EN    EN 
 
 
 EUROPEAN  
COMMISSION   
Brussels, 18.6.2015  
COM(2015) 301 final  
  
REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND 
THE COUNCIL  
EVALUATION OF REGULATION (EC) N° 1606/2002 OF 19 JULY 2002 ON THE 
APPLICATION OF INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARDS  
{SWD(2015) 120 final}   
 
2 
 1. Introduction  
Over ten years after the adoption of Regulation 1606/2002 ("IAS Regulation")1 and following 
an initial review of its operation in 20082, the Commission decided to assess whether it  
achieved what it set out to do as part of the Regulatory Fitness and Performance Programme 
(REFIT)3. In parallel, Regulation 258/20144 requires the Comm ission to report both on the 
findings of the evaluation including, if appropriate, proposals for amendments, and on the 
governance arrangements of relevant bodies.  
The objective of adopting International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)5 issued by the 
International Accounting Standards Board (IASB)  for use in the EU was to improve the 
efficient functioning of the EU capital markets and the internal market.  
Under the Regulation, since 2005, the consolidated financial statements of listed E U 
companies6 have been prepared in accordance with IFRS. Member States may extend the 
application of IFRS to individual annual financial statements and to non -listed companies. 
The "Transparency Directive"7 also stipulates that all issuers (including non -EU ones) whose 
securities are listed on a regulated market located or operating in the EU must use IFRS.  
This report summarises the findings of the evaluation and identifies potential improvements. 
The accompanying Commission Staff Working Document sets out  further detail supporting 
this report.  
2. Methodology  
The Commission conducted the evaluation which involved seeking the views of stakeholders 
through a public consultation (August – November 2014, 200 contributions), an informal 
expert group (18 public and private organisations, 3 meetings in 2014) and the Accounting 
Regulatory Committee (ARC) which comprises representatives of all Member States. It 
conducted a review of the literature on the impact of the mandatory adoption of IFRS in the 
EU and on the perf ormance of IFRS during the crisis. It also drew upon internal experience of 
relevant international and European bodies. The evaluation took account of Mr  Maystadt’s 
                                                            
1 Regulation (EC) No 1606/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 July 2002 on the 
application of international accounting standards, OJ L 243, 11.9.2002.  
2 COM(2008) 215.  
3 COM(2014) 368.  
4 Art. 9(2) of Regulation (EU) No 258/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 3 April 2014 
establishing a Union programme to support specific activities in the field of financial reporting and auditing for 
the period of 2014 -20 and repea ling Decision No 716/2009/EC, OJ L 105, 8.4.2014.  
5 International Accounting Standards (IAS) were first issued by the International Accounting Standards 
Committee (IASC), the predecessor of the IASB.  
6 With securities traded on a regulated EU market.  
7 Directive 2004/109/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 December 2004 on the 
harmonisation of transparency requirements in relation to information about issuers whose securities are 
admitted to trading on a regulated market and amending Dire ctive 2001/34/EC, OJ L 390, 31.12.2004.  
 
3 
 recommendations8 to reinforce the EU’s contribution in the international standard -setting 
arena.  
The evaluation sought to compare the situation under the IAS Regulation with what would 
have been the case if IFRS had not been adopted. However, there was no clear benchmark 
against which to compare IFRS, as there is no single alternative in the EU and as national or 
US generally accepted accounting principles ( GAAPs)  evolved during the period under 
review.  
The evaluation was generally from the perspective of the EU as a whole, without systematic 
analysis of the interaction of the Regulation with national legislation. The evaluation did not 
include a technical review of IFRS standards, nor were individual standards analysed from the 
perspective of the administrative burden they may impose. Neither did it consider possible 
alternative accounting reg imes for EU non -listed companies.  
The effects of IFRS adoption during the period under review were difficult to isolate as there 
were other significant regulatory changes; the effects also varied depending on the national 
GAAPs used before IFRS. It was als o difficult to obtain quantitative data on companies 
applying IFRS and on costs and benefits. Existing research has mainly focused on larger 
companies. Finally, respondents to the public consultation were self -selected and did not 
necessarily constitute a representative sample.  
The evaluation does not touch upon auditing. It is widely accepted that high -quality audits are 
necessary to ensure reliable financial statements. During the period under review, the EU has 
enhanced its regulatory framework for statu tory audits, including independent supervision of 
auditors and audit firms9.   
3. Findings  
3.1. Evaluation criteria  
3.1.1.  Effectiveness  
The objective of the IAS Regulation was to harmonise the financial reporting of listed 
companies by ensuring a high degree of transpa rency and comparability of their financial 
statements in order to enhance the efficient functioning of EU capital markets and of the 
internal market. The Regulation attached importance to IFRS becoming globally accepted so 
that EU companies would be able t o compete on an equal footing for financial resources in 
the world capital markets.  
                                                            
8 Should IFRS Standards be more "European"?; Mission to reinforce the EU’s contribution to the development of 
international accounting standards; Report by Philippe MAYSTADT – October 2013.   
9 Directive 2006/43 on statutory audits of annual accounts and consolidated accounts amended by Directive 
2014/56 and Regulation 537/2014 applicable from mid -June 2016.  
 
4 
 Transparency and comparability  
The Commission found that the IAS Regulation has increased the transparency of financial 
statements through improved accounting quality and d isclosure and greater value -relevance of 
reporting, leading to more accurate market expectations including analysts’ forecasts. It also 
led to greater comparability between financial statements within and across industries and 
countries although some diffe rences persist.  
Collected evidence suggested that the quality of financial statements prepared under IFRS is 
good, which implied that the standards are of good quality. Nevertheless, there were 
criticisms of their complexity. Findings suggested most comple xity is unavoidable as it arises 
from the underlying complexity of business; although standards are not industry specific, they 
were considered flexible enough to accommodate most business models but there was some 
concern about their suitability for long -term investors and about the volume of disclosures.  
The IAS Regulation recognised that high quality financial reporting depends on proper and 
rigorous enforcement. Under the Transparency Directive, enforcement of accounting 
standards is the responsibility of individual Member States; the European Securities and 
Markets Authority (ESMA) coordinates their activities to enhance supervisory convergence 
and ensure consistent application of IFRS in the EU.  
Collected evidence suggested that there are proper mechan isms in place to ensure adequate 
enforcement of IFRS and that ESMA plays an important role in promoting consistency and 
coherence in enforcement across the EU. Nevertheless, some evidence showed that some 
differences in enforcement persist between Member S tates. ESMA recently published new 
guidelines10 on enforcement which could lead to further improvements in this area but it is too 
early to assess their impact.  
Consistent implementation of standards can depend on how they are interpreted. ESMA refers 
areas  of diversity in practice to the IFRS Interpretations Committee. The Commission 
welcomes the effective cooperation between the two bodies.  
Efficient Functioning of the EU Capital Markets and Internal Market  
The Commission found evidence of improved capital  market outcomes: higher liquidity; 
lower costs of capital; increased cross -border transactions; easier access to capital at EU and 
global level; improved investor protection and maintenance of investor confidence. However, 
as noted above, the effects of I FRS could not be isolated from other changes affecting capital 
markets.  
The extent to which, if any, the use of IFRS may have exacerbated the financial crisis has 
been widely debated and the evidence was mixed. Two aspects of accounting fall under the 
spotlight. The first is the use of current prices (fair values) to value financial instruments. 
                                                            
10 ESMA/2014/807.  
 
5 
 When markets are overly buoyant or pessimistic, values can be exaggerated. By contrast, 
instruments such as bank loans are reported based on cost, with a constant n eed to assess 
whether customers will repay amounts due. During the financial crisis, the applicable standard 
for loan impairment was widely criticised for having led to “too little, too late” provisioning. 
Other criticisms concerned a lack of disclosure by  some banks. After an extensive due 
process, the IASB published a new standard for financial instruments in 2014 (IFRS 9) which 
is currently being assessed for adoption. Overall, the financial crisis highlighted that standards 
can have broad economic effec ts (s3.2).  
Global Standards  
The IAS Regulation envisaged IFRS becoming global standards which would benefit EU 
companies. Stakeholders believed that the EU’s decision to adopt IFRS provided a major 
impetus to the credibility and acceptance of IFRS globally . To date, over one hundred 
countries accept IFRS and the standards are supported by international organisations, such as 
the G20, Financial Stability Board (FSB), World Bank, International Monetary Fund and the 
Basel Committee on Banking Supervision.  
The United States does not permit its domestic companies to use IFRS which constitutes a 
significant limitation on their global application. The “equivalence” arrangement whereby the 
US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) accepts financial statements prep ared under 
IFRS for foreign companies is perceived as an important benefit for around 90 large EU 
issuers with US listings.  
In 2002, the IASB and the US standard setter (FASB) began a programme to converge their 
respective standards. The financial crisis h ighlighted the importance of this work which was 
actively supported by the G20 and FSB. In some areas, however, the Boards were unable to 
achieve common positions.  
3.1.2.  Efficiency  
Overall, the evidence from the evaluation showed that the benefits of the impleme ntation of 
the IAS Regulation outweigh the costs.  
Nevertheless, application of accounting standards does not readily lend itself to traditional 
cost-benefit analysis as benefits are not quantifiable in money terms; there is little data on 
costs and there i s an uneven distribution of costs and benefits whereby costs are largely 
incurred by companies preparing IFRS financial statements whereas benefits are shared by 
them, users of financial statements including investors and the wider economy.  
Nevertheless, c ompanies largely supported IFRS which implies that they find the costs 
commensurate with the benefits. Evidence suggested that the ratio of costs to benefits depends 
on characteristics of a company such as its size and scale of international operations. So me 
stakeholders saw merits in extending the use of IFRS by giving an option to companies to 
adopt IFRS as there would be cost savings, especially for companies in listed groups. Also, 
some suggested a lighter version of IFRS, with reduced disclosures, for subsidiaries of listed 
 
6 
 groups. It was noted that the cost of adopting IFRS may represent an obstacle for an initial 
public offering, especially for small and medium size companies (SMEs).  
Users of financial statements largely supported IFRS for improving the transparency and 
comparability of financial statements.  
All stakeholders incur costs during the development and endorsement of standards. Some 
feedback suggested that, more recently, the trade -off between costs and benefits has been 
adversely affected by frequent changes to standards, their complexity and the increasing 
volume of disclosures.  
3.1.3.  Relevance  
Overall, the evidence from the evaluation showed that the objectives of the IAS Regulation 
remain relevant.  
The increasing globalisation of capital mark ets has made the need for one financial reporting 
language even more relevant. In 2002, there was no level playing field for listed companies 
across EU capital markets. This has now been achieved so the debate focuses on whether a 
level playing field exist s globally. As noted, international organisations support IFRS as 
global standards.  
The crisis evidenced the need to understand the effects of regulations on financial markets and 
on economies. The IAS Regulation specifies that as a condition to being brou ght into EU, 
international standards must be conducive to the European public good. The term "public 
good" is not defined but may be understood to encompass broad financial stability and 
economic considerations. In particular, it is necessary to assess whe ther accounting standards 
could be detrimental to the economy or to particular stakeholders, such as long -term investors. 
There is also a growing call for regulations to be considered holistically in terms of their 
cumulative effects.  
At the time of the ad option of the IAS Regulation, it was agreed that its objectives were more 
relevant for listed EU companies which was reflected in the scope of mandatory application 
which Member States have the option to extend. Some stakeholders considered that the use of  
IFRS could potentially bring similar benefits, in particular to investors, if their use was 
extended (e.g. to individual annual financial statements of listed companies not preparing 
consolidated financial statements). Others highlighted a risk of imposin g complex standards 
on SMEs.  
 
7 
 3.1.4.  Coherence  
Within the IAS Regulation  
IFRS adopted by the EU have been codified in a legally -binding Commission Regulation 
1126/200811 amended for each new standard and amendment. Twice yearly, the Commission 
draws up a non -bindin g consolidated version of current standards in all EU languages. 
Evidence shows a need for improved translations for certain languages, practical difficulties 
in the consolidation of the standards and some discrepancies between IASB and the EU 
consolidated  texts. An official codification of all IFRS by the Commission could therefore 
represent a useful exercise.  
Some stakeholders also questioned whether there is a need for assurance, beyond the IASB's 
due process, that new standards or amendments are coheren t with the existing body of IFRS.  
With other EU legislation  
The Commission is committed to help address any points of friction in the interactions 
between the IAS Regulation and the Accounting Directive. Thus far, adequate interpretation 
and transposition methods by the Member States have enabled such points to be overcome.  
Capital maintenance and dividend distribution rules have also been cited as a source of legal 
challenge which can arise in certain jurisdictions where Member States permit or require the  
use of IFRS for individual annual financial statements on which distributable profits are 
based. Each Member State considers how to address such issues in their national legislation 
within the framework of the EU capital maintenance requirements.  
The IASB ’s existing Conceptual Framework  states that the objective of general purpose 
financial reporting is to provide information about the reporting entity that is useful to 
existing and potential investors, lenders and other creditors. Although IFRS -based fina ncial 
information is the starting point for much prudential regulation, the IASB does not include 
prudential supervisors or regulators on its list of users. Nevertheless, there is a need to ensure 
that financial information is fit for that purpose whilst r ecognising that prudential regulators 
can demand other information to meet their different objectives.  
The evidence suggested that although IFRS, regulatory requirements, tax and capital 
maintenance rules may impose different reporting requirements on comp anies, such 
differences are largely considered to be proportionate and legitimate given the array of 
objectives pursued.  
3.1.5.  EU added value  
In the late 1990s, the internationalisation of companies, the achievement of the single market 
and the globalisation of financial markets led to the need to find a common accounting 
                                                            
11 Commission Regulation (EC) No 1126/2008 of 3 November 2008 adopting certain international accounting 
standards in accordance with Regulation (EC) No 1606/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council, OJ 
L 320, 29.11.2008.  
 
8 
 language for listed companies. Some of them had to prepare an additional set of accounts 
under international or US standards because their national accounts were not recognised 
internationally. The EU decided to apply IFRS for listed companies through a Regulation 
because difficulties in reconciling different accounting traditions between Member States 
would have impeded adequate enhancement of the Accounting Directives.  
Evidence has shown that t he Regulation’s objectives have been achieved effectively and 
efficiently and that they remain relevant. Also, to date, there is still no well -defined alternative 
to IFRS. Thus the Regulation continues to provide added value to Europe reducing cross -
border  barriers through a common international accounting language and by allowing for a 
strong EU voice in the development of international standards.  
Evidence showed that the balance between the mandatory scope of application of the 
Regulation and the option for Member States to extend the use of IFRS at national level 
ensures proper subsidiarity and proportionality. Member States have implemented the options 
in diverse ways which take account of their specific economic and legal environments. 
Compulsory use o f IFRS has not been widely extended to non -listed companies or to 
individual financial statements.  
3.2. Endorsement process and criteria  
3.2.1.  Endorsement mechanism - process  
IFRS issued by the IASB are endorsed by the Commission under a comitology process. An 
endorsement process remains necessary to ensure that the standards developed by a private 
body meet certain criteria and are fit for the European economy before becoming part of EU 
law. 
The Commission aims to ensure that the endorsement process runs smoothly and efficiently; 
feedback indicated that most stakeholders consider that it works well. Timing raised some 
concerns as it introduces regulatory uncertainty. Nevertheless, the need for a proper due 
process allowing adequate time for stakeholders to  contribute as appropriate must be 
respected.  
Another important factor for the endorsement process is that the effects of a standard are fully 
understood. To date, the IASB has provided limited analysis of the effects of its standards, 
focussing on the qua lity of the information provided to users of financial statements. 
Additionally, the Commission services and the European Financial Reporting Advisory Group 
(EFRAG) assess the effects of a standard at EU level.  
3.2.2.  Endorsement mechanism – flexibility  
Some Euro pean stakeholders consider that the IAS Regulation is lacking in flexibility as it 
does not allow IFRS to be amended by adding text and has only limited scope for “deleting” 
(“carving -out”) text. In the EU, one carve -out used by a number of banks has been in effect 
since 2005. Other stakeholders considered that standards issued by the IASB should not be 
 
9 
 altered for application in Europe. The Maystadt report stated that caution is necessary in this 
area and most stakeholders supported maintaining the status quo. 
The feedback received also expressed the belief that the reform of EFRAG should enhance 
Europe’s influence over the development of standards earlier in the process.  
3.2.3.  Endorsement criteria  
The IAS Regulation sets out a number of criteria that must be met  in order for a standard to be 
endorsed in the EU. The standard should not be contrary to the "true and fair" view principle 
set out in the Accounting Directive, should be conducive to the public good in Europe and 
should meet basic criteria related to the  quality of information required for financial 
statements. The Maystadt report noted that two other criteria could be added as components of 
public good: that the standards should not endanger financial stability and must not hinder the 
economic developmen t of the Union. Alternatively it suggested issuing a Communication 
giving guidelines for the interpretation of the public good criterion.  
Overall, feedback suggested that the existing criteria work appropriately and, while some 
stakeholders would like to s ee other criteria included in the Regulation, there was no clear 
majority view calling for a particular criterion to be added. Nevertheless, some stakeholders 
considered that it would be helpful to be more specific about what European public good 
encompass es while others considered that the term is generic enough to have meaning and 
allows flexibility in practice. Most stakeholders did not recommend making any changes to 
the IAS Regulation itself but preferred that the Commission identify areas of focus for  
EFRAG on a case by case basis.  
The challenge is that there should be a shared understanding of terms in the Regulation, 
including "public good" and "true and fair". In the latter case, some stakeholders 
recommended that a standard should be explicitly ass essed in terms of whether it would lead 
to prudent accounting which they saw as an important factor in providing a true and fair view. 
The Commission, together with EFRAG, should produce guidance for improving the 
understanding of the endorsement criteria.  
3.3. Governance  
3.3.1.  IFRS Foundation  
The IFRS Foundation is an independent organisation setting accounting standards for more 
than 100 countries. Hence, it needs strong governance arrangements to ensure public 
accountability.  
It has a three -tier governance structur e aiming at favouring transparency, segregation of duties 
and adequate oversight. The Monitoring Board of public authorities, including the European 
Commission, ensures that the IFRS Foundation is subject to public oversight. It can refer 
matters of broad public interest to the IASB.  
 
10 
 In 2013, the IFRS Foundation was mainly financed through contributions. It aims at 
establishing (compulsory) national financing regimes, proportionate to a country’s GDP. This 
has so far proved challenging as many countries tha t use IFRS do not make commensurate 
contributions. Thus, the Foundation continues to rely on voluntary contributions, often from 
the private sector which may give rise to a risk of conflicts of interests. The EU as a whole, 
including the Member States cont ributions, is the main financial backer of the IFRS 
Foundation, with a multi -year commitment which provides the IFRS Foundation with a stable 
source of funding and helps it to diminish its reliance on the private sector.  
In the period under review, there w ere a number of positive changes: creation of the 
Accounting Standards Advisory Forum, with European representation; recommendations to 
the Trustees from a consultative group on the methodology for field work and effects analyses 
which will be implemented by the IASB, and the introduction of post -implementation reviews 
of standards.  
In response to demand from stakeholders, including European concerns, the IASB is 
developing its Conceptual Framework  which will improve financial reporting by providing a 
compl ete and updated set of concepts to use in their future work. An exposure draft has been 
published on 28 May 2015 and addresses a number of important matters including reinstating 
the concept of prudence as an important element in financial reporting.  
The I FRS Foundation is bound by its Constitution to review its organisational structure every 
five years. Past reviews significantly improved its governance. The next review will present 
an opportunity to tackle the issue of the Foundation's funding and decisio n-making process, 
including the role of the Monitoring Board.  
3.3.2.  EFRAG  
In July 2014, the Commission reported12 on the progress achieved in the implementation of 
the reform of EFRAG following the Maystadt report. The Commission came to a favourable 
conclusion regarding the progress made to date. The reform took effect on 31 October 2014 
when the amended EFRAG Statu tes and Internal Rules came into force. It involved 
establishing a new Board of EFRAG, its new decision -making body, with balanced 
representation of public and private interests, with a view to strengthening the legitimacy of 
its positions and contributing  to the objective of Europe speaking with one voice.  
4. Conclusion and next steps  
The Commission is satisfied with the overall quality of the evaluation and in that context finds 
the overall results adequately supported by the evidence despite limited availab ility of 
quantitative data. The key findings showed that the objectives of the Regulation have been 
met. 
                                                            
12 COM(2014) 396.  
 
11 
 Evidence showed that the reform of EFRAG in the period under review is perceived as 
important in strengthening the EU voice in the development of IFRS.  
Nevertheless, there are opportunities to improve the way in which the provisions of the IAS 
Regulation are applied and the Commission has identified a number of practical steps which 
could be taken.  
Functioning of the IAS Regulation  
 Evidence suggests that the existing scope of the Regulation  and the options given to 
Member State are appropriate. As part of the Green Paper on Building a Capital 
Markets Union13, the Commission has launched a debate on whether there is value in 
developing  a common EU level, high quality and simplified accounting standard for 
SMEs listed on Multilateral Trading facilities (MTFs), more specifically SME Growth 
Markets.  
 The Commission supports IFRS as global standards  and continues to urge the US 
SEC to adopt IFRS for use by its domestic companies. Convergence is not seen as an 
end in itself because IFRS should be of high quality and appropriate for European 
markets, and hence for other jurisdictions in the world. The Commission considers 
that commitment to IFR S should be evidenced by establishing permanent financial 
contributions to fund the IFRS Foundation, proportionate to a contributor country's 
GDP. The Commission therefore urges the IFRS Foundation 2015 Governance review 
to ensure that the use of IFRS and the existence of a permanent financial contribution 
are conditions for membership of the governing and monitoring bodies of the IFRS 
Foundation and of the IASB.  
 The effectiveness and efficiency of the Regulation depend on the quality of the 
standards  thems elves which should continue to be appropriately assessed during their 
development and endorsement. In particular, any interaction between the IAS 
Regulation and other EU law based on a holistic view of the overall coherence and 
effects, the complexity of t he standards and volume of disclosure requirements should 
be considered. The Commission will examine the case for strengthening EU rules 
relating to dividend distribution.  
 The Commission encourages Member States to apply ESMA enforcement guidelines . 
As par t of the Green Paper on Building a Capital Markets Union, the Commission will 
look at whether the powers of the European Supervisory Authorities, including 
ESMA, to ensure consistent supervision are sufficient and whether more efficient 
approaches towards supervisory and market reporting, involving ESMA and national 
authorities as appropriate, could be helpful for market participants.   
 To ensure simplification of legislation and coherence , the Commission will consider 
a codification exercise of the legisla tion endorsing IFRS in the medium term, after 
                                                            
13 COM(2015)063.  
 
12 
 adoption of some major pending standards. The Commission will seek to enhance 
cooperation with the IFRS Foundation, in particular for translation aspects.  
Endorsement process  
 The Commission will ensure that its  requests to EFRAG for endorsement advice 
include specific concerns, including matters of public good, on a case by case basis, in 
order that EFRAG's endorsement advice addresses such matters appropriately. The 
involvement of Member States at an earlier st age of the process will help to inform the 
Commission staff of any concerns and EFRAG’s reformed governance structure will 
enhance its ability to address the matters raised. The Commission will develop ideas 
and working practices through dialogues with ARC , the EFRAG Board, and other EU 
Institutions.  
 The Commission encourages EFRAG to develop its capacities with respect to the 
analysis of the effects of standards including macro -economic effects. The 
Commission welcomes the ECB and ESAs, observers of the EFRAG Board under the 
reformed governance arrangements, actively sharing their views with the Board to 
facilitate the consideration of some areas such as effects on financial stability.  
Governance arrangements for the relevant organisations  
 The Commission acknowledges improvements in the IFRS Foundation governance. 
However, as member of the Monitoring Board, the Commission calls on that body to 
refocus its attention from issues of internal organisation to discussing matters of public 
interest that could be referred to the IFRS Foundation.  
 The Commission urges the IASB to strengthen their impact analyses, to consider the 
specific needs of investors with different investment time horizons and to provide 
specific solutions, in particular to long -term investors,  when developing their 
standards.  
 The Commission welcomes the IASB's intention to re -introduce the principle of 
prudence in the Conceptual Framework . 
 The Commission endorsed and supervised the implementation of the governance 
reform of EFRAG in 2014. In or der to ensure that the objective of strengthening the 
EU's influence on the development of international accounting standards is met, the 
Commission will continue to closely monitor the follow -up of the reform and will 
report yearly, in line with Regulatio n 258/2014 .