evidence, new approaches to teacher's initial 
education and professional deve lopment, learning material and assessment and evaluation 
techniques.  
Teachers have been identified as key to any change, and there is a growing understanding on 
the role of school leaders in creating the righ t ethos and organisation for teachers to work 
together.  
In the field of mathematical competence and ba sic competences in science and 
technology,  the cluster on Maths, Science and Technology (MST) has focused on the 
modernisation of teaching methods; enhancemen t of the professional profile of teachers; 
ensuring a better transition betw een secondary and higher educa tion; promoting partnerships 
between schools, universities and industry; addressing the needs of special groups and 
improving female participation in MST studies  and careers. Since December 2008, work has 
been carried out together with the Commission' s Directorate-General for Research and as a 
follow-up to the Rocard report25 recommendations. The Cluster  has produced a Compendium 
of Good Practices in MST26. This presents relevant initiative s in MST visited and analysed by 
experts through the PLA methodology in relation to  national reforms and action plans in four 
countries: France, Norway and Portugal.  
The topics addressed by three PLAs (mid-2007-2009)  are closely linked to policy priorities of 
participating countries; they a ll concern large scale action plan s or strategic reforms on MST 
at national level. The PLAs carri ed out so far appear to have had positive impacts at national 
level and a clear demand for dissemination of go od practices has been reported by experts.  
In the field of digital competences,  the peer-learning cluster on ICT has worked on 
identifying key factors for improving the quality  of ICT integration in teaching and learning 
                                                 
25 "Science Education NOW – A Renewed Pedagogy for the Future of Europe", 2007:  
See: http://ec.europa.eu/research/s cience-society/rocardreport  
26 See: http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/2010/doc/compmst_en.pdf 
 
EN 18   EN in European education systems, the use of new technologies in edu cation and training, its 
added-value for qualitative and innovative learni ng and its contribution to attract groups at 
risk of exclusion. The cluster has contributed to a fundamental  change in discourse in the 
domain of ICT for learning: from 'accessibility ' to 'embedding the use of ICT in broader 
educational strategies' towards 'innovative learning'.  
The cluster exchanged good practices and has produced a Compendium of Good Practices. It 
has identified key recommenda tions on the implementation a nd integration of ICT in 
education and training (see fort hcoming summary of "Lessons Learned by the ICT cluster") 
and contributed to the preparation of the Co mmission Staff Working Paper on the "Use of 
ICT to support innovation and lifelong lear ning for all – A report on progress"27. The cluster 
has also contributed to  the development of improved indicators for measuring ICT use and 
impact, including exchange with European-wide comparative studies28.  
Peer learning activities have been organi sed in Oslo, Helsinki , Luxembourg, Budapest, 
Birmingham, Thessaloniki and Vienna. The cl uster worked closely with the respective 
clusters on 'Teachers and trainers', 'Key co mpetences' and 'MST' to transfer the main 
recommendations from the ICT cluster to th e policy agendas of these other clusters. 
The ICT cluster has also had an impact on European policy-making on "Digital competence" 
(e-inclusion and e-skills) acros s Commission Directorates Ge neral (EAC, INFSO, ENTR) so 
that both the assessment of digital competences, as well as the importance of the role of E&T 
for developing these competences in partnership with industry and resear ch, have been put on 
the agenda 
A number of significant policy developments in the field of communication in foreign 
languages  on have taken place since 2007, especially  on language teaching and learning.  
In September 2007, the Commission adopted a report on the implementation of the Action 
Plan "Promoting language learning and linguist ic diversity 2004-2006" while, in September 
2008, it adopted the Communication " Multilingualism: an asset for Europe and a shared 
commitment ". The Communication was the outcome of  a wide and intensive consultation 
process throughout 2007 and 2008, involving m eetings of high-level Member State 
representatives and of distinguished intellec tuals, a ministerial conference, a business 
conference and forum, an open stakeholder consultation as well as an inventory of 
Community actions in the fiel d of multilingualism. The Communication subsequently led the 
EU Education Council to adopt in November 2008 a Resolution on a European strategy for 
multilingualism.   
Furthermore, the Member States and the Com mission have pursued co operation on the ways 
and means of improving foreign language skil ls in the EU within the Expert Group on 
Languages and the European La nguage Inspectors' Network.  
3.3 Teachers 
In November 2007, the Council adopted Conclusions29 which constitute a commitment to 
improving the quality of teacher education. This was further developed by the above 
Conclusions of November 2008 on school education30. 
                                                 
27 SEC(2008) 2629 
28 Studies on Technology's impact in primary schools"  (STEPS) and on Indicators on ICT in Education (IIE) 
29 See: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/Lex UriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:200 7:300:0006:0009:EN:PDF 
30 See: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/Lex UriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:200 8:319:0020:0022:EN:PDF 
 
EN 19   EN The cluster ‘Teachers and Trainers’ has successf ully identified key policy conditions for: 
promoting effective relationships between schools  and teacher education institutions (TEIs), 
and the induction of new teachers into the prof ession. As part of the work, two PLAs have 
taken place since mid-2007; one on the relations hip between teacher education institutions 
and schools (Denmark 2007) and one on policie s of induction of new teachers (Estonia 2008). 
Induction presents a significant challenge in the EU, with less than half of Member States 
providing coordinated support for beginning t eachers. The Cluster is soon to publish a 
Handbook to assist Policymakers to remedy this. It has identified that the successful integration of beginning teachers into the prof ession requires them to receive four distinct 
types of support: mentoring, collaboration with peers, access to external advice and 
knowledge and structured self-reflection. 
3.4 Social inclusion and migration  
In 2007-2009, the work on social inclusion has focussed on increasing the efforts to reduce 
early school leaving and on mi grants and education. In Ma rch 2008 the European Council 
urged Member States to reduce the number of  early school leaver s and to improve the 
achievement of learners from mi grant or disadvantaged backgrounds. 
The cluster on 'Access and Social Inclusion in Li felong Learning' has been the main tool for 
increasing cooperation among Member States on thes e issues. Four PLAs have taken place in 
France, Spain, Sweden and Italy exploring pr ogrammes to support students in underachieving 
schools, pedagogical innovation, pre-primary edu cation and targeting di sadvantaged youth.  
The Green Paper 'Migration and mobility: Cha llenges & opportunities for EU education 
systems', adopted in July 2008, highlighted the need to develop policies and measures to bridge the achievement gap between migrant- background learners and others in education 
systems across the EU and opened a public c onsultation on the subjec t. Around 100 responses 
were received, mostly from education authoritie s or organisations activ e in the field, which 
have been analysed by the Commission. A c onsultation report will be published in 2009.  
4 P
ROGRESS IN IMPLEMENTING THE COPENHAGEN PROCESS FOR VOCATIONAL 
EDUCATION AND TRAINING  
4.1 The Copenhagen policy framework: Assessing progress and preparing the 
future 
Vocational education and training (VET) is crucial for Europe’s aim to re-position itself in the 
global economy through well-qualified human capital  equipped with the skills needed in the 
future. The Copenhagen process is part of th e OMC in education and training (Education and 
Training 2010 and it successor ET2020). Since 2002, European VET policy has been reviewed every two years, most recently  in Bordeaux in November 2008. Following the 
adoption of the Conclusions of the Council
31, the ministers from the EU Member States, 
candidate and EEA countries, the European So cial partners, and th e Commission adopted a 
Communiqué which sets out the VET priorities for 2008-201032. The Bordeaux Communiqué 
also called for a Ministerial follow-up meeting to be held in Bruges in 2010, to evaluate the 
                                                 
31 See http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriS erv.do?uri=OJ:C:2009: 018:0006:0010:EN:PDF  
32 See http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-lear ning-policy/doc/vocati onal/bordeaux_en.pdf  
 
EN 20   EN implementation of the Copenhagen process and to reflect on its stra tegic direction beyond 
2010. This will take place within the c ontext of the ET2020 Strategic Framework. 
The following policy priorities were set in the Council Conclusions and Bordeaux 
Communiqué in 2008: 
• Implementing the tools and schemes for pr omoting cooperation in the field of VET  – 
with a particular focus on: i) establishing National Qualifications Frameworks on the basis 
of learning outcomes, ii) the European Credit system for Vocational Education and 
Training, and iii) the Eur opean Quality Assurance Reference Framework. 
• Heightening the quality and attractiveness of VET systems  – by promoting the 
attractiveness of VET to all target groups, name ly by organising skills competitions such as 
EuroSkills, and by promoting excellence and quality assurance mechanisms.  
• Improving the links between VET and the labour market  – by i) developing forward-
planning tools focusing on jo bs and skills in line with the Counc il Resolution on "New 
skills for new jobs"; ii) ensuring the involve ment of the social partners; iii) improving 
guidance and counselling (throughout life) to ea se the transition from training to work; iv) 
promoting adult training, in particular in the workplace with special attention to SMEs; v) developing validation and rec ognition of non-formal and informal learning outcomes; vi) 
increasing mobility; and vii) increasing th e role of higher education in VET.  
• Strengthening cooperation arrangements  – by i) increasing the efficiency of mutual 
learning activities, ii) stre ngthening linkages between V ET, school education, higher 
education and adult training, and iii) consolid ating exchanges and cooperation with third 
countries and international or ganisations, such as the OECD , the Council of Europe, the 
ILO and UNESCO. 
Cedefop’s analysis and countries’ self-asses sment show a close alignment of national 
priorities and the European agenda. Although  progress varies, a European VET area is 
emerging. As described in Cedefop's report "Tow ards a European era of vocational education 
and training"
33, the development of common European tools, principles and guidelines is 
central to the Copenhagen process.  
The European qualifications framework (EQF) a nd the validation of non-formal and informal 
learning are a priority in almost all countries (see section 2).  
Credit systems are not yet commonplace in Eur opean VET systems. Bringing the European 
credit system for VET (ECVET) to maturity and implementation stil l requires substantial 
work and investment. Promising results are expected from pilot projects testing this 
instrument.  
The implementation of the European quality as surance reference framework (EQARF) will 
play a key role in further developing quality  assurance mechanisms in Europe. Quality 
assurance is increasingly understood as an objec tive as well as a means to ensure that VET 
programmes are more attractive and effective, equitable and efficien t and that learners, 
employers and education providers within a coun try and across borders ha ve trust in the value 
of learning outcomes − a prerequisite for the common Eu ropean tools and mechanisms to 
succeed. 
                                                 
33 See http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/et v/Upload/Information_resources /Bookshop/528/3055_en.pdf  
 
EN 21   EN Increasingly, European tools are part of a VE T policy mix. As a result of these European 
initiatives, general and comprehensive refo rms of the national education systems have 
intensified. These mainly focus on increased orientation towards learning outcomes.  
4.2 ECVET - European credit system for VET 
The European credit system for vo cational education and training (ECVET)34, which aims  to 
allow trainees to build upon their achievements when moving within national systems or from 
one national VET system to another, was adopted by the Council and the European 
Parliament in June 200935 and is in its first phase of impl ementation and development. It will 
facilitate the accumulation, exchange and transfer  of learning outcomes in any context, thus 
enabling citizens to pursue lifelong learni ng and to achieve qualifications by taking all 
learning contexts into account.  
Following a public consultation on the ECVET, a draft Recommendation on ECVET was 
proposed by the Commission in April 2008. For this purpose the Commission established a 
technical working group composed of experts from the countries par ticipating in E&T 2010 
and the European social partners, education associations and other stakeholders. The recommendation was adopted by the Parliame nt in December 2008 and by the Council in 
May 2009. A launching conference for ECVET wa s organised in Prague in May 2009, under 
the Czech presidency. A European wide conference focused on the implementation of ECVET is planned for November 2009. 
The Recommendation foresees the establishmen t of a European ECVET network and of a 
European ECVET users' group in order to develop cooperation be tween Member States and to 
ensure the overall governance of  the implementation of ECVET. In 2008, 10 pilot projects 
and two ECVET network projects were selected  to test and develop ECVET. They are 
financed by the Leonardo da Vinci Programme. 
4.3 EQARF - Quality Assurance in VET 
The Common Quality Assurance Framework for VET (CQAF)
36 endorsed by Council 
Conclusions in May 2004 has been a basis fo r mutual learning and the launch of several 
concrete initiatives, at both national and European levels.37 At European level, the CQAF has 
supported thematic work (quality indicators, early warning systems and links with Higher 
Education and EQF) and peer lear ning activities, as pa rt of the implementa tion of the biannual 
work programme of the European Netw ork on Quality Assurance in VET.  
Building on experience and achievements made so far through na tional and European 
practical initiatives, the Commission prep ared a proposal for a Recommendation on the 
establishment of a European Quality Assurance Reference Framework (EQARF), as a supporting tool to help Member States to pr omote, and monitor co ntinuously, the quality 
improvement/reform of their VET system s and quality management practices. The 
Recommendation was adopted by the Parliame nt in December 2008 and by the Council in 
May 2009. A launching conference was organised under the Czech EU Presidency in May 2009 (along with ECVET).  
                                                
 
34 See http://ec.europa.eu/education/lif elong-learning-pol icy/doc50_en.htm  
35 See http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUr iServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2009: 155:0011:0018:EN:PDF  
36 See http://ec.europa.eu/education/lif elong-learning-pol icy/doc1134_en.htm  
37 See http://communities.trainingvillage.gr . 
 
EN 22   EN The Recommendation is a common reference in strument to support Member States in 
promoting and monitoring quality improvement in  VET systems at different levels. It will 
also contribute to building mutual trust in na tional VET systems within a genuinely borderless 
lifelong learning area, thus facili tating transnational mobility of learners and workers. The 
framework comprises a quality assuranc e and improvement cycle of planning, 
implementation, evaluation/assessment and revi ew of VET provisions. It provides a common 
basis for further development of quality princi ples, reference criteria  and indicators, as 
appropriate. 
The Recommendation foresees the establishmen t of Quality Assurance National Reference 
Points and of a European EQARF network in  order to develop th e cooperation between 
Member States and to ensure the overall governance of the implementation of EQARF. 
4.4 Teachers and Trainers in VET 
Teachers and trainers in VET have been iden tified as a key priority in the Copenhagen 
Declaration, and the subsequent Communiqués. Th ey are seen as important actors promoting 
the attractiveness and quality in VET and in ach ieving lifelong learning fo r all. In 2006, a sub-
group of the cluster on Teachers and Trainers was established to focus specifically on VET 
teachers and trainers. Three peer learning activ ities have been organised since mid-2007 in 
Portugal, Slovenia and Germany on the validat ion of non-formal and informal learning for 
VET teachers and trainers, teach ers as change agents for the autonomy of VET schools, and 
professionalization of teacher s and trainers in VET. 
The specific focus on VET teachers and traine rs was supported by two studies which have 
been contracted by the Commission to analyse the situation in this rather diverse field in Europe. They have identified possible actions and measures (particularly on the qualification 
and recruitment of trainers, their work and working environments, on policies and practices 
related to the training of trainers and their effectiven ess and on possible professional 
development pathways). Additionally 6 workshops  were organised to gather information on 
the training and practice of VET teachers and trainers in the Me mber States and to consult 
with national stakeholders on out comes of the studies and possi ble future developments. The 
final report will be available in autumn 2009. 
In 2008 a new study was launched on the "Impact of  Leonardo da Vinci t eachers' and trainers' 
mobility projects on the VET systems". The imp act will be assessed at three levels: the 
individual/thematic level, the institutional leve l and the systemic level. The results will be 
available by the end of 2009. Cedefop has vi a the TTNET network focused its work in 
2008/2009 on the changing roles of VET teachers and trainers and on the feasibility of 
developing a common framewor k for VET professions.  
5 H
IGHER EDUCATION  
5.1 Progress on higher education 
The Commission aims to support Member States  in their efforts to modernise higher 
education systems, in all areas of their activ ity - education, research  and innovation - making 
them more coherent, more flexible, and more responsive to the needs of society. In May 2006, 
 
EN 23   EN the Commission published a Communi cation pointing to nine areas38 where action would help 
deliver the modernisation agenda for univers ities in education, research and innovation. 
The Commission has since then worked with Me mber States and the higher education sector 
to help implement the modernisation agenda  through the OMC and by special initiatives 
(European Credit Transfer and Accumulation Sy stem, EQF, European Institute of Innovation 
and Technology etc.) and by supporting the initiatives of others (p ilot projects, associations, 
networks etc.) through the Lifelong Learni ng Programme. The Commission also works to 
support this modernisation agenda through the implementation of the 7th EU Framework 
Programme for Research and the Competitiveness and Innovation Programme, as well as the 
Structural Funds and EIB loans.  
The peer-learning cluster on Modernisation of  Higher Education has supported the reform 
agenda for higher education. This Cluster looks in detail to  issues related to curriculum, 
governance and funding reform. Based on the learning needs of  participating countries, the 
Cluster looks at key issues and organises spec ific events for the exchange of good practice 
and reflection on experiences.  
The Cluster has organised three peer learning activities (PLAs) since mid-2007 in Bulgaria, 
Iceland and Spain, on implementing the EQF and national qualification frameworks in Higher 
Education, on circling the Knowledge  Triangle from the perspect ive of education (the added 
value of better connecting Higher Education to  research and innovation) and on ways to  
increase mobility (funding models examined). 
Examples of outcomes from the work of the Cluster include:  
• The findings of the PLA on Knowledge Triangl e have informed the preparation of a 
Swedish Presidency conference on the knowledge  triangle, and input into the Council's 
reflections in this area 
• Conclusions of the PLA on ways to incr ease mobility: the funding models examined 
informed the French Presidency conference on mobility and the development of the Green 
Paper on Mobility  
• The Cluster has also developed a Compendium of good practi ce in policymaking for 
modernising universities . The Compendium is an inform ation tool aimed at informing 
national and regional policy development a nd policy implementation. It is based upon 
good practices provided from the Member States , with evidence on results where available. 
The Compendium is a dynamic resource: as new examples of good practice arise, these 
will be added39. 
5.2 Higher education and the Bologna Process 
The Commission stimulates Bologna initiatives at  European level and participates as a full 
member in the Bologna Follow-up Group. Ten y ears on from the Bologna Declaration, the 
ministerial follow-up conference in April 2009 in Leuven and Louvain-la-Neuve focused on 
defining political orientations for the European  Higher Education Area for the coming decade 
to 2020. The final Communiqué reflects well th e objectives and expectations of the 
                                                 
38 ”Delivering on the Modernisation Agenda  for Universities” Education, Research  and Innovation COM(200 06)208 final, of 10 
May 2006  
39 See: http://www.kslll.net/PoliciesAndAchievements/Default.cfm 
 
EN 24   EN Commission. In particular it formulates the target  that in 2020, at least 20% of graduates in 
the European Higher Education Area should have  had a study or trai ning period abroad.  
At the previous ministerial meeting in London in 2007, it was decided to develop a strategy 
for the external dimension of the Bologna Pr ocess. The Commission has, for several years, 
strongly advocated closer coop eration with countries outsid e the process. It therefore 
welcomed the initiative taken by the hosts of the conference (Belgium, Netherlands, and 
Luxembourg) to organise a Bologna Policy Fo rum. This meeting immediately followed the 
Ministerial Meeting on 29 April and was atte nded by higher education ministers or their 
representatives from 15 countries around th e world, including the US, Canada, Mexico, 
Brazil, Australia and China. The Forum provi ded the opportunity to discuss how worldwide 
cooperation in higher education can be enhan ced through the Bologna Process. The final 
declaration highlighted the consensus that a mo re permanent and struct ured dialogue between 
"Bologna" and third countries w ould be of mutual interest and that Bologna Policy Fora 
should become regular events.  
See also section 2 on Erasmus Mundus. 
5.3 Quality Assurance in Higher Education 
In September 2009, the Commission published the fi rst triennial report a ssessing progress in 
the development of quality assu rance systems in Member Stat es and on cooperation activities 
at European level. This was to follow-up th e 2006 joint recommendation on further European 
cooperation in quality assu rance in higher education40. A major breakthrough was the creation 
of the European Quality Assurance Register  (EQAR) which was launched in 2008. The report 
highlights in particular the need for a more efficient quality assurance infrastructure, the 
implementation and possible revision of the Eu ropean Standards and Guidelines in quality 
assurance, and a stronger European dimension in quality assurance.  
5.4 Other on-going initiatives to support the Modernisation agenda 
To facilitate the transparency of higher ed ucation institutions and their missions, the 
Commission is supporting research into the f easibility of a Europ ean Global University 
Ranking. This ranking would cover all three le vels of study, be entirely independent, multi-
dimensional, and involve universi ties across the whole world. The first results of the research 
will be available in early 2010, and testing wi ll run through 2010 and th e first half of 2011.  
The Ranking project complements work bein g undertaken on behalf of the Commission on 
European University Data Collection (mapping) which will create a census of European universities, and launch a pilot data collection on a sample of research-active universities. 
Building upon a successful conference held in co-operation with the European Investment 
Bank on the theme of student lending in January 2009, the Commission will launch a 
Feasibility Study on Student Lending for learning mobility in late 2009. 
5.5 University –Business partnerships 
University-Business Cooperation is a cornerston e in the modernisation of higher education. 
This has been highlighted in the Commission' s Communication of 2006 and reinforced in the 
Resolution of the Council on modernising universities for Europe's competitiveness in a 
                                                
 
40 Further European cooperation in qua lity assurance in higher education Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the 
Council (February 2006): http://eurex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/e n/oj/2006/l_064/l_06420060304en00600062.pdf   
 
EN 25   EN global knowledge economy41. The Council invited the Co mmission to support the Member 
States with regard to the modernisation agen da, including through encouraging partnerships 
between universities and industry/private sector. 
In order to contribute to improving cooperation between higher educatio n and industry/private 
sector, the Commission launched the University-Business Forum,  a European level platform, 
providing for structured dialogue between the stakeholders, stimulati ng the sharing of good 
practice and mutual learning. The first plen ary University-Business Forum took place in 
February 2008 followed by three thematic forums  focusing on specific aspects in the context 
of University-Business Cooperation: continui ng education and lifel ong learning (Brussels, 
June); curriculum development and entrepre neurship (Tenerife, October) and Knowledge 
Transfer (Brussels, November). The 2nd plenary University-Business Forum was organised in 
Brussels in February 2009. 
At these events, representatives from the differe nt stakeholders met to exchange experiences 
and to discuss common problems and solutions. The areas addressed were governance, curriculum development, entrepreneurshi p, knowledge transfer, lifelong learning and 
mobility. Each forum formulated a number of  conclusions and possible lines of action. 
The Commission adopted in Ap ril 2009 the Communication: "A  new partnership for the 
modernisation of universities:  the EU Forum for University Business Dialogue". The 
Communication sets out what has been learned from the first year of the Forum about the 
challenges and barriers to Univ ersity-Business Cooperation, the issues to be addressed and 
good practices and approaches, which could be mo re widely used. It makes proposals for the 
next steps in the Forum's work and outline s concrete follow-up ac tions to strengthen 
University-Business Cooperation. 
The Conclusions of the Counc il, adopted on 12 May 2009, on "enhancing partnerships 
between education and training inst itutions and social partners, in  particular employers, in the 
context of lifelong learning", invites the Comm ission to "further develop the University-
Business Forum as a physical and virtual platfo rm at European level for dialogue between the 
different stakeholders, to envi sage its extension to include other levels of education and 
training, stakeholders from count ries outside the EU and sp ecific sectors within higher 
education, to disseminate the findings of the platforms and to facilitate access to and the 
sharing of examples of good practice". 
5.6 European Institute of Innovation and Technology 
The European Institute of Innovation and T echnology (EIT) is a new Community body which 
aims to generate sustainable European growth and competitiveness in the global knowledge society via the stimulation and delivery of worl d-leading innovation and entrepreneurship in 
the higher education, resear ch and business triangle
42.  
The appointed Governing Board, the EIT's au tonomous decision-making body, kicked off its 
activities in September 2008. The EIT's "Know ledge and Innovation Communities" (KICs), 
integrating for the first time all actors involve d in the "knowledge triangle" or "innovation 
chain" within ambitious pan-European partne rships, are the EIT's first major action at 
European level. The EIT will pu t a strong emphasis on attracti ng and mobilizing participants 
                                                 
41 COUNCIL RESOLUTION of 23 November  2007 on modernising universities for Eu rope's competitiveness in a global 
knowledge economy; 16096/1/07 REV 1 
42 See: http://eit.europa.eu/ 
 
EN 26   EN and resources from the private sector, notably industry, the full inclusion of which is one of 
the cornerstones of the initiative. 
6 P ROGRESS ON THE ADULT LEARNING ACTION PLAN  
The Adult learning Action Plan ‘It is alwa ys a good time to learn’ was adopted by the 
Commission in September 200743. Building on the 2006 Communi cation on Adult Learning44, 
the Action Plan defines five concrete actions which Member States should seek to implement 
in order to increase the participation in and the quality of adult learning and to develop efficient systems that reach all adults and invo lve all relevant stake holders. The Action Plan 
was reinforced by the Conclusions of the Council  in May 2008. The five priority actions are 
to: 
• Analyse effects of reforms in other educationa l sectors on adult learning: developments in 
the adult learning sector must be mainstr eamed into the ongoing process of modernising 
education and training.  
• Improve the quality of provision: quality is in fluenced by many factors but none is more 
important than staffing; teaching and othe r support staff should be  equipped with key 
competences to motivate and accompany adult l earners; quality standards for providers are 
lacking. 
• Increase the possibilities to achieve a qualifi cation at least one leve l higher: it must be 
possible for everyone to take th eir qualification one step up or  up-date their competences at 
the same level. 
• Speed up the process of assess ing and recognizing non formal and informal learning for 
disadvantaged groups: the assessment and vali dation of competences, regardless of where 
and how they are gained, are especia lly important for the low qualified.  
• Improve the monitoring of the adult learning s ector: there is an urge nt need for a common 
language to overcome the misunderstandings and the lack of comparable data in the sector.  
Implementing the Action Plan 
To support the implementation of the Action Plan, the Commission established the Adult 
Learning Working Group (representatives from Member States, EFTA and EEA countries, 
European Associations involved in  adult learning and European social partner organisations). 
Since January 2008, the Working Group has met on a regular basis to, on the one hand, 
support and guide the Commissi on's work, and, on the other hand, ensure implementation of 
the Action Plan in the respectiv e countries. Work on the Action Pl an priority areas is also 
supported by five focus groups, each of which consists of five experts invited by the 
Commission to give advice and guidance at st rategic points in the development of the 
dedicated follow up activities. 
                                                
 
43 COM(2007) 558 final. 
44 COM(2006) 614 final 
 
EN 27   EN To ensure that implementation of the Action Plan  and dissemination of its results so far reach 
the grassroots level, and to strengthen coope ration between the relevant stakeholders, four 
meetings were organised which group the part icipating countries in to four regions. The 
meetings are also used for a wider consultation on future actions that will be needed to assure that adult learning becomes an essential element of lifelong lear ning strategies. A final report 
of the meetings, which take place in Octobe r and November 2009, will be available by the 
end of 2009. 
In 2008-2009, Peer Learning Activitie s have taken place on literacy, monitoring of the sector, 
the "one step up approach", and the validation of non formal and informal learning with a 
focus on the low qualified. The resu lts and reports, which are online
45, support mutual 
learning in priority areas of the Action Plan, but  also feed into the body of information being 
accumulated on ways to build effective adult learning systems. 
Key outputs in 2009 
By the end of 2009, a number of outputs will be available based on studies, c onsultation with 
the Working Group, PLAs and expert m eetings, etc., including the following: 
A reference framework of key compet ences for adult learning staff  
This framework will contribute to improving th e quality of staff working in the sector by 
providing a set of crite ria which can be used to assess t hose entering the sector, to develop 
curricula for initial and continuing education and training of adult learning staff and to 
validate competences obtained via non-formal and informal learning. 
A glossary of key definitions used in the adult learning sector 
This glossary should support be tter understanding and communica tion within and outside the 
adult learning sector. It will facilitate studie s undertaken in the field of adult learning and 
support the comparability of core data for monitoring the sector. 
An inventory of good practices focused on up-skill ing adults with weak qualification levels 
This inventory should serve as a tool to diss eminate and promote exchange and transfer of 
good practices at national, regional and local  level, in order to help people achieve 
qualifications, which in turn should help them to enter the labour market or take a more active 
role in society. The sense of urgency to assi st those people is increased by the economic 
downturn and expected demographic changes. 
A methodology for assessing the impact of  reforms in the adult learning sector 
This methodology will help Member States to analyse and assess how reforms in education 
and training, as well as the broader labour ma rket, economic and social policy reforms are 
impacting on the adult education sector.  
Next steps 
The results and outcomes of all of these initiatives may be su mmarised in a Commission Staff 
Working Paper, by the end of 2010, to show where adult learning stands in Member States at 
                                                 
45 The full findings of these and other PLAs can be viewed  on the website Knowledge Sy stem for Lifelong Learning 
http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningActivities/Default.cfm?id=6  
 
EN 28   EN the end of the three-year period covered by the Action Plan. It would pr ovide input to a final 
conference, early in spring 2011, the purpose of wh ich would be to evaluate the Action Plan, 
its implementation, results and achievements.  
 
EN 29   EN Part I Annex 1 - Active country participation in clusters and groups doing peer-learning 
Country Modernisation 
of Higher 
Education Teachers & 
Trainers Teachers & 
Trainers 
in VET Math, science and 
technology Access and 
social inclusion Key 
competences ICT Recognition of 
learning outcomes Working 
group on 
adult learning 
AT  X X  X X X X X 
BE-fr X    X   X X 
BE-nl X X    X  X X 
BG X     X X X X 
CY  X  X  X X  X 
CZ X X   X X  X X 
DE  X X X X  X X X 
DK X X  X    X X 
EE  X X    X X X 
EL      X X X X X 
ES X X X  X X  X  
FI X X     X X X 
FR    X X  X X X 
HR X     X  X X 
HU X    X X X X X 
IE  X X  X X  X X 
IS X X X X   X X X 
IT  X X  X   X X 
LT  X   X    X 
 
EN 30   EN Country Modernisation 
of Higher 
Education Teachers & 
Trainers Teachers & 
Trainers 
in VET Math, science and 
technology Access and 
social inclusion Key 
competences ICT Recognition of 
learning outcomes Working 
group on 
adult learning 
LU     X  X X X 
LV    X X   X X 
MT X   X   X X X 
NL X X  X    X X 
NO X X  X   X X X 
PL       X X X 
PT X X X X    X  
RO X X X  X   X X 
SE X X  X X   X X 
SI  X X X    X X X 
SK    X   X X X 
TR  X   X  X X  
UK    X   X 
(Northern 
Ireland) X X 
CEEP  X   X     
ETUC X X    X   X 
UEAPME         X 
Business 
Europe  
X         
X 
 
EN 31   EN Part I Annex 2 - Peer Learning Activi ties mid-2007 - mid-2009 (reverse order) 
Date Peer Learning 
Cluster/ other 
group Title Venue Country 
15-06-2009  Recognition of 
Learning Outcomes Peer Learning Activity on the use 
of learning outcomes as a bridge between VET and HE Berlin Germany
11-05-2009 Teachers and 
Trainers in Vocational Education and Training (VET) Professionalisation of teachers and 
trainers in VET Bonn Germany
21-04-2009 Access and 
Social Inclusion Measures targeted to 
disadvantaged youth Naples Italy 
22-03-2009 Working group 
on adult learning  Peer Learning Activity on Adult 
Monitoring  Bratislava Slovakia 
12-02-2009 Recognition of 
Learning Outcomes Peer Learning Activity on the 
costs and benefits of validation of non-formal and informal learning Reykjavik Iceland 
03-12-2008 Access and 
Social Inclusion Preschool education in Sweden 
and the connection between pre-schooling, school-age childcare and compulsory school in the light of life-long-learning Stockholm Sweden  
30-11-2008 Information 
and Communication Technology (ICT) E-Inclusion and digital 
competences  Vienna Austria  
10-11-2008 Key 
Competences Fostering Cross-curricular Key 
Competences for Creativity and Innovation Vienna Austria  
29-10-2008 Modernisation 
of Higher Education Ways to increase mobility: funding 
models examined Alicante Spain  
26-10-2008 Teachers and 
Trainers  Policies on the induction of new 
teachers Talinn Estonia  
20-10-2008 Recognition of Added value of NQFs as tools to London UK  
 
EN 32   EN Date Peer Learning 
Cluster/ other 
group Title Venue Country 
Learning 
outcomes support lifelong learning 
20-10-2008 Teachers and 
Trainers in Vocational Education and Training (VET) VET teachers as change agents 
towards the autonomy of VET schools Bled Slovenia 
13-10-2008 Math, Science 
and Technology (MST) The action plan for mathematics, 
the action plan for science and the promotion of scientific culture in Portugal Vila do 
Conde Portugal  
08-10-2008 Information 
and Communication Technology (ICT) E-skills and digital literacy and 
partnerships for LLL strategies Thessaloniki Greece  
08-10-2008 Access and 
Social Inclusion Schools as Learning Communities Bilbao Spain  
25-06-2008 Modernisation 
of Higher Education Circling the Knowledge Triangle 
from the perspective of Education: the added value in better connecting Higher Education to Research and Innovation Reykjavik Iceland  
11-06-2008 Recognition of 
Learning outcomes Development of National 
Qualifications Frameworks Niepolmice Poland  
14-04-2008 Math, Science 
and Technology (MST) Increased recruitment and better 
quality instruction in MST. A joint promotion of MST in Norway Oslo Norway  
14-01-2008 Working group 
on adult learning  Peer Learning Activity on Adult 
Literacy Dublin Ireland  
14-01-2008 Teachers and 
Trainers in Vocational Education and Validation of non-formal and 
informal learning for VET teachers and trainers Lisbon Portugal  
 
EN 33   EN Date Peer Learning 
Cluster/ other 
group Title Venue Country 
Training (VET) 
09-12-2007 Key 
Competences Peer Learning Activity on Key 
Competences for lifelong learning Athens Greece  
12-11-2007 Access and 
Social Inclusion Fight against failure at school and 
inequality in education  Paris France  
08-10-2007 Math, Science 
and Technology (MST) Renovation in science education: 
an inquiry-based approach Sèvres, 
Paris France  
08-10-2007 Modernisation 
of Higher Education Peer Learning Activity on 
Implementing EQF / NQF in Higher Education  Sofia Bulgaria 
08-10-2007 Recognition of 
Learning outcomes Peer learning activity on the 
development of National Qualifications Frameworks  Budapest Hungary 
07-10-2007 Teachers and 
Trainers  Relationships between Teacher 
Education Institutions and Schools Copenhagen Denmark 
04-10-2007 Information 
and Communication Technology (ICT) Leadership in ICT and parental 
involvement  Birmingham UK  
17-09-2007 Key 
Competences The supporting system for 
curricular reform Budapest  
and Veszprém Hungary 
09-07-2007 Recognition of 
Learning outcomes Peer Learning activity on 
validation of non-formal and informal learning Paris France  
 
EN 34   EN PART  II: THEMATIC CROSS -COUNTRY ANALYSIS
 
EN 35   EN 1 K EY COMPETENCES FRAMEWORK  
The Recommendation sets out eight competences which combine knowledge, skills and 
attitudes appropriate to the cont ext and which all individuals n eed for personal fulfilment and 
development, active citizenship, social in clusion and employment. Young people should 
develop these competences duri ng their initial edu cation and training, a nd adults should be 
given the opportunities to lear n, maintain and update these co mpetences in the course of 
lifelong learning.  
The eight key competences are: 
• Communication in the mother tongue; 
• Communication in foreign languages; 
• Mathematical competence and basic comp etences in science and technology; 
• Digital competence; 
• Learning to learn; 
• Social and civic competences; 
• Sense of initiative a nd entrepreneurship; and 
• Cultural awareness and expression. 
The Key competences approach combines the acquisition of relevant knowledge, the 
development of skills and positive attitudes towards further learning, added to creativity, critical thinking and problem so lving. This emphasis together w ith the fact that many of the 
key competences are cross-curricular by their nature, presents schools, training institutions, teachers, trainers and leaders with new dema nds, both in their practice and in attitude.  
The Recommendation invites the Commission by 2010 to review the impact  of the Reference 
Framework within the contex t of the Education and Training 2010 work programme.  
The current review is based on national repo rts completed in spring 2009. Each country 
responded to a questionnaire which included el ements deriving from the Recommendation 
(the impact of the Framewor k on the national lifelong learning strategy and national reforms; 
curricula of initial education and training, pr ovision of key competences for adults, and the 
disadvantaged) and other questions based on the joint work done by the Commission and 
Member States since the adoption of the R ecommendation (the education and professional 
development of teachers and trainers and the us e of assessment and evaluation to support the 
competence-based approach). 
1.1 The provision for key compet ences in national policies 
All countries now have measures in place to  develop provision for Key Competences. 
However, these measures vary in scale, in how they relate to the existing education and 
training provision and in how they are concep tualised. This depends on the situation that 
 
EN 36   EN existed in the country prior to  the adoption of the Key compet ences framework. Four trends 
can be identified: 
A. Using the Framework to reform edu cation and training provision directly; 
B. Using it is a reference to fine-tune incremental reforms; C. Introducing reforms that are coherent with certain aspects of the Framework; 
D. Having put in place reforms and measures consistent with the Framework prior to its 
adoption. 
A) Using the Framework to reform educa tion and training provision directly  
Half of the countries (AT, BG, CY, CZ, ES , FR, HR, IS, LT, LV, PL, RO, SK, SI) are 
introducing wide-ranging reforms which explicitly use the Framework as an organising 
structure to develop provision for key competences. Countries de scribe that their reforms are 
“based on” (ES, SK) or “orientated towards”  (CZ, RO) or “inspired by” (FR) the Key 
Competences Framework. These wide ranging reforms may concern all the sectors of education and training (BG, CY, CZ, ES, HR, IS, LT, LV, PL, RO , SI, SK) as is the case in 
the Spanish example in the box below or only co mpulsory education (FR). Other examples of 
country reforms explicitly underpinned by the Key Competen ce Framework include France, 
Austria and Romania.  
Box 1-1 – Spain - Key Competences in the Organic Law on Education 
In 2006 Spain introduced a new Organic Law on Education which incorporated the Key 
Competences into the whole of the Spanish cu rriculum in primary, secondary, VET and adult 
education. This identifies eight competence s which young people should achieve by the end 
of compulsory education and is based explicitly on those specified in the EU 
Recommendation, framed to accommodate the part icular context of the Spanish education 
system.  
Key Competences in Spain do not replace the exis ting curriculum: they provide an organising 
framework which is used to specify objectives  for each area, identify relevant content and 
specify criteria for assessment. Different ke y competences can be developed through many 
different subjects and methods, through extr a-curricular activities and even through 
experiencing an institutional environment which models a cooperative and democratic 
learning community. Assessment processes have been rolled out nationally and regionally and 
the whole endeavour is supported by large scale teacher development programmes. 
 
EN 37   EN Box 1-2 – France - Common foundation of competences (Le Socle Commun de 
Compétences)  
The French law on school orientation (La loi d’or ientation sur l’ecole - April 2005) declared a 
common foundation of competences  (socle commun des compéten ces) which took note of the 
European work towards a Framework of Key Competences. The seven competences in the 
French ‘socle de compétences’ correspond closel y to the European Framework and define the 
foundations which all young people in general or  vocational educatio n and training must 
acquire by the end of compulsory schooling.  
The ways in which the Key Competences Framew ork underpins or is used in these national 
reforms vary. The following complementary approaches were identified:  
• It is used to plan programmes/ curricula (A T, BE fr, BE nl, CZ, ES, FR HU, IS LU, LV, 
NL, PL, RO, SI); 
• It can structure cross-curricular work (B E fr, BE nl, ES, HU,  HR, NL, PL, SI); 
• It provides a basis for learners’ assessment in relation to some or all key competences (AT, 
BG, CY, CZ, ES, FR, HR, LT, LV, RO); 
• It structures evaluation of e ducation and training systems (AT, BG, CY, CZ, ES, FR, HR, 
IS, LT, LV, PL, RO, SK, SI). 
B) Using the framework to fi ne-tune incremental changes  
Several countries (BE fr, BE nl, EL, HU, LU, NO, PT, TR) have intr oduced innovations in 
their systems which include significant elements that are related to the Framework, even if 
these are not fully organised around it. Countri es in this category used the Framework to 
clarify general priorities of refo rms and / or to address particular  gaps in the provision of key 
competences.  
Box 1-3 – Belgium fr - Priority Action Plan  for the Future of Wallonia (Marshall Plan 
for Wallonia) 
The so-called Marshall Plan fo r Wallonia (Priority action plan for the future of Wallonia), 
launched in 2006, includes a series of measures  designed to improve key competences in 
certain areas such as: linguistic competence, an  e-learning action plan  and range of support 
measures including teacher training and establis hment of training struct ures to facilitate 
resources and learning in advanced technology.  
These innovations build on the contributions of a series of expert working groups, which, at 
the end of the 1990s, formulated statements of competence for a ll levels and sectors which are 
compatible with the concepts underp inning the Key Competences Framework.  
 
EN 38   EN C) Country reforms that are coherent w ith certain aspects of the Framework  
A few countries (e.g. EE, IE, MT, NL, UK) have  introduced reforms which support provision 
of the key competences in certain areas although different terminology is used.  
Box 1-4 – Netherlands - Key Competences 
The key competences to be developed by pupils  in primary school and the lower years of 
secondary school are set down in attainment targ ets which overlap considerably with the EU 
Key Competences. Since 2006 particul ar attention has focused on: 
– continuous, cross-sectoral progression of learning; 
– the implementation of reference levels, which define more precisely what a child should 
have learned in terms of language and arithmetic by the end of primary school; 
specific work on to science and technology in the form of a ma jor cross-curricular 
technology, digital competence and entrepreneurship progr amme involving 2,500 primary 
schools.  
D) Country reforms which were in place prior to the adoption of the Key Competences 
framework but are consistent with it 
Three countries (DE, DK, EE, FI, SE) have introduced reforms based on competence-based 
approaches prior to the adoption of the Fram ework. Competence-based curricula have been 
present in these systems for many years and are not re-defined as new measures.  
Box 1-5 – Denmark - Globalisation Strategy 
The Danish Government’s Globalisation St rategy, based on work that started in 2005, 
initiated a review of the aims  and objectives of all curricu lum subjects in 2006. This work 
started before the adoption of the Key Compet ences Framework and is not articulated around 
it even though fully coherent with the Framewor k approach. This work is now completed and 
the new aims and objectives were communi cated to schools in the summer of 2009. 
New and more precise descriptio ns of objectives and expected learning outcomes for each 
subject - and also for cross-curr icular activities - give teachers a clear and distinct picture of 
what the pupils are going to learn. These object ives are similar to the elements of key 
competences in the Framework.  
1.1.2 Summary of country reforms  
Table 1.1 below illustrates the trends discussed above.  
Table 1.1- Reforms to Support Key Competences in Member States 
Using the Key Competences 
Framework to reform education 
and training provision Using it is a 
reference to fine-
tune incremental 
reforms Introducing reforms 
that are coherent 
with certain aspects 
of the framework Having put in place reforms 
and measures consistent 
with the Key Competences 
Framework prior to its adoption 
 
EN 39   EN AT, BG, CY, CZ, ES, FR, HR, 
IS, LT, LV, PL, RO, SK, SI BE fr, BE nl, EL, 
HU, LU, NO, PT, 
TR NL, UK, IE, MT  DE, DK, FI, EE, NL, SE 
Table 1.1 shows that in more than three qu arters of countries the Key Competences 
Framework has had a direct infl uence on formulation of nationa l policies or measures. In 
those countries where the link between national reforms and the Framework is less explicit, 
specific innovations are clearly consistent wi th the Framework although usually different 
terminology is used and the reforms may have been inspired more explicitly by national 
research or developments rather th an the work at European level.  
The measures reported above are at different stages of implementati on across the countries. 
For example, Slovenia and Spain have been im plementing reforms for two or three years and 
some elements of these have already been  evaluated. Scotland, Romania and Denmark are 
about to move into full implementation of ne wly developed or piloted measures. Work in 
Bulgaria and Portugal is at an  advanced stage of planning.  
1.1.3 Actors Involved in implementation of  Key Competences at national level 
The Recommendation highlights the need to esta blish close links with employment policy and 
social policy, cultural policy, innovation policy and other poli cies affecting young people and 
through collaboration with social partners and othe r stakeholders to ensu re coherence of adult 
education and training provision for individual citizens.  
However, stakeholder involvement in the desi gn and implementation of reforms to support 
key competence provision is also crucial when it comes to general and vocational sector reforms. To make sure that these reforms translate into improved teaching and learning 
approaches it is necessary that teachers, school  leaders, parents and also employers and other 
stakeholders, accept and promote these reforms.  
Furthermore, one important feature of the Recommendation is the intention to expand the 
positive influence of the Framework beyond the school or training centr e and also, beyond the 
education and training sectors. The Recomme ndation aspires to influence policy development 
and implementation of measures in wider areas  including employment , youth and cultural and 
social policy
46. In order to achieve the cross-sectoral  responses needed, the relevant actors 
need to be involved in the development and pr ovision of measures at all relevant stages.  
Information supplied by the country reports on the range of actor s involved in the key 
competences is uneven. However, cer tain trends are identifiable:  
• The involvement of ministries other than  general education government departments  is 
referred to by the majority of reports (AT, BE  fr, BE nl, CY, CZ, DE , DK, EL, FI, FR, HR, 
HU, IE, IS, LT, LU, LV, NL, NO, PL, RO, SE, SI UK); 
• The involvement of social part ners, especially business and industry and to a lesser extent, 
trade unions.  is reported by over half of  the countries (AT, BE nl , CY, CZ, DE, EL, FI, FR, 
HR, IS, IE, LT, LV, MT, NO, PL, SE, SK, TR, UK); 
                                                 
46 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of  the Council on Key competences for lifelong learning.  
 OJ L 394/10 of 30.12.2006 , p. 3;  
 
EN 40   EN • The involvement of pedagogic inst itutes and education experts  is mentioned by over half 
the countries (AT, BE nl, CY, CZ, EL, FI, FR, HR, HU, IS, LT, LU, LV, MT, NL, NO, Pl, 
RO, SE, SI, TR, UK); 
• The involvement of teachers  is highlighted by half the coun tries (AT, BE fr, BE nl, CY, 
CZ, EL, FI, HR, HU, IE, IS, LT, MT, NL, NO, Pl, UK); 
• The involvement of school managers  is less frequent and is noted  by third of the countries 
(AT, BE nl, CY, CZ, FI, HR, HU, IE , IS, LT, MT, NL, NO, Pl, SI, UK); 
• The involvement of parents and pupils  is only reported by some countries (CY, EL, FI, 
HR, MT, NO, UK). 
1.1.4 Conclusions on the provision for key competences in national policies 
Information from country reports shows that su bstantial reforms to s upport provision of key 
competences are underway in many countries. Given that in 2002 Eurydice reported on key 
competences as a ‘developing’ concept47 in general education, great  strides have clearly been 
made since then.  
There is evidence of considerable involvement of wider stakeholders in relation to certain 
competences and to some extent in adult educa tion. There is also substantial involvement of 
certain actors at general policy level: governme nt departments, social partners, pedagogical 
institutes.  
There is however scope to invo lve learners, including adult learners, school  pupils and parents 
of younger learners more in the process. Also, the involvement of school managers needs to 
be stepped up. Although teachers are better repres ented, their involvement seems limited in at 
least half of the countries. Pract itioner involvement at  an early stage faci litates dissemination. 
The involvement of learners and parents stre ngthens the legitimacy of reforms and makes it 
more likely that they will be welcomed and implemented effectively.  
Measures should be taken at EU level to ensure  that information about successful reforms is 
disseminated among Member States, so that count ries can benefit from the experiences of 
others at a more advanced stage.  
1.2 Key Competences in the Curriculum  
This section addresses the provision of the eight key competences set out by the 
Recommendation in schools and in VET in rela tion to curriculum c ontent and organisation48.  
                                                 
47 Eurydice (2002) “Key Competencies: A developing concept in general compulsory education.”  
 http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/ressou rces/eurydice/pdf/0_integral/032EN.pdf    
48 It is important to highlight from the outset the limitations of this analysis in relation to initial VET: in 
some countries the curriculum in initial VET is subject  to the same reforms as general education, in 
others VET is organised in a very heterogeneous was which makes reporting trends very difficult. 
Therefore, only tentative  conclusions on initial VET systems are offered.  
 
EN 41   EN 1.2.1 Communication Competence in the Mother Tongue 
The Recommendation defines Communication Co mpetence in the Mother Tongue as the 
ability to express and interpret concepts, though ts, feelings, facts and opinions in both oral 
and written form (listening, speaking, reading and writing).  
However, this competence also recognises the fact that Europe is a multicultural society 
where people's mother tongue may not correspond to the official langua ge of instruction. A 
recent Eurydice study reports that 7% of pupils aged 15 say that at home they speak a 
language other than the language of instruction49. With regard to these situations the 
Recommendation notes that  the ability to communicate in an official language is a pre-
condition for ensuring full participati on of the individua l in society. The Recommendation 
emphasises that the key competences should suppor t people with low sk ills, especially in 
literacy. This priority is re stated in Council Conclusions50 which stress that concrete action is 
needed to improve the level of basic skills. As reading literacy is a crucial competence which 
all citizens need for education and training, work, home and leisure51, Member States tend to 
put high policy priority on literacy.  
Competence in Mother Tongue Communication in schools 
Communication in the Mother Tongue is traditi onally organised as a st and-alone subject but 
more recently innovative complementary measur es have been put in place or are being 
introduced in many Member States and are at the core of this section. 
Approaches to provision 
Innovative teaching methods which encourage active participation and communication were 
reported by all countries, often supported by programmes of continuing professional 
development for teachers.  
Cross-curricular work  addresses this competence in another context: linked with other 
subjects or even across several schools. W ith regard to Communication in Mother Tongue, 
cross-curricular work is supported as follows: 
• cross-curricular work linked with different subjec ts is used at different stages in the system 
(AT, BE fr, CZ, DK, EE, EL, FI, FR, HR, HU, LT, LU, LV, NO, PL, RO, SE, SK, SI, 
UK); 
• cross-curricular objectives or attainment targets (BE nl, CZ, DK, NL). These are objectives 
which are not specific to one area of study, but are pursued through  several different 
subjects or projects; 
• cross-curricular work in out  of school projects (HR).  Young people carry out community 
work (HR) or research into topi cs of local community interest; 
                                                 
49 Eurydice (2008) “Key Data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe”, p. 9; 
http://eacea.ec.euro pa.eu/about/eurydice/documents/KDL2008_EN.pdf  
50 Council Conclusions on a strategic framework for European cooper ation in education and training. OJ C 119/2, 28.5.2009. , op. 
cit. 
51 Ibid., Annex para 2 
 
EN 42   EN • cross curricular work with  Mother Tongue and IT is carried out in Lithuania. 
A whole-school approach means that reading and writing  are woven throughout the whole 
curriculum and taught in context as the need arises (BE nl, ES, LT, HR, NO, SK, SI, UK). In 
Belgium (nl), for instance, it is considered  “each teacher is also a language teacher”.   
National Strategies, Programmes and Other Measures  
Several countries (AT, BE fr, BE nl, CY, CZ , DE, DK, FR, IE, MT, NL, NO, PT, UK) have 
developed Literacy Action Plans or otherwis e placed literacy provision high on the national 
agenda. The benefit of a national action plan is that it co-ordinat es measures across the whole 
education and training system in all sectors, including adul t, informal and non-formal 
education. This is important as the impact of home and parental factors on the development of 
language and communication is well-documented.52 Another tool which ca n also facilitate co-
ordination of measures is the National Li felong Learning Strategy, where this exists.  
Box 1-6 - Portugal - Literacy Action Plan  
The National Literacy Plan in preparation in Portugal sets out to provide a range of co-
ordinated measures to ensure that every Port uguese person achieves a level of reading and 
writing that enables them to deal with the writte n word in every area of their life. It will be 
based on a series of studies which will inform  the targets for each stage and the development 
of evaluation instruments to monitor the impact of the various measures. 
A combination of strategies has been crea ted which will support the development of 
competences in reading and writing, as well as encouraging the habit of reading in people’s 
lives. Measures will include the promotion of daily reading in kindergardens and pre-school; 
reading in familiar contexts, in libraries and in social contexts. 
Awareness-raising measures will include spec ial programmes on TV and radio focused on 
reading and books; and the creation of blogs an d chat rooms about reading and books aimed 
at people of all ages.  
Co-ordination of all measures  and interaction between school s will be facilitated by a web-
site giving access to a wide range of materials aimed at educators.  
National Programmes  and initiatives to suppo rt the literacy dimens ion of the communication 
competence have been develope d and are being implemented in  many countries (BE fr, CY, 
DE, FR, IE, MT, NO, PT, UK). 
Box 1-7 – UK (England) - Functional Skills  
Functional Skills are practical skills in Eng lish and in ICT and Mathematics that allow 
individuals to work confidently, independently and effectively in life. The pilot programme 
includes qualifications  standards and a suppo rt programme for schools and centres, plus 
training for practitioners. Over 2,000 centres in cluding schools, colleges , training centres and 
further education colleges have take n part in the pilot since 2007.  
                                                 
52 NESSE (2009) “Early Childhood Education and Care: Key Lessons from Research and Policy Makers”; 
http://www.nesse.fr/nesse/activities/reports/ecec-report-pdf  
 
EN 43   EN A public consultation took place in spring 2009 to validate the standards for these skills which 
the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (E ngland and Wales), developed in consultation 
with employers, teachers, subject associations and awarding bodies.  
Creative use of communication in the mother tongue 
Over half of the countries (BG, CY, CZ, EE, EL, ES, HU, HR, IE, LT, LV, MT, NO, NL, PL, 
SE, SI, UK) made some reference to the creat ive use of communication in the mother tongue, 
and the potential of different  communication strategies to foster personal and social 
development, critical thinking and multicultura l awareness. For the most part, these were 
referred to in the context of the innovative te aching, including cross-cu rricular work linking 
different subjects, or multi-disciplinary projects referred to above.  
Other specific measures and methods referred to include: Creative Use of Libraries : which was identified by some count ries (CZ, EL, ES, IE, SI) as 
having the potential to foster  critical thinking and cultural awareness, as well as 
communication. 
Drama and role play activities  were mentioned by three countries (CZ, MT, UK). The 
Drama Unit project in Malta shows how creati ve communication activities can foster many 
competences. 
Box 1-8 – Malta – Theatre in Education 
The Drama Unit in Malta provid es Theatre in Education proj ects for all secondary school 
students which are organised to cater for particular age groups  and explore a wide range of 
themes. Some are social and personal, such as bu llying; others enrich particular areas of the 
syllabus. Maltese and foreign au thors are invited to the school s and their visits are often 
followed up by work with drama teachers. Students  are encouraged to participate directly in 
drama activities, which help them to gain conf idence, think, listen, work individually and in 
groups.  
Fostering bilingualism and multilingualism within borders 
In some countries the boundary between mother  tongue and foreign (o r second) language is 
not clear. These may be countries with more th an one official national language (e.g. BE, LU, 
MT, IE, SI), regional/national languages (ES, UK) but also countries with strong minority 
languages (EE, LT, LV, RO, SK).  
Measures to support multilingualism were report ed by six countries (AT, DK, FI, EE, LV, 
SE). The example from Slovenia shows how la nguage development can promote intercultural 
understanding, as well as language skills.  
 
EN 44   EN Box 1-9 – Slovenia – Language development  
The CROMO project is part of the European La nguage portfolio which provides a vehicle for 
language development and also for intercultu ral understanding amongst the different groups 
who speak different mother tongues, and have di fferent cultural backgrounds within the same 
national borders. The module aims to promote respect for diversity bot h nationally and across 
borders This project therefore addresses aspects of the transversal competence of Social and 
Civic awareness, in addition to promoting language skills.  
Supporting the Integration of  Immigrant children 
Two thirds of the countries (AT, BE fr, BG , CZ, DE, DK, EE, EL, ES , FI, FR, HR, IE, LU, 
LV, NL, NO, PT, RO, SE, SI, UK) report havi ng put in place special measures to support 
language development for children and young people whose mother tongue is not the 
language of instruction. 
• Language support in schools is reported as being provided in several formats: through 
special programmes, through integrated classr oom activity supported by  specially trained 
teachers or classroom assistants, through the provision of separate  classes in learning 
support or by a combination of these methods. One or more of these approaches were 
referred to by a large number of countries (BG, DE, DK, EE , EL, ES, FI, FR, HR, IE, LV, 
NL, NO). 
• Research into policy or peda gogy for immigrants is being carried out in five countries 
(DK, IE, EE, EL, SI); 
• Special Task Forces or Action Plans were re ferred to by a few countri es (DE, DK and EE).  
Other measures designed to support the deve lopment of Communication Competence in the 
Mother Tongue include: 
• Early intervention:  Many countries (BE nl, DK, EL FI , BG, NO) have introduced an 
obligatory pre-school year for all children. Denmark, Sweden and the UK have identified 
attainment objectives for the pre-school stag e which all children are expected to work 
towards. 
• Identification of minimum levels of attainment at different st ages in primary and secondary 
levels is a trend observed in some countri es (AT, BE fr, DE, DK, FR, MT, NO, NL). 
Competence in Mother Tongue Communication in VET 
All countries report that Communication in th e Mother Tongue is a feature of the VET 
provision even though little detail  is given on how this is t ackled and whether differences 
exist compared with general education. 
Some county reports state explicitly that meas ures to foster mother  tongue communication are 
aimed at all sectors and levels of their educ ation and training system s, including VET (AT, 
CY, DE, FR, HR, NO, PL, RO, SK, SI). This contributes to equality of access and 
opportunity, especially for young people in VET a nd adult learners who did not gain those 
 
EN 45   EN competences in compulsory education. A strong emphasis on the basic levels of 
communication competence in VET was re ported by a few (CZ, DK, FR, UK).  
The extent to which the Communication in the Mother Tongue is covered by VET curricula 
may depend on the qualifications requireme nts and may not be the same from one 
qualification to another. This was mentioned by a few countries (BE fr, HU, NL), and the 
Netherlands noted that as from the school year 2010-2011 Dutch language instruction will 
become compulsory in all VET qualifications. The Hungarian repo rt noted that there is still 
some resistance from certain actors in the VET sector to include this, and other key 
competences, in VET curricula, on the grounds that the provision of key competences should 
take place in compulsory general education before young people enter VET.  
1.2.1 Conclusions on Communication in Mother Tongue Overall there is very substant ial coverage of the competence to communicate in the Mother 
Tongue throughout initial education and training curricula. It is still often tackled in a 
traditional way as a single subject. However,  many countries are developing more innovative 
approaches to address the failures of traditiona l mother tongue teaching approaches to equip 
pupils with basic literacy skills.  
In some places, strong emphasis is placed on co-o rdinating literacy measures to ensure that 
they are mutually reinforcing throughout the sy stem, which is a strategy that should be given 
more attention. Such coordination may be acco mplished through the development of plans or 
strategies such as National Literacy Action Plan s which cover all sectors and levels, including 
adult and non-formal education. 
Innovations at school level, such as cross-cu rricular work, need to be supported by the 
immediate working and learning environmen t. Significant factor s include: timetabling, 
facilities to support team teaching and resources  for out-of-school activities. This also 
requires training for teachers, and also for ma nagers to support appr opriate organisational 
strategies.  
Developing communication competence through a wide variety of inte ractive methods has 
been used to good effect in some countries to  promote integration and mutual understanding. 
The personal and social dimensions of th e communication competence should receive as 
much attention as the functiona l and practical aspects, as th ey are essential for personal 
fulfilment and social cohesion in a rapidly-changing world.  
An emerging approach is the whole-organisa tion or cooperative a pproach to literacy 
development, where all teachers of all subjec ts work on the language of their own subject 
area, as it arises . This has many potential benefits and co uld be explored fu rther by countries 
where this is not yet a feature of the system . Good practice from those countries where this 
has taken place should be more widely disseminated.  
1.2.2 Communication Competence in Foreign Languages 
It has long been acknowledged that linguistic diversity is essential to making Europe the most 
competitive and knowledge-based economy in the world . Recent Council Conclusions call for 
young people to learn at least two languages in addition to the mother tongue to contribute to 
 
EN 46   EN the goal of promoting democracy, citizenship, intercultural dialogue and personal 
development.53 Furthermore, increased mobility, migrati on and immigration have all led to the 
steadily increasing recognition of the necessi ty for multilingualism in order that member 
states, and their citizens, may contribute to, and benefit from, integration.54 
Foreign language competence is therefore crucial to promote economic competitiveness and 
for personal and social well-being and cohesion.  
As noted earlier in the cont ext of Mother Tongue competen ces, in some countries the 
boundary between mother tongue and foreign (or s econd) language is not clear. In addition, 
many countries have significant popul ations with migrant backgrounds.  
Communication in Foreign Languages in Schools  
Findings from the country reports confirm that foreign language learning is a compulsory 
element in all national systems. Findings from a recent study from Eurydice complements the information from the country reports
55: 
– Foreign language learning begins from the firs t year of primary school or earlier in a few 
countries (AT, DE, ES, IT, LU, MT, NO, PL, PT). 
– Foreign language learning begins  later in primary school in many countries (BE fr, BE nl, 
BG, CY, CZ, DK, DE, EE, EL, ES, FI, FR, HR, HU, IS, LT, LV, NL, RO, SE, SI, SK, 
UK). 
– Additional languages are offered at later stag es in many countries (BE nl, BG, CY, CZ, 
DK, DE, EE, EL, ES, FR, IS, IE, LV, LT, LU, HU, MT, NL, NO, PL, PT, RO, SE, SI, 
SK). 
– Three foreign languages are offered by the end of  compulsory education in some types of 
schools in some countries (AT, BE nl, DE, IS, LU, NL,PL, RO, SI). 
– Four foreign languages are offered in Luxembourg. 
In the vast majority of countri es, the study of fore ign languages is compulsory from primary 
level onwards. Only in Ireland and UK (Scotland) is the study of a foreign language not 
compulsory, although in Scotland it must be offe red. Country reports also indicate that in 
some systems, the range and number of languages which pupils can follow is being or increased (CZ, HR, LT, PL) and attempts are ma de to encourage pupils to choose other than 
the most widely spoken languages (FI, UK). 
The picture emerging from the country reports confirms the observatio n from Eurydice that 
earlier learning of a foreign language as a com pulsory subject has beco me a clearly visible 
trend in the course of the last decades.
56  
                                                 
53 Council Conclusions on preparing young people for the 21st Centur y: an agenda for European cooperation in schools, p. 3; OJ C 
319/20 of 13.12.2008  
54 “CLIL/EMILE (2002) “The European Dimension: Actions, Trends and Foresight Potential,” p. 9 
http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/pdf/doc491_en.pdf  
55 Country Reports and Eurydice Key Data  on Teaching Languages at School in Eu rope (2008), op. cit., pp. 28-29  
56 Ibid., p. 27 
 
EN 47   EN Approaches to provision 
Single subject remains the main approach to teac hing foreign languages even though 
innovative approaches, discussed belo w, are becoming more widespread.  
Cross curricular work 
• General connections are made between foreign languages and ICT (HR, HU, LT, NL).  
• Languages are linked with the arts and music (BG, MT). 
Systemic Measures to Suppor t Foreign Language Competence  
Different systemic measures which are currently  being developed or are already in place in 
many countries including national st rategies (ES, LT, SI, PT).  
Box 1-10 - Lithuania and Spain – Strate gies to support language leaning 
The planned Lithuanian  Strategy for Teaching Foreign Languages will set priorities for 
language teaching and provide measures for the successful develo pment of linguistic 
competences. Based on the European Union’s multilingualism policy it will include the 
introduction of innovative methods of language teaching, especially integrating the teaching 
of a foreign language with the use of ICT 
Several initiatives are in place in Spain  under PALE, a programme designed to support the 
teaching and learning of foreign languages in  Spain. Measures incl ude training teachers 
specialised in foreign languages and those in charge of teaching contents in a foreign 
language CLIL, increasing the number of languag e assistants and reduc ing foreign language 
class sizes.  
Use of European Projects and Instruments  
European initiatives su pport work on Foreign Language comp etences in half of the countries 
(AT, BE nl, CY, CZ, DK, EE, EL, HR, IS, MT , PT, RO, SK, SI). The main instruments 
mentioned are listed below:  
• Content and Language Integrat ed Learning Project (CLIL)  is a cross-curricular 
initiative which supports the teaching of non- language subjects through a foreign language. 
Only a few country reports refe rred to current involvement in  such learning provision (AT, 
BE nl, LU) but CLIL project documentation indi cates that with a very few exceptions (DK, 
EL, IS) this approach is in operation in al l countries, even if only with a minority of 
pupils57. 
• The European Language Portfolio  (ELP) is a tool which learners use to record and 
reflect on their language learning and cultu ral experiences and acts as a ‘language 
passport’ which the holder can use to comple ment existing certificates. A few countries 
(AT, CY, DE, HR, LT, NL, SI) referred to the use of the ELP.  
                                                 
57 Eurydice Key Data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe (2008) , op. cit., pp.42 - 43 
 
EN 48   EN • The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages can be used for 
planning, assessing and evaluati ng language competence in an internationally comparable 
way. A number of countries (AT, CZ, DE, EE,  FR, LT, MT, NL, PL, RO, SI, SK) reported 
using it. 
• Participation in European projects  to develop language learni ng, especially under the 
Lifelong Learning Programme, was noted by several countrie s (AT, CY, HR, LT, SI) as 
enriching the quality of language teaching in  schools and the development of innovative 
teaching methods.  
Communication in Foreign Languages in VET 
Half of the countries (BE nl, BG, CZ, DE, ES , FI, HR, IS, LT, LV, NL , NO, PL PT, SE, SK, 
SI) report that foreign languages are part of the VET curriculum. However, it was not always 
clear whether compulsory or optional. On the basis of the information supplied, a few trends 
can provisionally be identified: 
• At least one forei gn language is a compulsory  part of the VET curriculum at some stage in 
some countries (AT, BE nl, CY, CZ, EE, FI , HR, LT, LV, NL, PL, SE, SK). In Spain 
agreement has been reached with the Au tonomous Communities who have committed 
themselves to guaranteeing that higher leve l VET students acquire language competences 
in at least one foreign language. 
• Foreign languages are included in VET programmes where these are deemed to be 
appropriate to the qualif ication for example in areas such as Hospitality or Tourism (HU, 
IE, ES, SI) or focus on the termi nology of a certain field (SK). 
1.2.2.1 Conclusions on Communicati on in foreign languages  
Provision to develop communica tion in foreign languages in ge neral education is expanding. 
However, the choice of language s being offered is an issue.  The English-speaking Member 
States make less provision for this competence than others, although measures are planned to 
increase foreign language le arning in those countries  
There is little information in the country repor ts about provision in VET. Often the language 
offered is conditional on the type of qualification being followed; or the coverage may be more limited than in the general education system (e.g. focusing on the terminology of the 
field). Considering the potential of foreign language learning to  promote personal, social and 
cultural competence as well as the technical skills involved in language proficiency, it is 
important to ensure that langua ges are widely available to yo ung people in VET as well as in 
the general education system.  
Many of the measures reported in support of the foreign language competence also promote 
several of the other key competences such as cultural awareness and can foster social and 
personal development. They also demonstrate th e potential of language learning as a vehicle 
to promote intercu ltural understanding.  
1.2.3 Mathematical Competence and Basic Competence in Science and Technology 
This Competence encompasses two related areas wh ich are often integrated in practice but are 
usually addressed as separate subjects or areas of learning in school and VET. The 
 
EN 49   EN Recommendation defines mathematical competence as the ability to develop and apply 
mathematical thinking in order to so lve a range of problems in everyday life58. This includes 
the technical skills of numer acy and also understanding of mathematical concepts and 
mathematical thinking. Competen ce in science is defined as the ability and willingness to use 
the body of knowledge and methodology employed to explain the natural world, in order to 
identify questions and to dr aw evidence-based conclusions59.  
Both of these inter-related areas include signi ficant dimensions of knowledge and skill which 
are essential for adult life and which form the basis for further learning and working life. 
However, there is also a strong focus on the importance of attitude which implies a 
disposition to look for reasons and to assess their validity. Thus, even at the most basic levels, 
a degree of critical thinki ng and active engagement with a problem-solving process is 
required. Similarly, attitudinal dimensions are critical for competence in science and 
technology. These include curiosity, concer n for safety and ethical issues.  
The Council Conclusions of November 2008 highli ght the priority of ensuring that all young 
people acquire basic skills, including numer acy, in order to develop their potential.60 
Similarly, Council Conclusions of 2007 recognise the critical role  played by science and 
technology in the development of knowledge-based economies61 and call on Member States to 
increase the qualified human res ources in the field, including redressing the gender balance.  
Mathematical Competence in Schools 
Developing mathematical competence is a comp ulsory component of the primary and lower 
secondary curriculum in all countries. Early pr ovision for mathematical competence, where 
children are familiarised with fundamental concep ts and processes at the pre-school level, is 
promoted in a few countries: DE, DK, BE fr, FI, NO, PL, UK. Clearly, early preparation for 
mathematical competence depends on the exte nt of early childhood education in the Member 
State.  
Approaches to Provision 
The country reports show that the most wide spread approach to addressing mathematical 
competence in schools is th e stand-alone subject. 
In addition to this subject-centred approach, ju st under half of the countries report other ways 
of developing mathematical competence whic h transcend individual subject boundaries. 
These include:  
• Cross-curricular work in the context of one or several other (often  technical) subjects, 
which is a strategy used  in less than half c ountries (BE fr, BE nl, CY, CZ, EL, FI, HR, HU, 
LT, NL, NO, SE, SI).  
                                                 
58 OJ L 394/10, 30.12.2006, Annex, op. cit. 
59 Ibid.  
60 OJ C 319/20, op. cit., p. 3 
61 Council Conclusions on the future of science and technology in Europe , 22 and 23 November 2007 
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/ cms_Data/docs/pressdata/en/intm/97234.pdf  
 
EN 50   EN • Mathematics across the curriculum, which invol ves weaving mathematics into most or all 
subjects of the curriculum. Th is strategy is implemented in some countries (EE, HR, HU, 
LT, NO, SI). 
Such approaches are significant from a teachin g perspective, because aspects of mathematics 
(e.g. problem solving, logics), like those of literacy, arise in many areas of the school 
curriculum. Failure to master these mathematical  dimensions can present a barrier to learning 
of subjects that are not directly  concerned with mathematics. 
Some countries (CZ, DE, DK, ES, IE, MT, LV, LU, NL, PL, PT, RO, SE, SI, UK) make 
reference to the importance of including a problem-solving dimension in promoting 
mathematical competence. This places strong emphasis not only on co mputational skills but 
also on maths as a set of tools for applicatio n in the real world wh ich engages learners’ 
critical capacities rather  than rote learning.  
One innovation which illustrates some of these prio rities is the p ilot Project Maths in Ireland.  
Box 1-11 – Ireland - Project Maths 
A major reform of maths was initiated in Se ptember 2008 in secondary  schools in Ireland. 
Project Maths aims to provide a bridging fram ework from the primary into secondary school 
and to promote greater maths literacy across the school population. It focuses on context and 
applications and problem-solving in the context of “real mathematics education”, to include a 
greater ICT dimension  
Project Maths began with 24 pilot schools. It will be phased in over a 3 year period in a 
rolling programme, covering different areas of maths in each phase. Building on the 
experience in the project schools, the reforms will begin in all second-level schools in 2010, 
preceded by a comprehensive programme of professional development for teachers.  
Systemic Measures to Suppor t Mathematical Competence 
Many countries have introduced measures to  support the development of mathematical 
competence which involve systemic changes.  
Development or revision of standards  to define levels of competence in maths at different 
stages is a feature of about one  third of the countries’ reforms (AT, DE, DK, FR, BE fr, BE 
nl, MT, NL, LU, PL, SE). Denmark has recently  drawn up standards to guide preparatory 
maths activity in pre-school.  
In general, these standards are used to guide  teaching and learning a nd provide feedback for 
pupils and parents on progress. However, so metimes they are al so used to support national 
testing  of the whole school population in certa in age groups, or a sample population.  
Special programmes  for young people who need extra help to work with mathematical 
competence are provided by most countries. A Maths Action Plan  has been launched in 
Portugal to support schools in de fining and implementing their own strategies to ensure 
quality of maths provision. 
 
EN 51   EN Extra-curricular Activity 
Only a few countries (AT, DE, FI, HR, MT , SI) referred explicitly to developing 
mathematical competence through extra-curr icular work. These include Mathematics 
integrated with Communication, Science, Techno logy and also the transversal competences of 
Learning to Learn and Social  and Civic competence.  
Box 1-12 – Austria - Youth Innovativ and Generation Innovation Projects  
Youth Innovativ  is a major national competition for schools and vocational education centres 
where young people design and research multi-discip linary projects in the areas of Business, 
Design, Engineering, ICT and climate change. Of ten these are supported by local businesses. 
As well as working on the technological or  scientific task, young people also develop 
creativity, social skills, and a capacity for entrepreneurship. 
Generation Innovation  is a major project which promotes  learning in science and technology 
right through the school system, from kinde rgarten onwards. Young people of all ages 
research topics at a level suitable for their stage, in ways that encourage innovation and a 
playful discovery of the world of technol ogy and science in their chosen topics.  
One of the major aims of Generation Innovati on is to increase the participation of young 
women in science and tec hnology research and work.  
Science and Technology in Schools 
Provision of science in the general education system is similar to that described for maths: it 
is a core subject in all countries which is prov ided in a range of contexts starting in the 
primary school. Most countries’ reports group science and technology together.  
The 2008 Rocard report62 into science education in Europe  stressed the importance of science 
education both for Europe’s future economic  and technological development, and for 
equipping every citizen with th e skills needed to live and  work in the knowledge society  by 
giving them the opportunity to develop critical thinking  and scientific reasoning that will 
enable them to make well informed choices. The same study found that the origins of the 
declining interest among young people for science studies ar e found largely in the way 
science is taught in primary and secondary schools63. This requires putting pedagogy and 
teaching methods high on the agenda in the de velopment of this competence. Other factors 
found to contribute to this area  were large-scale interventions which can reach a critical mass 
of learners; promoting teachers’ professional de velopment and motivation; and facilitating co-
operation with external actors.64 
                                                 
62 European Commission (2007) “Science Education Now: A Renewe d Pedagogy for the Future of Europe” Report from the High 
Level Group on Science Education chaired by Michel Rocard (The “Rocard” Report), p. 6. 
http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/document_ library/pdf_06/report-rocard-on-science-education_en.pdf  
63 Ibid., p. 5  
64 Ibid., p. 11  
 
EN 52   EN Approaches to Provision 
• Cross curricular themes or projects  are a feature of science wo rk in some countries (BE 
fr, CY, DE, FI, HR, HU, LT, NL, MT, NO, PT, SE, SK, SI).  
• Extra-curricular work  is a major source of promoti on and provision of competence in 
science and technology in a few c ountries (AT, DE, FI, MT, SI) 
Box 1-13 - Belgium nl - Technical Literacy at School in the 21st Century 
In 2008 the Flemish Community of Belgium c oncluded the development phase of a major 
project, “Technical Literacy at School in the 21st Century.” This strategy is supported by the 
Ministries of Education and Training and th e Ministry of Economy, Science and Innovation. 
One measure was the creation of a general fr amework defining the main dimensions and 
components of technology, based on extensive research and consultation, which sets 
outcomes for learners in pr imary and secondary schools. 
The development stage is now complete and th e strategy is moving in to the implementation 
phase during which 20 pilot schools will deve lop good practice by applying the technological 
concepts, processes and systems defined in the framework.  
Cross-curricular and extra-curric ular work, reported by just under half of the countries listed 
above, has the potential to support expe riential and discovery-based learning.  
The conscious use of inquiry as a pedagogical strategy, often known as ‘inquiry-based science 
education’ or IBSE, is defined as the inten tional process of diagnosing problems, critiquing 
experiments, and distinguishing alternatives, pl anning investigations, researching conjectures, 
searching for information, constructing models, debating with peers, and forming coherent 
arguments65. The use of inquiry-based science edu cation, or methods which are consistent 
with this definition, was referred to explicitly by only one country: Malta.  
Box 1-14 – Malta - Inquiry-based science education 
Inquiry-based science education is an important part of the curriculum in Malta. The process 
starts with in-service education for primar y and secondary teachers using inquiry-based 
methods and investigative approaches to the t eaching of science. Similar training is also 
provided for student teachers spec ialising in science. Partners hip with external actors is 
another important feature of the strategy. Out-o f-school activities include: the development of 
a Science Week, the production of  a science TV series, the publication of booklets and a 
range of hands-on science activ ities created in conjunction w ith a wide range of actors. 
Partners in these activities in clude the university, Heritage Ma lta, Local Councils, Playmobil 
Funpark.  
There is a strong link to the learning outcomes on  the revised science syllabus which has been 
specially designed to promote competence.  
                                                 
65 Defined by Linn, Davis & Bell (2004), quoted by European Commission (2007) “Science Educa tion Now: A Renewed Pedagogy 
for the Future of Europe” Report from the High Level Group on Sc ience Education (The “Rocard” Report),), op. cit., p. 9  
 
EN 53   EN Methodologies which promote active learning  and therefore share some of the features of 
IBSE were referred to by five countries (AT, EE, IE, PL and SI).  
The ‘AHHAA Science Centre’  in Estonia introduces science and technology to all societal 
groups. There is a strong emphasis on active, “hands-on” learning supported by travelling 
exhibitions and other supplementary educat ional activities and resources including a 
planetarium, pilot school laboratory programme s, creation of study ma terials and a science 
theatre.  
External Actors are involved in the provisi on of science education in some countries where 
there are projects, often national competitions , to promote and recognise achievement in 
science (AT, DE, EE, IE, MT, SI). 
Systemic Measures to Su pport Scientific Competence 
Interventions at the systemic level impact on the educational experience of learners and 
teachers on a large scale. A relatively small numbe r of countries reported that such measures 
are now in place: 
• Action Plans or National Science and Technology Strategies  are in place in a few 
countries (BE fr, BE nl, DE, IE, SE). In Sweden, a Science Delegation is currently 
investigating science edu cation and will report in 2010.  
• Large-scale national development initiatives  to promote maths, science and technology 
in schools have been launched (DE, IE, LV, MT, SI, SE).  
• Sweden  is currently developing compulsory national tests  for physics, chemistry and 
biology, in addition to a major programme of teacher professional development.  
• Germany has defined educational standards for science; 
• Slovenia is working on the language and terminology of science and math across the 
curriculum as part of its major reforms. 
Teacher development in relation to science ed ucation can be promoted through continuing 
professional development, and also thr ough networking within and between schools: 
• Professional development programmes  for teachers have been launched to improve the 
teaching of maths, science and technology (CY, DE, LV, MT, SE). 
• Teacher Education of Science in Slovenia is being reformed, with the objective of 
developing new methods to raise competences  in science and make it more popular. The 
project is based on a partnership between t eacher education faculties and a consortium of 
schools. 
• Teachers’ networks to promote good practice in science are referred to by only a few 
countries (AT, EE, MT, SI). 
• Partnership projects linking schools with external acto rs including members of the local 
community, business, parents, higher education institutes and others were reported by only 
a few countries (AT, DE, HR, MT, SI). 
 
EN 54   EN • Encouraging girls and young women to study science was identified as a priority in only 
a few countries (AT, DE, PT, SE). 
Mathematical Competence and Basic Compet ence in Science and Technology in VET 
Once again, information on VET provision is patc hy in the national reports. Maths is reported 
as being part of the VET curriculum in over ha lf of the countries (A T, BG, CZ, EE, EL, FI, 
FR, HR, HU, LT, LV, NL, PL, PT, RO, SK, SI, UK). Some countries report that maths is 
either compulsory in VET (BG, CY, FI, FR, SE) or depends on the qua lification (IE, NL, HU, 
ES).  
Some countries stress the integration of ma ths throughout the VET curriculum (EL, ES, NO, 
PT), especially at the higher levels (ES), and two countries report a practical, technical focus 
for maths in VET (AT, SK). Three countries mention the promotion of  participation of young 
women in maths and science-related activities in VET (AT, DE, SE).  
1.2.3.1 Conclusions on Mathematical Competen ce and Basic Competence in Science and 
Technology  
Overall, mathematical competence remains a very strong element of general education 
curricula. The position of mathematical comp etence in vocational education varies: some 
countries make similar provision  to that in general educati on whereas a few tailor provision 
more closely to the releva nt vocational qualification. 
Some of the country reports highlight the prom otion of problem-solving, critical thinking and, 
to a much lesser extent, inquiry-based learning in  mathematics and science. There is evidence 
of some variety in approaches to provision of  these competences thro ugh cross-curricular and 
real-life projects, as well as ex tra-curricular activities. Howeve r, it is not clear that these 
activities necessarily de velop science competence as purposef ully as systematic inquiry-based 
science education. More work is needed to foregr ound this as a major pedagogic strategy in 
the future. This is especially important, gi ven that research evidence shows very positive 
results for all ages, at all levels of ability for this approach.66 Integration of mathematical 
competence into other areas of  activity is a recurring theme emerging from many of the 
country reports, although this approach is at an advanced stage in only a few countries. This 
has implications for the competence of teacher s and trainers, and needs to be supported by 
suitable teacher educ ation and training. 
Achieving a gender balance did not  emerge as a major priority  in country reports, although 
this was an important dimension of the last reporting cycle. In the current reports, a small number of countries referred to projects to su pport the development of  competence in science 
and technology for young women. However, accord ing to the most recent analysis from 
PISA, the gender gap is more significant in maths. 
The information provided in country reports sugg est that there is a great deal of scope for 
development in the teaching of science and its  orientating methodologies along the lines of 
the Inquiry-based science e ducation strategies which ha ve been proven to promote 
competence and make science popular amongst a wide  target group of all ag es and abilities.  
                                                
 
66 European Commission (2007) “Science Education Now: A Renewe d Pedagogy for the Future of Europe” op. cit., page 14.  
 
EN 55   EN There is also room for greater co-operation with  external partners, al ong the lines of that 
which already exists for Civic and Social and Entrepreneurship competences, in order to 
provide real-life contexts for scientific inquiry.  
1.2.4 Digital Competence  
The European Council in 2000 identified ICT as a core component of the knowledge society 
and vital for the future of education and traini ng systems. Since then, the necessity to update 
what are considered as essential competences  for the knowledge society to ensure that 
everyone has access to information and communications technology67 has been repeatedly 
restated. The Key Competences Recommendation id entifies digital competence as one of the 
Key Competences for lifelong learning, to ensure that all citizens are equipped to make 
critical use of the new technol ogies in their personal and soci al lives, as we ll as in the 
workplace .68  
The Recommendation stresses not only the basic skills required to use new technologies, but 
stresses the confident and critical us e of Information Society T echnology (IST) for work, 
leisure and communication. This goes far beyond the capacity to manipulate the technology, 
and puts awareness of the legal and ethical principles involved in the use of IST , and critical 
reflection on the validity and reliability of information available  through the internet, at the 
centre of this competence.  
One of the key issues in rela tion to Digital Competence concer ns access. Council Conclusions 
on e-skills69 identify Fostering Employability and Soci al Inclusion as one of the major action 
lines to be pursued in th e e-skills agenda. Yet th e opportunities provided by the information 
society also create new divides.70 Research confirms the increased use of the internet in all 
countries since 2005, but also that  there are great disp arities between different socio-economic 
groups and evidence that people in disadvantaged groups  use the internet le ss intensively than 
other groups.71 There are still 40% of pe ople who do not use the intern et at all, and a much 
lower rate of use amongst those with low education.72 This includes young people: 50% of 
young people aged 15 – 21 with low basic sk ills have never used the internet.73 Reasons for 
not having the internet at home include affo rdability and, significantly, lack of skills.74 For 
many young people, school will be their only op portunity to develop this key competence.  
Digital Competence in Schools and VET 
Digital competence features in th e school curriculum in all count ries. For the most part, this 
encompasses the use of digital media as  well as IST. Specific action plans  or policy strategies 
are in place in AT, BE fr, BE nl, LT. Significan t investment in terms of funding and resources 
was reported by most countries.  
                                                 
67 Report from the European Commission (2001) “The Concrete Fu ture Objectives of Education” COM(2001) 59 final, p. 8, 
http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/ 2010/doc/concrete-future-objectives_en.pdf 
68 Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning, op. cit. 
69 Integrated Competitiveness Council Conclusi ons of 23 November 2007, 2832nd Council meeting 
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/ cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/intm/97225.pdf  
70 Commission Staff Working Document (2008) "Digital Literacy Re port: A Review for the i2010 e-inclusion initiative" p. 4, 
http://ec.europa.eu/inform ation_society/eeurope/i2010/docs/digit al_literacy/digital _literacy_review.pdf   
71 Ibid., p. 15 
72 Ibid. 
73 Studies on Technology’s impact in primary schools (STEPS)  
74 Ibid.  
 
EN 56   EN Digital Competence is reported to be part of  the primary school curriculum in just over a 
quarter of countries (BE nl, CZ, HR, IE, LT,  LV, MT, NL, PL, UK). Preparatory groundwork 
for digital competence is introduced at the pre-primary stage in Cyprus and Norway. 
In a number of countries this competence is taug ht as a separate subject (BE fr, BG, CY, CZ, 
DE, FR, EL, FI, HR, LU, LV, PL, PT, RO), while in others it is integrated across subjects 
(AT, BE nl, BG, CZ, DE, EE, FI, HU, LT, MT, NL, NO, SI, SK). In Norway this competence 
is seen as a basic skill which is woven thr oughout the curriculum, along with literacy and 
numeracy.  
The extent to which the ‘confident and critical use of ICT’  is fostered is unclear from the 
country reports. Some countries (DE, ES, FR, IE  SE, SI, SK) do refer exp licitly to the ‘critical 
and reflective’ use of ICT but in general this aspect was not stressed. Ethical and legal 
considerations arising from the use of ICT a nd digital media are highlighted only by Latvia. 
Less detail was supplied about the extent to  which Digital Competence is addressed in 
vocational settings  but some countries indicated that thei r practice was similar or identical to 
that in the general system (HR, PL). In Est onia and Slovenia, for instance, digital competence 
is woven into the curriculum of all vocational programmes. Other countries (CZ, DE, IE, LU, 
PT, SK) accord this competence a prominen t position in the VET curriculum and some 
include modules at different le vels (ES). In other countries (HU) digital competence is 
included where this is related dire ctly to the vocational programme.  
Approaches to Provision 
The country reports confirm the trend75 that Digital Competence is used to enhance 
personalisation of learning, co llaborative learning and other transversal key competences. 
ICT is used to enrich learning through cross-curricular themes across subjects (AT, CZ, BE fr, 
HR, LT, MT, NL, SI) or for collaborative l earning and interaction (AT, PT). Digital 
technology can also promote individualised work and differentiate the pace of the learning 
experience for individual pupils (AT, PT).  
Box 1-15 – Luxembourg - A whole-school approach to Digital Competence  
A national education portal ( http://www.myschool.lu ) has been created in Luxembourg with 
the aim integrating ICT into education at national level, and using it to support all 
administration and teaching functions. Several major developments have taken place during 
2008: teachers can develop intera ctive exercises and self-correct ing tasks and tests which can 
be made available to their students.  
Research highlights a strong digital advant age which many young people have over their 
parents and also their teachers. However,  working with parents to promote the use of ICT 
was referred to by only a few countries (CY, EL). Greece has introduced an “E-parents” initiative aimed at supporting parents’ involv ement in the development of key competences 
with their children. Cyprus has introduced a Learning Platform which includes, among other 
things, e-mail and calendar facilities connecting pupils, teachers and parents.  
                                                
 
75 Ibid 
 
EN 57   EN Similarly, while IT competence is very often gained outside formal educational settings, 
country reports did not refer to the impact of informal learning . This suggests th at this is an 
area for further action, for example, by using extra-curricular activities as a vehicle to 
promote digital competences outsi de formal learning situations. 
Teacher training  
Given the rapid changes in ICT and also identi fication of new issues (e.g. the ethical issues 
involved in using world-wide web, the enviro nmental impact of on line technologies) the 
development of digital competence needs to be supported by initial teacher education and 
continuing professional development. Many co untries refer to programmes designed to up-
skill teachers (AT, CY, EE, IE, FI, HU, MT, PL, PT, RO, SE, SI).  
Box 1-16 – Estonia - Portal to support teache rs in development of digital competences  
Estonia has developed a portal to prepare new teachers and support practis ing teachers in the 
development of digital competence76 focusing on the development of teacher competences 
described in the professional standards for ini tial education, induction year, and in-service 
education. Currently, the most active users of the portal are students studying to be teachers 
and beginning teachers in their induction year.  
1.2.4.1 Conclusions on Digital Competence 
Lack of home access has been identified as one of the barriers to digital competence: in 2007, 
57% of the population were still not on-line at home. What happe ns in the school is therefore 
crucial in ensuring that all young people acquire the skills an d attitudes of digital competence 
they need in their personal and social lives, as well as in the workplace.  
There is evidence of a great deal of activity in Member States in stepping up provision for 
Digital Competence. This has included curricul um reform, extra funding and resources, new 
programmes, the creation of virt ual learning environments, the use of ICT in communication, 
administration and management.  
More work is needed to promote a whole-orga nisation approach to the introduction of ICT in 
methods and the administration of teaching. Suppor t for teachers in the form of initial and 
continuing training needs to be stepped up. As effective integration of  ICT into subjects 
across the curriculum depends on the comm itment, support and understanding of school 
managers. Professional development and support fo r school managers is therefore essential.  
The digital divide between ma ny young people and adults - thei r teachers and parents – was 
not raised in the country reports. Research hi ghlights a strong digital advantage which many 
young people have over their parents and also, thei r teachers. However, technical proficiency 
is not always supported by critical  reflection on the use of ICT. 
There is some evidence of the use of ICT to pr omote transversal skills, interaction and critical 
reflection but this emphasis needs to be strengthened. Overall, certain important content areas 
and learning opportunities have received little attention in th e country reports, including 
                                                 
76 Within the framework of the European Un ion Structural Fund’s project “Teachers’ Professional Development with the Support of 
Educational Technology” see: http://www.htk.tlu.ee/opah   
 
EN 58   EN ‘confident and critical use’ of ICT; ethical a nd legal considerations ar ising from the use of 
ICT; and informal learning situations.  
1.2.5 Learning to Learn 
The Recommendation defines this competence as th e ability to pursue and persist in learning, 
to organise one’s own learning, including through effective management of time and 
information, both individually and in groups. It also stresses that much of the knowledge-base 
required in Learning to Learn is related to awareness of the self: one’s learning processes and 
needs, identifying available opportunities and th e ability to overcome obs tacles in order to 
learn successfully77. Also required are person al attitudes and disposi tions such as motivation 
and confidence all resting on the basic skills of literacy and numeracy.  
Learning to Learn in Schools and VET 
This competence is given a high prio rity in the count ry reports.  
Learning to Learn is embedded  in learning experiences throughout the curriculum, 
especially in relation to genera l education, in two thirds of th e countries (AT, BE fr, BG, CY, 
CZ, DK, DE, IE, EE, ES, FI, FR, HR, HU, LT , LV, MT, NL, NO, PL, PT, RO, SE, SK). A 
few countries (CZ, NO, NL, HR, PL, SI) reported  that this competence is also incorporated 
into the VET curriculum.  
Approaches to Provision 
Learning to Learn is a process oriented compet ence that is typically transversal to all 
educational and training activitie s. However some cognitive aspect s of learning to learn (such 
as learning strategies and methods) may be addr essed through specific learning content. Such 
modules were mentioned in only three reports (E S, IE, LT) and in both cases this concerned 
support for learners working on literacy or numeracy at a basic level in VET. 
Though most countries give little  information on how this comp etence is integr ated into the 
curriculum these approaches have been mentioned: 
• Learning objectives for Learning to Learn are being deve loped in a few countries (BE nl, 
EE, EL, LT, PL, SE) as part of a cross-curricular framework.  
• A framework in Personal Learning and Thinking Skill s is used in England and Wales to 
support Learning to Learn.  
• Programmes and Modules in aspects of Learning to Lear n exist out in a few countries 
(BE nl, CZ, ES, HR, IE). 
• Portfolio building  is used at primary level in L uxembourg at different levels of 
complexity. In primary schools, children comple te a task, reflect on it in their portfolio and 
thus develop self esteem and motivation. Port folios are used in other countries, (AT, DE, 
IE, PT, SE, UK), sometimes contributi ng to the process of assessment. 
                                                 
77 Recommendation on Key Competences for lifelong learning, op. cit.  
 
EN 59   EN • Assessment processes such as self and peer-assessment and project work are used to 
promote reflection on learni ng in several countries.  
An example of a project which supports several of these process described is the Key skills 
Project in Ireland.  
Box 1-17 – Ireland - The Key Skills Project  
The Irish Key Skills Project is designed to support teaching and learning across the 
curriculum in the upper secondary schools and al so to promote success in school and full 
participation in society including family life,  the world of work and lifelong learning.  
The Key Skills are: Information Processing, Cr itical and Creative Thinking, Communicating, 
Working with Others, Being Personally Effective.  Each element is broken down into essential 
elements and learning outcomes. These skills  are being included in all subjects in upper 
secondary schools as part of an ongoing syllabus reform.  
A network of eighteen schools was founded in 2006. Practising teachers write units, develop 
sample learning activities and try out the mate rials and tools. Critica l reflection is an 
important feature of the project,  for both teachers and learners. Much of the support material 
is designed to support this and self-assessment  is an important tool in fostering these 
competences.  
Other countries (AT, DE, MT, RO) have identif ied the importance of teacher development, 
and of ensuring that work on Learning  to Learn is theoretically robust: 
• Teacher Development in Austria is being piloted to support practising teachers in 
methodologies including: team teaching, less on plans for open learning, individualisation 
and giving feedback. A few countries refer to  the professional development of teachers 
(DE, MT, RO). 
• Research into Learning to Learn known as “The Inclusion of Key Qualifications in 
Learning to Learn in Educational Programme s” is being conducted in Slovenia by the 
National Institute for VET.  
Although the embedding of Learning to Learn in  the curriculum requires significant work, 
most countries do not describe in detail the ways in which L earning to Learn is embedded in 
particular subjects or in the overall curriculum . However, there are some descriptions of 
practical measures which ar e not specifically subject -related and which support the 
embedding of this competence throughout all learning:  
• Personal Learning Plans/ Individual De velopment Plans/ Indi vidual Learner Plans : 
are used in some form in a few countries (CY, DK, SE, SI, UK-Scotland). The Plan is used 
to record the learning goals, programme content, specific ob jectives and progress of an 
individual learner. This plan then becomes a type of contra ct between the learner and the 
school or VET provider which can be us ed to track and analyse progress. 
• Three-way discussions with teachers, parents and the le arner in Cyprus and Scotland 
which use the Personal Learning Plan as a structure and focus. 
 
EN 60   EN • A School Library Network is used in Greece to support curi osity and further interest in 
learning in both general education and VET.  
A Peer Learning Activity organise d by the Key Competences Cluster  group in 2007 
concluded that, as all of the key competences are interdependent with  ‘Learning to Learn’, a 
school succeeding in delivering the Learning to Learn competen ce will also have a greater 
likelihood of other competences being effec tively learned. The importance of a positive 
learning environment where there is a shared understanding amongst management, teachers and learners about how and why learning takes place was stressed.
78 
1.2.5.1 Conclusions on Learning to Learn One theme emerging from the country reports is that Learning to Learn needs to be embedded 
not only in all subjects, but in all aspects of the learning environment . Measures include: 
personal learning plans, portfolio-building and th e use of teaching and assessment strategies 
which foster deep learning. These measur es all require good communication, teamwork, 
democratic schooling management, and supportive mechanisms for pupil assessment and school self-evaluation.  
Notwithstanding the strong process orientation of  Learning to Learn, some of the measures 
referred to above to involve addressing cognitive dimensi ons. These include knowing the 
rules and strategies of learning  and how to make use of them
79. What is not clear from most of 
the country reports which locat e Learning to Learn as embe dded in subjects and other 
activities, is whether ‘embedded’ means that knowledge of learning st rategies and processes 
is explicitly taught in context, or if it is assumed to be ‘c aught’, directly or indirectly. 
1.2.6 Social and Civic Competence  
Social and Civic Competence describes the personal, interpersonal and intercultural 
knowledge, skills and attitudes that equip indivi duals to participate in an effective and 
constructive way in social and working life,  and particularly in increasingly diverse 
societies80. 
This competence has two complementary aspects:  
• in terms of the processes involved in positive social cultural and intercultural 
communication encompassing the ability to  communicate constructively…to show 
tolerance, express and understand di fferent viewpoints, to negotiate;  
• as a body of knowledge of the concepts of democracy, justice, equality, citizenship and 
civil rights , including those how those are impl emented in the European Union. 
Both of these dimensions are present in the curricula of Member St ates although they are 
contextualised in different ways.  
Social and Civic Competence in Schools and in VET 
                                                 
78 European Commission (2007), Synthesis report. Cluster 'Key competences – Curriculum Reform'. 
http://www.kslll.net/Documents/PLA_Key%20Competences%20for%20LLL_Jan.%2007.pdf  
79 Progress towards the Lisbon objectives in education and training. SEC (2008) 2293 , p168 
80 Recommendation on Key Competences for Li felong Learning, op. cit., Annex, p. 3 
 
EN 61   EN Through a Dedicated Subject 
In a few counties (AT, ES, IE, LT, LU, SI, UK-E ngland) this area is addressed, at least in 
part, through subjects on the curriculum such as:  
• Personal, Social, Health and Economic  (PSHE) education and Citizenship education are 
compulsory subjects in schools in England, as is Moral Education in Lithuania, and Moral 
and Social Education in Luxembourg.  
• Citizenship modules  were reported by Spain, Pola nd, Ireland and Lithuania, but a 
Eurydice81 study showed that these are also delive red in other countries (AT, CZ, IT, NO, 
RO, SI, SK) at different stages of compulso ry education. The same study shows that in 
some countries these are delivered as a separate  compulsory subject at different stages of 
compulsory education but also integrated into the rest of the curricu lum in some countries 
(BG, CY, CZ, DK, FR, EE, EL, LT, LU, LV, PL, PT, SE).  
The traditional subjects give a lot of scope to teach about the structures of democratic 
societies. They can also support the process aspect of this competence through the use of 
methodologies which promote interaction, cr itical reflection and participation.  
Through Related Subjects 
• History, geography, philosophy, co mmunication, social science are used in (AT, BE fr, 
BG, DE, FI, MT, NO) address th e content, skills, attitudes and processes required for 
effective development of this competence.  
• Information Technology as a vehicle to encourage in teraction, problem-solving and 
critical reflection is promoted in Austria a nd Lithuania as already noted in relation to 
Digital Competence. These pr ocesses are mentioned in the Recommendation as supportive 
of democratic participation.  
• The Philosophy for Children  project in Luxembourg explores issues related to social and 
civic competence with children in primary schools.  
Woven throughout the Curriculum 
• Integrating social and civic competence into some or all subject s is a strategy used by 
many countries (UK Scotland and Wales, NL, BE nl, CZ, DE;, FR, ES, HR, MT, NO, PL, 
PT, RO, SK). They view this area as a cross-cutting competence which is embedded 
throughout the whole curriculum and addre ssed as relevant issues arise.  
• A combination of these approaches to provision  is used in two countries (HR SI). The 
lower secondary curriculum in Slovenia includes a subject called ‘civic and patriotic education’ but the issues it covers are also addressed in a cross-curricular way and in 
subjects such as history, both at that level and at earlier stages in the education system.
                                                
 
81 Eurydice (2005), Citizenship educa tion at school in Europe, Figure 2.1 
http://eacea.ec.europa .eu/ressources/eurydice/ pdf/0_integral/055EN.pdf  
 
EN 62   EN In the Learning Environment 
• Direct Participation in school structures brings the processes of social and civic 
competence directly into young people’s lives. Th is approach is implemented in Estonia, 
Finland, Poland and Spain. One view of promoting civic and social competence 
recommends promoting democratic values and practices by putting these into action, both 
in the teaching process and especially in  the ethos and operation of the immediate 
institutional environment (AT, CZ, EE, ES, FI , MT). By consciously modelling civic and 
social competences in real life, school managers and teachers can give pupils the 
opportunity to gain first-hand, personal e xperience of the knowledge, skills and the 
attitudes involved in de mocratic participation.  
Box 1-18 – Finland - Citizen Participation Programme  
Part of the Citizen Participation Policy Programme82 in Finland involves the creation of 
Students’ Associations whose ro le is to promote cooperation  among students, channel their 
influence and participation in matters relatin g to them and generally to promote active 
citizenship. Student associations  are now part of the Basic E ducation Act in Finland, which 
means that education providers have to set these up for individual schools or networks of 
schools, or otherwise organise opportunities for students to be heard on common issues of the 
school. Student associations arra nge national and regional traini ng, assist in the planning and 
evaluation of activities at school le vel and engage with local actors.  
Through Special Measures 
Several countries have evolved different ways  of supporting the development of Civic and 
Social competence in ways which are suitable fo r the context of their own national systems: 
• Textbooks and teaching materials  promote participatory me thods and convey relevant 
content in AT, CZ, EL, HU, IE, MT, SI. 
• A dedicated framework has been developed in BE nl which outlines cross-curricular 
competences and personal development in relation  to others and the ability to participate in 
a multicultural, democratic society 
• Quality statements  to define the area of social and civic competence have been developed 
in the Netherlands. 
• At national level, a special committee has been set up by the Ministry of Education in 
Luxembourg to explore citizenship education. 
Through Outreach Teaching Methodology 
• The Extended Project: This is most frequently-mentioned method. It can be carried out 
within the context of a traditional subject, in th e context of two or more  subjects as a cross-
curricular project or in the wider context of th e world outside the school.  Projects at all of 
these levels are referred to by several count ries (AT, DK, ES, FI, HR, IE, MT, NL, NO, 
                                                 
82 www.om.fi/en/Etusivu/Ajankohta ista/Arkistoidutsisallot/Kansal aisvaikuttamisenpolitiikkaohjelma  
 
EN 63   EN PT). They report that the process of d eciding on a topic for study, planning and 
implementing it, reporting findings and refl ecting on their success, can provide the 
opportunity to develop most or all of th e transversal competences. In Norway young 
people undertake outreach work in the commun ity which promotes this competence.  
Box 1-19 – Croatia - National Curricu lum for Human Rights and Democratic 
Citizenship Education 
In Croatia the National Curriculum for Human Rights and Democratic Citizenship Education 
sets out themes for all levels of general a nd vocational education which promote all of the 
Key Competences, with a particular focus on de mocratic citizenship. Cross-curricular and 
extra-curricular activities engage with real-l ife problem-solving in the community, such as 
access to public buildings for people with disa bilities and many others. Each project includes 
interdisciplinary skills such  as: reading, discussion, writi ng, analysing graphs, problem 
solving in small groups, cooperative learning techniques, role play, studying the laws and 
Constitution of the Republic of Croatia, writing official letters and applications, The students 
systematically study the problem, document it and draw up a plan  for solving it. Parents and 
people from the local community are invol ved in the realisation of the project.  
Through Assessment  
• Interdisciplinary projects for assessment: A small number of countries (AT, DK, RO) 
refer to innovative methods of assessment wh ich promote learners’ cap acity for interaction 
and critical engagement with the world. These are based on interdisci plinary projects. In 
three cases (AT, DK, RO) these are required as  part of the final assessment for national 
qualifications. This is one exam ple of how the ‘backwash’ eff ect from assessment can have 
a positive impact on teaching and learning.  
In VET 
Not all respondents gave details of the extent to which this competence is addressed in VET 
but most of those who did mentioned a similar range of delivery mechanisms as those found 
in the general system: dedica ted subjects, embedded in othe r subject areas, or delivered 
through project work and other similar methodologies.  
Based on the limited information available in the reports, it appears that Civic and Social 
competence does receive attention in the VET s ector although, as for ge neral education, it is 
not possible to say how far this extends. Some refer to embedding the content into the subject 
or craft content, although ther e is no way of knowing how far th is translates into what is 
actually taught, or how.  
1.2.6.1 Conclusions Provision for this competence  is gathering momentum and is being promoted through a 
variety of approaches, sometimes supported by  frameworks, statements of objectives and 
assessment processes. These may address to a large degree the knowledge dimension  and to 
some degree, the attitudinal and process aspect  of this competence. The more traditional 
approach of a single subject is being compleme nted with cognitive approaches and methods.  
 
EN 64   EN However, the surest way of providing this competence for all young people is to embed it in 
the methodology used for all subjects , and not only those which explicitly address civic and 
social issues as a body of knowledge. If teachin g in general and VET education and training 
models the principles of democratic partic ipation, then all young pe ople will have access to 
this competence, whether it is included on their official timetable or not . A similar effect can 
be achieved by ensuring that th e learning environment includes st ructures such as students’ 
associations (ie real-life participation).  
1.2.7 Sense of Initiative and Entrepreneurship  
In common with the other transv ersal Key Competences, this co mpetence is strongly process-
orientated: the Recommendation refers to an individual's ability to turn ideas into action and 
the ability to plan and manage projects  in order to achieve objectives which may be social as 
well as commercial.  
This competence is also underpinned by a vari ed body of knowledge whic h is open to a range 
of interpretation: understanding of the workin g of the economy, as well as the specific 
demands and opportunities of employers. The att itudinal dimension refers to the ethics of 
business and the potential of enterprises to be a force for good, for example through fair trade 
or through social enterprise.  
Personal and interpersonal skills are a further im portant aspect of this competence, including 
the ability to lead and delega te, manage resources, analyse, communicate, de-brief, evaluate 
and record, effective representation and nego tiation, and the ability to work both as an 
individual and collaboratively in teams, as well as the ability to communicate, cooperate and 
coordinate with partners in  networks, clusters etc.. 
Initiative and Entrepreneurship in Schools and VET 
Initiative and Entrepreneurship appears on th e curriculum of primary and secondary schools 
and in VET in a variety of diffe rent ways. Some aspects, such as initiative and innovation, are 
addressed through teaching methods  and activities such as mini -companies and work in the 
community. Others emphasise a body of knowle dge, such as knowledge of the financial 
system or economics .  
Through a Dedicated Subject  
• Certain subjects such as Citizenship  (FI, CZ, IE, RO, SK), Entrepreneurship (UK - Wales), 
Economy (LT) and parts of stand-alone mo dules (CY, EE, EL, PT) cater for this 
competence.  
• Secondary school attainment target s in entrepreneurship  or related areas de fine part of this 
competence in the French Speaking Community of Belgium where it is  addressed through 
various projects.  
• Preparation for entrepreneurship  at primary school is part of the curriculum in a few 
countries (CZ, FI, LV, NL, NO).  
Embedded in themes or across the curriculum 
 
EN 65   EN • Themes  such as ‘The Individual and the World of Work’ (CZ,IE, RO , SK) or programmes 
such as Personal Social and Health Educat ion (UK – England) pr ovide a vehicle for 
addressing some aspects of this competence.  This strategy is found also in France, 
Denmark, Estonia and Sweden.  
• Cross curricular work in Entrep reneurship is carried out in schools in some countries (AT, 
BE fr, HR, FR, DE, MT, RO) to promote asp ects of this competence, sometimes through 
community projects (DE, DK, HR, IE, PT) and volunteer community work (FI). Hungary 
includes this competence under the Cultural domain.  
• The ethos of the school was refe rred to by Spain and Sweden as being an important vehicle 
for sense of initiative  and entrepreneurship. 
• Mini enterprises are widely used as a multi-disciplinary strategy in general education and 
in VET, in some countries (CZ, DE , EL, HR, HU, IE, LU, HU, PL, PT, UK). 
The specific ways of promoting Init iative and Entrepreneurship in VET 
• Qualification guidelines include different elem ents of this competen ce in some countries 
(FI, HU, LT, NL, NO, PL, SI, SK). In Hungary aspects of entrepreneurship are included in 
different qualifications. Special activities such as Enterprise  Week (CY) and other extra-
curricular activities foster entrepreneurship in  a few other countries (AT, EL, ES, IE, PT, 
RO, SK, UK). 
• Specific modules are included in apprenticeships  or other vocational qua lifications in some 
countries (AT, BE fr, ES, IE, FI, HU, RO);  
• A methodology which promotes interaction and discovery is stressed as an important 
vehicle for developing initiativ e in AT, DK, ES, PT, RO, SE. 
Countries report that partnership between schools,  VET and business and enterprise are a very 
important strategy in the prom otion of this competence (AT,  CZ, DE, FI, LU, PT, RO, SE, 
SK, UK).  
Box 1-20 – Germany - Mini-Enterprises  
In Germany students operate mini-companies which are educational projects with limited 
sales and profits. These are based on real bus iness models. Student employees of companies 
plan, produce and sell products or provide serv ices. Student companies thus serve to promote 
responsibility, teamwork and indi vidual initiative of students a nd provide practical and action-
oriented knowledge about the economy and economic contexts.  
Box 1-21 – Netherlands – Entrepreneurship Education 
The Ministry of Economic Affairs and the Mini stry of Education, Culture and Science have 
set up a programme on entrepreneurship and education. One of the key elements of this 
programme is to invest in entr epreneurship and entrepreneurial skills from a very young age. 
Primary and secondary schools can play a vital role in developing these skills. 
 
EN 66   EN The entrepreneurship and educat ion grants scheme was launche d in 2007 and provides seed 
money for the Entrepreneurship and Educatio n Partnerships: encouraging projects from 
primary school through to vocational training 
In November 2008 the Dutch government launched a new programme covering the 2008-
2012 period. One of the key features  of this programme is to pr ofessionalise entrepreneurship 
education by investing in ne tworks between schools and comp anies, from primary school 
right through to vocational trai ning, and opening an additional four to six entrepreneurship 
centres in the higher education sector.  
National level strategies and programmes  are being implemented in some countries (BE nl, 
CZ, DE, FI, LU, MT, PL, SE, SK, UK - Wales). 
1.2.7.1 Conclusions Sense of Initiative and Entrepreneurship  Substantial progress has been made in most countries in recent years in promoting the 
entrepreneurial dimension of this competence. Much of this work has been underpinned or 
driven by national action plans and strategies, which is a positive development in the promotion of all of the key competences.  
This competence provides many opportunities for e ngaging in partnership with organisations 
and enterprises outside the education and training system.  
The dedicated subject approach addresses a bod y of knowledge most relevant to the national 
context, and this has allowed different concepts of the competence to emerge. However, 
knowledge must be accompanied by the approp riate contextual dimensions. These can be 
supplied either through integrat ed or cross-curricular work, or through crea ting links with 
outside partners such as local businesses.  
Creating such links ensures that the body of kn owledge covered is app lied in a meaningful 
context. It also allows for cross-fertilization between the world of business and the world of 
education and training. 
It is not clear to what extent the personal and social dimensions of this competence are 
addressed; or whether the creative and innovative  aspects receive as much attention as the 
entrepreneurial dimensions. In common with Social and Civic competence, there is substantial scope to promote t hose aspects of entrepreneurshi p, for instance by the use of 
participatory teaching methods across the whole curriculum.  
1.2.8 Cultural Awareness and Expression  
According to the Recommendation " Appreciation of the importan ce of the creative expression 
of ideas, experiences and em otions in a range of media"  is one dimension of  this competence 
but there are many others, in addition to the familiar and traditional view of culture as 
including music, performing arts, literature, and the visual arts . 
Other dimensions address the societal  level, particularly in fostering respect for diversity of 
cultural expression.
83 Council Conclusions of May 2008 stress the importance of acquisition 
                                                 
83 Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning, op. cit.  
 
EN 67   EN by all citizens of the key competences most re levant to intercultural competences and most 
likely to foster an appreciation of cultural diversity as a core valu e, such as linguistic, social 
and civic competences and cultu ral awareness and expression.  
This competence is therefore concerned both with  promoting the creativity and cultural 
appreciation of people as individuals, but also as members of society.  It harnesses awareness 
of one’s own culture to promote understanding and tolerance of others’, in a society of 
increasing diversity.  
The Council Conclusions also address partic ularly the issue of access and call for the 
promotion of everyone's active participation in cultural life and access to culture and heritage 
in all their diversity, with particular atten tion to people who have fewer opportunities for 
access84. Education and training systems have a significant role to pl ay in reducing barriers to 
access to cultural opportunities arising fr om different kinds of disadvantage.  
A further dimension of cultural awareness and expression concerns the arts and culture as 
process, that is, as a methodology. From this pe rspective, the methods of the arts have the 
potential to be used as a ve hicle to promote individuals’ pe rsonal and social development85 in 
the context of any subject or educational activity.  
Cultural Awareness and Expression in Schools and in VET 
Arts and cultural education86 forms a part of the school curri culum addressed in a variety of 
different ways, including as a stand-alone subject, through pr ojects and themes and in 
outreach activities which take young people out of  the school and into the gallery, museum or 
concert hall. This is the most familiar and traditional view of cultural awareness. 
Through the Subject-Centred Curriculum 
• Subjects provided as part of cultural educat ion include: music (AT, BG, DE, DK CY, CZ, 
HU, IE, LU, MT, NL, PL, PT, SE, SK, SI); visu al arts (AT, BE nl , BG, CY, CZ, DE, DK, 
ES, HU, IE, LU, MT, PL, PT, RO, SE SK, SI); and literature, in all countries, usually as 
part of mother tongue teaching. 
• Foreign languages provide a vehicle for the stu dy of the culture of di fferent countries in 
Bulgaria and Malta. 
• Civics provides a context for cultural educati on in England; physical education provides a 
context in Finland. 
Through Cross-Curricular Themes 
• A thematic, multi-disciplinary approach forms part of the provision for cultural awareness 
in AT, CZ, DE, ES, FR, HR, HU, LT, MT. 
                                                 
84 Council conclusions of 22 May 2008 on Intercultural Competences, OJ C 141/14 of 13.06.2008  
85 Bramford, Anne: The WOW factor. Global Research Co mpendium on the impact of arts in education. 
 Waxham Verlad GmbH (2006). 
86 For a detailed overview of arts and cultural education, see Eurydice: Arts and cultural education at school in Europe.  
 
EN 68   EN • Outreach Activities such as visits to theatr es, galleries and concerts are specifically 
mentioned by: AT, CZ, DE, LT, LU, MT, PL, SK. 
• Active partnerships with cultural institutions  were mentioned by Austria and Luxembourg. 
Austria has a long-standing and extensive stat utory framework to support links between the 
education system and arts institutions. Schools in Luxembourg have links with cultural institutions, especially th e Philharmonic Orchestra.  
Box 1-22 – Austria - Dialogue Events  
These are multi-disciplinary proj ects which provide a creative experience for teachers, pupils 
and artists by supporting work in schools unde r several categories of art and culture: 
architecture, fine arts, film/video, music, new media, dance and theatr e and interdisciplinary 
work. Teachers in state schools can apply for f unding to collaborate with practising artists on 
projects which vary in length from two less ons up to several months. Dialogue Events link 
artistic experience with everyday life in ways which develop participants ’ cultural and artistic 
skills. They also aim to foster young people’ s creativity, personal a nd social competence by 
using participatory and action-oriented methods that facilitate collabora tion between artists, 
teachers and pupils.  
Cultural Awareness and Expression in VET 
• Croatia offers the same experience of the arts  and culture to young people in VET as in the 
general education system. In some countries (IE, NL, SK, PT, UK) the type and extent of 
provision depends on the qualification being fo llowed. In others (BE fr, BE nl, CZ, PL. 
PT) provision is embedded in the curriculum.  But countries do not specify what provision 
is made within VET for this competence.  
• Very few countries report usi ng the processes of the arts as  a vehicle to promote personal 
and social development, or intercultura l understanding. This was mentioned only by 
Luxembourg, Malta and Slovakia.  
1.2.8.1 Conclusions Cultural Awareness and Expression Although culture and the arts are catered for in  all countries through the traditional subject 
curriculum, according to the country reports,  this competence does not appear to be a 
significant strategic priority for Member States as a whole.  
The potential of the arts to provide a methodology for work in other areas of the curriculum, 
and in personal and social development, could be better exploited in many countries. This has 
implications for initial and continuing teache r education, which coul d incorporate methods 
borrowed from the arts into the methodology of all subjects. In this way, cultural awareness 
and expression will be more readily accessible to young people in all sectors and situations.  
There were significant gaps in the informa tion supplied in the country reports regarding 
provision in VET. However, th e information supplied indicates that this area is not very 
strongly provided for in the vocational sector, es pecially where VET takes place outside 
school.  
 
EN 69   EN 1.2.9 Some general conclusions concerning in tegration of the key competences in 
curricula 
The shift towards competence 
There has been a general shift in European countri es to a competence- based approach, to 
which the European Framework has made an im portant contribution. Se veral countries (AT, 
BE nl, CZ, DE, FR, MT, NO, Pl , SI, UK) are already supporting the development of certain 
key competences by expressing them as referenc e levels. These describe  goals towards which 
learners should aspire, or a minimum level of attainment they should reach at specified stages. In others, such levels are in the process of being developed (DK). Some of these attainment 
targets or reference levels address areas of activity which are similar to or overlap with 
aspects of the key competences, especially  Communication and Mathematics and in a few 
cases, address cross curricular themes (BE nl, CY, FI, SI).  
Support for literacy 
All countries have specific measures to address Communication in the Mother Tongue, 
particularly literacy, as a policy priority. Specific  provision for migrants is widespread in this 
regard.  
Cross-curricular work in all competences 
Cross-curricular work is emergi ng as a teaching strategy in suppor t of all of the competences. 
This is a welcome development because all of the competences are a combination of 
knowledge skills and attitudes appropriate to the context , hence the importance of providing a 
variety of contexts. However, this require s team-work, planning an d staff training and 
development, as well as the support of the scho ol manager. More needs to be done to make 
cross-curricular work a regular st rategy in all subjects and activities. 
Integration and the whole-organ isation approach of certain competences throughout the 
curriculum  
A whole school approach is emerging as a strate gy in some countries. This applies especially 
to embedding literacy and numeracy across the curriculum and school activities. School 
leadership, staff training and other support stru ctures such as teamwork and timetabling are 
essential for success.  
The importance of early intervention  
Early intervention in key areas such as liter acy and numeracy emerges as a key strategy in 
many countries. Early learni ng of foreign languages and di gital competence is also 
mentioned, but less frequently.  
Extra-curricular activities  
Extra-curricular activities are a vehicle for developing all of the key competences and could 
be exploited more. Only sometimes do nationa l reports refer to these specifically as 
opportunities for learning. Informal learning has gr eat potential, especially in areas such as 
digital competence.  
 
EN 70   EN Key competences provision in VET  
How key competences are catered for in VET is not  always clear but it seems that main focus 
is on mother tongue and maths, though often w ith a sectoral or te chnical orientation. 
Entrepreneurship also seems to be securely  embedded in VET curricula. However, foreign 
languages, social and civic competence and cu ltural awareness receive less attention. 
Contributing factors 
Several important contributing factors have emerged from country reports, to differing 
degrees, as supporting effective pr ovision of the key competences: 
• action or strategy planning as part of overall National Lifelong Learning Strategies for a 
coherent approach across the different sectors,  in order to offer equity of access to key 
competences; 
• standards by which to assess the progress and development of the key competences; 
• awareness-raising and profe ssional development opportunities for teachers and school 
managers; 
• staff development and working conditions that allow for inte gration and cross-curricular 
work e.g. team teaching; 
• a school/organisational ethos that is participatory and democratic. 
1.3 Key Competences for the disadvantaged 
The Recommendation on Key Competences invites Me mber States to ensure that "appropriate 
provision is made for those young people who due to educational di sadvantage caused by 
personal, social, cultura l or economic circumstances need particular support to fulfil their 
educational potential."  
The analysis set out below provides an overview  of the types of meas ures implemented to 
support systems, schools and teachers to enha nce the provision of key competences for 
disadvantaged target groups. Countries report a variety of measures that either addresses all 
young people by creating a coherent framework for all target groups , or measures specifically 
focused on certain disadvantaged target groups.  
1.3.1 Legislative measures for key competences for all  
The majority of Member States have over tim e created legislative frameworks targeting 
particular groups (AT, BE fr, BG, CZ, DE, DK, EE, ES, FI, HR, HU, IE, LV, LT, LU, MT, 
NL, NO, PL, RO, SK, SI, SE, UK ). These are further described below. A few countries (BE 
fr, DK, FR, IS, NO) also report a trend toward s a single overarching legislative framework for 
both mainstream learners and specific target groups:  
Box 1-23 - Belgium fr - towards a system offering a comprehensive support to Key 
Competences 
 
EN 71   EN The first piece of legislation aiming to foster the acquisition of basic skills by all was adopted 
in 1997 (‘Missions’ decree) in the French speaki ng Community of Belgium. It particularly 
focused on making statutory a common weekly teach ing grid in all schools in order to support 
the development of literacy and numeracy sk ills during the first years of compulsory 
education and the acquisition of transversal co mpetences during all compulsory education. 
This legislation was complemented by another (adopted in 2008) that specifically targets 
pupils experiencing difficulties at the end of primary education.  
A new unified system will replace these two le gislative frameworks from 2010-2011. It will 
apply to all types of schools and put specif ic emphasis on disadvantaged learners. While 
based on existing measures, its main focus will be on introducing additional ones (e.g. supply 
of additional teachers and professional s – educators, guidance staff, etc.).  
Another common approach is the introduction of rights-based legislation  (DK, ES, HU, HR, 
NL, NO, SE, UK). Such legislation makes the ac quisition of key competences a right for all. 
This places an obligation on education and tr aining providers and/or teachers to put 
appropriate teaching and learni ng strategies in place.  
1.3.2 Measures supporting targeted action 
The measures developed by Member States to  address the needs of SEN students include 
action plans and programmes; guidelines and in dividual learning plans;  funding measures and 
communication strategies. 
Action plans 
Action plans and guidelines to accompany legislative m easures are reported by many 
countries (AT, BE fr, CZ, DK, ES, IE, LV , LT, LU, PL, PT, SE, UK). Several focus on 
specific target groups (AT, BE fr, DK, IE, PL, PT , SI (for Roma), UK). In Spain, for instance 
a range of measures are in place: 
Box 1-24 - Spain – Action Plans to support the development of KC by young people 
Spain has put in place a Programme for Reinforcement, Guidance and Support (PROA) which 
is aimed at students who, due to  a disadvantaged family or social background and/or limited 
education resources, have fewer possibilities of  achieving full development of their basic 
competences. 
The plan focuses on: 
- training teachers on issues such as diagnosis and evaluation or modifi cations to curricula 
aimed at more clearly incorpor ating acquisition of competences; 
- specific programmes aimed at improving school performance of  students with the greatest 
difficulties; 
- programmes aimed at preventi ng early school leaving and prom oting the re-integration of 
drop-outs.   
Individual learning plans 
 
EN 72   EN The use of individual learning /development plans is increasing. They enable learning to be 
personalised and adapted to different  learning needs and strategies.  
Some countries use individual le arning plans systematically for all learners (FI, HU, NO, SE, 
SI); others certain target groups (BE fr, CZ, DE, DK, EE, LV, PT). Such plans consist of 
agreements between teachers and pupils and may involve increased use of individual 
assessments, as in the case of Sweden.  
Box 1-25 - Sweden – Individual development plan in compulsory education 
The Swedish Government has amended the pr ovisions relating to individual development 
plans in compulsory education. As from the au tumn term of 2008, the development plans also 
include written assessments of each pupil’s kno wledge development. The development plan 
shall also document agreements between the teacher, the pupil and hi s or her parents or 
guardians. 
Additional funding 
Most countries (AT, BE fr, BG, CY, CZ, DK, EE, EL, ES, FI, HR, HU,  IE, IS, LV, LT, PT, 
NL, RO, SE, SK, UK) report using additional funding  to support provision of key 
competences for mainstream learners as well as specific target groups. These measures 
generally put the emphasis on issues such as teacher education, school infrastructure or 
learning materials (new adopted materials (A T, BE fr, CY, CZ, EL, HU, IS, LT, SK)), 
teaching methods (BE fr, BG, CY, CZ, PT, RO) or distribution of free textbooks (AT, BG, 
EL, HR, RO). 
Additional funding to support disa dvantaged young people is repor ted in only a few countries 
though (BE fr, EE, HU, NL). Thes e countries report that they allocate additional funding to 
schools characterised by large amounts of pupils  with disabilities or  disadvantaged socio-
economical backgrounds. As in the case of the Netherlands (see text box below), funding 
measures also generally stress the need to involve close cooperation between the different 
educational actors.  
Box 1-26 – The Netherlands – Compensatory policy funding 
A compensatory policy aimed to prevent and re duce disadvantage has been set up at central 
government level in the Netherlands. It target s young people enrolled in pre-primary, primary 
and secondary education and has an annual budget of around 487 million euro. Funds are 
allocated to primary schools on the basis of a we ighting system (i.e. schools can get additional 
funding on the basis of the educat ional levels of pupils’ parent s) and to secondary school on 
the basis of the Learning Plus and Newc omers Funding Scheme (i.e. extra funding allocated 
to schools coping with pupils with migrant background).  Cooperation between local 
authorities, school institutions and ot her institutions is seen as a determining factor and thus is 
strongly encouraged through th e design of the scheme.  
Communication measures 
Attracting young people to edu cation and training beyond the co mpulsory schooling age or 
retaining them in schools, especially those pr one to dropping out alto gether or joining the 
labour market prematurely, is also a challenge  for key competence provision. A few countries 
 
EN 73   EN report on broad communication measures (AT,  EL, ES, FR, HR, LT, NO, SK, UK). These 
take the form of e.g. nationwide campaigns, websites, and dissemination of good practices. 
Their aim is to reach out to the target gr oups via new interactive media and explain the 
purpose of legislation, strategies and action plans "in their own language". 
 
EN 74   EN Box 1-27 – Croatia – The ‘Secondary school for all’ campaign 
The ‘Secondary school for all’ campaign was la unched following the implementation of the 
National Programme of Measures for the Impl ementation of Compulsory Education in 2007. 
Its aim is to raise public aw areness of the advantages of  increasing the number of young 
persons in secondary education and creating the preconditions for their better social inclusion 
and lifelong learning. A priority measure is to im prove the working conditions of teachers.  
1.3.3 Measures targeting specific groups 
Countries identify a certain number of target groups that are given particular emphasis in their 
policies and measures. The most common such target groups that countries have identified are 
young people with special educational needs (SEN); young people with literacy needs and 
potential early school leavers. 
Support for young people with SEN  
Measures to support the development of key competences by young people with SEN  
constitute an important goal in many countries. This trend was clearly reported in more than 
half of the countries (AT, CY, CZ, DE, DK, EE, FI, FR, HR, IE, IS, LV, LT, NL, NO, PL, 
PT, SE, SI, SK, UK England87). The measures identified can be grouped as follows: 
Structural measures involving in clusive or combined settings 
In most reports, little information is provide d on whether the measures involve special schools 
or classes, or interventions to  help children in the context of the regular classes. Four 
countries (EE, FI, LV and DK) however make th is more explicit. While  a strong emphasis is 
put on inclusive settings in the Estonian and Latvian reports, the Dani sh report stresses that 
special education can be organi sed in a variety of ways. Most  Danish young people with SEN 
generally remain in a mainstream  school class but may also be ta ught in a special class (either 
within a mainstream school or within  a special school) or combine both. 
Box 1-28 - Latvia – Measures to support young people with SEN in schools 
Aside from benefitting from specialist guidan ce (speech therapists, psychologists, etc.) 
schools in Latvia can also implement the following measures: 
• remedial teaching (additional classes for up to  6 students with motivational difficulties, 
motor or mixed developmental difficulties, stud ents with visual and hearing disabilities); 
• individual study programmes for students in one or more subj ects with an agreement on 
either reduced or heightened requirements  for study content or learning results as 
compared to the school’s curriculum, ex ceptions in study organisation, etc.;  
                                                 
87 Information found in the reports refer to  young people with disabilities (i.e. who have  clear organic reasons for their diffic ulties in 
education) and/or difficulties (i.e. with emotional and behavioural difficulties of specific difficulties in learning). This ty pology 
reflecting the categories A and B set by OECD to define pupils with SEN.  
 
EN 75   EN • 'opportunity classes' for students with lear ning difficulties in basic and upper secondary 
schools students studying according to the natio nal curriculum for (up to 16 students per 
class); 
• extra help or consultations from s ubject teachers outside school hours; 
• after-school groups, with  activities, pedagogical guidance for homework, study assistance, 
opportunities for hobbies, etc. 
Curricular measures / individual lear ning plans, assistan ce and information 
Curricular adaptations are repor ted by a few countries (AT, DK,  EE, IS (effective from 2010) 
and LV). They may consist of adjusted curric ula (AT, DK, EE, IS, LV), guidelines for the 
implementation of quality standards for incl usive education (AT), or guidelines for the 
implementation of individual support plans (AT,  EE and LV). These are often accompanied, 
as in Estonia, by annual assessment discussi ons between the teacher , student and parent, 
where progress, learning conditions a nd future challenges are agreed.  
Raising the number of specialist assistants ai med to help ensure a quality process of 
integration at school is reported by three countries (EE, LT, LV).  
An example of a website dedicated to SEN provision was provided by  the United Kingdom 
(England):  
Box 1-29 - UK (England) – approaches to s upport competence development of learners 
with difficulties 
The Learning and Skills Improvement Service has developed an on-line toolkit supporting 
‘Learners to succeed’. It also launched a project  named ‘Getting a life’ that will spread good 
practice from a number of local projects aimed at improving progression of young people 
with learning difficulties and/or disabilities learners into employment. 
Measures targeting young pe ople with literacy needs  
Making sure that appropriate teaching time  for reading and master ing the language of the 
country is foreseen in curricula for early  childhood education and primary education was 
particularly stressed by some  countries (DK, BE fr, ES,FI,  FR, HU, LT, NL, NO, SI) as a 
measure to prevent literacy difficulties or to address them in early stages.  
Action  plans  and extra funding  to foster literacy skills were also reported by few countries 
(BE nl, FR, ES, NL). These countries stressed that supporting the de velopment of literacy 
skills was considered, by law, as their core priority.  
As previously highlighted, teaching material s and complementary electronic resources 
support effective teaching and learning. The Sp anish Ministry of Education has approved 
significant budget allocations to improve school libraries but also made several electronic 
resources available. 
The implementation of specific measures addressed to bilingual young people  has also to be 
stressed by some countries (AT,CZ, DE, DK, ES, FI, LV, LU, NO, PT, UK). Such measures 
mostly address young migrants  (AT, CZ, DE, DK, ES, FI, IE, LV, LU, NO, PT, UK) or 
 
EN 76   EN young people from minority groups  (IE, LV, NO) who do not gene rally master the language 
of the host country (DK, FI, LV, LU, NO, UK).  
Box 1-30 - Denmark – Measures to support b ilingual children in acquisition of the 
national language 
The municipalities are obliged to offer language  stimulation training to bilingual children 
living in Denmark from the age of  3 who are in need of such tr aining in order to develop their 
competences in the language of instruction. Bilingual childre n, who do not attend a day-care 
centre, receive 15 hours of language stimulation activities per week. 
The Folkeskole Act also gives municipalities the possibility to refe r bilingual pupils with a 
need for language support that is deemed ‘not in significant’ to a school other than the district 
school to which they belong, if a better pedagog ical offer is available at another school.  
The Ministries of Education and of Refugee,  Immigrant and Integration Affairs have in 
cooperation established a ‘Task Force for Bilingua l Pupils’, the aim of which is to advise 
municipalities on effective ways of improving th e education outcomes of bilingual pupils.  
Measures targeting (potentia l) early school leavers  
The importance of this issue is highlighted  by the European benchmark on early school 
leavers88 and several Council conclusions89.  
Issues relating to early school leaving are high on the policy ag enda of many countries (BE fr, 
BG, DE, EE, ES, FI, FR, HR, LT, LV, LU, NL, PL, PT, UK) . A few report that their 
measures mainly consist of flexible schedulin g (BG, PT) or individua lised learning plans 
(DK, LU), increased guidance and the involvement  of other stakeholders such as employers’ 
representatives.  
More specifically, two main kinds of measures can  be distinguished. They consist of retaining 
and/or bringing school leavers back to educat ional systems, and prev enting potential drop-
outs at an early stage.  
• Preventing young people at risk from dropping out  (BE fr, FI, SE, LU, LV, PT) is tackled 
through individualised forms of support such as  tutoring (BE fr, FI) or setting up ad hoc 
classes for low achievers (LU, LV, SE). An ex ample of flexible arra ngements in Finland is 
outlined below:  
                                                 
88 By 2010 an EU average of no more than 10% early school leavers should be achieved. 
89 See for instance November 2006 Council, 12677/06 EDUC 167 
 
EN 77   EN Box 1-31 – Finland – Flexible education to prevent early drop-outs 
The flexible basic education programme, in itiated in 2006, has already brought significant 
results in preventing drop-out. It seeks to support young people at the end of compulsory 
education, and help them to apply for further education and training. Early intervention, active 
ways of learning, individualised approaches co mbining schools and authentic work, and the 
involvement of parents are the key features of the project at school level. However, it also 
focuses on teachers' competences in meeti ng young people's needs and their collaboration 
skills, and makes local authoritie s responsible for efficient coor dination between services such 
as youth, health and social services. The programme is now being mainstreamed.  
• Ways to retain and bring young people back to  education involve promoting the concept of 
Second Chance Education (LU, LT, LV, MT) or increasing flexible educational provision 
both in general education and VET (BG, LU , MT, PT). The UK reports extending the 
length of compulsory schooling thus reta ining young people longer in education and 
training.  
Box 1-32 – Luxembourg – A set of measu res to address earl y school leaving 
Luxembourg is putting in place a coherent set of measures to  address early school leaving, 
including: 
– support measures by the Local Youth Action  network which propo ses individualised 
support and guidance in order to motivate them to re-integrate general education or VET; 
– to ensure that those who rep eat a class, which is often th e first step to dropping out, 
improve their results (which is in most cases not  the case if they remain in the same type of 
class), certain schools put in place specific classes with individualised support (95% of 
these students reach the objective set at  the beginning of the school year); 
– A Law on second chance schools which will put in place a specific ty pe of provision for 
early school leavers in order to bring them up to the level of key competences required in 
order to integrate general or technical education and training. 
1.3.4 Conclusions on Key Competences for the Disadvantaged 
While countries have develope d specific legislation, action pl ans and measures to address 
different target groups, some c ountries go further and create a single coherent framework  
for both mainstream learners and specific targ et groups, notably through the introduction of 
rights based legislation.  
Funding  is crucial to make sure these measures  and action plans translate into results. 
Though countries report specific funding for certain target groups, clear information on 
whether the amounts are increasi ng or decreasing was not given 
There is a trend towards individual learning plans  accompanied by guidance to make sure 
that disadvantaged young people or those with difficulties receive adequate and coherent support for their learning. In most cases, these primarily ta rget young people with literacy 
needs (including migrants) and those w ith special education needs (SEN).  
 
EN 78   EN More generally, a coherent pi cture on policies effectively t acking educational disadvantage 
would require information on the role of  early childhood education and care (ECEC). 90 Some 
countries already included this topic in their reports as a prio rity (CY, DK, FR, FI, HU, IS, 
LV, NL). 
The few examples concerning reforms in VET (BE fr, CZ, EL, IT, DK, LT, LU, NL, SK, PT) 
could provide a basis for mutu al learning in this area. 
Similarly, effective measures targeting unemployed young people were not fully present in 
reports, and this would be another specific area where countries could learn from each others' 
practice. 
1.4 Supporting adults in developing Key Competences 
The need to support the adult population in developing and updating the key competences 
throughout their lives is clearly empha sised in both the Recommendation on Key 
Competences for Lifelong Learning91 and the Council Conclusi ons on the Action Plan on 
Adult Learning, It is always a good time to learn92 which invites Member States to  address 
the problem of the persistently  high number of early school  leavers by offering a second 
chance to those who enter adult ag e without a qualification, focu sing on areas of particular 
concern, such as basic literacy and numeracy, IT skills and language learning. 
Ongoing societal changes (e.g. globalisation, demographical changes, but also different 
family composition, role of wo men, increasing technological developments requiring new 
work practices, unemployment, etc. ) increase the risk that those without qualifications or with 
only low qualifications may, more than ever, become excluded from society and the labour 
market.  
The development and implementation of coherent and efficient policies fo r the adult learning 
sector implies overcoming challenges related to: the complexity of the structure of the sector 
93 94 that comprises different form s of learning, types of provid ers (public and private) and 
diverse target groups95, and involves a large number of funding and decision-making 
institutions (e.g. national, regional and local authorities, education, training and employment 
sectors). 
It should be noted that countries, in their repor ts, include a wide variety of actions at very 
different levels of detail, ma king the information sometimes di fficult to compare. Furthermore 
countries often report about meas ures concerning the adult sector  in general and the specific 
link to key competences is not always made.  
                                                 
90 Whereas ‘pre-primary education has the highest rates of return  of the whole lifelong learning continuum, especially for the mo st 
disadvantaged’ as stressed in the Commission Communication on "E fficiency and equity in Eur opean education and training 
systems", COM(2006) 481 final  
91 Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning, op. cit. 
92 Council Conclusions of 22 May 2008 on adult learning, OJ C 140/10 of 6.6.2008  
93 Adult learning is officially understood as all forms of formal as well as non-formal and informal learning undertaken by adult s 
after having left initial education and trai ning, however far this process may have gone (e.g. including tertiary education). S ee 
COM (2006) 614  "Adult learning - It is never too late to learn" 
94 The adult learning sector touches all the other educational sect ors. So it is important to analyse the effects of developments  in 
other educational areas and their interacti on with the development of adult learning. This sector also interrelates with other 
policies (employment, cu lture, health, etc.).  
95 The level of development, participation, funding of adult learning may greatly vary across countries 
 
EN 79   EN Main types of progress achieved 
Countries are currently at very different levels of development regarding participation in adult 
learning participation as well as policies on th e quality, financing and the development of the 
sector. However what characterises the sect or across the whole Europe is not only its 
diversity, but also the lack of  participation especially among those who most need it (low 
qualified, drop outs, disadvantaged, etc.). Suppor ting the development of key competences by 
all adults clearly means making an optimal use of  this diversity of providers and settings. To 
achieve this, interrelated policie s, governance and delivery measures are needed as stressed in 
the Action Plan on Adult learning.  
Legislative measures targeting the developm ent of key competences in Adult learning 
Measures to ensure the development of key competences for all adults are included in 
legislation as reported in the majority of count ries (AT, BE fr, BE nl, BG, DE, DK, EL, HR, 
IE, IS, IT, LV, LT, LU, PT, NO, PL, RO, SE ). Amongst them, a trend towards amending 
legislation to contribute the implementation of  key competences observed in a few countries 
(CZ, EE, FR, IT, HU, IS, PL, PT).  
Several countries' legislation targets coherence between the adult learning  sector and the other 
sectors of education and traini ng in a lifelong learning perspec tive (CZ, DE, DK, EL, ES, FI, 
HR, IS, LV, LT, RO, SE, UK). This is illustrate d by the Icelandic approach (see Box below) 
which refers to bridging the formal system and learning acquired in other contexts (for 
example on the job). 
Box 1-33 – Iceland – Adult learning in the context of a comprehensive approach to LLL 
The Icelandic education system has been underg oing a radical change through new legislation 
for all levels of formal education which t ook effect in 2006-2008. A Bill on Adult Education 
which is currently under preparation will comp lete the overall policy thus establishing a 
comprehensive approach to Lifelong Learning. The new Bill will include provisions for 
building bridges between the system for valida tion of non-formal and informal learning and 
the formal school system. This system is alr eady being piloted and it focuses particularly on 
reaching out to people who are on the labour ma rket but who have left the education and 
training system without qualifications. The goal is to bring them back to VET, recognising 
what they have learnt in the work place and enhancing their skills in order to achieve a 
qualification. 
Legislation focusing on specif ic target groups of adults (e.g. people with low or no 
qualifications, with disabilities, migrants, wome n, older people, etc.) ex ists in all countries. 
Legislation is sometimes complemented by ac tion plans focusing on e .g. illiterate people, 
immigrants, and older people (BE nl , BG, HU, LT, NL, NO, PL, PT).  
Legislation covering the whole adult population is reported in onl y a few countries (BE fr, BE 
nl, LT, NL, NO, RO, SE, UK). All of the latter also provide for a stat utory right to adult 
 
EN 80   EN education. Legislation which in addition also co vers both formal and non-formal learning is 
mentioned in a few countries (EE, IS, FI, LV, SK)96.  
Supporting/setting up structures at national/regional level  
National councils or agencies for adult learning exist in the majo rity of countries (BE fr, BE 
nl, BG, CY, CZ, DE, EL, ES, FR , HU, HR, IE, IS, LT, LU, MT, NL, PL, PT, RO, SI, SE). As 
regulatory bodies, they help formulate prio rities for the policy agenda and curricula. 
Nine countries (BE nl, CY, DE, EL, ES, IS, MT, NL, SK) have repor ted the existence of 
regional councils and/or networks/centres that  help embed adult learning in the regional 
context associating learning co mmunities, cities and regions. 
Box 1-34 – Netherlands – Comprehensive approach to adult learning  
The Interdepartmental Project Unit for Learning and Working (PLW) in the Netherlands was 
set up in 2005 to boost adult le arning in combination with work, focusing on programmes 
combining work and study that lead to a qua lification and better opportunities on the job 
market. A tool to recognise, assess and valida te competences is also being used in this 
context. The key element of the PLW approach is the development of regional partnerships 
(government, schools and the business community) to build a sustainable infrastructure for 
lifelong learning in the region. The pa rties to these partnerships r ecognise that it is in their 
own interest to work together to ensure that the regional working population develops 
competences to meet the needs of the regiona l labour market. There are currently 45 such 
partnerships.  
Box 1-35– Belgium nl – Establishment of  lifelong learning regional centres  
The new decree on adult education of June 2007 redefined and emphasized the mission of the 
Centres of Basic Education in the Flemish Community of Belgium. From September 2008 
there are 13 such regional Centres focusing act ivities on adults who need basic training in 
order to fully participate in society or follow further training. These centres provide a broad 
and varied range of basic education progr ammes, in which the key competences are 
integrated: mother tongue, mathematics, soci al orientation, ICT, introduction in foreign 
languages (French, English) and par ticipant counselling activities.  
Funding measures 
While some countries report incr easing funding in adult education (AT, BE fr, BE nl, CZ, DE, 
EE, IE, IT, LV and UK), two countries (IS and HU) refer to  budget cuts. Funding and/or 
financial incentives were reported in many c ountries (BE fr, BE nl, EL, ES, FI, HR, IE, LT, 
LU, NL, NO, PL, SE, SI, UK). These measures  can take different forms e.g. involving 
vouchers (FI), training grants/free tuition fees fo r courses of basic education (BE nl, EE, LV, 
NO, PL, and UK), tax credits (NL). Only two countries (IE and SE) mentioned increased 
funding for adult learning in reac tion to the ongoing economic crisis.  
                                                 
96 Complementary information was found in the report ‘The Stat e and Development of Adult Learning and Education in Europe, 
North America and Israel -  Regional Synthesis Report UNESCO Institute for Lifel ong Learning, 2009. This st ated that legislation 
integrating all aspects of adult learning, formal and non-formal, has been enacted in a small number of countries, for example,  in 
Denmark, Finland, Netherlands, Romania and Sweden. 
 
EN 81   EN Delivery-related measures in the context of lifelong learning  
One of the biggest barriers to adults wishing to develop their key competences is information 
gaps97 and lack of efficient communication to reach those who are the most at risk of social 
exclusion (in particular low qualified people)  and being un-employed. The importance of 
adequate guidance in motivating adults to lear n and retaining them in learning was underlined 
in several EU peer learning events  on the Adult Learning Action Plan. 
Measures to strengthen guidance services  were reported by several countries (AT, CZ, EE, 
DE, IS, LT, LV, LU, NO, PL, SE , SK, UK). However the level of information provided does 
not permit a comparative and comprehensive overview. The recent UNESCO Institute for 
Lifelong Learning regional synthesis report98 provides complementary examples of such 
measures. It also stresses that many EU countri es ‘are endeavouring to address the critical 
lack of comprehensive adult guidance systems’.  
Other types of measures reported that focus on the delivery of adult learning are: on-line 
training (AT, BE nl, EL, ES, FI , NL, RO); widening adults' access to higher education (BE fr, 
EL, ES, HR, IE, LT, RO, SK); distribution of free text books (NL); media campaigns (CZ, 
EL, HU, NL); new measures supporting the re cognition of non-formal and informal learning 
(IS, LU, NO), which, as reported by the Adult Learning Working Group, is a growing factor in adult learning provision (BE fr, BE nl, BG, CY, CZ, DE, DK, EE, EL, ES, FI; FR, HU, IE, 
IS, IT, LI, LT, LU, MT, NL, NO, RO, SE, SI, UK) 
1.4.2 Measures targeting specific adult groups 
Countries' reports focus on a number of different target groups in order to equip them with the 
necessary level of key competences  to participate in the labour  market and society, and for 
personal development. These targets are:  
• Adults with low skills/unemployed (all countries); 
• Migrants and bilingual adults (AT, BG, CY, CZ, DK, DE, EL, ES, EE, FI
99, FR, IT, LU, 
MT, NL, NO, SE, UK); 
• Ethnic minorities (BG, CZ, EL, HR); 
• Adults with special needs/disabilities (AT,  CY, CZ, HR, IS, IT,LV, LT, PL, PT, SE);  
• Elderly people (AT, CY, CZ, EE, HR, IT, PL, SE, SI, SK); 
• Offenders in custody (CY, FR, IT, LV, PL, PT, UK). 
Also people at risk at redundancy (PL, UK), young adults (PL, FR), women (HR); and war 
veterans (HR) were mentioned. 
                                                 
97 Ibid. 
98 Ibid. 
99 Concerns migrants only 
 
EN 82   EN Measures to support the development of Key Competences by adults with low basic 
skills/unemployed 
The development and mastering of literacy in particular is at the core of actions implemented 
in all the countries that report on this target gr oup (see above). Literacy  skills are essential not 
only for the workplace, but also to develop self  esteem and give people a voice and a critical 
engagement in a democratic society.  
Measures to support the development of Key Competences by migrant/bilingual adults  
Measures primarily focus on: 
• actions to promote the deve lopment of the official la nguage, including compulsory 
language courses for immigrants in most c ountries (AT, BG, CZ, DK, EL, EE, FR, LU, 
MT, NO, SE, UK); 
• skills to integrate in the new society (AT, BG , EL, ES, LU, NO) as we ll as vocational skills 
(DK, SE)  
Integration of language learning with learni ng of other competences, such as literacy 
mathematical skills, digital competence, etc.  is reported by Aust ria and Greece. Other 
countries (BG, DK, DE) inte grate language learning for immigrants with learning of 
vocational skills or combining working and learning. 
Box 1-36 – Denmark and Austria:  Integration of language learning and acquisition of 
other competences  
In Denmark  immigrants and refugees not having adequate Danish language skills to 
participate in regular adult vocational traini ng courses may join programmes specifically 
developed for this target gr oup. These programmes combine Da nish language courses with 
introductory short training courses and a work placement.  
In Austria  integration courses for immigrants combin e language teaching with acquisition of 
the other key competences (liter acy, digital competence, maths, social and civic competence, 
etc.) In addition these program mes combine learning with methods to assess, validate and 
recognise immigrants’ prior learning.  
Measures to support the development of Key Competences by adults from ethnic 
minorities  
Measures for adults from minority groups (par ticularly the Roma) were reported in the 
Bulgarian and Greek reports. The example se t out below depicts the provision of new 
curricula aimed to foster literacy  skills by Roma adult population.  
 
EN 83   EN Box 1-37 - Bulgaria - Curricula for Li teracy and Qualifications of Roma 
New curricula for adult education were in 2008 developed and approved by the Minister of 
Education and Science in Bulgaria amending the National Programme for Literacy and 
Qualifications of Roma. After reaching the desi red learning outcomes the learners have the 
right to take an examination certifying comple tion of initial education and allowing access to 
lower secondary education or to attend vocational training. The emphasis is put on the 
acquisition of key competences.  
Similarly, the implementation of an educationa l programme addressed to Roma -as well as 
other adults from minority and immigrant groups, see text box 1-37- was reported in Greece. 
As in Bulgaria, its main focus is on supporting the development of literacy by these adults. In 
terms of target group, the emphasis is however specifically put on parent s as the example set 
out below further details.  
Box 1-38 - Greece – Educational Programme Instruction and Counselling Support to 
families of socially vulnerable groups 
The Programme aims to contribute to the creat ion of a supportive family environment that 
will assist the student, reduce school failure and drop-outs and finally help confront the 
danger of social marginalizatio n and exclusion of socially vul nerable groups. The acquisition 
of basic language skills helps improve the ec onomic and social conditions of the parents 
themselves and, therefore, of the entire fa mily. The educational programme has been 
implemented in Centres for Adult Educati on (KEE) and Schools for Parents across the 
country  
Measures to support the development of Key Competences by adults with SEN 
Measures supporting the developm ent of Key Competences by adu lts with special educational 
needs (SEN) were reported in around a third of  countries (AT, CY, CZ, HR, IS, IT, LV, LT, 
PL, PT, SE). Though a few of them explicitly i ndicate that these measures are part of their 
lifelong learning strategies (IS) and/or embe dded in recent legislation (PT and SE), 
information on the ways they are implemen ted and their main outcomes was scarce.  
Box 1-39 – Sweden – Right to basic educ ation for adults with SEN embedded in 
legislation  
As from 2007, the Government has introduced into  the Education Act the right to basic adult 
education for those with  learning difficulties ( särvux ).  
Measures to support the development of  Key Competences by older adults  
Supporting the acquisition of Key Co mpetences by older adults is crucial to strengthen their 
employability and/or the quality of their personal lives. Such measures were identified in less than a third of the countries (AT, CY, CZ, EE, HR, IT, PL, SE, SI, SK). However, four 
stressed that such measures were at the core of national programmes or strategies (CZ, EE, 
SE, SI). 
 
EN 84   EN Box 1-40– Czech Republic – National Progr amme for the Preparation of Aging  
Special measures are devoted to older people (esp ecially those of prior- retirement age) within 
the framework of the National Programme of the Preparation for Aging for the years 2008 to 
2012. Emphasis is put on key competences from  the perspective of adapting older people’s 
skills to both strengthen their empl oyability their quality of life.  
Among the key competences, emphasis is gene rally put on supporting the development of 
foreign language (EE, SI), ICT (SE) and “int er-generational co-existence and intercultural 
competences” (SI). 
Box 1-41 – Estonia and Slovenia – Range of  Key Competences addressed in ongoing 
measures  
In Estonia, special emphasis is placed on ol der people for whom the purpose of their foreign 
language training is the better comprehension of information and participation in the everyday 
media space, politics, cultural live and organisations 
In Slovenia, educational programmes addressed to  older adults (65 year s old or over) involve 
language learning, social studies and the preserva tion of cultural heritage, healthy living and 
environment protection, and inter-generational co-existence and intercultural competences 
Measures to support the development of Ke y Competences by offenders in custody  
Measures to develop key competences by offe nders in custody were reported in a few 
countries (CY, FR, IT, LV, PT and UK - E ngland). Two country reports (LV and UK - 
England) provided more explicit informati on highlighting the provi sion of a new core 
curriculum for offenders (UK - England) or th e possibility to acquire key competences at 
different levels of education of educati on - ranging from genera l education to higher 
education – (LV).  
1.4.3 National data available on participati on of adults and adu lt priority groups’ 
participation  
The quality and efficiency of the adult learning s ector can only be if there if a feedback loop 
on what works and what does not. Monitoring a nd evaluation measures require accurate data 
on participation and progress achieved, which is currently very scarce and often not 
comparable, mainly due to the lack of clear de finitions and the fragmented character of the 
sector. In the UK, use of the "unique learner number" allows the achievement of individuals 
to be tracked and has great potential for long itudinal tracking of learner achievement fine-
tuning policy.  
Evidence from the country reports shows that data  collection on a dult learning is  undertaken 
in all countries. The information collected however focuses on basic data such as overall 
numbers of participants in most countries (A T, BE fr, BE nl, BG, CY, CZ, DE, EE, EL, ES, 
FR, HR, IE, IS, IT, LV, LT, LU, MT, NL, NO, PT, RO, SI, SK, SE, UK - England). This 
means that evidence relating to e.g. particular target groups, participat ion rates by type of 
settings/programmes, et c. is rarely availa ble. Wherever more detailed indicators (e.g. 
providing a distribution by age, gende r, area of learning) exist (a s reported in BE nl, ES, IE, 
IT, LT, NL, NO, SE, SI, UK), data  are often not be comparable. 
 
EN 85   EN Measures aimed to implement new tools a nd/or methodology (consistin g e.g. new databases 
for specific programmes, extranet, etc.) for a mo re systematic and reliable data collection are 
reported in only a few countries  (FR, HR, NO). The analysis of the reports however makes 
clear that few countries have implemented any consistent data management system so far. 
1.4.4 Collaboration with representatives of othe r policy areas, partners and stakeholders 
in designing provision for adults 
As stressed in the Council Conc lusions of May 2008 on adult learning100, ‘the cross-sectoral 
nature, diversity, complexity and richness of ad ult learning impose the need for an integrated 
approach involving all stakeholde rs, including those at local a nd regional level, the social 
partners and NGOs’. 
The information provided in the country reports fi rstly highlights that po licy and provision are 
underpinned by partnership arrangements (involvi ng several government Ministries, regional 
authorities/councils and social pa rtners) largely taking the form of ad hoc councils (e.g. called 
sectoral or advisory councils) in the majority of countries. Su ch arrangements notably allow 
the involvement of social partners. 
Those stakeholders mentioned includ e comprise educational providers, 
employers’/employees’ representatives, Ch ambers of Commerce, experts and NGOs 
(although a major actor this latter is however onl y reported in eight countries – AT, BG, EL, 
HU, LT, NO, PL, SE). A few countries (e.g. BE, DK, EE) report that the involvement, rights 
and duties of stakeholders are fo rmally stated in legislation.  
Another finding that emerges from the country reports is that policy responsibility for adult 
learning is fragmented in many countries, with  multiple ministries having responsibility for 
different aspects. This is par ticularly reported in nine countr ies (BE fr, BE nl, ES, HR, LT, 
LV, NL, NO, SI). The case of Latvia where nine Ministries (led by the Ministry of Education 
and Science)101, along with other stakeholde rs, collaborate in the de velopment of strategies 
and action plans is particularly noticeable in th is respect. While this share of governance is 
very beneficial to ensure that  adult learning responds to the needs of the different economic 
sectors (as represented by the different mi nistries) it requires strong cooperation and 
coordination, in order for the policies to remain coherent. 
The transfer of responsibilities for adult learning from the central level to regions, 
municipalities or other local leve l authorities was also reported  in some countries (CZ, DK, 
DE, FI, FR, HU, IS, PL, SE,NO).  
1.4.5 Conclusions supporting adults in  developing Key Competences 
Development of measures to support provision of Key Comp etences for adults can be 
observed at all levels: adoption of new and revised legislation an d strategies, improved 
delivery and governance of the sector as  well as specific funding measures.  
                                                 
100 Council conclusions on adult learning, op. cit. 
101 Ministries of Education and Science, Economy, Agriculture, We lfare, Health, Culture, Interior , Defence, Regional Development 
and local governments. 
 
EN 86   EN This trend is strong for low qualified/unemployed adults and, to  a lesser extent, immigrants. 
Raising their basic levels of Key Competences is emphasised in  many countries and measures 
have a specific focus on literacy, numeracy or  language learning. Though other target groups 
(e.g. adults with SEN, elderly pe ople, etc.) are referre d to in the legisla tion of many countries, 
information from the reports does not allow providing of a comparable picture of these 
measures in terms of delivery and funding. 
A second chance to attain lower or upper sec ondary level qualificati ons is also widely 
provided. With regard to immigr ants, social and civic competence is sometimes included, thus 
highlighting the importance of ke y competences in fostering soci al inclusion and intercultural 
integration, and not merely the t echnical skills of communication. 
However measures to furthe r develop Communication and nu meracy skills do not receive 
attention nor does the provision of competences such as (MST ) Mathematics and Scientific 
Competence for adults appear to be a priority.  
The way countries report on adult competen ces shows strong links with broader policy 
measures such as lifelong learning strategi es and guidance, validat ion of non-formal and 
informal learning, National Qua lifications Fram eworks, etc. 
Furthermore, the vocational asp ect of adult learning policies is  evident from many reports but 
how this embraces the key competences remain s unclear. Often in work-based learning 
professional skill development is combined w ith the learning of ke y competences, including 
literacy and numeracy, as part of  vocationally oriented courses. 
Further efforts seem to be needed to provide  or upgrade key competences for older people, 
adults with disabilities/SEN and employed peopl e, in particular on the background of the 
current economic downturn). 
1.5 Teacher Education 
Stepping up provision for key competences makes many new demands on the teachers, 
trainers and leaders who are most direct ly involved in ca rrying them out. The 
Recommendation on Key Competences highlights the need for appropriate infrastructure for 
continuing education and training of  adults, including te achers and trainers.102 Therefore, 
these demands are also opportunities to addre ss the initial and con tinuing professional 
development for teachers and trainers in the context of lifelong learning. 
In the Conclusions of the Council on Im proving the Quality of Teacher Education103, Member 
States agreed to Promote during initial teacher educa tion, early career  support and through 
continuous professional development the acqu isition of competences which will enable 
teachers to teach transversal competences such as those  outlined in the Recommendation on 
key competences …. They also agreed to ensure that teachers are encouraged and supported 
throughout their careers to review their learni ng needs and to acquire  new knowledge, skills 
…. 
                                                 
102 Recommendation on key competences (2006) op. cit., p. 2  
103 Council Conclusions of 15 November 2007 on im proving the quality of teacher education, 
 OJ C 300/6 of 12.12.2007  
 
EN 87   EN The purpose of this section is to explore the exte nt to which countries report that teachers and 
trainers in general educatio n and VET are supported by suita ble initial and continuing 
education in their work ensu ring that young people and adults develop the Key Competences.  
1.5.1 Initial Teacher Education, General Education 
• National definitions of the competences  required of teachers underpin teacher education 
in almost half of the countries (AT, BE nl , DE, DK, EE, FR, HU, IE, IS, LT, LU, LV, NL, 
PL, PT, RO, SE, SI, UK). 
• National (or regional) initial teacher training programmes exist in BE fr, DE, DK, EE, 
ES, FI, HU, IE, LV, NL, PL, PT, RO, SI, UK) and address some of the areas of 
professional competence required for the deve lopment of the Key Competences and the 
competences outlined in the Council Conclu sions on Improving the Quality of Teacher 
Education104.  
• A Competence-based approach to  initial teacher education was reported as being a 
long-standing feature of the existing systems in six countri es (CZ, DK, EL, LU, PL, UK); 
and will be introduced shortly in a small nu mber of countries (BE nl and BE fr). 
• Reforms in teacher education have already been introduced to accompany and support 
the introduction of key competences into the education system (ES, HU, RO, SI). Other 
reforms are consistent with specific elements  of the key competences (AT, BE fr, BE nl, 
BG, CY, DK, EE, EL, HR, FI, MT, PL, PT, UK ). These include teaching competences in 
cross-curricular work (BE nl, EE, EL, PT, RO), in promoting literacy across the curriculum (NO, UK), work on transversal competences or  other individual subject areas (AT, HR, 
PT, RO), and teaching and assessment methods  of different kinds (B G, EL, UK) including 
the use of ICT (CY, EL, IE, PR, RO).  
• Reforms in initial teacher education are either currently underw ay or planned for the 
near future in a further sixteen countries (A T, BE nl, BG, CY, CZ, DE, FR, HR, IE, IS, LT, 
LU, NO, PT, RO, SE).  
1.5.2 Initial Training of Teachers and Trainers in VET 
There is a wide variety of pr actitioner roles in the sector  (VET teachers in secondary, 
vocational or technical schools; in-company VET trai ners, etc). It is not always clear which of 
these roles is referred to in res ponses from the country reports.  
• Reforms to the initial education of VET teachers are already underway  
105(AT, FI, 
HU, IS, RO, SK, UK) or planned (BE fr, DE, DK , EL, HR, LT, PL, TR) in  less than half of 
the countries represented. Some  of these changes are large scale and wide-ranging (HR, 
RO, TR) whereas others involve incorporating specific measures  such as entr epreneurship 
(LT), or specialist functions such as support for job improvement (FI).  
                                                 
104 Council Conclusions of 21 November 2008, op. cit. 
105 There is a wide variety of practitioner roles in the sector (V ET teachers in secondary, vocati onal or technical schools; in-co mpany 
VET trainers, etc). It is not always clear which of these ro les is referred to in responses from the country reports.  
 
EN 88   EN However, in countries where the training requ irements for VET teachers and trainers are 
different from those of general education teachers, little inform ation is provided on how they 
are equipped to ensure that the reforms c oncerning Key Competences at national level are 
translated into the teaching and learning approaches in VET.  
Box 1-42 – Slovenia - Partne rship of Faculties and Schools: Supporting Key 
Competences 
Key competences are being developed in Sloveni a through general educational subjects and in 
vocational modules, through the curriculum as a whole and in some integrated key 
qualifications.  
To support these reforms, Slovenia has embark ed on a major national programme of initial 
education for VET teachers and trainers. Th e “Partnership of Faculties and Schools” 
programme uses networks of schools to create links between practising teachers who act as 
mentors to future teachers. Supported by the tertiary institution, programmes, tools and 
support materials were drawn up for new teach ers and the teacher-mentors, underpinned by a 
set of competences for all of the roles which were identified by the actors themselves.  
In this way, the induction of new teachers, and the continuing professional development of 
practising teachers are co-ordin ated and mutually supportive.  
1.5.3 Continuing education for teac hers in, general education  
• Seven countries (CZ, ES, LU , NO, SE, Sl, SK) refer to continuing education 
programmes  or events for practising teachers which are specially tailored to equip 
teachers to re-orientate their work towards the Key Competences.  
• This may include  specific events such as periodic seminars, workshops and conferences on 
particular areas such as indivi dual subjects (AT, CZ, DE IE nl, HR, PT, SI) or transversal 
competences (AT, CZ, DE, FI, IE, LT, MT, NO, SI) or cross-curricular  work (HR) provide 
an introduction to elements of key competence.  
However, specific events and even long-te rm programmes are only the first step in 
professional development. It is essential that CPD should not onl y develop method and 
techniques, but also support teachers in becomi ng reflective practitioners. To accomplish this, 
the learning from professional development progr ammes or events must be consolidated by 
follow-up strategies which allow teachers to di scuss their experiences of putting into practice 
new ways of working in their school community.  
The TALIS study106 reports a very wide variation in teacher participation in CPD across 
countries. Non-attendance is attrib uted to obstacles such as lack  of suitable programmes and 
conflict with work schedules. Yet the study identified positive effects associated with participation in continuing professional develo pment, including increased use of more varied 
and versatile teaching methods, co -operation with colleagues and greater job satisfaction. This 
highlights the need to address teachers' a ttitudes, beliefs and practices as a whole
107 and the 
                                                 
106 OECD (June, 2009) “Executive Summary, Creating Effective Teach ing and Learning Environments: First Results from Talis,” 
OECD publishing, p. 10  
107 Ibid., p. 6 
 
EN 89   EN potential of individualised approaches to teacher in-service education to complement 
traditional interventions.  
Box 1-43 – Croatia - Teacher Councils  
In Croatia, a  new competence-based draft National Cu rriculum Framework includes all the 
key competences recommended by the European Framework on Key Competences for 
Lifelong Learning. 
This is supported by a major programme of CP D for teachers, which includes subject and 
cross-curricular methodology. The programme is supported by a national network of Teacher 
Councils. Skilled teachers are identified to take  on the roles of co-ordinator of professional 
learning and mentor. A significant function of  the Teacher Council is talent-spotting – 
identifying teachers who are already innovators. These potential change agents and motivators 
are then positioned in situations  which maximise their influence.  
In addition to CPD programmes a nd events other tools are used:  
– Mentoring of teachers  after completion of their training  is a feature of  initial teacher 
education in several countries (AT, BE nl , CY, EE, HR, PT, UK). This ensures that 
learning is consolidated with  a more experienced peer.  
– Networking of teachers and schools to share good practice and f acilitate mutual learning 
is reported in five countries (AT, CZ, DE, HU, HR, IE) and is planned in the UK. 
Box 1-44 – Hungary - Supporting Key Competences  
In Hungary, the largest development promoting the key competences approach has been the 
public education development package. The ‘pac kage’ is a complex instrument which, along 
with teaching tools, also includes tools used  for education process design, organisation and 
evaluation. The materials were developed in  consultation with pr actising teachers.  
A large-scale teacher training programme is now  being rolled out as part of the central 
continuing education system, supported by ba sic teacher training modules provided by 
institutions of Higher education.  
An aspect of teacher education which was not probed for the national reports is the 
pedagogical culture of the institutions where ini tial teacher education ta kes place. This refers 
to the range of methodology and organisational strategies used to prepare entrants to the 
profession, and whether these model the methods and practices which teachers will use in order to promote key competences in their pupils.  
1.5.4 Continuing professional e ducation for school managers 
Research shows that successful school leader s improve teaching and learning and influence 
pupil outcomes indirectly and powerfully th rough their influence on staff motivation, 
commitment and teaching practices
108. They are a key group in promoting the development of 
key competences. However, there is little evidence of CPD on this topic for school 
                                                 
108 Day, Christopher, et al, DCSF RR108, 2009, ‘The impact of school leadership on pupil outco mes’; www.dcsf.gov.uk/research 
 
EN 90   EN principals/managers. One country provides trai ning for heads and deputy heads, along with 
teachers, to implement a literacy support progra mme (CY). Only five others (DE, HR, LT, SI, 
UK) report that they offer school  leaders such opportunities.  
Box 1-45 – UK (England) - Programmes for deve lopment of skills by further education 
leaders 
In England, where specific training programme s and a National College for School Leaders 
already exists, a programme for pr incipals in the Further Educa tion sector supports leaders in 
up-grading their skills through sy stematic programmes, of which one leads to a qualification. 
This will soon be a compulsory requirement for managers in the sector.  
Plans for introducing such trai ning in about a quarter of these countries suggest that 
recognition of the importance of supporting and engaging the leader s in the system, especially 
in the context of significant innovation, is gradually increasing. 
One of the key functions managers or principals will be required to carry out, or oversee, is 
the monitoring and evaluation of all traini ng and development opportunities which staff 
undertake. Ensuring that all young  people achieve the key competences depends to a large 
extent on the effectiveness and im pact of training and development opportunities for teachers.  
1.5.5 Conclusions on Teacher Education 
The key competences approach places new de mands upon teachers. Some countries are 
addressing them through their curricula for ini tial teacher education. However, the group with 
most direct influence on the promotion of key competences are practicing teachers yet only 
one fifth of the countries specify the key co mpetences approach as an objective of their 
continuing professional development policies. Ther efore, taking further steps to ensure that 
this large group fully embraces the concept an d practical implications  of key competences 
must be a high priority. 
To monitor and evaluate all teacher educatio n and training measures systematically is a 
crucial step in ensuring that teachers are prop erly equipped to meet the demands which these 
innovations make on them. As most  countries are still in the early  stages of consolidating their 
teacher education provision in support of key competences, this is a suitable time to incorporate appropriate evaluation methods and tools into the new or reformed programmes. 
Countries reported very little on the extent to which they use for example mentoring, support 
for teacher networking and other individualised approaches to ensure the upskilling of teachers. This may indicate a need for such stra tegies to be added to the more traditional 
programmes and seminars to ensure effective dissemination of the innovations required to 
support the implementation of the key competences approach.  
Improvements in the preparation of educators in the VET sector  are gathering momentum in 
some places, but there is still a long way to go to ensure that VET teachers and trainers in 
Europe are thoroughly prepared to support the development of the key competences. 
Finally, if education practitioners  are expected to mentor new teachers, either formally or 
informally, then it is crucial that they keep pace with innovations being promoted through 
initial teacher education and that initial a nd continuing education be complementary and 
structured into a coherent, mutually-supportive  process, especially including professional 
 
EN 91   EN support for education managers. Th is approach is not yet a f eature of teacher and trainer 
development in Member States. 
1.6 Assessment of key competences 
The aim of the Recommendation is to support Me mber States’ work in ensuring that by the 
end of initial education and tr aining young people have devel oped the key competences to a 
level that equips them for adult life and which forms a basis for further learning109. This 
implies the need for strategies to assess the progress and achievements of young people in the 
key competences. This section examines issues arising from the country  reports that include: 
the range of purposes for which assessment of key competences is  carried out; the variety of 
methodologies used and their imp act or potential impact; and th e standards which define the 
level that equips young pe ople for adult life.  
Some of the country reports, in particular those of Swed en and Slovenia highlight the 
importance of assessment for the implementation of key competences. 
1.6.1 Assessing Key Competences: purposes and methods  
A recent study from Eurydice on the use of National Testing in European Education 
Systems110 provides a useful summary of the ma in purposes which assessment of key 
competences can serve. Assessment of learne rs’ progress may be designed to: sum up 
learners’ achievement at the end of  a programme. This is known as ‘summative’  assessment. 
It may also provide information for system-l evel accountability. Asse ssment can be designed 
to help the learning process of individual pupils by identifying specific learning needs and 
adapting teaching accordingly, which is known as ‘ formative’  assessment. These different 
purposes are not mutually exclus ive: often, assessment processes are assumed to fulfil several 
different functions.111  
1.6.2 Development of Key Competences through summative assessment 
Summative assessment of key competences is mo st often carried out in relation to those 
competences which are closest to the regular subject curriculum. All countries carry out 
summative assessment of the Communication, Ma thematics, Foreign Language, and Digital 
Competence  is sometimes assessed as a separate subject (IE, RO). Standardised tests of 
Mother Tongue and Mathematical competence are periodically carried out with some or all 
of the school population in all countries excep t the Czech Republic. External national tests 
(DE, DK, IE, PL, PT, RO, UK) as well as school s' internal assessment (AT, FI, IE, Pl, PT, 
RO) remain important tools for development in many countries. 
Interdisciplinary projects  as part of the final Diploma are in use in Austria, Denmark and 
Germany. Students select a research topic, design the method, implement and record the 
research and present it. This yields informa tion about their understanding of the content area 
being researched. It also pr ovides them with the opportunity  to demonstrate imagination, 
                                                 
109 Recommendation on key competence s (2006) op. cit., page 2.  
110 Eurydice (2009): "National Testing of Pupils in Europe: Objectives, Organisation and Use of Results, pp. 15 – 16.  
111  However, Eurydice among others point out that the use of the same process for multiple purposes can be problematic, Eurydice 
(2009), op. cit,.  
 
EN 92   EN creativity, problem-solving, initiative and pe rseverance in a way which is objectively 
observable and amenable to record ing through descriptive mechanisms. 
Two countries (CY, DK) have designed methods where interactive computer-based tasks  
are individualised and adjust to  the on-going performance of the learner. Three countries (AT, 
CY, PT) report experimenting with web-based tasks.  
1.6.3 Development of Key Competences through formative assessment 
The recent Eurydice study notes that formativ e assessments help the learning process by 
clarifying the specific learning ne eds of pupils and identifying appropriate individual follow-
up and adapted teaching.112 However, that study and also the country reports show that 
interpretations of what is meant by ‘formative assessment’ can vary. These differences centre 
mainly on differences in the sources of information on which judgements are based: 
Information supplied by learners’ perfor mance on summative tests, including 
standardised tests , is often used (AT, CY, DE, DK, ES, FR, HU, IE, LT, NO, PT, SI) to feed 
back into the teaching and learning process. In this sense, the assessment is ‘formative’. For 
instance, the Functional Literacy pr oject in Cyprus tests all pupils  in the country at the end of 
primary schooling, and is currently piloting tests for children aged 8 and 15. It also acts as a 
diagnostic tool to identify children who are li kely to need extra support in literacy and 
mathematics. The Diagnosis Evaluation (Eva luación de Diagnóstico) in Spain and The 
National Assessment of Basic Competence in Hunga ry are also designed to feed back into 
teaching and learning 
However, there is another interpretation of formative assessment which is more closely 
aligned with the teaching and learning process : 
Information supplied by interactive, process- oriented activities during teaching and 
learning  can be used to structure immediate fee dback between teacher and learner. Some 
countries (AT, EL, DK HU, IE, LT, UK) make explicit efforts to strengthen the connection 
between teaching, learning and assessment us ing a wide range of methods which are 
summarised below.  
Assessment for Learning initiatives which are supported by a major input of staff training, 
resources and system-level support are availabl e for example in England and Scotland. These 
major national projects provide significant res ources to support teachers in the form of 
centralised guidelines, banks of assessment ma terials, templates and rubrics to structure 
recording; training in how to use these and in how to design formative assessment processes 
at local level. 
The box below presents the general principl es underpinning one major ‘Assessment for 
Learning’ initiativ e in England.  
                                                 
112 Eurydice (2009), op. cit,. p. 15. 
 
EN 93   EN Box 1-46 – UK England - Principles  of assessment for learning 
The 10 Principles of Assessment for learning: 
- should be part of effective planning of teaching and learning 
- should focus on how students learn 
- should be recognised as cen tral to classroom practice 
- should be regarded as a key professional skill for teachers 
- should be sensitive and constructive because any assessment has an emotional  
impact 
- should take account of the importance of learner motivation 
- should promote commitment to learning goa ls and a shared unde rstanding of the  
criteria by which they are assessed 
- should receive constructive gu idance about how to improve 
- develops learners' capacity for self-assessm ent so that they can become reflective  
and self-managing 
- should recognise the full range of achievements of all learners  
Although other countries did not report on such substantial sy stemic support for assessment 
for learning in the form of nati onal projects, some of the individual methods of assessment for 
learning are being used  in most countries: 
• Self-assessment  engages learners in act ive and critical reflection on their own work. It can 
take the form of one-to-one or group discus sion, marking own work, completing specially-
designed questionnaires or be s upported by ICT. It is usually  carried out in conjunction 
with the teacher or trainer. Several countri es (AT, CZ, DK, EE, IE) report using this 
approach.  
• Peer assessment  was mentioned by AT, CY, CZ, DK, EE, IE, LT, UK. The processes are 
similar to self-assessment, but the focus is on learners’ providing a crit ique of the work of 
their peers. 
• Performance Tasks are activities which may occur natu rally in a learning situation, or 
may be specially structured to allow the lear ner to demonstrate competence in particular 
areas. Such tasks are closely-aligned with me thods and activities carried out on a day-to-
day basis but when used for assessment purposes, are observed and monitored in a 
structured way by the teacher or trainer (AT, CY, HU, IE, RO).  
• Portfolio Building is an approach to teaching which can also be used for assessment. 
Learners gather samples of work over a pe riod of time which provide evidence of their 
progress and achievements in specified aspects of competence. A process of reflection is 
needed to support learners in deciding which pieces of work demonstrate which 
competences (AT, CZ, DE, IE, LU, UK). 
• Project work , especially interdisciplinary proj ects which cross subject boundaries and 
connect school with life out side the school, are used for learning and assessment purposes 
in AT, CZ, DE, DK, ES, HR, HU, IE, RO, SI, UK. 
• Recording tools used to capture learners’ progress and achievements can be tailored to 
match performance tasks, peer- or self-assess ment. Some countries (CZ, HU, IE) are using 
 
EN 94   EN specially-designed templates or rubrics to do this, or facilitating practitioners in developing 
their own to use at  school level.  
• A Personal Learning Plan  is a process of communication between learner, teacher and 
sometimes parents, whose outcomes are recorded in a specific plan. This is specially 
designed to record the main aims which th e learner hopes to achie ve, and the targets, 
methods and indicators by which they will be accomplished. The document itself (sometimes called Individual Learner Plan, Pe rsonal Education Plan or other) is only a 
record of the deeper process of reflection and communication with the learner. Several 
countries (DK, SI, UK) are starting to use this approach  to plan learning. An important 
dimension of the Personal Learning Plan is th e agreement about how the learners’ progress 
and achievement toward their goals will be monitored and assessed. Their progress and outcomes are then recorded on the Plan.  
• School level assessment plans  (CZ, LT, SI UK-Scotland) are drawn up at lo cal level by 
the practitioners who will implement the assess ment processes. The Plan ensures that all 
aspects of competence are assessed, to ensure  that learners are ma king progress and that 
the methods and resources are having the inte nded impact. This m echanism also supports 
the development of a whole-school approach to fostering key competences, as it ensures 
that all levels of the system in  which the teaching and assessment takes place is adjusted to 
facilitate the processes. 
• Professional development programmes or workshops have been conducted in some of 
these methods in some countries (AT, DE, IE , PT, RO). However, not many have reported 
wide-scale continuing professional education fo r teachers in the use of such methods to 
support different kinds of assessmen t in different subject areas.  
1.6.4 Conclusions on Assessment of Key Competences  
Although assessment of certain key competences – communication in th e mother tongue and 
in foreign languages, mathematics and digital co mpetence – is already catered for within the 
traditional assessment regime in all countries, th ere is a danger in assuming that all of the 
dimensions of competence are thereby addresse d. Attitudes, motivation and dispositions are 
central to the application of competence and traditional methods of assessment do not 
adequately capture these capacities. This is  true also in relation to the transversal 
competences.  
More work is needed to support countries in  using a wide range of assessment processes 
which capture all the important dimensions of competence. Developing a wide range of 
assessment methods for a range of purposes is on e of the main tasks ahead for most countries 
in the immediate future.  
However, some progress has already been made . Most countries are working with at least 
some of the methods associated with ‘assessm ent for learning’. The work of those countries 
which have longstanding experience of this approach can provide a resource and should be 
disseminated.  
The use of instruments such as national tests a nd standardised tests for formative purposes, to 
feed back into the process of teaching and learning, is quite widespread according to the 
country reports. It would be useful to expl ore the potential of assessment methods designed 
 
EN 95   EN primarily for formative purposes – the methods of  ‘assessment for learning’ – to contribute to 
a summative purpose. Several examples of this are present in the coun try reports but more 
work is needed to clarify how thes e related processes can be linked.  
The use of ICT for assessment purposes has been  reported in severa l countries and this 
technology clearly has great pot ential in creating interactive processes and simulated 
scenarios. It is nevertheless important to note that not all ICT assessm ents are innovative and 
not all assess competence effectively. Some ar e essentially traditional multiple choice tests 
which do not go beyond the limitations associated  with such modes. Another caveat is the 
potential impact of using ICT on access, as for learners who are unskilled in the use of ICT 
such methods could hinder rather than help th eir performance. The use of ICT for assessment 
of key competences provides many useful tool s which may enhance assessment processes but 
should be explored further and more critically. 
In addition, assessment of key competences need s to be supported more by the systems in the 
immediate school environment, in the form of  personal learning plans for individuals and 
school assessment plans for the institutions, or other planning mechanisms which perform the 
same function. This is particularly important  when competences such as literacy and 
numeracy are integrated across the curriculum,  or when cross-curricular work promotes 
several competences within the same activity.  
1.7 Monitoring and Evaluation 
Since effective long-term policies mu st be based on solid evidence113, monitoring and 
evaluation mechanisms are at the core of succ essful policy developmen t and implementation. 
Such mechanisms consist of channels for producing and ac cessing relevant research, 
statistical infrastructure capable of collecti ng the necessary data, and mechanisms to assess 
progress as policies are implemented114. 
The analysis set out below firstly offers an overview of the main types of means implemented 
at national and/or regional/local  level to monitor/evaluate the education and training systems 
in relation to Key Competences. It th en highlights the ways the outcomes of 
monitoring/evaluation processes are used. 
1.7.2 Mechanisms in place to monitor and eval uate education and training systems in 
relation to Key Competences  
Complementary to assessment processes, na tionwide monitoring and evaluation processes 
exist in all countries, though not explicitly linked to ke y competences in every case.  
Though widespread, it has however to be noticed  that these mechanisms focus mainly on 
compulsory education or educ ation up to the upper- secondary leaving examination. Adult 
learning is for instance scarcely covered. 
The ways in which monitoring / evaluation ac tivities are undertaken rely, in practice, on 
various mechanisms that compile and help anal yse information at syst em level. Countries 
generally refer to several complementary mechanisms: 
                                                 
113 COM(2006) 481 final, op. cit. 
114 Ibid.  
 
EN 96   EN • The results of national assessment (AT, BE nl, BG, CZ, CY, DE, EE , FI, HR, HU, IE, LV, 
LT, LU, NL, NO, PT, RO, SK, SI). 
• The results of school self evaluation (AT, CZ, DK, FI, LT, LV, PL, SE).  
• The results of external examinations (BE fr , BE nl, BG, CY, CZ, DK,  DE, FI, FR, EE, EL, 
ES, FR, HR (from 2010-2011), HU, IE, LU, NL, PL, SE, SI, UK). 
• Specially prepared performance i ndicators (EE, FI, FR, NO, UK).  
• The definition of competence thresholds or  final requirements (e.g. BE fr, FR, LU). 
• International evaluations, including PIRLS, TIM SS, PISA, etc. (all countries use at least 
some of them). 
• A dedicated authority - e.g. a c ouncil set up to monitor a refo rm, inspectorate – (BE nl, CZ, 
DK, EE, IE, FI, LT, LV, NL, PL, SE, SI, UK (Scotland, Wales). 
National assessment programmes/national tests for system-level monitoring 
National assessment programmes  consist of nationally coordi nated approaches to measure 
and monitor student achievement against nationa l and international standards. They include 
tests (generally focused on several key compet ences) aiming to provide valuable information 
about student achievement in a number of areas  of the curriculum. Such mechanisms were 
explicitly reported in a few c ountry reports (AT, BE nl, BG, CY, DE, FI, HR, HU, NO, SI). 
For example in the Flemish Community of Belgium a National Assessment Program (NAP) 
has been installed that provides valid and reliable output data at  system level. A scientific 
research team developed tests (in Dutch, ma thematics, biology, gathering and processing 
information and modern foreign languages) fo r a representative sample of schools and 
students. Knowledge, skills and competences (cor e curriculum) are tested at the end of an 
educational cycle. 
Other forms of national assessments (not specifically embedded in national assessment 
programmes) relate to national testing  of given key competences . National testing is a 
standardised means of validati ng learners’ achievements agains t set performance indicators, 
as reported in several countri es (AT, BE nl, BG, EE, HU, IS LV, LT, LU, NL, RO).  
National assessments can also take the form of centralised examinations  (as reported in HR 
and RO, SI). Hungary tests reading comprehensi on and mathematics in a standardized fashion 
in the context of the national assessment of basic competences. Assessment is mandatory and 
takes place simultaneously in three grades involving all students.  
In all cases, evaluation mechanisms ar e complemented with the results of international 
evaluations , PISA, PIRLS and TIMMS in particular . A few countries (EE, LV, NL) state 
explicitly that these outcomes are an important  source for assessing th e performance of their 
system comparative to others. 
Reports from countries with e ducation and training systems characterised by a strong level of 
autonomy at municipalities/school level refer to decentralised monitoring and evaluation 
systems . The results of school self -evaluation and involvement of municipal bodies in 
monitoring activities were  explicitly stated in a few count ries (DK, FI, LT, LV and SE). 
 
EN 97   EN Box 1-47 – Denmark - Municipa l councils’ responsibility fo r the Folkeskole and the 
State’s monitoring 
The 2006 amendment of the Folkeskole Act made  more explicit the municipal councils’ 
responsibility for the Folkeskole and State monito ring. It entails two manda tory tools (quality 
reports and action plans) the municipalities ar e to use when monitoring the Folkeskole. The 
quality report is designed to ensure systema tic documentation and cooperation between local 
politicians, municipal councils and schools on  the evaluation and quality development of 
primary and lower secondary education. If the qu ality report shows that the academic level in 
a school is generally unsatisfact ory, the municipal council must draw up an action plan for 
improving the level at the particular school. 
The results of external evaluation  constitute another widespread monitoring or evaluation 
mechanism (BE nl, BE fr,, BG, CY, CZ, DK, DE, FI, FR, EE, EL, ES, IE, FR, HR (from 
2010-2011), HU, LU, NL, PT, SE, SI, UK). The Es tonian example set out below supplies 
evidence of this trend, stressing the comple mentary importance of different tools.  
Box 1-48 – Estonia - External evaluation system  
The external evaluation system in Estonia in cludes criterion-based in ternal evaluation and 
governmental supervision of the e ducational institutions, placement tests at the end of the first 
and second stage of study in basic school, final basic school exams with uniform questions, 
and state examinations at the upper secondary sc hool level, internationa l comparative surveys, 
and training permits. The purpose of  evaluating learning results is to support the development 
of the national curriculum and teacher training, and to target better th e provision of education. 
Another objective is to evaluate the learning re sults specified in the national curriculum for 
basic and upper secondary schools to be ach ieved at the end of  each stage of study. 
National targets/specific performance indicators 
Amongst other tools, the definition of Ke y Competences-related indicators (either of 
performance or referring to competence threshol ds) at national level was also reported in a 
few countries (BE fr, EE , FI, FR, LU, NO, UK). In general,  most of them focus on language 
(mother tongue and foreign language), mathematics and ICT competences. 
Box 1-49 – France - Use of indicators 
Once a year, the Ministry of Education provides the national Parliament with the number of 
pupils that, in the framework of the ‘ socle de compétences’ , effectively master Key 
Competences at certain stages of education. Indicator s on the performance of pupils enrolled 
in the last year of lower s econdary on mother tongue and math ematics have been available 
since 2007.  
Dedicated authority  
The important role of national inspectorates ha s been reported in seven countries (BE nl, CZ, 
IE, NL, PL, SE, UK Scotland and Wales). In all cas es, those are set up to assure the quality of 
education provided and to promote improvement and innovation in the ed ucation and training 
systems. Sweden, which traditionally had a dece ntralised approach to quality assurance, has 
also recently established such a body,  the National School Inspectorate. 
 
EN 98   EN Box 1-50 – UK (Scotland) - Inspectorate of Education 
In Scotland, HM Inspectorate of Education (HMIE) inspects and reports on the quality of 
education in pre-school centres, primary sc hools, secondary school s, special schools, 
community learning and develo pment services, colleges, and residential educational 
provision. New Quality Indicators for use in both  internal self evalua tion by schools and local 
authorities and external evaluation by HMIE  were published in January 2008. They include 
indicators on learners’ experiences; meeti ng learning needs; and developing people and 
partnerships.  
1.7.3 Ways to use the outcomes of monitoring/evaluation processes  
Though very little specific inform ation is reported, national reports refer to the way the 
outcomes of monitoring and evaluation are used for improving the overall quality and 
transparency of the education and traini ng systems; modifying/ discontinuing existing 
programmes/actions; raising aw areness of emerging policy issues with stakeholders. 
These outcomes are usually compiled in annual repor ts submitted to the ce ntral level and used 
by all educational stakeholders for policy-ma king. As reported by a few countries (EE, DE, 
FI, NL), these outcomes may be translated into indicators to provide e.g. comparative trends 
and provide solid evidence to policy-makers. In  Finland, the National Bo ard also carries out 
longitudinal monitoring, utilising findings of  previous evaluations. Evaluations produce: basic 
indicators , which describe pupils' and students' know ledge, skills and attitudes in the content 
areas of the curriculum; contextual  indicators, which describe how pupils' and students' 
knowledge and skills relate to demographic, so cial, economic and educational factors; and 
trend  indicators, which describe changes in the basic and contextual indicators.  
Box 1-51 – Latvia - Use of internationa l evidence to feed into policy-making 
The results of the international studies ar e used for the improvement of the subject 
curriculum, in teachers’ further education a nd in the process of developing new normative 
acts that regulate the content of education. Th e results of the International Reading Literacy 
Study - PIRLS 2006, revealed problems in the development of basic skills in mother tongue 
and learning to learn. Work addressing all actors  (parents, teachers, lib rarians) has begun with 
the aim of improving basic skills. The result s of the international TIMSS study of 2007 
"Mathematics and Science in Primary School” confirm positive results of this approach. 
1.7.4 Conclusions on Monitoring and Evaluation 
Monitoring/evaluation processe s can strengthen and sustai n the development of Key 
Competences at national and system level. The country reports show th at this necessity is 
clearly perceived in ne arly all countries. 
Countries typically combine several mechanis ms including use of internal and external 
evaluation. However, as with a ssessment (see section 0), the ex tent to which the monitoring 
and indicator systems take into account all th e dimensions of Key Co mpetences, not only the 
knowledge aspect, remains an issue.  
 
EN 99   EN Further efforts are also needed in the field of  adult learning (where monitoring processes are 
scarce). Systematic evaluation of the outcomes of the VET system is not mentioned in any 
national report. 
1.8 Summary Conclusions on the impl ementation of Key Competences 
General 
There is a clear trend across the EU towards competence-ba sed teaching and learning, to 
which the European Framework of Key Competen ces has contributed cons iderably, either as 
a main focus of policy reform, or as one of a range of factors influencing such reform.  
This implies a shift from view ing education as the transmissi on of a static body of knowledge, 
to a more dynamic approach combining knowledge, sk ills and attitudes in each subject area. It 
also means a widespread commitment to de veloping transversal competences, notably 
learning to learn, social and ci vic competence and initiative and entrepreneurship, alongside 
the more “traditional” competences, e.g. mo ther tongue, maths, science and technology. 
Whole-school teaching of traditional competences, embedding these in other subjects, is gaining ground in the EU.  
Implementing these reforms involves a wide range of actions: not only reviewing the 
curriculum, but also teacher education and t eacher competences, school organisation to allow 
for more individualized learning, team teaching and partnerships with actors outside school, 
and increasing cross-cu rricular work, and introducing ne w methods of assessment. While 
curricular change is widely under way in most of the EU, it is not  yet clear how systematically 
the other elements are being addressed in order to achieve real change in schools. 
Some countries’ curricular re forms are very fundamental, representing a root-and-branch 
recasting of the content and appr oach to teaching and learning. Often such reforms include a 
strong cross-curricular element, even for comp etences which are tradit ionally conceived as 
separate subjects such as Mother tongue.  
According to the national re ports, most policy attention re lating to key competences is 
focused on schools. Provision for adults is pa tchier, although some countries are taking 
important initiatives to address key competences in a true li felong learning perspective. These 
deserve to be analysed and to provide material  for policy development in other countries.  
The reports provide limited information on ke y competences in vocational education and 
training (VET). To some extent, this may reflect  the fact that VET has traditionally focused 
more on competences than general education. Howe ver, it seems clear that the full range of 
key competences, as defined in the European Framework, are less systematically addressed by 
most countries’ VET systems than they are by their school systems. 
By competence 
Mother tongue competence . This competence receives intens ive attention in  all countries. 
Often this takes the form of single-subject teach ing, focusing in particular  on literacy. Explicit 
national literacy strategies or projects are widespread, often involving all levels in the 
education system so as to re inforce literacy skills beyond prim ary education and to reverse 
failure to acquire them at an  earlier stage. Migrant inflow s have led to more specialist 
provision for teaching the mother tongue as a second language, including to adults. While the 
 
EN 100   EN single-subject approach predominates, ther e are many examples of the Mother tongue 
competence being taught in a cross-curricular  way across other subjects in schools and in 
VET.  
Foreign language competence . Generally, the volume of fo reign language learning in 
education and training is expanding (though not in  English-speaking countries), and language 
learning increasingly starts at primary school. In  non-English-speaking countries there is often 
an issue about the range of languages learned and the dominance of English. There is little 
information about foreign language provision in VET. Many of the measures reported for the 
foreign language competence also promote seve ral of the other key competences such as 
cultural awareness and can foster social and personal development.  
Maths, science and technology . Mathematical competence remains a very strong element of 
general education curricu la. The position of mathematical competence in vocational education 
varies: some countries make similar provision to that in general education whereas a few 
tailor provision more closely to th e relevant vocational qualification.  
Some of the country reports highlight the prom otion of problem-solving, critical thinking and, 
to a much lesser extent, inquiry-based lear ning in mathematics and science. This has 
implications for the competence of teachers and trainers, and needs to be supported by suitable teacher education and training. There is also room for greater co-operation with 
external partners, along the lines of that wh ich already exists for Civic and Social and 
Entrepreneurship competences, in order to prov ide real-life contexts for scientific inquiry. 
Digital competence  is a particular teaching challenge because (a) many students learn outside 
school through home and social use of ICT, often to a hi gher level than thei r teachers in some 
respects, and (b) lack of home access (57% of the EU population not online at home in 2007) presents a major barrier to many others. What happens in the school is therefore crucial in 
ensuring that all young people acquire the skills a nd attitudes of digital competence they need 
in their personal and social lives , as well as in the workplace. 
There is a great deal of activity in countries to expand provision for Digital Competence. This 
has included curriculum reform, extra funding and resources, new progr ammes, the creation 
of virtual learning environments such as eT winning, and the use of ICT in communication, 
administration and management.  
Certain important aspects of this competence have received much less attention, including 
‘confident and critical use’ of ICT; ethical a nd legal considerations ar ising from the use of 
ICT; and informal learning situations. As ICT use becomes more pervasive these are 
increasingly important issues.  
Learning to learn . Countries are devoting sign ificant attention to this competence. Learning to 
learn is being embedded not only in all su bjects, but in all as pects of the learning 
environment. It goes along with a more indi vidualized approach to  learning. Measures 
include: personal learning plans, portfolio-bui lding and the use of teaching and assessment 
strategies which foster d eep learning. These all require  good communication, teamwork, 
democratic schooling management, and supportive mechanisms for pupil assessment and school self-evaluation. Alongside these process aspects, the cognitive dimensions are also 
being addressed. These include knowing the rules and strategies of learning and how to make 
use of them.  
 
EN 101   EN Social and civic competence . Provision for this competence is gathering momentum. 
Countries’ approaches mainly address its knowledge dimension and somewhat its attitudinal 
and process aspects. An effec tive approach to this competence is to embed it in the 
methodology used for all subjects, and not only  those which explici tly address civic and 
social issues as a body of knowledge, and to embody it in “real-life” structures such as 
students’ associations. 
Initiative and entrepreneurship . Most promote the entrepre neurial dimension of this 
competence, often underpinned by national ac tion plans and strategies. Many use this 
competence to develop partnerships with organi sations and enterprises outside the education 
and training system (e.g. mini-companies). The individual creative an d innovative aspects of 
this competence receive less attention. 
Cultural awareness and expression . Although part of the traditio nal subject curriculum in 
schools (art, music), this competence does not app ear to be a significant strategic priority for 
most countries. The potential of  culture to provide a methodology for work in other areas of 
the curriculum, and in personal and social development, could be better exploited.  
Key competences for all 
Many national reports describe priority disadva ntaged groups who receive specific support to 
acquire key competences: e.g. learners with sp ecial educational needs, those at a socio-
economic disadvantage, those with literacy needs (including migr ants), and those at risk of 
dropping out. As a result of th e financial crisis, the unempl oyed increasingly feature as a 
target group.  
Commonly, provision is based on targeted funding, legislation, action plans and measures to 
address different target groups. Some countries go further and create a single framework for 
both mainstream learners and specific target  groups, notably through the introduction of 
rights-based legislation.  
There is a clear trend towa rds individual learning plans accompanied by guidance. These 
primarily target young people with literacy needs (including migrants) an d those with special 
education needs (SEN).  
Several countries stress the importance of early childhood education and care to tackle 
sources of disadvantage at their roots. 
Key competences for adults 
The development of measures to support key competences for adults is widespread and 
includes new and revised legislation and stra tegies, improved delivery and governance of the 
sector, and specific funding measures.  
Many policies target low qualifie d and/or unemployed adults and immigrants, and focus on 
raising basic levels of competence, notably literacy, numeracy or la nguage learning. “Second-
chance” institutions for gaining secondary schoo l qualifications are common in this context. 
Information on provision for other target groups (e .g. adults with SEN, elderly people, etc.) is 
less extensive. 
 
EN 102   EN There are links with broader policy measures  such as lifelong learning strategies and 
guidance, validation of non-formal and in formal learning, Nati onal Qualifications 
Frameworks. 
Teachers 
The key competences approach places new de mands upon teachers. Some countries are 
revising their curricula for initial teacher education accordingly. However only one fifth of the countries mention the key competences appro ach in relation to c ontinuing professional 
development for serving teachers, the group with  the biggest influence Moreover, countries 
reported little use of, for example, mentor ing, support for teacher networking and other 
individualised approaches for upskilling teachers.  
Improvements in the preparation of VET teacher s are gathering momentum in some countries, 
but there is still a long way to go to ensure that VET teachers and tr ainers in Europe are 
thoroughly prepared to support the deve lopment of the key competences. 
Training and professional support for education managers is not widely reported, but will be 
crucial to delivering the organizational cha nges at institution level implied by the key 
competences. 
Developing new assessment met hodologies through initial and continuing teacher education, 
including the impact of ICT on testing tec hniques, is becoming a high priority in many 
countries.  
Assessment and monitoring 
Assessment of key competences poses a formidable challenge, because many competences do 
not fall neatly into traditional subject divisions , and all of them contain, alongside essential 
knowledge, the dimensions of skills and attitude  which are much more difficult to assess. 
There is a widespread move towards more fo rmative assessment approaches, normally as a 
complement to summative testing (such as final examinations). However, high-stakes 
summative testing seems to remain the dominan t mode in most countries, with a strong 
emphasis on knowledge and recall. There are some  key innovations in a number of countries 
including experimentation with  complementary methodologies such as peer assessment, 
portfolios, project-based assessment.  
In the linked area of qualifications, assessment has traditionally been based on summative 
examinations. However, there are significant developments in several countries, often 
articulated around a National Qualifications Fram ework, to open up to a range of approaches 
to the accreditation of prior learning, based on  demonstrated learning outcomes irrespective 
where these have been gained. This acceler ating trend has important potential for the 
assessment and certification of the range of key competences.  
An increasing number of countri es are putting in place monitoring systems to gauge the 
effectiveness of systems in delivering some or all of the key competences.  
 
EN 103   EN 2 TRANSVERSAL LIFELONG LEARNING ISSUES  
Making lifelong learning a reality has been a prio rity of European cooperation in education 
and training for the past years and will continue to be a key objective also under the updated strategic framework for European Cooperation until 2020.  
In this respect, the development of lifelong le arning strategies (LLLS), coherent lifelong 
guidance policies, national qualification framew orks (NQFs) linked to the EQF, a stronger 
focus on learning outcomes, and instruments fo r the validation of non-formal and informal 
learning are considered cornerstone policies as  they aim at strengthening coordination and 
permeability across the sectors and mutually  interconnecting all forms of learning.  
2.1 Lifelong learning strategies (LLLS) 
Member States agreed to develop and implemen t coherent and comprehensive LLL strategies 
by 2006.
115The 2006 and 2008 Joint Reports noted that th e vast majority of countries have 
progressed – at differing stages  - in adapting their education and training systems to the LLL 
approach. However, coherence and comprehensiv eness as well as concrete implementation of 
LLL policies remained for the majority of them a challenge.  
National reports of 2009 larg ely confirm these findings: Am ong the countries, who have 
reported on progress regarding their LLL-policies the following approaches can be observed: 
– A single strategy document  which is broadly comprehensive and coherent has been 
adopted and is currently being implemented (C Z, DK, EE, FI, LT, SI, UK- Scotland); This 
LLLS document is of high relevance for policy making, covers all levels of education and 
is based on analysis, accompanied by specifi c objectives, embedded in legislative 
regulations with an associat ed budget, supported by a roadmap having performance targets 
and support by stakeholders. Austri a is currently at an advanced  stage in developing such a 
strategy.  
– A LLL- document  has been adopted which shows a st rong focus on a specific target 
group or a specific sector rather  than covering the full spec trum of LLL (LT, LV, SK), 
which provides primarily an analytical fram ework (DE) or where the relevance of the 
strategy across sectors need s to be improved (HU). 
– A set of policies  /sectoral strategies c overing all key areas of LLL, have been adopted 
under the guiding principle of LLL and are currently being implemented, though not 
having been underpinned by a single LLL stra tegy document (BE nl, ES, FR, IE, IS, LU, 
NL, NO, PT, SE, UK-England).  
Poland and Romania reported that they are still in the process of developing a single strategy 
document. 
Much of the emphasis of LLLSs is in relati on to the establishment of connections and 
pathways between different types of e ducation programmes – e.g. VET and general 
                                                 
115 The commitment to establish LLLS is based on the June 2000 European Council in Portugal, the 2002 Council resolution on 
lifelong learning ( OJ C 163/1, 9.7.2002 ) and the 2004 Joint Report. The importance of LLL strategies and investment in human 
capital was re-emphasised in the Employment Guidelines for the period 2008-2010. 
 
EN 104   EN education-, or formal, non-formal and informal learning. In terms of the effects generated, 
national reports outlined that the strategies: 
– have provided an analytical framework triggeri ng subsequent national initiatives (DE, EE), 
– enhanced monitoring mechanisms, as new mon itoring systems are developed with the aim 
to track progress in the implementation of the strategy (BG, CY, EE, HU, SK)  
– contributed to strengthening the links of education and tr aining with local and labour 
market needs (LV, SK).  
In terms of challenges, the follo wing points are worth underlining:  
– Very little information is provided on ad equate budget alloca tion for effective 
implementation and only a few c ountries report that their LLL-st rategies are in the process 
of resulting/have recently resulted in the appr oval of detailed implementation plans (CZ, 
LV, SK). 
– A feature of many strategies is their relativel y short-term nature, mostly having a planning-
horizon of 3 to 5 years and limiting its span to a single legislative period.  
– On the whole there is little documentation in  terms of the evidence base used in the 
development of the strategies, how progress wi ll be measured (only two countries - EE and 
LV - included information on their strategies ’ impact with reference to predefined 
indicators in relation to participation in a dult education and traini ng) and their impact on 
national policy making across sectors.  
Box 2-1 – Slovak Republic - National  Programme for Learning Regions 
The National Programme for Learning Regions was approved on the Ministry level. It ensures 
the effective interconnection of lifelong learning with the need s of the local and regional 
labour markets. The active participation of e ducational institutions on the regional level, 
employers and self-government in implementing the strategy for lifelon g learning and lifelong 
guidance is a prerequisite  for this cooperation.  
A learning region is an area in which the respon sible officials cooperate and learn to jointly 
solve local or regional issues in partnership c ooperation. It pertains to  the creation and support 
of the origin of local or regi onal networks of various instituti ons oriented on the solution of 
common problems. The conviction that a joint c ourse of action in solv ing issues is more 
effective than isolated activities of individual subjects is the basic prequalification for the 
creation of local and regional partnerships. 
 
EN 105   EN Box 2-2 – Czech Republic - Impl ementation of the national lifelong learning strategy  
The Czech Republic  approved its Strategy of Lifelong Learning document in 2007, based on a 
thorough analysis of the condition of the different  parts of the national education and training 
system and their interconnections, for the period running until 2015. The strategy has so far 
proved to be a fundamental document for othe r cross-curriculum and sectoral policies in 
education and training. Its main benefits have  so far been the achievement of a greater 
interconnection of partia l education and training aspects pr eviously mentioned in individual 
documents into a coherent con cept of lifelong learning and its st rong effects as a catalyst to 
stimulate the efforts of stakeholders in th e implementation of lif elong learning. In 2009 an 
implementation plan has been approved that tr anslated the general objectives of the strategy 
into a set of comprehensive specific measur es that need to be implemented, including a 
framework timetable, and that details individua l ministries‘ competences in relation to the 
measures to be implemented.  
2.2 Establishment of lifelong guidance systems  
The 2004 Council Resolution on Guidance through life called for high-quality guidance 
oriented to citizens’ lifel ong and life-wide learning and the improvement of guidance 
structures.116 In 2008, the Council adopted a new "Resol ution on better integrating guidance 
into lifelong learning strategies"117 to provide further impetus to  the achievement of three key 
aims: fairer access, quality improvement of guidance services and establishment of partnerships between existi ng forms of guidance provision. 
Regarding fair access  to guidance, the 2009 national reports and recent CEDEFOP 
research
118 show that  
– substantial progress has been achieved in th e improvement, modernisation and expansion 
of guidance for employed and unemployed adu lts regardless of their age and residency 
status (AT, BE, BG, CY, DE, EL, FR, HU, IS, IE, LT, LV, MT, ES and UK). This is 
important on the background that the 2008 Joint report119 had noted that greater progress in 
terms of guidance for adults was required. 
– guidance is increasingly offe red through a wider range of delivery modes including the 
development of adult local/regional guidance networks (AT, DK, BE  fr, BE nl, BG, CZ, 
FI, HU, IS, NL, NO, SI, ES, SE) and websites ( DK, NL, SK, BE fr, BE nl, CZ, FI, EE, ES, 
FR, IE, HU, LT, SI, UK120). 
Countries also reported increased guidance meas ures to enhance the at tractiveness of VET, 
including: 
                                                 
116 In addition, the Maastricht, Helsinki and Bordeaux Communi qués, the 2007 Council Resolution on New Skills for New Jobs ( OJ 
C 290 of 4.12.2007 ) and the 2008 Council Conclusions on Adult Learning ( OJ C 140, 6.6.2008 ) all highlighted the importance of 
facilitating access to guidance. 
117 OJ C 319 of 13.12.2008 ;  
118 CEDEFOP (2009)1, "Continuity, consolidatio n and change. Towards a European era of vocational education and training", 
http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/etv/Upload/I nformation_resources/Bookshop/528/3055_en.pdf  
119 OJ C 86/1, 5.4.2008  
120 CEDEFOP (2009)1, op. cit. 
 
EN 106   EN – organisation of guidance events, competitions and fairs, including Euroskills, for young 
people in primary and secondary school (BE fr, CZ, ES, LV, FR, MT, NL, RO, SK, TR), 
– increases in the number of offices  providing VET guidance (BE fr, EL); 
– production of VET guidance materials for specific sectors (LV, PL, RO). 
Box 2-3 – Latvia - Adaptation weeks for first year students 
In Latvia,  in order to facilitate the process of adaptation of young people to VET institutions 
and overcome the difficulties caused by the change of study environment, adaptation weeks 
were introduced in the 2007/2008 academic year for new first year students. During these 
weeks adaptation tests are carried out in order to determine the strengths and weaknesses of 
the new students. The results of these tests are used in the design of an individual programme 
to accelerate and facilitate students’ adaptati on to the new programme. During the adaptation 
week students also learn to establish an ade quate framework for relations with the people 
around them, tools are pr ovided for them to start developi ng their personal learning style, 
reflect on their motivations and le arn about the chosen profession.  
In terms of the most prominent i ssues to increase lifelong guidance quality  in practice, 
countries' reports and recent CEDEFOP research121 note progress on: 
– the professionalisation and training of counsellors (AT, DE, EE, NO, PL, SI) 
– quality assurance procedures  (AT, DE, IE, UK); and  
– continuous evaluation of processe s and structures (AT, SK). 
A third crucial issue is coordina tion and leadership to promote cooperative approaches and 
partnership  in guidance provision across all ages a nd groups, for example by establishing 
forums, networks and other structures122. A few national reports (AT, EL, SK) reported 
further progress in the integrat ion of guidance systems. In a ddition, a range of  initiatives 
related to coordina tion and leadership were described: 
– gradual integration of guida nce provision taking the holistic needs of people as their 
starting point (DK, EE, ES, UK); 
– establishment of cooperation and coordination mechanisms at the regional and national 
level (AT); 
– further legal clarification of th e responsibilities of different  stakeholders – e.g. employment 
services, universities - in relation to study and career guida nce arrangements, in particular 
for people with overseas qualifications (SE). 
In terms of challenges, it is important to note that while coordinating mechanisms across 
guidance sectors and levels of provision have b een established in most European countries, 
                                                 
121 Cedefop (2008) "Establishing and deve loping national lifelong guidance policy forums. A manual for policy-makers and 
stakeholders", http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/etv/Upload/I nformation_resources/Bookshop/508/5188_en.pdf  
122 Council Resolution of 28 May 2004 on strengthening policies, sy stems and practices in the field of guidance throughout life in  
Europe ( Doc. 9286/04 ) 
 
EN 107   EN many of them are still informal or work in progress123.Two reports (FR, SK) explicitly 
highlighted shortcomings in the area of l eadership and coordination, mentioning that the 
national fragmentation of information struct ures about VET makes their use by citizens 
difficult. 
Moreover, compared to the last reporting 2007, few reports referred to developments in the 
provision of guidance to disadvantaged groups . Only three reports (CZ, DK, LV) made 
reference to mentoring within schools, targ eted at students at risk of dropping out. 
2.3 Development of national qualification frameworks 
National Qualifications Framewor ks (NQFs) provide a structur e supporting the transparency, 
coherence and consistency of qua lifications in a lif elong learning perspective. This should 
result in clearer arrangements to make access to and transfer between qualifications more 
flexible, enable comparisons of qualifications and establish quality st andards for them, thus 
finally improving the qualit y of learning provision124. The 2008 Recommendation on the 
establishment of a European Qualifica tions Framework for Lifelong Learning125 invited 
countries to relate their nationa l qualifications systems or fram eworks to the EQF by 2010 and 
to develop national qualifications frameworks, where appropriate.  
In many countries this trigge red or strengthened the devel opment of an NQF based on 
learning outcomes. While a NQF is already in  force only in a few countries (IE, FR, MT, 
UK), the development of an overarching NQF enj oys a high priority on the education policy 
agenda in virtually all count ries. Countries report on: 
– having established, even if not yet fully implemented a NQF (BE nl) . 
– the development of a proposal for an NQF by expert working groups and consultations 
with a range of stakeholders (such as edu cational institutions, muni cipalities, individual 
employers and social partners) prior to the submission of the final proposal for approval 
(AT, DE, DK, EE, ES, FI, HR, HU, IT, LT, PL, SE) 
Box 2-4 – Belgium nl - the approval of the NQF  
In Belgium nl,  following two years of consultation with stakeholders and the analysis of pilot 
projects the Decree on the Flemish qualification framework (“Vlaamse kw alificatiestructuur”) 
was endorsed by the Flemish Government in February 2009 and adopted by the Flemish 
Parliament in April 2009. The NQF based on eight levels and the descriptors of the 
Framework are compatible with the descriptor s of the EQF. The NQF will become the basis 
for the recognition of diplomas and certificates  awarded by the differe nt national competent 
bodies.  
Most countries are following an integrated a pproach that will result in an overarching NQF 
for lifelong learning covering all the different e ducation and training sect ors. National reports 
and other sources however also show that so me countries have developed NQFs for certain 
                                                 
123 Cedefop (2008); op. cit. 
124 OECD (2007) "Qualifications System s: Bridges to Lifelong Learning"  
125 Recommendation of the European Parliament  and the Council of 23 April 2008 on the esta blishment of a European Qualifications 
Framework for Lifelong Learning,  OJ C 111/1 of 6.5.08  
 
EN 108   EN levels of their education and training system, concentrating on  HE (BG, DK, ES, IS, NO, RO, 
SE, TR) and/ or VET (RO)126. It will be important to ensure that those countries that have 
qualifications frameworks for certain educationa l sectors or levels establish bridges between 
them to achieve a coherent overarching fram ework which promotes flexible learning 
pathways across levels and sectors.  
The development of NQFs is in most countri es a parallel process to linking national 
qualifications levels to the EQF. Almost all countries envisage to relate their national 
qualifications systems or NQFs to the EQF by 2010 or 2011:  
– National Coordination Points (NCPs) in charge  of coordinating the re ferencing of national 
qualifications levels with the EQF are already designated in 17  countries (BG, CZ, EE, EL, 
ES, FI, FR, IE, IS, IT HR, LV, MT, PT, SI, UK,  TR). 6 more countrie s plan to designate 
them by 2010 (AT, BE, IS, LT, NO, SE).127  
– Ireland and Malta already completed the proces s of referencing their NQFs to the EQF in 
summer 2009. 
– 24 other countries envisage to complete the referencing of their national qualifications 
system or framework to the EQF by 2010 (AT, BE fr, BE nl, DK, EE, FR, FI, HR, IS, IT, 
LU, NL, PT, TR, UK) or by 2011 (CZ, DE , EL, ES, LV, NO, PL, SI, SK, SE). 
Box 2-5 – Ireland - Referencing to the EQF 
Ireland has completed the process of referenc ing the Irish NFQ to the European 
Qualifications Framework. This referencing wa s assisted by a National Steering Committee, 
composed by representatives of key educat ion and training stake holders as well as 
international experts of qualifications sy stems and frameworks, which oversaw the 
referencing process. A detailed technical co mparison of the NQF descriptors with the EQF 
descriptors was also undertake n. The final referencing report  was agreed among the national 
quality assurance bodies for educa tion and training in June 2009.  
2.4 Learning outcomes based approaches 
The development of learning outcomes based qualifications and learning approaches128 is on 
the political agenda of the majo rity of countries (AT, BE fr, Be nl, CZ, DE, DK, EE, EL, FI, 
HR, HU, IE, IT, LV, NO, PL, PT, SE, SK, TR, UK).  
A number of national reports made explicit menti on of initiatives taken to establish a learning 
outcomes based approach (BE nl, CZ, EE, ES, IS, IT, HU, LU, IE, NO, PL, PT, SI), often 
linking this to the development of NQFs (BE nl, IE) or  the creation of national registries of 
vocational qualifications (ES, FR, HU, PT). So me countries reported a sequential stage in the 
implementation of learning outcome approaches st arting for instance in th e area of secondary 
education (LU) or VET (SI, NO), while planning to  later extend it to other levels and types of 
education.  
                                                 
126 CEDEFOP (2009)1, op .cit.; Eurydice (2009) HE in Europe 2009: Developmen ts in the Bologna process. Luxembourg, Office for 
Official Publications of the European Communities. 
127 This is called for in the EQF Recommendation, op. cit. 
128 A learning outcomes approach supports the transparency of qua lifications by indicating what the learner should know, understan d 
and is able to do by the end of a learning process. 
 
EN 109   EN In a number of European countries the national curricula describe educ ational targets by using 
learning outcomes (AT, CZ, FR, IT, PL, PT, SE  and UK examples are described in recent 
research129). However, the drive to redefine qua lifications and curr icula using learning 
outcomes has been most clearly seen in VET, especially referring to learning outcomes with 
particular professional and labour market orie ntation. Recent national developments include: 
– the development of VET qualifications and job profiles based on learning outcomes and 
standards (AT, BG, CZ, EL, HU, IT, PL, RO);  
– revising national legislation and other regulations on VET programmes/ qualifications 
implying a learning outcomes approach (DK, EE, HR, IS);  
– introducing competence-based curricula (AT, BE nl, CZ, EE, DE, LT, LU, MT, PL, PT, 
SI, SK, TR); and  
– introducing learning outcomes to guide assessme nt of student practice, replacing more 
traditional notions (FI, HU, IE, NO, RO)130.  
On the other hand, the shift to learning outcomes approaches stil l represents a challenge in 
higher education.131 Concerning general education, the use of the key competences concept is 
likely to continue to contribute towards greate r usage of outcome-based approaches also in 
this area. A few reports refer to guidance documents being produced for schools in order to support formulation of learning outcomes ba sed study programmes (CZ, EE, IS, LV).  
To sum up, many countries ar e making good progress towards the adoption of learning 
outcomes approaches. However, this work will remain on the agenda as most countries are 
still in an early stage of impl ementation and very often countries and institutions do not yet 
have sufficient practical experience in the us e of learning outcomes for the definition of 
standards, the descriptio n of curricula and the organisation of assessment.
132 
2.5 Measures to assess and validate no n-formal and informal learning 
The lifelong learning paradigm s uggests that learning should be identified, assessed and its 
results recognised regardless of the context in which they have been acquired, i.e. including 
for the learning taking place outside formal progr ammes in education and training institutions. 
The recent emphasis on learning outcomes suppor ts such an approach. Common European 
Principles for the identification and validatio n of non-formal and informal learning were 
agreed in 2004133 and are used as a partial basis for validation systems in IE, IS, NL, NO.  
The validation of non-formal and informal l earning is receiving atte ntion in almost all 
countries, however, countries are starting from  different stages of development: While the 
most progressed countries already pursue a sy stematic approach across all education and 
training sectors (BE fr, BE nl , DK, EE, FI, FR, IE, NL, NO, PT, RO, SI, ES, UK), a second 
                                                 
129 CEDEFOP (2009)2,, The shift to learning outcomes: Policies and prac tices in Europe. Luxembourg, Office for Official 
Publications of the Europ ean Communities. Pp. 22-23. 
130 CEDEFOP (2009)1 , op. cit. 
131 Eurydice (2009) HE in Europe 2009: Developments in the Bologna process. Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the 
European Communities. 
132 CEDEFOP (2009)1 , op. cit. 
133 http://ec.europa.eu/education/po licies/2010/doc/validation2004_en.pdf  
 
EN 110   EN group of countries is currently implementing validation instruments and pilot projects in 
specific contexts and preparing a national appr oach (AT, CZ, DE, IS, IT, HU, LT, LU, MT, 
PL, SE). For the third group validation is sti ll a rather new concept,  sporadic validation 
activities can be identified (BG, CY, EL, HR, LV, SK, TR). 134 
However, national reports 2009 sh ow that activities towards bett er validation are undertaken 
by countries from all of the th ree groups. Around half of the re ports mention developments in 
this area over the last tw o years, which include: 
– approval of new legislation/ gui delines or the setting up of pilo t projects and testing of new 
procedures (BG, BE nl, CZ, DK, EE, ES, IT, LU, LV, MT, PL, RO, SI);  
– the establishment of new agencies (BE nl., DK,  EE, LT, SE), such as the Danish National 
Centre for Knowledge and Information on Prior Learning and the BE nl Quality Agency (which coordinates quality a ssurance for all education, trai ning and validation systems), 
created in 2008 and 2009 respectively 
– expansion of delivery structures (BE fr, PT ); in Portugal, the "New Opportunities 
Initiative" and its emphasis on validation opport unities for the low qualified contributed an 
increase of the network of centres for the recognition, validation and certification of non 
formal and informal learning from less than 100 in 2006 to almost 500 in 2008. 
– information campaigns to dissemination valid ation opportunities, using public employment 
services (BE fr) and development of website s with information on validation procedures 
and tools for self-evaluation (BE nl, DK); 
Box 2-6 – Spain - Validation of  professional competences  
Spain is in the final stages of approval of new legislation to  establish a procedure and 
requirements for the evaluation and accredita tion of professional competences acquired 
through work experience or non-formal trai ning. Competences thus  acquired could be 
validated for VET modules or full qualifications (VET diplomas or professional certificates). 
The system will operate through national/regional calls prioritising specific sectors; social 
partners could also requ est calls to meet the needs of specifi c economic sectors. It is expected 
that 80,000 people – mainly with low qualification levels – would benefit from the system in 
its first three years. The legislation outlines a substantial role for guidance during the 
validation process and underlines the importa nce of training of assessors as well as 
counsellors.  
An important area of attention in the last two years has been the use of validation to open up 
access to higher education (see also Chapter 3). This has been done by: 
– validation of prior learning granting access to  HE programmes and/or the recognition of 
credits leading to a shorter duration of studies (in BE nl, EE, SE);  
– creating new agencies to develop validation pr ocesses in this sector (EE, LT, SE); for 
example in Lithuania, the Centre for Quality Assessment in HE has been created with the 
objective of developing processe s for the assessment and rec ognition of HE qualifications.  
                                                 
134 CEDEFOP (2009)1, op. cit. 
 
EN 111   EN With validation systems increasingly in place, the coming years will reveal the extent to 
which systems are used and where new strategies need to be developed to ensure trust from 
different stakeholders and attrac t potential users. In most count ries further efforts are required 
to set up fully developed and comprehensive va lidation systems. Four  countries mentioned 
future plans for capacity building (HR, HU, LV , SK) and in those in which validation is 
decentralised (IT, NO for example) there is a need to address regional imbalances.  
2.6 Conclusions on transversal lifelong learning issues 
The lifelong learning paradigm has gained greate r importance in most c ountries: All countries 
are developing policies that contribute to th e realisation of LLL as reflected in the 
development of strategies as well as instrume nts for the promotion of flexible learning 
pathways and transition between di fferent parts of the systems. 
Most of the countries reported that they ar e also working on the setting up and/or 
implementation of LLL strategies . Many countries have an agreed and published strategy. 
However, these can be considered comprehens ive and coherent only in a relatively small 
number of cases. Countries without a published LLL strategy are at diverse stages of 
development, ranging from countries with lifelo ng learning policies and key measures in all 
relevant areas, to those where the education sectors are undergoing partial reforms that seem 
not to be driven by explicit co nceptions of lif elong learning.  
A challenge remains the effective implementation of lifelong learning st rategies and policies. 
There is little evidence in the national reports that LLL st rategies are broadly supported by 
targeted funding mechanisms. Adequate and efficient budget allocation is key to the 
effectiveness of reforms as we ll as their relevance across ot her sectors of national policy 
making such as employment or youth. Moreover th e chosen time frames of strategies seem 
often rather short given the complexity and long-term development perspectives of the 
education and training sector. Based on broad consensus betw een stakeholders across all 
relevant sectors LLLS should provide a long-rang ing vision of development and be subject to 
regular updating. Implementati on plans should be guided by concrete targets and a clear 
division of responsibilities be tween actors whereas strong mon itoring mechanisms to assess 
progress and impact of new policies n eed to be more often established. 
Significant measures have been taken over the last two years in  many countries regarding the 
development of stronger guidance systems  for employed and unemployed adults and to some 
extent VET. Progress has also continued in rela tion to the diversificat ion of delivery modes, 
while development has been slower in relati on to the coordination of different guidance 
systems beyond informal arrangements. The repo rts provided less evidence in relation to the 
provision of guidance for disadvantaged groups.  
Significant development work regarding the establishment of national qualification 
frameworks  has continued in most countries and ma ny countries expect to adopt their NQFs 
during the next two years. Almost all countries  reported actions to li nk their qua lifications 
systems or frameworks to the EQF, although na tional coordination points have not yet been 
established in all countries. It will be importa nt to continue strong coordination between the 
ongoing work in the higher education sector a nd the overarching qualification frameworks for 
lifelong learning. 
 
EN 112   EN Going along with this, a majority of the countries are working on a stronger use of a learning 
outcomes approach.  Progress has been uneven across edu cation areas and so far seems to 
have been most widespread in VET. There s eems to be a need for further guidance, staff 
support programmes and changes in teacher training programmes to increase capacity and 
know-how at the time of implementation.  
Validation of non-formal and informal learning  continues to be an area of great interest 
and several countries approved ne w legislation or developed bette r delivery struct ures in this 
area. Further progress is neve rtheless required in those c ountries where there are no 
established validation systems or where they encounter problems of acceptance among certain 
key stakeholders. In those countries where valida tion systems exist, they need to be further 
promoted in order to make them fully used  by its target groups. The recently published 
European guidelines for validating non-formal  and informal learning should support this 
process (see part I on EU implementation of the work programme).  
 
EN 113   EN 3 V OCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING  
Increasing the attractiveness, quality and re levance of VET are ke y priorities in the 
Copenhagen process135. This has been more recently reflected in the 2008 Bordeaux 
Communiqué136 where – building on the conclusions in Maastricht137 and Helsinki138 - 
heightening the quality and a ttractiveness of VET and improv ing the links between VET and 
the labour market were underlin ed as two of the four priori ty areas for future action.  
The first section of this chapter presents a synthesis of approaches highlighted by the 
countries focused on modularisation, the establ ishment of pathways between VET and HE 
and quality improvement to increase VET attrac tiveness. The second section of the chapter 
describes curricular reform, greater use of partnerships between VET and employers and 
work-based training (including  apprenticeships) as key instru ments to increase the labour 
market relevance of VET.  
3.1 Attractiveness 
Demographic changes and rising skills requireme nts make it crucial that VET becomes an 
attractive option for young people and adults alike139. The following section describes the 
responses of countries mentioned in national reports to tackle this challenge. Apart from the 
areas analysed below, guidance and validation of non-formal and informal learning - covered 
in the chapter on transversal lifelong learning  issues – play also an important role in 
increasing the attractiveness of VET.  
3.1.1 Modularisation 
Modularisation is seen to enable  learners to achieve qualifications progre ssively, to increase 
the flexibility of the vocational offer, to f acilitate passing from one programme to another 
and, on occasions, to facilitate accumulation towa rds full or part-qualifications thus making 
VET more attractive to young peopl e and those in the labour market. National reports that 
covered modularisation in VET (AT, BE nl, HU, EE, EL, ES, LU, IT, LV, PL, PT, SI, TR) 
reported that it is being used as an instrume nt to make VET more attractive, mainly by: 
• allowing students who do not complete a VET programme to be awarded a partial 
qualification.  
• facilitating the transfer between general education and VET; and 
• providing schools with the flexibility to take in to account the specific needs of learners and 
regional/local economic needs.  
                                                 
135 Conclusions of the Council on the future priorities for enhan ced European cooperation on Voca tional Education and Training. 
Council document 14474/06 of 30 October 2006. 
136 'The Bordeaux Communiqué on enhanced cooperation in vocational education and trai ning' (26 November 2008). 
http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong- learning-policy/doc/ bordeaux_en.pdf  
137 ‘Maastricht communiqué on the future priorities of enhanced European cooperation in vocationa l education and training‘ (14 
December 2004). http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelon g-learning-policy/doc/voca tional/maastricht_en.pdf 
138 ‘Helsinki communiqué on enhanced European c ooperation in vocational e ducation and training’  
 (5 December 2006). http://ec.europa.eu/education/lif elong-learning-policy/doc/ vocational/helsinki_en.pdf 
139 CEDEFOP (2009) Future Skill Supply in Europe. Medium-term fo recast up to 2020: synthesis re port. Luxembourg, Office for 
Official Publications of the European Communities.  
 
EN 114   EN Countries reported to be at di fferent stages in the modular isation of their VET offer: 
– a minority of countries reported to have recently modularised  much or parts of their VET 
provision (BE nl, HU, LU). Luxembourg is put ting in place a competence-based approach 
to VET organized in the form of units, which are subdivided in to modules, with the aim to 
facilitate that people who interrupt their stud ies resume training at the place where they had 
abandoned them, which is seen in the country as a centre-p iece for realis ing lifelong 
learning; 
– other countries (AT, PL, PT, UK) reported to be expanding the modularised offer  within 
VET provision (PT has done this in relation to continuing VET,  whereas the UK has 
adopted a more encompassing approach requiring  all VET qualifications to be unitised; in 
AT new modular apprenticeship progra mmes are being created–see below); 
– four countries (AT, HU, IT, LV) reported to be reorganising their existing VET 
programmes  towards further modularisation coupled  with reductions in the duration of 
VET programmes or the establis hment of part-qualifications. In Italy pathways of three 
years of training, aimed at achieving a qualif ication equivalent to ISCED level 3, have 
been broken-down (2 +1, 1 +2) facilitating the transition to the second or third year for 
those who come from traditional academic e ducational pathways. In Latvia a strategy to 
increase the attractiveness of VET aims to reorganise pres ent four year secondary VET 
programmes into three year programmes and introduce a modular system for these VET 
programmes.; and 
– two countries reported to be currently considering further modularisation  (CZ, SI). 
Box 3-8 Austria - Modularisa tion of apprenticeships 
The Austrian  2006 BAG ( Berufsausbildungsgesetz ) amendment created the legal basis for a 
possible modularisation of the apprenticeship system to make it more flexible, improve 
compliance with sectoral requirements, incr ease the number of training enterprises and 
interlink initial with continui ng vocational training The Austrian  approach to modularisation 
consists of main and special modules. The qualif ications comply with the special methods of 
production and services in the pa rticular sector. Respective ch oices persist during a maximum 
training period of up to four years.  
Whilst modularisation has been an important area of activity to make V ET more attractive to 
learners, recent research from CEDEFOP has hi ghlighted the need to investigate further its 
real contributions to achieve this objective. 140. In this respect, it should be noted that no 
country offered details on the effectiveness of  modularisation measures  in their reports. 
3.1.2 Pathways between VET and HE 
The Maastricht Communiqué called for increased  permeability within education and training 
systems, which requires that the HE and VET systems approach each other to support lifelong 
learning. The Bordeaux Communiqué and the 2008 Joint Report mention explicitly that 
further progress is required in reducing the obs tacles to progression be tween VET and further 
                                                 
140 Lasonen, J. and Gordon, J. (2008) ‘Improving the attractivene ss and image of VET’ in CEDEFOP (ed.) Modernising Vocational 
Education and Training. Volume 3. CE DEFOP, Office for Official Publica tions of the European Communities. 
 
EN 115   EN or higher education. These pathways have often taken the form of introducing an equivalence 
for HE access between VET programmes and general programmes (CY, FR, IS) and, in particular in those countries wh ere there are HE entrance examina tions for either general or –
less frequently- vocational HE, the introduction of  bridging courses which provide individuals 
who have completed upper secondary VET with  the foundation to enter HE (NO). Access to 
HE (and in some cases waiving of part of HE courses/ achievement of a full HE qualification) 
can also be achieved through the validation of non-formal and informal learning (FR). 
In some countries the progression  from VET into HE is already well-established (AT, BE nl, 
CY, CZ, FR, IE, IS, IT, NL, NO, SE, UK), whereas other countries are working on the 
adaptation of the national qualifica tions system to facilitate a ccess, transfer and accreditation 
or the establishment of bridgi ng programmes to provide access to HE. Almost half of the 
2009 reports (AT, CY, DE, EL, ES, HU, LT, LU, HR, IS, IT, NO, SE) referred to the 
development of pathways between VET and hi gher education as a t ool to increase VET 
attractiveness through measures such as: 
– introducing new educational offers, in cluding new programmes resulting from 
collaboration between VET and HE institutions (DE, LU, LT, SE); 
– bringing vocational and general education cl oser together by intr oducing VET programmes 
with greater emphasis on generic skills as well as new vocational HE programmes to 
reduce dead ends (CY, DE, EL, NO); 
– making VET and general upper secondary educati on equivalent for HE entry (EL, IS) or 
offering double-certification (RO); 
– establishing additional periods of study to acqui re a professional degree  that allows access 
to technical courses in HE (IT, NO); 
– establishing quotas for VET graduate s access into HE (ES, HU); and 
– providing access to HE based on pr ofessional experience (AT, HR). 
Box 3-9 – Greece - EPAL schools  
The new EPAL secondary schools ( Epagelmatika Lykeia)  - which combine general and 
vocational education - enable its graduates to ta ke part in the national examinations for entry 
to all higher education institutions under the sa me conditions as General Lyceum graduates. 
This is for the first time that such an option is available for VET students in Greece. A new 
law introduced in 2009 provides an additional pathway for EPAL graduates to enter higher 
education institutions through a quota of places rese rved for EPAL graduates set each year by 
the Ministry. There is evidence that these ne w schools have sparked a renewed interest in 
VET: in their second year of operation new en trants to the EPAL increased by 14% compared 
to the previous year.  
 
EN 116   EN Box 3-3 – Italy Non academic post-secondary training 
Regional administrations in Ital y have set up 126 'training pole s' to provide higher technical 
education and training as an alternative to uni versity studies. This initiative puts a strong 
emphasis on meeting national and in particular  local economic needs, and on basing training 
provision on agreement between different st akeholders. It is based on a 2004 agreement 
between the Italian Ministries of Educati on, Labour and Economic Development, and the 
Regions – including the association of upper s econdary schools and training centres, public 
and/or private research centres , enterprises and/or category associations and universities. A 
2008 decree specifies that both Higher  technical education and training  (IFTS) and training 
offered by Higher Technical Institutes (ITS)  are planned on the basis of training needs that 
have been identified in a number of sectors re garded as crucial for the development of the 
national and local economy. Local planning and pr ovision of the higher training system must 
be the result of joint action with the provincial authorities and be supported by an agreement 
with the social partners. Courses comb ine academic study and practical training.  
Whereas pathways from secondary to tertiary VET are frequent (i.e. giving access to certain 
specific technical HE programmes), access to ge neral tertiary education is more complex.  
Routes into HE from apprenticeships are less well developed (cf. sec tion on apprenticeships 
below in this chapter), as is the recognition of V ET partial qualifications for entrance to or as 
part of HE studies. However, stimulating the take-up of these pathways will increasingly require addressing attitudinal, practical situational as well as  institutional barriers (e.g. in 
terms of formal HE access requirements).  
National reports provide little information on access to HE through the validation of non-
formal and informal learning. Th e Bologna stocktaking exercise
141 has recently outlined that 
this has been an area in which little progress has been achieved since 2007(see, however, chapter 4.3.2). Validation is stil l better developed in the non-uni versity HE sect or and when 
used, it aims to improve the social dimens ion of HE, by attracting under-represented groups. 
In any case, it seems that the awareness of validation procedures is low. Full implementation of validation within HE would probably require a change of culture in many HE institutions, 
the development of NQFs and more widely accepted credit transfer linked with learning 
outcomes.  
Member States would now need to focus on en couraging the use of existing pathways and 
ensuring that these are genuinely open by dealin g with problems of failu re to progress. Also 
offering effective guidance to assist individuals to make the right decisions now that greater 
choice is available to them seems to contin ue to be a challenge, as supported by recent 
research
142. 
3.1.3 Quality and investment in VET 
The Council conclusions  in Barcelona in 2002143, the 2006 Commission Communication on 
adult learning144, and the Bordeaux Communiqué have firmly reiterated quality as a main 
                                                 
141 Rauhvarhers, A., Deane, C. And Pauwels, W.  (2009) Bologna Process Stocktaking Report. 
http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/ hogeronderwijs/bologna/confer ence/documents/Stocktaki ng_report_200 9_FINAL.pdf   
142 ECOTEC (2008) Beyond the Maastricht Communiqué: developments in the opening up of VET pathways and the role of VET in 
labour market integrations. Final report to the European Commission. 
143  Presidency conclusions, Barcelona, 15-16 March 2002 (SN 100/1/02, §43) 
 
EN 117   EN priority in VET. Excellence and increase in quali ty in VET are sought  by EU countries 
through a diversity of mechanisms such as qua lity assurance (QA), quality assessment, greater 
investment in VET im proving teacher training145, and participation in international skills 
competitions.  
Assuring quality in VET is a pr iority for most EU countries146. The establishment of a 
European network for quality assurance in VET (ENQA-VET)  with national quality 
assurance reference points in many countries  and the growing attention to teachers and 
trainers tie in with this increasing focus on quality  issues, which are crucial if VET is to be an 
attractive option for young people and adults . Drawing on the principles underlying the 
Common Quality Assurance Framework for V ET (CQAF) that had been endorsed by the 
Education Council in May 2004147, the adoption in 2009 of a recommendation of the 
European Parliament and the Council on the esta blishment of a Europe an quality assurance 
reference framework in vocationa l education and training (EQARF)148makes an important 
contribution to the development of the quality assurance in VET at European, national, regional and local level. Increasing decentral ization of VET intensifies the need for QA 
systems. 
The 2008 Joint report highlighted that some count ries (AT, DE, DK, FI, IE, SE, NO) already 
had established comprehensive quality assuranc e systems while others (BG, CZ, ES, FR, LU, 
MT, SI) were still in the development phase , but judged overall pr ogress in this area 
satisfactory. In their 2009 reports countries descri bed a variety of measures that are in place to 
enhance quality applicable either at V ET system and/or VET provider levels: 
• governmental external QA bodies (DK, NL, NO , PL, SE, UK); thus in Denmark all VET 
schools establish a concrete action plan for im proving the completion rates in the different 
courses. The plan is evaluated by the Ministry of Education;  
• external quality assessments of VET systems (BE fr, CY) and VET graduates (EE, PL) 
• institutional self-assessments (A T, EE, ES, IT, LT, SE); thus in Austria the QIBB (Quality 
Initiative in VET) – which includes a ‘comm on frame of reference for QA in VET’- aims 
to ensure the quality of vocational schools a nd their continuing deve lopment; regardless its 
voluntary nature, 75% of schools make use of the framework; and 
• voluntary links of its VET institutions with foreign examining bodies (MT).  
• introduction of performance based awards at  VET providers level (AT has established a 
‘quality bonus’ for companies conditional on good performance of  their apprenticeships in 
their training; HU introduced in Quality Prizes  for VET institutions with highest placement 
rate of graduates on the labour market).  
                                                                                                                                                        
 
144 COM (2006) 614 final.  
145 CEDEFOP (2009)1 op. cit. 
146 CEDEFOP (2009)1 op. cit. 
147 9599/04 EDUC 117 SOC 252 du 18 Mai 2004  
148 Recommendation of the EP and the Council on the establishmen t of a European Quality Assu rance Reference Framework for 
vocational education and training 2008/0069 (COD) LEX 1033 18 June 2009 
 
EN 118   EN Several reports mentioned participation in international skills competitions  such as 
EuroSkills (AT, DK, EE, HU, LT, LV, NL, SK ) and WorldSkills (E S, EE, HU, NL) as 
initiatives that help to  increase the attrac tiveness of VET. These count ries also reported using 
such competitions to benchmark the quality of  their VET provision against that of other 
countries. 
Changes in the training of teachers and trainers  have significant imp acts on the quality of 
VET provision.  The report from the Peer Learning Ac tivities on the professionalization of 
teachers and trainers in VET provides a compre hensive overview of initiatives in the field149. 
The national reports underlined followi ng developments at  national level: 
– the upgrading of their entry qualifications or  their continuous pr ofessional development 
(DK, MT, NO) Denmark, Malta and Norway re ported efforts to upgrade the qualifications 
and the competences of staff; 
– the improvement of teaching quality through the adoption of new educational standards 
and teacher training (AT); 
– enhancement of the possibilities for the pr ofessional development of VET teachers in 
relevant companies (HR). 
Regarding investments in VET , 12 countries (BE fr, BE nl , BG, EE, EL, ES, IT, LT, LV, 
HU, MT, SE) reported to have devoted target ed investments to establish well-equipped 
training centres. This enhances the attractivenes s of VET as trainees can operate with up to 
date equipment, acquiring skills of dir ect relevance in the labour market.  
Countries also reported on the use of financia l support and incentives to  individuals (BL fr, 
BL nl, CY, EE, HU, LV, PL): 
– guaranteeing the right to education for all a nd free training for job seekers and workers 
(BE fr, where job seekers also receive traini ng insurance, reimbursement of travel and 
child care and nursery school, am ongst other support measures); 
– ad-hoc free provision available in some sect ors or for some target groups (EE reported 
increased participation in in-service traini ng following investment in the provision of a 
range of new free VET courses; CY as part of  the actions taken to deal with the current 
economic crisis, has increased funding to te mporarily give unemployed people over 25 
more greater educationally related financ ial support during 2009 and 2010, subsidising up 
to 80% of the course costs); 
– provision of scholarships in area s with skills shortages in BE nl and HU, students enrolled 
in courses where demand for labour exceeded supply, receive a monthly allowance; and 
– provision of scholarships based on good perf ormance (LV is suppor ting talented young 
people providing scholarships  to support students who achie ve good academic results in 
VET institutions that implement accredited en gineering and technology, architecture and 
construction VET programmes). 
                                                 
149 European Commission (2009) Summary repor t from the Peer Learning Activity on the pr ofessionalization of teachers and trainers 
in vocational education and training, http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningClusters/ClusterDetails.cfm?id=11   
 
EN 119   EN Quality and investment in VET are essential to  make VET attractive. Countries are employing 
structural measures to improve quality combined  with changes in quality assurance practices, 
teacher training, greater investme nt in infrastructure and indi vidual support to VET students 
and increasing the profile of VET thr ough international ski lls competitions.  
3.2 Relevance to labour market needs 
The Bordeaux Communiqué and the Council Resolution on New Skills for New Jobs 
underline the importance of incr easing the relevance of educa tion and training provision for 
meeting labour market needs. Curricular reform, increasing partnerships between VET providers and employers and enhancing th e role of work-based learning including 
apprenticeships are the main strategies coun tries reported in order to enhance the labour 
market relevance of VET. These measures comp lement other initiative s already reviewed in 
this report, such as guidance and validatio n of non-formal and informal learning. An 
important aspect to note given recent political em phasis in this area is that skills forecasting 
has an important role in informing the dive rse changes outlined below to make VET more 
relevant to labour market needs. As analys ed in the Commission Staff Working Document 
accompanying the Communication on New Skills for New Jobs
150, most Member States are 
already using or developing tools for skills forecasting . However, these initiatives vary 
significantly in scope and methodology and need to  be brought together into an orchestrated 
effort in order to strengthen the EU capacity for anticipation and for ecasting of skills needs. 
Few countries (BG, CY, CZ, EE, FR, HU, IE , IT, LT, PL, RO, SE) reported to have 
established new mechanism or having already es tablished mechanisms to meet this end, 
through: 
– the work of regional development and traini ng committees or observa tories (CZ, HU, FR, 
IT, PL, RO); in Italy a decree has establishe d that each regional administration should draw 
up local plans to be reviewed every thre e years with the objective of adapting VET 
provision to the needs of  the productive sector; 
– employer surveys (BG, CY); as such Bulgaria  undertook a national representative survey 
of the needs of employer in re lation to their workforce and pr epared medium term forecasts 
for the demand of labour for the period 2008-2010; 
– sectoral observatories (FR); each sector should establish an observatory with the main 
objective to enable formulation of sectoral  education and training policies based on 
qualitative and quantitativ e anticipation mechanisms; 
– the use of administrative data on changes in employment structures  (EE, LT) and career 
tracking systems (HU). 
3.2.1 Qualification/ curricular reform  
The 2008 Joint report151 mentioned curricular reform as a fundamental tool to improve the 
labour market relevance of VET,  together with the move towa rds learning outcomes (covered 
                                                 
150 European Commission (2008) Commission Staff Working Document accompanying th e Communication on New Skills for New 
Jobs. http://ec.europa.eu/education /lifelong-learning-polic y/doc/com868_en.pdf 
151 2008 Joint Council/ Commission Report on the implementation of the Education & Training 2010 work programme: ‘Delivering 
lifelong learning for knowledge, creativity and innovation’. 
 
EN 120   EN in the chapter on transversal lifelong learning issues). Engagement of employers  is often 
accompanied by greater degree of decentralisation to enable VET institutions to meet local 
labour market needs. Thus, the main trends in  the country reports in  relation to curricular 
reform are:   
– updating the qualification standard s and/or curricula (BG, BE nl, CZ, DE, DK, EL, EE, IS, 
IT, LT, LU, MT, NL, NO, PL, PT, RO, SE, SK, UK) . This has been with the aims of better 
matching with labour market needs, (stre ngthening the emphasis on competences), and 
extending the vocational offer. 
– increasing the role of the productive sect or in the redefinition/ evaluation of 
standards/curricula in VET (B G, BE nl, CZ, DE, EE, EI, IS , IT, LT, MT, NL, PL, PT, RO, 
SK, UK). In the Czech Republic and Slovakia,  according to national guidelines for VET 
curricula, schools are designing part of their own VET progr ammes in line with regional 
labour market needs. In Icel and, new legislation gives V ET lower secondary schools the 
opportunity to introduce VET courses in coopera tion with upper second ary schools or with 
local firms for students 14-16 years old; and 
– examples of a more active role of the Stat e in the development of new VET provision. In 
Denmark the Ministry of Education is in itiating new education programmes covering 
occupations or trades not covered by the programmes initiated by the trade boards. 
Box 3-4 – Romania - Social partner involvement  
In Romania,  the relevant social partners are involv ed in both developing and validating the 
professional qualifications offere d by the VET system and in the strategic planning of the 
education and training offer. At sectoral, regional, local levels  there are consultative bodies 
such as: sectoral committees, regional consortiums, local committees for the development of 
the social partnership, the administration coun cils of the schools. The VET curricula are 
developed with the consultation of all the abov e mentioned structures and after investigating 
the needs of training on the labour ma rket at regional and local levels.  
3.2.2 Partnerships with employers 
The 2002 Council Resolution on  lifelong learning and mo st recently the Bordeaux 
Communiqué invited Member St ates to promote partnershi ps and cooperation between 
education and training establishments and the social partners to increase the relevance of VET
152. A range of European countries, particular ly those with established apprenticeship 
systems, (AT, DK, DE, FI, FR, IE, LU, NL, NO ) have a longstanding tradition of cooperation 
with enterprises. Countri es with less established partnershi ps with employers were those that 
more frequently reported new partnership initiati ves, as described below. Almost two thirds of 
the reports mentioned increased partnerships wi th employers (AT, BG, BE fr, BE nl, CZ, DE, 
EE, EL, FR, HR, HU, IS, IT, LT, LU, LV, MT, NL, PL, PT, RO, UK), often geared towards 
curricular discussion (see above).  National reports also  included other strategies to stimulate 
partnership work: 
– establishing new structures for dialogue between employers, public authorities and 
educational institutions (AT,  BG, BE fr, BE nl, DE, EE, HR, HU, LU, LV, PT, RO, UK); 
                                                 
152 Council Resolution of 27 June 2002 on lifel ong learning. 2002/C 163/01. OJ, 9.7.2002. 
 
EN 121   EN – the creation (CZ) or consolidati on (UK) of sector skills coun cils to represent employers on 
training issues; in the UK sector skills counc ils are run and owned by employers but draw 
on the expertise of trade unions, professiona l bodies and other stak eholders to build 
intelligence on skills needs and influence pl anning and funding of VET across the UK; 
– expanding social partner functions on VET i ssues (EE, HU, IS, LT, PL, PT, UK) in a 
particular area such as the planning of the tr aining offer or, more deeply, in the governance 
of the VET system; 
– providing new financial incentives for employe rs who collaborate in the provision of 
training (BE fr) or ensuring new agreements for placements for young people (AT); 
– developing cooperation with Chambe rs of Crafts and Trades in order to involve small and 
medium sized crafts businesses in apprenticeships (HR); 
– engaging employers more actively in the trai ning of VET teachers (BE nl, BG, CZ);  
– making employer co-financing a requirement fo r schools to take part in some of the 
national programmes that provide funds for VET (BG); 
– creation of a label “lycee des metiers” (FR) which recognises partnership between VET 
providers, local authorities and em ployers as well as a use of a quality charter. The goal is 
to have 800 VET schools within the scheme by 2010. 
Box 3-5 – Estonia - Partnership in  the planning of VET offer  
In Estonia  one of the objectives of the national “Development Plan Vocational Education for 
2005–2008” was to further develop cooperation w ith social partners (employers’ and 
employees’ umbrella organisations and profe ssional associations). Significant progress has 
been made since in ensuring that the content and organisation of vocational education better 
conforms to the needs of the labour market. Thus the planning of state-commi ssioned training 
places (SCTP) for vocational edu cational institutions has been aligned with developments in 
the economy and employment trends (Labour Market Board).  
On the whole this is an area in which progress has been achieved over th e last decade in most 
EU countries as illustrated by the many differe nt ways of involving employers in curricula, 
recruitment, financing etc.153 
3.2.3 Apprenticeships and work based training 
The Bordeaux Communiqué  invited Member States to prom ote learning at the workplace154. 
Many countries see apprenticeships and work base d training as a suitable way to ensure that 
VET is relevant to labour market needs, re duce the drop-out rates of  students at risk and 
increase educational achievement in EU count ries. National reports show developments 
                                                 
153 See also: ECOTEC (2008) Beyond the Maastricht Communiqué: developments in the opening up of 
VET pathways and the role of VET in labour market integrations. Final report to the European 
Commission. 
154 Council Resolution on lifelong learning, op. cit. 
 
EN 122   EN occurring in apprentices hips and work based learning over a third of the countries (AT, CY, 
CZ, DE, FR, IE, IT, LT, LV, NO, PT, SE, UK): 
– Cyprus and Sweden (where apprentices will  become eligible for access to HE and a 
national apprenticeship committee has been crea ted) are particularly significant cases as 
these countries reported pilots in relation to the establishment of new apprenticeship programmes; 
– expansion number and types of apprenticeship pl aces available in the public and/ or private 
sector (UK, NO); thus Norway is studying how  to increase the numbe r of apprenticeships 
and considering the introduction of an en titlement to an apprenticeship contract; 
– expansion of the opportunities and guidance to combine school and work situations 
through stages/ internships (BE nl, BG, LU, NL) and en terprise tutoring (IT); 
– subsidies are being provided to firms whos e apprentices upon good performance (AT) or 
for the training of workers in workplace settings (BE fr, UK);  
– allowing lower-secondary students to test  work-based upper-secondary programmes, 
should they choose to continue their educa tion with a VET programme after finishing 
lower-secondary education (IS, NO); and 
– waiving of the initial compone nts of apprenticeships has become possible upon evidence of 
satisfactory professional experience,  to attract more people (AT). 
Box 3-6 – Italy - School-work alternance 
In Italy the Ministry of Education has expanded school-work alternance possibilities through 
a new methodological system for un dertaking training at secondary  school level, including the 
use of simulation centres (one or more schools in each region) and virt ual companies linked to 
a tutoring enterprise . The method is based on altern ating school and working periods, 
systematically linking classroom training with pr actical experience so that students have the 
opportunity to understand processes and tech niques employed in leading companies.  
Box 3-7 – Belgium nl - Cert ified Workplace Learning 
In Belgium nl,  to stimulate innovation w ithout imposing rapid change s in the education policy 
rules for the entire education sector, the policy chooses to support the so  called “proeftuinen” 
(experimental pilot projects). Th ese are temporary projects orga nized by (groups of) schools 
on the following topics: to develo p certified workplace learning in  a systematic and structural 
way; to optimize and expand internship for tr ainees, teachers and trainers. Some of the 
projects can be used for the design of evaluatio n tools that assess skills acquired within the 
classroom, during internships or periods of workplace learning. 
Several countries are considering or taking ac tion to create or increase their apprenticeship 
offer. Few countries made speci fic reference to the stimulation of quality apprenticeships, 
retention of apprentices and wo rk based training in SMEs – a group of employers that find it 
 
EN 123   EN more difficult than large employers to invest in and retain the apprentices they take on155. For 
reaping the full advantages of such kinds of training it would be advisable to pay further 
attention to those mechanisms aimed at promo ting quality apprenticeshi ps especially in the 
SME sector. More broadly, apprenticeship o ffer is sensitive to the economic climate156, and 
may need to be stimulated more strongly in the current economic conditions. 
3.3 Conclusions on attractiveness of VET and link to labour market needs 
The chapter presents the different approaches take n at national level to address key priorities 
of the Copenhagen process, namely the attrac tiveness and labour market relevance of the 
diverse and complex VET systems which exist throughout Europe.  
To promote the attractiveness of VET, the main  tools mentioned in th e national reports are 
modularisation, pathways to higher edu cation (HE), and excellence and quality. 
Modularisation is seen by countries to be an important way of making VET provision more 
flexible and responsive to the sp ecific needs of learners and bu sinesses. Better access to HE is 
also reported by a number of count ries as a way of increasing at tractiveness to good trainees 
and students (e.g. through new or improved pa thways). However, the improvement of access 
through the validation of non-formal and informal  learning may remain a challenge in most 
countries. And it is not yet clear to what extent  the initiatives or tool s mentioned have been 
used by institutions and trainees  and, therefore, to what exte nt they have had an impact. 
On the issue of quality assurance, national repor ts mention a number of tools being used for 
the implementation of quality assurance system s with focus on the prof essionalization of VET 
teachers and trainers. Investment  in up-to-date equipment, targeted financial incentives for 
individuals and the participation of countries in  international skills competitions were also 
cited as means to increase the exce llence and attractiveness of VET. 
Clear developments have been reported by a range of countries to enhance the relevance of 
their VET provision to labour market needs. Part nerships with social partners have a long 
tradition in those countries with established apprenticeship or dual systems, but such 
structures are now also becoming mo re frequent in the countries w ithout that tradition. This is 
particularly the case for the financing and pl anning of VET provision in accordance with 
employers' needs. The continuing decentralisat ion of VET has allowed providers to use 
curricular reform to adapt the VET provision to local labour ma rket needs. There is some 
evidence that employers are being involved more systematically in the update and redefinition of curricula and qualification st andards. Apprenticeships and work-based training schemes are 
seen as an efficient tool to ensure labour market relevance a nd, therefore, new apprenticeship 
schemes are increasingly being established in the countries with no work-based training 
tradition. The continuation of these steps to make  the systems and practice more relevant will 
be crucial if VET provision is to  respond effectively to  the challenges of evolving skills needs 
as set out in the New Skills for New Jobs initiative. 
                                                
 
155 Culpepper, P. (2007) ‘Small States and skills sp ecificity: Austria, Switzerland and inter-employer 
cleavages in skills specificity’ Comparative Political Studies, vol.40 (6), pp. 611-637. 
156 Steedman, H. (2005) ‘Apprenticeships in Europe: Fading or Flourishing?’ CEP Discussion paper 710. 
London School of Economics. 
 
EN 124   EN 4 HIGHER EDUCATION  
Modernisation of Europe’s higher education in stitutions, involving their interlinked roles of 
education, research and innovation, has been acknowledged not only as a core condition for 
the success of the broader Lisbon Strategy for growth and jobs, but as part of the wider move 
towards an increasingly global and knowledge-based economy.  
The Commission Communication on ‘Delivering th e Modernisation Agenda  for universities: 
education, research and innovation’157 sets out three broad areas for reform: 
i) Curricula  appropriate to the needs of society a nd the economy, including a increased focus 
upon competence based learning, more flexible  learning paths, be tter recognition, and 
improved opportunities for mobility. 
ii) Governance : enhanced university au tonomy, strategic partne rships, including with 
enterprises, and improved quality assurance 
iii) Funding diversified sources of university income better linked to performance, promoting 
equity, access and efficiency, including the possibl e role of tuition fees supported by grants 
and loans. 
Furthermore, the Council Resolution of  November 2007 on modernising universities158 made 
explicit 
The need for universities to have sufficient autonomy, better governan ce and accountability in 
their structures to face new societal needs and to enable them to increase and diversify their 
sources of public and private funding in or der to reduce the funding gap with the European 
Union's main competitors;  
and emphasised 
The importance of increasing lifelong learni ng opportunities, widening higher education 
access to non-traditional and adult learners and developing the lifelong learning dimension 
of universities;  
This chapter examines the evidence from countri es set out in their national reports on progress 
made in :  
i) plans and measures to diversify the income st reams of Higher Education Institutions; and  
ii) plans and incentives to encourage Higher Education Institutions to open up to lifelong 
learners. 
                                                 
157 COM(2006) 208 final   
158 Report from the Commission to the Council on the Council Resolution of 23 November 2007 on 
Modernising Universities for Europe's competitiveness in a global knowledge economy, COM(2008) 680 
final  
 
EN 125   EN 4.1 Income Streams in Higher Education 
Total investment in higher education was a bout 1.3% of GDP in 2006. Public investment 
accounts for approximately 87% of the total amount spent on tertiary educ ation institutions in 
Europe; and of this amount the vast majority is in the form of direct public spending159 
Clearly, whilst public support remains the primar y source of Higher Ed ucation (HE) funding, 
a trend can be observed both in an increase in  private funding and expansion of competitive 
funding from both public and private sources, as c ountries pursue strategies aimed to diversify 
the funding base of their hi gher education institutions.160  
Three main sources of diversified funding sour ces are prevalent: Tuition Fees; Research and 
Service Contracts (secured through competitive pr ogrammes or privately contracted research 
and related services from industry); and Fund  raising (such as suppo rt from foundations, 
trusts, charities, individu als and corporate donors).  
In their national reports, count ries highlight tuition fees as the main form of diversified 
resources  (BE-nl, EE, EL, LV, LT, NO, MT, SK, SL, UK) . The levels of such fees, the cycles 
and programmes, and the student profiles, to which they appl y varies significantly between 
countries. It should be noted, that many c ountries, including those that do not have 
(widespread) tuition fees, do implement regi stration, examination a nd administration fees, 
which in some cases may be substantial. 
A small number of countries describe an additiona l need to attract a di verse supply of public 
funding streams (DE, ES, HU, IT , SL, UK) and most have recen tly undergone or are in the 
process of introducing legisla tion, which grants universities increased financial autonomy. 
In addition to the sources of diversified fundi ng, countries include information on approaches 
to the allocation of publi c funds, such as an increased use of performance contracts, and the 
use of matched funding to make  public funds ‘go further’. 
Several countries cite the importance of stri king a balance between core funding – and the 
stability which this can provide, with compe titively-based funding to encourage HE providers 
to be proactive in diversification, both in their income streams and in their missions and 
profiles/target groups (BE-nl, CY, EE, ES, PL ). Increasingly, multi-annual (usually 3 or 4 
years) funding agreements are in place w ith annual reviews, in particular for 
variable/performance-related funding allocations. 
4.1.1. The changing levels of public fundi ng in response to economic downturn 
In the context of the economic and financia l crisis, the EU’s Economic Recovery Plan161 
stresses that Member States should maintain in vestment in education: crucial both to short-
term recovery and as a driver of longer-term prosperity.  
                                                 
159 Bearing directly the current and capital expenses of  educational institutions, contrasted with indirect 
expenditure in the form of transfers to private households (scholarships and loans) and firms (public 
subsidies for educational activities) 
160 The 2009 annual report of the Commission on progress towards the Lisbon objectives in education and 
training gives a detailed presentation and analysis of HE investment 
161 COM (2008) 800 final  
 
EN 126   EN Broadly, national reports provide little information on the impact of the crisis on tertiary 
spending, although some do specifi cally highlight that they ar e making available increased 
resources for HE in order to t ackle economic challenges (DK, ES, HR). Others (EE, IE, IT, 
IS, UK) highlight the allocation of  resources for initiatives target ed specifically at people who 
lose their jobs or w ho are under threat of re dundancy as a result of the economic downturn.  
Box 4-1 – UK (England) - Economic Challenge Investment Fund 
The Economic Challenge Investment Fund (ECIF)  was announced in Ja nuary 2009 to enable 
higher education to respond rapi dly to the needs of employers  and individuals during the 
economic downturn. The fund consists of £2 5 million provided by the Higher Education 
Funding Council for England (HEFCE) with ma tched funding from institutions and will 
enable universities and colleges to provide tail ored training, developm ent and professional 
support to vulnerable groups facing the risk of redundancy.  
Box 4-2 – Ireland - response to economic downturn 
In April 2009, the Irish Minister for Educat ion and Science announced that over 5,400 
additional places were being made availabl e for unemployed people on higher education 
courses.  
In June, 2009, the Minister announced that a further 1,000 additional post-graduate places 
would be made available to assist unemp loyed graduates in undertaking part-time 
postgraduate diplomas or conversion progra mmes. The scope to further develop these 
initiatives and to identify other appropriate re sponses which higher educ ation institutions can 
make to support the upskilling of unempl oyed people is being examined by a Higher 
Education Labour Market Response Group.  
Whilst most countries provide no information on pl ans for overall levels of public expenditure 
on HE, it is clear that in some countries fundi ng decreases have already been implemented or 
are foreseen (EE, HU, IT, LT, PL), and others  have scaled back pl ans to increase funding 
(AT) or have implemented caps on existing spending levels (UK).  
Germany is an example of increased i nvestment in education and research. 
Box 4-3 – Germany – Additional investment in HE 
In Germany an additional 18 billion Euro inve stment in education and research by 2019 has 
been announced in June 2009. As part of th is, the federal government and the Länder will 
each invest 3,7 billion Euro until 20 15 for 275 000 additional study places.  
4.1.2. Public funds: Financial Autonomy of Higher Education Institutions 
The Council Resolution on modernising universiti es for Europe's competitiveness in a global 
knowledge economy162 invited Member States to pr ovide HE institutions with the autonomy 
to develop their full potential  and take the necessary measures to  modernise higher education 
institutions by granting them aut onomy and greater accountability.   
                                                 
162 http://register.cons ilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/ 07/st16/st16096-re01.en07.pdf   
 
EN 127   EN The Commission had further stresse d that universities should be funded more for what they do 
than what they are, focusing resources on rele vant outputs rather than on inputs and by 
adapting funding to the diversity  of institutional profiles  and that Higher Education 
Institutions should take greater responsibility fo r their own long-term financial 
sustainability .163 
A lack of autonomy can be a ma jor inhibitor in the identifica tion and achievement of the mix 
of funding which will support a mode rnised Higher Education system164 and there is clear and 
positive correlation between increased autonomy and HEI performance. 
In their country reports, many countries provide  information on recent le gislative changes or 
future plans to increase the financial autonomy of individual institutions  (EE, EL, FI, FR, HR, 
IE, IT, LU, LV, NO, PT, SK, UK). Most now en able institutions to attract funds from a 
variety of sources and empower HEIs to take a more strategic role in managing the public 
funds conferred to them and in seeking ne w funding, eg. through the management of their 
own estates, the commercialisation of resear ch/IPR and other for profit activity such as 
services to business (BE-nl, CY, EE, EL FI, HU,  IE, IS, LT, MT, NO, PT, SL, NL, SE, SK). 
Box 4-4 – Finland - New Universities Act and financial autonomy of HEIs 
The Finland Universities Act 2009 allows for universities to become independent 
corporations under public law or foundations unde r private law. This has put them outside of 
the government budgeting system, but still allows institutions to receive an annual budget 
from national funds, which will be maintained at the current level, to execute the tasks 
assigned to them. The intention is to increas e the financial autonomy of institutions and 
diversify the funding base. Universities can ac quire external funding, direct investments for 
strategic areas of important research, and may acquire shares and othe r property, and pursue 
in business ventures.  
Whilst many countries outline legislative and ot her changes in their country reports to 
increase the financial autonomy and accountabili ty of Higher Education Institutions (HEI), 
few provide detail on how institu tions are being equippe d to take strategic financing decisions 
and the incentives put in place for them to do so. For example, through increased use of full 
(actual) costing and the ability  to cross-subsidise provision.  
4.1.3. Public funds: The use of perform ance contracts to allocate funding 
Performance indicators have a growing influenc e in the allocation of public funds; however, 
country reports demonstrate limited examples of  their use. The most widespread indicators 
are those linked to stude nt attainment and improved quality of provision (AT, BE nl, BE fr, 
CZ, DE, DK, ES, HU, PT), and widening the pa rticipation amongst non-traditional learners 
(BE nl, HR). 
                                                 
163 COM (2006) 208  
164 Report on the Council Resolution on M odernising Universities, op. dict.  
 
EN 128   EN Box 4-5 – Belgium nl – Student achievement 
In teaching, in Flanders, performance agreements  cover an incentive for the institutions to 
support student achievement and progression and to improve academic success (in terms of 
completing credits and gaining a qualification) , especially the achie vement and success of 
students from more vulnerable backgrounds (low cultural capital ). The targets include an 
increase of participation of students from  lower socio-economic backgrounds, of students 
from ethnic minorities, of students with a disab ility but also an increase in the number of 
graduates from those target gr oups. Attracting second chance stud ents could also be one of 
the actions funded under those agreements.  
4.1.4. Public funds: Matched funding, top- up funds, and tax relief mechanisms for 
diversification 
The 2007 Council Resolution issued a particular invitation to Member States to make use of 
the Structural Funds  to help modernise Higher Educat ion. Several countries report on how 
they are using structural funds and nationa l co-financing (match ed funding) to support 
infrastructure and staffing costs to participat e in wider activities (CY, EL, PL, SK, SI).  
The mechanism of matched funding is also used to encourage institutions  to generate funding 
through voluntary donations  and to seek investment from private organisations (NO, UK).  
Box 4-6 Norway - Donation Reinforcement initiative 
In Norway, higher education institutions can  benefit from the Donation Reinforcement 
Initiative, which was adopted by the Norw egian Parliament in June 2005 and became 
effective in the 2006 budget.  
Under the initiative, for donations of at l east 3 million NOK, the government will match 
donations with an extra 25%. The Research C ouncil of Norway manages and allocates the 
matching of funds. To qualify, donations must be for long-term basic research, and cannot 
fund efforts directly benefiting a donor’s bus iness. Donations from business and private 
individuals were eligible fr om 2006, and donations from char ities were eligible from 2007. 
Institutions eligible for donations  and reinforcements are univer sities, university colleges that 
award doctorates, the Norwegian Academy of Sc ience and Letters, and the Research Council 
of Norway.  
Investments and donations from the privat e sector are also encouraged through tax relief 
mechanisms . Evidence from the European Comm ission (Eurydice) highlights that 
approximately half of countries have recen tly implemented or will soon implement tax 
incentives related to partnerships be tween HEIs and the private sector.165 
Several of the country reports  show how Governments are encouraging HEIs to seek 
investments and donations  that will be eligible for tax re lief (AT, CY, EL, FI, LU, NO, PL, 
PT, SE, SI). Policy incentives include tax re lief for donations, for both institutions, and 
donors (PL, SE), for capital investment ( EL), or and with respect to gifts or 
endowments/legacies (SI).  
                                                 
165 Higher education governance in Europe, policies, st ructures, funding and academic staff (Eurydice) 2008  
 
EN 129   EN Competitive processes  for the allocation of national f unds available for research are 
increasingly a feature in most countries. In  addition, recent years have seen a growing 
awareness of, and emphasis upon, attracting funds from international sources, such as EU 
research framework programmes (AT, BE fr , BE nl, CY, DK, ES, FR HU, MT, NO, PT, SI, 
UK). 
4.1.5. Private funds: The changing use of tuition fees  
The Commission Communication on efficiency and equity166 called upon Member States to 
create appropriate conditions and incentives to generate higher invest ment from public and 
private sources, including, where appropriate, through tuition fees combined with 
accompanying financial measures for the disadvantaged.  
Country reports demonstrate variation between countries that permit public HEIs to levy 
tuition fees (AT, BE, DE depending on Lander, EE, ES, FI, HU, IS, IT, LV, LT, MT, NL, NO, PT, SK, SI, UK) and those that do not permit the charging of tuition fees (CY, DK, IE, 
NO). For private universities, tuition fees are the main source of income; however, in some 
countries private universities are eligible fo r some degree of state funding and this is 
mentioned specifically by IS and NO. There is also  variation in trends regarding the levels of 
tuition fees: while some countries  are considering the introduction or increas e of tuition fees 
(CZ, DE to introduce tuition fees in additional Lander, EL, SE, MT), others are removing or 
reducing them (AT, BE nl, NL). In addition,  there are other charges to students which 
constitute private income to HEIs, for exampl e, through service charge s (IE) or registration 
and examination fees, (FR, IS, SI), which in so me cases may exceed the tuition fee levels in 
countries where tuition charges are modest. 
Differences also exist with regard to the stude nts to whom tuition fees  apply: for example, 
only to postgraduate students (CY, EL, MT, SI) or part-time students (IE, MT, SI).  
HU is perhaps unusual in seeing a reduction in revenues from tuition fees as a result of a fall 
in the number of self-financing students, brought about by demographic change and a 
proportional increase in the numbers of stude nts choosing VET (with state-funded places). 
Attracting students from outside the EU/EEA is increasingly an important source of private 
funding for HEIs in several countries and is highlighted specifically by FI, MT, SE, and SK. 
4.1.6. Investments from industry/private sector 
Incentives for partnerships and investments in  research are more common than partnerships in 
education. These include business incubators or joint business ventures, joint research 
initiatives or investments, or funding for res earch and development services (BE fr, BE nl, 
CY, CZ, El, FI, HU, IS, NO, PT, SK, SI, LT).  
In particular,  commercialisation of research is an incr easing source of private revenue, and is 
highlighted specifically in seve ral country reports (BE fr, EL, HU, IS, LT, LU, MT, NO, SK, 
SI), with some countries settin g up institutional architecture to  facilitate such co-operation for 
example through Technology Transfer Liaison Of fices (EL), and the Poles de Competitivité 
(BE fr).  
                                                
 
166 COM(2006) 481 final 
 
EN 130   EN Box 4-7 – Greece - identifying synerg ies between research and industry 
In Greece the HELP-FORWARD Network (PRAX I) serves as a relay centre mediating 
between research and industry and facilitating identification of economic synergies. The 
Network operates as a distinct entity, under the auspices of the Hellenic federation of 
enterprises (SEV), the Federation of Industr ies of Northern Greece (FING), and the 
Foundation for Research and Technology – He llas (FFORTH). The Network collaborates 
with most regional chambers and associations  of Commerce and Industry, as well as with 
regional government offices, assu ring a balanced and cost-effec tive coverage of the entire 
country. Special emphasis is placed on the ha rd-to-reach and often disadvantaged regions. 
The HELP-FORWARD network maintains close li nks with most Universities and Research 
Centres, as well as Technology Parks, Sectoral RTD compan ies, and venture capital and 
development banks, additional to the regional administrations.  
4.2. Opening up to lifelong learners 
Increasing lifelong learning oppo rtunities in Higher Education focuses especially on 
widening access for non-traditional learners  (inc. students from deprived socioeconomic 
backgrounds, people with disabilities  and older learners) as well as promoting continuing 
education and professional development  for adults in employment.  
The majority of countries address both dimens ions in their national reports. However, in 
general, there is a greater focus on wide ning access for people from disadvantaged 
backgrounds, which is cited by almost  all countries as a priority. 
4.2.1. Policies and strategies for promotin g inclusion of non-tr aditional learners 
Overarching policies and strategies for lifelong learning are emerging or already embedded in 
a number of European countries (see chapte r 2). Several countries specify the social 
dimension to widening access to higher education in their policies and strategies including 
targets to increase part icipation of students from lower so cioeconomic groups, and to broaden 
overall access to higher education (AT, BE nl, CZ, DK, FI, IE, IT, LT, PT). Some countries 
highlight specific financial incentives for widening participation  amongst non-traditional 
learners (AT, BE nl, CY, CZ, DE, DK, EE, FI, NO, PL).  
Fewer countries address the work force in their policies and stra tegies (BE nl, EL, FI, IS, IT, 
LT, NL, NO), and where mentioned by countries in their reports, this  primarily concerns 
general continuing education and training rather than up-s killing (for new careers for 
example). However, in direct response to th e current economic situa tion, four countries (IE, 
IS, IT, UK) have put in place specific responses  to try to (re)engage the recently unemployed 
or those under threat of redundancy with HE learning opportunities (s ee also section 4.2.1).  
4.2.2. The recognition of prior learning (formal, non-formal and informal) 
Recognition of prior learning (RPL) (see also chapter 3.2.2) can be key in opening access to 
higher education for those who have not followed ‘traditional’ academic routes or those who would wish to return to studies later in life. A central component  of lifelong learning 
strategies, RPL allows for formal consider ation of achievements gained ‘outside the 
classroom’ and for the translation of previous qualifications to enable learners to progress to higher levels. Several countries highlight how RPL strategies are supporting access to higher 
 
EN 131   EN education for those without the formal academ ic entry requirements, including for mature 
students with workplace or professional experi ence (BE nl, CZ, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, IE, IT, 
LT, LU, LV, PT, SK, SI).  
France has one of the most de veloped systems of recognition of prior learning in the VAE 
(Validation des Acquis de l’E xpérience) under which HE degrees  have actually been awarded.  
Box 4-8 – France – A long tradition of recognition of prior learning 
The French system for the recognition of prior learning VAE is increasingly successful also in 
the area of higher education. The number of valida tions that have been successfully delivered 
in higher education has increased from 3705 in 2006 to 4200 in 2007. The fact that more than 
half of these (2154) concerned the award of full higher educati on degrees is a sign of greater 
acceptance by the higher education institutions of the principle of validating professional and 
personal experience, and of an  improved quality of the validation procedures themselves. 
Substantial increases in successful VAE procedur es in some HEI are also a result of local 
partnerships concluded with both the regions and business. More recently, there has been an 
upsurge in applications from those sectors most affected by the economic downturn (banking, 
insurance and the housing sector)  
Recognition of prior learning is in the main, ca rried out at the institutional level, sometimes 
supported by national guidelines (DE, DK, EE, FR, NO, IT, LT) and also through quotas for 
students who do not meet traditional recr uitment criteria for HE (DK, NO).  
The ultimate success of the recognition and accre ditation of prior learning, may well depend 
upon the willingness of institutions to cooperate  on mutual systems of cross-recognition, and 
the inclusion of their practices within quality assurance procedures. Th is cross recognition is 
seen less frequently but is highlighted by LT, DK, FI, FR, NL UK. 
4.2.3. A flexible delivery of courses 
The preserve of higher education programmes based around a full-time academic year is 
diminishing. Higher education is waking up to the call of potential students who wish to learn 
at times and in ways that are convenient to  them, and to balance studies with other 
responsibilities. New information and comm unication technologies  are also changing 
radically the way that learning takes place, both inside an d outside the classroom/lecture 
theatre. 
In their national reports, countri es provide numerous examples of modes of flexible course 
delivery (BE nl, CY, DK, FR, LV, MT, PT, RO, SE, SI) including eveni ng or weekend format 
courses, distance learning, online material for self-directed lear ning, and alternative 
assessment methods: 
• Distance learning is one of the most common forms of flexible learning  and the role of 
open universities is specifically highlighted by several countries as important in attracting 
new types of learners (AT, CY , CZ, EE, EL, FI, NL, PL, UK).  
• Off-campus, flexible learning centres and networks  are also cited for their role in 
attracting students who might otherwise be too in timidated to cross the threshold of an HE 
institution (AT, EL, ES, HR, NO, NL, IT).  
 
EN 132   EN • Shorter and modular qualifications  can also facilitate new l earners or ‘returners’ to 
education, with students getting a taste of higher education and progressing as appropriate 
and convenient for them, including as bu ilding blocks towards a full degree.  
In this context, a growing use of shor t cycles and foundation degrees can be noted  (DK, FR, 
PT, SI, UK). For information on permeabil ity between VET and HE see Chapter 3. 
Box 4-9 – UK – Foundation degrees lin ked to work or economic demands 
In the UK, Foundation Degrees provide a mean s to promote lifelong learning in higher 
education. The courses are flexible, work-f ocussed, and demand-led, often provided in 
collaboration with employers or where regi onal demand is clear. F oundation Degrees, courses 
lasting one or two years, are often a stepping stone for studen ts to progress to completing a 
full 1st cycle degree. The more flexible entry re quirements meant that this approach also 
provides for improved access to higher education for non-traditional learners.  
Whilst modular approaches and short-cycle quali fications are by no means new, these are still 
a relatively rare phenomenon in many countries. In  addition to changes in course planning, 
they require much broader change at the inst itutional and national/regi onal levels, to bring 
about a transformation in the mindset of edu cators and to ensure that funding mechanisms 
support flexible delivery, rather than inhibiting it. In their reports, some countries highlight 
initiatives to target teachers  and trainers, providing suppor t and retraining to adapt and 
develop their teaching methods (DK, EE, EL, FR, LT, LV, MT, PL, PT).  
4.2.4. The developing partnerships between institutions and other stakeholders 
The national reports reveal wide commitment to stakeholder engagement in opening up HE 
institutions to non-traditional learners, sometimes as part of  an overall lifelong learning policy 
or strategy. However, there is much less clarit y, on how this is implemented, and particular on 
levels of commitment to engagi ng stakeholders in partnershi ps which is mentioned in a 
selection of country reports (CZ, DK, EL, FI , IE, IS, LV, LT, MT, UK ). One of the more 
common approaches to stakeholder engage ment in lifelong learning lies in the involvement 
of businesses in curriculum development  (EL, LV, LT, MT, NL, PL, PT, UK).167  
Box 4-10 – Malta – myPotential  
The “myPotential” programme is public-private  partnership between th e Maltese Government 
and ICT training providers offered training courses leading to low and high-end ICT 
certificates. The initiative is supported by majo r financial institutions and is aimed at the 
employed, and the unemployed and full-time stude nts. Tax credits are also offered to 
enterprises generating posts for ICT certificate holders.  
There is very little information on HE partners hips with regional and local government, with 
non governmental organisations/vol untary sector or with furt her education providers and 
institutions in the country re ports, although there are some good ex amples of how strategies to 
                                                 
167 Whilst few country reports provide details  on this aspect, further examples can be found in the Commission Communication  of 2 
April 2009"A new partnership for the modernisation of univer sities: the EU Forum for University Business Dialogue", 
COM(2009) 158 final  
 
EN 133   EN connect higher vocational schools with higher e ducation institutions, including the creation of 
common study programmes (BE-nl, CZ).  
4.2.5. Incentives and other support for non-traditional learners in HE  
In order to widen particip ation (both to underrepresen ted groups and for continued 
professional development) support  and incentives to attract and retain new entrants to HE 
should be put in place. Whilst clear evidence of  strategies to attract underrepresented groups 
to higher education can be f ound, examples of how mechanisms  to support and retain these 
students are less developed. 
As highlighted above in the section on the di versification of income, several countries 
stimulate take up of higher education studies by non-traditional learne rs through the use of 
performance-based contracts and target set ting for the recruitment and attainment of 
underrepresented groups. And many make referen ce to the importance of recognition of prior 
learning and the availability of flexible pathwa ys (including permeability with VET). But also 
the following incentives were mentioned: 
• financial incentives  for students, primarily in the form of grants and loans (BE fr, CY, CZ, 
DK, EE, FI, PT, SI, UK), including incentive s targeted to partic ular underrepresented 
groups identified by thei r national/regional strategies, for example, financial support 
specifically targeted to older adults (CZ, EE, MT).  
• specific incentives for employees  was mentioned by a few countries (BE nl, FI, UK), 
although country reports do acknowle dge a need to target this group (CZ, DK, FI, HR, NL, 
SI), and incentives for part-time students seem notably absent.  
• increasing aspiration and tackling cultural barriers  are key to attrac ting and retaining 
lifelong learners, particularly those from non-traditional or disadvantaged groups. 
However, country reports pr ovide little insight into non- financial support mechanisms 
pursued to engage with non- traditional learners, althoug h some countries do make 
reference to the need to include advice, ment oring and help for students to adjust to new 
environments and increase re tention rates (EL, IE).  
Box 4-11 – Cyprus – Means testing for financing non traditional learners 
In Cyprus, the Council of Ministers has appr oved a package of student welfare measures, 
based on socioeconomic criteria.  The package includes measures such as the increase in the 
funding of the Cyprus State Scholarship Founda tion, financial support of public and private 
universities as well as of public schools of  tertiary education for providing cheap 
accommodation to students, the provision of financial support for transportation purposes and 
meals and the subsidies for the purchase of academic textbooks and personal computers.  
4.3. Conclusions on income streams and the opening up of HEIs to lifelong learning 
The evidence provided in the c ountry reports regarding the diversification of funding  
streams demonstrates a great va riety of approaches, in respect  of both public and private 
funds.  
 
EN 134   EN There is a clear move towards increased use of  performance-based contracts in the allocation 
of public funding, both for the distribution of core funding and in awarding competitive funding. 
Several countries also stress the need to provi de sufficient security fo r HEIs when planning 
study volumes, for example through the prepar ation and agreement of multi-annual budgets 
with an approach which favours proactiv ity in strategic priority setting.  
As regards diversification to private funds, tuition fees are th e most established source of 
private revenue; even in those countries w ith no background of tu ition fees. For EU/EEA 
students these are becoming an almost universal  feature for third country nationals and in 
many countries for the second cycle irrespective of student origin. 
Whilst at the national (or regional) level, governments can put in place strategies to encourage 
and support the diversification of income st reams for universities – such as increasing 
autonomy and by removing barriers to co-operati on with industry - ultimately diversification 
will depend to a great extent on the institutions themselves. 
There is a growing realisation of the importance of opening up HEIs to lifelong learners , 
not least faced with demographic realities, wh ich augur a reduction in the traditional cohorts 
of students to HE. Increasingl y, countries are developing and putting in place lifelong 
learning strategies which aim to encourage mo re people to think of higher education as 
relevant to them, to enable higher education institutions to be more inclusive and more 
proactive in their recruitment. 
To date, most efforts have concentrated upon attracting underrepresente d groups into HE, in 
particular those from lower socio-economic b ackgrounds. Strategies to promote the role of 
higher education in continuing professional development, or for personal development 
amongst those already in the labour market, are less developed (this also  applies to schools, 
VET, and general upper secondary education within the broader LLL continuum). With 
respect to both groups, ther e is little evidence of st rategies for retention.  
Whilst the primary actors in f acilitating access of non-traditiona l learners are undoubtedly the 
HEI themselves, countries must be minded of the importance of strategic frameworks to 
support LLL in all its forms, pa rticularly in respect of fundi ng mechanisms, which can be a 
powerful driver (or act as an inhibitor) to LLL; one such example is support for part-time 
studies, where funding barriers both from an in stitutional and a student perspective are often 
cited.  
In many countries national policies and strategies  have yet to fully be integrated into the 
institutional approaches to widening partic ipation. Despite significant progress in recent 
years, inflexibility of curricula and limited op tions for alternative attendance modes, dissuade 
many potential atypical students from participation in higher education. 
Specific tools to facilitate access to HEIs, su ch as the effective use of validation and 
recognition of formal, non-formal and informal  learning can be pivotal  in attracting more 
people into higher education. However, the resp onsibility for such recognition generally lies 
with institutions themselves and as su ch, implementation varies significantly. 
Although more partnerships are emerging, particular ly with business, ther e remains a need to 
improve the types of mechanisms which will help  Higher Education Institutions to understand 
 
EN 135   EN the specific requirements of the new types of l earners. Furthermore, examples of engagement 
with other stakeholders relevant to LLL su ch as community organisations are lacking. 
Perhaps the most important barrier to wideni ng access to higher education for disadvantaged 
groups and employed learners remains aspiration. Clearly, such cultural issues have deeper 
roots and require sustained efforts to overcome, it is regrettable therefor e that country reports 
do not outline approaches and initiatives to  increase aspiration amongst those groups for 
whom LLL is far from a reality.  
 
EN 136   EN PART III:  PROGRESS AT NATIONAL LEVEL  
 
EN 137   EN BELGIUM 
Belgium EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. 
primary)  99.1% 99.7%07  85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading 19.0% 19.4%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 17.3%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 17.0%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  13.8% 12.0% b, 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment 
(age 20-24)  81.7% 82.2% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 42.8%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  25.0% 27.2%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve
gender 
balance- 
Higher education attainment 
(age 30-34)  35.2% 42.9% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  8.6%04  6.8%  8.5% 03 9.5%  12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP  6.0%01 6.0%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
01= 2001, 03= 2003, 04= 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Belgium performs above the EU average in the four school related areas: Participation in 
early childhood education , Low achievers in reading, mathematics and science , Early leavers 
from education and training  and Upper secondary completion rate. As regards the share of 
low achievers in reading, mathematics and science the Flemish Community performs, 
 
EN 138   EN however, better than the implicit  2010 EU target level. However, from a good starting 
position in 2000 Belgium progresse d less than the EU average. 
One area in which Belgium has made more progress is in incr easing the number of MST 
graduates , for which the growth rate has been above  the EU average. The share of female 
MST graduates increased too but is  still below EU average. At the same time the share of the 
population with higher education at tainment increased further from an already high level in 
2000 and is now nearly 12 percentage  points above the EU average. 
As concerns Adult participation in lifelong learning, Belgium is one of the few countries 
where participation rates declined significantly in the last years. As a result of this in Belgium adult lifelong learning participation rate is today significantly below EU average. 
Public investment in education  as a % of GDP has not changed in Belgium since 2000, 
whereas in the EU as a whole it  has slightly increased. However in Belgium it exceeds the EU 
average by about 1 percent of GDP. 
Belgium already performs above the 2010 EU benchmark in the increase of MST graduates  
and above the 2020 EU benchmarks on Participation in ea rly childhood education  and 
Higher education attainment . The Flemish Community of Belgium in addition performs 
already above the 2020 benchmark in the share of low achievers in reading. 
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
The concept of key competences has been a centr al feature of Belgian (nl and fr communities) 
education and training systems since many years.  
The basic and transversal competences are incl uded in the BE nl core curriculum which 
defines the compulsory minimum objectives (l earning outcomes) with regard to knowledge, 
insight, skills and attitudes by type of pupils that must be addressed by all schools. A major 
revision of the core curriculum to update  the key competences took place in 2006.  
A competence based approach was introduced in the BE fr in 1997 with the decree 'Missions'. 
The national framework curriculum was adopted  end 1990 and progressive ly implemented. It 
describes the basic competences, knowledge, skills to be acquired during the compulsory 
education for all pupils by the end of secondary education.  
Curricular reforms  
Since 2006 a major revision of the BE nl core curriculum has been made for general and VET 
education. It covers at least the elementary  and first cycle of secondary education and 
concerns all basic competences, except mathematics to be revised later. For compulsory education, content objec tives are the same as for general and technical education while they 
are different for professional education. Transver sal competencies are mandatory even if not 
taken into account for summative asssessement. Three transversal competences are defined: 
digital competences, learning to learn and the in terpersonal, intercultura l, social competences 
and civic competence. While differently organi zed, there is a substantial overlap with the 
European key competences. Entrepreneursh ip is often realised through projects. 
The BE fr national framework curriculum provi des a broad generic desc ription of the basic 
competences to be acquired, 
in particular in mother tongue, foreign languages, mathematic, 
sciences, initiation to technology and to art. Th e framework is common fo r general, technical 
 
EN 139   EN and professional education up to th e end of the first cycle of s econdary educati on. Transversal 
competences are referred to as ’transversal themes' embedded in the description of basic 
competences. There are no specific summative assessments for those competences. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
The BE nl public authorities intervene mainly via funding to  support actions implemented by 
educational networks. The new 2008 Decree on fi nancing compulsory e ducation is resulting 
in additional resources being directed to schools with socio-economically disadvantged 
pupils. The authorities are developing non mandat ory guidelines for new or revised learning 
outcomes. 
As concerns adult education, the 2005 Strate gic Literacy Plan (2005-2011) includes an 
objective of differentiation of actions according to different (risk) target groups (long-term 
unemployed, senior citizens, the underprivile ged). Since the 2007 decree on adult education, 
the Centres for basic education have focused mo re on basic education for adults. There are no 
tuition fees for basic educati on courses to ensure accessibility. 
The BE fr public authorities intervene mainly via allocation of additional teachers and 
educational staff for compulsory education, ad ditional funding taking into account the socio-
economic background of pupils and changes in the education and training system to reinforce 
the acquisition of basic competences and to co mbat disadvantage. Additional measures have 
been taken in Brussels where the rate of early school leaving is particul arly high and the rate 
secondary completion quite low. But, in spite of this effort, the ve ry important needs in 
vocational training for the unskilled and/or  illiterate adults remain unmet.  
The offer for adult education provided by the BE  fr community has been increased amongst 
for those with low levels of education, job- seekers and adults who have not completed 
secondary education. Additional training was also provided by the BE fr community and 
subsidised by the regions mainly in view of fighting illiteracy and improving linguistic skills 
and digital literacy. 
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
In 2006 the BE nl decree on teacher education redefined the learning outcomes of teacher 
education curricula to ensure that teachers are equipped to implement a competence-based 
approach. Those learning outcomes are descri bed as basic competences: the knowledge, skills 
and attitudes that a graduate teacher needs to have acquired. The competences are related to 
their responsibility towards the learner, the school/educational community and society. 
Continuous training of teachers is not mandato ry but strongly encouraged and supported. 
Since 2002, the BE fr teacher education curricul a for school teachers up to middle secundary 
includes 13 competences. They aim to ensure that teachers are equipped to implement a 
competence based approach and to take resp onsibilty towards the school and parents. 
Continuous training is mandatory for teachers. 
A major change in assessment  methodology has been introdu ced. Since 2009, pupils have to 
take an external summative assessment at the end of the primary education to obtain the 
required certification to move to secondary edu cation. A similar approach will be tested in 
2010-11, at the end of the first and of the third cycle of the secondary education. 
 
EN 140   EN 1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
Evaluation of key competencies at  BE nl system level is base d on the results of the National 
Assessment Program (NAP), and the PISA survey s; the systematic exploitation of research 
and evaluation of projects, and the audits of schools by the inspectorate. The NAP provides 
reliable data based on non mandatory surveys. Tw ice a year, a survey is made and focuses on 
a specific subject for pupils at different levels. The surveys are part of an assessment quality cycle.  
Evaluation of basic competencies a t  B E  f r  s y s t e m  l e v e l  i s  b a sed on the results of external 
summative assessments, on non mandatory assessm ents and on external surveys such as 
PISA. One annual non mandatory external assessme nt is made on a specific subject for pupils 
at different levels. Since 2002, a consistent system of statistic al indicators on the education 
and training system of the BE fr community and on its relative performance has been set up 
and results are published on a regular basis.  
2. Development and implemen tation of LLL strategies 
BE nl has designed a comprehensive LLL strategy (2004-2009) with systematic 
implementation and targeted allocation of fi nancial resources. Mee ting the challenges of 
efficiency and equity and ensuring the relati onship between educatio n and training and the 
labour market is central to this strategy. The developmen t of a Flemish qualification 
framework has become well advanced since 2008. A learning outcomes approach is used for 
the recognition of formal, non-formal and inform al learning in view of using the Flemish 
qualification framework as a common support fo r the recognition of a ll types of learning. 
Since 2004, synergy and coordination between the 3 responsible authorit ies for E&T has been 
reinforced in order to define a BE fr LLL stra tegy. In order to provide access to LLL for all 
adults, recent measures have focused on streng thening the role of the education for social 
inclusion (EPS) for delivering official degrees, on initiating in 2007 the first steps to a BE fr 
qualification framework and on developing the re cognition of non formal and formal learning. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
In Belgium VET has a broad definition and covers  different types of education from technical 
to apprenticeship "in alternative schemes". An  effort has been made improve access for VET 
students to better infrastructure and up to date equipment and technology. 
BE nl has introduced many initiatives to improve the attractiveness of VET, such as 
investments in infrastructure, subsidy for VET- students who study for “critical jobs”, changes 
to the procedure for submitting study programme s in order to adapt VET programmes better 
to socio-economic and technological developments.  
BE fr has taken many initiatives, such as actio ns to upgrade the image and change attitudes 
towards VET training in particular for shortage  jobs, and the creation of a new service in 
order to identify in collaboration with repr esentatives of employers, sectors and public 
employment services the VET programmes which n eed to be revised. Those actions to change 
the image and attitudes already modified the training offers.  
 
EN 141   EN 4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
In Belgium, a larger degree of autono my has been progressively granted to  universities and 
higher education institutions. Low tuition fees are considered important in order to make 
higher education accessible. Higher educat ion institutions are manly publicly funded.  
The 2008 Law on Funding provides a new model of  funding for higher education institutions 
in BE nl, establishing a shift from mainly input funding to a combination of input funding 
with output funding. Universities are encouraged to find other s ources of funding in particular 
via collaboration with enterprises. Further refl ection is ongoing on the cha llenges of the long 
term sustainability of this model. This model rewards higher education institutions which develop provisions for lifelong learning and in cludes measures to widen participation.  
In BE fr, the basic operating budget is composed of fixed and variable parts according to the 
number of students enrolled. Additional public f unding is granted taking into account a wide 
range of parameters related to input, quality, the number of st udent grants, etc. Universities 
are diversifying their income streams through pr ivate initiatives main ly in the field of 
doctoral, post-doctoral and research. Th e 2007 decree supported lifelong learning by 
providing additional funding for c ontinuous training programmes.  
 
EN 142   EN  
BULGARIA  
Bulgaria EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. 
primary)  73.4% 79.8%07 85.6% 90.7%07  95% 
Reading 40.3% 51.1%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 53.3%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study 
results) 
 Science - 42.6%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  20.5%01 14.8% 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  75.2% 83.7% b 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 14.6%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  45.6% 39.3%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  19.5% 27.1% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  1.3% 031.4%  8.5% 03 9.5%  12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education, % of GDP 3.97% 4.24%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
01= 2001, 03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
In school related areas Bulgaria's performa nce is mixed. In two school related areas: Early 
leavers from education and training and Upper secondary attainment  Bulgaria performs 
slightly better than the EU average as a cons equence of rapid progress in these fields. On 
Participation in early childhood education,  while there has been progress since 2000, the 
 
EN 143   EN participation rate is below the EU average. On Low achievers  the situation has however 
deteriorated since 2000 and more than ha lf the pupils are now low achievers. 
It should be noticed that the share of females among Graduates in maths, science, and 
technology , while on the decrease, is s till third highest in Europe. 
As concerns Adults' participation in lifelong learning , Bulgaria has the lowest level of 
performance in Europe and there has hardly been any progress since 2000. 
Investment in education  as a % of GDP has increased over th e period; Bulgaria is still below 
the EU average performance but the gap has decreased. 
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
Policies focused on key competences came to th e fore in 2008 following the adoption of the 
national lifelong learning strategy and the re newed employment strategy. 2008 was selected 
as a year of the key competences and this contri buted to further raising awareness. Substantial 
focus has been put on key competences such as ICT and foreign languages.  
In 2009 a renewed education framew ork has been approved. The new Law for School and Pre-
school Education Development  was tabled in early 2009 but did not stand in Parliament. A new 
Law proposal has been announced by the ne w government in September 2009. Major new 
elements to be introduced will be an extended focus on transversal skills such as ICT, and 
foreign language in the 8th grade after the completion of primary schooling.  
1.1. Curricular reforms  
Transversal competences such as ICT, entrepre neurship and cultural e xpression are seen as 
important educational objectives which have to be taken into  account within all specific 
subjects/curricula. Transversal key competences ar e currently integrated in other subjects. For 
instance, social and civic competence is provi ded by subjects such as Philosophy, History, 
Geography etc. Cultural awareness and expression is provided by subjec ts such as Music, 
Arts, Languages.  
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
The disadvantaged in need of special suppo rt are addressed by a national programme 
providing for extra-training of children with problems in assimilating educational content. 
Further measures include incentivizing teachers to work with disadvantaged students taking 
into account their person al abilities and interest s. The high training need s for teachers in ICT 
reflects partly the high turnover of ICT trained teacher staff related to  incentives outside the 
school system.  
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
Among the main priority areas in teachers’ qualifications is in-service training  in the fields of 
ICT and foreign languages as well as training and acquisition of transversal competences such as 
social and civic competences, initiative taking and entrepreneurship, cultural awareness and 
expression . Incentives have been crea ted to reward excellent te achers through differentiated 
payment schemes measuring for instance skills  in ICT, teamwork, or working with 
disadvantaged children.  
 
EN 144   EN 1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
Bulgaria’s results in PIRLS, TIMSS and PISA ha ve triggered a reconsideration of the existing 
strategies and tools for external assessment, l eading to more stress on practical knowledge and 
skills related to the la bour market. Annual evaluation of the outcomes of th e education and 
training process is the aim of the introduction of tests in the Bulgarian schools which started 
in the 2007/2008 school year. State matriculation examinations (Mat ura) are also part of the 
evaluation of outcomes.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
With a view to raise the low le vel of adult participation in ed ucation and trai ning, the national 
LLL strategy was adopted in late 2008. Regard ing the Bulgarian NQF, first steps including 
comparing the national qualifications levels and the EQF as well as developing a plan for further actions related to s ectoral qualifications framework s have been undertaken.  
A pilot of a system for validation of comp etences acquired by non-formal and informal 
learning has been developed and is being test ed for three professions. Good practices on 
validation of non-formal and informal learning  from other EU member states have been 
published on official websites in order to raise awareness on the subject.  
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
VET development in 2008 was aimed at improving the link to the labour market. Efforts to 
increase the attractiveness of VET have fo cused mainly on improving the relevance of 
vocational training acquired in secondary sc hools (for instance by organising national 
championships) and improving relations with soci al partners and their participation in the 
vocational education process. 
Examples for increasing the attractiveness of VET programmes include incentivizing 
professional training for the unemployed with  guaranteed work placements (funded by the 
Employment Agency) and using EU funds for tr aining e.g. “Leonardo da Vinci” and the ESF. 
Communication measures such as national competitions are targeted at enhancing the attractiveness of VET. Further efforts incl ude electronic publishing of curricula and the 
establishment of career centers in educational institutions. 
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
The main source of funding for higher educa tion institutions is the government. Some 
diversification is provided for by the tuition fees paid by students. The opening up of 
universities to business is done for exampl e through both career centers and High Tech 
Business Incubators. The opening up towards lifelong l earners includes 
strengthening the 
dialogue with national employers' organizations,  promoting and improving distance learning, 
and expanding policies for access to  education. Modernization m easures include subsidizing 
actually enrolled students (and not the number of vacancies) as well as increasing the number 
of student places. Expected results include creating more competition among higher education 
institutions and reducing the pressure for the establishment of new higher education 
institutions.  
 
EN 145   EN  
CZECH REPUBLIC  
Czech Republic EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary)  90.0% 92.6%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading 17.5% 24.8%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 19.2%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 15.5%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  5.7%02 5.6%b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  91.2% 91.6% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 96.0%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  27.0% 29.3%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  13.7% 15.4% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  5.1%03 7.8%   8.5% 039.5%  12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 3.97% 4.61%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
02= 2002, 03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" 
The Czech Republic performs be tter than the EU average in  three school related areas: 
Participation in early childhood education , Low achievers in mathematics and science  and 
Early leavers from education and training. In the latter area and in the field of Upper 
secondary attainment, performance is notably higher. As for Low achievers in reading there 
was a sharp increase in the percentage since 2000 and the Czech Republic in 2006 in this 
indicator performed slightly worse than the EU average.  
 
EN 146   EN The Czech Republic has made signi ficant progress in the area of MST graduates , in which the 
growth rate has been we ll above the EU average, while the sh are of female graduates, even if 
improved, has not reached the EU level. In the area of Higher education attainment  there has 
been a slight progress, but the Czech Republic is far below the EU average and in 2008 had 
the lowest share of 30-34 years old with tertiary attainment in EU. 
As concerns Adult participation in lifelong learning, progress has been faster than the EU 
average, but Czech performance is still below the EU average on this benchmark indicator. 
Public investment in education,  as a % of GDP, has increased since 2000 mo re steeply than in 
the EU as a whole; the Czech Republic is still below the EU average performance but the gap 
has decreased. 
The Czech Republic already performs  above the EU 2010 benchmarks in Early leavers from 
education and training , Upper secondary attainment  and the increase in MST graduates .  
1. Policies for development of the key competences   
Requirements for the development of key competences are explicitly formulated in the recent 
strategic and curri cular documents, e.g. the Long Term Pl an of Education and the Education 
System (2007) and the Education Act (2005) . This Education Act introduced framework 
education programmes (FEP) for all types and stag es of initial educati on (including vocational 
training) and the concept of key competences is defined in the common part of the FEPs. 
Requirements for the development of all key co mpetences, referred to as "functional literacy" 
("funkční gramotnost" in Czech), are also laid  down in the main strategic document for 
lifelong learning, i.e. the Strategy of Lifel ong Learning in the Czech Republic (2007).  
1.1. Curricular reforms 
The general curricular reform was launched in 2004 when two important documents were 
approved: the Education Act and the Framewor k Educational Programme for Basic Education 
(FEP). On the basis of FEP schools are deve loping their own educational programmes that 
should enable them to implement their ow n ideas and better react to the needs of 
pupils/employers/regions. Progressive implem entation: Instruction according to school 
educational programme started in the 2007/08 school year in the first year  of primary, 
respectively lower secondary education. Si nce 2007 FEPs for upper secondary education 
(general and vocational) are being develope d (planned finalisation September 2009). The 
reform will continue by implementation of the FEPs at all types of upper secondary schools. 
The ESF is used for developing national and systemic projects to s upport schools in creation 
of their school curricula and for implementation of the curricular reform into the practice of 
schools. The reform is accompanied by in-service training of teachers.  
The educational content in the FEP is not divided into subjects but educational areas: Each 
FEP also includes cross-curricular topics aime d at developing key competences as described 
in the European Framework. 
 
EN 147   EN 1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
Special target groups for the provision of ke y competences are the unemployed, people with 
low qualifications, people threatened by povert y, minority groups, people threatened with 
losing their jobs, social groups threatened wi th social exclusion, and older people (pre-
retirement age). A legislative framework has b een created to encourage the participation of 
these target groups in lifelong learning. ESF funds are used to  support the lifel ong learning of 
Czech citizens and the systemic  project "Support of Citizens´ I ndividual Education" systemic 
project which consists in providing individua ls with vouchers for training in three areas: 
language competence, ICT and entrepre neurial skills is under preparation 
Sectoral/stakeholder dialogue is conducted at inter-ministry leve l, especially between MEYS 
and the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs.  The MEYS also coopera tes with other social 
partners (e.g. s ector councils). 
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
The teaching profession's quality standard, whic h should be completed in a binding form (i.e. 
also as legislation) within two years, will cl arify how the concept of the profession should 
change (in respect to the teacher's role a nd key competences) and how teachers should be 
educated to master the requirements connected w ith a substantial change in goals, content and 
methods of teaching. Significant number of in-ser vice training courses aims to help teachers 
to introduce the curricular reform in school s (mainly preparation of school education 
programmes on the basis of FEP).  
Czech primary and secondary schools still pref er summative assessment. However, the trend 
to use assessment to motivate pupils and encour age their activity has been growing. Materials 
with methodological recommendations on form ative assessment of key competences in 
secondary vocational schools were developed wi thin ESF funded Pilot S systemic project. 
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
Currently, mainly international comparative su rveys: e.g. PISA, RLS, TIMSS, CivEd, Sites, 
PIRLS, are used to assess the key competences in  initial education. The re sults are used in the 
preparation of conceptual materials, e.g. Long Term Plan of Education and the Development 
of the Education System in the Czech Repub lic and the Strategy of Lifelong Learning.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
The Lifelong Learning Strategy of  the Czech Republic was adopted  in July 2007. Different 
partners have been involved and supported the st rategy, including social partners and the civic 
sector. The implementation plan  was approved by the government in January 2009. The Act 
on Verification and Recognition of Qualificat ions no. 176/2006 (2006) is a basis for the 
system of the validation and recognition of qualifications, and all relevant skills and 
knowledge can be recognized no matter where/how  they were obtained (school, training or 
self-learning). National Qualification Fram ework, which provides a description of 
qualification requirements for the labour mark et, is being implemented through an ESF 
funded project - UNIV 3 - in all regions of the Czech Republic. Standards for vocational and general secondary education are being finalised. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
 
EN 148   EN The attractiveness of VET programmes is suppor ted through improved counselling services in 
schools and career counselling in general ( accompanied by e.g. an ESF funded systemic 
project which resulted in a comprehensive inform ation system) on nation-wi de offers of initial 
and further vocational education and training. There have also been several media campaigns 
that gave information about job oppo rtunities in technical occupations. 
Employers´ involvement in recent years has resu lted in increased interest in vocational 
training.  
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
The White Paper on higher education reform  was discussed during 2008, and in 2009 the 
Government of the Czech Republic took cognizan ce of it. The reform ai ms to facilitate access 
to university education for students from disadvantaged families via low-interest loans and to allow for more private funding of  tertiary education. It also  aims to support cooperation 
between the universities and regions and em ployers/companies for adapting the study 
programmes to the needs of regions and for better providing practical  experience for the 
students. The project Reform of the Tertiary Education was launched in 2009 which builds on 
the White Paper. By the end of 2009 the analy tical works and discussions on the main goals 
of the reform will follow. Preparations of a new law on tertiary education and financial 
support for students will be la unched in February 2010, while the complete proposal of the 
both acts should be finished in 2011.  
The Implementation Plan of the Strategy of Lifelong Learning aims to strengthen the 
development of bachelor study pr ogrammes focused on practice, to develop alternatives to 
day classes in order to enable studies for adults  in work and with families, to enhance quality, 
permeability and cooperation of higher educat ion with employers and to support multi-
resource financing of the te rtiary education sector.  
 
EN 149   EN DENMARK  
Denmark EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary)  95.7% 92.7%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading 17.9% 16.0%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 13.6%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 18.4%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  11.7% 11.5%b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  72.0 71.0% b 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 20.0%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  28.5% 36.0%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve
gender 
balance- 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  32.1% 46.3% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  24.2% 03 30.2%  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 8.29% 7.98%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Denmark performs above the EU aver age in three school related areas: Participation in early 
childhood education , Low achievers and Early leavers from education and training . The 
Upper secondary completion rate, however,  has stagnated in Denmark since 2000, and is 
below the EU average. Since 2000 it succeeded in  decreasing the share of low achievers in 
reading to 16%. 
 
EN 150   EN Adult participation in lifelong learning  is among the highest in th e EU and more than three 
times as high as the EU average. It  has increased signi ficantly since 2000.  
On Higher education attainment  Denmark has among the highest  shares in the EU and 
progress since 2000 has been strong. Fu rthermore, the share of female MST graduates  is 
above the EU average and the gender balan ce has improved markedly. The growth in 
graduates in MST  since 2000 is below the average in the EU. 
Concerning investment in education , Denmark has the highest public spending on education 
in the EU. While declining, Denmark continues to allocate around 8% of GDP to education.  
Denmark performs above the 2010 EU benchmark levels on: Low achievers in reading , MST 
graduates  and Adult participation in lifelong learning ; and above the 2020 EU benchmark 
levels on Low achievers in mathematics , Higher education attainment  and Adult participation 
in lifelong learning.  
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
The Danish approach to the pr ovision of education has traditionally been competence-based. 
However, the pendulum has recently swung towards the strengthening of basic skills as results (see above) as regards PISA and up per secondary completion rates are below 
expectations. 
1.1. Curricular reforms  
The objective is that pupils in the primary an d lower secondary school system should be top 
performing within four core subject areas: reading, mathema tics, science and English. The 
policy is followed through with precisely de fined objectives for all subjects and threshold 
objectives for key subjects at certain grade levels. Cross cu rricular competences such as 
digital, learning to learn, and social and civic competences as well as cultural awareness and expression are part of the overa ll objective of education and not specifically taught subjects.  
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
When pupils' educational needs cannot be fulfill ed within differentiated teaching and classes, 
special education (or special educational sup port) is given. To promote the educational 
outcomes of bilingual children, who perform at a level substantially  lower than native Danish 
pupils, a range of support is available.  
Participation in adult education is among the highest in Europe. Specific initiatives have been 
taken to promote the partic ipation of low skilled adults. Figures from 2008 indicate an 
increase in the participation of low skilled adults in basic skills courses (reading and 
mathematics) and in vocational training courses.  
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
The approach to initial teacher education as well as in-service teacher education has 
traditionally been competence-based. The most  recent reform of 2007 stressed the importance 
of mastering formative assessment techniques. Other elements were an explicit focus on 
classroom management, teacher-parent collabora tion and enhanced focus on pedagogical and 
didactic competences. 
 
EN 151   EN 1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
The Council for Evaluation and Quality Deve lopment of Primary and Lower Secondary 
Education was set up by the Minister of Edu cation in September 2006. The Council’s tasks 
are to monitor and evaluate: Academic and professional standards, Pedagogical 
developments, Pupils' learning outcomes, negative social heritage, Integrating of pupils with a 
non-Danish ethnic background. Each  year, the Council submits a report to the Minister of 
Education with proposed initiatives to improve the quality of education in the "Folkeskole". 
This report feeds into the policy debate and point  to important areas in school development. 
In 2006, The "Folketing" introduced 10 mandatory national tests from 2nd to 8th form in the 
following subjects (Danish/reading literacy, E nglish, mathematics and science (biology, 
geography and physics/chemistry). The tests, which are adaptive and computer-based, are 
expected to become effective as of 2010. 
Furthermore, Denmark participates in internat ional outcome based surveys such as PISA and 
TIMSS.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
Several initiatives have been taken in view of implementing the coherent strategy for lifelong 
learning, which was adopted in 2006. A working group has finished the drafting of a final 
proposal for a Danish qualification framework (2009) in response to the need for increased 
transparency of qualifications at  national and European level. 
It is the goal of the governme nt to strengthen the recognition of non-formal and informal 
learning to contribute to furthe ring adult participation in a dult and in-service training and 
improve adults' opportunities on the labour  market. In 2007, legislation on increased 
recognition of actual competences in adult vocational education and training came into force. 
Easily accessible tools that can be used by the individuals (and companies) to identify and to 
document non formal and informal competences have been made available on the internet.  
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
A wide range of initiatives have been taken with the objective of increasing the attractiveness 
of VET and to reduce dropout. These include efforts to upgrade the qualifications and 
competences of staff, provisions of more pract ical training placements in companies and the 
public section, and allowing for shor ter and more practical phases for students with a practical 
orientation. In relation to increasing the re levance of VET for the labour market, trade 
committees produce a development statement of  the fields covered by the committee and 
respective fields of VET. Moreover, central an alytical capacity has been strengthened to 
improve forecasting in relation to new innovative areas for VET. 
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
The public financing of higher education is among the highest in Europe and all students at 
higher education institutions are entitled to substantial student grants and loans to ensure equal access. While tuition fees are not charge d for students, universit ies do receive income 
through several streams including adults in the continuing education system. Research 
funding is also partly competitive. 
 
EN 152   EN In 2007, the Government increased its support fo r participation in lif elong learning through 
increased state grants to adults in the conti nuing education system. Moreover, recognition of 
prior learning opens up universities, university  colleges and academies for individuals who do 
not fulfil the formal admission criteria.  
 
EN 153   EN GERMANY 
Germany EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary)  82.6% 94.5%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading 22.6% 20.0%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 19.9%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 15.4%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  14.6% 11.8% 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary completion rate  
(age 20-24)  74.7% 74.1% b 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 39.7%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  21.6% 29.8%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Population with higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  25.7% 27.7% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  6.0% 03 7.9%  8.5% 039.5% 12.5 % 15% 
03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Germany performs above the EU aver age in three school related areas: Participation in early 
childhood education , Low achievers in reading, mathematics and science  and Early leavers 
from education and training .  
One additional area in which Germany has made considerable progress is in increasing the 
number of MST graduates , for which the growth rate has been above the EU average. In 
relation to the population with higher education attainment  it should be noted that Germany 
has a well developed dual system in vocational education and training and that, in that regard, 
the German figures for higher e ducation attainment are not fully  comparable with those of 
other Member States.     
 
EN 154   EN As concerns Adult participation in lifelong learning, Germany has also made progress, but 
still performs below the EU average on the benchmark indicator, which measures the 
frequency of participation (with a reference period of four week s). Results from the European 
Adult Education Survey (with a reference period of one year) however imply that the annual 
participation rate is above EU average. 
Germany performs above the 2010 EU benchmark level on MST graduates  and close to the 
2020 EU benchmark level on participation in early childhood education.  
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
A key development is the increasing policy sh ift towards an outputs approach across the 
entire education system (for example visibl e through the establishm ent of an increasing 
number of education standards or the developm ent of a national qualific ations framework). A 
joint Bund–Länder  initiative ("Qualifizierungsinitiativ e") adopted in Oct. 2008 includes a 
comprehensive set of objectives and measures targeting learning during the entire lifecycle. 
The objective is to allow all people to access and to proceed through education and training and thus to raise the general competence level of the popul ation. The measures address all 
areas of lifelong learning, e.g. improved earl y childhood education,  better support for 
language acquisition, more traini ng opportunities, better academic education and further 
education.  
1.1. Curricular reforms  
Education standards in mathematics, the German  language and the first foreign language were 
adopted by the 'The Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs 
of the Länder  (Kultusministerkonferenz , KMK) in 2004. These standards provide the basis for 
the Länders ' curricula and assessment regulations a nd develop the intentions of education 
objectives by defining the competences pupils s hould have aquired by a certain stage of their 
education pathway. 
Transversal competences such as learning to learn, citizenship, ICT, entrepreneurship and 
cultural expression are overarching educationa l objectives and are therefore taken into 
account within in the curricula of different subj ects. In relation to intercultural education, the 
KMK and NGOs representing people with a mi grant background adopted a joint declaration 
in Dec. 2007, which supports giving intercultura lism more attention bot h within and outside 
schools. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences 
 In the "Qualifizierungsinitiative",  the federal government and the Länder  have set national 
targets for the reduction of the number of ear ly school leavers and of young people without 
initial vocational training, to increase the shar e of students starting hi gher education and to 
increase the participation of the active workfor ce in continuing educati on and training from 43 
to 50 % by 2015 (based on the Adult Educati on Survey).  To promote equal education 
opportunities for all, it is planned to better coordinate early childhood and school education 
and to provide targeted support for the acquisi tion of the German language at pre-primary 
level. 
Further education includes measures targeted at specific groups.  These include integration 
courses for migrants, provision targeted at spec ific age groups (e.g. ICT courses for senior 
 
EN 155   EN citizens), or learning opportunities specifically addressing women/men, families, illiterate, 
unemployed or low-qualified etc. persons. The federal government supports initiatives 
addressed at groups with a part icular potential, for example to support academics to (re)enter 
the labour market.  
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
Standards for teacher training (adopted by the KMK in 2004) provide guidelines concerning 
the competences teachers need to succeed in their everyday professional life. The KMK and teacher unions adopted in 2006 a joint declaratio n which stressed the need for a systematic 
supply of continuing teacher training. Accordi ngly, continuing training for teachers should be 
further developed in particular with regard to addressing heteroge neity, learning needs 
diagnosis and targeted  support to pupils.  
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes  
Germany has in recent years participated in im portant international comparative surveys and 
will continue to do so in the future, in particular in PISA, PIRLS, TIMSS, PIAAC.  Additionally, the joint reporting taking place ever y 2 years is a central element for assessing 
the quality of the education a nd training system. This was intr oduced in 2006 as part of an 
overall monitoring strategy in education and tr aining which allows systematic monitoring of 
the education and training system and its outcome s, which in turn is a precondition for quality 
development at all levels. Compliance with the ag reed quality standards will in the future be 
assessed both within the Länder  and across them.   
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
At their 'qualifications summit' in Oct. 2008, the heads of the federal and Länder  governments  
agreed the 'qualifications initiative for Germany' (" Qualifizier ungsinitiative ") which includes 
a comprehensive set of objectives and measures  covering all educati on and training areas. 
This included an agreement on support to ed ucation and training activities addressing the 
entire lifecycle. The federal and Länder level se t the target to increase the share of GDP spent 
for education and research to 10% by 2015. A firs t interim implementation report was 
presented in 2009. 
A lifelong learning strategy wa s agreed by the federal and Länder  level in 2004, which was 
further developed through a 2008 federal govern ment decision 'Concept for learning along the 
life cycle' (" Konzeption Lernen im Lebenslauf ").  
A draft national qualifica tions framework for lifelong learni ng (DQR) was published in spring 
2009 for discussion. The DQR provides a comprehe nsive matrix coveri ng all education and 
training sectors, which will significantly increa se orientation within the German education 
and training system. The proposal is currently und ergoing a testing phase in which experts are 
examining its practical implement ation by referencing qualifications  to the levels of the draft 
DQR. It is planned to include non-formal a nd informal learning at a later stage.  
Although Germany does not have a comprehensiv e system for the validation of non-formal 
and informal learning, many specific instruments are tailored to the needs of different sectors 
and target groups. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
 
EN 156   EN The dual VET system (combining company and school-based learning) provides training for 
more than 60% of the age cohort. To increase  the provision of appr enticeships, the federal 
government has in 2007 extended the national pact on apprenticeships ( Ausbildungspakt ) 
concluded with employers in 2004 for a further 3 years. The pact contributed to improving the 
provision of apprenticeships and resulted in th e targets it had itself set being exceeded. The 
federal government established a round tabl e on innovation in vocational education and 
training ( Innovationskreis berufliche Bildung ) in 2006 which came forward with 
recommendations for actions aimed at adap ting education and training policy to new 
demographic, economic, technological and inte rnational developments and challenges. The 
federal government has implemented these reform  guidelines in cooperation with other actors 
responsible for VET through a number of op erational measures and programmes. Key 
recommendations also fed into the 2008 'qualificat ions initiative' agreed between the federal 
and Länder  levels.  
Lower secondary education graduates have be en offered more and more courses, which 
combine a vocational qualification with the right to access higher education. The  Länder have 
thus improved pathways between vocational ed ucation and higher education. In 2009 they 
have also made a decisive step towards more  open education pathways through facilitating 
access to higher education for VET graduate s: graduates holding higher level VET 
qualifications ( Meister, Techniker, Fachwirte ) will in the future have general access to higher 
education, while VET graduates holding a qualif ication based on an at least two-year long 
traineeship, and with at least three years of professional experience, have the right to access higher eduation in their respective areas of experience. It is planned to include these 
innovations in the Länder  legislation by 2010. 
The federal government introduced at the en d of 2008 scholarships providing additional 
financial incentives to highly-talented women and men with professiona l experience to start 
higher education. They address in particular those who have gained their right to access 
higher education through initial or continui ng VET or professional experience. Following 
great demand, the federal government increase d the available funds  in 2009. The federal 
government and the Länder  have, in the context of the ‘qua lifications initiative’, significantly 
increased in 2009 the financial incentives fo r further training aimed at professional 
advancement ( Meister-BAföG ) and also provided financial incen tives to invest in one's own 
education and continuing training ( Bildungsprämie ). The federal government’s set of 
measures also includes the in itiative ‘Recognition of vocational competences for higher 
education courses’ (ANKOM), wh ich contains simplified and tr ansparent procedures for the 
recognition of VET qualifications  for higher education studies.  The federal government and 
most of the Länder make use European funds to devel op innovative measures  in initial and 
continuing VET in pilot projects. 
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
Based on the Bologna process reforms, 75 % of a ll study courses lead to Bachelor or Master 
qualificatons. The "
Qualifizierungsinitiative " includes the target to raise the share of young 
people entering a higher educat ion programme to 40 % of a pa rticular age cohort by 2015. An 
additional 18 billion Euro i nvestment in education and re search by 2019 has been announced. 
As part of this, the federal state and the Länder will invest approx. 5.3 billion Euro until 2015 
in 275 000 additional study places. 
The main source of funding for HE institutions  is still the government. Detailed steering 
through the  Länder  authorities is increasingly replaced  by autonomous action by the higher 
 
EN 157   EN education institutions themselves. Mechanisms of performance-related funding are 
increasingly used . 6 out of 16 Länder  have introduced tutition fees  and the share from third-
party funds has been growing in recent years. 
Continuing academic education is part of th e key tasks of higher education institutions, 
alongside research and teaching. In all Länder higher education institu tions can themselves 
use the funds acquired through  the provision of continui ng education and training. 
Cooperation of universities with ex ternal partners is also possibl e and appropriate in order to 
make use of synergies. Intensive guidance prov ision, preparatory and br idging courses, study 
courses close to professional practice or aimed at working students, fl exible organisational 
solutions, such as part-time, distance or comb ined learning, are all measures by which higher 
education institutions can adapt to the learning needs of students with various prior qualifications, as well as to their specific situations in life, and create new learning pathways in higher education supp orting lifelong learning.  
 
EN 158   EN  
ESTONIA 
Estonia EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood 
education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. 
primary)  87.0% 93.6%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading - 13.6%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 12.1%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study 
results) 
 Science - 7.7%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and 
training  
(age 18-24)  15.1% 14.0% 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  79.0% 82.2% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 79.8%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  35.7% 38.7%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  30.8% 34.1% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  6.7% 03 9.8%  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 6.10% 4.80%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Estonia performs above the EU averag e in all the school  related areas: Participation in early 
childhood education , Low achievers and Early leavers from education and training , and the 
Upper secondary attainment.  Estonia is among the best performing Member States in reading, 
 
EN 159   EN mathematics and science literacy, and has a small share of Low achievers  in all these areas. 
Estonia did not participate in the PISA surv ey in 2000, hence it is not possible to measure 
progress.  
The Adult participation in lifelong learning  has increased since 2000 and is at the same level 
as the EU average.  
On Higher education attainment  Estonia has increased its share to more than a third of the 
population aged 30-34. The growth in graduates in MST  since 2000 is almost 80% and more 
than twice as high as the EU average figure. Furthermore, the share of female MST graduates  
is above the EU average and th e gender balance is improving.  
Estonia has a lower level of Investment in education  than the average of all EU countries, and 
the public spending in education as % of GDP has decreased compared to the level in 2000.  
Estonia performs above the 2010 EU benchmark levels on MST graduates ; and above the 
2020 EU benchmark levels on Low achievers in reading, mathematics and science .  
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
National policies guided by the framework of Development Plans under the area of the 
Ministry of Education and Resear ch, include Development Plans fo r all levels of the Estonian 
formal education system. They are oriented to competences and stress the achievement of key 
competences by target groups as objectives. 
New policy initiatives (such as updating the natio nal curricula for basic and general secondary 
education and the adult education development pl an for example), and measures (such as the 
use of EU Structural Funds in 2007-2013) direc tly refer to the key competences of the EU.  
1.1. Curricular reforms  
In the current (2002) Basic School and Gymn asium national curriculum, basic skills are 
specified as compulsory subj ect competences (languages), do main competences (maths) or 
cross-curricular themes (IT). The basic skills that should be achieved by the end of every 
stage of the study are described in the national curriculum. In the draft version of the new 
national curriculum, the same approach is taken. In the VET curricula, basic skills are generally taught as compulsory and/or  as part of specialist subjects.  
In the draft version of the new national curr iculum, the transversal key competences are 
referred to as general competences. Depending on the speciality, the acqui sition of transversal 
competences in VET curricula is integrated into the general and/or specialist subjects.  
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
Several flexible learning possibilities, such as individual study progr ammes and a simplified 
curriculum, have been created in legislation for students with  specific education needs in 
compulsory education. Schools have the opportunity  to provide free of charge support, such 
as textbooks, health and study counselli ng, meal and transport to school.  
Persons who have not completed basic or seco ndary education can stu dy free of charge in 
adult gymnasiums in order to achieve ke y competences for further study. The key 
competences for adults are th e focus of the Human Resource Development Plan (ESF 2007-
 
EN 160   EN 2013). Several extensive adult training prog rammes were designed to enhance the 
employability of adults, including individuals w ith lower levels of education, those whose 
native language is not Estonian, the unemployed, and older people.  
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
A teacher professional skills pr ofile includes planning and mana gement, shaping the learning 
environment, supervising the learning pr ocess, motivating student, cooperation, 
communication, self-analysis, analysis and asse ssment of the students´ development. It is 
specified in the teacher training development pl an and in teachers´ professional standards. 
This also applies to VET teachers. Students’ le arning results are summarily evaluated in basic 
school on both a quarterly and yearly basis, and by course and stage of study at the upper 
secondary level.  
The competence-oriented approach based on prof essional standards is in the implementation 
phase in initial teacher tr aining at universities.  
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
A formal evaluation system of learning results of students is in place, consisting in general 
education of placement tests at the end of stages  of study, exams with uniform questions at the 
end of basic school and state examinations at the end of upper secondary school. The 
evaluation procedure is specified in the curriculum.  
Higher education institutions, including teacher education, are currentl y in the process of 
introducing an output-oriented assessment system . In addition, indicato rs based on different 
data sets (national and/or international survey s´ results) and self-eva luation methods can be 
used for the evaluation of key competences . Estonia has participated in TIMSS 2003, 
PISA2006, TALIS 2008 and is partic ipating in the current PIAAC  comparative evaluations.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
A set of relevant strategies covering differe nt sectors of education is implemented under a 
common coordination framework with harmonised goals and principles of lifelong learning 
("Smart and active people 2010-2013"). Transition to the competence-based curricula, validation of prior learning and work experience along with the National Qualification System 
are currently in the process of implementation in HE institutions. Steps are being taken to 
ensure the skills young people acquire outside formal education are taken into account by 
general and VET schools.  
The adjustment of the NQF into  the 8-level sy stem (which corresponds to the EQF) will be 
completed by the year 2013. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
Based on vocational standards, 44 national cu rricula have been developed in close 
cooperation with the social pa rtners. In 2008-2013 the NQF w ill be updated and the national 
curricula for VET will become explicitly competence-based.  
Several programmes have supported the modernisa tion of the VET system, such as the use of 
innovative learning methods (e-lea rning) and improvements to th e infrastructure. Within the 
 
EN 161   EN context of VET, efforts have been made to ra ise general levels of awareness of VET and its 
benefits.  
Cooperation with social partne rs has been extensive (throu gh the development of national 
curricula and the NQF for example). Due to St ate support programmes there is a considerable 
increase in the number of CVET courses and ad ult/in-service learners in VET institutions.  
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
With regards to HE curricular development, th e transition to output-bas ed curricula together 
with adjustment of ECTS has been set out in th e Standard of HE and will take place starting 
from 1 September 2009. The ESF programme PR IMUS (2008-2015) for HE institutions is 
designed to improve the quality of HE, to intr oduce a new quality assurance concept (based 
on principles of self-improvement) and to  support curricular de velopment (in 19 HE 
institutions).  
The broad financial autonomy and limited Stat e financial support for HE institutions have 
created incentives to offer a wide range of paid services. Adult education and training, 
consultations, research and development supplem ent the budgets of HE institutions. At the 
larger public universities paid placements and in-service training of a dult students comprise 
up to 1/3 of the budget. The ratio of students aged 30 and over in placement training is a 
stable 20% at Estonian HE institutions.  
 
EN 162   EN  
IRELAND 
Ireland EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary)  - - 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading 11.0% 12.1%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 16.4%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 15.5%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  14.6%02 11.3% b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  82.6% 87.7% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - -3.6%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  37.9% 31.3%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve
gender 
balance- 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  27.5% 46.1% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  5.9% 03 7.1% 8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 4.28% 4.86%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
02= 2002, 03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Ireland performs clearly above the EU av erage in three school related areas: Low achievers in 
reading, mathematics and science , Early leavers from e ducation and training  and the Upper 
secondary completion rate. In the latter two areas Ireland also made good progress since 
2000.  As regards low achievers in reading there was no progress since 2000, but Ireland is 
still among the best performers in the EU.  
 
EN 163   EN Available statistics show a relatively low rate of  Participation in early childhood education  in 
Ireland However, there is no o fficial provision at ISCED leve l 0. Many childre n attend some 
form of ISCED level 0 education, but for the mo st part data are missing. One area in which 
Ireland has made no progress is in increasing the number of MST graduates . Ireland did not 
improve the gender balance in MST graduates; on the contrary the share of female graduates 
has fallen significantly since 2000. 
At the same time the share of the population with  higher education attain ment has improved at 
the fastest pace in the EU, and is now among the highest in Europe. 
As concerns Adult participation in  lifelong learning, Ireland has made progress too, although 
from a low level, but is still performing below EU average.  
Public investment in education  as a % of GDP has increased significantly in Ireland since 
2000 within a context of strong economic grow th during the period (2000-2006), implying a 
strong growth of spending in absolute terms. 
As regards higher education atta inment and low achievers in reading literacy  Ireland 
performs above the EU benchmarks for 2020, Ireland performs above the 2010 EU benchmark in the area of Upper secondary attainment.  
1. Policies for development of the key competences   
The Departments of Education and Science (D /ES) and Enterprise Trade and Employment 
(D/ETE) and the National Council for Curricul um Assessment (NCCA) have kept abreast of 
developments in the key competency cluster,  and the continued evol ution of provision has 
been informed by this process. The NCCA is constantly reviewing programmes and curricula. 
Examples of developments affecting the pr ovision of key competences since 2006 are the 
standardised testing of English and Maths at two stages of the primary cycle (2007),and the 
launch of project maths, an initiative to promote greater Leaving Certificate Maths literacy across second-level 2008.. 
1.1. Curricular reforms  
A professional development programme desi gned to introduce the new Primary School 
Curriculum to all teachers was completed in 2008. The curriculum places key emphasis on literacy and numeracy, personal fulfilment, and on responding to changing needs in a number 
of areas: science and technology, including a basic understanding of scientific principles and 
methods, social, personal and health education,  citizenship and the use of ICT to enhance 
learning. Also fostered is the development of core communication skills, motivation for 
learning to learn and the ability and va lues to make ethical judgements.  
There is ongoing review of curricula in bot h the lower and upper cy cles of secondary 
education, which includes a mix of academic and vocational options. NCCA is working on 
curricular reforms to ensure that senior  cycle subjects are designed to include: 
communications, information processing, critical  and creative thinking, working with others, 
and being personally effective. The result will  be to embed these key competences in all 
senior cycle subjects. 
 
EN 164   EN 1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
All schools have access to Lear ning Support provision to address the competence needs of 
children with learning difficulties, their early identification and remediation. Guidelines for 
teachers, professional development progra mmes, additional resources and range of 
educational programmes are in place to addre ss special educational needs, Travellers, 
newcomers to Ireland, and children and young people from disadvantaged communities. DEIS (Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools), a national action plan for educational inclusion, is being phased in over the period 2006-2010. 
The fruits of a major expansi on of opportunities in adult and fu rther education (expenditure 
increased between 2002 and 2008 by 60%) are eviden ced in 2008 in LLL participation results. 
Adult literacy provision was extende d from 5,000 in 1997 to over 49,000 in 2008. The 
National Skills Strategy, 2007, recommends that  literacy and numeracy should be embedded 
in all publicly funded pr ogrammes, and sets out an economic imperative for the upskilling of 
workers with low or no qualifications. Early sch ool leavers are targeted, as are the employed, 
unemployed and older people, th rough second chance provision.  
1.3. Teacher education and approaches to assessment  
The Teaching Council was established in 2006 to regulate the profession, and to promote the 
professional development of teachers. Recognisi ng the changing role of teachers and their 
importance as reflective, continuous learners, it is  redefining the conten t of teacher education 
programmes with an emphasis on a learning-out comes approach and all existing programmes 
will be reviewed and accredited, star ting in the second semester of 2009. 
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
At primary level, there are no formal examinatio ns, but assessment is an integral part of the 
work of the class teacher. Guidelines on assessm ent for teachers were published by the NCCA 
in 2007 and issued to all teacher s and provide a range of appr oaches for both formative and 
summative assessment. Standardised testing in English reading and Mathematics is implemented for all pupils at two stages in th e primary cycle. Schools report to parents on 
their children’s progress each year through a meeting and an annual report card. Standardised reporting templates for reporting to parents have also been developed by the NCCA for 
primary schools.  
At secondary level, summative and formative assessment takes place in schools through the 
ongoing work of the class teacher, and end of term/year school exams. There are national 
examinations externally set and marked by the State Examinations Commission at the end of junior cycle (after 3 years lower second level provision) and at the end of senior cycle (on 
completion of upper second level ed ucation at the end of 5 or 6 years second level provision) 
Exam results are published a nnually by the State Examinati ons Commission, by subject, 
gender and grade. The Chief Examiner's Re ports highlight strengths, weaknesses and 
recommendations in the subjects concerne d. These and the outcomes of evaluations 
conducted by the inspectorate (Whole School Evaluation, subject insp ections, and a number 
of in-depth thematic evaluati ons), are taken into account in ongoing curriculum reform. 
NCCA is working with a network of 20 school s on Assessment for Learning to promote new 
understanding of how students learn and how assessment can  guide student progress. 
 
EN 165   EN Ireland takes part in international co mparative evaluations such as PISA. 
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
The promotion of lifelong learning is a governing principle of education and training policy in 
Ireland. Lifelong learning policy is developed in  collaboration between the D/ES and D/ETE, 
in consultation with a wide ra nge of stakeholders. Reports su ch as The White Paper on Adult 
Education, the Task Force on Lifelong Learning and the National Skills Strategy all provide 
for a continuum from early chil dhood through to adulthood, with an extensive range of adult 
learning programmes taking place in the further and higher education and training sectors. An 
updated lifelong learning strategy is currently being finalised. 
The National Qualifications Framework (NFQ) is a 10-level framework providing for all 
awards in the State, from basic education an d literacy to post-doctoral level across the 
education and training sectors. It is an impor tant step in meeting the needs of a lifelong 
learning community with more diverse learners  who have different learning needs. A key 
element of the NFQ is to improve access (entry) to education and training, transfer within and between education and training and progression within and be tween education and training, 
leaving no dead ends.  
The NFQ is supporting validation of formal, non- formal and informal learning, based on the 
achievement of learning outcomes. The framewor k includes provision fo r recognition of prior 
learning. In Ireland full awards can be gained by RPL, although these are the exception; the 
greatest use of recognition of prior learning is  for student entry to programmes or for the 
purpose of gaining credits or exemptions.  
Ireland completed the mapping of its NFQ to EQF in  June 2009. It is anticipated that the next 
stage of introducing a reference to the EQF in  all new Certificate and Diploma Supplements 
should be completed by 2012. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
VET's attractiveness is not questioned and the NFQ provides for all awards across the 
education and training sectors. An Expert Group on Future Skills Needs (EGFSN) acts as the central national resource on skill s and labour supply for the enterp rise sector and on overall 
strategy for enterprise training in Ireland. Its reports assist in VET policy formulation and 
reform. To cope with the impact of the econo mic crisis 7,000 extra e ducation and training 
places are being created for the unemploye d, many in post-sec ondary training and 
apprenticeship courses. 
Government policy, as articulated in th e National Development Plan 2007-2013, is to 
implement the 2007 report of the EGFSN- Towards a National Skills Strategy . This Strategy 
sets out clear long-ter m objectives in developing Ireland’s human capital through up-skilling, 
training and education for the period to 2020. VET programmes are fully integrated in the 
seamless ten-level National Framework of Qualifications. 
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
In February 2009, the Minister for Education and Science launched a process to develop a 
new National Strategy for Higher Education for th e next twenty years. The process is being 
led by a high level Steering Group comprising national and international expertise. The 
 
EN 166   EN National Skills Strategy vision is for 45% of the labour force to have post-upper secondary 
qualifications by 2020. 
Ireland recognises that it must examine ways of expanding the non-exchequer sources of 
income of institutions so that they have the resources to compete on an international level 
going into the future. A review of the options re lating to the introduction of a form of student 
contribution is currently being finalised, drawing on international experience. 
The National Access Office, within the Highe r Education Authority (HEA), facilitates 
educational access and opportunity for groups w ho are under-represented in higher education. 
It published a new National Plan for Equity of Access to Higher Education 2008-2013 which foresees development of a broader range of en try routes, a significant expansion of part-
time/flexible courses and that mature students will comprise at least 20% of total full-time 
entrants by 2013. From 2004-05 to 2006-07, there was a 29% increase in  the number of 
mature students. 
 
EN 167   EN  
GREECE 
Greece EU average EU Benchmarks  
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood 
education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. 
primary)  69.3% 68.2%0785.6% 90.7%07 95% 
Reading 24.4% 27.7%0621.3% 24.1%0617.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 32.3%06- 24.0%06- 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study 
results) 
 Science - 24.0 %06- 20.2%06- 15% 
Early leavers from education and 
training  
(age 18-24)  18.2% 14.8% b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  79.2% 82.1% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - -  - 33.6%07+15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher 
education)  Share of females  - 44.2%0730.7% 31.9%07Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  25.4% 25.6% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  2.6% 03 2.9%  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 3.39% 4.0%05 4.91% 5.05% 06- - 
03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
In school related areas Greece’s performance is mixed. In two areas: Early leavers from 
education  and training  and Upper secondary attainment,  Greece performs sli ghtly better than 
the EU average. While on early school leavers there has been some progress since 2000, 
 
EN 168   EN Greece's performance on Low achievers and on Participation in early childhood education  is 
below the EU average and appear s to deteriorat e or stagnate. 
One area in which Greece has made progr ess is in increasing the number of MST graduates . 
The share of females in this field is clearly above the EU average. However, the share with 
High education attainment  appears to have stagnated and was below the EU average in 2008. 
As regards Adult participation in lifelong learning,  Greece has a very low performance which 
has only slightly in creased since 2000.  
Greece performs above the 2010 EU benchmark level as regards the increase in the number of 
MST graduates.  
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
The Greek education system is very centralised. There is a gradual but slow shift to a less 
teacher/single book/exam-centred, more flex ible system with some emphasis on the 
development of key competences. In compulsory education, this shift includes initiatives to 
modernise curricula and text books, increase the use of ICTs and reform special needs 
provision. This transition is far from complete. While dialogue involving  political parties and 
social partners started recently, low level of public investment in education and training, 
continual changes in policy and the heavy politicisation of/lack of political consensus on 
education are among the factors that have sl owed down reform. More and better ECEC 
provision, better quality and equ ity of provision, more attractiv eness and relevance of VET, 
and an upper-secondary system that is decoupled  from university-entry exams, are some key 
challenges. 
1.1. Curricular reforms  
New textbooks and learning material are bei ng produced, with emphasis on the development 
of key competencies and a cross-curricular appr oach to knowledge. Pre-primary education is 
now compulsory at the age of 5. Mother tongue  is the focal point of the national curriculum in 
primary schooling. ICT competen ce features in the curriculum  as a separate subject. The 
study of foreign languages is compulsory from primary level onwar ds (with specialist 
teachers also in primary) but teaching a foreig n language as a separate subject remains the 
main approach. Second foreign language provision is being piloted in th e last two years of 
primary. In secondary, preparatory language clas ses (EL) are provided to non-Greek students. 
In addition to compulsory EN, an option betw een FR, DE or IT is available as a second 
foreign language, compulsory in lower-secondary and optional in upper-secondary. Secondary VET students can choose between EN, FR a nd DE. Where adopted, the “Flexible Zone” 
curricular component and the impl ementation of school projects al so reflect the gradual shift 
to a more cross-curricular approach. Also, th e new types of secondary  VET schools after 2006 
provide a broader and more balanced curriculum.  
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
There is a range of additional school types fo r early school leavers and for students who 
started to work after finishin g compulsory education (such as second chance schools and 
evening schools). There are also  "intercultural" sc hools that cater for the children of the 
Muslim minority and for Roma children. EL as a Second Language  is available to working 
immigrants and has become a prerequisite for obtaining residence licence. There is a 
 
EN 169   EN programme for instruction and counselling sup port to families (adults) of Roma, Muslims, 
Repatriates and Immigrants. Special education is compulsory since 2008. Provision for pupils 
with special needs includes education in special  classes or schools (sep arate) as well as in 
mainstream settings. The Vocatio nal Training Centres offer vocatio nally oriented services to 
unemployed adults with a secondary or post- secondary VET qualification and to vulnerable 
social groups. 
There is a need to provide more and better l earning opportunities to adults, including the so-
called "non-traditional" learne rs and to those most vulnera ble and severely affected by 
inequalities and economic swings. The Sec ond Chance Schools target  young adults without 
lower-secondary qualifications and emphasise th e acquisition of key competences and social 
skills. The 58 Centres for Adult Education  are open to all adult citizens. The 58 Schools for 
Parents  cover topics that include parental guidance, family-s chool relations, and health 
education. The Centre for Distance Adult LLL  provides a distance learning programme. The 
Prefectural Committees for Adult Education are part of the local government and implement training programmes with a wide range of topics . Some targeted adult education programmes 
aim to develop digital competences of adult l earners. The Hellenic Open University offers 
open and distance courses leading to a bachelor  or master’s degree. Significant professional 
development opportunities are available to p ublic administration and local government 
employees in the context of the on-going e fforts to modernise public administration. 
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
The work of the Organisation for Teacher Tr aining (OEPEK) complements the work of the 
Pedagogical Institute (PI) in the provision of in -service training of teachers and of regional 
induction training for newly-appointed staff. In alignment with the new textbooks and 
learning material it has produced, the PI’s training courses aim to  enhance the perspectives of 
the new teachers and encourage them to a dopt a cross-curricular , competence-building 
approach. However, practitioners report probl ems in the use and quality of the new books. 
The new curricula promote student assessment that is more learner-centered, criterion-
referenced, combines formative and summative m eans, and avoids general comparisons with 
other learners. Student assessment guidelines a nd procedures are set centrally by the Ministry. 
In addition, for each subject, the relevant te xtbook provided by the Ministry is accompanied 
by a teachers’ manual that includes assessment issues.  
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
Assessment for learning is the main approach  to pupils’ evaluation. The fact that the 
Pedagogical Institute is the body responsible for curriculum  development but also for 
evaluating its effectiven ess in primary and secondary has ra ised questions of  objectivity. Also, 
an increasing number of voices in recent years argue  that there is a need to foster a culture of 
evaluation in all types and levels of compulsory  education in order to develop effective long-
term policies and create policies based on solid  evidence. The recently-established Quality 
Assurance Agency aims to moni tor quality in tertiary edu cation and there are plans to 
promote quality assessment in compulsory levels. 
Greece takes part in international compara tive student evaluations such as PISA. 
 
EN 170   EN 2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
The 2005 Law on the "Systematisation of Lifelong Learning" is now enacted and the basis for 
the establishment of a LLL ne twork. Policy action aims at  setting up a comprehensive 
institutional and practical platform systemis ing existing education and VET framework, the 
latter being a pillar of the Greek LLL approach. LLL is larg ely equated with adult education. 
The provision of LLL services is  expanding and the coordination of the variou s actors has 
improved, in particular visible through the increased activation of the National LLL 
Committee as a key player for LLL policies. Add itionally, tertiary education institutions are 
establishing and expanding LLL institutes. Howeve r, supportive scientific and administrative 
structures still need to be put in place, as well as guidance an d counselling services to provide 
information on LLL opportunities and careers.  
While a Committee has been appointed to look into the issue, there is no system for the 
validation of non-formal and informal learning. Some progress is reporte d in the validation of 
an increasing number of job profiles and in the (initial) steps to set up a NQF aligned with the 
EQF. The establishment of Lifelong Learning Ins titutes in tertiary education institutions and 
in social partner structures ha s rendered LLL more accessible. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
Increasing the quality, attractiveness and labour-m arket relevance of VET in Greece is a big 
challenge. VET has been declining with 30% fe wer students in the last 6 years and a large 
number of early leaver s from VET. There is broad recogni tion of the need to develop clear 
and diverse pathways through vocat ional education to higher educ ation, to furt her learning 
and to employment, to remove dead ends an d to improve the quality, attractiveness and 
relevance of VET. The new types of seconda ry VET schools (EPAL and EPAS) show a shift 
away from job-specific to a broader and more balanced curriculum with some emphasis on 
the development of key competences. EPAL gr aduates are now able to participate in 
university-entry exams to tertia ry education at an equal footing with students from general 
secondary. EPAS curricula curre ntly focus on 41 occupational sp ecialisations that are on high 
demand. Some mobility between secondary gene ral and vocational tracks is now possible. 
Also, a quota of places reserved for EPAL stude nts in certain tertiary education schools is 
believed to increase the appeal of secondary  VET. There are some improvements in 
infrastructure planned, learning resources and facilities, teache r training and accreditation, 
school-based and local government-based guida nce and employment liaison offices, and some 
efforts to increase public awareness of VET oppor tunities and its enhanced status. There is 
progress in the clarification of the o ccupational rights of TEI graduates.  
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
Reform of HE is in progress since 2006. It ha s been heavily contested and politicised but 
contestation is gradually giving  way to debate. Greek univers ities and research remain under-
funded. New legislation aims to raise investment  in research to 1.5% from the current 0.7% of 
GDP, encourages synergies between universi ties, public research organisations and 
enterprises and supports the creation of spin-off companies. Greece has a v ery high 
unemployment of young graduates. While direct pub lic funding is the main source of income 
for HE and research, 2007 legislation facilita tes synergies with the private and industrial 
sectors and has enabled the diversification of  income streams. Also, the public funding of 
universities is now linked to the compulsory subm ission of 4-year academic and budgetary 
 
EN 171   EN plans. Tertiary education institutions are subject to internal and external evaluation by the 
Quality Assurance Agency. 
 
EN 172   EN  
SPAIN 
Spain EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood 
education 
(4 years old - year before start of 
comp. primary)  100.0% 98.1%07 85.6% 90.7%07  95% 
Reading 16.3% 25.7%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 24.7%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study 
results) 
 Science - 19.6%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and 
training  
(age 18-24)  29.1% 31.9% b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  66.0% 60.0% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 
2000  - 12.4%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher 
education)  Share of females  31.5% 29.9%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  29.2% 39.8% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong 
learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  10.5 % 05 10.4%  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of 
GDP 4.28% 4.28%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003,05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
 
EN 173   EN In school related areas, Spain performs a bove the EU average on participation in Early 
childhood education . However, Spain performs below the EU average in the remaining three: 
Low achievers, Early leavers from education and training , and Upper secondary attainment  
and its performance in the pe riod 2000-2008 has deteriorated. 
Spain has made strong progress in increasing th e number of MST graduates . Moreover, Spain 
has a high share of Higher education attainment  and has performed significantly above the 
EU average throughout the period. 
As concerns Investment in education  as a percentage of GDP, Spain performs below EU 
average levels and levels have not increa sed since 2000. Nevertheless, since Spanish GDP 
increased more rapidly than the EU average, in vestment in education has grown in absolute 
terms. 
Spain performs above the 2020 benchmark levels on: Participation in early childhood 
education . 
1. Policies for development of the key competences   
The European framework of key competences ha s been adapted to the Spanish educational 
system and integrated into the curricula. The key competences have been defined as follows: 
1) linguistic communication; 2) mathematical competence; 3) knowledge of and interaction 
with the physical world; 4) information proc essing and digital competence; 5) social and 
citizenship competence; 6) cultu ral and artistic competence; 7) learning to learn; 8) autonomy 
and personal initiative. 
1.1. Curricular reforms  
The competence-based approach ha s led to significant changes in  the curricula for languages, 
which until 2006 were largely focused on linguistic s. The current approach puts more weight 
in enabling pupils to use languages for a variet y of purposes. In the area of mathematics, 
capacities such as reasoning or informed decisi on taking are being give n more weight, as well 
as a push to improve didactics.  
Both in primary and secondary education, the curriculum for each subj ect details how it is 
expected to contribute to the development of the key competen ces, including the transversal 
ones. ICT (digital competence) has been the subject of specia l attention. A special emphasis 
has also been put on reading, which is underst ood as essential for de veloping all the key 
competences, and therefore has to be d ealt with within all subject areas. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
Several measures have been put in place to redu ce early school leaving in Spain, such as the 
PROA plan (Programme for Reinforcement, Guidance and Support), which supports the 
development of key competences in pupils  at risk of dropping out. The new PCPI 
(Programmes for Initial Vocational Qualifi cation) also foresee both an initial VET 
qualification and reinforcing the key competences , with a view to enabling pupils to pursue 
their educational ca reers afterwards. 
Early school leavers, those without basic qualif ications, immigrants and Roma are among the 
target groups of adult education.  Adult education centres take an  initial individual assessment 
of needs as the departure point of personalise d learning pathways that  often combine basic 
 
EN 174   EN skills (e.g. literacy) with prof essionalization courses and non-fo rmal learning. They may also 
lead towards (re)entering formal educa tion through targeted admission tests.  
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
Initial teacher education comprises instructi on on the key competences and their didactics. 
From 2009, a two-year Master's degree will be  introduced as a prerequisite for graduates 
wishing to teach at secondary schools, also with  a view to raising thei r abilities in the key 
competences. In-service training is playing a ro le in familiarising existing teachers with the 
competence-based approach. 
Changes in the assessment methods are being introduced gradually, based on the description 
of the contribution of each of the subject areas to the acquisi tion of the key competences.  
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
Evaluation is set out as an integral activity of  the education system by the Education Law. 
Two main types of evaluations are conducted:  censual (covering all schools) and sample. 
While the former vary across regions and are more curriculum-based, the latter are national-
level evaluations and are based on the key comp etences, starting with four of them in 2009. 
PISA results show that there remains pot ential for improving overall basic skills. 
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
The 2006 Education Act and the 2007 framework law on higher education constitute policy 
frameworks covering all the different levels and modalities of the education system. Work on 
the NQF is on-going and it is foreseen that it wi ll enter into force in 2011. A Royal Decree on 
the validation of prof essional competences acquired through work or non-formal learning is 
also foreseen for July 2009. 
This validation procedure will be implemented  by the autonomous re gions, and it has been 
conceived as part of an integrated guidance process, so that individuals will not only be able to have their competences recognised, but will al so have them assessed and will be helped to 
understand the different options to complement  them. Validation will be conducted on an 
evidence basis (e.g. portfolios). Social partners ha ve been closely involved in this process. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
Increasing the numbers of VET graduates remain s one of the key challenges of the Spanish 
education system, in the light of comparisons with other countries an d of other contextual 
indicators, such as early school leaving, and in spite of the fact that VET graduates perform 
significantly well in the labour market.  
A "roadmap" for a new VET model was presented in  2008. It is foreseen to better integrate 
initial VET with training for workers in employment, so as to provide a better quality and more labour market relevant offer. A series of  other changes are intr oduced to increase the 
attractiveness of VET, e.g. a flexible, modular and adaptable offer; the obligation to spend 
training periods in enterprises; or increasing the availability of  scholarships for studying VET. 
 
EN 175   EN 4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
The Strategy Universidad 2015, adopted by the Government in 2009, foresees four lines of 
action in order to modernise Higher Education: 1)  the 'missions' of HE (teaching, research and 
transfer of knowledge and res ponsibility); 2) people (teachers and researchers, students and 
other staff); 3) capacity strengthening (governan ce, finance, etc.); and 4) built environment . 
Funding issues are largely in the hands of the regions. While the policy on low tuition fees 
remains unchanged and scholarships increase, univ ersities are being s timulated to diversify 
their sources of income for missions other th an teaching. Spanish universities have been 
traditionally active LLL providers, and a worki ng group is currently reflecting on how to 
strengthen this role. Adaptation to the European  Higher Education Area remains a key priority 
for the immediate future. 
 
EN 176   EN FRANCE 
France EU average EU Benchmarks  
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary)  100% 100%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading 15.2% 21.7%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 22.3%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 21.2%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  13.3% 11.8% b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  81.6% 83.4% b 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 7.4%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  30.8% 28.1%07 30.7% 31.9%07 amélioration 
de l'accès 
des femmes- 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  27.4% 41.3% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  7.1% 03  7.3%  8.5% 039.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 6.03% 5.58%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
France performs above the EU average in Participation in earl y childhood education , Low 
achievers in mathematics and science , Early leavers from education and training  and Upper 
secondary completion rate. Particip ation in early childhood education  is reaching 100% and 
the share of early school leavers  and upper secondary attainment  are close to the EU 
benchmarks.  
However, as regards low achievers in reading,  the performance of France has deteriorated 
significantly since 2000. 
 
EN 177   EN France did not progress further during the period in increas ing the number of tertiary MST 
graduates . The share of female MST graduates ha s fallen since 2000 and is now below EU 
average. 
On the other hand France has made good progress in increasing the share of 30-34 year olds 
with higher education attainment  and today performs 10 percentage points above EU average. 
As concerns adult participation in lifelong learning, France has made little progress in recent 
years and is now performing clear ly below the EU average.  
In the area of Investment in education  as a % of GDP the perfor mance of France has fallen 
since 2000 (if economic growth is taken into acc ount it has, however, sti ll grown in absolute 
terms), but is still above EU average. 
France performs above  the 2020 EU benchmarks in two areas : Participation in early 
childhood education and Higher education attainment. 
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
France develops policy to strengthen the acquis ition of the key competences. This policy is 
coherent with the European Framework for Key Competences and has various measures, 
designed for very young pupils (primary educa tion), young people in colle ges or undergoing 
initial vocational training (first cycl e of the secondary), or the adults. 
1.1. Curricular reforms  
The French authorities integrated the key co mpetences into the educational and training 
system from 2005-2006. The law of 24 Apri l 2005 introduced the "common competence 
base" which defined seven key competences. They  in principle adopt the definitions of the 
key competences form the European Framewor k on Key Competences. These initiatives are 
reflected in the curricula of primary, seconda ry and vocational education, for example with 
the introduction of the teaching of foreign la nguage as from the second year of primary 
school. Moreover, adapted and individualised teaching approaches are used to develop 
confidence and the image of oneself, critical skills, and communication with others. 
In the field of adult learning, many initiatives were taken, such as the "key competences" 
programme established in January 2008, which en abled an increasing adaptability of the 
training offer, provided by the state. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
The target groups, identified as those requiring special training or education provisions in 
order to allow them to acquire the key compet ences, are mainly illiterate persons (3.1 million 
individuals), persons with low education le vel (ISCED level 0 to 3), prisoners and 
immigrants. For these groups specific training activities are carried out. 
Young people with the disadvantaged backgrou nd can receive teaching support and specific 
measures which aim to open their access to the community programmes and thus improve their geographical mobility. 
 
EN 178   EN 1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
The content requirements of the initial and continuing training of the teachers since 2007 
referred to the key competences such as they appear in the common base of the key competences. In addition, a vocational training "key competences and the common base – how to assess the competences of the scholarship " is envisaged. As regard s the training of the 
teachers of adults, there are no national leve l regulations, the training centres have the 
responsibility for this  kind of training. 
The formative assessment is regarded as a crucia l aspect of providing the key competences for 
young people in initial education. It forms integral part in the course of education and 
training, from the primary level till the end of th e secondary, and is organised in various ways 
(tests, evaluation protocol in mathematics,  portfolio, individual competence booklet, etc). 
Another initiative of the French authorities is  the integration of a competence booklet in the 
general booklet (primary school ) and the individual school f ile (in the college). The 
summative assessment of the comp etences is attached to the diploma or certificate (B2i, 
CFG). Concerning the assessment of  the linguistic competencies, at  the level of the "Diplôme 
National du Brevet" DNB (Patent), France intr oduced the obligatory validation of the level 
A2 of the Common European Framewor k of reference for languages (CERF). 
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes  
The evaluation of the key competences forms is included as part of the indicators of 
performance of the education system and is also taken into account for the definition of 
specific provisions with the attentio n to those which are underperforming. 
France takes part in the international surveys of pupils' achievements, for example PISA and 
PIRLS, and the European surveys on language skills. 
2. Development and implemen tation of LLL strategies  
France undertook reforms in mid-2000s which aimed to make lifelong learning a reality. 
These policies affected all th e segments of education and training (primary, secondary, 
professional, continuous training and higher ed ucation) and are implemented by multi-annual 
plans of modernisation and ad aptation of education and tr aining and its organisation.  
In addition France established institutions to fost er the implementation of the lifelong learning 
strategies. The National Commission of Profe ssional Certification (C NCP), created in 2002 
manages the national commission for professional qualification (RNCP). It is in charge of 
referring the French national qualification framework to the EQF. The national council of the lifelong vocational training was established by th e Law of 4 May 2004, it is the forum of co-
operation for the state and the economic and soci al partners on legislation, the regulation, the 
financing and the regional policies in the fi elds of training and apprenticeship, thus 
contributing to the development of the lifelong le arning strategy.  
In 2002, France set up an efficient system of va lidation of non formal and informal learning 
"Validation of acquired experien ce" (VAE). It enables all the adults to obtain certification 
which approves their professional and personal experience. The number of recipients is 
increasing, passing from 22,652 in 2005 to 25,956 in 2006 and to 30,000 in 2007.  
 
EN 179   EN In addition, the individual ri ght to training (DIF),  established in 2004 makes it possible for 
each employee to benefit from an annual 20-hour minimum of training. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training  
France develops a policy to increase the a ttractiveness of VET acco rding to four main 
principles: improvement of information and guidance of young people and adults; assessment 
of the professional way (reduction of the durat ion of training leading to the professional 
baccalaureate, development of the professional college, establishment of pathways between 
the various education and training segments, et c); strengthening of the links between VET 
programmes, qualifications and the needs of th e labour market, democratisation of access to 
European mobility. Improvement of the re levance of the VET programmes is also 
implemented by setting up and developing forecasti ng of the labour market needs, the surveys 
of the labour market and supply of qualifications. 
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
The modernisation of higher education in France  accelerated in recent years. Today, it rests 
mainly on three strategic main principles: great er autonomy of the HE institutions and their 
opening to lifelong training, development of  vocational and professional training and 
vocational inclusion of the students.  
The law on "freedom and responsibility of th e universities" (August 2007) guaranteed greater 
autonomy to the universities in the manage ment of their budget. Now universities can 
diversify their sources of financing and thus ope n to private funds (patro nage, foundations). It 
enables the HE institutions to approach the economic world, and improve their governance.  
The validation of informal learning (2002), the governmental plan of development for 
apprenticeship (2005), the development of suppl y of continuous training and certification 
contribute opening of the universities to vocational and lifelong learning. 
Lastly, the creation of "assistance office for the students' professional inclusion", shows that 
the universities take active measures to impr ove the vocational integration of the students. 
 
EN 180   EN  
ITALY 
Italy EU average EU Benchmarks  
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood 
education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. 
primary)  100% 99.3%0785.6% 90.7%07  95% 
Reading 18.9% 26.4%0621.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics  32.8%06- 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science  25.3%06- 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and 
training  
(age 18-24)  25.1% 19.7% 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  69.4% 76.5% 76.5% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 112,5%07- 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  36.6% 37.0%0730.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  11.6% 19.2% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  6.3%04 6.3%  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 4.55% 4.73%064.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 04= 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
In school related areas, Italy is  among EU's highest performers on Participation in early 
childhood education . On Early leavers from education and training  and Upper secondary 
completion rates , even though Italy performs below EU  average levels, the trend between 
2000 and 2008 shows a significant improvement.  
 
EN 181   EN Italy’s performance on Low achievers  is below the EU average and performance has 
deteriorated. 
It is notable that Italy has had a very strong growth in MST graduates. Nevertheless, Italy has 
significantly lower Higher education attainment  than the EU average. Moreover, Adult 
participation in li felong learning  is lower in Italy than the EU  average and performance is not 
increasing. 
Italy performs above the 2010 EU benchmark level as regards the increase  in the number of 
MST graduates.  
1. Policies for development of the key competences   
In 2006 a law on new compulsory education was adopted, based on the 2006 European 
Recommendation on key competence s and contains four pillars: languages (with informatics), 
mathematics, scientific-technologic, historical-s ocial. Learning outcome s have been presented 
in terms of competence, knowledge and skills. A Working Group has been created to put the 
NQF in line with the EQF, adopting a competence-based approach and following non- 
academic higher training (IFTS - Istruzione e Fo rmazione Tecnica Superiore) best practices.  
1.1. Curricular reforms  
In the 2006 law on new compulsory education, learning outcomes have been defined 
according to the above four pillars and the Key Competences Recommendation . They do not 
correspond exactly with the curric ulum disciplines, as they were specified and developed in a 
2007 decree. In June 2009, a Reform of "Licei" (s enior high schools) completely transformed 
and reduced courses in upper secondary educati on (from 400 courses to 6 main "Licei") in 
order to support more autonomous schools, a stronger link education-labour market-
University and a more rational list of courses. 
The curriculum disciplines have been correla ted to the EU key competences. They are the 
following: learning to learn, planning, commun icating, partnership, acting autonomously and 
responsibly, problem solving, connections identifying, information keeping promoting 
personality and positive social relationships. Mo ther tongue, foreign languages, maths science 
and technology, digital competence and social and civic competences are included in the 
national curriculum and form the compulsory education disciplines. With the new laws mentioned above they are present also in te rms of cultural axes. Cultural awareness and 
expression key competence is include d in the language pi llar. Learning to l earn concerns also 
VET, and the Initiative taking and entrepreneursh ip competence does not appear in general or 
VET curriculum. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
Compulsory education has been widened and no w spans almost 10 years. Access to the labour 
market is possible from age 16; the entire cycle of secondary education ends at 18. From 16 to 
18, new pedagogical approaches ha ve been included to make l earning more attractive, e.g. 
workplace activities or the alte rnation of school and job, starting from 15. In VET, to 
guarantee basic competence to all young people leaving upper secondary general education, a 
review of continuous traini ng is in development.  
 
EN 182   EN To support social re-integration, a LLL promotion for Italian adults and migrant adults has 
been set up through the Permanen t Territorial Centres and even ing courses. The training is 
based on the key competences.  
Most of initiatives ta rgeted at adults concern VET, an d particularly continuous training 
activities for employed persons. These activ ities are managed and funded both by public 
authorities, both by trade unions and private companies; the la tter are financed by funds 
collectively managed by social partners (Fondi Paritetici Interprofessionali). In the frame of 
national measures against the cu rrent crisis, these funds cover inter alia training to improve 
transversal, linguistic, entrepreneurship and digital key competences as the foundation for 
economic recovery.  
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
There is also a special teacher training project ( Sistema Permanente di Formazione on line  - 
SPF on line) , where teachers on the general educati on (national level) and VET (regional 
level) work together, cooperate and promote best practises, to  implement the achievement of 
key competencies and transversal vocational kno wledge. The SPF is an e-learning project.  
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
There is common agreement that the evaluation is a central issue. Two strands are followed: 
evaluation of process and evaluation of outcomes. As for the latter, the National Institute for 
Evaluation (Invalsi) carries out periodic surv eys on pupils’ achievements. In line with the 
EQARF methodology, a test to evaluate competenci es of vocational trai ning students has been 
carried out. It should lead to a standardized tool for evaluation of regional VET courses. 
Results will increase the knowle dge of policy makers when redefining VET programmes.  
Italy participates in PISA, PI RLS, TIMSS international compar ative student assessments, and 
in PIAAC 2008-2013 Programme.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
Italian action in the field of lif elong learning is in line with Eu ropean strategies. It includes 
initiatives to recognize competences acquired out side formal education and training and the 
enhancement of learning opportunities for all ci tizens. National bodies (M inistries and social 
representatives) coopera te with local authorities (mainly Regions).  
A Working Group for defining the NQF has been set up, in order to ag ree on the conceptual 
framework and methodology. By 2011, all qualificatio ns and certifications will be included in 
the EQF. Another initiative is th e "Libretto formativo del cittadino" (citizen's training record) 
that has been tested in several regions. It sh ould be part of a more general process of 
definition of national procedures for valida tion and recognition of competences acquired 
through non-formal and informal learning ac tivities, which do not yet exist.  
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
Actions aiming to increase VET attractiveness include widening of th e range of available 
courses, including initial training and non-academic  higher training paths; increasing the link 
with the local labour market and the skills demanded by en terprises; and designing an 
additional year for initial VET programmes that allow enrolment to ISCED level 4 courses. A permanent national monitoring system, devoted to  the analysis of occupational and training 
 
EN 183   EN needs, informs stakeholders about characteristic s and evolution of local systems in order to 
define labour policies, to deve lop training initiatives and to manage human resources.  
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
Since 1993, the Higher education system has unde rgone a deep process of change. The first 
step has been financial autonomy for unive rsities. Subsequently, Italy set up the 
Bachelor/Master system, following the Bologna pr ocess. It leaded to  the enrolment of a 
number of adults who had previously droppe d out from higher edu cation, often after a 
working experience.  
The main source of public funding is the "Fo ndo Finanziamento ordina rio" (FFO). In the 
period 2000-2006, it passed from covering 61.5% of  the total budget of public universities to 
57.2%. At the same time, fees pa id by students and private funds have increased substantially 
(the latter from 11.7% to 15.7%). 
Higher education became more attractive for adults thanks to the introduction of 3-year 
courses (bachelor) and to the pos sibility to have previous co mpetences - acquired on the job 
or through non-formal and informal educati on – recognized by the academic system and 
counted as credits.  
 
EN 184   EN  
CYPRUS 
Cyprus EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary)  64.7% 84.7%07 85.6% 90.7%07  95% 
Reading - - 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - - - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - - - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  18.5% 13.7% b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  79.0% 85.1% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 63.4%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  31.0% 31.5%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve
gender 
balance- 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  31.1% 47.1% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  7.9% 03  8.5 %  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 5.35% 7.02%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Cyprus performs above the EU aver age in three school  related areas: Participation in early 
childhood education , Early leavers from education and training  and Upper secondary 
attainment , and its performance has improved si gnificantly during the period 2000-2008.  
 
EN 185   EN Investment in education  has grown significantly in Cypr us during the period 2000-2006, and 
in the EU Cyprus invests the thir d highest share of its GDP in edu cation. It is al so notable that 
among EU countries, Cyprus had the seco nd highest private spending on educational 
institutions, at more than 1% of GDP. 
Cyprus is the EU Member State with  the highest share of population with Higher education 
attainment . Moreover, there is a strong growth in the number of MST graduates. Interestingly, 
however, these developments are not acco mpanied by a higher than average Adult 
participation rate in  lifelong learning . 
Cyprus performs above the 2010 EU benchmark levels on: Participation in early childhood 
education , Upper secondary attainment , and MST graduates ; and even above the 2020 EU 
benchmark levels on Higher education attainment . 
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
Cyprus is transforming its education system by inserting the European key competences at all 
educational levels in its Life Long Learning Strategy. There are initiatives in the field of ICT 
learning, teaching entrepreneurship  and learning to learn. One point  that Cyprus continues to 
focus on is the teaching of Greek to migrants  with other mother-tongues – this is becoming 
the focus of more efforts at all levels with new educational approaches and should cover all 
schools within three years.  
1.1. Curricular reforms  
A new curriculum is being prepared for the academic year 2009-10 and will be pilot tested 
before being implemented nationally. It focuse s strongly on all eight key competences. There 
is an enrichment of the science curriculum with  greater ICT and new efforts to teach Greek to 
migrant children. ICT access is being expanded in schools and gran ts given to those at lower 
secondary level to buy computers in order to  promote greater digital competences.  
Entrepreneurship, learning to learn and soci al and cultural awareness are being actively 
promoted within the curriculum.  
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
Zones of Educational Priority have been set up to encourage civic values and intercultural 
tolerance and aid migrants learn Greek. They also provide special opportunities for pupils 
with diverse backgrounds. Special Greek classes are now given to migrant children at primary 
level. There are special schools to  help talented students in thei r speciality such as music and 
sports schools and all-day schools. ZEPs also aim to link in families too and create greater 
social cohesion, and reduce the rate of school drop-outs.  
Lifelong learning guidance has been set up for disadvantaged groups provided mainly by the 
adult education centres. There are special effo rts for migrants, asylum seekers, political 
refugees, the disabled, those w ith learning difficulties, diaspora Greeks with lower levels of 
Greek, and particularly important in the Cyprio t context: Greek for Turkish Cypriots, Turkish 
classes for Greek Cypriots resp ectively . There are also specia l programmes for prisoners to 
help assure their social re-integration.  
Adult Education Centres and State Institutes of further education have been set up to provide 
non-formal continuous adult education to a ll Cypriot citizens aged  15+ aiming at the 
 
EN 186   EN enhancement of the quality of adult educat ion provision, the improvement of knowledge and 
skills acquisition for adults leaving school with out any basic qualifications and the provision 
of lifelong learning oppor tunities for adults from various so cio-cultural backgrounds. ICT is a 
special focus of adult learning as are facilities for those with sp ecial needs. Given the political 
context of Cyprus, special effo rts are also made in promoti ng intercultural competences and 
skills for improving inte r-communal relations.  
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
The Cyprus Pedagogical Institute is upgrading in itial teacher training and in-service teacher 
training through the Educational Reform Programme . New strategies have  been devised based 
on identifying training needs and upgrading teacher skills. There is also a focus on improving 
the inter-cultural skills of t eachers and trainers. Distance lear ning portals have also been 
created for teachers and efforts made to improve ICT skills. Th ere is a new way of testing 
Greek and mathematics at 8, 11 and 15.  
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
Specific provisions for the evaluation of the outcomes and competences of the education 
system will accompany the revised curricula. . The Centre for Educational Research and Evaluation will play a significant role in the anal ysis of evaluation results and the formulation 
of evidence-based education policy.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
A strategy for life-long learni ng was approved in November 2007, including measures for 
early school leavers, migrants, women wishing to access the labour ma rket and those that 
have been long-term unemployed. The establishment of new inst itutions of higher education 
have been a particularly importa nt corollary to this process as  they provide courses for people 
on the labour market as well as tertiary students.  
The new universities will play an important role in increasing life-long learning both in 
providing extra places for students in Cyprus  and also for providi ng LLL to people on the 
labour market. The new Apprentice System, when  up and running in 2010, will also help to 
train younger people that have dropped out of the school system early and provide them with 
better basic skills to access the labour market ea rlier. A NQF is being set-up in Cyprus too – 
although the report does  not include any plan for valida tion of non-formal and informal 
learning once the formal education system has been integrated into the NQF.  
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
A recent external evaluation st udy commissioned by the Ministry  of Education and Culture 
shows that
 Cyprus will decentralise VET and the taught  content and increase cooperation with 
industry and the number of apprenticeships. The new apprenticeship system  is being set-up in 
order to move ahead in this direction. It wi ll focus too on the provision of the eight key 
competences and should be ready for academic  year 2010-2011. Increasing participation in 
VET at secondary level remains a major challenge.  
The Cyprus Productivity Centre is conducting su rveys to examine the reasons why VET is 
currently not such an attractive option to young people and to propose solutions. They will 
also try to better identify the training needs of the labour mark et at enterprise level. VET 
secondary level graduates can now also participate in the Pan-Cypriot tests to enter university, 
 
EN 187   EN and this has the potential of enha ncing the attractiveness of VET. There is also an initiative to 
bring general secondary and VET qu alifications in line so that both can access the same jobs.  
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
New universities and new study programmes have been available in Cyprus from 2007 which 
have been an important step in modernising hi gher education. There are also courses for those 
on the labour market to upgrade th eir skills, and new facilities  for continuous adult learning 
with evening and weekend courses. The School of Modern Greek has an initiative to help to 
teach Greek to migrants so that they can be tter integrate into the labour market. Some 
universities have created autonomous department s dedicated to the establishment of LLL for 
all citizens at university.  
Cyprus is diversifying its sources of funding fr om fees for post-graduates and from private 
universities and particip ation in the EU's education and re search programmes. A Science and 
Technology park may also be established to a llow universities to differentiate further their 
financial resources, e.g. from private companie s that will establish themselves there.  
 
EN 188   EN  
LATVIA 
Latvia EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. 
primary)  65.4% 88.2%0785.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading 30.1% 21.2%0621.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics  20.7%06- 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 17.4%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  16.9%02 15.5% 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  76.5% 80.0% b 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 21,2%07- 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  31.4% 32.7%0730.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  18.6% 27.0% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  7.8 % 036.8 %  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 5.64% 5.07%064.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
02 =2002, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Latvia performs above the EU average in two of the school related areas: Low achievers and 
Upper secondary attainment.  Latvia did not partic ipate in the PISA surv ey in 2000, hence it is 
not possible to measure progress.  
Adult participation in lifelong learning  has decreased since 2000 a nd is now further behind 
the EU average figure in this field.  
 
EN 189   EN On Higher education attainment  Latvia has increased the share with over 8 percentage points 
since 2000, but is behind the average in the EU. The growth in graduates in MST  since 2000 
is less than half of the EU aver age figure. The share of female MST graduates  is just above 
the EU average and the gender balan ce has improved during recent years.  
Latvia has a higher level of Investment in education  than the average of all EU countries, 
although it has decreased compared to the level in 2000.  
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
Acquisition of key competences is included in the “Basic Guidelines of LLL Policy for 2007–
2013”, the “Programme for 2008-2010 for Implementa tion of the Guidelines of LLL Policy” 
and in “Education Development Guidelines for 2007 - 2013”.  
The eight key competences are taken up in the State Standards of basic, general secondary 
and vocational education and th e underlying subject standards and further embedded into the 
curricula and assessment proce dures. Implementation is largel y carried out th rough activities 
funded by EU structural funds . Recently structural reform s addressing efficiency and 
effectiveness are being undert aken, including improving the teacher per student ratio, 
reducing the number of sc hools and teaching staff. 
1.1. Curricular reforms  
A comprehensive reform started in 2005/2006 us ing ESF funding. Basic skills education is 
embedded in the Basic education standard (2006). Curricula of 17 subjects have been 
changed, moving from acquiring information to acquiring skills. Acquiring the basic skills is 
assessed at the centralised school-leaving exam inations, among others in Latvian language 
and literature, mathematics, foreign language. Students acquire at leas t two foreign languages 
during basic education and can add a third fo reign language in the secondary education.  
The transversal key competences concept is embe dded into both the subject standards and the 
model curricula of individual subjects covering  transversal competences such as learning to 
learn, communication skills, initiative, understand ing of entrepreneurship and others. Teacher 
further training curricula have been adju sted to take on board transversal skills. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
Pedagogical correction programmes for students with learning difficulties and behavioural 
problems and social correction programmes for juvenile criminals have been developed and 
implemented. Issues concerning inclusive education are part of teacher further training courses focusing not only on the subject co ntent and methodology, but  also helping to 
improve minority and bilingual education progr ammes and special education approaches.  
Targeted approaches to adult groups: for are as follows: for the unemployed and jobseekers - 
raising competitiveness, gaining basic skills;  business start-ups - traini ng on entrepreneurship, 
preparing business plans; for pe ople with poor Latvian language sk ills – language training; for 
adults without basic or seconda ry education attainment – even ing schools; for prisoners – 
general education or VET inside prisons or  distance learning. Financial support and local 
accessibility are the challenges. 
 
EN 190   EN 1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
Initial teacher training curricula are designed to  provide competences listed in the teachers’ 
professional standards. Furthe r training: 36 hours every 3 years is mandatory, typically 
including the developments in the subject and its teaching/ assessment, using ICT but also 
teaching in minority schools, working with students from disadvantaged groups etc. 
Assessment is moving towards assessing compet ences - starting with languages, maths and 
sciences - as well as centralised exams in all subjects. 
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
The two main ways of summarising evaluati on of key competences are a) centralised 
examinations (assessment methodology is oriented  towards evaluation of competences), b) 
results of international compar ative studies, which pr ovide information about the results of 
acquisition of different basic skill s. Results of analysis are used to adjust curricula and set 
priorities for of teach er further education.  
Latvia participates in international compara tive student evaluations such as PISA, PIRLS, 
TIMSS and other.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
The “Basic Guidelines of LLL Policy for 2007–2013” and the “Programme for 2008-2010 for 
Implementation of the Guidelines of LLL Policy”  
emphasize adult learning according to interest s, abilities and regional needs and its 
implementation increased participation in LLL.  
Current implementation measures address the effi ciency of adult education and incentives to 
participate in education and training. 
The process of validation of non-formal and informal learning in Latvia is not yet 
implemented by offering the product to the end-user.  
Work towards National Qualif ication Framework correspondi ng to EQF is ongoing. A draft 
Higher Education Law has passed first reading in  parliament. It provides legal background for 
the NQF, a learning outcomes-ba sed approach, recognition of pr ior learning. Compatibility of 
HE qualifications to EQF has been establis hed, consultations are going on regarding EQF 
levels 1-4. Prior learning methodology has been wo rked out in a ESF project, but it is not yet 
embedded in legislation. New Vocational Educa tion Law project is de signed in order to 
conform to the necessity to provide more fl exible, adequate to the labour market needs 
learning outcomes as well as it states the corres ponding to EQF levels at the national level.  
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
Due to the recession VET is also undergoing a structural reform, reducing the number of 
institutions/ programmes. The traditionally low pr estige of VET in the society is a challenge. 
Employers participate in the development of  professional standards, and qualification 
examinations, provide places for educational prac tice, yet the relevance of VET to the labour 
market is often questioned. A number of m easures to improve VET with ESF support are 
 
EN 191   EN either running or envisaged. One of the activities seen as important for attracting students to 
VET is improved financial support. 
The main measures implemented are: new study programmes of VET teacher training and 
career consultancy, establishing  VET Regional Councils to ensure relevance of the VET offer 
to the needs of regions as well as co-opera tion in providing work placements, curriculum 
development, etc. Other measures: adaptation tests/individual approach to 1st-year VET students, professional mastery contests for VET students. Development of a sectoral 
qualification structure based on resear ch of economic sectors has started. 
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
EU funds have been used to modernise of programmes in engineeri ng/ natural sciences, 
further support for doctoral studies and HE in frastructure is programmed. Reform of HE 
introducing a qualifications framework, outcomes-based curri cula, recognition of prior 
learning is stipulated in the Draft Law on HE. Ch allenges: slow legislative process, and major 
HE budget cuts due to recession. 
HEIs are free to use different income streams:  state funding for studies (ca. 25% of students) 
body, tuition fees (ca 75% students), research funding, EU funding: research grants and 
structural funds, contract research and servic es. Most of HEIs open up to LLL - they have 
established adult education de partments offering: further e ducation to those with HE 
diplomas, courses for adult learners, or acqui ring modules of the existing study programmes; 
some HEIs successfully compete in the tenders , organized by public employment services to 
provide training for the unemployed. 
 
EN 192   EN  
LITHUANIA 
Lithuania EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood 
education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. 
primary)  60.6% 76.6%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading - 25.7%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 23.0%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 20.3%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and 
training  
(age 18-24)  16.5% 7.4% b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  78.9% 89.1% b 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 36.3%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  35.9% 32.5%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  42.6% 39.9% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  5.9% 04 4.9 %  8.5% 039.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 5.90% 4.84%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 04= 2004, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Lithuania performs above the EU aver age in the two school related areas Early leavers from 
education and training  and Upper secondary completion rate, where Lithuania has made 
strong progress since 2000.  Lithuania also shows strong progress in the field of Participation 
in early childhood education  although further progress is needed to reach the EU average 
 
EN 193   EN level. Concerning low achievers performance is very close to the EU average, but measuring 
progress is not possible since Lithuania did not participate in PISA in 2000.  
One area in which Lithuania has made more progr ess than the EU average is in increasing the 
number of MST graduates , and the share of females is still higher than the EU level, even if it 
has decreased since 2000. During the same peri od the share of the population with higher 
education attainment has decreased sligh tly but from a relatively high level.  
As concerns Adult participation in lifelong learning, Lithuania has made no progress and still 
performs below the EU average on the benchmark indicator.  
Public investment in education  as a % of GDP has decreased since 2000 and is slightly below 
the EU as a whole where it had slightly incr eased; therefore the ga p between Lithuania and 
the EU average performance has grown. 
Lithuania performs above the 2010 EU benchmark level on Upper secondary completion rate, 
increase in  MST graduates  and above the 2020 EU benchmark level on Early leavers from 
education and training.  
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
Lithuania has been working on modernising many areas of its educ ation system, mainly 
higher education and VET in order to raise the quality and efficiency of these systems. The 
discussion on general education, based on the c oncept of key competences, started in 2003, 
and the renewed national curriculum was developed.  
1.1. Curricular reforms  
Lithuania has introduced the key competen ces into the Update d General Curriculum 
Framework for Primary and Basic (Lower Se condary) Education. Its introduction will be 
gradual and starts in the 2009-2010 academic year . The new curriculum integrates all the key 
competences, including the transversal ones. 
The introduction of transversal competencies  is supported by cross-curriculum programmes 
(Learning to Learn, Communication, Sustainabl e Development, Health and Life Skills, 
Cultural Awareness) which integrate different subjects, non-formal education activities and 
school community events. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
Disadvantaged groups, such as SEN students, are taught according to the same curriculum, 
however, the teaching and learning methods are adapted, and the teac hers receive special 
training. To provide the “second chance” to ac quire secondary education for early school 
leavers, the legislative basis is being im proved. In 2007, the documents governing flexible 
forms of learning (the Description of the Proc edure for Module-Based Learning, Description 
of the Procedure for Independent Learning and the Description of the Procedure for 
Extramural Learning) were updated, and numer ous initiatives focused on the education of 
socially excluded groups have been implemente d. In vocational education the curricula has 
been adapted for persons having different education and needs. 
 
EN 194   EN 1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
To facilitate the transition to  the competence-based curricul um Lithuania has developed a 
network of consultants to organise on-the-s pot training for teacher s throughout the country, 
the training programmes include th e new working and assessment methods that teachers have 
to apply according to the updated curriculum.  The universities providing initial teacher 
training took part in the discussion on th e new competence-based curricula and will be 
adjusting their curricula accordingly.  
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
The evaluations of key competences are ba sed on the participation in international 
comparative surveys (PISA, PIRLS, TIMSS, etc.). At the national level, the outcomes of learning in relation to several key competences (mother tongue, mathema tical, scientific and 
technological literacy as well as  social competence and civic aw areness) are already partially 
evaluated by the National Research of Student s’ Achievements. This research evaluates 
knowledge, skills and abilities.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
The updated Strategy for Ensuring of Lifel ong Learning provides for and defines the 
directions of development of lifelong learning and their implem entation measures. It focuses 
on nine key areas, including VET, continuous training of adults, non-formal non-vocational 
adult education, professional development of  andragogues, etc., and is linked to the 
governmental long term development strategy and state education strategy (the later covers 
whole education system). The system of qualifi cations is being created  on the basis of the 
European Qualifications Framework. In 2007, the documents governing flexible forms of 
learning were updated in order to facilitate the valida tion of non-formal and informal learning. 
The national system of qualifications will enhance cohesion between the qualifications 
acquired at different levels of education and eliminate a part of  the obstacles restricting or 
complicating lifelong learning.  
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
The Law on Vocational Education and Training as  amended in 2007 provides for a reform of 
the systems of vocational education and traini ng and labour market tr aining, and optimisation 
of the management of the voca tional education and training system. The Law establishes a 
modular system of vocational education and training, application of various forms of 
acquisition of professional comp etence and qualifications, thus increasing the accessibility of 
lifelong learning. This is of particular importance for person s in the labour market who need 
to acquire higher or different qualifications, and for persons with special needs. In addition 
the development of VET attractiveness has been  supported with a wide range of measures 
such as the development of social partnership, reorganisation of state VET schools into self-
governing institutions thus allowing variety of both stakeholders and funds, sectoral studies 
carried out to evaluate the need for training a nd skills for the next five years, vocational 
guidance and counselling tool s, sectoral practical tr aining centres and etc. 
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
The reform of higher education in Lithuania ha s been a high level pr iority since 2006. In 2009 
the new Law on Science and Studies launched the major reform of higher education. One of 
 
EN 195   EN the objectives of the reform is to establish a well-functioning and competitive system of 
funding research projects. The diversificatio n of funding of HE re mains a challenge for 
Lithuania, the main source of funding for HE institutions still being the government. 
At the majority of higher education establishmen ts, there are divisions of  continuous learning 
and/or distance studies centres aiming at develo ping a system of higher education studies and 
continuing studies based on ICT. The activitie s of lifelong learning  at higher education 
establishments are considered services and ar e subject to payment by students themselves, 
their employers or from various funds.  
 
EN 196   EN  
LUXEMBOURG 
Luxembourg EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary)  94.7% 93.9%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading (35.1%) 22.9%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 22.8%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 22.1%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  16.8% 13.4% 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  72.7%03 72.8%  76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - - - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  - 32.0%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve
gender 
balance- 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  21.2% 39.8% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  6.5% 03 8.5 %  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 3.74%01 3.41%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
01= 2001, 03= 2003, 5= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Luxembourg performs slightly above the EU  average in three school related areas: 
Participation in ea rly childhood education , Low achievers in reading, mathematics and 
science  and Early leavers from education and training . The Upper secondary completion 
rate, however,  is below the EU average and has s hown a downward trend in the period 2003-
2006. Since 2006 the rate is, however, increasing.  
 
EN 197   EN While there is a lack of data on trends as regards the number of MST graduates in 
Luxembourg, when it comes to the share of fe male MST graduates Luxembourg performs at 
EU average.  
Measured in percentage points, Luxembourg is the country that, after Ireland, has progressed 
most in the EU as regards Higher education attainment .  
As concerns adult participation in lifelong learning, Luxembourg has made significant 
progress too, but still performs below the EU average. 
Public investment in education  as a % of GDP has slightly dropped since 2000 and is now 
below EU average. However, it has to be consid ered that in the case of Luxembourg, the data 
do not include spending on higher education (on EU average about  1.1% of GDP).  
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
The competence approach has been introduced at kindergarten, primary and secondary level 
since 2005 via pilot projects and has had a lega l basis since December 2008 with the vote of 
the law concerning the reform of VET. Since 2009 a new law regulating fundamental 
education (kindergarten and prim ary school) is also in force. 
1.1. Curricular reforms  
The law of fundamental education will establis h 4 teaching cycles of 2 years each (covering 
age 4 years to 12 years). Competencies (basic  and additional competencies) are defined for 
each of the 4 cycles. A national language plan was launched in 2007 and has as main issues a 
competence based approach and takes into c onsideration the Common European Framework 
of Reference for Languages. 
All transversal competencies of the European  Reference Framework w ill be part of the 
curricula of compulsory education. They en compass basic intellectua l processing, learning 
methods, relation attitudes and emotional attitudes. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
Several measures have been or are in the proc ess of being implemented to target early school 
leavers. The main are: a) individualised sp ecial follow-up of dropouts organised as soon as 
they leave school; b) sp ecific classes for the 9th class (9ième) for pupils with grade retention; 
c) special classes for po tential dropouts; d) the opening of  a second chance sc hool is foreseen 
in September 2010.  
Since September 2005, a special task force has been  in existence at the Ministry of Education 
and Training, which assesses the competencies  of pupils of migran ts, most appropriate 
education or training opportunitie s. Special classes have been implemented to provide these 
pupils with a suitable educa tion and training curriculum.  
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
Continuing training for teachers is mainly focu sed on the challenges which are introduced in 
the reform processes (competence based learni ng and assessment, diffe rentiation of methods, 
teamwork). The teachers involved in the re form of the VET receiv e specific training by 2 
 
EN 198   EN foreign expert organisations in  education which are mandated by the Ministry of Education 
and Training. 
The formative assessment approach  is important as primary school  is organised in learning 
cycles. The learner's progress is based on a competencies approach which enables the 
identification of strengths and w eaknesses at an early stage in order to take corrective action 
as soon as possible. Pilot projec ts have been undertaken in post  primary education but only at 
a starting level. 
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
The evaluations of key competences are ba sed on the participation in international 
comparative surveys (PISA, PIRLS). At the national level, the outcomes of learning in relation to several key compet ences (French, German, mathematical literacy) are already 
partially evaluated by national st andardized tests organised by the University of Luxembourg. 
Follow-up of the implementation of the reforms in fundamental education is also provided by 
several foreign universities. 
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
The development of education and training systems has become one of the most important 
issues for the Government for the last few ye ars. Competence based approaches have been 
introduced at different levels in order to  modernise and to adapt the Luxembourgish 
educational system to the needs of the learner.  These have not been formulated in a single 
strategic document.  
A new learning culture needs a modular appr oach of courses combined with credit 
accumulation, a system of validation of non formal  and informal learning, specific measures 
to reintegrate early school leavers an a st rong "formalized" partne rship between the key 
players involved in education and training. 
The national system of validation of non form al and informal learning is based on the 
common European principles, with a particular attenti on paid to transparency of qualifications 
and competencies. At this stage, a national qualification framework linked to the EQF does 
not yet exist. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
The law on VET of 2008 will implement a compet encies-based approach and allow validation 
of prior experience at the diffe rent levels: basic, initial, and continuous and reconversion 
training. 
Basic vocational training will allow low achieving learners to get access to a qualification. In 
initial vocational training, lear ners can collect modules and pr ior experience towards a full 
diploma. Reconversion training is mainly pr ovided at the National Centre for Continuing 
Vocational Training (CNFPC) in order to improve employability of people who have 
employment difficulties. 
For people who have difficulties in finding a job, there are special courses for social 
integration; adult apprentices hips and vocational reconversio n measures. Since 2000 private 
enterprises that organise training for their em ployees can have grants or tax deduction; and 
 
EN 199   EN since 2008 individual training  leave is available for employees. Most commissions 
responsible for the follow-up of these in struments are of tripartite composition. 
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
The creation of the new University of Luxem bourg (2003) has been a major policy initiative 
in modernisation of HE. Despite the fact that  more and more learners choose to study in 
Luxembourg, most students study abroad. All bachel or students of the university are legally 
bound to spend one semester abroad. 
The university has several income streams: st ate budget, contracts with private or public 
institutions, own assets, projec t grants by the Fonds National de  la Recherche, student fees, 
etc. The law foresees a procedure of validati on of prior learning and professional experience 
giving access to university studies  through submission of a dossi er or passing an admission 
examination. 
 
EN 200   EN  
HUNGARY 
Hungary EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary)  93.9% 95.1%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading 22.7% 20.6%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 21.2%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 15.0%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  13.9% 11.7% b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  83.5% 83.6% b 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 29.4%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  22.6% 26.8%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve
gender 
balance- 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  14.8% 22.4% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  4.5% 03  3.1%  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 4.42% 5.41%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Hungary performs better than the EU aver age in all the four school related areas: 
Participation in ea rly childhood education , Low achievers in reading, mathematics and 
science,  Early leavers from education and training  and Upper secondary attainment. Since 
2000 it succeeded in decreasing the share of low ach ievers in reading, so that it is now below 
the EU average.  
 
EN 201   EN In the area of MST graduates  the increase in the number of gr aduates has been higher than the 
EU benchmark, but below the EU average. The progress in increasing the share of females 
has been faster in Hungary then in the EU average. Higher education attainment  is far below 
the EU average, although Hungary has improved significantly in the area.  
As concerns Adult participation in lifelong learning, Hungary's performance was below the 
EU average in 2003 and since then it has worsened. The benchmark indicator, which 
measures the frequency of participation, is now  less than one third of the EU average and 
among the lowest in the EU.  
Public investment in education,  as a % of GDP, changed cons iderably since 2000, whereas in 
the EU as a whole it has just sl ightly increased; as a result of  this Hungary is now above the 
EU average performance.  
Hungary performs above th e 2020 EU benchmark in Participation in early childhood 
education and above the EU 2010 benchmark as regards the  Increase in MST graduates.  
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
The key competences have been included in th e National Core Curriculum, without setting 
priorities among them. Mathematics and Natural Sciences have been defined as separate 
competences. The National Core Curriculum defi nes ten "cultural domains", which are larger 
and more comprehensive than the traditional subject  distinctions. It also precisely sets out the 
knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for every key competence.  
1.1. Curricular reforms  
A restructuring of teaching tools, evaluation me thods and organisation of education took place 
between 2004-2008. Programme packages have been  developed for all tw elve grades within 
public education, for literacy, numeracy, foreign languages and ICT. After a trial phase with 
three hundred institutions, the packages  will now be generally implemented.  
The National Core Curriculum includes a new formulation of the deve lopment of initiative 
taking and entrepreneurship and the teaching of entrepreneurship. The programmes launched 
so far focus on financial knowledge. In the new National Register of Vocational Qualifications, a separate entrepreneurship module was added to most of the trades. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
The existing Integrative System  of Pedagogy is a legal framework relating to special 
pedagogical methodologies. Pupils with multiple di sadvantages receive extra help within the 
mainstream class community, so that they are able to successfully complete their schooling. 
This is based on an individual development pl an, which identifies areas where the learner 
needs to improve. 
Numerous projects inform adult citizens of training-related opportunities and aim to improve 
their motivation, but reaching the groups with th e greatest needs is problematic, as only a 
small proportion takes part in the supporte d training programmes and their learning 
motivation is low. Although steps have been taken to develop the necessary data base, 
information on adults participating in various forms of education is incomplete. The current 
target groups of programmes include job-seeker s, people with multiple disadvantages and 
SMEs. 
 
EN 202   EN 1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
Initial teacher education was restructured in 2006, according to the Bologna system and 
follows the competence-based approach. Discip linary studies are followed at undergraduate 
level, as well as orientation courses in edu cation and psychology. At mast er level students can 
opt for teacher training. Teacher trainees must  complete an uninterrupted one-semester in-
service training and a mentoring system is envisaged.  
The learning outcomes at master level follow th e competence-based approach. In the first four 
grades of public education descriptive assessmen t is mandatory in the school reports, instead 
of based solely on marks as before. In-service training is mandatory for teachers (120 hours in 
every 7 years). Schools are required to prepare in-service training plans, based on local needs.  
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
Two key competences (reading comprehension and mathematics) are tested in a standardised 
way, in grades six, eight and ten, involving all st udents. Results are published in the internet, 
with access to results per instit ution and to individual results. Schools not performing well in 
the test can apply for additional support. 
Hungary participates in in ternational surveys such as PISA, PIRLS and TIMSS. 
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
The Hungarian government adopte d its lifelong learni ng (LLL) strategy in 2005. The strategy 
provides a guideline for educati on and training policy and related fields for the period to 
2013. It is based on the international knowledge accumulated by the OECD and EU. There are 
qualifications frameworks for the subsectors of education system but onl y implicit links exist 
among them. The establishment of the single  qualification framework encompassing all 
subsectors is in progress. In primary, secondary  and tertiary education the learning outcome 
based approach necessitates further development in  order to make them fully compatible with 
competence and achievement based requirements. This is not only a major challenge for the 
NQF development but also for the EQF referencing process.  
Validation of non-formal and informal learni ng features as a goal in several strategic 
documents.  
The 2007 government report on the implementa tion of the LLL strategy highlighted the 
continued poor collaboration between the res ponsible government actors. The current concept 
of Hungarian public and higher education is not yet based on learning outcomes approach, 
and this presents a challenge to the introduction of the EQF a nd the development of the NQF. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
A module-type structure of prof essions has been developed to increase the flexibility of 
vocational training outputs. Competence-based cu rricula have been developed, adjusted to 
new examination requirements. The government is planning to strengthen links between 
training and the labour market and feeding labou r market information into vocational training. 
Regional Training and Development Committ ees define for each region a number of 
professional areas where demand from the labour market is higher than the supply from VET 
institutions. There are incentives for training in these professional areas.  
 
EN 203   EN A multi-annual project for the creation and implementation of a career guidance system and a 
career tracking system started at the end of  2008. The government has launched a vocational 
training scholarship programme, which provides scholarships for students enrolling in courses 
offering training in professional areas wh ere regional shortages are experienced.  
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
The 2005 Higher Education Act and its amendments in 2007 and 2008, were aimed at the 
modernisation of higher education. The purpose of  the amendments was to  make state funding 
more calculable, to ensure the quality of education, to review the system of student benefits, 
and to expand research and development. It high lighted a dual effort to  diversify the sources 
of income and to make the stream of state funds  more predictable. High er education financing 
is multi-channelled, with the dominant portion of funds contributed by state subsidy. Most of 
the funds in the budget of HEIs are contri buted by normative per capita support from the 
national budget and tuition fees  paid by the self-financing st udents only. Income from own 
enterprises or entrepreneurial activities is modest.  
HEIs can participate in adult education and can offer their pr ogrammes as adult education and 
training. HEIs are typically not involved in a dult education in large numbers. One of the 
reasons is that they are not entitled to recei ve normative per capita support for adult education 
courses from the national budget. The modular construction of programmes which would be 
necessary for adjusting to different career pa thways is not yet typical. Higher education 
primarily contributes to adult education with  advanced training pr ogrammes and special 
postgraduate training courses.  
 
EN 204   EN  
MALTA 
Malta EU average EU Benchmarks  
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood 
education 
(4 years old - year before start of 
comp. primary)  100.0% 98.8%07 85.6% 90.7%07  95% 
Reading - - 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - - - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - - - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and 
training  
(age 18-24)  54.2% 39.0% b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  40.9% 53.0% b 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 
2000  - 69,3%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  
Share of females  26.3% 37.8%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  (7.4)u% 21.0% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong 
learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  4.3%04 6.2 %  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of 
GDP 4.49% 6.7605 b 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 04= 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provis ional, u=unreliable figure because of small 
sample size  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
 
EN 205   EN In school related areas, Malta performs above  the EU average on participation in Early 
childhood education. However , Malta has the highest percentage of Early leavers from 
education and training  in the EU and the second lowest Upper secondary attainment rate . 
However, on both indicators there has been remarkable progress over the period 2000-2008.  
It is notable that Malta  has a strong growth on MST graduates . Nevertheless, Malta has a 
relatively low Higher education attainment rate , but it is the EU country with the highest 
growth rate since 2000.  
As concerns  Investment in education  as a % of GDP, Malta is above the EU average 
performance. 
Malta performs above th e 2010 benchmark level on MST graduates ; and even above the 2020 
benchmark levels on Participation in earl y childhood education . 
1. Policies for development of the key competences   
The Directorate for Quality and Standards in  Education (DQSE), established through the 
Education Act, sets standards and ensures the quality of education. The DQSE has prepared a 
National Policy and Strategy for the Attainment of Core Competences in Primary Education, to tackle core competences attainment in Literacy, eLearni ng and Mathematics. 
At secondary and tertiary leve l, key competencies continue  to be developed through the 
different subjects and across learning areas. 
1.1. Curricular reforms  
The Maltese National Minimum Curriculum, Creati ng the Future Together  (2000) is currently 
under review. The updated framework to be co mpleted by 2010 will adequately cater for the 
development of key competences in compulsory  education. Students co ntinue building on the 
cross-curricular key competences du ring their post-secondary education. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
In the primary cycle, the implementation of the policy focusing on the attainment of core 
competences for all learners (literacy, numeracy and digital literacy) hopes to ensure that all 
learners master these key competences in the first years of compulsory education. Individual 
learning plans will be activated for learners who continue to show difficulty after the first three years. Support is given by complementary teachers and core competences co-ordinators, 
Maltese, English and Mathematics currently also form part of the Basic Skills and Foundation programmes which are, targeted at disadvantag ed students in secondary schools. Education 
Officers visit schools on a regular basis to supp ort teachers and students in class. Activities 
for the high achievers in Mathematics ar e also carried out on a regular basis. 
A number of education and trai ning institutions at post compulsory edu cation level provide 
courses at foundation level where key competences  are given due importance in preparation 
for a higher level training. Evening courses ar e offered to students who do not succeed in 
obtaining appropriate formal certification in  the key competences by the end of their 
compulsory education. There are new initiati ves for courses among the increasing immigrant 
community, mainly in English and ba sic social and civic competences.  
 
EN 206   EN 1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
The Faculty of Education at the University, resp onsible for initial teacher education, together 
with stakeholders, has drawn up a set of competences required  by newly qualified teachers. 
These competences are being considered by Bo ards of Studies while reviews of current 
programmes are being conducted.  
The education authorities are giving increasing importance to formative assessment, including 
the training of future teachers and the in-ser vice training of teacher s on assessment methods. 
In the first three years of pr imary education, assessment is formative and is carried out 
informally. In the last three years of prim ary education, assessment is both formative and 
summative. Students in secondary schools are a ssessed on a continuous formative basis as 
well as on a summative basis. There are half-y early school-based examinations and annual 
examinations on national ba sis in the state sector. 
The Ministry of Education commissioned a group of experts in assess ment to review the 
transition mechanism from primary to seconda ry education and to suggest alternative 
methods. The report proposes the setting up of a national benchmarking system at the end of primary schooling for feedback purposes, the validation of school-based assessment alongside summative assessment and the transformation of the reporting system from marks and grades 
to levels of achievement 
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
From year 4 in primary education up to the fina l year in the compulsory  secondary education, 
the annual examinations in state schools ar e used to inform schools and the national 
authorities about the students' attainment and acquisition of key competences. The schools use 
this information to take up remedial initiati ves to be included in the School Development 
Plans. 
To date, Malta has participated in TIMSS with grade 8 students and is currently exploring the 
possibility of extending its participation to ot her international studies  in the near future, 
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
Most of the LLL policies in Malta are being im plemented through the National Qualifications 
Framework (NQF), set up in 2007. The NQF clarif ies progression routes and facilitates the 
validation of non-formal learning. The Malta Qua lifications Council (MQC ) is responsible for 
the recognition of qualifications as well as the validation of informal and non-formal learning.  
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
The attractiveness in VET in Malta has mos tly been increased through the creation and 
growth of the Malta College of Arts, Scie nce and Technology (MCAST) and the success of 
the Institute of Tourism Studies. Both institutions communicate with the relevant state agencies and the Employment and Training Co rporation (ETC). This process allows both 
institutions to adapt to changing economic a nd industrial scenarios,  based on information 
about the demand for different, of ten higher, skills in industry. 
 
EN 207   EN The ETC considers training as part of the lifel ong learning process and aims to anticipate and 
respond to the changing economic and social en vironment. The ETC continuously revises its 
courses to adapt to the needs of the current labour market.  
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
The Government intends to provide incentives for the University of Malta to establish a Trust 
Fund to receive donations and endowments from be nefactors, including corporate and private 
bodies, in order to fund innovative research activ ity beyond the reach of the annual allocations 
from the Government. The University of Ma lta intends to pursue more entrepreneurial 
avenues, including providing jo int degree programmes in partnership with leading world 
institutions at commercial rate s. The University of Malta, the Malta College of Arts, Science 
and Technology (MCAST) and the In stitute for Tourism Studies (ITS) provide a wide range 
of short and part-time fee-paying evening c ourses open to students of all ages within a 
lifelong learning context. The University runs also  the University of the Third Age for persons 
who are interested in enri ching their education and cu lture beyond retirement age. 
The Government has in place a number of schemes which provide the support for adults to 
participate in education and tr aining programmes, such as th e scholarships for post-graduate 
courses, for promotion of further specialisation at higher levels of education. State higher and 
further professional and vocati onal education and training in stitutions offer substantial 
financial support for the continui ng professional development of  their academic staff. New 
full-time and part-time courses are being introduced by further and higher education 
institutions. 
 
EN 208   EN  
THE NETHERLANDS 
Netherlands EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary)  99.5% 98.9%07 b 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading (9.5%) 15.1%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 11.5%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 13.0%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  15.4% 11.4%b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  71.9% 76.2% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 40.2%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  17.6% 18.9%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve
gender 
balance- 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  26.5% 40.2% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  16.4% 0317.0 %  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 4.96% 5.46%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
The Netherlands performs above the EU average in three school related areas: Participation 
in early childhood education , Low achievers in reading, mathematics and science  and Early 
leavers from education and training . The Upper secondary completion rate, however,  is still 
below EU average, although the Netherlands have  made significant progress in increasing this 
rate.  
 
EN 209   EN Another area in which the Netherlands has made  good progress is in incr easing the number of 
MST graduates , for which the growth rate has been above the EU average. However, the 
Netherlands has the lowest share of female MST graduates of all EU countries. The share of 
the population with Higher education attainment  has strongly improved since 2000 and is 
now among the higher ones in the EU.  
As concerns Adult participation in  lifelong learning, the Netherlands show s relatively high 
participation rates, but in the last 5 years th ere has been limited progress in increasing these 
further. However, after a decline in the pe riod 2004-2006 the participation rate has increased 
since then from 15.6% to 17%. 
Public investment in education  as a % of GDP in the Netherlands has increased by half a 
percentage point since 2000 and is now clearly above the EU average. 
The Netherlands performs above, or near to, four  of the present five EU benchmarks for 2020: 
Participation in early childhood  education, Low achievers in  reading, math and science 
literacy , Higher education attainment and Adu lt participation in lifelong learning. The 
Netherlands performs above the 2010 EU benchmar k in the field of increasing the number of 
MST graduates. 
1. Policies for development of the key competences   
Since 2006 basic skills and key competences have  been integrated in the curricula of the 
whole education system. In primary and seconda ry education most of the 8 key competences 
have been incorporated in the attainment targets.(with the exclusion of entrepreneurship) In 
adult and vocational education work on key comp etences has been integrated in qualification 
guidelines. 
1.1. Curricular reforms  
Literacy and numeracy have priority in primar y and secondary education. Work is in progress 
on the implementation of reference levels in e ducation law, . These reference levels define 
what a child should have learned at the end of primary school and in the middle and the end of 
secondary schoool. A considerable extra budget is  available for this. In addition primary 
schools are given scope to spec ialise in other key competences. The attainment targets for 
secondary education build on the primary educati on targets. In adult and vocational education 
an action plan has been made to combat poor literacy. 
Transversal competences have been translated in to attainment goals in primary and secondary 
education. A non-profit placements programme has b een set up for all school pupils to acquire 
social and civic competences. In adult a nd vocational training core competences apply, 
depending partly on the requirements reflected  in each set of qualification guidelines. 
Throughout the education system high priority  has been placed on entrepreneurship.  
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
The foundation for preventing dropout and combati ng illiteracy and innumeracy is laid in 
primary education. Primary, secondary scho ols receive extra funding to cope with 
educationally disadvantaged pupils from differ ent backgrounds. There are extra resources in 
vocational education for language and numer acy. The LLL policy focus is on reducing drop-
outs by 50 percent by 2012.  
 
EN 210   EN An adequate regional infrastructure for adult education has been developed by the 
Interdepartmental Project Unit on Learning a nd Working, focusing on programmes combining 
work and study, recognition of prior learning and building an LLL infrastructure in 45 regions. The main focus for 2008-2011 will be  on young workers (18-24 years old) without 
vocational qualifications at basic level, jobs eekers, employees threatened with redundancy. 
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
In 2006 on the initiative of the Teachers’ Association, standard s of competence were defined 
for teaching staff and will be reviewed every 6 years. One of the core competences is to 
prepare young people to take their place in so ciety after initial edu cation. These standards 
form the basis of teacher training curricula, but also act as a guide throughout a teacher's 
career. 
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
A new cohort study started in 2007-2008, follow ing pupils progress through the education 
system from 5 until 18 years old on Dutch, English and maths, social skills and emotional development. In primary education both key competences of pupils and the schools are systematically evaluated, including the partic ipation in TIMSS and PIRLS. In primary and 
secondary education international studies as PISA and TIMSS are also sources to assess 
performance, all subjects are tested in the final examinations. In vocational/adult education 
the Inspectorate monitors quality of provisi on. For all sectors the findings are published 
yearly and submitted to Parliament. 
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
Since 2005 the Netherlands has with its s ector strategies and the work of the 
interdepartmental Project Unit for Learning an d Working a fully comprehensive framework 
for LLL. The NQF for higher education is comp atible with the QF-EHEA. The NQF will be 
aligned with the EQF by end 2010. Development and implementation of Recognition of Prior 
Learning (non formal and informal) services is a core instrument in the Dutch lifelong 
learning policy.  
Through a subsidy scheme, 45 regional partnershi ps have been set up between educational 
institutions, local/provincial gove rnment, the Employment Service and business. In all regions 
education institutions have increased possibili ties for Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) 
and (tailor-made) learning and working programmes and training/employment helpdesks have 
been developed. At national leve l a knowledge Centre for RPL was set up, as well as a portal 
containing all available training and awareness campaigns on LLL.  
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
Matching education supply with labour market demand has traditionally  been one of the 
strengths of the Dutch vocational system. Th ere are 18 centres of expertise on vocational 
education, training and the labour  market, in which representa tives of employers, employees 
and educational institutions develop qualific ation guidelines for official approval by the 
Minister of Education. An inte rnet-tool has been developed c ontaining all available options 
for work placements and working-learning arra ngements. Furthermore in 2006 a pilot scheme 
for "associate degree programmes" was launc hed (a 2-year programme leading to a 
recognised higher vocational training qualificati on) aiming to increase the participation of 
 
EN 211   EN working people. Extra funding has been made available for stimulation of co-operation 
between schools and business. 
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
Since 2005 the LLL infrastructure has been rein forced, including in higher education. The 
government focus is now on upgrading work ing people with secondary vocational 
qualifications to higher professional edu cation. New tailor-made RPL programmes for 
working people will be stimulat ed by the grant schemes provi ded by the Project Unit for 
Working and Learning. Furthermore a positive evaluation of "associate degrees" by 2010 could increase the number of working pe ople in higher professional education.  
The Netherlands is heading towards more dive rsified funding, although the private part of 
funding still remains relatively low compared to countries such as the US. Universities and 
institutes of higher vocational education ar e mainly funded by government contribution: 
168 
initial lump sum funding repr esents 70 % of all funding, supplemented by tuition fees. A 
second source of funds is (res earch) grants supplie d by government in stitutions and the 
increasing third source of funds is grants supp lied by business, the EU and others. A major 
challenge is to keep the spendi ng on education at a su fficient level against the backdrop of the 
current financial crisis. 
                                                 
168 Financial annual reports of institutes of higher education for the year 2007 
 
EN 212   EN AUSTRIA 
Austria EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood 
education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. 
primary)  84.6% 88.8%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading 19.3% 21.5%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics  20.0%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science  16.3%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and 
training  
(age 18-24)  10.2% 10.1%b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  85.1% 84.5% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 54.6%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  19.9% 23.8%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  15.9% 22.2% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  8.6% 03 13.2 %  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 5.74% 5.44%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Austria performs better than the EU av erage in three school  related areas: Low achievers in 
reading, mathematics and sc ience, Early leavers from education and training and Upper 
secondary attainment, despite the fact that recent trends have been in some cases in the 
direction of a lower performance. Participation in early childhood education has increased 
but is slightly below EU level.  
 
EN 213   EN Austria performs significantly abov e the EU average in the area of MST graduates , in which 
the increase has been notable. The share of fe male graduates, even if improved, has however 
not reached the EU level. In the area of Higher education attainment  there has been progress, 
but Austria is still below the EU average performance levels. 
As concerns Adult participation in lifelong learning, progress has been faster than the EU 
average and Austrian performance exceed s the EU average in this area. 
Investment in education,  as a % of GDP, has decreased sin ce 2000 in Austria but is still above 
the EU average. 
Austria already performs above the EU 2010 benchmarks in MST graduates  and Adult 
participation in lifelong learning. It is very close to that level of performance in the area of  
Early leavers from education and training  and Upper secondary attainment.  
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
The implementation of the Recommendation on Key Competences has been taken up in 
various educational and VET fields, which are currently under development, such as 
standards for education and training, LLL stra tegy, Lifelong Guidance Strategy, NQF, etc. A 
wide range of stakeholders (socia l partners, universities, school councils, staff representatives, 
experts, and parents' associations ) are involved in this process. 
1.1. Curricular reforms  
The key competences are included in all curric ula, but this varies  depending on the school 
type. In October 2008 an extens ive project started aiming at fo cusing the so-called teaching 
principles ( Unterrichtsprinzipien ) on the eight key competences. The architecture of curricula 
for the lower secondary school le vel will be reviewed by end 2010.  
All transveral key competences are included in cu rricula in different ways: as thematic entities 
across subjects or as thematic entities within su bjects. Of particular relevance is the initiative 
"25plus" (Initiative "25plus"): a reduction class size combined  with individualisation of 
learning and teaching. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
Early language support is provided in kindergarte n for children with inadequate knowledge of 
German. The pilot project New Middle School ( Neue  Mittelschule ) started in 2008 as a 
measure to provide alternatives to early tracking. It offers indi vidual learning approaches and 
coaching with the aim of deve loping a new learning culture. 
The budget for adult education has been increa sed by one third in order to support access to 
basic education and the acquisiti on of school leaving certificates. Specific measures have been 
implemented for educationally disadvantaged ( bildungsferne ) women (e.g. mobile ICT 
workshops) and migrants (coaching and language  support). Other key competences, such as 
social and civic competence, ICT, learning-to- learn are embedded in these courses with the 
aim of improving their sustainable impact.  
 
EN 214   EN 1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
Pedagogical colleges ( Paedagogische  Hochschulen ) have been set up for the initial education 
and training of teachers. This will be comb ined with a learning outcome oriented and 
competence based curricular reform.  
Summative evaluations have been introduced as a first step in the implementation of external 
evaluations. Educational standards are used as a monitoring-tool and have been introduced at 
the beginning of the school year 2008/2009. In addition, tools for formative evaluations are in development. A balanced system of summa tive and formative assessments should give 
feedback to teachers on the competences of pupils. 
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
The participation in international studies, su ch as PISA, PIRLS and TIMSS provided a solid 
base for the development of educational stan dards, whose implementation started in the 
academic year 2008/09. In addition, a sta ndardised school-leaving examination ( Reifeprüfung , 
giving access to tertiary education) has been in a trial st age for two years. In 2009, the first 
national report on education (N ationaler Bildungsbe richt 2009) was pub lished. It contains 
data and indicators on the educ ational system together with  the analysis of some key 
competences and is designed to foster evidence-based policy.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
A strategy paper on LLL has been drafted, which is currently in a consulta tion process. By the 
end of 2009 the consultation results will be pres ented to the council of ministers, followed by 
the approval of further steps. Ongoing work on  lifelong guidance is closely related to the 
development and implementation of the LLL strategy . 
Consultations on the national qualifications framework took place in the first half of 2008. 
The validation of non-formal and informal learni ng is integrated in the development of the 
national qualifications framework: work is more advanced with regard to non-formal learning; 
the validation of informal learning has still to be tackled. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
Austria has a high proportion of people in initial voca tional training at se condary level. The 
strength of Austria's VET system is its seri ous theoretical foundation and practical training 
content (in particular in th e so-called "dual system").  
Vocational training graduates ha ve increasingly gained furthe r qualification prospects by 
being given access to tertiary education ( Berufsreifepruefung ). In addition, a new initiative 
(Lehre mit Matura ) offers VET certification and a cer tificate for university entrance in 
parallel. The modularisation of training for appr entices aims at enhancing the flexibility of 
VET and thus responding better to the needs of the labour ma rket. The establishment of non-
company based ( überbetriebliche ) VET addresses young people with difficulties in finding 
apprenticeship placements.  
 
EN 215   EN 4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
The Law on Universities, adopted in 2002 and implemented from 2004, gave more autonomy 
to universities, made the sources of funds mo re predictable and developed transparency and 
accountability. Universities for Applied Studies ( Fachhochschulen ), focusing on disciplines 
such as engineering, business management and ICT, are receiving a growing number of 
applicants. 
In 2007, 77 % of the budget for Higher Education In stitutions was financed from the federal 
budget. Major additional funding comes from reve nues from research projects. Fundraising, 
sponsoring and private-public-partnerships have  been expanding, but due to the reform of 
student fees, the income from this source will decrease. A number of initiatives, in particular study programmes for peopl e in employment ( berufsbegleitend ) aim to open up universities 
for life long learners. 
 
EN 216   EN  
POLAND 
Poland EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood 
education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. 
primary)  58.3% 66.8%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading 23.2% 16.2%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 19.8%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 17.0%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and 
training  
(age 18-24)  7.4%01 5.0% 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  88.8% 91.3% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 123,3%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  35.9% 39.2%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  12.5% 29.7% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  5.0% 04 4.7 %  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 4.89% 5.25%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
01= 2001, 03= 2003, 04= 2004, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Poland performs above the EU average in three school related areas: Low achievers in 
reading, mathematics and sc ience, Early leavers from education and training  and Upper 
secondary attainment. Progress has been notable In 2008, Pola nd is the best performer in the 
EU as for  Early leavers from education and training  and among the best on Upper secondary 
 
EN 217   EN attainment . Despite visible increase in  Participation in early childhood education,  it is still far 
below EU average and the country with th e lowest rate among the Member States.  
Another area in which Poland has made notable  progress is in incr easing the number of MST 
graduates , for which the growth rate has been more than three times the EU  average. Also the 
Gender balance  improved. At the same time th e share of the population with Higher 
education attainment  has strongly increased, but is sti ll slightly below the EU average. 
Adult participation in lifelong learning has decreased a little. The gap between Poland and the 
EU average has widened.  
Investment in education  as a % of GDP has increased since 2000 and is now significantly 
above the EU average.  
Poland already performs above  the 2010 EU benchmark in  Early leavers from education and 
training, Upper secondary attainment and MST graduates .  
1. Policies for development of the key competences   
The role of key competences in the development of the educational system with reference to 
curriculum changes in general and vocationa l education has been highlighted in the Strategy 
for development of educ ation for the years 2007-2013 adopted in the year  2005. The strategy 
encompasses the whole educational system  from pre-school to adult education.  
Currently, work is in progress on a lifelong l earning strategy which aims to highlight two 
dimensions of LLL – lifewide  learning (taking account of the potential of non-formal and 
informal learning) and the learning outcomes (indicating the need for assessment and 
recognition of the competences as learning ou tcomes, irrespective of the method, place and 
time of their acquisition). Elements of the so designed LLL strategy are already now being 
implemented on the basis of the National Reform Programme (NRP) for 2005-2008 and for 
2008-2011.  
1.1. Curricular reforms  
All eight competences are integral part of th e curricula in general education and vocational 
education and training. A new core curriculum sp ecifying the requirements to be met at the 
end of each education stage and new school manuals will be gradually introduced from 
September 2009. This shall increas e the autonomy of schools with  reference to organisation 
of the educational process. The new offe r emphasizes the deve lopment of autonomy, 
creativity and responsibility in learning. The refo rm will encompass all types of schools. The 
transversal competences such as social and civic competence, entrepreneurship will be 
developed via a number of individual subjects. New importance will be given to art-related activities. Digital competenci es are emphasised from the st art of compulsory education. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
There are several comprehensive national edu cation development programmes targeted at 
provision of key competences to disadvantaged groups, e.g. from rural areas to eliminate 
barriers in the access of rural areas inhabitants to a good qual ity educational, cultural, IT and 
sports offer. This includes shaping of basic life skills and fostering educational development, the provision  special scholarships, or providing par tial financing for classes aimed at 
development of knowledge and skills, as well as interests, hobbies and talents. The Voluntary 
 
EN 218   EN Labour Corps provide education and training to youth from at risk of exclusion, offering 
training allowing the unemployed from rural ar eas to take up non-agricultural jobs.  
The target groups for adult education ar e among others unemployed, old workers, 
disadvantaged groups, disabled people, the poor, homeless foreigners; formerly imprisoned or 
drug users. The activities prov ided include training, guidance,  organisation or clubs and 
integration centres, financial grants, couns elling and refunding of training costs.  
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
A reform of initial and in-service teacher ed ucation in higher education institutions was 
introduced in 2004. According to the regulations, teacher education shoul d be related to the 
changes made to general curriculum in the di rection of teaching competences. Such education 
is provided by post-graduate studies licensing te achers. The core curriculum and the teacher 
initial and in-service education system emphasize a cross-subject attitude  to the development 
of transversal key competences.  
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
The system of monitoring and assessment of  the outcomes of ed ucation and training 
encompasses the assessment system of the out comes of education based on the combination 
of external system of tests and exams with th e internal school asse ssment (the two systems 
encompass both summative and formative assessm ent) and with the system of pedagogical 
supervision, accreditation system and educationa l research (including international surveys). 
In the external tests and exam system an  increased role is given to feedback.  
The importance of formative assessment in th e form of current assessment at schools is 
emphasized in the information materials se nt to all schools and differences between 
summative and formative assessment are taken into account in the initial and in-service 
teacher training. At vocational schools state external exams are additionally conducted 
confirming vocational qualifications.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
Currently a comprehensive LLL stra tegy is developed, based on the Education Development 
Strategy for 2007-2013  and a complete LLL strategy enco mpassing the period of up to the 
year 2020 should be ready by the end of 2009. A pr oject co-financed from the EFS is focused 
on the development of the NQF. There are some  elements of validation of non-formal and 
informal learning outcomes e.g. in a sy stem of extramural exams for adults , exemption from 
external national exams on the basis of achieve ments in national and in ternational Students’ 
Olympics and school subject contents, or  the system of exams for apprentices organised by 
vocational associations.  
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
An ongoing VET core curriculum modernisat ion initiative (toget her with sectoral 
organisations, social partners and employers) aims to align better the general and the VET 
curriculum, to increase flexibility and VET job classification, to improve VET counselling, to 
have a system for validation of  vocational qualifications obtain ed through formal, non-formal 
and informal learning; to enhance long-distance learning offer in VET, increase flexibility of 
VET financing and VET promotion and to incl ude employers to the process of planning, 
implementation and validation of  vocational qualifications.  
 
EN 219   EN The National Centre for Supporting Vocationa l and Continuous Education is training 
vocational advisers and elaborating and dissemi nating didactical materials based on a concept 
of lifelong guidance it develope d. There are projects and resear ch carried out to diagnose the 
demand for qualifications and skill s on the regional and local empl oyment market, to trace the 
graduates' life-paths, and forecast changes on the employment market and their results will be 
published in a good pr actice catalogue.  
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
Current reforms aim to develop closer links with regions, businesses and research and to 
increase the relevance of provision to the la bour market, to increase the autonomy of higher 
education institutions, to enable students to ta ke various studies paths and forms of learning, 
providing incentives for its continuing, diversity  of studies, improve attractiveness of 
technical and natural science faculties and to encourage i nnovative solutions including 
problem-based and project-based learning.  
Higher education institutions are financed fr om the state budget, and through own sources, 
including tuition fees. A planned reform aims to simplify the granting of tax free scholarships 
by regional government bodies to  students and doctoral students and academic workers. It 
also focuses on encouraging higher education institutions to apply for competitively-based 
funding for their development pol icy. Third Age Universities func tioning in higher education 
institutions, classes for young pupils  (in the form of Children’s Universities) and for gifted 
pupils of primary and secondary schools, as well as flexible delivery of courses (distance 
learning), expanding the educational offer in  response to the economy and labour market 
needs, are the main means to open up higher education institutions to lifelong learning.  
 
EN 220   EN  
PORTUGAL 
Portugal EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood 
education 
(4 years old - year before start of 
comp. primary)  78.9% 86.7%07 85.6% 90.7%07  95% 
Reading 26.3% 24.9%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 30.7%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 20.2%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and 
training  
(age 18-24)  43.6% 35.4% p 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  43.2% 54.3% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 
2000  - 164.0%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher 
education)  Share of females  41.9% 34.8%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  11.3% 21.6% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong 
learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  4.3%04 5.3%  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of 
GDP 5.42% 5.25%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 04= 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Portugal performs below the EU aver age in four school related areas: Participation in early 
childhood education , low achievers in reading literacy and mathematics, Early leavers from 
 
EN 221   EN education and training  and Upper secondary attainment , however, its performance has 
improved significantly during the period 2000-2008.  
Portugal has made spectacular progre ss in increasing the number of MST graduates, about 
five times higher progress than the EU average. The share of females in this field has however 
decreased but it is still above the EU  average. While the proportion with High education 
attainment  is below the EU average, it has nearly doubled since 2000. 
As concerns Adult participation in lifelong learning , Portugal is performing below the EU 
average although progress al so in this field has been made since 2000.  
On Investment in education as a % of GDP, Portugal is performing above the EU average but 
investment rates appear to stagnate. 
Portugal performs above the 2010 EU benchmark le vel as regards the increase in the number 
of MST graduates.  
1. Policies for development of the key competences   
The development of basic skills (Portuguese, mathematics and study of the environment) is 
the core function of the 1st cycle of basic education, more re cently the offer has been extended 
to curriculum enriching activities such as foreign language learning (English), music or 
physical activities.  
Portugal has initiated a major re structuring of its education system partly supported by the 
Structural Funds.  
1.1. Curricular reforms  
The reorganization of the basic education cu rriculum, initiated in 2001, focused on improving 
basic skills and social compet ences, as well as preventing ea rly school failure and leaving. 
More specific recent measures concerning literacy and numeracy  in basic education are: the 
National Plan for the Teaching of Portuguese, the Action Plan for Mathematics and the 
Teacher Training Programmes for 1st cycle teachers of Mathematics, Portuguese, 
Experimental Teaching of Sciences and IC T. The ongoing secondary education reform, 
initiated in 2004, includes the reorganization of  curricula and the definition of alternative 
learning paths. The reform of VET has also invo lved major curricular development, especially 
due to the introduction of education and traini ng courses (EFA), stru ctured around a learning 
outcomes based qualifications approach. 
All the key competencies included in the EU Recommendation are c overed by the curricular 
and non curricular areas, both in  general education and VET. A particular focus has been on 
digital competence through initia tives like e-escolinha, e-escola or e-professor, supporting the 
use of new pedagogical materials and the fa miliarisation with the new information and 
communication technologies. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
Targeted approaches to disadvantaged groups in clude: provision aimed at 15 year olds more 
at risk of leaving school or who have left sc hool, as well as thos e who, after 12 years in 
school, have not acquired a qualific ation; the Action Plan for th e Integration of People with 
Disabilities, which comprises the development and implementation of Individual Transition 
 
EN 222   EN Plans for 12+ year olds with a view to prom ote the transition to life after school and, 
whenever possible, to a professional occupation; and the Plan for the In tegration of Migrants 
2007-2009. 
Under the Novas Oportunidades  initiative there has been an increase in the certification of 
adult competences, in the period 2006-2008, with  152 000 school education certificates at 9th 
or 12th grade, and circa 20 000 cer tifications through Adult Education and Training Courses 
(EFA).  
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
The new initial teacher training policy is focused on: learni ng outcomes, new demands on the 
teaching profession, the acquisition of knowledge in the subjects to be taught, evidence based 
teaching practice and the introducti on to professional practice in a school context. To cater for 
the improvement of quality in teacher training two significant measures have been adopted: 
the reform of the regulation on access to the teaching career and the reorganisation of the 
Schools Associations Training Centres. 
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
In basic education, graded tests in the 1st and 2nd cycles and national examinations 
(Portuguese and Maths) in the 3rd cycle, as well as national examinations (e.g. Maths, 
Biology, Physics and Chemistry, History or Port uguese Literature) in secondary education 
provide the relevant data on pupils and student s performances. Graded test results, made 
available to pupils, schools and teachers, and national examina tions results, which are public, 
support policy decision making. Qual itative external assessments of  curricula by ex pert panels 
are also a means to support specific reforms or reorganisations. International comparative 
evaluations also constitute an input for curriculum reorganisati on, as it was the case for PISA 
in the preparation of the revision of the Portuguese programme in 2007. 
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
Although PT has not adopted a formal document setting out a national lifelong learning 
strategy, all the major policy deve lopments in education and trai ning in the last few years are 
consistent with such an approach.  
In this context, a major step has been take n through the reform of the VET system in 2007, 
including the creation of the National Qualific ations System, the adoption of the National 
Qualifications Catalogue, the drafting of th e National Qualifications Framework, which has 
just been the subject of pub lic consultation, and the creat ion of the System for the 
Recognition, Validation and Certification of Competences under the Novas Oportunidades  
initiative. Other important steps are the rapid expansion of the Novas Oportunidades  network, 
the offer of double certification courses, the dive rsification of VET offers, the modularisation 
of courses and the flexibilisation of VET learning paths. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
One of the main objectives of the VET reform  was to increase the participation of young 
people and adults and to strengthen the sector's contribution to the competitiveness and innovation capacity of enterprises. The public  school system has since 2006/2007 developed, 
improved or enlarged its offer of profe ssional and apprenticeship courses, and has 
implemented guidelines for the reorientation of secondary student training paths, while 
 
EN 223   EN universities have increased the offer of Technical Specialisati on Courses (CET). On the other 
hand, continuing vocational training is provid ed by instruments like "Programa Formação-
Acção para PME" and "Formação para Inovação e Gestão".  
The availability of a wide array of courses, especially Technical Courses, adapted to local 
needs aims to improve the relevance of VET programmes to the labour market. The adoption 
of the National Qualifications Catalogue and th e establishment of Sect oral Qualifications 
Councils are also important tools in adapting the training offer to labour market needs. 
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
Portugal initiated in 2005 a majo r reform of HE. Some of th e most significant legislative 
measures include the new Legal System of Higher Education Institutions, the setting up of a quality assurance system, the new rules for the admission of adults to HE and the new rules 
on non-refundable scholarships. 
Portugal has implemented a new legal system whic h reinforces the autonomy of universities, 
including the possibility  to change their statute, beco ming foundations and opening up their 
possibilities of a more autonomous financial, assets and human resources management. A new 
system of loans with state guarantee has been set up. The creation of Te chnical Specialisation 
Courses (CET, level 4) offers the possibility to enrol in HE to a wider public and the 
legislation setting out the conditions of acce ss to HE of people older than 23 has also 
significantly widened the target population.  
 
EN 224   EN  
ROMANIA 
Romania EU average EU 
Benchmarks  
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary)  67.6% 81.8%07 85.6% 90.7%07  95% 
Reading 41.3% 53.5%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 52.7%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 46.9%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  22.9% 15.9% 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  76.1% 78.3% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 58,6%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  35.1% 40.0%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve
gender 
balance- 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  8.9% 16.0% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  1.4%04 1.5 %  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 2.86% 3.48%05 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 04 = 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
In the area of school education, Romania's performance on low achievers  is the lowest within 
the EU and has deteriorated since 2000. On participation in early childhood education  and 
early leavers from e ducation and training  Romania has progresse d significantly over the 
period 2000-2008 and is now performing just  below EU average performance. On upper 
secondary attainment  Romania performs close to EU average levels.  
 
EN 225   EN One area in which Romania has made more progress is in increasing the MST graduates  for 
which the growth rate has b een above the EU average, and there has also been an 
improvement in the gender balance.  
Considerable progress has been made with regard to higher education attainment, but 
Romania performs close to the lowest level in the EU.  This is also the case for investment in 
education , higher education attainment and adult participation in lifelong learning . Romania 
is, however, improving in all these areas. 
Romania performs above the 2010 EU benchmark level as regards the increase in the number 
of MST graduates.  
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
The transition to a curriculum based on key co mpetencies is a central part of current 
educational reforms. The orienta tion towards learning outcomes ha s been stronger in the area 
of VET. A major reform of education is current ly being prepared, aiming to raise the quality 
of provision. 
1.1. Curricular reforms  
A curricular reform planned for 2009 aims to better link the curriculum in compulsory 
education to the key competencies framewor k. The modular VET curriculum, introduced in 
2005, already includes competence units correl ated with the eight domains of key 
competences. All students study two modern la nguages during compulsory education.  
The 2003 and 2005 curricular reforms introduced IC T and entrepreneurship as subjects in 
compulsory education. The current school based curriculum offer largel y targets social and 
civic competencies. Entrepreneurship educatio n is included in the V ET curriculum, including 
through simulated firms exercises. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
The Rural Education Project has provided support for children in rural areas. Teacher training, 
methodological guidelines and materials support th e development of inclusive approaches for 
pupils with special needs and their inclusion in  mainstream classes. A flexible system of 
second chance education based on a modular cu rriculum and integrati ng the validation of 
experiential learning aims to compen sate the high early school leaving. 
Key competencies are included in the occupati onal standards which guide the offer of adult 
education. Social partners and stakeholders participate in the definition of occupational 
standards and in the authorisa tion of training providers. A grow ing supply of courses targets 
specifically key competencies, including transv ersal ones. Evening and distance courses are 
provided for adults, covering the lo wer and upper secondary curriculum.   
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
Initial teacher training has been restructured during the transition to the Bologna system, but 
the content of teacher training curricula can be further adapted to a competence-based approach. Team teaching has been provided for in  regulations since 1998, but has so far been 
lagging behind in implementation. There is a wide offer of in-service teac her training focused 
on the key competencies, including for VET teachers. Vocational training standards used in 
 
EN 226   EN initial VET systematically combine the formative and summative assessment of 
competencies. 
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
The results of national examinations, presente d in annual-based national reports, sample-
based standardised tests at the end of primary education, as well as the results of international 
tests (PISA, PIRLS and TIMSS) are used fo r assessing the achievement levels. Quality 
assurance authorities we re established in 2005 and 2006 for bo th pre-university and university 
education.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
Romania is committed to adopting a lifelong learning strategy, based on a process of 
stakeholder consultation. The development of a national qualifications framework is based on 
a social pact from 2005 and involves the so cial partners through th e sectoral committees 
involved in the definition, updating and validation of  qualifications. 
The National Council for Adult Tr aining will be reorganized as  the National Qualifications 
Authority. A methodology for the National Qualif ications Framework for Higher Education 
has been piloted and is currently pending a pproval. A compulsory portfolio for lifelong 
learning was introduced in compulsory educa tion in 2000. The validati on of non-formal and 
informal learning is organised in 42 authoris ed evaluation centres for adults, as well as 
through the second chance education programme. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
Romania is currently reforming the initial VET system, aiming to simplify pathways and to 
issue qualifications for all levels of initial VET. Sectoral, regional and local consultative bodies including the social partners and the professions are involved in the design of VET 
programmes. 
Tracer studies, aiming to provide information on  the transition to work  and skills forecasting 
exercises are planned for improving transition to  the labour market. Existing annual plans of 
action for education aim to correlate the VET provision to demand on the labour markets at 
regional and local levels, based on co nsultations with stakeholders.  
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
Higher education reforms have been centred on the implementa tion of the Bologna process 
and on the introduction of quality assurance mechan isms. Public HEIs rely mainly on public 
funding, disbursed on a per-capita ba sis. Tuition fees exist both in public and in private HEIs. 
Regulations on private scholarships were introduced in 2004 and a student credit system is in 
the pipeline.  
The opening of institutions to lifelong learne rs is mainly focused on graduate studies. 
However, increasing provision of distance and evening courses facilita tes broader access to 
higher education. A national student matricula tion system, under development, will provide 
information on participation to higher education. 
 
EN 227   EN  
SLOVENIA 
Slovenia EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. 
primary)  85.2% 89.2%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading - 16.5%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 17.7%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 13.9%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  6.4%01 5.1% u 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  88.0% 90.2% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 
2000  - 8.3%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  
Share of females  22.8% 25.0%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  18.5% 30.9% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  13.3 %0313.9 %  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 5.89%01 5.72%06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
01= 2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, u=data lack reliability because of small sample 
size 
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Slovenia performs considerably better than the EU average in two sc hool related areas: Low 
achievers in reading, mathematics  and science and Upper secondary attainment. As for  Early 
leavers from education and training its performance is better than  the EU average but data are 
to be used with caution, as there are questions about their reliability . In the area of 
 
EN 228   EN Participation in early childhood education Slovenia has progressed and is close to the EU 
average. 
As for MST graduates , the growth rate has been well below the EU average, while the share 
of female graduates, even if it has improved, has not reached the EU averag e level. In the area 
of Higher education attainment  there has been considerable progress and Slovenia is now 
approaching the EU average. 
As concerns Adult participation in lifelong learning, Slovenia’s performance is well above the 
EU average despite limited in creases in recent years.  
Investment in education,  as a % of GDP, has slightly decreas ed in Slovenia while in the EU as 
a whole it has slightly increased. However, Slovenia is above the EU average. 
Slovenia performs better than EU 2010 benchmarks in a number of areas: Low achievers in 
reading; Early leavers from education and training , Upper secondary attainment and Adult 
participation in l ifelong learning. It exceeds the 2020 benchmark for Low achievers in 
science.  
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
The modernization of the curricula in Sloveni a is in line with the Recommendation of the 
European Parliament and the Council on Ke y Competences. The principles of the 
Recommendation were discussed with stakeholders  and also used as the basis for the reforms 
in different areas of education.  
1.1. Curricular reforms  
The updating of curricula in basic schools (ISCE D 1 and 2) and “gimnazije” (general upper 
secondary schools - ISCED 3A) began in 200 6 as an upgrade of the 1996-1998 curricular 
reforms. The explicit demand to take into account a competence approach is among the fundamental principles of the update. The fo cus of the above mentioned updating of the 
curricula was literacy, numer acy and foreign language.  
Slovenia addresses transv ersal key competences (linguistic, so cial and civic, environmental, 
technical) in general education, pr imarily through the promotion of a coherent approach to the 
work of preschool institutions and schools as  a whole. In VET new organizational and 
didactic approaches are developed aiming at  transversal key competences, linked to the 
implementation of new curricula.   
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
A document on Working with Pupils with Learning Difficulties  has been adopted and is 
competence oriented. It focuses primarily on reading, mathematical and motor competences 
(grapho and loco). Teachers are trained to delive r specific competences for learners with SEN. 
The Slovenian Statistical Office is collecting data on the partic ipation in non-formal education 
by age and gender as well as by education area. In  collaboration with the Ministry of Labor 
(MLFSA), the Ministry of Education (MOES) is preparing annual ad ult education programs 
(implemented by private and public adult edu cation institutions and public upper general and 
VET secondary schools) with sp ecial attention to low skille d, older people and unemployed 
workers.  
 
EN 229   EN 1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
On the basis of the Higher Education Act ( 2006) the Council for High er Education adopted 
Criteria for the Accreditation of St udy Programs for Teacher Education  based on cognitive, 
action, emotional and mo tivational competences.  At present no major changes in methods of 
assessment are envisaged: teaching is base d on seminars, and assessment on practice in 
schools and examinations. 
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
Slovenia has in the last twenty years developed a structured system of external examinations 
at the end of obligatory primary education and with an external baccalaureate as the final 
exam of gimnazija at the e nd of general upper secondary education. A combination of 
external examinations and internal final examin ations is in place also in VET. The first 
evaluations of redefined key competencies in  VET took place in 2008, which will form the 
basis for changes in VET curricula. Slovenia participates in TIMSS and PISA. 
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
The Lifelong Learning Strate gy for Slovenia was adopted in 2007. The strategic development 
vision states that its fundamenta l objective is to "cr eate the appropriate c onditions to ensure 
every person the opportunities for a full develo pment of their abilitie s”. Specific objectives 
(positive attitude towards learni ng, higher level of all kinds of lite racy, integration of different 
levels of education) were taken into account wh en the guidelines for reform of all types of 
education programmes across all levels we re drawn up during the reporting period.  
The National Vocational Qualifications Act adopted in 2000 and amended in 2006 introduced 
a system for the assessment and certification of NVQs which is based on learning outcomes, 
irrespective of the “location” at  which knowledge, skills or abilitie s are obtained. It allows the 
combination of formal and non-formal edu cation and work experience, and ensures 
partnership and cooperation in the development of NVQs, their promotion and transfer 
between different areas and leve ls of education and training. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
Slovenia is pursuing measures to increase the attractiveness of VET programs and their 
connection to the labour market. These include competence-oriented an d modular educational 
programs, the establishment of inter-business educational centres and the recognition of knowledge and skills acquired through non-formal  routes. At the same time efforts are 
underway to increase the attr activeness of VET by improving its reputation, providing better 
information (organizing joint presentations of  different professions; sponsoring broadcasts 
promoting VET) and working closely w ith vocational guidance professionals.  
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
The curricular reform, undertaken within the firs t decade of the Bologna process, is completed 
as all study programmes announced in 2009- 2010 academic year, are Bologna study 
programmes. One of the remaining key challenges,  requiring further work  in coming years, is 
quality assessment and control. 
 
EN 230   EN 75% of HEI funding comes from the national budget. Additional funds come from public 
tenders, related to the cohesion policy and ESF, and from fees and sale of goods and services 
on the market (6% in 2007).  
 
EN 231   EN  
SLOVAKIA 
Slovakia EU average EU Benchmarks 
  
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood 
education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. 
primary)  76.1% 79.4%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading - 27.8%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 20.9%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 20.2%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and 
training  
(age 18-24)  6.7%02 6.0% b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  94.8% 92.3% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 129.9%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  30.1% 35.4%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  10.6% 15.8% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  3.7% 03 3.3 %  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 3.93% 3.79% 06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
02= 2002; 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Slovakia performs notably better than the EU average in two school related areas: Early 
leavers from education and training and Upper secondary attainment. In the latter field  it has 
 
EN 232   EN the top performance among EU countries. As for Low achievers, the situation is 
differentiated: poor performers in reading are more frequent than in the EU as a whole, while 
the performance on Low achievers  in mathematics is above the EU average, in the area of 
science  the performance is equal to  the EU average. As for Participation in early childhood 
education the rate of Slovakia is significantly below the EU average. 
Progress in the area of MST graduates  has been extremely positive, with a growth rate almost 
4 times the EU average and a share of female graduates above the EU level. Despite recent 
progress, in the area of Higher education attainment  Slovakia is below the EU average and in 
2008 had the second lowest share of 30-34 year s old with tertiary attainment in EU. 
As concerns Adult participation in lifelong learning, it was below EU average in 2003. 
Thereafter a further decrease took place, so that the distance from the average is now even 
greater.  
Investment in education,  as a % of GDP, has decreased si nce 2000, while it has risen in the 
EU as a whole. Therefore Sl ovakia is below the EU average and the gap has increased. 
Slovakia already performs above the EU 2010 benchmarks in Early leavers from education 
and training , Upper secondary attainment  and the increase in MST graduates . The country 
furthermore succeeded in improving gender balance in MST.  
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
The main policy and implementation tool for the development of the key competences is the 
School act, adopted in 2008, which reformed the curricula in primary and secondary 
education. The key competences are perceived as the outcome of formal, non-formal and 
informal learning and considered to be a basic foundation for lifelong learning and for 
improving peoples' employability.  
1.1. Curricular reforms  
All eight key competences are integral part of  both state (national framework curricula) and 
school educational programmes in the curric ula for pre-primary, primary, lower secondary 
and upper secondary education (including VET at upper secondary level). The School act 
explicitly stipulates the educational objectives  for communication in the state, mother and 
foreign languages, mathematical and technical  sciences and technol ogies as well as ICT.  
The development of the transversal key competen ces is included as a horizontal issue across 
the curricula of various subjects. There are spec ific initiatives such as Junior Achievement, 
Training Firms to develop entrepreneurship competences, as well as competitions focused on the development of ICT skills. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
Special educational programmes are designed for children with health disadvantages and for 
children from socially or culturally disadvant aged backgrounds. The provision of training for 
groups at risk (jobseekers, low skilled, disabled ) is organised by Public Employment Services 
(Ministry of Labour). Specific programmes fo r talented children will be introduced in 
September 2009. 
 
EN 233   EN The basic framework for the development of key competences of adults is set by the Lifelong 
learning strategy in 2007 and its accompanying Action Plan which describe the priorities and 
objectives for lifelong learning (with a special focus on non-fo rmal learning). There is a 
system to gather statistics on particip ation of adults in non-formal learning.  
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
Qualitative indicators developed for all ke y competences serve as a methodological 
instrument for teachers in developing student competences, and as a baseline for their evaluation. Apart from summative and form ative assessment, criteria and authentic 
assessment are also used. The in-service training programmes for pedagogical staff are 
designed and implemented to equip them w ith approaches to develop students’ key 
competences.  
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
Slovakia carries out an external annual na tionwide evaluation of students of the 9
th grade to 
measure the qualitative level of learning outcome s in mathematics and the school's language 
of instruction. The feedback is used in pol icymaking for the design of legislation for 
education and VET. The country is involved in  a number of internatio nal studies, such as 
OECD PISA, OECD TALIS, IEA PIRLS, IEA TI MSS, ICCS aimed at evaluation of specific 
key competences.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
The strategy for lifelong learning and lifelong gui dance was adopted in 2007 together with the 
Action Plan which sets out concrete steps a nd instruments for the implementation of lifelong 
learning, NQF, EQF, validation of non-formal and informal learning and lifelong guidance. 
The Act on lifelong learning, currently in prepar ation, will focus on quality and validation of 
non-formal and informal learning with the aim to  interconnect them to the formal system and 
so to create an open system of lifelong learni ng. The implementation of EQF in Slovakia will 
be carried out through a 5-year ESF national proj ect to be launched in the beginning of 2010 
aimed at the design of the NQF referenced to the EQF levels. The National System of 
Qualifications and the National System of Occupations will be de signed in parallel.  
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
The new law on VET adopted in April 2009 establishes the basic conditions to improve its 
quality and relevance to the la bour market needs. Complementar y to the curricular reform 
established by the School act, the new law on VET will introduce incentives for increasing 
VET funding, clarify the role of national a nd regional administrations, employers and 
employees, and create suitable coordination struct ures for the VET system (national, regional 
and sectoral skills councils). 
In terms of the attractiveness of the VET syst em, attention is given to flexible learning 
pathways, permeability from secondary VET to HE, and organisation of a number of national 
skills competitions as well as participation in EuroSkills. The attractiveness of the VET 
system is also determined by its relevance to the labour market needs. To ensure this relevance, Slovakia is now developing a system  for monitoring and forecasting labour market 
needs.  
 
EN 234   EN 4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
A number of legislative reforms and concrete  initiatives have been launched in Slovakia 
related to the modernisation of  higher education. The challeng es are related to increased 
quality of HE institutions, improved governan ce of HE institutions, closer links with 
businesses and research, as well as in creased and performance-based funding. 
The new status of HE institutions enables them to acquire funds from various sources such as 
international or EU funds, businesses and other organisations in order to improve the quality of education process and research activities. HE  institutions are allowed to make profit and 
charge tuition fees according to specific rules.  There is an emergence of adult learning – 
"universities of third age" – at HE institutions. The implementation of the strategy for LLL (in particular validation of non-formal and in formal learning) and lifelong guidance should 
contribute to the opening up of HE institutions to lifelong learners.  
 
EN 235   EN  
FINLAND 
Finland EU average EU Benchmarks 
and goals  
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. 
primary)  55.2% 69.8%0785.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading 7.0% 4.8%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 6.0%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 4.1%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  9.0% 9.8%b,p 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  87.7% 86.2% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 23.2%07- 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(tertiary education)  Share of females  27.3% 28.9%0730.7% 31.9%07 Improve
gender 
balance- 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  40.3% 45.7% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  22.4% 0323.1% 8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
% of GDP 5.89% 6.14% 064.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Finland performs above EU average in almost all education areas. Adult participation in 
lifelong learning  in Finland is more than twice the EU average and in the benchmark areas 
Early school leavers  and the Upper secondary attainment Finland is performing above EU 
average. However further progress has been limited. When it comes to Low achievers,  
 
EN 236   EN Finland succeeded to reduce the lowest rate in  EU countries even further since 2000 whereas 
the rate increased in most ot her EU countries during the sa me period. Performance in the 
skills areas mathematics and science is at a similar high level. 
Finland has one of the highest Higher education attainment rates. The absolute numbers of 
MST graduates has increased less than the average for EU sin ce 2000 and the share of female 
graduates in MST is lower. 
Investment in education  as a % of GDP is relatively stable in Finland and exceeds the EU 
average by about 1 percentage point. 
When it comes to Early childhood education , Finland is 20 percenta ge points below the EU 
average, but with considerable progress since 20 00. It should be noted that statistical data for 
Finland in this field is currently being im proved because of concerns about validity and 
comparability with other EU countries 
Finland performs above the 2010 EU benchmark levels on Upper secondary attainment ; and 
above the 2020 EU benchmark levels on Low achievers in reading, science and mathematics , 
Early leavers from education and training,  Higher education attainment  and on Adult 
participation in lifelong learning.  
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
Transversal key competences are included mainly as thematic entities across subjects. These 
competences have a prominent role in pupil asse ssment: the core curriculum defines the level 
"good" and describes this as br oad dispositions including learni ng skills; digital and social 
skills and ability to take  inititiative and maintain an "ent repreneurial minset" in working. The 
core curriculum for compulsory  education integrates theory  with practical learning.  
In the field of VET and adult learning  the system of competence-b ased qualifications offers a 
flexible way to demonstrate vocational skills through competence tests, regardless of whether 
the skills have been acquire d through work experience, st udies or other activities.  
Recent initiatives in VET include a 'well-bein g at work passport'. It helps young people in 
initial vocational training learn to take care of their occupational health, develop their 
collaboration skills and plan ahead fo r further learning and development.  
1.1. Curricular reforms  
Initial Vocational qualifications will be renewe d to better correspond to the requirements of 
the world of work. More options will be given to demonstrate competences and obtain qualifications. The descriptions and assessmen t criteria of learning outcomes in the new 
curricula will follow the EQF approach. 'Vocati onal Start' will be mainstreamed as of 2010. It 
aims to enhance learning to learn skills, help transition and choose the ri ght field of training.  
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
A considerable subsidy has been allocated to various adult education providers since 2006 for 
promoting civic participation. The 'Noste' proj ect (2003-2009) has prov ided least educated 
adults training for completing vo cational qualifications and the 'I CT Driver's Licence' for free. 
 
EN 237   EN Immigrants, the unemployed and other disadvant aged groups have been given vouchers to 
continue learning in liberal adult education. Similarly, drop-outs from universities receive 
vouchers to continue in summer universities. Vouchers amount now up to 5% of all funding 
of liberal adult education. 
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
The key principles of the teacher education cu rricula established in 2005-06 include: profound 
knowledge of learning and teachi ng; subject knowledge and specifi c didactics; social, cultural 
and ethical aptitude for teaching, reseach-or ientation and ability for self-reflection and 
practical skills. The Ministry has funded in-s ervice training on e.g. en trepreneurship, gender 
and equality issues, multiculturalism and migration, ICT/IS-technologies and SEN.  
The guidelines for continuous assessment of learning inlcude the 'Learning to learn' 
competence; similarly, summative assesment empha sises e.g. initiative ta king as part of the 
criteria for progress. 
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
National evaluation is made on a sample basis,  but also by longitudina l monitoring. A rich 
data base includes basic, contextual and tre nd indicators. Benchmarks are used at national 
level, and also in steering e.g. higher education institutions. Se lf-evaluation is an obligation 
for providers of education and training.  
Finland takes part in internat ional comparative st udies, e.g. PISA, TIMMS, PIRLS and IEA 
reviews. 
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
The Finnish Development Plan for Education and Research, adopted for 5-year periods, 
serves as a comprehensive LLL strategy. A new National Qualifications System, compatible 
with the EQF, is projected to be ready by 2010. The quality assurance di mension is also being 
addressed.  
Quality criteria for compulsory education are being developed. A national framework for 
qualifications and other learning, compatible with the EQF, is projected to be ready by 2010. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
The overall popularity of VET has grown. Exis ting differences between regions, providers 
and fields of study are being addressed by various media campaigns. The introduction of an 
electronic application system pr ovides applicants with broad in formation on available options 
and increases the overall efficiency of the application process. 
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
In 2007 research and development expenditure  represented 3.5% of the gross domestic 
product, which puts Finland among the OECD top. The new Universities Act forms part of an 
overall reform of higher education, which includ es a reform of higher education structures, 
strategy formation, internationalisation and a re form of the funding model. A new Act will 
take effect in 2010 and will make universitie s corporations under public law or foundations 
 
EN 238   EN under private law. This will help them acquire  more private funding and collaborate with 
business and other research and innovation partners. 
New University Act includes the mission of lifelong learning to universities. Also new 
Polytechnics Act includes a mission for lifelong learning. The reform of vocationally oriented 
adult education includes proposals for develo ping further training of higher education 
graduates. The aim is to provide a flexible system allowing for stud ying parts of degree 
programmes without having to apply for a full study programme and combine further studies 
with work. The higher education institutions ma y also sell degree modules to employers as 
staff-development training. Open university and open polytechnic studies are offered in most 
subject fields. 
 
EN 239   EN  
SWEDEN 
Sweden EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. 
primary)  83.6% 94.0%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading 12.6% 15.3%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 18.3%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 16.4%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  7.3% 11.1% b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  85.2%, b 87.9% b 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 14.3%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  32.1% 33.1%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  31.8% 42.0% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  31.8%03 32.4%07 8.5%03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 7.21% 6.85% 06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Sweden is performing above the average EU leve l in all the ar eas of school education and in 
early childhood education, but progress is mixed. The share of  Low achieving 15 year-olds in 
reading  increased from 2000 to 2006, but it is still far below the EU average. The share of 
Early leavers from education and training  has increased in Sweden since 2000 reaching more 
than 11% in 2008, while during the same period Upper secondary attainment  increased.  
 
EN 240   EN Although Sweden has a relatively high attainme nt level in higher education and shows 
substantial progress in the fi eld, the growth in MST gradua tes was in the period 2000-2007 
less than half of the average growth in the EU. The female share of MST graduates on the 
other hand is clearly above EU  average and gender balance ha s significantly improved since 
2000.  
Adult participation in lifelong learning  in Sweden is the highest in  the EU and it is increasing.  
Sweden allocates nearly 7% of  GDP to education, and hence ha s the second highest rate of 
investment in education  (after Denmark) among the Member States.  
Sweden performs above the 2010 EU benchmark levels on: Low achievers in reading , Upper 
secondary attainment  and Adult participation in lifelong learning ; and above the 2020 EU 
benchmark levels on Higher education attainment  and on Adult participation in lifelong 
learning.  
1. Policies for development of the key competences   
Sweden already has a curriculum based on lear ning outcomes and existi ng educational goals 
generally match the key competencies framew ork. Current reforms aim at strengthening the 
acquisition of basic skills thr ough the introduction of compulsory national tests in Swedish, 
Swedish as a second language and mathematics in school years 3, 6 and 9, as well as in 
science in year 9.  
1.1. Curricular reforms  
Clarification of the learning objectives in the cu rricula is currently carried out by the National 
Agency for Education. Additionally, Sweden  has introduced special subsidies to 
municipalities and schools for reinforcing re ading, writing and arithmetic 2008-09, and for 
mathematics, science and technology 2009-11. Di gital competences, previously supported 
through a series of programmes are curre ntly mainstreamed across subjects.  
Transversal key competences, especially social  and civic competences and initiative taking 
are generally included among the overarching goa ls of the curriculum and schools enjoy a 
wide autonomy in implementation. Learning to learn is supported through compulsory 
individual development plans. A subsidy for cultural initiatives in  schools is currently 
available. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
Pupils lagging behind are assisted to reach th e educational goals through individual action 
plans, enabling them to receive special support. The individua l programme in upper 
secondary schools targets pupils who do not meet el igibility criteria for upper secondary level. 
Sweden has very high rates of adult participation in e ducation and a well developed 
infrastructure. The provision of key competences  is offered through the extensive network of 
municipal adult education corresp onding to primary and secondary levels. The right to basic 
adult education was extended in 2007 to those w ith learning difficulties. Several are targeting 
improved quality and graduation rates in the sy stem of Swedish tuition for adult migrants. 
 
EN 241   EN 1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
Sweden introduced in 2007 a major programme for continuous professional development of 
teachers ("Lärarlyftet"), providing specially  designed university courses linked to school 
subjects and key competences. A number of reforms aim at reinforcing the assessment 
framework, through the introduction of grades a nd written assessments from lower grades, as 
well as through national standardised tests.  
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
Sweden has introduced standardised national tests, facilitating the identification of pupils 
lagging behind and aims to extend the awarding of  grades in earlier school years than today, 
in year 8. Sweden participates in internat ional tests (PISA, PIRLS, TIMSS, PIAAC) and 
publishes national analyses of the results and trends which are fed into policymaking. A new 
national school inspectorate wa s set up for improving supervision and quality assessment of 
education.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
Sweden has not developed a strategy for lif elong learning, but has a well developed and 
coherent lifelong learning sector. The newl y established National Agency for Higher 
Vocational Education (NAHVE), established in  July 2009, will coor dinate and support a 
national structure for validation, based on the participation of the education and business 
sectors in the development of validation strategies, methods and information. Validation of 
experiential learning was intr oduced for applicants to highe r education in 2003 and can be 
used for awarding study credits. Current re forms aim to improve validation of overseas 
education and qualifications, especially highe r education, through a new knowledge base for 
assessing overseas educati on and through providing better st udy and career guidance.  
Sweden has decided to implement the EQF, rela ting it to the public e ducation and training 
system as a first step. The newly esta blished NAHVE has been appointed national 
coordination point for EQF.  
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
Sweden has a school-based init ial vocational education system . For addressing quality issues, 
such as the relatively high rate of early sc hool leaving in initial vocational education, the 
government has proposed a reform of the uppe r secondary education, including initial 
vocational education and training. When it come s to the vocational study paths, the reform 
will increase the vocational part of the curr iculum, will introduce a vocational diploma and 
will strengthen the involvement of social partners and sectoral dialogues for making VET programmes more relevant for the labour mark et. An upper secondary apprenticeship track 
has been piloted since 2008 and is planne d to be mainstreamed starting in 2011.  
, In order to secure quality in post seconda ry education and traini ng the Government has 
introduced a common framework of Higher Vocati onal Education as of July 1st 2009, to be 
administered by the NAHVE aiming to offer edu cation which leads directly to employment 
and corresponds to the n eeds of the labour market. 
As a measure to address the economic crisis , the government has substantially increased 
training provision within Higher Vocational E ducation and introduced a major subsidy in 
 
EN 242   EN order to increase VET training fo r adults in the public municipa l adult education framework. 
The Government has also allocated resources for a temporary increase in opportunities for unemployed people to obtain the higher rate of upper-secondary student aid in 2009 and 2010 
aiming to upgrade the skills of th e unemployed over 25 year olds.  
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
The process of modernisation of universities  has continued and a new bill introduces a 
number of measures to increa se the internationalisation of HEIs, announcing the intention to 
introduce tuition fees for students coming from  countries outside the EEA and Switzerland. 
Research funding already represents  a large part of HEI funding. The possibility of tax relief 
for donations to research and the possibility to increase the auto nomy of HEIs were 
investigated by committees of inquiry. 
Sweden already has a tradition of participation of  adult learners in higher education, based on 
flexible study programmes, flexible financ ial support for students,  validation of work 
experience and on distance and evening courses. HEIs in areas suffering the consequences of 
the economic crisis have received additiona l funding for increasing the participation of 
recently unemployed workers and guidance wa s offered within enterprises undergoing 
restructuring. 
 
EN 243   EN  
UNITED KINGDOM 
United Kingdom EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary)  100% 90.7%07 b 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading (12.8%) 19.0%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 19.8%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 16.7%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  18.2% 17.0% b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  76.7% 78.2% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 17,6%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  32.1% 31.1%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve
gender 
balance- 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  29.0% 39.7% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  27.2%03 19.9% b  8.5% 039.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 4.46% 5.48% 06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
The UK performs near to the EU average in most school related areas: Participation in early 
childhood education , Early leavers from education and training  and the Upper secondary 
completion rate but has progressed in these areas sli ghtly less than the EU as a whole. 
Results for low achievers are slightly better than  for the EU (comparability to 2000 results is 
limited).  
 
EN 244   EN The UK has a relatively high higher educati on attainment rate, which has increased 
considerably since 2000. However, growth in  the number of MST graduates was below EU 
average.  
As concerns adult participation in lifelong learning,  which measures the frequency of 
participation, the UK shows good performance with participati on rates more than twice the 
EU average. If breaks in time series are taken into consideration, the pa rticipation rate has, 
however, not changed much since 2000. Results from the European Adult Education Survey, 
however, imply that the number of instructio n hours spent per participant is below EU 
average. 
Public investment in education  as a % of GDP has shown a si gnificant growth since 2000 and 
is now above EU average.  
The UK performs above the 2010 EU benchmark on Increasing the number  of MST graduates  
and above the 2020 EU benchmark on  Adult participation in lifelong learning . 
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
All the eight competences listed in the Europ ean Reference Framework have been embedded 
in UK school curricula for some time. The UK has strategies to increase the numbers of adults 
with basic level liter acy and numeracy skills .  
1.1. Curricular reforms  
The English National secondary Curriculum ha s been revised to highlight connections 
between subjects and cross-curricular themes, to provide for more personalised learning - 
especially in literacy, numeracy and ICT - and focus on skills for life, learning and work. Transversal competences such as learning to learn and entrepreneurship are explicitly 
covered. Languages will be a part of the stat utory Key Stage 3 (primary) curriculum from 
September 2011. 
The Scottish National Curriculum has been revised to be more coherent, flexible and rich; it 
includes all eight Key Competen ces; together with a new Lifelong Skills Strategy and new 
Early Years Framework published in January  2009, it is designed to create a coherent 
framework for the development of key competen ces for lifelong learning from age 3 to 18 and 
beyond. There is a revised curriculum in Wales.  
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
To ensure that all young people acquire skills, four alternative learning routes have been 
developed: the revised GCSE (General Certif icate of Secondary Education) and A-Level 
qualifications system; a new system of more pr actically oriented Diplomas; apprenticeships; 
and the Foundation Learning Tier. 
The government has legislated to raise the school leaving age to 17 by 2013 and to 18 by 
2015. England has published a strategy to reduc e the proportion of young people who are not 
in education, employment or training (NEET). It includes a guarantee to offer every school 
leaver a suitable place to continue in learning.  
 
EN 245   EN Learning support for young people with learning di fficulties and /or disabilities (LLDD) has 
been improved e.g. via an on-line toolkit and exchange of good practice to help this group 
into employment. 
A 2009 White Paper ‘The Learning Revolution’ revi ses the English strategy for informal adult 
learning. It aims to widen participation, open access to new learning  places, support self 
organised learning, and harness the benefits of technology and broadcasting. England is 
targeting additional funding at people who are unemployed and on benefits; low-skilled adults in employment; offenders in cu stody and those supervised in the community and other groups 
at risk of social exclusion 
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
Particularly in England and Scotland, formativ e approaches to assessment, in a context of 
individualised learning, have been a key feature of compulso ry education for many years. 
This approach ensures that learning is meani ngful for all pupils, teaching is effective and 
outcomes are improved. It equips teachers to fi ne-tune their understandi ng of learners’ needs 
and tailor their teaching accordingly.  
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
In England, standardised assessments of certa in pupil competences are organised at ages 7 
and 11; public examinations are organised in th e final years of secondary schooling. Results 
are analysed at pupil, school and Local Authority level; a Contextualised Value Added model 
takes into account factors such as gender, mobility and levels of deprivation. This information 
provides context and feedback for policymaking and public accountability. The Scottish Survey of Achievement is a sample survey wh ich monitors how well pupils in Scotland are 
learning, focussing each year on a different aspect of the curri culum. England and Scotland 
regularly take part in PISA, TIMSS and PIRLS. 
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
Each UK country has published its own lifel ong learning strategies, each based upon a 
number of key documents.  
There will be a new framework for accrediting qua lifications in England, Wales and Northern 
Ireland, linked to the European Qualificat ions Framework. The framework for higher 
education qualifications has been revised and is compatible with the Framework for 
Qualifications of the European Higher Educatio n Area. The Scottish Credit and Qualifications 
Framework (SCQF) is the lifelong learning fr amework which recognises academic, vocational 
and general qualifications using a scale of 1 to  12. The Credit and Qual ifications Framework 
for Wales (CQFW) is an overarching meta-fra mework. Wales has a credit system based on 
learning outcomes and level. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
England is undertaking a major reform of the vocational qualifications system to increase the 
attractiveness and relevance of VET. This incl udes rationalised system of qualifications for 
ages 14-19; development of a Qu alification and Credit framework; sector skills councils that 
develop qualifications releva nt to the labour market; de velopment of national skills 
academies; expanded apprenticeship programme s. Scotland has increased apprenticeship 
 
EN 246   EN funding, extended support for people facing redunda ncy, and funded trades union learning 
representatives to encourage workplace learning. 
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
The English Higher Education sector already ha s a very diverse range of income streams 
(multiple streams of public funding, domestic and international tuitio n fees and university 
private revenues). Half of universities’ income is from Funding Council grants for research or 
teaching or from EU/UK student fees; half comes from other sources.  
To further diversify streams, government will match-fund voluntary donations to universities, 
and a special fund will enable universities to provi de tailored training, development and 
professional support to vulnerable groups.  
The Government is investing to  encourage employers and universities to co-develop and co-
fund provision for high level skills to develop Hi gher Education that is flexible, relevant and 
responsive to the needs of learners and em ployers. Enrolments in Foundation Degrees - 
flexible work-focused and demand-le d qualifications – are increasing.  
 
EN 247   EN CROATIA 
Croatia EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. 
primary)  54.1%03 65.2%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading - 21.5%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 28.6%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 17.0%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  8.0%02 3.7% u 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  90.6%02 95.4% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 41,9%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  - 34.9%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve
gender 
balance- 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  16.202% (18.5)% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  1.8% 03 2.2%  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 3.72%02 4.11% 06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
02= 2002, 03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisi onal, u=data lack reliability because of small 
sample size  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU average performance levels" 
Croatia performs better than the EU av erage in three school  related areas: Low achievers in 
reading and science,  Early leavers from education and training  and Upper secondary 
attainment.  For upper secondary attainment and for early leavers from education Croatia's 
performance is among the best in Europe  
 
EN 248   EN The results for early leavers from education, howev er, lack reliability be cause of small sample 
size. Participation in ea rly childhood education  in Croatia is on the other hand far below the 
EU average. 
In the area of MST graduates  the increase has been lower than the EU average. Higher 
education attainment in Croatia is below the EU average and has improved little since 2000. 
As concerns Adult participation in lifelong learning, Croatia's performance is clearly below 
the EU average and has im proved little since 2000.  
Public investment in education,  as a % of GDP increased in Croatia significantly since 2000, 
but is still nearly one percent of GDP below the EU average. 
Croatia has already reached the 2010 EU benchmarks as regards early leavers from education , 
upper secondary attainment  and increasing the number of MST graduates . 
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
Croatia encourages the development toward s a knowledge based soci ety and economy. The 
national curriculum includes all the key comp etences. The concept of lifelong learning is 
accepted as a basis of the education system  for the purpose of realizing permanent 
employability and active citizenship. The shif t from content-based to competence-based 
education has been presented to  school principals and teacher s in numerous plenary sessions 
and workshops. Key stakeholders are involved in the development of strategic documents. 
1.1. Curricular reforms  
The quality of education based on  competences is set as a goal and a principle of Croatian 
education policy. The new competence-based draft National Curricu lum Framework (2009) 
includes all key competences contained in the EU Reference Framework. The new school 
curriculum Framework will be based on the National Curriculum Framework. 
The Strategy for the Development of the National Curriculum is competence based and 
promotes the acquisition of the transver sal competences. "Compulsory democratic 
citizenship" is included as a cross-curricular topic at all levels of education as well as as an 
optional subject.  
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
A number of programmes target different gr oups of adults: the unemployed, war veterans, 
illiterate persons, young people with inadequate e ducation, the disabled, victims of family 
violence, young adults, adults without primary or  secondary education, senior citizens and 
adults with special needs, minority groups, women, etc. 
The Act on Vocational Education and Training  adopted in 2009 define s a set of knowledge 
and skills necessary to meet basic needs, deve loping social cohesion, democratic society and 
employment. Its main goal is to enable people to acquire key competences as well as vocational competences. 
 
EN 249   EN 1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
Continuous professional education and training ar e compulsory. Experts from universities and 
NGOs are developing a project to reform compulsory teacher training. Professional 
supervision is organised for beginning teachers during their first working year. Specialised 
training at national and regional level is organised to familiarise teachers with the changes in different fields of the education system, with  new methods of active teaching and learning, 
with the new modules of the curriculum and othe r educational topics. Teacher training is also 
offered at county level by Teacher Councils for each subject or cross-curricular subject such 
as democratic citizenship. Specialised training is offered to teachers and principals of primary and secondary schools and student dormitories 
The teacher training programme for VET teachers is  based on competences, interdisciplinary, 
multi-functionality, new approach to teachi ng, orientation towards pupils, cooperation 
between colleagues, creativit y, individual approach, flexib ility of modular curricula, 
combination of the theoretical and the practical  work and self-development. The training of 
VET teachers can be carried out  in relevant companies. 
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
The State Matura is a standardized instrume nt for quality assessment and improvement in 
education, which will gradually replace admission exams at many HE institutions.  
National exams will ensure harmonization of pupils' academic achievement nation-wide. 
Croatia participated in 2006 for the first time in the OECD PISA test. 
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies  
The strategy for adult educati on is aimed at developing measur es, organisational and financial 
conditions for realizing LLL as a right and an  obligation for all citizens; offering equal 
opportunities for quality learning throughout life for all; developi ng measures for joint action 
of the relevant ministries, social partners and educational institut ions; creating legal and 
professional prerequisites for comprehensive adult education as an integral part of the Croat 
education system. 
The Croatian Qualification Framework is base d on the Croatian educa tional tradition, the 
guidelines of the EQF and the international regulations. It sets out clear quality criteria for gaining a set of competences that  a learner can expect  to have after completing education for a 
qualification of a certain level and volume. It is a unified system that allows for learning outcomes to be measured and compared to each other. 
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
The VET Strategy (2008) is based on the princi ples and goals of EU education strategies, 
LLL and partnership. The system  is oriented to learning outcomes and also guarantees 
horizontal and vertical mobility. The strategy is  based on the concept of flexibility and 
adjusting education to the labou r market needs. In 2006, 13 sector al councils were established 
in order to reinforce the link between the VET and the labour market. They have been 
working on restructuring existi ng vocational qualifications.  
 
EN 250   EN 4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
The Act on Scientific Activity and Higher Educa tion enables HEIs to establish and perform 
LLL activities and programmes. A number of universities have opened up to LLL centres 
catering for the needs of  their communities.  
Lump-sum financing of universities with a me chanism for long-term strategic planning as 
well as a greater degree of autonomy was in troduced in 2007. In 2007 amendments to the Act 
of Scientific Activity and Higher Education introduced significant changes to the system of incentives for enterprises to invest in higher ed ucation, which facilitate d the input of private 
funding. Greater autonomy which will further facili tate diversification of  income streams is 
planned in upcoming changes of university law. 
 
EN 251   EN ICELAND 
03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Iceland performs slightly above the EU  average in the school related areas: Participation in 
early childhood education , Low achievers in reading and mathematics and Early leavers from Iceland EU average EU Benchmarks ICELAND 
 2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood 
education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. 
primary)  91.8% 95.4%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading 14.5% 20.5%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 16.8%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 20.5%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and 
training  
(age 18-24)  29.8% 24.4% 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  46.1% 53.6% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 29.9%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher 
education)  Share of females  37.9% 34.2%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve 
gender 
balance  - 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  32.6% 38.3%07 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  29.5% 0325.1 %  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 5.81% 7.55% 06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
 
EN 252   EN education and training . On Early leavers from education and training  Iceland is improving 
but still has a significantly hi gher share than the average in  the EU. Also the share of Upper 
secondary attainment  is increasing , but Iceland still performs below the EU average.  
Iceland has made progress is in increasing the number of MST graduates , however the growth 
rate has been slightly below the EU averag e figure. At the same time the share of the 
population with higher education at tainment has also improved.  
As concerns Adult participation in lifelong learning, Iceland has decreased its share, but from 
a high level and still performs  above the EU average.  
Investment in education  as a % of GDP has increased significantly since 2000, reaching one 
of the highest levels among the EU Member Stat es. The increase in Iceland is higher than for 
the EU, therefore the gap be tween Iceland and EU average performance has grown. 
Iceland performs above the 2010 EU benchmark level on Low achievers in reading and 
mathematics, MST graduates  and Adult participation in  lifelong learning .  
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
A new legislation has been adopted for all school  stages as well as te acher education and the 
revision of curricula for pre-schools, com pulsory schools and upper-secondary schools is 
ongoing. The revision is based on national devel opment of the eight key competences. The 
key competences are a fundamental part of the Comprehensive National Lifelong Learning 
Strategy and a foundation for formal, in formal and non-formal lifelong learning. 
1.1. Curricular reforms  
The aim of the developments is to have the Curriculum Guides in place before the end of 
2010. Teacher education is also being redesigned so  as to be in line with the Comprehensive 
National Lifelong Learning Strategy (see 1.3 below). 
The revision of the curricula for the three sc hool stages is based on national development of 
the eight Key Competences set out in the EU  Framework. This work started during the 
summer 2008 after the adoption of the new law.  The Key Competences will be continuous 
through all school stages and adult education.  
Curriculum development for general studies, VET, art studies and special education will be 
further decentralised, and schools will propose line s of study and describe their content. The 
proposed study lines have to be certified by the Ministry of E ducation, Science and Culture. 
This will open up the possibility for direct cooperation between labor market actors and 
schools in the creation of new study lines.  
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
The revised Curriculum Guides will include provisions for learning support for pupils in 
special education, including the use of indi vidual curriculum for each pupil. After the 
publication of the Curriculum Gu ides the focus will be on the production of learning materials 
taking into account the different needs of indi vidual pupils so that each can maximise his 
abilities for the best results in preparation for adult life. 
 
EN 253   EN The government has set national targets relevant to  the adult learning sect or including plans to 
increase the number of people with upper seco ndary education, decrease the drop-out from 
upper secondary schools and provide more flex ible pathways. Creating new opportunities and 
ensuring access for all individuals to the educat ion system, is considered very important in 
this context. The policy is to ensure equal opportunities for particip ation in the knowledge 
society for people that have for some reas on, e.g. economical situat ion, dyslexia or other 
study difficulties, dropped out of school and wish to update  their skills. 
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
Teacher education is being redesigned taki ng into account initial- and in-service training, 
school development, assessment procedures, pr oduction of learning material and support for 
schools and teachers to develop and adopt a comp etence based approach. The legislation from 
2008 upgrades teacher education and all new teach ers must undergo five years’ study, leading 
to a master degree, instead of three years bach elors degree that was previously required.  
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
Currently the assessment of pupi ls' progress and competence is mainly the responsibility of 
the teachers but schools’ internal evaluatio ns also play a role. National coordinated 
examinations are held in 4th grade (9 year olds /Maths and Icelandic), 7t h grade (12 year olds/ 
Maths and Icelandic) and 10th grade (15 year olds/ Maths, Icelandic and English) of the 
Compulsory School.  
Iceland has participated in international asse ssments, such as PIRLS and PISA, for many 
years. The results are used when the Curricu lum Guides are revised and for other policy 
developments. In 2009 the Ministry offered gr ants to Upper Secondary Schools to develop 
study programmes based on the new Act on Upper Secondary Schools (no. 92/2008), to prepare for structural change. The basis for their work is the NQF, the national Key Competences and the Framework of Learning Outcomes.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
A Comprehensive National Lifelong  Learning Strategy is being implemented on the basis of 
new legislation for all school stages and te acher education. An important part of the 
implementation is the revision of the curricula for the three school stages. A new Bill on Adult Education will include provisions fo r building bridges between the system for 
validation of non-formal and informal learning a nd the formal school system. This system is 
already being piloted and it focuses particularly on reaching out to people on the labour market without formal qualifications. The goal is  to bring them back to VET, recognising 
what they have learnt in the work place thus allo wing them to complete their skills in order to 
attain qualification. 
The concepts of NQF, EQF and Key Competences  have been presente d and discussed with 
stakeholders preparing them for their role in the structure of the study programmes. A 
framework of Learning Outcomes has been produced to help sc hools to formulate their study 
programmes. The framework aims at increasing the focus of secondary education on student 
competences and encouraging schools to review  and define their study programmes focusing 
on learning outcomes. 
 
EN 254   EN 3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
The upper secondary education syst em in Iceland has been restructured in order to promote 
the attractiveness of VET. There is only one system in Upper Secondary Education 
encompassing both academic education and VET and the new legislation makes the 
integration of academic and VET courses more flexible. There are provisions in the legislation for structural reform/changes. Pup ils in VET will have easier access to higher 
education than before and dead ends in the sy stem are being eliminated. The new legislation, 
moreover, gives Compulsory Schools (6-16 year olds) the opportunity to introduce VET 
courses in cooperation with Upper Secondary Sc hools or with local firms for students 14-16 
years old. 
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
In recent years the government has placed  emphasis on decentralisation and increased 
autonomy of universities.  
HEIs in Iceland are either run as public, private non- profit organisations or as limited public 
companies. All HEIs both public and private that  are accredited by the Ministry of Education, 
Science and Culture receive state funding throu gh a contract with the Ministry, for teaching 
and research. Private HEIs can collect tuition fees, but public HEI´s are not permitted to do 
so. It is defined by law which additional income  public HEIs can generate. There are means to 
diversify the income streams of  public HEIs where they can i.e. become a partner in a 
shareholding company, a non-profit organisati on or a limited liability company, subject to 
agreement by the Minister. 
HEIs have been effective in reaching out to mature students both in undergraduate and 
graduate programmes, as well as  continuing educati on. The total number of registered HEI 
students has increased significantly in recent year s and the increase in percentage of mature 
students is even higher than for the younger studen ts. As a reaction to the financial crisis the 
government has appealed to HEIs to open thei r doors for those who have lost their jobs. 
 
EN 255   EN  
NORWAY 
Norway EU average EU Benchmarks 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary)  79.7% 94.3%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading 17.5% 22.4%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 22.2%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 21.1%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  12.9% 17.0% b 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  95.0% 70.1% b 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 9.8%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  26.8% 28.6%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve
gender 
balance- 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  37.3% 46.2% 24.3% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  17.1% 03 19.3 %  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 6.74%01 6.55% 06 4.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
01= 2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Norway performs above the EU average on Low achievers in Reading and mathematics 
although the share of low achievers has increa sed since 2000. In the other school related 
areas: Participation in early childhood education , Early leavers from education and training  
and Upper secondary attainment, Norway performs below the EU average. There has been a 
significant increase in early chil dhood education, and it is now  above the average of the EU. 
 
EN 256   EN Early leavers from education and training  and Upper secondary attainment Norway show a 
reduction in performance compared to 2000 even allowing for a break in the data series.  
The Adult participation in lifelong learning  is among the highest in the EU and increasing.  
On Higher education attainment  Norway has among the highest shares in the EU and 
progress since 2000 has been strong. The growth in Graduates in MST  since 2000 is less than 
10% and far below the average in the EU. The share of female MST graduates  is below the 
EU average and the gender balance ha s been almost unchanged since 2000. 
Concerning Investment in education , Norway has among the highest public spending on 
education compared to the average of the EU.  
Norway performs above the 2010 EU benchmark levels on Adult participation in lifelong 
learning ; and above the 2020 EU benchmark levels on Higher education attainment  and Adult 
participation in lifelong learning . 
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
The eight key competences defined in the EU  Recommendation are defined in the holistic 
learning perspective in Norway. Basic skills are considered subject independent and are 
identical for different strands of education. 
1.1. Curricular reforms  
The “Knowledge Promotion Reform”, a compre hensive school reform, was introduced in 
2006. The reform covers primary, lower secondar y and upper secondary education, including 
vocational education and training (VET). The focu s of this reform is the strengthening of 
basic skills and a shif t to outcome based learning. “Knowle dge Promotion” is a curriculum 
reform where the curriculum clearly states the objectives for learning outcomes and gives the 
teacher more freedom in the choice of teach ing methods. The new curricula are based on 
learning outcomes approach and the Key Competen ces. The reform has been subject to an 
ongoing evaluation which will end in 2011.  
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
The Norwegian Education Act states that all pup ils have the right to individually adapted 
education. Pupils with special education needs ha ve the right to indivi dually adapted subject 
curricula. The teacher has the responsibility to  adapt teaching to the pupil's capacities and 
needs. To promote integration and employab ility of immigrants, the Government has 
introduced compulsory Norwegian and civics courses for new immigrants. Education at 
primary and lower secondary level is guaranteed to  all adults who have this need, irrespective 
of any prior training at this level. All adults  aged 25 or above who have not completed upper 
secondary education, have  the right to do so.  
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
The Government has proposed to reorganise th e existing general teacher education program 
into a new system of primary and lower seco ndary teacher education, split into two equal 
programs: one for grades 1-7 and one for grad es 5-10. Both programs have a new compulsory 
area of concentration – pedagogy and teacher knowl edge of pupils – consisting of 60 credits.  
 
EN 257   EN In 2009 a new program for in-service teacher education has been implemented linked to the 
new Qualification regulation. Key competences are an essential part of the curriculum of the 
in-service teacher program which will be fully  implemented in 2011. Mapping tests in reading 
have been introduced to better identify pupils who need special attention, and teachers are 
encouraged to take further act ions if pupils fall behind in one  or more basic competence. 
Teachers are asked to inform parents a bout the results of the assessments.  
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
Results from national tests are published on a we bpage celled "Skoleporte n" along with data 
on resources, learning environment and completion rates.  
Norway is involved in a number of international studies, such as OECD PISA, OECD TALIS, 
IEA, PIRLS, TIMSS and ICCS aimed at evaluati on of specific key comp etences. Results from 
the national tests give information on the vari ation in learning outcome s locally and are used 
toghether with the results from the internati onal surveys as a basis for policy development.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
In Norway lifelong learning has been on the polit ical agenda for more than a decade and 
embedded into the system through several elements, such as universal access to early childhood education and care, a le gal right to basic education, br idges between different types 
of education and training, no dead ends in mainstream education and training, arrangements 
for validation of non-formal and informal learning outcomes.  
Norway has taken part in the establishmen t of the EQF and will develop qualification 
frameworks linked to the EQF at the levels of initial and tertiary VET. Norway has developed 
a qualifications framework for higher educa tion based on the EQF and the overarching 
framework for the European Higher Education Ar ea. No decision has been made concerning 
the general upper secondary education and a fully comprehenisve NQF.  
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
Strengthening basic skills are in tended to prepare students and apprentices for future changes 
in the labour market. All teachers and trainers are responsible for enabling students and apprentices to develop basic sk ills through their wo rk in various subj ects and learning 
situations and within a ll education programs.  
Students in VET programmes have a much hi gher drop-out rate than pupils in general 
programs. In order to reduce the drop out rate  pupils at lower secondary level have the 
possibility to try out upper s econdary programs and to experien ce work-based learning to give 
them the possibility to develop a special intere st for a subject. A certif icate of practice which 
allows pupils with poor motivation to gain a form al certificate at a lower level than a crafts – 
or journeyman's certificate has been introduced.  
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
No tuition fees are allowed at state instituti ons for ordinary degree programmes. Tailor-made 
programs for business and industry can generate income.  
Distance education has increase d greatly with the developmen t of ICT-supported learning. In 
addition, ICT is now part of ordinary campus  teaching, and since the end of 2004 all public 
 
EN 258   EN and the larger private institutions have  learning management systems for course 
administration, teaching and learning (LMS).  
Norway Opening Universities (NU) is an agency  with a mandate to s timulate the development 
of flexible lifelong learning in higher educati on. The main objective for NU is to strengthen 
contact between the world of work and higher education.  
The evaluation of NU will be fina lised in 2009 and runs parallel to  an analysis of the market 
for decentralised higher education. Both flexib le (ICT-supported) learning and decentralised 
education provide higher education to the wide r population. Therefore, the Ministry would 
like to consider the two modes of learning in  conjunction when considering further policy-
making.  
There is a system of admission to HE on the basis of formal, non-formal and informal 
learning for applicants aged 25 and above, and thr ough the so-called v-path (for all ages) it is 
possible to gain admission to pa rticularly adapted higher education programmes on the basis 
of an upper secondary vocatio nal qualification alone.  
 
EN 259   EN  
TURKEY 
Turkey EU average EU 
Benchmarks  
2000 2008 2000 2008 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old - year before start of comp. primary)  11.6% 26.7%07 85.6% 90.7%07 - 95% 
Reading - 32.2%06 21.3% 24.1%06 17.0 % 15% 
Mathematics - 52.1%06 - 24.0%06 - 15% Low achievers  
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 Science - 46.6%06 - 20.2%06 - 15% 
Early leavers from education and training  
(age 18-24)  59.3% 46.6% 17.6% 14.9% 10 % 10% 
Upper secondary attainment  
(age 20-24)  44.7%07 47.8% 76.6% 78.5% 85 % - 
Increase since 2000  - 57.3%07 - 33.6%07 +15 % - 
MST graduates 
(higher education)  Share of females  31.1% 31.1%07 30.7% 31.9%07 Improve
gender 
balance- 
Higher education attainment  
(age 30-34)  - 12.4% 22.4% 31.1% - 40% 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25-64; 4 weeks period)  1.8 % 06 1.8 %  8.5% 03 9.5% 12.5 % 15% 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 2.59% 2.86% 064.91% 5.05% 06 - - 
03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,   
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
"EU Benchmarks" are defined as "EU aver age performance levels" (weighted averages) 
Turkey performs below EU averag e in all school related areas: Participation in early 
childhood education , Low achievers in reading, mathematics and science , Early leavers from 
education and training  and Upper secondary completion rate. However, as regards all school 
related participation rates Turkey ha s made significant progress since 2000. 
 
EN 260   EN Another area in which Turkey has made progress is in increasing the number of MST 
graduates , for which the growth rate has been clearl y above the EU average. At the same time 
the Higher education attainment  level is significantly lower than the EU average level.  
As concerns adult participation in lifelong learning, Turkey's performance has stagnated in 
recent years, but the participation rate remains one of the lowest in Europe.  
Public investment in education  as a % of GDP has increased since 2000 in Turkey, butis still 
clearly below EU average.  
Turkey has already reached the EU benchmark of 2010 as regards the growth in the number 
of MST graduates. 
1. Policies for development of the key competences  
The rate of literacy is still a problem in Turkey ; this situation is particularly prominent as 
regards women (19.6% not literate). Since 2006 the country developed its provision for Key 
Competences. Competence Based Modular E ducation Programmes are implemented in 
schools, are open to all kinds of horizontal and vertical transfer  and lead to a wide base of 
certificate and diplomas encompassing all vocat ional and technical secondary education.  
1.1. Curricular reforms  
For mother tongue the education programme ha s been updated in all grades of general 
education from preschool to the 9th grade by taking the level of students in consideration. For 
vocational education and training  the lesson of Communication is  included in the framework 
of the education programme. Fo r foreign languages education programmes contain the same 
skills as those in Turkish. First foreign la nguage should be B2+ level at the end of 12th grade 
and second foreign language will be progressively included as compulsory. In vocational education foreign language subjects are incl uded. For MST lessons are provided through all 
the school education cycle for cognitive development and mathematical, science and technology skills. For digital competence new education programmes are implemented from 
preschool to the 9
th grade in secondary education institutions and in the scope of the SVET 
project for qualified vocational personnel. 
For learning to learn programmes are student centr ed to help achieve skills and information as 
well in the general as in vocational education. For social and civic co mpetence qualifications 
are provided through the lessons of social studies on primary level, and history in the level of 
general and vocational secondary ed ucation. Initiative taking and entreprene urship is included 
in primary in the lessons of Turkish, Maths and sciences with the "Technology and Design 
Lesson Education Programme", and in vocationa l education in new modular VE programmes 
within SVET. Cultural awarenes s and expression are included in the Visual Arts Lesson 
Education Programme of 1-8 grades of pr imary and in the education programmes of 
secondary and vocational education. 
1.2. Targeted provision of key competences  
Disadvantaged groups (early schoo l leavers, special needs) and adults (low skilled, aged 
workers) may participate in the courses provide d within Public Education Centres and Open 
Primary School, be informed and assisted vi a internet Radio and TV and be awarded a 
diploma via distant education methods. Through the national vocationa l qualification system 
 
EN 261   EN to be established, information, skills a nd qualifications will be  acknowledged within a 
national framework 
1.3. Teacher training and approaches to assessment  
The concept of Support to Basic Education ( TEDP), created in the frame of Financing 
Agreement between Turkey and the EU is to de termine of teacher competencies and includes: 
General Competencies for Teachers put into  force in 2006, Specific field competencies 
including performance, put into force in 2008, a School Based Vocational Development guide 
to support the vocational and personal developm ent of teachers along with the determination 
of General Qualifications for Teacher s and Specific Field Competencies.  
1.4. Evaluation of outcomes 
The changes made in the structure of new education programmes implemented as of 2004-
2005 included both result-oriented  and process-oriented evalua tion. In the evaluation carried 
out on national scale (Placement Test), proce ss-oriented evaluation is focused on. Placement 
tests are performed at 6th, 7th and 8th grade. The use of self-e valuation, peer evaluation, 
product file (portfolio), observa tion etc. methods to observe th e development of children is 
also stated in the Regulations on Primary Education Institutions. In VET, modular 
programmes which are already prep ared have been designed to include both “summative” and 
“formative” student evaluation. When Vocational Qualifications Institu te (MYK) starts to 
carry out its activities, all vocational standards will be prepared by MYK, social partners and sectors.  
2. Development and implementa tion of LLL strategies.  
The lifelong education strategy has been develo ped towards increasing the employment skills 
of individuals in line with the requirements of a changing and developing economy and labour 
market. The purpose of “Lifelong Learning Strategy Paper” is to estab lish a lifelong learning 
system that can respond to the needs and expect ations of the society in  Turkey and to bring 
this system to a functional and sustainable status.  
Initial works towards the development of Na tional Qualifications Framework (NQF) in 
Turkey have been initiated c oncurrently with the Project for Strengthening the Vocational 
Education and Training System. Works c oncerning the draft of Turkish National 
Qualifications Framework, which is largely in accordance with the EQF and which consists of 
eight levels, have been transferred to  Vocational Qualifications Institute. 
With the project of “Provi ding a Common Understanding on and Raising Awareness of 
Informal Learning in Turkey within the scope  of Lifelong Learning"  (2008), the issue has 
been put forward for discussi on and first step towards ra ising a common understanding is 
taken to provide a validity and cer tification for informal learning.  
3. Attractiveness and relevance of Vo cational Education and Training 
The system is based on programme type rath er than the school ty pe in vocational and 
technical education, transitions between progr ammes can be made. The lesson of “Promotion 
and Guidance” is added to the 9
th grade curriculum, which is common for all secondary 
education: the students are aimed to know all the sectors and occupations and to choose the 
best occupation according to their interest and tendencies. CD and books promoting the 
academic and general occupations are for free. Protocols for education establish connections 
 
EN 262   EN with labour market for the vocational qualifica tions of teachers in their fields/occupation. 
Workforce market need analyses have been  performed via cooperation with social 
stakeholders and competency-b ased modular training system has been implemented in the 
direction of need analyses  for this labour market. 
Education and training period of  three-year general, vocati onal and technical high schools 
were gradually increased to  four years in 2005-2006 edu cation year, starting from 9th grade. 
Modular education programs of 42 fields a nd 197 branches are developed to be used at 
vocational and technical education schools and institutions and modular education 
programmes have been gradually impl emented as of 2006-2007 education year. 
4. Modernisation of Higher Education  
Turkish higher education system is consisting of  one type of institutions: universities. As of 
2008, there are totally 130 univers ities (94 state and 36 non-prof it foundations). Enrolment in 
the foundation (private) univers ities accounts for only 5.7 % of the total. A new funding 
mechanism  for state-owned universities exists sin ce 2007; it is a performance-based budget 
system. Since 2007, Turkey developed implemen tations in each topics of the Bologna 
Process. Establishment of NQF for HE should be implemented by the end of 2012. Flexible 
learning paths have been promot ed via distance education program mes in various fields and in 
different HEIs. Financing model still has to be re-designed to allow for diversity of resources 
and equal opportunities and efficien cy of use of the resources.  
The major source of income of  state universities is the funds allocated through the annual 
state budget. In addition each uni versity has three more sources of income: services such as 
patient care and contract resear ch, student contributions and a research fund, financed by the 
state. Financial autonomy is  still limited and flexibility  of use very little.