14. It]. 91 Official]ournal of the European Communities NoC^9B^ 
Opinion on E^e^gy and the Envirronment 
(91^C^9^0) 
On 2^^viarchl990 the Economic and Social Committee decided, in accordance withthe 
fourthparagraphof Article20oftheRulesofProcedure,todrawupanOwninitiative 
Opinion on Energy and the Environment. 
The Section for Energy,Nuclear Questions and Research, which was responsible forpreparing 
the Committee'swork on the subject, adopted its Opinion on ll]une 1991.The Rapporteur 
was^irvonderL^ecken. 
At its 288th plenary session(meetingof4july!991) the Economic and Social Committee 
adopted the following Opinion with no votes against and five abstentions. 
1. introduction 
1.1. In the last few years the public has become 
increasingly concerned about the risk of climatic 
changes brought about by the so-called greenhouse 
effect. People are becoming more and more aware that 
by interfering with the balance of nature, particularly 
through energy production and consumption, the 
earth'sclimate might be irreversibly changed, possibly 
unleashing disasters of unforeseeable consequences. 
This worldwide problem has now become highly and 
increasingly topical at all levels of political life ^orld 
Climate Conference, Intergovernmental Panel onCli-
maticChange(lPCC), Councilof EC Environmental 
and Energy^tinisters, discussions in the Eederal Ger­
man Parliamentonthe Report of the Commission of 
Enquiry,etcdD 
1.2. This Opinion on Energy and the Environment 
will accordingly have to address itself to topics relating 
toclimaticchangesresultingfromthegreenhouseeffect. 
It will have to look in particular at whether the Euro-
peanCommunity,indevismg concrete strategies and 
preventive measures, might not be able to draw on 
current discussions about the many ways of countering 
or at least attenuating the greenhouse effect. 
These topics are discussed in Chapter 2. 
1.^. In additionto the greenhouse effect, however, 
wemust not forget that energy production andcon-
sumption also causes heavy regional pollution. 
The predominant type of regional pollution resulting 
from energy production and energy consumption is air 
pollution. Sulphur dio^ide(SO^), nitric o^ide(NO^), 
unburnt hydrocarbons (volatile organic com 
pounds—VOC) and carbon monoxide (CO) are the 
main substances responsible, either directly orindirectly 
via secondary pollutants such as sulphuric acid, nitric 
acid and ozone (O^), for causing in some cases considers 
able environmental problems^ damage to woodlands 
and buildings, health hazards, damage in agriculture, 
theeutrophication (over-fertilization) anoveracidifi 
cation of waterbodies. Chapter^accordingly discusses regional pollution. 
1.4. Chapter4looks at some of the regional prob­
lems outside the ECwhich in future are going to con^ 
siderably influence developments within the EC^ 
— environmental pollution caused by energy pro­
duction in Central and Eastern Europe, 
— increased environmental pollution caused by energy 
production in the mediterranean basin (particularly 
in the non-European areas), 
— development aid intheformofknow-how,tech-
nology and capital to prevent the felling oftrees for 
energy purposes in the poorest countries of the 
world. 
Adetailed discussion of these problems would not be 
possible in this Opinion.The Section nevertheless urges 
the Committee to examine them in an appropriate form 
as soon as possible. 
2. Global ctimaucchangesdue to the g^eenhouseeffect 
2.1. T^^^o^^^^r^^^^o^o^CO^ 
2.1.1. There is no longer anydoubt today that the 
build-upofCO^in the atmosphere is increasing rapidly. 
This is worrying for several reasons^ 
— Through the greenhouse effect, the build-up of CO^ 
concentrations may lastingly disturb the balance 
between the energy radiated from the sun and the 
energy released into the atmosphere from the earth 
andleadtoawarmingof the earth's surface and 
the atmospheric layers nearest to the earth. 
— The current increase in CO^ levels is of anthropog^ 
enic origin. 
No C 269/68 Official Journal of the European Communities 14. 10. 91 
— CO, levels are rising faster today than at any time 
in the history of the world. 
— Nearly all C02 emissions (i.e. 90% and more) are 
energy-related and originate in the use of fossil fuels. 
— The greenhouse effect is also compounded by other 
trace gases increasingly released into the atmosphere 
by man over the last few decades. Their proportions 
are approximately as follows: C02, 50%; CH4, 
13 %; ozone, 7 %; N20, 5 %. 
— Once gases have been released into the atmosphere, 
they can have very long-term effects. 
— The greenhouse effect can lead to an increase in the 
temperature of the earth's surface, a rise in sea 
levels, the displacement of climatic zones, and 
regional changes in the climate accompanied by 
weather-related catastrophes. 
2.1.2. There are very few arguments any longer 
about whether there is actually such a thing as the 
greenhouse effect. But people are still very hesitant 
about time scales, and particularly the effects on cli­
mate, nature, living conditions and above all economic 
and social life. 
2.2. Targets for reducing C02 emissions 
2.2.1. However, since the possible consequences of 
climatic changes caused by the greenhouse effect are so 
enormous and unpredictable, the public is becoming 
more and more convinced that urgent countermeasures 
must be taken, i.e. that every effort must be made 
to lessen the possible consequences of the greenhouse 
effect. 
2.2.2. The problem has thus acquired a high political 
profile, with international conferences and the emerg­
ence of the first political demands, commitments and 
agreements. 
2.2.3. The following targets have been set: 
— Paragraph 20 of the 1988 Toronto Conference State­
ment: approximately 20 % reduction of C02 emis­
sions by the year 2005 (base year 1988) as the initial 
goal for the rich industrialized countries. 
— Paragraph 19 of the 1988 Toronto Conference State­
ment: more than 50 % reduction of present level of 
C02 emissions as global objective for stabilizing 
C02 concentrations in the atmosphere. 
— Joint EC Energy and Environment Council of Min­
isters' meeting on 29 October 1990: stabilization of 
Community C02 emissions in the year 2000 at the 
1990 level. — The ministerial declaration of the second World 
Climate Conference of 7 November 1990 (point 12) 
welcomed the fact that the European Community 
and other countries have decided, and entered into 
commitments, to stabilize C02 emissions and other 
greenhouse gases with climatic implications, and 
called for programmes, strategies and/or targets to 
reduce emissions of all greenhouse gases (i.e. those 
not being covered by the Montreal protocol). 
2.2.4. All these discussions at international confer­
ences, which are based on a large number of scientific 
investigations and on joint scientific evaluations at 
international level, e.g. the Intergovernmental Panel on 
Climatic Change (IPCC), show that C02 emissions (and 
emissions of other trace gases) will have to be reduced 
drastically worldwide. In order to set the stabilization 
of CO, concentrations in the atmosphere as a global 
target for the future and thereby keep the greenhouse 
effect under some sort of control, it has been proposed 
to reduce energy-related C02 emissions worldwide: 
— by at least 5 % by the year 2005, and 
— by at least 50% by the year 2050 (base year 1987). 
2.2.5. However, it must be remembered that 
responsibility for C02 emissions worldwide varies enor­
mously from one region to another and from one group 
of countries to another (cf. Appendix 1). It has been 
shown for example that the industrialized countries 
account for a disproportionately large share of C02 
emissions and will therefore have to bear the brunt or 
the reductions. 
2.2.6. The findings of the German Bundestag's Com­
mission of Enquiry, which are set out in Appendix 2, 
are an example of a more detailed breakdown of targets 
for reducing energy-related C02 emissions (l). 
2.2.7. Given the widely varying emissions of C02 
and other trace gases affecting the climate, and given 
the varying levels of economic development, targets 
will have to be modulated according to the group of 
countries in question. Industrialized countries will have 
to make sharper cuts whilst developing countries will 
be expected to limit their increases. Industrialized 
countries with high economic growth rates and particu­
larly high per capita emissions at present should accord­
ingly reduce emissions by at least 30 % by the year 2005 
and by at least 80% by the year 2050 (cf. Appendix 2, 
point 2). 
(*) 'Background documentation' 19/90, Report of the Com­
mission of Enquiry of the 11th German Bundestag 'Measures 
to Protect the Earth's Atmosphere', German Bundestag, Bonn 
1990. 
14. 10. 91 Official Journal of the European Communities No C 269/69 
2.2.8. The difficulties in achieving such targets are 
schematically represented in Appendix 3. The assump­
tion must be that energy-related C02 emissions will 
double by the year 2050 as long as there is no change 
in the overall trend. This is because of rising energy 
requirements needed for economic development and an 
increase in the world's population. 
2.2.9. The emission reduction targets required also 
become clear from Appendix 3. For the developing 
countries the aim will be not to reduce emissions but 
to limit their increase. The overall aim of reducing CO, 
emissions by at least 50 % by the year 2050 (taking 1987 
as base year) means that, taking global trends into 
consideration, emissions will have to be reduced by a 
factor of 4 (equivalent to a 75 % reduction). 
2.3. The reduction of COz emissions as an absolute 
priority 
2.3.1. Three conclusions can first of all be drawn 
from chapter 2.2: 
— No region in the world, and so not even the Euro­
pean Community, can act effectively on its own. A 
joint effort by all is the only way forward. 
— To get anywhere near to achieving the emission 
reduction target cited as an example, overall energy 
production and consumption worldwide would 
have to be radically transformed and put on an 
entirely new footing. 
— Such a radical transformation, which would have 
to be accompanied by a change in mental attitudes, 
can only be achieved if a C02 emission reduction 
policy is accepted as an absolute priority worldwide 
—and at all political levels. 
2.3.2. The campaign to ensure that a sufficiently 
high priority is given to a consistent C02 emission 
reduction policy is severely hampered by the following 
circumstance. 
As far as one can tell at the moment, the greenhouse 
effect as a man-made phenomenon will only be fully 
felt in about 50 years' time. We are therefore in a 
situation today where very great efforts will be needed 
to protect our grandchildren. We ourselves, however, 
will not enjoy the fruits of these labours. 
2.3.3. There is therefore a danger that current 
national and international problems, whose solution 
will require sterling efforts by individuals and poli­
ticians at all levels, will relegate to the sidelines the 
urgent need for a consistent C02 emission reduction 
policy. 2.3.4. It is unfortunately no hard task to list the 
many pressing problems which stretch national and 
international resources to the limit: population growth, 
world hunger and poverty, development of the third 
world, refugees, debt crisis, drugs, arms questions, 
changes in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, crisis 
in the Middle East. 
2.3.5. Examples of problems which are still far from 
a solution and require international efforts include the 
following: 
— Demographic trends pose problems in that the 
world's population continues to grow. According 
to the United Nations Organization (UNO) esti­
mates the world's population was 5 300 million in 
mid-1990 and is likely to rise to about 6 200 million 
by the year 2000 and 14 000 million by the year 
2100. 
— The main aim of international development policy 
is to promote the market economy, environmental 
protection and educational standards in the Third 
World with the aid of financial help from indus­
trialized nations. According to figures of the Organ­
ization for Economic Co-operation and Develop­
ment (OECD), Western industrialized nations spent 
a total of 56 500 million dollars on international aid 
in 1989. On average, development aid amounted to 
0,33% of Gross National Product (GNP), falling 
well short of the 0,7% of GNP called for by the 
UNO. 
— The problems of refugees and asylum seekers have 
recently been in the limelight, particularly in the 
media. According to the private US refugee commit­
tee, approximately 15 million people were regis­
tered as refugees throughout the world in 1989. But 
if one included all those who have been driven 
from their homes by, say, natural catastrophes or 
environmental degradation, but who have remained 
within their own countries, then the figure would 
rise to as many as 30 million. 
2.3.6. Previous international discussions about the 
greenhouse effect and C02 emission reduction targets 
have shown that the priorities of individual Member 
States and regions vary a great deal. Whether a CO, 
emission reduction policy will receive a sufficiently high 
priority in all countries of the world is questionable, so 
major efforts are needed to achieve the objective. 
2.4. Need for the European Community to take action 
to tackle global problems 
The EC will need to take sweeping, urgent measures 
in the energy sector to effectively counteract climatic 
changes brought about by the greenhouse effect, or at 
least lessen the impact thereof. Below are listed a few 
ideas on a plan for action. 
No C 269/70 Official Journal of the European Communities 14. 10. 91 
2.4.1. Agreement about priorities present structure of energy sources, 
2.4.1.1. It follows from point 2.3 that effective 
measures to limit the greenhouse effect can only be 
taken or pushed through if the issue is given top priority 
at all political levels. Here the EC can and must lead 
from the front. If there is no agreement in the European 
Community that such a policy should be given high 
priority, what hope is there of it gaining acceptance in 
the rest of the world ? 
2.4.1.2. Control of the greenhouse effect will only 
gain acceptance as a high-priority Community policy if 
other objectives, e.g.: 
— security of supply, 
— competitiveness, 
— functioning of the Single Market, 
— acceptability of the social consequences 
are not endangered at the same time. 
2.4.1.3. Policies to control the greenhouse effect can 
only be properly implemented, however, if we have 
expanded and refined our knowledge of (a) the behav­
iour and effects of gases affecting the climate, and (b) 
the impact of the greenhouse effect on climates both 
regionally and globally. The Community should there­
fore speed up current work by introducing top-priority 
research and technological development (R&TD) pro­
grammes in the relevant areas. 
2.4.2. Setting targets for reducing CO. 
emissions 
2.4.2.1. The cornerstone of any EC policy to limit 
the greenhouse effect would be the targets for reducing 
greenhouse trace gases in the Community. On 
29 October 1990 the Joint Energy/Environmental 
Council decided to stabilize total C02 emissions in the 
EC by the year 2 000 at the 1990 level. This can be 
regarded as a minimum requirement. In any event, new 
targets will have to be set for the years or decades 
thereafter. 
2.4.2.2. Common Community targets of this kind 
will only be fully acceptable to all Member States, 
and given a sufficiently high priority, if the burdens 
stemming from such a policy are shared out equitably 
and reasonably among the Member States. 
2.4.2.3. In sharing the burden, criteria would have to 
be adopted to reflect the special situation of individual 
Member States. The list of criteria might include the 
following: 
— level of per capita emissions and trends over a 
period of time, — import/export balance for energy-intensive prod­
ucts, 
— demographic trends, 
— influence of the climate on energy consumption, 
— possible socio-economic impact, 
— regions with developing economies. 
The Commission and Council in particular have the 
very important if difficult task of achieving acceptable 
agreement on the above. 
2.4.2.4. The yardstick in setting emission reduction 
targets is whether they can meet the need to lower the 
emission of greenhouse gases [cf. chapter 2.2) in order 
to prevent or at least attenuate climatic changes. On 
the other hand, rational targets imply first and foremost 
identification of the actual reduction potential since 
there is obviously no point in setting targets at levels 
which cannot then be achieved. 
2.4.2.5. There exists today a very large number of 
studies, analyses and reports at all national and inter­
national levels, summarizing and in some cases provid­
ing an extremely detailed analysis of C02 emission 
reduction potential. Views on what exactly is meant by 
reduction potential nevertheless vary a great deal so 
that, to be able to compare the welter of material 
gleaned from the many reports and in particular to use 
it to set rational reduction targets, we would propose 
a definition of the concept of reduction potential. In 
doing so, we have leaned on the outcome of the dis­
cussions of the Commission of Enquiry of the German 
Bundestag {cf. illustration in Appendix 4). 
2.4.2.6. A distinction needs to be made between the 
following concepts: 
— Theoretical potential is limited by the laws of 
nature. 
— Technical potential is determined by existing tech­
nologies, as well as by future technologies made 
possible through research and development. 
— Macroeconomic potential is the technical potential 
for achieving economic efficiency through, inter 
alia, 'macroeconomic' (i.e. overall economic) fac­
tors. This entails in particular the inclusion of exter­
nal costs, e.g. environmental protection costs, as 
well as particular macroeconomic conditions. 
— Microeconomic potential is that part of macro-
economic potential where economic efficiency can 
be achieved through firms' decisions. Business man­
agement considerations have a decisive role to play 
in firms' decision-making. External costs are not 
generally important. 
14. 10. 91 Official Journal of the European Communities No C 269/71 
— The expectation potential is that part of the micro-
economic potential which, taking into account the 
barriers particular to individual sectors, is achieved 
in practice. Barriers to achievement of the expec­
tation potential include consumer attitudes, legislat­
ive provisions, financial conduct, etc. 
2.4.2.7. Finally, the level of C02 emission reductions 
actually achieved by the end of each phase is of crucial 
importance in the context of climate. The major politi­
cal challenge is to be found in the transition from the 
technical and economic potential for savings to the 
expectation potential, i.e. it concerns the levels of 
reduction actually achieved in reality within reasonably 
short deadlines and despite all the barriers. Success here 
clearly depends to a crucial extent on the priority which 
individuals and politicians at all levels give to the prob­
lem of CO2 reductions. 
2.4.3. Achievement of targets to reduce 
C02 emissions 
2.4.3.1. Individual Member States will have to bear 
a special responsibility for achieving targets. Even now 
some Member States are pondering or actually 
implementing measures, e.g. a tax on C02. Such action 
carries with it the risk of political friction between 
the Member States as well as endangering the Single 
Market. The Community must therefore seize the reins 
and ensure that action at Community level comp­
lements measures at Member State level. 
2.4.3.2. The Commission must therefore work out a 
strategy as quickly as possible so that the measures 
taken by Member States can be aligned with one 
another with the express aim of achieving CO, emission 
reduction targets as soon as possible. This is particu­
larly important since national measures which actually 
bring us closer towards the targets in most cases either 
directly affect EC law or cannot, because of their effect 
on the Single Market, be implemented in isolation from 
the Community as a whole. 
2.4.3.3. The European Community, and hence the 
Commission, thus have a great deal of work to do 
in the fields of harmonization and the adoption of 
Directives and Regulations. This work will have to be 
backed up by economic and fiscal measures. 
2.4.3.4. The best approach to limiting C02 emissions 
is to increase energy-efficiency and energy-savings. The 
programme promoting energy efficiency in the Com­
munity (SAVE) (*) points in this direction but does not 
go nearly far enough; its section on the reduction of 
CO, emissions needs to be strengthened in particular. 
(!) OJ No C 301, 30. 11. 1990. 2.4.3.5. In the short to medium term the replacement 
of energy sources generating high C02 pollution by 
sources producing low or zero C02 will play a minor 
role. In using solid fuels, the application or introduction 
of pollution-reducing technologies should be taken into 
account and guaranteed. 
2.4.3.6. Particular weight should be given to the use 
of renewable energy sources; these can make a direct 
contribution to the reduction of CO, emissions. 
Although such sources have a modest rote to play in 
the immediate future, they will become more and more 
important in the medium term and make a decisive 
contribution in the long term. Renewable energy 
sources might also become of great importance in the 
developing countries. The pace of their development 
should therefore be stepped up and they should be 
introduced wherever appropriate. 
2.4.3.7. The role of nuclear energy can be assessed 
in different ways. On the one hand the problems associ­
ated with the greenhouse effect certainly cannot be 
solved solely by increasing the use of nuclear energy. 
But, on the other hand, nuclear energy cannot be dis­
pensed with if we wish to lessen the serious risks of the 
climatic changes which actually exist today. This said, 
approximately 35 % of the Community's electricity gen­
eration today is based on nuclear energy. 
The EC, and particularly the Commission, should play 
their part in helping to define the role of nuclear energy 
as part of the overall strategy for reducing C02 
emissions. Problems associated with nuclear safety, 
waste disposal, the decommissioning of nuclear power 
stations, and nuclear proliferation, should also be sol­
ved urgently so that there is a sufficiently broad basis 
for winning nuclear acceptance. 
2.4.3.8. Nuclear fusion is also a potential C02-free 
source of energy for the future. Although it will not be 
in wide use before the middle of the next century, its 
future potential is tremendous even though develop­
ment costs are very high and its technical and economic 
feasibility has still to be proved. Efforts to speed up the 
development of this source of energy are therefore 
justified. The Committee itself has already expressed 
its support for the European Community's R&TD pro­
gramme on nuclear fusion. 
2.4.3.9. In addition to electricity generation, the 
transport sector is also likely to be a major source of 
any future increases in C02 emissions. The transport 
sector is also a major source of regional pollution 
{cf. Chapter 3.5). Apart from fully exploiting technical 
possibilities for improving energy efficiency and lower­
ing specific types of emission, structural changes are 
also needed to establish a fundamentally new transport 
No C 269/72 Official Journal of the European Communities 14. 10. 91 
policy wich would inevitably lead to integrated trans­
port planning. 
2.4.3.10. Even if we are successful in ensuring that 
by the year 2000 CO, emissions in the Community are 
stabilized at the 1990 level, we need to be aware that 
in terms of the greenhouse effect this is but a highly 
modest intermediate goal. In the years and decades 
following 2000, C02 emissions must continue to be 
drastically reduced. 
2.4.3.11. To make this possible, new strategies must 
be developed and on-going, large-scale efforts must be 
made straightaway in Community research and devel­
opment (R&D). Current R&D programmes must be 
greatly intensified and expanded. 
2.4.4. International policy 
2.4.4.1. Point 2.3.1 has made it clear that no region 
in the world, not even the European Community, can 
act effectively on its own to lessen the made-made 
causes of the greenhouse effect. Joint worldwide efforts 
are needed. International political action and measures 
are therefore of very great importance. 
2.4.4.2. Proposals and afforts are being made on all 
sides to conclude an international convention on energy 
and the climate. But only if a commitment to a conven­
tion of this kind can be obtained from the most 
important countries, i.e. in particular those already 
responsible for most of the emissions and those with 
the potential for producing large-scale emissions in the 
future, will there be any chance of effectively bringing 
the greenhouse effect under control. 
2.4.4.3. All the knowledge gained so far suggests that 
speed is of the essence. The more the counter-attack is 
delayed, the more difficult it will be to act effectively 
and the more drastic the action will have to be. 
2.4.4.4. The EC ought to be one of the most powerful 
driving forces behind the conclusion of such a conven­
tion. It should also do everything in its power to ensure 
that such a convention is signed at the UNO Conference 
on the Environment and Development in Brazil in 1992. 
All the necessary preparations should be made by the 
Commission to achieve this goal. 
2.4.4.5. The Commission should also examine the 
following question connected with developing 
countries. 
In the developing countries there is a particularly strong 
and legitimate desire to improve living standards. In 
many cases these countries have a large and rapidly 
growing population. As a highly industrialized, rich group of countries, the European Community will be 
asked to provide developing countries with the know-
how and capital needed to help them meet their rising 
energy requirements; they will have to do this with the 
aid of energy-efficient technologies which keep the rise 
in C02 emissions within reasonable proportions in 
these countries, too. The Commission should examine 
how optimum use can be made of the Community's 
considerable, albeit limited, resources to help the world 
climate. 
3. Regional pollution resulting from energy pro­
duction and consumption 
3.1. In addition to the possible effects of waste gases 
on the global climate (greenhouse effect), the environ­
ment is also heavily polluted in certain regions and 
localities as a result of energy production and consump­
tion. Air, soil, water, flora and fauna are all affected 
by waste gases, effluents, ash and other residues, as 
well as by mining activities. There are limits to the 
environment's capacity for absorbing pollutants and 
nutrients. Some of these limits have now been reached 
or even surpassed. 
3.2. Air pollution is the predominant type of environ­
mental pollution resulting from energy production and 
energy consumption. The Opinion will therefore deal 
in some detail with air pollutants, of which the most 
important are SO,, NOx, VOC and CO. Chemical 
reactions also result in secondary pollutants such as 
sulphuric acid and nitric acid (acid precipitation) and 
03. Particulate emissions, especially from lorries, also 
come into the reckoning. 
3.3. The very high energy consumption over the last 
few decades has meant that the adverse effects of 
energy-related pollutants are now clearly visible. The 
situation is likely to get even worse in the years to 
come. The adverse effects include damage to woodland 
and agriculture, the eutrophication (over-fertilization) 
and over-acidification of waterbodies and damage to 
buildings. Particular attention should also be paid to 
health problems, especially in large built-up areas. 
3.4. In the following sections we look at the most 
important pollutants in terms of their origin, the specific 
damage they cause, and the possibility of future 
reductions. 
3.4.1. S02 
3.4.1.1. Air pollution by SO, is caused almost exclus­
ively by the combustion of fossil fuels. The level of 
concentrations varies a very great deal from region to 
region. The annual mean is particularly high over Cen­
tral Europe. When weather conditions are unfavour­
able, S02 and other substances form smog. 
14.1^1 CofhcialJournal of the European Communities NoC2^B^ 
0.4.L2. sulphuric acid formed from ^Co^ emissions^ 
and nitric acid^formed from NO^give rise to acid 
rainwhich causes all sorts of environmental damage, 
notably the acidification of waterbodies and soils. 
Because ^CO^ is transported by air, damage can occur 
at locations far removed from the source of emissions 
^acidification of waterbodies in Scandinavia, damage to 
woodland wh^re precipitation is heavy ^low mountain 
ranges^. 
In certain regions the acidification of the soil has 
reached disturbing proportions, resulting in damage to 
woodland and deterioration inthequalityof ground 
water ^incr^ases in theconcentrationofnitrate, sulphate 
and dissolved heavy metals^, damage to buildings and 
health may also occur. 
0.4.1.0. Today morethan^^ of ^O^emissions 
result from electricity generation.The Directive on the 
limitation of emissions of certain pollutants into th^ air 
from large combustion plants^,however,is beginning 
to bite so that we can expectanoticeablc reduction in 
^O^ emissions over the next few years. The Com-
mission^sown prognosis, based on stat^-of-the-arttcch-
nologyandcurrentLC environment protection regu­
lations, is that ^O^ emissions will be cut by ^^ by 
the year^Oin^^nthough electricity production will 
rise by about lt^^. 
3.4.L4. Assuming that existing rules and regulations 
on ^O^ emissions are implemented consistently^even 
thoughanumber of legislative gaps still remain to be 
clos^d^ and that ^C^pollutionfromoilproductsis 
kept within certain limits something which is perfectly 
possible both technically and economically^, the 
reduction of energy-related ^CO^ emissions to an 
environmentally acceptable level should be possible in 
the medium term. 
3.4.2. NC^ 
3.4.2.L Lxcessiv^NO^in the atmosphere leads to 
pollution of the environment through nitric acid in 
precipitations, the formationof ozone in the tropo­
sphere and the eutrophication of ecosystems.kcan also 
result in over-fertilization of the soil and help causea 
build-up of nitrate concentrations in groundwater. 
3.4.2.2. The problems stemming from the formation 
of nitric acid in precipitations and the effects on wood­
lands, waterbodies and buildings were dealt with when 
discussing ^O^ emissions. 
3.4.2.3. Another environmental problem, particu­
larly in larg^ built-up ar^as, is the occurrence of CO^. 
Ozone is formed, under the influence of sunlight, from 
NO^ and from certainVOC. Because of its oxidizing 
effect, ozon^ is toxic for humans, animals and plants. 
Civen unfavourable weather conditions, concentrations of near-surface ozon reach extremely disquieting levels 
in large built-up areas today. 
3.4.2.4. The role played by atmospheric NO in the 
eutrophication ^over-fertilizations of waterbodies, 
includingseas,shouldnotbeneglected. Thus, for exam­
ple, no mor^ than about 10^ of nutrients flowing 
into the Baltic is carried in effluents from riparian 
municipalities, whereas^tr^ is transported in rivers 
from inland ^and so could be drastically reducedby 
waste-water purification plants^ and 30^ of nitric 
nutrients falls in precipitations via NO^in the atmos-
phere.This latter phenomenon alone would therefore 
cause further eutrophication of the Baltic, albeit ata 
slower rate. 
3.4.2B0. ^3^ of NO emissions are caused by 
transportBtraffic and 24^by electricity generation. 
Th^ Commissions prognosis, based on state-of-the-
art technology and taking into account environmental 
protection regulations, such as the introduction of the 
three-way catalytic converter and the directive on the 
limitationof emissions of certainpollutantsintoth^ 
air from largecombustionplants, etc., is that NO^ 
emissions will be reduced byabout2o^ by the year 
2^i^.Civenthe threat tothe environment posedby 
NO^, this is totally unsatisfactory.The figures go to 
show that radical measures ar^ needed in the field of 
transportBtraffictereducepollutiente an acceptable 
lev^l. 
3.4.3. VOC 
Ozone is formed by the action of sunlight not only on 
NO^but also on unburnt hydrocarbons in the atmos-
phere.The problem has already been discussed in point 
3.4.2.3. amissions of the latter largely originate from 
traffic although the non-en^rgy-r^lated use of solvents 
accounts for about 40^. VOC emissions are heavily 
reduced by the three-way catalytic converter but there 
are losses through evaporation, ^.g. when fillingup 
vehicles. 
3.4.4. CO 
CO has attracted public attention asatexic component 
of motor vehicle engines. In large built-up areas per­
missible CO concentrations are frequentlysurpassed. 
CO emissions are first and feremestatrafnc problems 
it should however be possible to reduce them to accept­
able levels with the systematic introduction of the cata-
lytic converter. 
3.4.0. Particulatepollutants 
^OI^oL^^^.^^^^L The emission of soot particles from diesel engines poses 
a considerable threat to health. Polycyclic hydro-
No C 269/74 Official Journal of the European Communities 14. 10. 91 
carbons which condense into particles, as well as the 
soot core itself, are in particular suspected of being 
carcinogenic. The heavy increase in lorry traffic is the 
main culprit here. But, it is not yet clear to what extent 
emissions of particulates can be reduced to acceptable 
levels by technical improvements to engines or the 
introduction of filters. 
3.4.6. Recapitulative summary of emis­
sions 
To summarize, one can say that regional pollution due 
to S02 emissions generated mainly by power pro­
duction can be reduced to an acceptable level in the 
medium term. The fundamental problem is traffic-and 
transport-related emissions, particularly of NOx, VOC 
and particles. 
3.5. Transport 
3.5.1. In the last few years considerable efforts have 
been made, and no little success achieved, in improving 
motor vehicle engines, i.e. cutting back on fuel needs 
and exhaust emissions. These efforts should be con­
tinued as a matter of urgency. The laying down of 
standards setting low permissible levels of exhaust gas­
es, and the introduction of catalytic converters, have 
also enjoyed considerable success. So far in Europe, 
however, all these successes have been more than offset 
by a sharp increase in the volume of traffic, particularly 
of private vehicles and lorries, so that overall traffic 
emissions have continued to rise. 
3.5.2. Although traffic pollution can be reduced to 
some extent in the medium term, the general forecast 
is that it will not be possible to reduce emissions to an 
acceptable level merely by technical improvements to 
engines and catalytic converters. This is equally true of 
CO, and its effects on the climate. A satisfactory situ­
ation can only be achieved through a combination of 
technical developments and a radical reform of the 
transport system aimed at maximum transport inte­
gration and a major change in transport users' behav­
iour. 
3.5.3. The working group set up by the Commission 
entitled 'Transport 2 000 plus' has submitted an initial 
working document setting out the main reasons for the 
European transport system crisis. The document shows 
that it is urgently necessary to develop a common 
European transport policy and, as the Treaty estab­
lishing the EEC itself stipulates, ensure that such a 
policy is actually implemented on the ground. Environ­
mental aspects have a decisive role to play here. 3.6. The European Community itself needs to tackle 
regional problems 
3.6.1. Chapter 2.4 dealt in some detail with the Euro­
pean Community's need to take action to tackle prob­
lems globally. This chapter summarizes, in schematic 
form, the action which the EC needs to take on a 
regional scale. The list makes no claim to be exhaustive. 
— ensuring consistent implementation of the Directive 
on the limitation of emissions of certain pollutants 
from large combustion plants, 
— complementing the above Directive with the intro­
duction of legislation covering the emission of pol­
lutants from smaller and medium-sized plants, 
— ensuring the reduction of SOz concentrations in fuel 
and diesel oil, 
— setting up a recording and warning system, particu­
larly for 03 but also for CO in large built-up areas, 
— reducing emissions of specific exhaust gases and 
improving energy efficiency in transport, 
— reducing the loss of fuel through evaporation, 
— devising and introducing an integrated transport 
policy for Europe, with particular regard for 
environmental aspects, 
— introducing tax and fiscal measures. 
4. Regional problems outside the EC 
Conditions in the various regions of the world differ a 
very great deal, which means that problems specifically 
related to 'Energy and the Environment' there also vary 
widely. Even though specific problems have to be solved 
by the respective regions themselves, it is nonetheless 
true that the European Community itself bears a politi­
cal responsibility, as a highly-developed, highly-indus­
trialized and economically strong region, to help solve 
problems in other regions and particularly neighbouring 
areas. We would refer below to some of these regions 
which will undoubtedly exert a strong influence and 
attract the EC's attention over the next few years. To 
discuss their problems in depth, however, would take 
us beyond the remit of this Opinion. 
4.1. Central and Eastern Europe 
The effects of energy production and consumption on 
the environment have created a life-threatening situ­
ation in the former countries of the Council for Mutual 
Economic Assistance (CMEA-Comecon) of Central and 
Eastern Europe, with particularly acute problems in 
some regions. Air pollution through CO, emissions is 
also relatively high in these countries. It is obvious 
that centrally-planned economies have no room for the 
development of environmental awareness. 
14. 10. 91 Official Journal of the European Communities No C 269/75 
In the meantime these countries are moving away from 
a command economy to a market economy. Measures 
to improve environmental protection were discussed at 
a first environmental conference of the 35 states of the 
Council for Security and Cooperation in Europe, held in 
Sofia, Bulgaria, in 1989. According to general estimates, 
environmental damage in these countries is very high, 
amounting to as much as 10% of the national income 
in the USSR, and even 20% in Poland. In both countries, 
however, environmental protection investment comes 
to less than 1% of the national income. 
The major challenge facing the EC, particularly in the 
context of current political and economic changes in 
Central and Eastern Europe, is how help can and should 
be given. This problem should therefore receive particu­
lar attention within the framework of a future European 
Energy Charter. 
4.2. Environmental pollution resulting from energy 
production and consumption in the Mediterrane­
an Basin 
In the Commission's study entitled 'Major Themes in 
Energy Revisited', attention was quite rightly drawn to 
the particular problems of the Mediterranean Basin 
from the point of view of 'Energy and the Environment'. 
The area referred to covers countries in the non-Euro­
pean areas of the Mediterranean basin which not only 
have an extremely high rate of demographic growth 
but also belong to some of the less developed regions 
of the world. In future this will be reflected in an 
Done at Brussels, 4 July 1991. extremely sharp growth in energy demand in the whole 
of the Mediterranean. This in turn may possibly lead 
to a dramatic deterioration of the environment in the 
Mediterranean area, with increasing damage caused not 
only by energy use and consumption but by all other 
sources of pollution as well. It is possible that this is 
going to be one of the most intractable problems facing 
the EC in the next few years. 
4.3. Development aid in the form of know-how, tech­
nology and capital to ensure that the poorest 
countries do not have to use wood foor energy 
production 
4.3.1. In large areas of Africa and South-East Asia 
the energy requirements of the population are to a large 
extent met by the use of wood burnt on an uncontrolled 
basis. (We do not have in mind here the systematic use 
of biomass as a source of energy). This leads in certain 
regions to major environment problems, particularly 
the desertification of whole tracts of land. The phenom­
enon is predominantly a regional one, but the effects 
may also be felt on a global scale. The question to be 
asked is how far the Member States of the EC, as 
highly-developed industrialized countries, have (a) an 
obligation, and (b) the means to provide effective help 
which would go well beyond simple financial aid. 
4.3.2. In this connection, the Community and its 
Member States might possibly offer technological and 
financial assistance to the development of bio-energy, 
solar and hydropower sources, wherever they are likely 
to be of value. 
The Chairman 
of the Economic and Social Committee 
Francois STAEDELIN 
No C 269/76 Official Journal of the European Communities 14. 10. 91 
APPENDIX I 
C02 emissions by world region, including die EC 
23 % USA 
Rest OECD 
9% 
USSR 
18% 
Other East 
1987 
Source: Major Themes in Energy Revisited, page 81, Figure 4.8. 
APPENDIX 11 
Targets for reducing energy-related C02 emissions 
by the years 2005 and 2050 (base year = 1987) 
Groups of countries 
Western and Eastern industrialized countries, taken 
together 
Industrialized countries with high economic growth 
rates and high per capita emissions 
European Community 
Developing countries 
Worldwide (total) by the year 2005 
-20% 
-30% 
-20 to -25% 
+ 50% 
-5% by the year 2050 
-80% 
-80% 
-80% 
+ 70% 
-50% 
Source: Report of the Commission of Enquiry, vol. 2, page 868. 10% 
China 
14.10. 91 Official Journal of the European Communities No C 269/77 
APPENDIX 111 
COj-cmissions 
% 
200 
150 
100 
80 
50 
20 
0 
YEAR 1987 1990 1995 2000 2005 in billion ton 
41 ] 
10.25 2 
3.25 3 
2050 
1. Trends worldwide. 
2. Target for reductions worldwide. 
3. Target for reduction in western and eastern industrialized countries. 
4. Limit to increase in emissions of developing countries. 
Source: Report of the Commission of Enquiry, vol. 2, page 869. 
No C 269/78 Official Journal of the European Communities 14. 10. 91 
• II ' •• " — — — ' — ""'— "— '••" ""- " ••"' ••Il" -" •" ln— —"" — —.""—— I'"— !•— I I"—, I "—HI "ii mm I !•• ii ' • I HI •mil— 1 .I.,,, —mi I n 
APPENDIX IV 
Schema of definitions 
Potential (or reducing energy-related Commissions 
1. Theoretical potential 
2. Technical potential 
3. Macroeconomic potential 
4. Microeconomic potential 
5. Expectation potential 
Source: Report of the Commission of Enquiry, vol. 1, page 153.