EUROPEAN COMMISSION 
Brussels, 20.12.2011 
SEC(2011) 1608 final 
  
Commission Staff Working Document 
Accompanying document to the  
 
COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN 
PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL 
COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF REGIONS 
 
'Education and Training for a smart, sustainable and inclusive Europe' 
 
Analysis of the implementation  of the strategic framework for European cooperation in 
education and trai ning (ET2020) - Country analysis 
{COM(2011) 902 final} 
{SEC(2011) 1607 final}  
 
 - 1 -  
INTRODUCTION 
The Commission Communication on the draft 2012 Joint Report of the Council and the 
Commission on the implementation of the strate gic framework for European cooperation in 
education and training (ET 2020)1 is accompanied by two Staff Working Documents (SWDs). 
While the other SWD examines the progress ma de in the implementation of ET2020 from a 
thematic, cross-country perspec tive, the present SWD examines the progress made at national 
level towards the ET 2020 objectives  on a country-by-country basis. 
Country analysis 
The present SWD is a collection of indivi dual country briefs summarising the main 
developments in education and training in th e individual countries in the period 2009–2011 in 
relation to the ET2020 and Europe 2020 prioritie s and the outcome of the first European 
Semester, including the country-specific reco mmendations (CSRs) issued by the Council in 
June 2011. 
The country summaries are primarily based on the national progress reports provided by the 
competent authorities in the fi rst half of 2011, in response to  a common questionnaire. They 
also take into account information containe d in the Member States’ National Reform 
Programmes (NRPs) submitted for the first Europ ean Semester and other official information 
sources, such as Cedefop and Eurydice. 
Structure and content of the country summaries 
Each country summary starts out with a review of the country’s performance in relation to the 
ET2020 benchmarks , including the Europe 2020 headline targets for early school leaving and 
tertiary attainment. 
Section 2 is devoted to the outcome of the European Semester 2011 . It includes excerpts from 
the Commission Staff Working Documents acco mpanying the Recommendation for a Council 
Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States in  relation to educati on and training issues.
2 
For those Member States for which the Council has issued Country-Specific 
Recommendations (CSRs)  relating to education and traini ng following the European Semester, 
this section also quotes the text  of the specific Recommendation. 
For countries receiving fi nancial assistance under a Memorandum of Understanding  (MoU) 
on Specific Economic Policy Conditionality, sec tion 2 includes, where appropriate, excerpts 
from the MoU referring to education and training. 
Section 3 analyses in detail national developments in relation to the Europe 2020 headline 
target  addressing early school le aving and tertiary (or equivalent) attainment. 
Section 4 reports on developments with regard to mobility , in particular in relation to the 
Europe 2020 ‘Youth on the Move’ flagship initiat ive and to European  and other mobility 
programmes. The analysis is based on data fr om Eurostat (UOE) on long-term mobility in 
higher education and on data from the Lifel ong Learning Programme on short-term mobility. 
                                                 
1  Council conclusions of 12 May 2009 on a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and 
training ( ET 2020 ), OJ C 119, 28.5.2009, p. 2–10. 
2  http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/reaching-the-goals/monitoring-progress/recommendations-
2011/index_en.htm 
 
 - 2 - Section 5 describes developments in other Eur ope 2020 priority areas, in particular lifelong 
learning strategies and the flagship initiative Agenda for New Skills and Jobs. 
Section 6 looks at the impact of the economic a nd financial crisis on th e country’s education 
and training budget. 
Finally, short conclusions ar e presented in section 7. 
   
 
 - 3 - AUSTRIA 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training. 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Austria EU average EU Benchmarks AUSTRIA   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood 
education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary)  84.6  % 91.3  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 19.3  % 21.5  %0621.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 20.0  %06 23.2  %0924.0  %0622.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
  
Science 16.3  %06 21.0  %0920.2  %0617.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and 
training 
(age 18–24)  10.2  % 8.7  %b 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  21.004 23.5  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  8.6 % 03 13.7  % 8.5 % 039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
03= 2003, 04= 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 
 - 4 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
The share of people with a migr ation background in the labour force in Austria is high by EU 
standards. The problems faced by migrants on the labour market are tw ofold: firstly, pupils 
with a migration background have lower educa tion outcomes than their peers; secondly, 
migrants are three times more likely to be employed below their qualification levels than Austrians. The main challenge is low education outcomes: migr ants are 3.5 times more likely 
to be early school leavers than natives (22.1
 % compared to 6  %). One of the reasons is the 
strong influence of socio-economic background on educational achievement in Austria, which 
can partly be explained by ‘early  tracking’ into two different schooling streams at the age of 
10. In urban regions in pa rticular, this tends to cause ‘dow nward’ selection of pupils with a 
disadvantageous socio-economic background a nd reduces de facto permeability between 
upper secondary education and training streams. This, combined with widespread half-day 
schooling, seems to have a negative effect on the educational attainment of vulnerable youth. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Recommendation (4) Take measures to enhance participation in th e labour market, including the following: reduce, 
in a budgetary neutral way, the effective tax and social security burden on labour, especially 
for low- and medium-income earners; implem ent the National Action Plan on the equal 
treatment of women and men in the labour mark et, including improvements in the ava ilability 
of care services and of all-da y school places to increase the options for women to work full-
time and in the high gender pay gap;  take steps to improve educational outcomes and 
prevent school drop-out. 
3. E
UROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
In the past, early school leaving (ESL) has fluctuated around 10  %, but decreased to 8.7  % in 
2009 and 2010, well below the EU average (2008: 10.1  %). Austria has set itself the target of 
an ESL rate of not more than 9.5  % by 2020. 
As noted in the Commission Staff Worki ng Document on the implementation of the 
integrated guidelines, socio-economic backgr ound has a strong influence on achievement in 
the Austrian education system, and pupils fr om a disadvantageous background face a much 
higher risk of drop-out th an their peers. A particular challenge is to unlock the potential of 
Austria’s young population with a migrant background (around 17  % of all pupils have a 
mother tongue other than German, with mu ch higher rates in ur ban regions), since 
achievement gaps compared to native peers are among the highest in the EU. 
Educational deficits tend to add up from early childhood: while overall participation in early 
childhood education has increased in Austria (from 84.6  % in 2000 to 91.3  % in 2009), 
immigrant children have a lower ra te of participat ion here too. 
The Austrian National Reform Programme an d the ET 2020 national report acknowledge the 
negative consequences of early drop-out in education, namely fe wer job opportunities, a 
 
 - 5 - higher risk of unemployment and social exclus ion. Consequently, educational reform focuses 
on increasing equal opportunities and qualificat ion levels, in particular for migrants. 
In cooperation with the Bunde sländer and municipalities, the federal government has 
launched several initiatives to tackle educa tional disadvantages from an early age. A 
compulsory free-of-charge year of kindergar ten at age 5 was introduced in 2010, together 
with a nation-wide education plan to improv e the quality of provision. Further measures 
include early language skills assessment and indi vidualised support in kindergarten to develop 
a sufficient level in the language of inst ruction before entry into primary school. 
Other recent measures to tackle  early school leaving include mo re individualised teaching (in 
particular within the reform project ‘Neue Mittelschule’, whic h will gradually replace the 
‘Hauptschule’ by 2019), smaller class sizes (dow n from 30 to 25), more places for all-day 
schooling and after school care, a ‘training guarantee’ (Ausbildungsgarantie)  up to age 18, 
and ESF-funded programmes to keep pupils with  significant (languag e) deficits in the 
mainstream educational system. 
These measures point in the right direction.  It is moreover positive that quality early 
childhood and basic education, step s to tackle inequalities a nd provision of second-chance 
upper secondary education free of charge have also become key objectives of the recently 
adopted LLL strategy (see section 5). This shou ld help to further improve cooperation and 
coordination among stakeholders and services re sponsible for labour ma rket, youth and social 
affairs. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
Tertiary attainment is 23.5  %, low in comparison to the EU average of 33.6  % (ISCED levels 5 
and 6). It has to be noted, however, that Austria has traditionally obtained a large part of its higher-skilled labour force from VET colleges th at grant ISCED 4a level qualifications. This 
is also why the government included th is qualification level (ISCED 4: 13.4
 % in 2009) in its 
national target (38  %). Nevertheless, the government is awar e that more tertiary qualifications 
are necessary, and reaching the target by 2020 w ould represent an improvement on the current 
situation. In particular, despite good progress towards the 2010 benchmark for tertiary MST 
graduates, the shortages in these subjects are c onsidered an obstacle to future growth in a 
number of economic sectors. 
High drop-out rates from university (around 40  %) remain a challenge, even though study fees 
have been widely abolished for almost all stud ents and financial grants were increased in 
2008 and 2009. In 2010, EUR 194 million were disbursed to some 46  000 students as non-
refundable study grants (18  % of all students). Additional financial support measures are 
available. 
Regarding measures to increase the number of  tertiary graduates, the 2011 Austrian National 
Reform Programme and the progress report on  ET 2020 highlight couns elling for tertiary 
studies and increasing the numbe r of graduates in natural scie nces and technology as among 
the main challenges. Information and orientatio n is gradually being widened and improved to 
include compulsory advice for prospective students (‘ Studienwahlberatung  NEU ’). 
The growing number of applicants for Universities for Applied Sciences ( Fachhochschulen ), 
focusing on disciplines such as engineering, business mana gement and ICT, is being 
addressed by the provision of more study pla ces. Other measures aim to improve access to 
university studies for peopl e in the labour market ( berufsbegleitendes Studieren ). Additional 
 
 - 6 - funds (€  34 million) have been set aside to improve the student/teacher ratio in the period 
2010–12. 
While such measures may have some potential to  reduce drop-out rates and to achieve a better 
distribution of students across the full range of subjects (access to universities is mostly free), 
they are no substitute for a comprehensive stra tegy to deal with the steadily growing numbers 
of students, due also to high incoming mobility (‘mass university’), and persisting structural 
challenges to the Austrian university system. 
A recently published report, developed by independent experts in August 2011, proposes for 
the "mapping process for the Austrian higher education system" a num ber of measures to 
improve the governance of universities, including their l ong-term financing. 
4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Austri a has an outbound long-term mobility (4.3  % of students 
per year) above the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the EU Erasmus 
programme (1.4  % of students in 2008/09) is also above the EU average. 
Learning mobility for pupils, trai nees, students and learners as  well as education staff is 
mainly supported by the EU’s Lifelong Learning Programme. In addition, the national Performance agreements ( Leistungsvereinbarungen ) between universities and the ministry for 
science contain supporting measur es for international mobility. Austria is also particularly 
attractive for incoming PhD students: their shar e is the highest in Europe, in 2010 amounting 
to 22
 % of all PhD students. 
Mobility in VET is supported by the organisation of pool projects (for individual applications) 
and supplementary national funding. 
School teachers participate via the AUPRAX init iative in exchanges with their European 
colleagues. Despite the important role of VET in Austria, the participation of VET 
professionals in Leonardo da Vinci is below the EU average. 
5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
In July 2011 the four ministri es responsible for education a nd training, science and research, 
economy, family and youth, and labour and social affairs, supported by the social partners and 
all key stakeholders, ag reed on a joint strategy ‘Lifelong Learning 2020’,  based on a set of 
guiding principles, benchmarks for 2020, and 10 action lines, including concrete operational 
measures for LLL implementation (see Staff Work ing Document, section 4.1). In addition, a 
lifelong guidance strategy is al ready being implemented, for example through the promotion 
of basic competences for education, VET a nd career plans (‘Career Management Skills’). 
A ‘Standing Committee on New Skills’, le d by the public employment service 
(Arbeitsmarktservice ), is addressing the preparation of  employees and job-seekers for the 
upcoming changes and challenges in the labour market. 
Other measures include quality developmen t by introducing educational standards and 
standardised tests in the field of education, setting standards in  VET, ‘Literacy’ (a project for 
improving reading competences), competence-o riented teaching, and a quality initiative for 
VET ( QIBB ). Work on the National Qualification Framework and the Bologna Process is 
ongoing. 
 
 - 7 - The adoption of ‘Lifelong Learning 2020’ demonstrat es that progress is being made to further 
strengthen the links between e ducation, training, employment an d social affairs and ensure a 
more flexible qualification system. The broa d agreement among stakeholders on shared 
objectives can be considered an important su ccess factor for the future improvement of 
lifelong learning struct ures and services. 
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Austria EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP  5.74  % 5.46  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Investment in education,  as a percentage of GDP, has decr eased since 2000, but is still above 
the EU average. 
In comparison to other budget headings, public spending on education and training was not 
negatively affected by the financial crisis. Sc hool education saw no significant cuts in the 
crisis years, th e 2011 budget increasing to almost €  8 billion, 3.9  % more than in 2010. 
Savings due to declining numbe r of pupils are being offset by higher expenditure on the 
recent reforms (smaller classes, new middle school , quality assurance, all-day schools, etc.). 
In addition, €  80 million per year will be made availa ble up to 2014 to provide additional 
study places and improve the quality and performance of tertiary education. 
Fully in line with the Annual Growth Survey and the Conclusions of the Spring European 
Council, Austria is maintaining it s investment in education and training as a growth-friendly 
measure in times of crisis. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
In the context of its educational reform , aiming to increase equal opportunities and 
qualification levels, in particular for migrants, Austria is taking steps to improve educational 
outcomes and to prevent school drop-out. Th ese include more individualised teaching, 
increased provision of all-da y schooling, measures to im prove early childhood education 
(including compulsory kindergar ten at the age of five), a nd the reform project ‘Neue 
Mittelschule’, aiming at mitigating the conseq uences of early separation of pupils into 
‘academic’ and ‘general’ streams at the age of 10, while the two parallel tracks ("Neue 
Mittelschule" and "Gymnasium") will continue to exist. 
Measures are also being taken to  increase the capacity  and quality of tert iary education, in 
particular by providing information and counsel ling, increasing the number of students in the 
Universities for Applied Sciences and improvi ng access to higher education institutions for 
people on the labour market. 
Implementing the comprehensive Lifelong Learning 2020 strategy adopted in July 2011 will 
help to achieve the targets. However, sustained efforts will be needed, in particular to reach 
the target for tertiary or equivalent educa tion and to effectively address equity issues. 
 
 - 8 - BELGIUM 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training. 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Belgium EU average EU Benchmarks 
BELGIUM   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary)  99.1  % 99.3  %09  85.2% 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 19.0  %  
17.7  %09 
 21.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 17.3  %06 19.1  %09 24.2006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science 17.0  %06 18.0  %09 20.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  13.8  % 11.9  % b 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Higher education attainment 
(age 30–34)  34.5  % 44.4  % 22.4  % 33.6  % -    40  % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  8.6 %04  7.2 %  8.5  % 03 9.1  % 12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
01= 2001, 04= 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 9 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employ ment policies of the Member States  
Regarding education and training policy, Belgium’ s ambition is to raise the percentage of 
people aged 30–34 with a hi gher education from 43.2
 % in 2009 (42  % according to Eurostat) 
to 47  % in 2020, and to reduce the percentage of early school leavers (ESL) from 11.7  % in 
2009 (11.1  % according to Eurostat) to 9.5  % by 2020. Educational policy is the responsibility 
of the communities. The Flemish community and region has already reached a number of the Europe 2020 policy targets and has set additional ambitious targets. As the NEET27 indicator and the ESL indicators have been generally decr easing over the last ten years, with Belgium 
performing better than th e EU average thanks to longstand ing efforts at policy level, the 
Belgian national targets for educat ion and ESL seem to be realistic. However, this is possibly 
being driven by the Flemish community (8.6
 % in 2009), so the main challenge is to ensure a 
significant decreases in the high ESL rate a nd proportion of 20–24 year-olds without at least 
secondary education in the other regions/communities (in 2009, 13.8  % and 20.5  % in 
Wallonia and 15.6  % and 25.2  % in the Brussels Capital Region, respectively). Therefore, 
even though Belgium has a modern education sy stem and is performing better overall than the 
EU average in the area of education, this ma sks significant regional differences, and several 
problems remain to be tackled, in particular the low qualifications of  young people (mainly in 
Wallonia and the Brussels Capital Region), non-EU  citizens and women (in particular in the 
Brussels Capital Region), and skills mismatches  and shortages in future-oriented occupations. 
Belgium is also one of the few countries wher e participation rates in  lifelong learning have 
declined significantly in recent years. To  increase lifelong learning and improve the 
qualifications of jobseekers, the social partners have agreed to spend 1.9  % of the total payroll 
on the education and training of employees. As th is target has currently not been reached, a 
penalty mechanism for sectors that fail to make additional training efforts was to enter into force in 2011. 
3. E
UROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
Belgium performs better than the EU average in  the area of early school leaving, and aims to 
further reduce the rate from 11.9  % (Eurostat) in 2010 (11.7  % according to the 2011 NRP) to 
9.5 % by 2020. Due to longstanding efforts at policy level, rates have constantly declined over 
the last decade, although sign ificant dispariti es remain between community/regions. Both 
communities are investing in improving the qualit y and attractiveness of VET, in flexible 
pathways and in closer edu cation–enterprise cooperation. 
Flanders  has already achieved the national target a nd intends to decrease the ESL rate further 
from 8.6% in 2009 (9.6% in  2010) to 5.2% by 2020. The Flemish ESL objective is part of a 
broader objective to reduce by 2020 the number of secondary education drop-outs without 
sufficient starting qualifications (upper secondary education or equivalent) by 50  % and the 
7.3 % NEET rate among young people. 
The evidence-based policy pursued by the Flemish community/Flanders  region involves a 
comprehensive approach and a wide range  of active prevention, intervention and 
compensation measures as well as possible sanc tions (e.g. school allowances linked to regular 
school attendance). It is supported by strong anal ysis of data and information to enable 
 
 - 10 - measures to target particular groups and take the personal situation of pupils into account (e.g. 
positive discrimination). Implementation is monitored and evaluated within a comprehensive strategy. Measures include the active encouragem ent of nursery education participation, early 
mastery of the instruction language, a truancy action plan (2006 plan under evaluation, to be 
renewed in 2011) with the involve ment of various actors and the parents, and various second-
chance offers. Other measures to ensure the full -time involvement of ap prentices in education 
until the age of 18 (since 2008–9), the ongoing modularisa tion of IVET (up to 2015) and 
better pupil guidance (decr ee planned by 2014) are also releva nt. In addition, a broader reform 
to make technical and professional edu cation more attractive is under discussion. 
The French community  continues to focus on measures to address the problem of low 
performance levels in compulsory education and training by improving the quality of the 
education and training system, mainly through financial and othe r measures to reinforce the 
acquisition of basic competences (primary and first cycle of secondary as from 2006). In 
addition, an important reform was introduced in 2009 to make VET  more flexible, modular 
and closer to labour market need s. As part of this approach measures have been taken since 
2006 to address ESL (‘ Positive discrimination’, measures  to tackle relegation mechanisms, 
specific measures such as ‘SAS’ or  transition centres , school mediators). Since 2009, further 
measures have been taken (e.g. desegr egation measures, improved monitoring of  youngsters 
in ‘alternate training’, and a 2009 action plan to combat violence at school). The measures 
planned mainly include the creati on of an observatory of violence at school and soft measures 
such as better information and training of  professionals, pupils and victims. The Brussels 
region  continues to actively implement m easures to combat absenteeism.  
The time horizon of the French community/Wall onia/Brussels regions policy and measures is 
2014. There is a lack of comprehensive analysis of ESL phenomenon 
and of systematic 
monitoring and evaluation of th e implementation of the ESL me asures including  prevention, 
intervention and compensation measures. General indicators exist for the performance of the education and training system, but do not in clude specific indicator s on drop-out/ESL.   
The Belgian 2011 NRP acknowledges that reforms are needed in some areas, in particular 
vocational education and training, in order to improve quality and meet the demands of the labour market (mainly for young people in Wall onia and Brussels and for migrants and 
women in Brussels) and to tackle skills mismatches for future-oriented jobs. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
In 2010, Belgium exceeded the 40
 % EU target for tertiary e ducation graduates, with 44.4  % 
according to Eurostat (43.2  % according to the 2011 NRP). The national target is 47  % by 
2020. Flanders has set itself a specific objective to increase the rate from 45.0  % (2010) to 
47.8  % by 2020. 
In both communities, access to higher educati on is open (with few exceptions), with low 
tuition fees. Communities have improved their financial support for students/learners, with 
particular attention to st udents from low socio-economic backgrounds. One of the 
consequences is that relatively high numbers of students enter th e higher education system. In 
2008, the Flemish community put in place individual, institu tional and structural measures 
through a new community funding model. This aims  to widen participation, in particular by 
attracting ‘non-traditional learners’, provi de appropriate guidance and counselling and 
improve the completion rate (e.g. through an institution-funded premium for students from disadvantaged groups and worki ng adult learners, equal treatm ent of full-time and part-time 
students, and flexible study pathways). The funding model also provides for targeted 
 
 - 11 - allocations to reward the achievement of agreed objectives for participation and completion 
rates. The aim is to achieve a ‘higher education participation rate of 60  % for children from 
parents without a higher educa tion degree’ (‘Pact 2020’) by de voting attention to students 
from more vulnerable backgrounds. 
The funding model also shifts re sponsibility to students for th eir study progress, as they can 
be penalised if their performance remains be low expected standards (e.g. higher education 
institutions might charge higher tuit ion fees or refuse registration). 
The study allowance system will be expande d to encompass HB (hoger beroepsonderwijs  — 
higher vocational education) leve l 5 and second-chance education. 
The introduction of short-cycle higher vocational e ducation programmes should also help new 
groups of students to progress to a bachelor’s programme. 
These measures are monitored yearly. A first evaluation of the results  of the performance 
agreements was launched in 2008. 
In the French  community , in order to widen  participation, m easures focus on additional 
financial support to attract students from lower soci o-economic backgrounds. As from 2010 
– 2011, students holding a grant are exempted from  paying  tuition fees and  there is also 
other measures to reduce the cost of course  material. Students of modest conditions not 
eligible to receive a grant will pay reduced fees of up to 50 %. 
Various measures are designed to improve the completion rate, including student support for 
the transition from school to higher education in stitutions (HEI). As regard the obligation for 
students to demonstrate sufficient master y of the instruction language  as a prerequisite for 
enrolment, previous disposals have been updated namely with references to language levels of 
the Common European Framework of Reference to be attained (2010). The obligation of 
universities (2004) to devote a minimum percentage of thei r budget to s upport ‘first 
generation’ students was extend ed to the other HEIs in 2008. At university level, limited 
flexibility has been introduced to extend the length of the study period needed to obtain a 
degree.   
4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Belgiu m has an outbound long-term mobility (2.9  % of students 
per year in 2008/9) near the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the EU 
Erasmus programme (1.3  % of students in 2006/7 and 1.48% 2008/9) is above the EU 
average. 
Both communities consider mobility to be a priority. They provide additional funding to 
support the European education programmes, in particular Erasmus, Comenius and 
Grundtvig. Particular attention is paid to supporting pupils /students from lower socio-
economic backgrounds.    
The Flemish community  uses various financial and ot her measures and programmes to 
increase the mobility of pupils/students and t eachers at all levels of education (except 
secondary) with a particular focu s on mobility in higher education. 
At school level , mobility schemes target not only neighbouring and other European countries 
but also Morocco, the country of origin for many pupils with a migrant background, in order 
to increase intercultural co mpetence and tolerance.   
In higher education , the aim is to reach a mobility target of 20 % graduate students by 2020. 
For the period 2012–2025, a gradual budgetary increase of €  4.2 million by 2020 is planned. 
 
 - 12 - The action plan to promote the mobility  of HE students from all cycles (BA, MA, PhD), 
teachers, researchers and staff is being drawn up, with the focus on increasing the 
participation of curre ntly underrepresented outgoing  groups (e.g. SNE). Various new 
outgoing mobility programmes for students are being set up. Better access, improved 
guidance and financial support for incoming students are also planned. According to a 2010 
survey, there are no longer any real obstacles to student learning mobility . Consequently, 
incentives will be offered to motivate students. As regards teachers, the new mobility action 
plan, with due regard to the autonomy  of individual institutions, provides for recognition of 
mobility as a fundamental elem ent in the teaching career path.  
In the French community  there are initiatives at schoo l level (e.g. language immersion 
mobility grants for pupils ending secondary education — Walloon region), but the main focus is on student mobility at HE level. 
An HE mobility council, set up in 2007, provide s advice on mobility policy and is responsible 
for ensuring consistent management of  the budget to suppo rt the different outgoing  mobility 
schemes (national, European, others). This mobility budget has been progressively increased. 
Incoming  students may receive diffe rent forms of in-kind support. An organisation 
(Wallonie-Bruxelles Campus) was set up in 2010 to promote French HEIs abroad. At policy 
level, joint/multiple degrees are encouraged and there is ongoing reflection on the inclusion of 
mandatory mobility windows in curricula. The HE  mobility council is planning a qualitative 
and quantitative survey of mobility barriers  (2012) to complement a 2007 survey on the 
mobility of students receiving study grants, whic h mainly addressed the financial barriers. 
5. L
IFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , VET,  OTHER MEASURES  
Belgium is one of the countries  where participation rates in lifelong lear ning have declined 
significantly in recent years. The rate started to drop in 2004, falling to 6.8  % in 2009. The 
2011 NRP acknowledges that the situation should be  improved. A set of measures have been 
taken at federal and community/regional levels. 
Flanders has been pursuing an explicit, co herent and comprehens ive lifelong learning 
strategy, as set out in three main policy documents (Competence Agenda 2010 and the 2009–
14 policy notes on education and on employment).  Responsibility for its implementation is 
shared with stakeholders (e.g. sectors). Key principles of the strategy are: creation of 
conditions for improved employabili ty, activity and qualifi cations for all; an  active integrated 
skills development approach for different target groups among both employed and 
unemployed; enhanced structural collaboration between education and the labour market in 
combination with the promotion of lifelong careers orientation;  providing individual targeted 
incentives for training; recognition of acquired competences; and flexible pathways. The target is 15
 % adult participation in LLL by 2020 (Pact 2020). 
The Flemish qualification framework was adopt ed in 2009. The corresponding link with the 8 
EQF levels was established in April 2011. By using a learning outcome approach, the NQF 
supports the recognition of formal, non-formal a nd informal learning. The new single central 
Flemish agency for quality in education and training (AKOV), set up in  2009 for coordinating 
quality assurance for all education, training and RPL systems, is now ope rational. It has been 
tasked, among other things, with the deve lopment and introduction of the Flemish 
qualification structure. 
Since June 2008, a number of projects have b een launched to establish a comprehensive 
system for anticipation of needed skills, to id entify ‘horizontal mismatches’ and to assess the 
key competences to be acquired in s hort-cycle higher voc ational education. 
 
 - 13 - In addition to measures to improve the quality  and efficiency of V ET, a thorough reform of 
secondary education is envisage d to ensure that vocational a nd technical courses of study are 
updated. A draft decree on the reform of s econdary education is scheduled for 2014. 
The French community/Walloon and Brussels regions  continue to pursue a lifelong learning 
approach including the cooperation and involvement of education and training providers and the world of work, flexible pathways and more targ eted adult education. Th e main focus is on the 
development of closer synergies between educa tion and training providers to promote a more 
efficient, integrated, transparent and targeted quality offer for educati on and training across the 
lifecycle, with particular attention to VET, a lternate training and adult education (EPS). There 
is a strong emphasis on closer cooperation by e ducation and training providers with the world 
of work. This cooperation is guiding many initiatives , such as the setting up of the Professions 
and Qualifications Service ( SFMQ) in 2009, education zones, the development of catchment 
areas and synergy centres, prio r learning recognition, and lif elong careers orientation.   
The ongoing reform of  VET aims to make it  more attractive, flexible and relevant to labour 
market needs. It includes modularisation (‘ qualification by units (CPU)’ trial as a way to 
implement the ECVET system), further fosterin g of the development of dual education, the 
promotion of vocational guidance, more on-the-j ob training, and continua tion of measures to 
improve access to appropriate equipment and technology. 
Adult education  measures include more flexible pathwa ys for VET pupils to adult education, 
possibility for recognition of formal, non-formal  and informal learning, and aligning adult HE 
with the Bologna process (2008).   
Little progress has been  made on the Belgian-French quali fication framework. A final version 
is expected by 2012. The approach will be sim ilar to the Flemish qualification framework. 
As regard skills forecasts, the recently created s ectoral skill council (S FMQ) has been tasked 
with the development of job profiles and co rresponding ‘qualification’ profiles which might 
help in forecasting skills. Surveys to assess skills needs and mismatches are carried out on a 
regular basis (annual survey of jobs w ith skills shortages in Brussels). 
6. I
NVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Belgium EU average 
 2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP  6.0%01 6.46% 4.88% 5.07% 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
01= 2001  
Public investment in education  as a percentage of GDP has not changed in Belgium since 
2000, whereas it has slightly increased in the EU  as a whole. In Belgium, however, it still 
exceeds the EU average by about 1 percentage point. 
Both communities report that the economic cr ises have had no signi ficant negative impact on 
the education and training budget:  savings have been made by dr opping non-priori ty measures 
and postponing a planned budget increase. 
In budgetary terms, tertiary education is the onl y sector that has seen continuous growth in 
real terms. However, the increase has not ma tched the mass expansion of higher education, 
 
 - 14 - leading to a decrease in per capita spending on higher education. In both communities, due to 
the crisis, the planned HE budget increase has be en postponed or spread over a longer period. 
Regarding private expenditure on education and trai ning, a decreasing trend has been 
observed for many years. The private sector is not abiding by its commitment to spend 1.9  % 
of the total payroll on the training of employees . A penalty mechanism for sectors that fail to 
make additional training efforts entered into force in 2011. 
Structural savings decided in close consultation w ith the education partners amounted to 
1.4 % of the Flemish education budget  in 2010, including non-renewal of innovative 
projects, dropping of mentoring for students opting for work experience, cancellation of 
various support schemes for teachers, non-inde xation of operational resources for mandatory 
education, and reduced lump-sum paymen ts for higher edu cation institutions. 
As regards the French community , the economic crisis is repor ted to have had no significant 
negative impact on public investment in e ducation. Nevertheless, certain measures in 
compulsory education have been cut, and th e planned HE budget incr ease approved in 2008 to 
cover a period of 8 years is now spread over 15 years (total of €  30 m). According to Eurydice, 
savings in compulsory education have been ma de mainly by cancelling n on-priority measures 
and reducing the planned increase in operationa l grants for schools. Positive discrimination 
measures have been maintained.   
There has been no decrease in the total budget for VET and c ontinuous trai ning, although 
amounts have been reallocated to target particular groups. Th e 2011 NRP acknowledges 
future budgetary needs to address the increase in the number of pupils expected in the coming 
years, in particular in Brussels. 
The European structural funds (Wallonia-Brusse ls) are being used to support training both to 
reintegrate non-working people with in the labour market and to  increase training provision. 
As a consequence of the crisis, there has been a limited reallocation of ESF funding for 
EU2020 targets. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
Generally Belgium’s education system performs better than the EU average, albeit with 
important differences between the communities.  However several problems remain to be tackled and further efforts are necessary in particular in order to address skill mismatches, to tackle labour market barriers for different age and social groups (mainly senior workers in 
Flanders, young low qualified workers in Brusse ls and Wallonia, non-EU citizens and women 
in Brussels) and to increase labour mobility, in particular between regions. There is a 
particular challenge for voca tional education and training a nd lifelong learning participation. 
 
 - 15 -  
BULGARIA 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training.  
1. BENCHMARKS  
Bulgaria EU average EU Benchmarks 
BULGARIA   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary)  73.4  % 78.5  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09  95 % 
 
Reading 40.3  % 41.0  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 53.3  %06 47.2  %0924.0  %0622.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science 42.6  %06 38.8  %0920.3  %0617.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  20.5  %01 13.9  %  17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  19.8  % 27.7  % 22.4  % 33.6  % -    40  % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  1.3 % 03 1.2  %  8.5  % 039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
01 =2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e08 =2008, 09 =2009, = estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 16 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
The upcoming Law on Pre-School and School E ducation is expected to provide some 
solutions, building on the positive results of the recent school decentra lisation reform. This 
law is also intended to expand pre-school e ducation, which is the foundation for further 
learning, and to improve learning outcomes a nd educational achieveme nt at primary and 
secondary level. Tertiary attainment rates (27.9
 % in 2009) remain below the EU average 
(32.3  %), despite a positive trend in the last decade. Bulgaria has significantly delayed its 
reform of higher education. The new Higher Education Law, already tabled in 2010 but 
subsequently withdrawn, would provide an effici ent, single legislative instrument to address 
reform needs. These include: improving quality ; increasing the mobility of higher education 
students, anticipating skills needs and modern ising curricula; enhancing competition between 
higher education institutions; and improving the gove rnance of universities. Slow progress in 
the legislative area is hampering an increase in tertiary achievement rates, improvement of the 
quality of higher education institutions , and therefore smart economic growth. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Recommendation (5) 
Take steps to address the challenge of comb ating poverty and promoting social inclusion, 
especially for vulnerable groups facing multiple  barriers. Take measures for modernising 
public employment services to enhance their capacity to matc h skills profiles with labour 
market demand; and focusing support on young people with low skills. Advance the 
educational reform by adopting a Law on Pre- School and School Education and a new Higher 
Education Act by mid-2012. 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
The current early schoo l leaving rate of 13.9  % in Bulgaria is close to  the EU average. This 
shows a positive trend despite the recent (2007) reform which involved the closure of around 
500 schools between 2007 and 2009, leading partly to regional increases in the number of 
early school leavers. While the proportion of st udents leaving the education system early has 
stabilised, Bulgarian pupils achieve on average ve ry low scores in international achievement 
tests. According to the latest PISA assessm ent (2009), two out of five 15 year-olds are 
currently low achievers in basic skills, wh ich is the lowest performance in the EU. 
The negative demographic trend has led to school  closures and consolidations, increasing the 
risk of drop-outs in some cases. However, pr ogress in school autonomy reform has not only 
brought about efficiency gains but has also incr eased coverage of the shrinking age cohorts of 
students. This progress is visible, and acknow ledged by institutions such as the World Bank.3 
The Government has also announced a new School  and Preschool Education Act, which is 
expected to lead to important  reforms at system level. 
                                                 
3  http://siteresources.worldbank.o rg/BULGARIAEXTN/Resources/305438-
1224088560466/Bulgaria_School_Autonomy_Reforms_FINAL_ENG_for_web.pdf. 
 
 - 17 - The national report lists a number of measures to  tackle early school leaving, with the main 
focus on prevention, such as offering after-schoo l education to students in primary and lower 
secondary education, providing textbooks and teaching aids to first- to se venth-grade students, 
optimising the school network by providing tran sport to state-owned and municipal schools, 
and providing meals to every stud ent in the first to fourth grades and in the preparatory 
groups. 
As the current measures only pa rtially respond to the need to address early school leaving, the 
underlying drivers for the high number of early sc hool leavers should be  clearly identified. 
Specifically, an update on the situation of  disadvantaged groups,  including Roma and 
children living in rural areas might be useful. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
Tertiary attainment in Bulgaria, while growing in recent years, is still below the EU average 
(27.7  % in 2010). Given the importance of tertiary  education for productivity, innovation and 
growth, and considering Bulgaria’s target  of raising the attainment rate to 36  % by 2020, more 
attention should be devoted to higher education. 
In addition, growth in the sh are of maths, science and t echnology graduates between 2000 and 
2008 has been modest (21.8  %), despite favourable employment prospects and high returns. 
Better information and further financial incentives  should be provided to ensure that students 
undertake study programmes with a high social  return. The impact of the incentives 
introduced, such as grants, has so far been limited; the impr oved grant policy announced in 
the National Reform Programme and in the ET2020 national report will therefore require 
close monitoring. 
A long-awaited reform, the Higher Education Act, announced in spring 2009 and intended to 
address the effectiveness of tert iary education, its quality assu rance and its governance and to 
overhaul the current systems, has been withdr awn. The plans included: reforming curricula 
and mobility; encouraging higher education to cooperate more with industry; introducing a 
rating system to enhance competition between  higher education institutions; and improving 
the governance of universities. The rating system was said to play a significant role in budget 
allocation in 2011. 
In its ET2020 national report, Bulgaria refers to ‘a trend of transition [..] from [an] elite to 
mass system for high-quality higher educat ion’ which poses a number of challenges. 
Incentives focus on encouraging admission to hi gher education and increasing the number of 
higher education graduates. It is less evident how the quality of higher education is to be increased. There are currently only a few qualit y assurance measures for higher education, 
and the need to modernise higher education doe s not seem to be reflected in legislative 
proposals. It is important to keep to the objective of increasing the numbers of higher 
education graduates while at the sa me time raising quality standards. 
4. M
OBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Bulgaria  has a high outbound long-term mobility (7.3  % of 
students per year), which is nearly three times the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term 
mobility under the EU Erasmus programme (0.5  % of students in 2008/ 09) is below the EU 
average. 
Bulgaria supports mobility at all levels of th e education system and in various forms of 
informal and independent learni ng. The country has identified the lack of foreign language 
 
 - 18 - skills as a major obstacle for mobility, and is actively addressing it by promoting foreign 
language skills in schools and by training foreign-language lectur ers at universities. Bulgaria 
is working to increase mobility in three ways . Firstly, it promotes mobility for education 
purposes (incoming and outgoing) in various ed ucation sectors (school education, vocational 
education and training, higher education, adult training). Secondly, it promotes mobility for 
education purposes among teachers and staff in various education sectors (school education, 
vocational education and traini ng, higher education, adult tr aining). Lastly, it supports 
measures to identify and reduce barrie rs to mobility for education purposes. 
5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES   
In Bulgaria, adult participation in lifelong learning (1.2  % in 2010) is the lowest in Europe. 
This low rate is likely to create bottlenecks on the labour market. C oupled with negative 
demographic trends, shortcomings in the upski lling and reskilling of the adult population can 
hamper future economic growth. 
Bulgaria has had an explicit lifelong learning strategy  since 2008, focusing primarily on 
continuing VET and adult learning. However, no evaluation of its im plementation has yet 
been undertaken. A renewed focus on the strate gy and its execution would be necessary in 
order to raise the acceptance and imp act of lifelong learning in Bulgaria. 
The current priorities enshrined in the Lifelong Learning Action Plan 2010–2011 include 
developing a system for studying and forecas ting the needs for a workforce with given 
qualifications as well as anal ysing schemes for financing LLL within the EU. The Action Plan 
devotes particular attention to training for le arning, reading and writing and the acquisition of 
key competences by persons over 16 within th e Teaching Reading and Writing to Adults 
project. Further measures supported by the Actio n Plan target disadvantaged groups, i.e. 
persons who have left school early, people with  disabilities, and the unemployed. Changes in 
the regulatory framework are also envisaged. 
As regards new skills for new jobs, a projec t was launched in 2010 to ‘develop a component 
for forecasting in the Bulgarian national system and for defining the needs for knowledge and skills based on certain European practices and fore ign experience.’ The IT-based tool is to be 
developed following a call for proposals , which is still to be published. 
6. I
NVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Bulgaria EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP  3.97  % 4.61  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Investment in education  as a percentage of GDP increase d only slightly between 2000 and 
2010 and is still below the EU average. 
The budgets of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Science and of the state-owned 
universities were reduced by 20  % in 2010 in comparison to 2009. Th e decrease did not affect 
expenditure on educatio n activities delegated by the govern ment (the budgets  of schools and 
units applying the delegated budgets system) or th e salaries of teachers  and trainers, which 
remained stable. However, the decrease had a strong impact on policies and reforms in upper 
 
 - 19 - secondary education. From 2009 to 2011, the funds for national programmes for the 
development of upper secondary education decreased from BGN 263.4 million to BGN 30 
million. There are no signs of resumed activity in  the fields where budget cuts were highest. 
These trends do not appear to be consistent with the recommendation addressed to Bulgaria 
following the 2011 European Semester, which is to safeguard and give priority to investment 
in growth-enhancing policy areas such as education. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
The planned education reforms provide an opport unity to address the manifold challenges 
both in pre-school and school education and in tertiary education. Build ing on the results of 
the recent school decentralisati on reform, and with the aim of  modernising and raising the 
quality of the system, the upcoming Law on Pr e-school and School Education should focus on 
financial autonomy, quality assurance and acco untability. A new higher education law should 
address reform needs and modernise the highe r education system through improving quality 
by investing in the training of academic sta ff and encouraging closer cooperation between 
universities and businesses with  view to addressing skills mismatches. In line with the 
recommendation from the European Semester to keep tight control over  expenditure growth, 
while prioritising growth-enhanc ing expenditure, implementation of the reforms needs to be 
accompanied by adequate financing and investment.  
 
 - 20 - CYPRUS 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the Eu rope 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on  the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training. 
 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Cyprus EU average EU 
Benchmarks CYPRUS   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  64.7  % 86.4  % 85.2  % 91.7  %09  95 % 
 
Reading - - 21.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics - -  
24.0  %06 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science - -  
20.3  %06 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  18.5  % 12.6  % b 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  31.1  % 45.1  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  7.9 %03 7.7  % b 8.5  %03 9.1  % 12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 21 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
The strategic objective of Cyprus  is to become a regional cent re providing high value-added 
services as well as to exploit the growth a nd job-creation potential of the green and care 
sectors. Some of the building blocks are alread y in place. Cyprus’s performance in education, 
with excellent results at both secondary and unive rsity levels, and with a tertiary attainment 
rate of 44.7
 % of the population aged 30–34, makes for a highly skilled population. While the 
tertiary attainment level of the adult populat ion is one of the highest in Europe (34.1  % in 
2009), the newly established universities have en couraged even more people to enter higher 
education. Early school leav ing is well below the EU av erage and public education 
expenditure is high. However, vocational educa tion and training (VET) is not an attractive 
option. More importantly, high youth unemployment (17.8  % in 2010) in tandem with a large 
proportion of people with high educational attainment in total unemployment (28.9  % 
compared to an EU average of merely 16.1  % in 2008) signals a signific ant skills mismatch in 
the Cypriot economy. Also, particip ation in lifelong learning (7.8  % in 2009) is low for a 
country with good educational levels, with the ga p compared with the EU average even more 
pronounced among particular groups (low-ski lled, older people and unemployed). 
To address these issues, the NRP envisage s the establishment of a series of new 
postsecondary VET institutions as of 2011–2012, together with the introduction of the new Apprenticeship System in the school year 2012–2013. According to  the NRP, the reform of 
upper secondary and technical vocational educati on and the development of new curricula are 
expected to be completed by 2015. Overall, the country’s strategic objective of shifting from 
low to high productivity jobs w ould benefit greatly from the re -orientation of the education 
and training system to bring about a better mi x of skills, to match labour market demand. Key 
parameters for this re-orientation would includ e the reinforcement of vocationally oriented 
skills and the upgrading of sk ills, particularly among low-skilled and older workers. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Recommendation (5) 
Take further steps, within the reforms planned for the vocational education and training 
system, to match education outcomes to labour market needs better, including by setting up 
post-secondary vocational education and training institutes. Take measures to increase the 
effectiveness of the vocational training system by increasing the incen tives for and improving 
access to vocational education and training, especially for low-skilled workers, women and older workers. 
3. E
UROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
Cyprus performs better than the EU averag e in the area of early  school leaving (12.6  % in 
2010). The target set for 2020 (10  %) takes into account the expect ed increased proportion of 
migrant children. In fact, this represents a par ticular challenge for the country’s education and 
training system. It is estimated that currently 13  % of the Cypriot workforce is of non-EU 
origin, many coming from the Middle East. Child ren of the migrant workforce are at a higher 
 
 - 22 - risk of dropping out of school, due to their parents’ educati onal background but also to the 
challenge of learning Greek and integrat ing in the Cypriot education system. 
Cyprus needs to improve its teacher training and the quality of teachers in disadvantaged 
areas, and in schools with high migrant numbers, and should also facilitate transitions for 
those at risk. The Pedagogical Institute of C yprus focuses on special training of teachers 
appointed in these schools, on a school ba sis approach. In addition, the Organisation 
Committee of Zones of Educational Priority (ZEP), in cooperation with Universities and 
NGOs, organises training seminars for teachers who work with socioeconomically deprived 
students. Finally, the Education Psychology Services, in cooperati on with University 
Departments, organizes seminars to secondary school teachers that ar e participating to the 
“Literacy Programme”. 
There have been several national measures over th e last few years to help integrate migrants. 
These include initiatives to improve the t eaching of Greek to migrant children. Another 
measure is the ZEP scheme, targeting cities wh ere there are many migrants, with the aim of 
integrating migrant families and their children  within indigenous social and educational 
structures. 
The Centre of Educational Research and Evalua tion helps to identify early those at risk, and 
the establishment of an Observatory for Violen t Behaviour in May 2010, which collects data 
and liaises with the International Observatory for School Violence, has helped to reduce the 
number of early school leavers. 
To reach the 10  % target by 2020, Cyprus is preparing a number of reforms, including (i) 
restructuring the education system and modern ising the content of education by modernising 
and upgrading the curriculum for all public schools (from pre-primar y to upper secondary 
education), (ii) upgrading vocational education and training, and (iii) adopting measures to 
facilitate the integration of student s at risk within the school system.  
The new apprenticeship system, which should be fully up and running by October 2012, will 
also target those who have droppe d out to assist them in getti ng back on track and enhancing 
their employability. 
Making vocational education and training (VET) more attractiv e could be another way of 
reducing early school leaving, also among Greek C ypriots. To this end, efforts should focus 
on curriculum reform, internationalisation, greater mobility, and an improved transition between general education and VET pathways  as well as VET and the labour market. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
Cyprus has one of the highest tertiary attainment rates in the EU, with 45.1
 % compared to the 
European average of 33.6  % in 2010. The Cypriot target is to reach 46  % by 2020, which is the 
highest target in Europe. Demand for higher education is high, with 82  % of students 
completing upper secondary education. 
In order to improve participa tion, the following priority areas have been defined: (i) 
strengthening the links between technical voc ational education and training and the labour 
market, (ii) expanding and modernising the higher education system, and (iii) promoting transnational mobility. 
Recently, a fourth private university, ‘Neapolis University — Cyprus’, was given an initial 
operating licence in the city of Paphos, as from the academic year 2010–2011. The Council of 
 
 - 23 - Ministers has approved the foundation of the Medi cal School at the Univer sity of Cyprus and 
the Department of Sciences of Rehabilitati on at the Cyprus University of Technology. 
Cyprus plans to expand pos t-secondary technical and voc ational education by 2012–2013, 
which is highly important for increasing the skill levels and employability of young workers 
and upper secondary graduates. 
Science and technology are focal di sciplines at university level, which is very important in the 
drive to improve research and innovation. Coop eration between higher education institutes, 
business and the labour market is  important. Private colleges ar e encouraged to offer short-
term professionally orientated programmes las ting 1–2 years. This helps to create flexible 
pathways between academic higher education and the development of vocationally orientated skills, and will help to boost sk ill levels to ease young graduate s onto the labour market and 
combat the relatively high levels of graduate youth unemployment. This policy is consistent with the European Semester recommendation to be tter match labour market needs. In general, 
new curricula will be fully implemented by 2016–2017 for the full development of new skills and key competences. Strengthening the anticipa tion capacities of the system could further 
increase its efficiency. Concerning VET, post-secondary institutes for technical and 
vocational education and training will be established, as will the new modern apprenticeship system, following up the European Semester recommendation. 
Moreover, in 2010 the Ministry of Education a nd Culture, in order to establish a strong 
student welfare system so as to enhance equity  and widen access to higher education, widened 
its financial support to Cypriot students by cr eating a special ‘student financial support 
package’, which aims to support students of low socioeconomic status. Through this 
‘package’, targeted grants are gi ven to eligible Cypriot students to cover living expenses and 
expenses on books and computers. Eligibility is based on socioecono mic criteria, and the 
amounts given are over and above the (€
 1700) financial support prov ided to every Cypriot 
student. 
Furthermore, under a new law, the Minister of  Education and Culture can regulate increases 
in the fees for private universit ies. There is no high drop-out  rate in highe r education in 
Cyprus. All the financial incentives described ab ove contribute to this by eliminating financial 
considerations as a reason for student drop-outs.  Public universities have a long tradition of 
student welfare services that support students likely to drop out of their studies. The Ministry 
of Education and Culture also supports the cr eation of Student Welfar e Offices in private 
universities. Fees for attending undergraduate courses at public un iversities are paid fully by 
the government. At the same time, under-represente d groups such as adult learners will be 
accepted by universities on the basis of special  criteria (lower mark s in entry exams). 
4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Cyprus ha s a very high outbound long-term mobility (58.4  % of 
students per year), more than half of the stude nt population, one of the highest in Europe and 
about 20 times the EU average (2.8  %). Students mostly study in the UK, the USA and 
Greece. However, short-term mobility under the EU Erasmus programme (0.6  % of students 
in 2008/09) is below the EU average w ith indications of increasing trends. 
International short-term mobility is also funded through the EU’s Lifelong Learning 
Programme, Erasmus Mundus and Tempus. The Cyprus Pedagogical Institute encourages 
staff mobility as well through participation of  teacher trainers in various European 
programmes. 
 
 - 24 - The main obstacles to mobility are recognition, foreign language skills, leave of absence from 
work, finding placement positions and also, for incoming mobility, expensive housing in Cyprus and lack of public transportation. 
Europass is being promoted to recognise compet ences, and language prepar ation is offered by 
the LLP National Agency (NA) for outgoing mob ility. In addition, the NA encourages SMEs 
to see a value in training sta ff, and publishes information on its website to facilitate matching 
between individuals and instit utions. It also helps incomi ng students to find group housing. 
The national qualifications framework (NQF) is  intended to help with the problems of 
recognition, so EQF–NQF links then need to be fully implemented. 
5. L
IFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
There is a Lifelong Learning Strategy 2007–2013 focusing on adults. ESF projects support 
adult learning and adult training centres to foster gr eater labour market participation among 
women and elder people th rough continuous training. 
Adult participation in  lifelong learning (LLL) is relatively low (7.7  % in 2010) for a country 
with a highly educated populace. The target is to reach 12  % by 2020. The comparison of the 
citizens' participation rate in LLL programmes between 2003 and 2010 raises the need to 
investigate the stagnation of the rate below 8% . One of the main factors to be examined, in 
order to form the appropriate corrective policy, is  the impact of the rapid increase of foreign 
workers in Cyprus who are also included in the research sample. 
New skills for new jobs and skills forecasting are important in Cyprus as there are skills gaps 
and a high level of youth and graduate unemploym ent. A greater emphasis is being placed on 
VET at upper secondary level, post-secondary level and tertiary level. New post-secondary 
VET institutes will be opened in 2012–2013. Th e new apprentice system should be up and 
running by February 2012, and the universities ar e setting up courses targeting people on the 
labour market. But in general VET, especially at  upper secondary level, is still seen as the 
cinderella  of educational pathways, with only 13  % of upper secondary pupils in VET 
streams. Indeed, there are only 11 upper sec ondary VET schools on the island. Some aspects 
in following up the European Semester r ecommendation are therefore particularly 
challenging. 
The HRDC (Human Resource Development Au thority) carries out sy stematic long-term 
employment forecasts, annual investigations of skills needs with the involvement of social 
partners, and identification of green skill needs. The Ministry of Education and Culture also helps to identify skill needs, t ogether with the Univ ersity of Cyprus, the Pedagogical Institute 
and the social partners. The Department of Labour has recognised the need for short–term 
employment forecasts (skill needs forecasts ) and will attempt to address the issue. 
6. I
NVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Cyprus EU average 
 2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education, % of GDP  5.35  % 7.41  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
 
 - 25 - Despite the crisis, th e budget of the Ministry of Edu cation and Culture increased by 12.5  % in 
2009, 3.5  % in 2010 and 2.4  % in 2011. To fund the necessary  educational reforms, the 
percentage of GDP spent on education rose from 7.1  % in 2007 to 7.8  % in 2009. Reforms are 
being implemented at a slow but steady pace.  The HRDA has also put forward a special 
prevention action plan, together with the Ministry of Labour,  to reduce unemployment and 
target its causes. This has entailed an  increase in the HRDC budget from €  12 642  261 in 2009 
to €  18 715  326 in 2010, or 40  % in percentage terms. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
While Cyprus has in general a good educational performance, a major challenge is to catch up 
with the EU average as regards adult participa tion in lifelong learning, so as to support the 
participation of low-skilled and older workers and women in the labour market. 
Efforts are under way to implement the recommendations to reinforce vocational education 
and training, by creating new post-secondary institutes by 2012/13 and establishing a new 
apprentice system in 2012. These efforts will need  to be sustained and intensified to render 
these educational paths more attractive and to improve overall quality, also by improving 
counselling and targeting within a lifelong learning perspective, in order to help curb youth 
unemployment. 
 
 
 - 26 - CZECH  REPUBLIC 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training. 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Czech Republic EU average EU Benchmarks 
CZECH REPUBLIC  
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary)  90.0  % 90.0  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 17.5  % 23.1  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 19.2  %0622.3  %0924.006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study 
results) 
  
Science 15.5  %0617.3  %0920.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  5.7 %02 4.9  %b 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  13.6  % 20.4  % 22.4  % 33.6  % -    40  % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  5.1 %03  7.5 %  8.5  % 039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ 
 
 - 27 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
Despite the relatively low rate of early school leaving in the Czech Republic (5.4
 % in 2009), 
recent international studies have revealed shortc omings in quality and equity at primary and 
lower-secondary level, related in particular to  inadequate training of  teachers. The limited 
availability of pre-school fac ilities also plays a role, as this may create an education deficit 
which is difficult to remedy, particularly fo r children from low socio-economic backgrounds. 
At tertiary level, while the ratio of young people enrolled in universities is currently above the 
EU average, due to recent measures to ease a ccess to tertiary education, the Czech Republic 
still had the second lowest tert iary attainment rate in the EU in 2009, and progress between 
2000 and 2009 was also below the EU average. In addition, the ranki ng of Czech tertiary 
education institutes in international quality su rveys remains low. Furthermore, spending per 
learner on formal education (at comparable prices) is in the lower quarter for the EU 
countries, and is especially low on primary education. 
The NRP correctly identifies the main weaknesse s of the Czech education system and outlines 
measures for all stages of education. At the lower levels, it aims to improve teachers’ 
competences in order to cope with the envisaged increase in the inclusiveness of education. Appropriate sequencing and communication of refo rms remains an important issue, so that 
schools and teachers are well prepared to handle these changes. Recent reforms (e.g. the curriculum reform) have had limited success, main ly because of insufficient initial and in-
service training and a lack of understa nding of the aims of the reforms. 
Regarding tertiary education reform, the NRP i ndicates that most meas ures are likely to be 
implemented by 2013. The main principle of the refo rm is to increase the quality of tertiary 
education by linking the financing criteria primar ily to the quality of each institution. Smooth 
functioning of the system would be conditional on the transparen cy of the quality evaluation 
and its ownership by all stakeholde rs. An important part of the package is the introduction of 
deferred tuition fees, which could help to address, at least pa rtially, the issu e of underfunding. 
Completing the tertiary educati on reform is also crucial, gi ven its links to innovation and 
competitiveness. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
 Recommendation (6) 
Establish a transparent system of quality eval uation of academic institutions and link it to its 
funding in order to improve the pe rformance of tertiary education. 
 
3. E
UROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
The Czech Republic already performs above the EU headline target for early leavers from 
education and training . The early school leaving rate was 4.9  % in 2010, one of the lowest in 
the EU (EU average: 14.1  %), and the national target is not to exceed 5.5  % by 2020. This 
target is slightly below current performance, a nd the challenge is to maintain the low level 
given weak annual fluctuations. 
 
 - 28 - Despite the favourable data, the rate will be continuously monitored and corrective measures 
will be taken if it starts to increase. 
Early school leaving in the Czech Republic is addressed by a targeted counselling system for 
pupils at risk, together with a high degree of permeability  between education paths (in 
particular towards vocational training). Some effective measures are in place to compensate 
for early school leaving, such as the possibility  for early school leavers to complete later 
courses required for compulsory  education. Early school leaver s can also enrol for vocational 
training courses without completing compulsory education.  
It is relevant to mention in this context that the impact of socio-economic background on 
educational attainment is significant in th e Czech Republic. This seems to indicate that 
removing the associated disadvantages remains a challenge for the initial education system. 
The national action plan for inclusive education appears to be a positive move towards a more 
equitable balance. On a more general level, the PISA scores of Czech pupils have deteriorated, calling for a more efficient a pproach to raising and monitoring learning 
outcomes, and for improved teacher educatio n and training. Some of the more recent 
measures, such as the planned standardised te sting, would appear to be steps in the right 
direction, provided that the testing is part of a more complex system of monitoring. In 
addition, the system for monitoring schools should lead to further suppo rt for currently under-
performing schools. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
Since 2008 there has been a rapid annual improve ment in tertiary e ducation attainment 
(20.4
 % in 2010). However, the Czech Republic is  still far below the EU average of 33.6  %, 
and in 2010 had one of the lowest shares of 30–34 year-olds with tertiary attainment in the 
EU. 
The national target for tertiary education is 32  %, which seems to be very ambitious compared 
to the 2010 figures. However, based on the current data on students enrolled at higher education institutions and projected demographic trends, an increase to 30–32
 % in 2020 is 
envisaged. 
The Czech Republic has nevertheless made  significant progress in the area of MST graduates , 
where the growth rate has been well above the EU average. On the other hand, the share of female graduates has improved but not reached the EU level.  
In the near future, the Czech Republic does not  intend to increase entry rates to higher 
education because the increase has been significan t and very fast in previous years, mainly 
due to the newly established system of private higher education institutio ns, and is now in line 
with countries with similar education systems (e.g. Germany, Austria, Switzerland). The 
focus will be on the quality of higher educatio n and its relevance to labour market needs, 
rather than the quantity of graduates. However,  the Czech Republic intend s to facilitate access 
to higher education, particular ly for underrepresented groups, vi a a system of student loans 
and grants. 
These measures are consistent with one of  the flaws identified in the 2011 European 
Semester, i.e. insufficient quality in te rtiary education, and the related specific 
recommendation. However, given the ambitious national target set by the Czech Republic for 
tertiary attainment, a considerable degree of commitment will also be required to address this other challenge. 
 
 - 29 - 4. MOBILITY  
There are a whole range of mobility schemes in the Czech Republic: learning mobility for 
pupils, trainees, students and adu lt learners as well as  education staff is mainly supported by 
the Lifelong Learning Programme. The EU Y outh in Action programme is seen as an 
important tool in fostering EU awareness out side formal education. There are also other 
financial mechanisms and bilateral and multilate ral agreements supporting learning mobility 
for learners and teachers. The funding of the main mobility schemes is complemented by 
national co-financing. Also, some national scheme s, targeted mainly at higher education, 
support incoming and outgoing mobility. 
As regards tertiary education, the Czech Re public has an outbound long-term mobility (2.6  % 
of students per year) ne ar the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the EU 
Erasmus programme (1.4  % of students in 2008/09) is above the EU average. In 2009, 5.69  % 
of HE graduates spent a period abroad during their studies, whic h lasted on average 6 months. 
In the past, insufficient information at schools a ppeared to be a major ob stacle to mobility, but 
this problem has been gradually redressed. Also, documents facilitating mobility and the 
transparency of qualifications are more a nd more widely used in the Czech Republic. 
This overview seems to indicate that, in the Czech Republic, access to learning mobility is 
seen as an important right of every learner. 
5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
In 2007 the Czech Republic adopted a resolution on a Lifelong Learning Strategy to provide a 
framework for developing lifelong le arning in the period 2007–2015. The measures 
implementing the strategy primarily involve pr ojects under the Education for Competitiveness 
Operational Programme, co-funded by the ESF, and will cover initial, ter tiary and continuing 
education, in particular the link between initial and continuing education. A National 
Qualifications System (NQS) is also being de veloped as part of th ese projects. The Czech 
Republic has also adopted various measures to support the openness of and transferability 
between secondary programmes, secondary and tertiary studies, and continuing education. 
Recent reforms adopted in the Czech Republic have focused on the quality and efficiency of 
education and vocational training, mainly throug h the adaptation of curricular documentation. 
One of the measures concerns reinforcing fore ign language skills. Within this priority, there 
will be a focus on teacher training, with salary in creases linked to progress. A coherent system 
of initial and in-service training is considered to be crucial. 
From 2002 to 2007, the Czech Republic had one of the worst performances in the EU 
regarding participation in lifelong learning (it was only 5.7  % in 2007 and around the same 
during the period 2002–2007). Even if  it has since risen faster than the EU average (to 7.5  % 
in 2010), it is still below the EU average (9.6  %). In spite of the appa rent progress achieved in 
the development of continuing education, it is stil l necessary to enhance the motivation of 
adults to participate in lifelong learning, esp ecially the low-skilled and the elderly, who are 
the hardest hit on the labour market. 
 
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
 
 
 - 30 - Czech Republic EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP  3.97  % 4.08  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Public  investment in education,  as a percentage of GDP, has increased slightly since 2000, but 
the Czech Republic is still be low the EU average. All types of schools are underfinanced. 
As stated in the ET 2020 report,  the budget of the Mini stry of Education (ME) covers approx. 
80 % of all education expenditure. Public inve stment in education has been negatively 
affected by the crisis and the education budget as  a proportion of GDP ha s been decreasing in 
recent years. The ME budget (without EU and FM funds) was 3.42  % in 2009, but decreased 
to 3.34  % in 2010 and to 3.18  % in 2011. Expenditure is expected to decrease further in 2012 
(3.05  %) and 2013 (2.89  %). 
These trends do not appear to be consistent  with the general recommendation from the 
European Semester 2011 to give priority to in vestment in growth-enha ncing sectors such as 
education. 
However, the co-financing for the ESF- funded projects will be maintained. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
The planned complex reform of the higher e ducation system provides an opportunity to 
respond to the double challenge of ensuring the sustainable and suffici ent funding of higher 
education and improving its quality and perf ormance. The measures announced include a 
revised funding mechanism increas ingly linked to the outcomes of  research projects and the 
introduction of tuition fees with the aim of  boosting private funding. In addition, the number 
of students studying in masters programmes is to  be regulated and the quality of students 
entering higher education is to be ensure d by standardised seco ndary school-leaving 
examinations. Strengthening the responsiveness of the higher education system to the needs of 
the labour market and industry remains an important challeng e, however. Finally, in the 
implementation of reforms to improve the qualit y of public finances, attention must be given 
to safeguarding expenditure on growth-enhancing items such as education.  
 
 - 31 - DENMARK  
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training. 
 
1. BENCHMARKS  
 
Denmark EU average EU Benchmarks 
DENMARK   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  95.7  % 91.9  %09 85.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 17.9  % 15.2  %09 21.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 13.6  %06 17.1  %09   24.006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science 18.4  %06 16.6  %09   20.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  11.7  % 10.7  %b  17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  33.1  % 47.0  % 22.4  % 33.6  % -   40  % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  24.2  % 03 32.8  % 8.5  % 039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08=2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional 
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 32 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
 
Despite Denmark’s generous spending on its e ducation system, educational outcomes are only 
average in several key areas. Denmark has the f ourth lowest youth education attainment level 
in the EU-27. In 2009, only 70
 % of 20–24 year-olds had completed at least upper secondary 
education. Early drop-out rates from vocational youth education (almost 50  %) are rather high. 
Addressing these challenges should also be seen in the context of future skills needs and 
possible labour shortages. A rise in overall ed ucation levels and educational quality could 
positively impact on labour supply and productiv ity growth. The Danish government has 
taken a wide range of initiatives to address educational performance issues. To increase the 
attractiveness of vocational youth education and to reduce drop-out s, efforts include measures 
to upgrade the qualifications and competences of  staff and the provision of more practical 
training placements in companies and the p ublic sector, allowing for shorter and more 
practical sequences for students with a practical orientation. 
In addition, the government has thoroughly reform ed compulsory education, focusing efforts 
on teacher education, national testing, and mo re lessons in specific subjects. Recent 
initiatives, still not adopted by parliament, ta rget the quality of compulsory education and 
should be seen in the light of the government’s goal of 95  % of young people completing 
upper secondary education in 2015. The creati on of more apprenticeships for vocational 
education and training also plays an important role, since the l ack of apprenticeships impacts 
vocational education attainment levels negativel y. In this context it should be noted that the 
government (in November 2010) has concluded an agreement with an overall budget of DKK 2.4 billion to ensure 8
 900 apprenticeships for vocational youth education in 2011. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Recommendation (3) 
Speed up the implementation of reforms to imp rove the quality of the education system. 
Reduce drop-out rates, partic ularly in the vocational edu cation sector, and increase the 
number of apprenticeship places available. 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
Denmark performs better than the EU average as  regards early school–lea ving, with a rate of 
10.7  % compared to the EU average of 14.1  % in 2010, although the rate has decreased only 
moderately over the last decade (from 11.7  % in 2000). Denmark has set a national target of 
10 % early school leavers in 2020, which seems broa dly in line with the development between 
2000 and 2010.It is notable that while Denmark’ s performance on the ear ly school leaver 
indicator is good, performance on upper secondary completion is relatively poor. The reason 
is that a relatively la rge share of 18–24 year-o lds undertake educational activities (i.e. do not 
come under the definition of early school leav ers) without obtaining an upper secondary 
education before they turn 24. 
 
 - 33 - Since 2006, there has been a focus on ensuring that more young people complete upper 
secondary education as part of the Danish gl obalisation strategy. Progr ess is to be achieved 
through a wide range of initiativ es addressing both primary and lower secondary education as 
well as upper secondary education, where th e contribution of vocational education and 
training programmes is crucial. 
In line with the challenges identified in the European Semester and the relevant specific 
recommendation, particular focus is placed on th e drop-out rate in vo cational education and 
training programmes. Data are collected on student partic ipation and completion. They 
provide the basis for a systematic and targ eted effort by school s to prevent drop-out. 
Moreover, since 2008 all institutions offering vocational education a nd training programmes 
have been required to draw up action plans to help ensure that more students complete an 
upper secondary education. It is up to the individua l college to decide wh ich initiatives are to 
be launched locally to ach ieve the optimal effect. 
Similarly, several initiatives have been launch ed to raise standards in primary and lower 
secondary education. These include mandatory national tests, more timetabled lessons in 
specific subjects, extension of compulsory e ducation from nine to ten years, pre-school 
education made compulsory, impr oved physical environment, etc. 
The measures outlined above appe ar to be consistent with th e overall European Semester 
analysis and indications. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
As regards higher education attainment, Denm ark has progressed significantly, from 33.1  % in 
2000 to the current rate of 47  % (2010), which is well above the EU average of 33.6  %. 
However, the growth in MST graduates is below the EU average, although the share of female 
MST graduates is above the EU average a nd the gender balance has improved markedly. 
Denmark has signed up to the EU headline target  for tertiary attainment of at least 40  % 30–34 
year-olds having completed a ter tiary or equivalent education in 2020. To achieve the national 
Europe 2020 target, Denmark is  implementing reforms under three distinct headings: young 
people must seek admission to , be admitted to  and complete  a study programme. 
To enhance young people’s interest in tertiary ed ucation, various information campaigns have 
been undertaken to broaden the appeal and is  attempting to encourage young people to start 
tertiary education earlier. 
There is on-going dialogue with universities to increase capacity and ensure that the present 
capacity is used to the full. This includes development contracts with higher education 
institutions targeting issues such as quality, increased inta ke and efficiency. 
To improve completion rates, the development c ontract between the ministry of education and 
each institution sets out specific requirements for the completion rate of students in tertiary education. Moreover, a number of initiatives have been taken to improve programme 
completion, including a clearer semester structure, a closer  linkage between exam and 
teaching content, and improved study guidance. 
Attention has also been  given to the need to get young pe ople through the e ducation system 
faster (Danes have a comparatively high average graduation age). The Labour Market 
Commission estimates that reducing the average study period by half a year could increase 
employment by 8
 000.  
 
 - 34 - 4. MOBILITY  
The number of Danish young people taking a fu ll or partial degree programme abroad is 
rising. This can be attrib uted partly to the intr oduction of a national grant for studying abroad, 
which came into force on 1 July 2008 and wh ich gives students in higher education the 
possibility to receive a grant to cover tuition fe es in connection with study periods or taking a 
full Master’s degree programme abroad. 
As regards tertiary education, Denmark has an outbound long-term mobility (2.4  % of 
students per year) slightly below the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the 
EU Erasmus programme (0.7  % of students in 2008/09) is also  slightly below the EU average. 
It is estimated that 16  % of higher education students have  been on a study pe riod or a work 
placement abroad lasting more than three mont hs. Moreover, the number of international 
students who come to Denmark to study has be en rising each year si nce 2000/01. To promote 
Denmark as an attractive study  destination, a number of initiatives were launched in the 
period 2009–2011 to attract and reta in international students. 
In vocational education and training, several po ssibilities are available,  in particular the 
programmes ‘Exchange and internships’, ‘C ooperation and projects’ and ‘Competence 
development and study visits’. The majority of tr ainees choose to go on  an internship period 
in the Nordic countries and the English- speaking countries, although Germany and the 
Netherlands are also popular internship des tinations. The national scheme ‘Internships 
Abroad’ (PIU — Praktik i udlandet) aims to gi ve apprentices and trainees the international 
competences needed in an increasingly globalised world. The scheme covers internship agreements arranged throughout the world. 
In primary/lower secondary education and general upper secondary education, various 
initiatives have been launched that are expected  to strengthen the international dimension in 
the teaching and mobility of pupils, teachers an d guidance counsellors within primary/lower 
secondary education and genera l upper secondar y education. 
Mobility is not highlighted as a specific goa l in adult education pr ovisions. The measures 
outlined above appear to be broadly consistent  with the Council recommendation ‘Youth on 
the move — Promoting the learning mobility of young people’ of May 2011. 
5. L
IFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
In 2006, the Danish government laid down a c oherent strategy for lifelong learning. This 
strategy is based on the work of the Globalisa tion Council and the broad political agreement 
entitled ‘Agreement on future prosperity and welfare and investment in the future’. The strategy and the substantial funds  allocated to its implementation have created the basis for 
the coherent long-term development of  human resources over the period 2007–2012. 
The strategy includes initiatives for all levels of the education system. The vocational 
education and training system has been thor oughly revamped, including an increase in the 
number of work placements, quality developmen t and an effort to re duce drop-out. Moreover, 
to reduce drop-out at the in terface between primary, lower secondary and upper secondary 
education, the government has strengthened guid ance services. The st rategy also includes 
targeted offers for adults at higher educa tion level, and a focus on recognition of prior 
learning acquired through info rmal and non-formal education. To further support lifelong 
learning and mobility, a Danish national quali fication framework for lifelong learning was 
developed and implemented from 2007 to 2010. Th e referencing to EQF will be completed in 
May 2011.   
 
 - 35 - In line with the outcomes of the 2011 Eu ropean Semester and the corresponding 
recommendation, Denmark has also improved financ ial incentives in voc ational education and 
training to encourage companies to establish mo re apprenticeship contr acts. For continuing 
training, a number of initiatives  have been taken to make a dult vocational training more 
attractive, targeted and flexible in relation to the needs of the i ndividual and those of 
enterprises. Moreover, in 2010 13 regional adult education and training centres were 
established to improve the overall infrastr ucture for guidance and provision of adult 
vocational education and training. 
Adult participation in lifelong learning in De nmark has been increasing significantly since 
2000. It is now the highest in the EU and more than three times the EU average. 
Recent initiatives to improve skills forecasting include the ‘On-indicator’ which measures the 
extent to which each particular programme matches labour market needs. It combines the likelihood of admission to a programme with the em ployment of new graduates. The idea is to 
obtain a picture of the match between progra mme places and current labour market demand 
for graduates from specific programmes. Moreove r, since 2008 the Ministry of Education has 
set aside funds for carrying out  centralised analyses and fo recasts within the vocational 
education and training field with the aim of id entifying the future need s of the labour market 
for skilled labour. 
These measures should help avert the skills imbalances expected in the labour market, as 
referred to in the European Semester analysis. 
6. I
NVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
 
Denmark EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP  8.29  % 7.75  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Denmark has the highest public spending on educa tion in the EU and continues to allocate 
nearly 8  % of GDP to education, although th is percentage is declining. 
The economic crisis and the rise in unemploym ent have contributed to  increased demand for 
education at both upper secondary and tertiary level. As a consequence of the ‘taximeter’ 
system, which is activity-dependent, the level of spending has risen in st ep with the increased 
demand. Hence, expenditure rose by more than 14  % from 2008–2010. In order to encourage 
companies to offer more training contracts, th e financial reward for creating work placements 
has been raised. 
To consolidate Danish public fi nances, a fiscal consolidati on package was implemented in 
2010, which has also hit the education system with both general and selective cuts. However, the total level of educational expenditure is ex pected to remain stable in the years ahead. 
Taking into account the general European Semester recommenda tion to promote expenditure 
in growth-enhancing sectors such as education and training despite tight budget policies, the 
quality and efficiency of expenditure  will be crucial in this context. 
 
 - 36 - 7. CONCLUSIONS  
In line with the specific recommendation of the European Semester, Denmark has pursued 
efforts to improve the quality of its education system, e.g. by establishing a Danish national 
qualification framework for lifelong lear ning and referencing it to EQF. 
To monitor the high drop-out rates in vocatio nal education and trai ning, Denmark has been 
systematically collecting data on pupil participat ion and completion to help identify potential 
drop-outs and enable preventive measures to be taken. In particular, a ll institutions offering 
vocational education and training (VET) progra mmes have been required to draw up action 
plans to ensure that more pupils complete upper secondary education. 
In line with the outcomes of the 2011 European  Semester, Denmark has increased financial 
incentives in VET to encourage companies to establish more apprenticeship contracts and thus help to raise vocational education attainment levels. 
 
 - 37 - ESTONIA 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training.  
1. BENCHMARKS  
Estonia EU average EU Benchmarks 
ESTONIA   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  87.0  % 95.7  %0985.2% 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 13.6  %0613.3  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 12.1  %0612.6  %0924.006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science 7.7 %068.3 %0920.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  15.1  % 11.6  %  17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  30.8  % 40.0  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  6.7 % 03 10.9  % 8.5 % 039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
01= 2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break , p = provisional, u=unreliable  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 38 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
Notwithstanding the very good performance of Est onia in PISA, and the overall high share of 
people with tertiary ed ucation, there are significant skills  gaps, an excessive number of 
schools and tertiary education in stitutions, and a rather unfoc used professional education. A 
comprehensive education reform could also impr ove public sector effici ency, as currently the 
system appears too fragmented at local level, leading to inefficient subsidies and low quality services. 
The government has set quite an ambitious target for lifelong learning (LLL). Though the 
possibilities for training and re training will be extended, ther e is a wide participation gap 
between those already well-qualified and thos e in need of addition al training. It may, 
therefore, be advisable to further target th e most disadvantaged social groups, increase the 
attractiveness of LLL, raise awareness of  its importance, and involve employers. 
In parallel, the government intends to address th e high rate of early sc hool leaving (ESL) for 
boys and the high number of young people with a lo w education level. Th e target set for ESL 
(9.5
 % in 2020) is to be achieved through careful  implementation of the recent Schools Act, 
extended career counselling, and the developm ent of key competences, creativity and 
entrepreneurship. However, the response to the ESL problem remains fragmented and insufficient. The transition from school to  the labour market could be smoothed by 
establishing a system for learning assistance th at would start as early as pre-school level. 
However, the government continues to delegate most activities to local authorities, which 
have been unable to cope with existing tasks.
 Increasing the efficiency of local authorities is 
therefore a key challenge. More generally, far- reaching reforms to prevent drop-out, mainly 
concentrating on disadvantaged groups and early in tervention, may be necessary, and the 
possibilities for re-entering mainstre am education could be increased. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Recommendation (4) 
While implementing the education system reform , give priority to measures improving the 
availability of pre-school education, and enhanc e the quality and availa bility of professional 
education. Focus education outcomes more on la bour market needs, and provide opportunities 
for low-skilled workers to take part in lifelong learning. 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
Enhancing the quality, availability  and effectiveness of education are the main priorities of the 
Estonian government in the field of educa tion, as formulated in the National Reform 
Programme in April 2011. 
Estonia has set itself the target of  reducing early school leaving to 9.5  % by 2020. Between 
2000 and 2009, the number of early school leavers fell only gradually (from 15.1  % in 2000 to 
13.9  % in 2009), but in 2010 decreased sharply to 11.6  %. Therefore, the national target seems 
ambitious but achievable. Early school leaving and drop-out are seen as one of the biggest 
 
 - 39 - challenges for education in Estonia, so the government has started implementing preventive 
measures and preparing further measures. 
Participation in early childhood e ducation has increased significantly over th e last decade, and 
with 95.7  % in 2009, Estonia performs better than th e EU average and is already above the 
2020 EU benchmark. However, a gap exists in public early child care (1.5-2 year olds), 
corresponding to the end of  parental leave and the start of pre-school educati on, which has an 
adverse effect on the employab ility of young parents and is only partially compensated by 
private day care facilities. 
Priority is being given to im plementation of the new state curricula for basic schools and 
upper secondary schools and support systems as  set out in the Basic Schools and Upper 
Secondary Schools Act. The Estonian Educa tion Information System (EHIS) contains 
information on every student, which allows data to be gathered on ea rly school leaving in 
terms of level of education and age group. School drop-out in Estonia is  highest in the last 
two years of basic school (grades 7–9), first- year general upper sec ondary school and first-
year vocational education (21.1  %). The average drop-out rate in vocational education and 
training during the 2009/10 academic year was 18.1  % (national data). 
This shows that the learning process and learning environment do not support the proper 
development of pupils’ abilities during basi c school. Secondly, the e ducation and career 
counselling system has also been insufficiently effective so far. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
Estonia has set a national target of 40  % for higher education atta inment. This is on the 
assumption that in the long term, the primary pr iority of educational policy is to raise the 
quality and international competitiveness of higher education and increase the number of student places provided by the state. The percen tage of people with tertiary education in 
Estonia has seen stable gr owth in the past ten years and has already reached 40
 % (from 
30.8  % in 2000 to 40  % in 2010). 
The growth in the share of MST  graduates between 2000 and 2009 was   50.1  %, significantly 
higher than the EU average growth rate of 41.5%. Furthermore, the gender balance improved 
by 4.1% percentage points between 2000 and 2009, with the share of female MST graduates   
reaching 39.8% in 2009, well above the EU average of 32.3% . 
According to projections, the number of students entering tertiary education will decrease by 
around 5  % a year in the near future. Estonia plans to  increase entry rates to tertiary education 
by various measures, such as offering state-provided study places for at least 50  % of general 
upper secondary graduates, implementing flex ible forms of study and providing special 
support for students with special needs. 
Other measures aim to improve the completion rates of students in tertiary education. The 
drop-out rate has ranged between 13.8–16.5  % during recent years. The TULE programme 
targets individuals who interrupted their studies during the period of economic boom by 
offering around 800 such persons th e possibility to retu rn to their studie s in the period 2010–
2013. A new educational support system, based on a socio-economic distri bution principle, is 
under development. The network of study and car eer counsellors has been strengthened and 
recognition of prior learning and work experi ence has been implemented, which will also 
contribute to increasing attainment  rates in tertiary education. 
The internationalisation of Estoni an tertiary education is part of the higher educ ation strategy 
for 2006–15. The main courses of action incl ude the creation of a supportive legal 
 
 - 40 - environment, the internationa lisation of teaching and develo pment of a support system for 
internationalisation, as well as a new strategy  for marketing Estonian higher education to 
foreigners. 
Reforms in tertiary education will also need to respond to th e challenge of making tertiary 
education more cost-effective, as pinpointed in  the outcome of the European Semester. This 
would require a reduction in th e number of tertiary educa tion institutions, and a clearer 
division of labour between the different institut ions coupled with a more  precise definition of 
their competences. The planned institutional accred itation system, which is to be developed in 
2011, would be a right step in this  direction by helping tertiary e ducation institutions in better 
defining their profile. 
4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Estonia has an outbound long-term mobility (4.9  % of students 
per year) clearly above  the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the EU 
Erasmus programme (0.8  % of students in 2008/09) is  near the EU average. 
Estonia promotes the European and international dimension at nearly all stages of education, 
but particularly in tertiary education. 
Outcome-based curricula as well as possibi lities for recognition of prior learning are 
beneficial for learning mobility. There are short-term mobility opportunities for higher education (3–21 days) under various mobility schemes besides Erasmus, as well as opportunities for mobility periods of  1 semester or 1 academic year. There is active marketing 
of Estonian higher education for foreign st udents, which has increased the number of 
incoming students by 8
 % yearly, mainly at master’s and doctoral level. 
Both vocational and higher educ ation institutions have acquir ed the possibili ty, through EU 
support, to invite foreign lecturers and research ers, to modernise their study facilities and to 
renew their curricula, also in foreign languages. 
The main obstacle as regards VET mobility re mains the limited availability of financial 
resources for such programmes. In order to enco urage the mobility of adult students, Estonia 
participated in the ‘Learning Ambassador’ programme, through which successful students 
introduced their mobility experiences to others. 
5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Estonia is currently in the process of renewing its previ ous lifelong learning strategy. 
Currently there are different strategies in the field of education, which are closely connected 
with one another and together  seek to develop a lifelong l earning system in the country. 
The Estonian Cooperation Assembly, togeth er with the Estonian Education Forum  and the 
Ministry of Education and Re search, began drafting the ‘Est onian Education Strategy 2020’ 
during the second half of 2009. The future strategy aims to offer coordinated solutions for key 
topics in the Estoni an education sector. 
Estonia has progressed in deve loping a national qualifications  framework. The new national 
qualifications framework is overarching,  linking competence-based professional 
qualifications and formal educational qualificatio ns into one system. The new framework is to 
be implemented by 2013 (i.e. through developm ent of new qualification standards, new 
curricula and procedures fo r awarding qualifications). 
 
 - 41 - Estonia has undertaken to increase its efforts to  raise the participatio n rates of adults in 
lifelong learning, by setting an additional national  target in its National Reform Programme. 
The participation rate among the 25–64 age group is to be increased from the current 10.9  % 
in 2010 to 20  % by 2020. To do this, additional substantiv e and financial measures need to be 
implemented. The emphasis will be on measures such as broadening the opportunities for adults to take part in training and retraini ng measures, increasing th e financing of adult 
training measures and offering vocational e ducation to adults who lack professional 
education. 
A further national target aims to reduce the sh are of adults without any vocational education 
or training from the current 32
 % to 30  % by 2020. The number of people who lack vocational 
education or training is highest in th e youngest age group, among those aged 25–34 — 35  % 
in 2010. The target takes into consideration ongoing measures to provide those who have 
discontinued their education with opportunities to acquire a degree. Additional measures are 
also planned to reach this target. 
In response to the need to ma tch skills with labour market needs, the Estonian Ministry of 
Economic Affairs and Communicati ons has made a forecast of labour market needs for the 
coming 7 years. However, an analysis by the Bank  of Estonia shows that  precise prediction of 
the skills needed after the economic recovery is problematic. Recent m easures targ et raising 
the overall level of skills and key competen ces, through the new curricula for basic schools 
and upper secondary schools, flexible study o pportunities, an increa sed role for lifelong 
learning, reducing drop-out at all levels of education, and fostering more cooperation between 
education institutions and enterprises. 
A large proportion of ESF resources in Estoni a is devoted to education and improving labour 
market readiness. In the area of VET, measures  include curriculum development, in-service 
training of VET teachers, and infrastruc ture development for VET institutions. A  new VET 
law is expected for 2012. The process will include internal  evaluation of VET schools and 
accreditation by external experts. Finally, th e Professions Act envisages, from 2011, the 
possibility to combine graduation from an  educational institution and awarding of a 
professional qualification, provide d that the study programme co rresponds to the professional 
standard and is accredited. These measures ar e consistent with the specific recommendation 
from the European Semester and offer the possi bility to tackle the two major bottlenecks in 
the country’s education system through improving responsiveness to labour market needs by enhancing vocational training a nd promoting lifelong learning. 
6. I
NVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Estonia EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 6.10  % 5.67  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
While Estonia in the period 2004–2007 had a lower level of investment in education than the 
EU average, the share in 2008 exceeded the EU average. Nevertheless, public spending on education as a percentage of GDP has decreased compared to the level in 2000. 
The country has given priority to investment in  education in recent y ears, and education is 
generally seen as an important area in Estonia. The education sector is designated as a priority 
for the coming years in the government co alition programme, agreed on 4 April 2011. In 
 
 - 42 - recent years, Estonia has invested 14–15  % of total public expenditu re in education. In 2010, 
the budget of the Ministry of Edu cation and Research increased by 12  % in comparison to 
2009. However, growth was based mostly on an in crease in the amount of foreign assistance. 
The budget grew by 2  % when foreign assistance is fact ored out. In comparison, the state 
budget increased by 0.4  % during the same period and shrunk by 1.5  % without foreign aid. 
Therefore, one can state with certainty that education was a priority area in Estonia and 
experienced smaller cuts dur ing a time of spending cuts. 
During the crisis years the general interest in education increased. The number of adults 
enrolled in evening and distance courses for ba sic and general secondary education increased 
by 12.6  % in 2009 compared to the year before. Ther e was significant growth in the number of 
students enrolled in VET, despite the demogra phic decline in the main  age group entering 
VET. As a consequence, the ministry reduced the per capita amount for VET students in order 
to be able to satisfy the increased demand. A large number of persons who had taken a break 
from education for a few years, or discontinued their studies at another educational institution, 
entered vocational education and tr aining during the years 2009 and 2010. 
During the years 2009 and 2010, the basic payment for state-provided st udy places in higher 
education institutions was reduced by 16.1  % in connection with th e economic crisis. The 
crisis also had an impact on the education choices of higher educ ation students — while 
enrolment in state-provided study places incr eased by a few percentage points during the 
2009/10 and 2010/11 academic years, enrolment in  non-budgetary (i.e. pa id) places declined 
by 7  % in 2009/10 and by 12  % in 2010/11. National funding for new enrolments in higher 
education will rise by 10  % as of autumn 2011. The basic payment for professional higher 
education studies will rise by 22.2  % and be made equivalent to the basic payment for BA 
studies. 
Investment in education has enjoyed priority over  the past years, and as stated in Estonia’s 
NRP, education spending is set to play an even more prominent role in government 
expenditure. It will be important to combine the increased expenditure with the planned 
efficiency gains. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
The main priority for Estonia will remain im proving the quality of the education system, in 
particular by making VET mo re relevant for the need s of the labour market.  
 As regards general education Estonia plans to  adopt measures aimed at reducing drop-out 
rates, optimize the network of upper secondary schools and increas e the access as well as the 
availability of career guid ance and counselling services. 
 Estonia aims to increase the adult participation rate in lifelong learning to 20
 % and reduce the 
share of adults without professional or vocational education to below 30  %, both in line with 
the recommendation from the European Semester.  
During the process of renewing its lifelong learning strategy  and in the planned 'Estonian 
Education Strategy 2020' could involve putting  a stronger focus on specific target groups, 
such as low-skilled workers.  
As mentioned by the recommendation another ar ea which will deserve further attention is 
early child care.   
 
 - 43 - FINLAND 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training.  
1. BENCHMARKS  
Finland EU average EU Benchmarks 
FINLAND  
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary)  55.2  % 73.1  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 7.0 % 8.1 %09 21.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 6.0 %06 7.8  %09 24.006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science 4.1 %06 6.0  %09 20.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  9.0 % 10.3  % 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  40.3  % 45.7  % 22.4  % 33.6  % -    40  % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  22.4  % 0323.0  % 8.5 % 039.1 % 10 12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
01 =2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e08 =2008, 09 =2009, = estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 44 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
Youth unemployment, a major concern at th e beginning of 2010, eased considerably during 
the year and has continued to improve in 2011 . Nevertheless, even taking into account the 
improvement and the fact that statistics may be exaggerating the problem (Finnish 
unemployment numbers also include full-time st udents who are looking for a part-time job 
alongside their studies) youth unemployment re mains high and above the EU average (21.4
 % 
vs 20.9  % in 2010). To counteract the demographic ch anges, a fast transition from education 
and training to work is crucial.  Currently, young people enter the labour market  relatively late 
in Finland. 
Finland’s target for education and training by 2020 is to raise the proportion of 30–34 year-
olds having completed tertiary education to 42  % and to lower the proportion of early school 
leavers among 18–24 year-olds to 8  % or less. According to the EU Labour Force Survey, 
45.8  % of 30–34 years olds have tertiary attain ment, which is above the EU average. The 
share of early school leavers (9.9  % in 2009) is below the EU average (14.4  %). The Finnish 
education and training system  is generally performing ve ry well. However, adapting 
education and training to m eet labour market needs remains a continuous challenge. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Recommendation (4) 
Take measures to improve the employability of  older workers and their participation in 
lifelong learning. 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
While the share of early school leavers (10.3  % in 2010) is below the EU average (14.4  %), it 
has remained largely unchanged over the last decade. Finland’s target is to increase the 
completion rate for upper secondary education to 95  %, which can be translated into a target 
of reducing the proportion of ear ly school leavers among 18–24 year-olds to not more than 
8 %. Measures to reduce early school leaving include prevention and intervention, such as 
flexible basic education (‘Jopo’), improved gui dance and counselling, la nguage learning (both 
the language of instruction and the mother tong ues of students with an  immigrant or minority 
background), intensified special educational need s support, a more work-related approach to 
learning with those at risk, a nd programmes for immigrant students to help them succeed in 
VET. Youth workshops, intensified outreach acti vities and a guarantee for either education, 
training or a job placement in close collaborati on between the individua l and job centres are 
measures to compensate for early school leaving. 
The measures set out in the National Refo rm Programme and the national ET2020 report 
seem to provide the right respons es to the structural challenges implied by the stagnating (and 
recently even slightly growi ng) early school leaving rate. Making apprenticeship-based VET 
more attractive for young people could, however , be another step towards lowering drop-out 
rates among groups at risk. Another measure is Job Start aimed at young people who have 
completed their basic education but do not yet ha ve a clear idea of their choice of occupation 
 
 - 45 - or who do not possess the necessary competen ces for applying for VET and succeeding in 
their studies.  
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
According to Eurostat’s La bour Force Survey in 2010, 45.7  % of 30–34 year-olds have a 
tertiary attainment above the EU average. Ho wever, the plan is to  exclude college-level 
qualifications from the indicator in the forthc oming years, which will reduce the figure to 37–
38 %. In this context, Finland’s target is to  raise the proportion of  30–34 year-olds having 
completed tertiary education to 42  %. At the same time, smaller age cohorts and the aim to 
raise pass rates to 75 %, mean that the number of study places does not need to be increased. 
With regard to MST graduates, the absolu te number has increased  since 2000, although less 
than the EU average. The share of female MS T graduates is also slightly below the EU 
average. 
By international standards, study times in Finla nd are long. Measures ar e thus being taken to 
reform admission and speed up graduation with a view to lowering the age of entry into the 
labour market. Moreover, structural  changes, such as mergers of institutions, are seen as an 
opportunity to allocate funding efficiently to quality, for instance by improving the teacher-
student ratio. 
With these measures, Finland seems to be  on track towards achi eving the 2020 target. 
4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Finland has an outbound long-term mobility (2.7  % of students 
per year) near the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the EU Erasmus 
programme (1.1  % of students in 2008/09) is above the EU average. Tertiary mobility has 
grown by nearly 40  % from 2000. Today, one fifth of students in polytechnics and universities 
participate in a mobility scheme. As regards teachers and researchers, there has been an 
increase in mobility in the polytechnics. Conc rete targets have been set for mobility up to 
2015. 
In general education, the Comenius and Nor dplus programmes along with many international 
private organisations are used for student m obility and school cooperation. In VET, Leonardo 
da Vinci was the most popular scheme (45  % of the total), although nearly 37  % of this 
mobility was financed by VET institutes them selves. The current policy of merging VET 
institutions into bigger entities is seen as conducive to internationalisation and mobility, due 
to increased resources. Moreover, modularisation and compatibility with the credit transfer 
system facilitate mobility. 
As regards teachers’ mobility, there were more incoming teachers than outgoing. Most 
teacher mobility was financed by the institutions themselves. 
As internationalisation is highly valued in cu rricula, national funding supplements Comenius 
and other mobility programmes. New quality cr iteria for mobility were introduced in 2011. 
5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Finland’s lifelong learni ng policy is implemented by two minist ries: the educati on system as a 
whole, including the voluntary a dult education sector, is under the Ministry of Education and 
Culture, while labour market training is the resp onsibility of the Minist ry of the Employment 
 
 - 46 - and Economy. The emphasis of LLL policy has fo r several years been on ensuring equal 
access and improving the quality of education and training. 
With regard to widening participation in early childhood education and care, Finland has 
made considerable progress since 2000, but is still 20 percentage points below the EU 
average. It should however be no ted that the statistical data for Finland in this field are 
currently being improved due to concerns about their validity and comparability with other 
EU countries. 
While adult participation in lifelong learning is already more than twice the EU average, 
additional measures have been taken to furthe r increase access and participation. Specialist 
VET qualifications now provide a general eligibility for higher education and an allowance 
has been introduced to encour age employees to update their skills. Moreover, receiving 
unemployment benefit no longer rules out partic ipation in training. A Council for Lifelong 
Learning, established in 2009, issues expert opinions on LLL and includes all relevant 
stakeholder groups. 
The Government Institute for Economic Research  is responsible for labour forecasts, which 
are used by the National Board of Education fo r educational forecasts. In collaboration with 
these two, regional councils coordinate the an ticipation of medium and long-term education 
and training provision needs. The national deve lopment plan for education and training sets 
the targets for provision in initial VET, polytechnics and universities. 
Finland has overall a well-developed lifelong learning system with a high level of 
permeability through flexible pathways and with  particularly high pa rticipation rates in 
continuing education and training. However, the relatively high youth unemployment, as 
noted in the Staff Working Do cument on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines, 
indicates certain challenges for the transition from education to  the labour market. Targeted 
measures in line with the Agenda for New Skills and Jobs, such as further increasing the practical relevance of curricula, coul d be beneficial in this respect. 
6. I
NVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Finland EU average  
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP  5.89  % 6.13  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Investment in education  as a percentage of GDP increase d slightly in Finland and exceeded 
the EU average by over 1 pe rcentage point in 2008. 
For decades, Finland has invested heavily in the education and competences of the population. 
The extensive education and training supply has promoted equality and social mobility. Even during the economic and financial crisis Finland continued to invest in education and devoted 
resources to competence development, creativit y and innovation, targeted to changing needs. 
Recent measures include the reduction of class si zes in compulsory education, diversifying 
university funding under the Universities Act and setting up a business cl uster to exploit the 
successful elements of the Finnish  education and training system. 
With its funding priorities for education and tr aining, Finland is in line with the Annual 
Growth Survey and the Conclusions of the Sp ring European Council, which both advise such 
growth-friendly investment in  times of crisis as well. 
 
 - 47 - 7. CONCLUSIONS  
Finland’s education system perf orms well in terms of both the quantitative targets and the 
quality of educational outcomes, as m easured by PISA. However, increasing the 
responsiveness of the educatio n and training system to la bour market needs and reducing 
youth unemployment remain challenges. Current measures taken in the area of higher education respond to this challenge by s hortening graduation ti mes and accelerating 
graduates’ transiti on to employment. 
While adult participation in life long learning is one of the high est in Europe and provision for 
lifelong learning has traditionally been good in Fi nland, further efforts should be made to 
ensure adequate provision for up-skilling. Cu rrent initiatives, in cluding the allowance 
provided to employees to upgrad e their skills and the direct  progression routes from 
vocational qualification to hi gher education, are good steps in this direction. Nevertheless, 
given the demographic challenges, targeted meas ures should be developed for older workers, 
also with the aim of keeping them  active longer on the labour market. 
 
 - 48 - FRANCE 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training.  
1. BENCHMARKS  
France EU average EU Benchmarks 
FRANCE   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary)  100  % 100  %09 85.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 15.2  % 19.8  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics - 22.5  %0924.006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science - 19.3  %0920.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  13.3  % 12.8  % b 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  27.4  % 43.3  % 22.4  % 33.6  % -    40  % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  7.1 % 03 5.0 % 108.5 % 039.1 % 10 12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
01 =2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e08 =2008, 09 =2009, = estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 49 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
France is above the EU average on the two head line targets in the field of education and 
training (early school leavers an d higher education attainment). There is, however, room for 
improvement, in particular to  tackle inequalities in edu cation and training. Two major 
weaknesses of the French educ ation and training systems are school failure and low adult 
participation in lifelong learning. Too many you ng people leave school wit hout basic skills or 
without qualifications and are unemployed or tra pped in poor-quality jobs. At the other end of 
the age spectrum, the employment rate of seniors is low in France. Improving access for 
adults to education and training is crucial to increase the employability of the workforce and, 
in particular, the employment rates of low-skilled and older people. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States Recommendation (3) 
Encourage access to lifelong learning in order to  help maintain older workers in employment 
and enhance measures to support return to employment. Step up active labour market policies 
and introduce measures to improve the organi sation, decision-making, and procedures of the 
public employment service to strengthen services  and individualised support provided to those 
at risk of long-term unemployment. 
3. E
UROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
France performs above the EU average as rega rds early school leavi ng with a rate of 12.8  % 
compared to the EU average of 14.1  % in 2010, but the rate has decreased only moderately 
over the late decade (from 13.3  % in 2000). France has set a national target of 9.5  % by 2020. 
Considering the modest improvement between 2000 and 2010, this represents a significant 
decrease, which would help to tackle the pr oblem of youth unemploymen t and labour market 
segmentation. 
The government envisages a wide range of ini tiatives, including better  monitoring of early 
school leavers (national evaluation, better ex change of information among different services 
at national and local level), pl ans to prevent and correct low achievement (plan to prevent 
illiteracy, new ambition for sciences and technol ogies at school), indi vidualised support and 
guidance (in particular with the reform of uppe r secondary education) and some measures to 
tackle inequalities (disadvantaged areas, migr ants who do not speak French, special needs). 
There is particular emphasis on experimental initiatives, such as boarding schools for 
disadvantaged pupils ( internats d’excellence ). Most of these measures focus on secondary 
level ( programme CLAIR, internats d’excellence) and compensatory programmes  (les écoles 
de la deuxième chance, établissement s de réinsertion scolaire, micro lycées ). There is less 
emphasis on prevention measures at primary or pre-primary level or the education and 
training of teachers. 
 
 - 50 - 3.2. Tertiary attainment 
France has progressed significantly from 27.4  % in 2000 to the current te rtiary attainment rate 
of 43.5  % (2010), which is well ab ove the EU average (33.6  %). France has set a national 
target of 50  % higher education attainme nt for the 17–33 age group by 2012. 
The reforms of upper secondary education (lycées) aim in particular to increase entry rates to 
higher education. Enhanced guidance and bette r information systems (‘Admission Post-Bac’) 
should contribute to this objective. In addition, the reform of vocational upper secondary education ( baccalauréat professionnel ) should reinforce the attractiveness of VET and 
facilitate the transition of students from VET to higher educati on. Financial support for 
disadvantaged groups has increased (w ith more and better scholarships). 
The development of university guidance and implementation of a special plan ( Plan Réussir 
en Licence ) should limit drop-out in the first years of  university, which is a major issue in 
France, and improve the transition from university to the labour market. After an experimental 
phase, the most successful measures will be rolled out generally in 2011. The content of Plan 
Réussir en Licence will also be reviewed to include tr ansversal competences and to enhance 
transparency and quality assurance. The ongoi ng measures expected to contribute to the 
national target also include the development of  more flexible pathways between different 
forms of tertiary education ( classes préparatoires, BTS, DUT, licence, première année de 
médecine ). 
4. M
OBILITY  
France is committed to promoting the outgoing/incoming learning mobility of students in 
different education sectors. Regarding pre-scho ol and school education, France has made use 
of Comenius and Leonardo da Vinci, but has also  issued a ministerial circular to encourage 
the administrations within the regions (‘académies’) to develop a mobility strategy and a decree to encourage schools to  develop cooperation and part nerships with European and 
foreign counterparts. 
The number of French students studying ab road under the Lifelong Learning Programme 
(LLP) has significantly increased (+6.3
 % in 2009–2010 compared to 2008–2009), making 
France the main ‘provider’ of Erasmus students.  To facilitate learning mobility, the ministry 
of higher education has also promoted bilatera l agreements for the recognition of diplomas 
and the development of joint masters. National and regional authorities also provide financial 
support for mobility. 
The share of incoming students in French higher e ducation is also significant. To facilitate the 
integration of foreign students, France adopted a new visa policy in 2009. It also established 
special centres in 2007 ( Centres pour les études en France ), which now manage most of the 
demand and inflow. 
There is particular emphasis is on the mobility  of teachers under the LLP, and a specific 
programme ‘Jules Verne’ was la unched in 2009. However, the coverage of this programme 
(162 teachers) remains modest at this stage. 
Beyond financial support and coop eration schemes, France, in particular via the ‘Agence 
Europe education formation’, promotes mobility through awareness-raising campaigns and seminars. 
 
 - 51 - 5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
One of the major education and training bottlenecks in France is the low adult participation in 
lifelong learning. Here, France perf orms below the EU average (5  % in 2010 compared to an 
EU average of 9.1  %) and its performance is  deteriorating (from 7.1  % in 2000 to 5  % in 
2010). While improving the access of adults to education and traini ng is crucial to increase 
employment rates among the low-skilled and ol der people, the participation of adults in 
training is below the EU average and there has been no progress in the last decade.  In 2009, 
the law on guidance and vocationa l training had the objective to encourage the development 
of a coordinated national strategy, planned and implemented by national authorities, the 
regions and the social partners, “and aiming at allowing each person, beyond his status, to 
obtain and update knowledge and skills that foster professional evolution, and make him 
improve in at least one level of quali fication during his professional career.”  
Key competences (including basic skills such as  literacy, numeracy, digi tal literacy) form a 
basis for further learning. In li ne with the European Framework of Key Competences, France 
has implemented a competence-based approach at primary and secondary levels, with the reform of curricula and specific attention to  the evaluation of key competences. Specific 
measures are being developed for transversal co mpetences (uses of ICT in education, foreign 
languages, Plan ‘Entrepreuneurs étudiants’). 
France has developed flexible pathways between th e different layers, leve ls and sectors of the 
education and training system (for exam ple between vocational schools and higher 
education). In line with EQF,  the integration of higher education diplomas in the national 
qualifications framework ( Répertoire national des cer tifications professionnelles ) should 
improve the transparency of education and tr aining supply and further the development of a 
learning outcomes approach in higher edu cation. The well-developed system for the 
validation of informal and non-formal learning is being continuously improved. 
Guidance and individualised support, which is a particular challenge in France, have been 
reinforced, in particular  at secondary level ( parcours de découverte de s metiers, entretien en 
troisième, orientation au lycée ) for the transition between sc hool and higher education, and in 
higher education. The law on guidance and vocati onal training (2009) esta blished a ‘right to 
lifelong guidance’ and a pub lic guidance service. 
France has a well-developed system of for the an ticipation and assessment  of skills needs at 
national level ( Centre d’analyse st ratégique, Céreq ), at regional level ( Observatoires 
régionaux de l’emploi et de la formation ) and at sectoral level ( Observatoires des métiers ). 
Recent initiatives to improve sk ills forecasting and matching include preparatory work for the 
publication of a ‘panorama’ of j obs and qualifications and a speci al report on the transition of 
young people from school to work, both undertaken by the Centre d’Analyse stratégique . The 
development and review of diplomas and certif ications takes into a ccount labour market 
needs and involves employers. This is the case for vocational diplomas in particular, which 
are reviewed with the social partners ( Commissions professionnelles  consultatives, Comité 
interprofessionnel consultatif ). Higher education diplomas are reviewed by the Agence 
d’évaluation de la recherche et de l’enseignement supérieur  and by the Commission des titres 
d’ingénieurs . Partnerships between e ducation, training and busines s are encouraged at all 
levels. 
As regards adult learning, a sp ecial fund has been created to  support the training of low-
skilled workers and unemployed people: Fond paritaire de sécu risation des parcours 
professionnelles . 
 
 - 52 - 6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
France EU average  2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP  6.03  % 5.58  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
On investment in education  as a percentage of GDP, France  has been performing above the 
EU average, although investment rates have decreased over the last decade. In 2011, the 
school education budget amounts to 60.5 billion euros, which is by far the most important 
item of State expenditure. 
At primary and secondary level, various measur es have contributed to  reducing expenditure: 
reduction of teaching posts, reductions in an cillary staff (outside  teachers of foreign 
languages), changes in the procedure for the re placement of absent teachers, school grouping, 
increasing the size of classes, reduction of education provision fo r 2-year-old children (except 
in disadvantaged areas). 
The government has given priority  to higher education, which has largely been spared severe 
budget cuts and has significantly increased. T hus, in 2010, France launch ed a programme for 
investment in the future, ‘ Investissements d’avenir ’, with €  21.9  bn devoted to higher 
education and research, including the actions ‘ Initiatives d’excellence ’, ‘Laboratoires 
d’excellence ’, and ‘ Equipements d’excellence ’. The action ‘ Opération Campus ’ addresses 
housing development. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
While France’s education and training system pe rforms above the EU average in terms of 
most quantitative targets, it n eeds to tackle the two major bo ttlenecks: school failure and low 
adult participation in lifel ong learning. Too many young people leave school early without 
qualifications, while too many seniors, especia lly those with low skills, leave the labour 
market early. 
Current measures in the area of school educ ation address both early school leaving and 
tertiary achievement, such as better mon itoring of early school leavers, raising the 
attractiveness of vocational training a nd improving higher education provisions. 
A more ambitious strategy is ne eded in the field of adult learning so as to raise the 
employability of the adult workforce. Addition al reforms are necessary in the fields of 
guidance, active outreach to the disadvantaged, and in-work training. 
 
 - 53 - GERMANY 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training.  
1. BENCHMARKS  
Germany EU average EU Benchmarks GERMANY   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary)  82.6  % 96.7  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 22.6  % 18.5  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 19.9  %0618.6  %09  24.006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
  
Science 15.4  %0614.8  %09  20.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  14.6  % 11.9  % b 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment4 
(age 30–34)  25.3  % 29.8  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  6.0 % 037.8 %  8.5 % 039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08=2009, e09 =2009; e = estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
                                                 
4  In the context of the Europe 2020 headline target on Tertiary or Equivalent Education Attainment (40%), 
Germany had an attainment rate of 33% in 2000 and 41.3% in 2010. This includes also ISCED level 4 
qualifications ("post-secondary non-tertiary education" ) which are considered by Germany as "equivalent" 
to tertiary education (ISCED levels 5 and 6). ISCED level 4 attainment accounte d for 11.6% of the 30-34 
year-olds in 2010. 
 
 
 - 54 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
Continued reforms to improve the quality of th e education system and access to it are central 
for addressing emerging shortages of skilled labour in order to maintain Germany’s 
comparative advantage in technologically adva nced products and to reverse the trend of 
declining productivity growth, thus  laying the basis for sustained employment and real income 
growth. In the past, educational attainment ra tes in Germany have improved only slowly, at 
both upper secondary and tertiary levels, and are today below the EU average, especially for 
younger cohorts. Combined with ongoing demographic change, leading to a shrinking cohort size, this might result in a shortage in th e supply of medium/high- qualified labour in the 
medium and long terms, particularly in  maths, science and technology subjects. 
While early school leaving in Germany is below the EU average, it is falling fairly slowly. 
Socially disadvantaged groups, including youn g people with a migrant background, face a 
much higher risk of early drop-out from educa tion and training than th eir peers, and their 
attainment rates tend to remain low, also gi ven the traditionally s hort school days. Although 
declining, there are also still la rge differences in skill levels (as measured for example by the 
OECD’s PISA studies) between pupils and the link between achievement and socio-demographic background remains strong. 
Reforms to improve the lower levels of the e ducation system, starting with better access to 
quality pre-school education and care, also bene fit upper secondary and te rtiary education and 
enhance vocational training outcomes. The shar e of low achievers a nd drop-outs at school 
level could be further reduced, e.g. by widening early langua ge learning, better individual 
support for pupils at risk (including guidance, tutoring, social workers), wider provision of 
all-day schools, and broad measures to eff ectively facilitate tran sition from school to 
professional training. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
(3) Enhance participation in the labour market  by improving equitable access to education and 
training systems and by taking further steps to reduce the high tax wedge in a budgetary 
neutral way and improve work incentives for pers ons with low income perspectives. Increase 
the number of fulltime childcare facilities and all-day schools. 
3. E
UROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
Germany has set itself the target of reducing early school leaving to less than 10  % by 2020 
(and has a specific target to reduce drop-out in  vocational education and training at national 
level). After falling slowly but con tinuously over several years to 11.1  % in 2009, the early 
school leaving rate increased to 11.9  % in 2010, though was still below the EU average of 
14.1  %. This change in the long- term trend might be explaine d, at least partly, by the 
flourishing economy combined with smaller cohor ts entering the labour market and hence a 
shortage of young people. 
The German National Reform Programme a nd the ET2020 national report acknowledge the 
need for continuous reform to improve equita ble access to quality educ ation and training as 
 
 - 55 - central to addressing emerging shortages of skilled labour due  to demographic change. As 
noted in the Staff Working Do cument, socially disadvantag ed groups, including migrants, 
face a much higher risk of low achievement and drop-out from the German education and 
training systems. 
The federal government ( Bund ) and the 16 regions ( Länder ) have agreed on a comprehensive 
bundle of measures and targets to tackle early sc hool leaving, which ar e set out in the 
Qualifizierungsinitiative , agreed in 2008 between the Bund  and the Länder , and in the strategy 
for better support for low-achie ving pupils (agreed between the Länder  in 2010), 
complemented by the national tr aining pact (agreed between Bund , Länder  and employers’ 
associations). 
Measures to combat early school leaving focus on prevention, intervention and compensation. 
They include early language learning for migrant child ren and, in line with the 
Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines, improved access to 
quality early childhood education and care. However, availability  and quality standards, in 
particular staff training and child to staff ratio, vary greatly across the 16 Länder . Further 
priorities include: competence-based and indi vidualised learning ap proaches; learning and 
career guidance; partnerships and networks between schools, the world of work and other 
services; support for transition and mentoring fo r pupils at risk; various second chance offers. 
The implementation of these measures is supported by a comprehensive strategy for 
monitoring the education system (adopted in 2006). 
While these measures clearly have the potential to reduce the risk of socially disadvantaged 
people, in particular migrants, dropping out of  education and training and to weaken the 
strong structural link between educational achievement and socio-demographic background, 
implementation of the Qualifizierungsinitiative  seems to lag behind and the recent negative 
change in the ESL rate means it will be an ev en more important challenge to implement these 
measures effectively on a large scale. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
Regarding tertiary or equivale nt attainment, the German NRP has set a national target of 42  % 
for 2020. Due to the high importance of VET for the provision of medium- to higher-skilled 
labour the German government has decided to include ISCED level 4 qualifications (11.4  % in 
2009) in their target. While in the past, the German tertiary  attainment rate grew only 
moderately compared to the EU average, it is  expected to increase at a higher pace over the 
coming years due to a high influx of new students. Their number increased by 22  % between 
2006 and 2009, and an additional 275  000 young Germans are expected to take up tertiary 
education between 2011 and 2015 due to the re form of general upper secondary education 
(shortening of duration from 3 to 2 years). 
Also, the hitherto relatively low number of  graduates in maths, science and technology 
subjects, identified as a potenti al bottleneck to future grow th, is growing considerably, 
increasing in 2009 by 8.7  %, which is more than twice th e EU average growth rate (+3.2  % in 
2009, the number of MST graduates per 1000 yo ung people, 13.5%, is now approaching the 
EU average, 14.3%). 
Current measures to improve tertiary attain ment rates are coordinated under the pact for 
higher education (‘ Hochschulpakt 2020 ’, €  3.2 billion) and focus on in creasing the number of 
study places to meet the foreseeable high demand over the coming years, facilitating 
pathways from VET to higher education and access for non-traditional students, and 
 
 - 56 - improving the quality of teaching (‘ Qualitätspakt Lehre ’, €  2 billion between 2011–20). 
Measures to improve the attractivenes s of MST studies will be continued. 
4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Germa ny has an outbound long-term mobility (3.5  % of 
students per year) slightly above the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term  mobility under the 
EU Erasmus programme (1.0  % of students in 2008/09) is also slightly above the EU average. 
A recent study indicates, however, that implem entation of the Bologna structure has not yet 
led to an increase in student mobility.5  
The government has decided to top up funds supporting student mobility until 2015 through 
the ‘ Bologna-Mobilitätspakt ’. An important focus is on adapting mobility offers to the 
Bologna structure and reducing obs tacles to mobility, including through better recognition of 
learning outcomes (implementation of the ‘ Lisbon Convention ’) and through provision of 
guidance on mobility (all higher education institu tions now have an ‘international office’). 
The government also supports transnational coop eration by higher education institutions with 
partner institutions, joint st udy programmes, and actions to promote the incoming and 
outgoing mobility of students with high potential. 
In the area of VET, learning mobility under the LLP had 9600 partic ipants in 2010, or 0.7  % 
of all VET students, above the EU average (0.5  %). Over a three-year VET period, this 
implies a participation rate of about 2  %. However, a study commissioned by the German 
government provides evidence that total mobility in initial VET (including mobility supported 
by Leonardo da Vinci and all other sources, in cluding private sources)  is higher (around 3  % 
between 2007 and 2009). To further increase V ET mobility, the government increased the 
national contribution to LLP fundi ng (Leonard da Vinci) from €  800  000 to €  3 m in 2010. 
Furthermore, bilateral cooperation and exchan ge programmes support transnational mobility 
and cross-regional training schemes. Since 2005 the law on vocational training has allowed 
VET students to undertake parts of their training abroad. 
At school level, Germany contributed €  18 m to the implementation of LLP Comenius actions 
in 2010. Mobility actions for pupils and teachers are complemented by programmes for school partnerships and the in ternationalisation of schools (€
 6.6 m in 2010). Information and 
counselling are seen as important tools to increase mobility at school level. 
5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Due to the division of competences between  different government levels, Germany has no 
fully coherent and comprehensiv e lifelong learning strategy in place. However, it has been 
shifting the focus of education and training po licy increasingly toward s a lifelong learning 
approach. The federal government’s strategy  paper on learning across the life cycle 
(‘Konzeption Lernen im Lebenslauf ’), together with the qualifications initiative 
(‘Qualifizierungsinitiative ’) agreed in 2008 between Bund  and Länder , aim to improve the 
general skill levels of the population from a lifelong learning perspec tive. More equitable 
access to quality education from an early age,  flexible pathways, and lifetime provision of 
skills and competences are the main princi ples of these initiatives, underpinned by 
benchmarks until 2015. The various measures will be implemented in accordance with the 
division of competences between th e different government levels. 
                                                 
5  See Forschung & Lehre, issue 09/11. 
 
 - 57 - Germany is at an advanced stage in devel oping its national qualifications framework (DQR) 
and plans to reference it to the EQF in 2012. Li nked to this, the pilot project DECVET is to 
trial a credit transfer system in line with EC VET. Within DEQA-VET, the national partner of 
ENQA-VET, Germany has developed a progra mme for interlinking and improving the 
relevance of the numerous regional initiatives to  support people in completing their vocational 
training (‘ Perspektive Berufsabschluss ’). There is also a focus on improving the quality and 
relevance of the transition between school e ducation and initial vocat ional training, including 
through the programme ‘ Jobstarter Connect ’ 
Germany pays significant attention to the an ticipation of skills needs. For example, the 
‘FreQueNz’ network synthesises and disseminates nationwide the resu lts of individual 
anticipation projects. The regi onal labour market monitor, es tablished in 2010, also includes 
data on education and training. The results of sk ills forecasting are regularly fed back into 
curricular reform: in particular  in the area of dual VET, an institutionalised adaptation 
procedure, closely involving the social pa rtners, guarantees the continuous updating and 
relevance of curricula. 
These ongoing initiatives are important steps in gradually overcoming the segmentation of the 
German LLL system, including thro ugh better coordination between the Länder , which have 
virtually full responsibility for education an d training, but also betw een sub-systems (e.g. 
VET and higher education) and across sector s (in particular employment, youth, social 
affairs). They also demonstrate a broader awar eness of the importance of lifelong learning in 
the face of growing skills shortages and social disparities. 
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Germany EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 4.46  % 4.55  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Public investment in education  as a percentage of GDP cha nged only slightly in Germany 
between 2000 and 2008, in line with the slight increase at EU le vel. The gap between German 
performance and the EU average has therefore remained stable. 
During the crisis, total public spending on educ ation and training in Germany increased from 
€ 93.4 billion in 2008 to €  98.9 billion in 2009 and further to €  102.8 billion in 2010. 
Acknowledging the key role of education and training for future growth, the federal 
government decided in 2009 to invest an additional sum of €  6 billion in education and 
training over the years 2010–13. Also, investment at Länder  level increased considerably 
between 2009 and 2010 (+ 4.9  %). Moreover, around €  4.6 billion available for the ESF 
programming period 2007–13 are being spent on the qualifications of young people, the 
unemployed and workers. 
In addition, the economic recovery progr ammes of the federal government for 2008/2009 
included investment in local infrastructure (€  8.67 billion), with the focus on the 
modernisation of educational infrastructure. 
Fully in line with the Annual Growth Survey and the Conclusions of the Spring European 
Council, Germany has — even in times of cris is — substantially increased investment in 
education and training as a growth-friendly measure. 
 
 - 58 - 7. CONCLUSIONS  
With a view to addressing emerging shortages of skilled labour and supporting equitable 
access to education and training, Germany is in particular taking measures to tackle early 
school leaving, including thr ough improved access to quality early childhood education and 
care, and measures to increase the capacity and quality of the tertiary sector, both supported 
by substantial additional investment. With th e impact of demographic change becoming 
visible on labour markets, it w ill be important to implement these measures effectively on a 
large scale. Therefore, the im plementation of the strategic co mmitments between federal level 
and Länder governments under the Qualifizierungsinitiative  should be sped up. 
 
 - 59 - GREECE  
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training. 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Greece EU average EU Benchmarks 
GREECE   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  69.3  % 68.2  %09 85.2  % 91.7  %09  95 % 
 
Reading 24.4  % 21.3  %09 21.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 32.3  %0630.3  %09 24.006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study 
results) 
 
 
Science 24.0  %06 25.3  %0920.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  18.2  % 13.7  % b 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  25.4  % 28.4  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  2.6 % 033.0 %  8.5 % 03 9.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009 e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and 
science: 25 EU countries, MST: growth 2004–2008’EU Benchmarks’ ar e defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted average s) 
 
 - 60 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
The fifth update (December 2011) of the Memorandum of Understanding between the 
European Commission and the Hellenic Republic  includes the following section on education: 
To upgrade the education system 
] 
 Government prepares, and starts implemen ting, an action plan for the improvement of 
the effectiveness and efficiency of the education sy stem taking into account the 
measures recommended by the independent  taskforce' s report. [end-October 2011] 
Based on the recommendations of the blue print and the action plan, the existing 
legal/institutional framework for primary, secondary and tertiary education will be 
amended with a view to increasing the effi ciency and effectiveness of the education 
system. The Government starts publishi ng a bi-annual progress report on the 
implementation of the law on quality assurance in Higher Education. [Q4-2011] 
The new tertiary education framework law, aimed at reducing excessive costs 
and at improving its overall efficiency  and effectiveness, is implemented.  [Q2-
2012].  
 
3. E
UROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
As regards early school leavers, Greece performs slightly better  than the EU average and has 
made progress since 2000. 
The Europe 2020 national target set by Greece for early school leaving is 9.7  %. 
Greece has pursued efforts to furt her reduce early school leaving and improve the provision of 
basic skills. Under the National Strategic Framework in the fiel d of education, where school 
education is central, the Ministry of Educat ion and Lifelong Lear ning launched a national 
action plan in March 2010 under the title ‘The ne w school’ in order to promote reform in the 
field of school education. 
Strengthening the provision of early childhood education and care and raising its quality, 
which can contribute substantially to prev enting early school leaving, remains a key 
challenge. Greece has the lowest level of pre-school education in the EU after Poland and 
there are no data on 0–5 year-olds. Cu rrently, demand far exceeds provision. 
A pilot scheme of  Education Priority Zone s was introduced in some socio-economically 
disadvantaged areas in the sc hool year 2010–2011.  Its aims in clude addressing early school 
leaving and raising participat ion in tertiary education. Th e scheme provides stronger pre-
primary, all-day primary and remedial ISCED2  provision. This initiative seems to be a 
promising project, which could be extended in the future to other priority areas. 
While the number of all-day pr imary schools in urban areas is increasing (from 800 to 961), 
all-day provision in more remote areas is low. There is concern that this may create 
inequalities in the quality of provision and in  educational outcomes. The government’s initial 
(2009) plan to turn all primar y schools into all-da y schools by 2013 and to support this with 
adequate numbers of specialist teachers currently seems difficult to attain. 
 
 - 61 - Another challenge is the need to  provide learning support within schools to those who need it.  
This would help reduce the number of early sch ool leavers and low achievers, and would also 
help reduce demand for priv ate supplementary tutoring. 
Monitoring will be an important element for ensu ring the effectiveness of the measures aimed 
at tackling early school leaving. 
In July 2011, the internationa l independent task force set up by the Greek government for 
education policy under the Memorandum of Un derstanding submitted proposals to improve 
the efficiency of both compulsory  and tertiary education in Greece.6   
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
The share of young adults with tertiary educati on attainment has grown only moderately since 
2000 and was below the EU average in 2010. 
The national target set by Greece for 2020 is to increase tertiary attainment to 32  % from the 
current level of 28.4  %. 
A reduction rather than an increase in the number of tertiary students was noted for the 
academic year 2011–2012, with 10  250 fewer students than in  2010. The 2020 attainment 
target may therefore constitute a major challenge. 
The effort to raise participation in tertiary education towards the national target will need to 
include measures to promote the partic ipation and success of under-represented, 
disadvantaged and non-traditional learners. 
One area in which Greece has made significant progress is in the number of MST graduates, 
with at present the highest number of women with an MST degree in the whole of the EU. 
The government is currently undertaking struct ural reform of tertiary education. An 
international independent task force set up by the Greek government for higher education has 
supported this process with proposals. Th e new national strategy is focused around the 
following pillars: 
 a new management approach, greater aut onomy for higher education institutions and 
an enhanced culture of evaluation; 
 reorganisation of learning procedures and curricula in order to promote mobility and 
interdisciplinarity; 
 promotion of the international dimens ion of higher education institutions; 
 redeployment of institutions to better se rve regional development and labour market 
needs. 
4. MOBILITY  
As regards higher education, Greece has an outbound long-term mobility (5.2  % of students 
per year) which is above the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the EU 
Erasmus programme (0.5  % of students in 2008/09) is be low the EU average. The EU 
Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP) is one of th e most important tools for learning mobility. 
                                                 
6  OECD, Strong Performers and Successful Reformers in Education: Education Policy Advice for Greece , 
2011. 
 
 - 62 - In the recent past, steps have been taken to  promote outgoing and incoming learning mobility 
at all education levels in Greece. 
Law 3879/2010 ‘Development of lif elong learning and other prov isions’, in force since 
September 2010, places emphasis on the recognition and accreditation of a ll types and levels 
of formal, informal and non-formal learning, which could increase mobility. 
Curricular reform in upper-secondary educatio n has put much emphasis on the teaching of 
foreign languages, with the in troduction of a State certificate of foreign language competence 
that might support participat ion in learning mobility.  
5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
The country’s new national Lifelong Learning Strategy  announced in February 2011  is 
currently being implemented with the aim of providing more and better learning opportunities 
for adults and non-tr aditional learners.  It is an adult education plan  with two strands: initial 
and continuing training for the labour ma rket; and general adult education. 
The plan, however, is not an overarching strategi c vision for learning within the meaning of a 
‘coherent and comprehensive LLL strategy’. The se lf-imposed national target is to reach 6  % 
of adult participation in LLL by 2013. To this end, a €  140  m adult education programme for 
400  000 citizens was due to start in September 2011. As regards adult participation in lifelong 
learning, at present Greece has a very low pe rformance, which has only slightly increased 
since 2000. 
It is relevant to mention that the recent higher ed ucation reform will also enable universities to 
provide lifelong learning opportunities to local and regional populations. 
The third reform of initial VET  (iVET) in a decade is currentl y in progress, aiming to improve 
the quality and attractiveness of  VET and its relevance to the needs of the labour market, and 
to create more flexible pathways between ge neral and vocational trac ks and pathways from 
iVET into further learning and higher educat ion. Improving the quality of school VET will 
help to achieve the EU2020 national targets for education and training. The reform recognises 
the need for intensified intervention to broaden the target gr oups and improve the 
attractiveness, accessibility and quality of provision. 
Ensuring the quality and functionality of VET infrastructures will also be a challenge for the 
Greek authorities. 
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Greece EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP  3.39  % 4.04  %05 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
05= 2005  
Already before the current crisis, public inve stment in education and training in Greece was 
one of the lowest in the EU. In early 2011, it further decreased to 2.75  % of GDP. As further 
cuts have been implemented more recently in response to the budgetary crisis, investment is 
 
 - 63 - now significantly lower than in  previous years. At the sa me time, private household 
expenditure on education servi ces (especially for private s upplementary tutoring on core 
subjects) continues to be very strong. In Greece, tutoring was estimated in 2008 to cost €
 952.6 million, according to a recent study.7 
Due to the present general economic situation, Greece has recently drasti cally reduced teacher 
recruitment and made significant cuts in salaries  and pensions in the education sector. It has 
also put in place a scheme of school  mergers affecting more than 20  % of education 
institutions. 
As set out in the MoU, an independent task fo rce of education policy experts, jointly set up by 
the Greek administration and the OECD, is no w delivering policy guidance to help Greece 
improve the overall efficiency of its education system. 
In parallel, Greece has decided to promote mo re efficient use of the scarce resources 
available, as the protection of pub lic investment in education and training is considered to be 
crucial to support both short-term recovery and long-term sustainable growth, in line with the 
recommendations made by the European Counc il and the European Commission following 
the 2011 European Semester. 
In the current context, ‘smart spending’ incl udes taking full advantage of the European 
Structural Funds, which could underpin education reforms a nd also finance educational 
infrastructure. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
Greece needs to continue to reform both compulsory  and tertiary education within a context of 
budgetary austerity, in line with the Memorandu m of Understanding. He re, the possibilities 
offered by the European Structural Funds need to  be used to the maximum to ensure effective 
delivery of the necessary reforms. 
                                                 
7  European Commission (2011), The Challenge of Shadow Education: private tutoring and its implications 
for policy makers in the European Union ; a study submitted to the European Commission by the NESSE 
network of experts: http://www.nesse.fr/nesse/activities/reports . 
 
 - 64 - HUNGARY 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training.  
1. BENCHMARKS  
Hungary EU average EU Benchmarks 
HUNGARY   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  93.9  % 94.8  %0985.2% 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 22.7  % 17.6  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 21.2  %06 22.3  %0924.006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science 15.0  %06 14.1  %0920.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  13.9  % 10.5  % b 16.0  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  14.8  % 25.7  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  4.5 % 03 2.8 %  8.5 % 039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 65 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
Hungary is one of two countries where stimulus  measures have not been implemented in the 
education sector. Public investme nt in higher education is low, as is the tertiary attainment 
rate (in 2009: HU: 23.9
 %, EU average: 32.3  %). The number of students entering higher 
education is high (69  % in the age group 20–24), but they take a long time to graduate and 
many do not reach graduation. Budgetary planning is  likely to remain a constraint under the 
ongoing fiscal consolidation programme. Conseque ntly, part of the financing could come 
from adequate absorption of EU funds (ESF funds were also  drawn on during the crisis), 
although budgetary planning may also have to co mpensate for the additional financing needs 
of this sector with savings in other areas. 
The planned higher education reform seeks to strengthen the link between higher education 
output and the needs of the labour market. At ov erall European level, Hungary has the lowest 
participation in vocational education and training. The country has already introduced 
measures to modernise its vocational educa tion and training (VET) system, including the 
more structured involvement of chambers of co mmerce in redesigning features of the system. 
The performance of educators may be unfavourab ly influenced by the re latively low prestige 
and rewards of the teaching profession. Resear ch universities are also lacking, and the 
corporate sector does not play a significant role in financing. Furthermore, there is currently 
no independent quality measuring system in place to provide a basis for improving the link between financing and performance. 
Although the percentage of early school leavers (at 11.7
 % in 2008) is below the EU average, 
the number of unemployed and inactive early sc hool leavers is high in Hungary compared 
with other Member States. In addition, according to the PISA 2009 study, the Hungarian education system shows a particularly str ong relationship between the socio-economic 
background of pupils and their performance at school. Home and family background, as well 
as the size of locality, have a large influence on th e performance of scho ol children. Hungary 
is targeting a further reduction in early school leaving to 10
 % by 2020, in line with the 
proposed EU-wide target. 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
The National Reform Programme of April 2011 iden tifies better adjustme nt of the education 
system to labour market needs as  the main priority of the Hungarian gove rnment in the field 
of education in the period up to 2020. The better  acquisition of basic skills by all learners, 
including disadvantaged groups, and the restructuring of th e vocational education and training 
system are high on the agenda in the area of school education. 
As stated in the outcome of the European Se mester, while Hungary performs better than the 
EU average in tackling early schoo l leaving, this represents a ma jor challenge at the level of 
the labour market: early school le avers in Hungary are twice as likely to become unemployed 
or inactive as in the EU as a whole. 
In addition, although Hungary succeeded in reduci ng the number of early school leavers in the 
last decade (from 13.9  % in 2000 to 10.5  % in 2010), progress has st alled over the last few 
years. Future demographic developments, including an increase in the number of 
 
 - 66 - disadvantaged pupils, may pose additional challenge s in the years to come. This might explain 
why Hungary’s early school  leaving target is 10  % by 2020. 
In order to reduce the drop-out ra te, the Hungarian education system  is trying to fight social 
disadvantages through preventive measures su ch as early developm ent of small children 
(obligatory admission of multiply disadvantag ed children to kindergarten, support for 
kindergarten education), and by id entifying at-risk groups and pup ils with special educational 
needs (disadvantaged and multiply disadvantaged children/pupils). There are also programmes to promote successful school car eers for disadvantaged groups (’Útravaló’ 
scholarship programme, Arany János Talent Care Programme for Disadvantaged Pupils, 
Tanoda Programme with individualised teaching and learning in an informal environment). The inclusive pedagogical system and strengthe ning of the vocational education and training 
system contribute to the prevention of early school leaving. The programmes ‘Second Chance 
secondary school programme’ and ‘One Step  Forward’ are designed as compensation 
measures for drop-outs who wish to contin ue their studies, the latter supporting the 
acquisition of vocati onal qualifications. 
In order to improve the quality and effectiv eness of education, the National Curriculum has 
been aligned with the key competences defined by the EU Recommendation on Key Competences. Between 2009 and 2011 the emphasis of the programme shifted towards the 
extensive training of teachers. A further measur e to improve the effectiveness and quality of 
school education was the intr oduction of nationwide student competence assessment in 
reading and mathematical literacy, obligator y for each student in grades 6, 8 and 10. 
While all these measures are consistent with  the challenges identified in the European 
Semester, preventive measures seem to be the most appropriate to reduce early school 
leaving, particularly among disadvantaged groups. These measures need to be combined with 
improved possibilities for early  school leavers to re-ent er mainstream education. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
While the Hungarian tertiary e ducation system has undergone seve ral reforms in recent years, 
further efforts are needed to increase both its cost-effectiveness and efficiency and its labour 
market relevance. As pinpointed in the outcome  of the European Semester, the planned higher 
education reform provides an opportunity  to meet this dual challenge. 
Hungary shows a low tertiary attainment rate (25.7
 % in 2010), which is well below the EU 
average (33.6% in 2010). At th e same time, Hungary has a lo w investment rate in higher 
education. The level of public expenditure in highe r education as a proportion of GDP is 
lower than the EU average (1.02% in Hungary vs. 1.14% EU average in 2008).  Nevertheless, 
the number of students entering higher education has grown significantly in  the last 10 years, 
even though the demographic trends show a dec line since 2004. With rega rd to graduates in 
maths, science and technology, th e increase in their number ha s been higher than the EU 
benchmark and progress has been similar to that of the EU as a whole. As far as female 
participation is concerned, progre ss has been even faster than the EU average. In order to 
further increase the number of  graduates in maths, scien ce and technology, the government 
has increased the number of study places in these subjects and is encouraging students to take 
secondary school-leaving exams in science. 
Upon admission to tertiary educa tion, preference is given to a pplicants from disadvantaged 
backgrounds, those with disabilities and thos e who are on unpaid leave from work for 
childcare. Today, 69 % of upper secondary graduates from ISCED 3A programmes enter directly higher education, whic h is one third of the 20-24-yea r-old population, and about 40 
 
 - 67 - per cent graduate in time. Therefore, a nd in light of the national target of 30.3  % for tertiary 
attainment by 2020, the biggest challenge in tert iary education remains the reduction of high 
drop-out rates and also long gra duation times. In addition, further measures will need to be 
implemented to reduce the number of graduates who do not receive their diploma upon graduation as they cannot prove thei r foreign language knowledge (in 2010, 23
 % of all 
students in the full-time  studies concerned). 
The diversification of the institutional traini ng structure (higher vocational training, bachelor 
programmes, master’s programmes, undivided pr ogrammes, PhD trainin g, postgraduate study 
programmes, in-service training courses, courses aimed at acqui ring partial ski lls) enhances 
the higher education supply, impr oves the system’s responsivenes s to the needs of the labour 
market and provides opportunities for learners to  join or return to  tertiary education. 
Furthermore, a major project to validate former qualifications  is currently under 
implementation. Higher education institutions are also legally obliged to provide support for 
talented students and for disadvantaged students (scientific circle activities, mentoring, career 
counselling). 
4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Hungar y has an outbound long-term mobility (1.8  % of students 
per year) clearly below the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the EU 
Erasmus programme (0.9  % of students in 2008/09) is  near the EU average. 
In both 2009 and 2010, the Lifelong Learning Progr amme was the largest source of financing 
in Hungary for both incoming and outgoing mobility. 
A national programme, based on the model of  the Leonardo Programme, has supported 42 
projects for the foreign professional placem ent of vocational pupils. As a result of the 
initiative, 584 students obtained a professiona l placement abroad in 2009 and in 2010. This 
initiative has served to furthe r the practical training, foreign language skills and labour market 
chances of students who are — for the most  part — from a disadvantaged background. 
Hungary participates in the CEEPUS program me (Central European Exchange Programme 
for University Studies), but as a result of the financial crisis, was for ced to reduce the number 
of months offered to partner countries  for receiving students and teachers. 
The scholarships of the Hungarian Scholarship  Committee (financed by the Hungarian state 
budget) enable 500–700 students to  study abroad every year. Th e scholarships provided under 
bilateral agreements and educational work plans allow participation in partial and postgraduate studies, foreign research instit utions, workshops and artistic activities. 
The European Social Fund has supported the institutional developments needed at universities 
to enhance their international competitiveness and to attract foreign students. Preparing materials in foreign languages is an obligatory part of the projects fo r training and curriculum 
development. This is promoted by a subsidy gr anted to tertiary education institutions, among 
other things, for curriculum development in  foreign languages. Around 60–70 courses in 
foreign languages are offered by institutions. The number of internationa l students in Hungary 
has been steadily increasing over the past few years. The number of international students in 
study programmes provided in a fo reign language will definitely  grow, while the number of 
international students participating in st udy programmes in Hungarian will not change 
significantly. 
By law, higher education inst itutions must set aside funds fr om the statutory grant they 
receive from the state to suppor t their students in completing pa rt of their studies abroad. 
 
 - 68 - Students taking part in full-ti me degree programmes may obtai n a student loan for their 
subsistence abroad. The three-year agreements w ith tertiary institutions  — connected to their 
budgetary support — encourage the reception of in ternational students and the creation of the 
necessary conditions. 24 out of 28 state-owned te rtiary institutions had increased mobility of 
incoming and outgoing students in cluded among the target indica tors of these three-year 
agreements. More and more institutions are initiating joint study programmes through 
accreditation of a common study programme fo r Hungarian and foreign universities. 
5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Hungary adopted its Lifelong Learning Strategy in 2005. The strategy covers all levels of 
education, although its primary focus is on th e formal sector. The strategy builds upon 
existing national and international knowledge and integrates the relevant EU policy concepts. 
Its priorities are in line with those laid down in the framework strategy for education and 
training 2020. The Hungarian Parliament reports  on the implementation of the strategy every 
two years (2007, 2009, 2011, 2013). Although the strate gy as such does not have an assigned 
budget, over the past five years the implementa tion of the strategy has been supported through 
programmes financed from the European Social Fund. 
The establishment of the Na tional Qualifications Framew ork (NQF) is ongoing. Following a 
study on European practices in the field of qualific ations frameworks, an Expert Working 
Group has started to prepare a proposal regardi ng a legal and institutional framework for the 
NQF, which is expected to be adopted in 2011. 
Adult participation in lifelong learning in Hungary  is one of the lowest in the EU, and the 
country’s performance has not improved si nce 2003. The benchmark indicator, which 
measures the frequency of participation, is no w less than one third of the EU average. To 
remedy the situation, recent legal changes enable adult education providers to offer courses in 
an easier and more flexible manner. This simplification aims to contribute to expanding the educational services provided by public cultural institutions and t hus reduce the inequality of 
learning opportunities, especially  in disadvantaged regions and towns. In addition, the amount 
that small and medium-sized en terprises can set aside to train their own workers instead of 
paying their obligatory vocational contribution has been doubled. Th is should lead an increase 
in the participation of adults in training cour ses. In the last two years, the number of 
participants in adult ed ucation has grown (by 8
 % from 2008 to 2009 and by 25  % from 2009 
to 2010), but this is probably because in the reference period adult education institutions 
complied better with registration requirements.  On the employers’ side, the amount of the 
vocational training tax reduction available for training their own employees has remained 
more or less the same in gross terms as in the previous years. The main measures taken to recover from the economic crisis targeted the promotion of adult education and training. The 
so-called 4+1 (‘Four days of work, one day of  learning’) programme was launched with co-
financing by the European Soci al Fund and attracted around 12
 000 participants. 
Various measures have been implemented in th e area of vocational educ ation and training and 
higher education to improve the assessment of  future skills and skills forecasting. The 
Regional Development and Training Committees  determine for the regional integrated 
vocational training centres — and thus indir ectly for the vocational schools operating under 
them — the orientation and extent of vocationa l training provided as full-time education, 
decide on the development subsidies for a gi ven region, make suggestions as to what 
qualifications are to be classified as shortage qualifications and identify the qualifications demanded by the regional economy. In order to facilitate vocational education and training, 
financial incentives have targeted mainly st udents with a student contract and trainer 
 
 - 69 - companies. There is an ongoing project, financed  by the European Social Fund, with the aim 
of providing decision-makers with mid- a nd long-term labour market forecasts based on 
mathematical-statistical models. The forecasts will be available from 2013. 
In the area of higher education, current law requires all higher education institutions to 
monitor graduates’ career paths. A standard career monitoring sy stem is being established and 
the implementation of institu tional career monitoring syst ems is being funded by the 
European Social Fund. One of the functions of career monitoring is to provide feedback about 
the competences needed by the economy and to in form higher education institutions of these 
requirements. The Hungarian Chamber of Comm erce and Industry conducts regular surveys 
among companies on how higher education graduates succeed at the workplace. Labour market needs are addressed by an advisory body,  the Higher Education and Research Council, 
which continuously examines the relations between  the labour market and higher education in 
its forums. In higher education institutions, th e management financial council has an indicator 
function to call attention to ec onomic and social needs, especially in preparatory work for 
decisions on development. 
6. I
NVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Hungary EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 4.42  % 5.10  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Public investment in education,  as a percentage of GDP, grew  significantly between 2000 and 
2008, whereas in the EU as a whole it increased on ly slightly. As a result , Hungary is now just 
above the EU average performance. 
Since 2006, the total amount of statutory grants  and grants provided from the central budget 
for school education tasks has been con tinuously declining, and in 2010 was only 80  % of the 
2006 figure. Due to the recessi on, additional reductions in spending were required in both 
2010 and 2011, when budget expenditure was blocked. The net reduction in state 
contributions and grants for school educati on (falling from HUF 410.4 billion in 2010 to HUF 
404.2 billion in 2011) resulted from the decrease in  the number of children and students and 
the increase in the number of users of edu cation-related services (increased number of 
beneficiaries of free or subsid ised meals). New projects have only been implemented using 
EU grants and domestic co-financing, and the existing development plans have been reviewed. 
The economic crisis beginning in the second half of 2008 did not affect the statutory grants 
provided from the national budget to school-based  vocational training (at least at their 
nominal value). However, local governmental contributions were reduced, teachers’ wages 
were frozen, the 13
th-month salary was terminated, and that part of the allocation for 
education and training within th e Labour Market Fund available to the minister responsible 
for education was entirely withdr awn. As a result, the sector is facing strict er financial 
conditions. Since 2007 the budget available for vocational catch-up tr aining for those who 
have not completed primary e ducation has been decreasing. 
In the period from 2008 to 2010 state grants prov ided to higher educa tion institutions fell by 
10–11  % in real terms. However, within this sum, the amount of student and social assistance 
 
 - 70 - did not change. For several years, budgetary support for tertiary ed ucation has remained 
unchanged at around 1  % of GDP. 
While certain budgetary consolidations have proved necessary in lin e with the country’s 
convergence programme, it is crucial that all fu rther changes in the education budget and their 
impact be closely monitored. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
The main policy challenge for Hungary rema ins to reduce the disparities between the 
composition and structure of the human capital  trained in the education system and the 
demands of the labour market. The planned re form of higher education already seeks to 
improve the responsiveness of the system to the needs of the economy. In addition, recent measures implemented to modernise the vocat ional education and tr aining system, including 
an enhanced role for the chambers of commerce,  are also steps in this direction. However, 
continuous low participation of adults in lifelong  learning, which is also reflected in the low 
occupational mobility of the work force, ha mpers competitiveness and contributes to low 
adaptation to change. Disadvantaged groups shoul d receive increased atte ntion early on in the 
education system to avoid them leaving sc hool early and becoming unemployed or inactive 
later on as a result. 
While the budgetary situation in Hungary remains challenging, all efforts need to be made not 
only to increase cost-effectiveness but also to secure an adequate level of financing in 
education and training. 
 
 - 71 - IRELAND 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training. 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Ireland EU average EU Benchmarks IRELAND   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  75.0  % 73.4  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 11.0  % 17.2  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 16.4  %0620.8  %0924.006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science 15.5  %0615.2  %0920.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  14.6  %0210.5  % b 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  27.5  % 49.9  % 22.4  % 33.6  % -   40  % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  5.9 % 03 6.7 % 8.5 % 039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009 e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 
 - 72 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Recital (7) 
On 7 December 2010, the Council adopted Impl ementing Decision 2011/77/EU on granting 
Union financial assistance to Ireland for a peri od of three years under the provisions of the 
Treaty and Regulation (EU) No  407/2010 of 11 May 2010 establishi ng a European financial 
stabilisation mechanism. The accompanying Memorandum of Understanding signed on 16 
December 2010 and its first update lay down th e economic policy conditions on the basis of 
which the financial assistance is granted. Implementing Decision 2011/77/EU was amended 
by Implementing Decision 2011/326/EU. The first update of the Memorandum of Understanding was signed on 18 May 2011. 
Recommendation 
Implement the measures laid down in Impl ementing Decision 2011/77/EU, as amended by 
Implementing Decision 2011/326/EU, and furt her specified in the Memorandum of 
Understanding of 16 December 2010 and its update of 18 May 2011. 
3. E
UROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
Ireland’s early school leaving rate of 10.5% is al most 4% lower than the EU average and is 
nearly at the EU benchmark of  10%. Ireland’s proposed Eur ope 2020 target for ESL is 8%. 
This target is attainable in accordance with the current trend.  Some of the success in reducing 
ESL can be attributed to DEIS (Delivering Eq uality of Opportunity in Schools), a national 
action plan for educational inclusion, which fo cuses on the needs of 3 to 18 year-olds from 
disadvantaged communities. It has 875 participating schools, some 22  % of all schools in 
Ireland. DEIS adopts an integrated approach with early intervention as the core principle and 
enhancing attendance, progression, retention an d attainment as central aspects. Among the 
key issues and needs addressed by DEIS are: 
• improved identification of disadvantage, en abling resources to be targeted more 
effectively; 
• targeted reductions in pupil-teacher ratios and additional non-pay allocations for 
schools based on level of disadvantage; 
• access to additional literacy/numeracy support and programmes; 
• access to Home/School/Community Liai son and School Completion Programme 
(SCP) services; 
• enhancing research and evaluation of outcomes. 
An evaluation of DEIS by the independent Educational Research Centre is underway. 
In order to proactively prevent ESL  the introduction in January  2010 of the Universal Free 
Preschool Year in Early Ch ildhood Care and Education (ECCE) Scheme is a major 
development in the area of early childhood education and care. By September 2010, 63  000 
children, or 94  % of the eligible child c ohort, were taking part in the scheme. The Early Start 
programme is a pre-school progr amme for 3 and 4 year-olds wh ich offers one year of pre-
school (meeting the ISCED Level 0 classificat ion) to children in designated areas of 
disadvantage. The programme, which can cater for 1  650 children, aims to provide children 
 
 - 73 - who are most at risk of educational disadvant age with an educational programme that will 
enhance their development and prevent failure at school. 
To compensate  for early school leavi ng, Ireland implements the Youthreach programme 
targeting young people aged between 15 and 20 who leave school early without any 
qualifications. The programme provides two years of integrated education, training and work 
experience, with a strong emphasis on personal development. Basic sk ills training, practical 
work training and general education are th e key features of the programme, and the 
application of new technologies is integrated within all aspects of the programme content. 
With 6  000 places available nationwide under the programme in 2010, Youthreach achieved 
an overall progression rate of approximately 65%  to employment  or further education and 
training. 
Ireland also implements a range of further edu cation and training programmes, the objectives 
of which include the provision of second chance education fo r people who did not complete 
secondary level. For example, the Back to  Education Initiative (BTE I) programme is a part-
time initiative for learners who wish to pursu e part-time or modular programmes. Under the 
BTEI a programme may be offered for as little as 1 hour per w eek or as much as 17 hours per 
week, depending on the needs and demands of th e prospective learners. BTEI offers free 
tuition to anyone over 16 years of age with less than upper second-leve l education, and aims 
to give adults an opportunity to combine their return to learning with family, work and other 
responsibilities. BTEI had 28  000 participants in 2010. 
As regards low achievers , the  PISA study results show a  significant deterioration in reading 
performance between 2000 and 2009, a similar tr end as regards mathematics between 2006 
and 2009, and a stable performance in scie nce between 2006 and 2009 (with 15.5% low 
achievers in science in  2006 and 15.2% in 2009). 
The rollout in 2011 of a new plan to improve literacy and numeracy teaching and learning in 
Ireland’s schools, will help address this situa tion in addition to cont ributing to achieving the 
national early school leaving targ et. The National Strategy to Im prove Literacy and Numeracy 
among Children and Young People is designed to improve literacy and numeracy outcomes in 
response to both recent PISA resu lts and reports indicating that standards in these areas were 
deteriorating. The Strategy has implications fo r teacher training in th e broadest sense, for 
curriculum reform more generally, and for the us e of assessment in schools and more broadly 
within the educational syst em. It proposes very significant improvements to teacher 
education. It calls for initial te acher education courses for primary teachers to move to a four-
year degree, with substantial school-based time and an increas e in literacy and numeracy 
modules (and other pedagogical c ourses), at the expense of the humanities subjects which the 
bulk of student teachers take to  degree level. Teacher educatio n courses for the majority of 
secondary teachers will move from one- to tw o-year post-degree co urses with a greater 
proportion of teachers studying concurrent de gree programmes (i.e. programmes in which 
students undertake academic subj ects and pedagogical studies). 
Another initiative in this area is Project Maths,  a major programme for reform in 
mathematics. It began in all second-level schools at  both junior and senior cycles in 
September 2010, building on the experience of 24  schools that began the programme in 2008. 
Project Maths is designed to encourage better understanding of mathematics, to reinforce its 
practical relevance to everyday life and to en sure better curriculum continuity across the 
system. It is supported by comprehensive invest ment in the professional development of 
teachers, which will c ontinue until at least 2013. 
 
 - 74 - 3.2. Tertiary attainment 
Ireland has already achieved a high tertiary attainment rate for 30–34 year-olds (49.9  % in 
2010) as the participation rates of both secondary  education graduates and adult entrants have 
been increasing steadily over the last decade. Using the related National Skills Strategy targets as a basis, Ireland’s proposed 2020 ta rget figure for tertiary attainment is 60
 %. In 
addition, Ireland has set itself the target of 48  % of the labour force (i .e. the population in the 
age range 25–64) with tert iary attainment by 2020. 
 In general terms Ireland performs relatively well, and clearly above EU average, when it 
comes to Mathematics, Science and Tec hnology (MST) graduates per 1.000 young people. 
However, as regards MST graduates from high er education, their number has decreased by 
13.6% during the period from 2000 to 2009. At the same time the share of female graduates 
has also decreased from 37.9% in 2000 to 30.7% in 2009. In the future it is expected that the recent in crease in the enrolment figures of new entrants 
will lead to a growth in th e number of MST graduates. 
The National Strategy for Higher Education to 2030 was published in early January 2011 and 
provides a framework for the development of the higher education sector for the next twenty 
years. The recommendations of the Strategy aim to increase the quality and flexibility of the 
system to ensure that it is responsive to the needs of an increasingly diverse cohort of 
students. 
Ireland’s National Plan for Equity of Acce ss to Higher Education 2008–2013 establishes a 
number of benchmarks and actions to increase access by under-represented groups, 
particularly disadvantaged  students, mature students and st udents with disabi lities. The plan 
also recognises the importance of  further education in providing the relevant skills to enable 
learners to access higher educati on. A mid-term review of the Pl an was being finalised at the 
time of writing. In addition, the administration of student grant schemes for tertiary education 
is currently undergoing a radical  restructuring, under the Stude nt Support Act, which was 
signed into law in February 2011. 
The core funding of higher education institutions  in Ireland is being developed to incentivise 
lifelong learning policy and practice. From 201 0, the annual budget of all publicly funded 
institutions includes a ‘core access grant’ calculated on the basis of a weighting of 33
 %, 
linked to the number of ‘access students’ enroll ed in each institution, including numbers of 
mature/lifelong learners. The propor tion of full-time entrants who engage in ter tiary education 
as mature students in Ireland increased from 9  % in 2004 to 14  % in the 2009/10 academic 
year. They should comprise 20  % of all full-tim e entrants by 2013. 
4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Ireland  has an outbound long-term mobility (17.7  % of students 
per year) much higher than the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the EU 
Erasmus programme (0.8  % of students in 2008/09) is near the EU average.  
Investing in Global Relationships: Ireland’ s international education strategy 2010–2015  
(published in September 2010) places significan t emphasis on learning mobility, particularly 
within staff and student cohorts in the highe r education system. Amo ng other things, this 
strategy considers the barriers to enhanced  mobility, and makes recommendations to 
education institutions to overcome these barriers. 
The strategy recommends the introduction of in ternational strategies  for higher education 
institutions to set out an internationalisation vi sion and targets for each institution. This will 
 
 - 75 - include the mobility of learners and staff (e.g. through building mobility windows into 
academic programmes). 
The strategy also recommends reform of a (m odestly funded) existing scholarship programme 
to promote inward and outward mobility, and active consideration is being given to this 
recommendation. 
The High Level Group on International Education, which draws together representatives from 
government departments, state agencies and the education sector and re ports to the Minister 
for Education and Skills, m eets on a quarterly basis. 
The Annual Erasmus Lecture, information disse mination (including the Eurolink newsletter), 
‘valorisation’ and networking seminars/events, which apply equally to students and education 
professionals, along with Erasmu s Staff Ambassadors, are designe d to promote mobility in 
higher education. 
Several national and regional information meetings  are held each year to promote the Lifelong 
Learning Programme in general and specifi c sub-programmes (Comenius for schools, 
Leonardo da Vinci for VET and Grundtvig fo r adults). Topics covered include the 
opportunities for teachers, school principals, trainers, training centr e managers, guidance 
counsellors, human resource special ists and other VET professiona ls to benefit from learning 
mobility actions. 
5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Although there is no overarching strategy documen t, publication of the White Paper on adult 
education, Learning for Life,  in 2000 marked the adoption of  lifelong learning as a governing 
principle of education and training policy in Ireland. The introduction of the National 
Framework of Qualifications in  2003 has made it easier for le arners to understand how the 
education system works and how one award can lead on to anothe r. It helps the learner map 
out the route that their education will take a nd clarifies for prospective employers that the 
NFQ is a system of 10 levels ranging from basic education at level 1 to doctorate level at level 
10. 
The Expert Group on Future Skills Needs (E GFSN) advises the Irish government on the 
current and future skills needs of the economy and on other labour market issues that impact 
on Ireland’s enterprise and employ ment growth. It has a central role in ensuring that labour 
market needs for skilled workers are antici pated and met. Since 2009 the Expert Group has 
completed analysis of future skills require ments in some key exporting sectors of the 
economy — the BioPharmaChemical sector, Ente rprises in 6 sub-sectors of the Green 
Economy (Nov 2010), ICT skills updates to meet  recent developments (May 2011), the Food 
& Beverages sector (Nov 2009) and the key lo cally traded sector Wholesale & Retail. 
The National Skills Strategy was prepared by  the EGFSN in 2007. It identifies Ireland’s 
current skills profile, provides a strategic visi on and specific objectives for Ireland’s future 
skills requirements, and a road map for how  the vision and objectives for 2020 can be 
achieved. The Strategy sets out clear long-term objectives for the education and training 
requirements needed to develop Ireland as a knowledge-based, innovation-driven, 
participative and inclusive economy with a highly skilled workforce by 2020. An additional 500
 000 individuals within the workforce will need to be upskilled and to  progress by at least 
one NFQ level over and above their current level of education and traini ng. A report update of 
March 2010 concluded that si gnificant progress had been made towards meeting the 
objectives set out in the Nationa l Skills Strategy. The most signi ficant challenge for the period 
to 2020 is upskilling those at NFQ Levels 1–3 to NFQ Levels 4 & 5.   
 
 - 76 - The Department and the National Council fo r Curriculum and Assessm ent (NCCA) engage on 
an ongoing basis with the EFGSN and other i ndustry and social pa rtner interests on 
curriculum reform. 
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Ireland EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP  4.28  % 5.62  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Public investment in education  as a percentage of GDP has increased significantly in Ireland 
since 2000 within a context of strong economic growth during the period 2000–2008, 
implying strong growth of spending in absolute terms. 
In the economically challenging period si nce 2009, while the government has sought to 
protect education expenditure from both cu rrent and capital saving measures across 
departments, it has nevertheless been necessary   to implement significant savings across the 
education sector. The budgets of 2009 and 2010 identified savings of €  150  m (€  256  m, or 
about 3  % of current expenditure, in a full year) and €  96 m (€  163  m, or about 2  % of current 
expenditure, in a full year), respectively. A nu mber of measures intr oduced in 2009 were 
subsequently moderated or reversed as a resu lt of commitments made in the October 2009 
Renewed Programme for Government. 
The budget of 2011 provides for further cu rrent expenditure savings of some €  175  m (€  320 
million annually or some 3.5  % of current expenditure by 2014) to be secured across the 
education sector. This €  175  m is broken down into €  74 m in pay and €  101  m in non-pay 
savings (€  181  m pay and €  139  m non-pay annually by 2014). Notwithstanding these savings, 
the current allocation for 2011 is actually higher than the outturn  for 2010. This is due to the 
fact that the 2011 allocation also takes account of upward expenditure pressures, mainly due to increases in pension expenditure and the im pact of significantly in creasing demographics 
(with enrolment over the next four  years projected to increase by 6
 %, 5  % and 18  % in 
primary, secondary and tertiary education, resp ectively) on teacher numbers and on student 
support payments. 
The savings are spread across the education and skills sector and include reductions in the 
school transport scheme, staff numbers, student  support and training a llowances. For higher 
education specifically, a new stude nt contribution charge of €  2 000 has replaced the Student 
Services Charge of €  1 500 as from the 2011/2012 academic year. In 2011, the Higher 
Education Authority is undertaking further work  on the sustainability of the existing funding 
framework to inform policy options for future funding of the sector. Th e allocation for capital 
expenditure has also been reduced by some 40  % since 2008, although falling land values and 
tender prices have significantly moderated the impact of these reductions on the educational 
building programme. 
Under the terms of the EU/IMF Programme of Fi nancial Support and as set out in the National 
Recovery Plan 2011–2014, which commit the government to reducing overall current expenditure by €
 7 billion by 2014, bringing spending back to 2007 levels, further reductions 
in expenditure on education of the order of €350m will be required by 2014. 
 
 - 77 - 7. CONCLUSIONS  
Ireland offers a contrasted picture as regards th e performance of its education system, with a 
very high rate of higher educa tion attainment, but also cha llenges relating to early school 
leaving  and participation in adult learning. Scho ol achievement has dete riorated, particularly 
in reading and mathematics but recent initiatives ta rgeting disadvantaged  groups are having 
positive effects. 
The development of vocational training opportunities , in particular the up-skilling of the work 
force and of the unemployed, is likely to  support progress towards the Europe 2020 
objectives. 
With significantly increasing demographics, enrolmen t figures are expected to continue to rise 
over the medium term at all levels of edu cation. This should bring new demands for both 
learning provision and infrastructure.  
In this context, the main chal lenge for Ireland will be to pres erve expenditure on education 
and training against the background of  strict fiscal consolidation, to facilitate future growth. 
 
 - 78 - ITALY 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training. 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Italy EU average EU Benchmarks 
ITALY   
  
 
2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  100  % 98.2  %0985.2  % 91.7%09  95 % 
 
Reading 18.9  % 21.0  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 32.8  %0624.9  %0924.006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science 25.3  %0620.6  %0920.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  25.1  % 18.8  %  17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  11.6  % 19.8  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  6.3 %046.2 %  8.5 % 039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
04= 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = br eak, p = provisional, 
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 79 - 2.  EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
Given the persistently high government debt a nd lagging productivity gr owth over the past 
decade, Italy faces public finance constraints and wide-ranging structural challenges and 
bottlenecks to growth. The latter , generally more severe in th e southern regions, concern: 
competitiveness; the labour market; the busine ss environment; education; and research and 
innovation. These challenges coincide with thos e acknowledged by the Ita lian authorities in 
the NRP. As regards human capital, despite some  progress, Italy still has a relatively high 
number of early school leavers and low tertiary education attainment levels. Moreover, Italian 
students score poorly on the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), 
with performance in the northern regions in  line with or above the EU average but 
significantly worse in the south. Resources devo ted to higher education are low compared to 
the EU average, both in terms of share of GDP (0.76
 % vs 1.12  % of GDP in 2007) and as 
measured by per student spending (€  7211 EUR vs €  9101 in PPS in 2007). Participation in 
lifelong learning is still lagging be hind the EU average and is particularly low for older and 
low-skilled workers. 
As regards specific measures for young pe ople, the government plans to expand 
apprenticeship schemes in order to boost the em ployment prospects of vocational trainees and 
early school leavers. The key measure is expans ion of the opportunities for apprenticeship, by 
giving students the opportunity to  work as an apprentice in a firm as an alternative to 
classroom learning during the last year of comp ulsory education. Measur es are also envisaged 
to improve education and training policies with a view to facilitating the transition from 
school to work, matching skills better to j ob requirements and reducing the school drop-out 
rate (measured as the percentage of the popula tion aged 18–24 with at most lower secondary 
education and not in further education or  training), which curre ntly stands at 19.2  %. These 
measures seem consistent with the planned targ et of reducing the scho ol drop-out rate to 15–
16 % by 2020. However, no strategy for reducing the high early school leaving rate seems to 
have been put in place, as the NRP does not indicate which specific factors driving early 
school leaving will be addressed and how. 
Furthermore, the NRP does not clarify whether a system of skill certification and vocational 
training standards at national level, to which the government is committed, is going to be put 
in place. The absence of such a system hampers the recognition of traini ng qualifications from 
one region to another. 
Italy has a high risk of povert y and social exclusion (24.7  % as against 23.1  % at EU level), 
mainly affecting people with low educational attainment, children, women, large households 
and households whose head is unemployed. 
The education system has undergone a series of  reforms with a view to modernising it and 
improving its cost-efficiency. The reform of pr imary education implemented in 2009 led to a 
significant cut in the number of teachers. Part of the reduction in current expenditure is meant 
to be redirected to finance investment in schoo l infrastructure, especially ICT. A reform of 
upper secondary education is being implemented as from the current school year and will be completed in 2015. It provides for simplification of the school curricula (fewer options and 
fewer overall classroom hours but more foreign- language teaching), enta iling also a reduction 
in the number of teachers. 
 
 - 80 - Improving the performance of the tertiary educa tion system is considered in the NRP as a 
priority for Italy, also in order to reach the 2020 target of a 26–27  % tertiary attainment rate 
for the 30–34 age group. The December 2010 reform of universities concer ns three key areas: 
governance, funding and recruitmen t. In particular, financial/a dministrative management is 
now clearly separated from management of t eaching and research activities. Furthermore, a 
growing share of funding is to be allocated to universities on the basis of teaching and 
research performance. A newly established Nati onal Agency for Evaluation of Universities 
and Research (ANVUR) will evaluate research and education institutions. Lastly, recruitment and career mechanisms are to be made more transparent and merit-based. The reform thus 
tackles some of the key weaknesses of the It alian university system, although a successful 
implementation will take time and require the cooperation of all actors involved. 
A final structural issue for It aly is its effectiveness in us ing EU cohesion policy funds to 
support growth and job creation. […] 
3. E
UROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
As pinpointed in the European Semester, early  school leaving remains a major challenge for 
Italy, which still performs below EU average le vels. Italy has set nati onal targets for reducing 
drop-out rates to 17.9  % in 2013, 17.3  % in 2015 and 15–16  % in 2020. This targ et takes into 
account additional planned efforts in 2007–2013, supported by structural funds and by regional policy nationwide, as well as the as sociated objectives for southern Italy. The 
accuracy of the estimations decreases as the time horizon increases, since it depends on 
variables that cannot at present be assesse d; a review of the 2020 figure is therefore 
recommended around 2015. 
Overall, the target appears to be broadly in accordance with  the trend, but lacking ambition 
given the current slow increase in performance. 
The measures adopted aim to curb the ESL ph enomenon in general, reducing disparities 
between north and south and improving the quality of education, such as more flexible paths, 
with easier transitions, improved guidance,  and more focus on basic skills and key 
competences. Measures also include the settin g up of a new National Pupils Registry to 
monitor whether compulsory education is comp lied with and to keep track of early school 
leaving, absenteeism or irregul ar attendance with a view to  adopting ad hoc preventive 
measures. As regards the preventi on of early school leaving, it is significant to note that Italy 
performs above the EU benchmark on particip ation in early childhoo d education. Where 
compensation is concerned, adult education oppor tunities target early school leavers as the 
main beneficiaries. 
Despite significant improvements during the last d ecade, further efforts appear to be needed –
through the structural funds but also through more  general measures — to  improve the overall 
quality of school education and performance to ensure achievement of the ESL target. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
The European Semester also highlighted th at Italy’s tertiary attainment rate (19.8
 %) is 
significantly lower than the EU average of 33.6  %. Italy also has low participation and high 
drop-out rates in tertia ry education. Nevertheless, the number of MST graduates  has 
considerably increased and is now above the 2010 EU benchmark. 
 
 - 81 - Italy intends to raise the tertiary attainment rate to 27  % by 2020. This objective confirms the 
current trends but lacks ambition. 
Italy has been implementing measures to increase  access and attainment in tertiary education 
since 1999, when a reform aligned the system with  the Bologna process. The reform increased 
the share of secondary school graduates enrolli ng in tertiary education, reaching a peak of 
74.4  % in 2003/2004. 
Also, public funding of higher educ ation institutions is linked to  the number of students, thus 
providing an incentive to reduce drop-out rates. Completion rates are assessed in the quality 
assurance procedure. 
Despite some undeniable efforts,  further action is needed to improve tertiary  attainment. 
Inefficiencies in the system need to be tackled, such as the high drop-out rate, the 
fragmentation of paths and the low correlati on between funding and performance. The key 
measures of the university reform adopted in December 2010 are steps in the right direction. 
They should be implemented and completed as a ppropriate to speed up raising the attainment 
rate. 
4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Italy has an outbound long-term mobility (1.8  % of students per 
year) below the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mob ility under the EU Erasmus 
programme (0.9  % of students in 2008/09) is slightly  above the EU average. Thanks to 
growing management autonomy, higher education institutions have been developing their 
own mobility and internationalisation strategies . A new law adopted in 2010 aims to promote 
the international recruitment of teachers and researchers. 
By 2020, Italy aims to reaching the target of 20  % of graduates with mobility experience set 
by the ministers responsible for higher e ducation in Leuven / Louvain la Neuve. 
Initial learning mobility peaked in 2004 (+9.5  %), while lifelong learning mobility peaked in 
2005 (+9.7  %). In 2007, with the launch of the LLP, th e trend diversified for the two distinct 
types of mobility: initial learning decreased (-6.9  % as compared to the year before) while 
there was a significant increase (+74.6  %) for lifelong learning. 
Further action would be appropriate to impr ove the balance between outgoing and incoming 
mobility, which is currently ne gative for incoming mobility. 
5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Italy does not have one single  comprehensive lifelong learni ng strategy but individual 
strategies for general education, vocational education and training and employment, with 
some common principles and intersections. In  accordance with the holistic approach to 
lifelong learning agreed at EU level, the vari ous sector-specific poli cies could be more 
effectively structured under an overarching conc ept to help maximise their effectiveness. 
The participation of adults in lifelong learni ng is low in comparison with the EU as a whole 
(6 % vs 9.3  % in 2009). It is at around half of the 2010 target of 12.5  % and is even further 
from the 2020 target of 15  %. Lifelong learning is especially low for the low-skilled (1.1  %), 
who would benefit the most from further educ ation. The insufficiently  developed continuing 
education and training system contributes to th e high share of the labour force with only low 
qualifications. Better consistency and closer co ordination between the di fferent policies would 
be likely to improve participation in LLL. 
 
 - 82 - The measures implemented, such as the natio nal law on continuous vo cational training, the 
inter-professional funds introduced by the budget law and managed by the social partners, and 
the programmes financed by the ESF and manage d at regional level since 2001, would require 
further monitoring and evaluation. 
Italy expects to face a shortage in new job-rela ted high and intermediate skills, as well as a 
general mismatch between the sk ills provided by the education a nd training system and labour 
market requirements. By 2020, it risks becoming one  of the EU countries with a large poorly 
qualified proportion of the workforce. A new un it has therefore been established at the 
Ministry of Labour to collect skills requireme nts at geographical and sector level, and the 
setting up of a national centre for skills forecasting is planned. 
The 2010 Agreement between the state, regions a nd social partners established 21 vocational 
qualification profiles (three-year  length) and 21 vocational ce rtificate profiles (four-year 
length). 
A Government Decree on apprenticeship was adopted on 29 July 2011, defining the 
apprenticeship contract as ‘an employment contract of indefi nite duration with training and 
employment purposes’. A national monitoring centr e will be established to assess and forecast 
regional and sector-specific skil ls requirements with the help of professional associations, 
labour advisors, work agencies, bipartite bodies, etc. 
These measures address two major challenges — the development of apprenticeships and 
skills certification — highlighted during the European Semester, and are therefore steps in the 
right direction, which need to be pursued and reinforced. 
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Italy EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 4.55% 4.58% 4.88% 5.07% 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Public spending on education in It aly is below the EU average (4.58  % vs 5.07  % of GDP in 
2008); it has slightly increased over the last  decade but the gap has widened. Spending per 
student relative to GDP per capita is re latively high in primary education (22.7  % vs 26.6  % in 
2007), and is at the EU averag e in secondary education (25.1  % in 2007). 
Despite a relatively high level of expenditure, school education in Ital y produces poor results 
in terms of the performance of  15 year-olds on PISA tests, where the national average masks 
significant regional disparities: performance is  significantly worse in the south. Some recent 
improvements seem to suggest that the measures  implemented, mainly financed from the ESF, 
have been successful, although they  mostly focused only on prevention. It is also hoped that 
the increase in the length of compulsory education introduced by the Finance Law in 2007 is 
having a positive effect, as statistics suggest. Ne vertheless, further efforts would be needed, 
including the development of  a comprehensive strategy. 
Resources devoted to higher education are low compared to the EU average, both in terms of 
share of GDP (0.76  % vs 1.12  % in 2007) and in terms of per student spending (€  7210.9 vs 
€ 9101 in PPS in 2007). The corr elation between funding and pe rformance is also weak. 
Owing to the importance of tertiary educ ation for boosting innovation and growth, and 
 
 - 83 - considering Italy’s target to raise the attainment rate to 27  % by 2020, directing more funds to 
higher education should be considered. 
The budget allocated to vocationa l training and retrai ning as part of active labour market 
policies has been increased signi ficantly as a result of the economic cris is over the period 
2009–2010. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
Italy has progressed in tackling the challenges identified in th e European Semester 2011, but 
the country’s early school leaving performa nce remains far below the EU average. The 
recently established pupil monitoring system app ears to be an important step for preventing 
ESL. Striking the right balance between ES L prevention, compensation (e.g. by increasing 
adult participation rates in lifelong learning, which are currently very low) and targeted 
intervention measures will be important for Italy to ensure a faster improvement in ESL rates. 
While serious reforms have been initiated at pr imary and secondary school level as well as in 
higher education, and modernisation measures are planned in VET, Italy is facing the 
challenge of integrating the different levels of lifelong learning to im prove the overall quality 
and efficiency of the education and trai ning system, in particular in the south. 
Investment in education remains below the EU  average. This will be another important 
challenge for Italy, against the background of the European Semester recommendation to 
prioritise growth-enhancing expenditure in sect ors such as education and training even in 
periods of strict fi scal consolidation. 
 
 - 84 - LATVIA 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training. 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Latvia EU average EU Benchmarks 
LATVIA   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  65.4  % 89.6  %09 85.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 30.1  % 17.6  %09 21.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 20.7  %0622.6  %09 24.006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study 
results) 
 
 
Science 17.4  %0614.7  %09 20.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  16.9  %0213.3  % 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 18.6  % 32.3  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  7.8 % 035.0 %  8.5 % 039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
02 =2002, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 85 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Recital (1) 
On 20 January 2009, the Council adopted Decision  2009/290/EC1 to make available to Latvia 
medium-term financial assistance for a period of  three years under the provisions of Article 
143 of the Treaty. The accompanying Memorandum of Understanding signed on 28 January 
2009 and its successive supplements lay down the economic policy conditions on the basis of 
which the financial assistance is disbursed. Decision 2009/290/EC was amended on 13 July 
2009 by Council Decision 2009/592/EC.8 The last supplement to the Memorandum of 
Understanding was signed in June 2011. 
Recommendation 
Implement the measures laid down in Decision 2009/290/EC, as amended by Decision 
2009/592/EC, and further specified in the Memo randum of Understanding of 20 January 2009 
and its subsequent supplements, in partic ular the last supplement of 7 June 2011. 
Supplemental Memorandum of Understanding (fourth addendum to the Memorandum of 
Understanding), 7 June 2011 
To implement effective active labour market and education policies:  
a) by end-July 2011, prepare propo sals to the Commission as regards re-allocating 
sufficient additional funding within EU St ructural Funds for active labour market 
measures in 2012–2013; in this context, line ministries in cooperation with social 
partners and branch associations shall asse ss the adequacy, prioriti es and financing of 
existing and planned active la bour market programmes, with a view to facilitate 
through training and other activ ation measures the particip ants’ transition to regular 
employment, including self-employment. Im prove supply of relevant labour market 
skills by promoting up-skilli ng, re-skilling and work-b ased training measures. 
b) by end-September 2011, introduce monitoring system of training providers, based on, 
inter alia, job placement rates and customer survey results, and by end-March 2012, complete an independent evaluation of the voucher system functioning, in particular as 
regards relevance of training to  labour market needs.   
c) during 2011, further strengthen the capacities  of the State Employment Agency to 
allow more efficient job counselling serv ices through a lower number of unemployed 
per case-handler and introduction of innovative working methods. 
d) continue reforms in vocational educatio n by, inter alia, consolidating the number 
vocational education institutions and assessing  the study programmes in line with 
labour market needs and implementing the ‘money follows student’; continue reforms in higher education by assessing and consolidating the study programmes, 
concentrating the resources, and implem enting the performance based financing. 
                                                
 
8  OJ L 202, 4.8.2009, p. 52. 
 
 - 86 - 3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
In the last decade Latvia showed progress in  reducing the number of early school leavers 
(from 16.9  % in 2002 to 13.3  % in 2010) and currently performs better than the EU average of 
14.1  %. Based on current trends, Latvia is theref ore likely to reach its national target of 
13.9  %. 
However, Latvia presents a mixed picture as far as school achievement is concerned. It has 
made visible progress since 2000 in reducing its rate of low achiever s, in particular as regards 
reading and science, but the situ ation has deteriorated slightly in the field of mathematics. 
A positive development for monitoring early school  leaving has been the setting up of a State 
Education Information System (SEIS) in th e academic year 2010/2011 by the Ministry of 
Education and Science (MoES). SEIS contains  information about education institutions, 
academic programmes, students and teaching sta ff. It enables effici ent tracking of the 
educational process and provides accurate iden tification of students who have not commenced 
studies in the compulsory educational system  and also of students who have discontinued 
studies prematurely. SEIS covers both general and vocational education institutions. At the 
beginning of 2011, it showed that approximately 2  % of children of ma ndatory schooling age 
who are registered in the Latvia n population register are not re gistered with any educational 
institution. Based on SEIS data, the State Education Service ta kes steps in cooperation with 
local authorities to establish the reasons for drop-out. In a ddition, the Central Statistical 
Bureau compiles data on the number of students at vocational education institutions and the 
reasons for leaving them. 
In February 2011, procedures were  adopted for a single mechanis m to regulate the conduct of 
educational institutions where a st udent is not present at the star t of the school year or in any 
particular course. 
The measures planned by the Ministry of Educ ation and Science for the prevention of early 
school leaving include: enhancem ent of academic content in the first stage of elementary 
education (grades 1 to 6) in order to ensure  better compatibility with age-related learning 
capabilities; introduction of advanced learni ng methods by encourag ing an individualised 
approach to the learning process; introduction of flexible learning models, including night 
schools, involving the development of distance  learning options for in dividuals wishing to 
obtain secondary education, starting in the acad emic year 2011/2012; offering flexible 
vocational education programme s structured as learning modules; and providing the 
opportunity for secondary school leavers to obt ain Level 2 or 3 professional qualifications 
within 1 to 1.5 years. 
Compensation measures include pedagogical s upport to students with learning difficulties. 
Students with social behavioural disorders are provided with special e ducational programmes, 
which provide for simultaneous acquisition of curricula and social skills, focusing on an individual pedagogical approach. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
Tertiary attainment rates have improved si gnificantly in the last decade (from 18.6  % in 2000 
to 30.1  % in 2009 and 32.3  % in 2010), and the EU  average of 33.6  % has almost been 
reached. 
 
 - 87 - Latvia has set a national target of 34–36  % graduates by 2020, which, based on current trends, 
is likely to be achieved. 
The number of students has grown significantl y since the 1990s, but the increase slowed 
down after 2007 due to both demogr aphic decline and the uncha nged number of state-funded 
study places. The Latvian authorities estimate that in the coming 4–5 years the overall number 
of students is set to decrease due to the dec line in the purchasing power of the population and 
to unfavourable demographics. 
In 2010 Latvia started to implement a number of  measures (also financed by EU Structural 
Funds) to render higher education more attractiv e, accessible and competitive. An Action Plan 
for 2010–2012 provides for the following measures: improvement of the quality of study and 
scientific activity; upgrading of  material and technological provi sion and increased efficiency 
of resource use in higher education and scientif ic institutions; internationalisation of higher 
education; integration of the higher education and science sector with  the economy and social 
development. The Plan is implemented in collaboration with the Latvian Employers’ Confederation, the Latvian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and professional 
associations. 
To ensure equal access to hi gher education, improvements to  the mechanism for awarding 
scholarships and student loans have been initiated. These include broadening study 
opportunities and promoting more guidance on the choice of subject areas. In 2010 60
 % of 
the total number of scholarship recipients r eceived scholarships for higher education studies 
based on social criteria (low family income, disability, etc.). 
Nevertheless, from the academic year 2011-2012 a new system of distributing scholarships 
has come into force, based on academic merits as the main criteria. In the new system social criteria will be taken in to account only in the case of equal academic merits. 
The growth in MST graduates in Latvia since 2000 is less than one third of the EU average. 
The share of female MST graduates is around  the EU average and the gender balance has 
improved only slightly during recent years. 
4. M
OBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Latvia  has an outbound long-term mobility (2.9  % of students 
per year) close to the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the EU Erasmus 
programme (0.9  % of students in 2008/09) is al so close to the EU average. 
Latvia promotes the outgoing and incoming lear ning mobility of students in higher education. 
It relies on the Erasmus mobility programme but also on international cooperation programmes such as bilateral programmes for higher education cooperation and the Nordplus  
programme. To increase the internationalisation of higher education, Latvia has also adopted 
measures to encourage the interest of fo reign students in Latvian higher education 
programmes, namely joint projects for Baltic cooperation. 
Latvia aims to increase the share of international students in Latvia to 3
 % of the total number 
of students by the fourth quarter of 2012. Meas ures to identify and reduce obstacles to 
learning mobility include: promotion of study programmes in EU langua ges; negotiation of 
bilateral agreements with third countries for the recognition of academic degrees and 
qualifications; and provision of sc holarships to foreign students,  researchers and teaching staff 
under bilateral and trilateral  inter-governmental and inte r-departmental agreements.  
 
 - 88 - 5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
A lifelong learning strategy, co-financed by the St ructural Funds, has be en developed since 
2009. The strategy involves local authorities, so cial partners and higher education institutions. 
According to the Lifelong Learning Policy Guid elines, local authorities must provide basic 
skills to 15  % of adults within their territory. 
Adult participation in lifelong learning remain s limited and has been decreasing since 2003, 
hence widening the gap in re lation to the EU average. 
Latvia has implemented measures in vocatio nal and higher education to address youth 
unemployment and the incompatibility of skills with labour ma rket requirements. 
As of 1 October 2010, the Ministry of Educati on and Science is providing an opportunity to 
950 secondary-school-leavers to obtain Leve l 2 and 3 vocational qualifications. These 
measures encourage the acquisition of basic skills and more rapid in tegration within the 
labour market by ensuring a balanced acquisiti on of skills and competences for professional 
activity and continued education. 
Measures were also taken in the academic year 2010/2011 for adults who wish to complete 
basic and secondary education. Access to second-chance educatio n is offered through evening 
courses, tuition, social and pedagogical supp ort, and special educ ation programmes for 
various target groups. 
In 2010 and 2011, legislation was passed to regulate the assessmen t of professional 
competence acquired outside the formal educati onal system and to establish procedures for 
persons who have acquired profession al competences at Level 1, 2 or 3. 
In the area of higher edu cation, the Action Plan 2010–2012 incl udes measures for ensuring 
the compatibility of study programmes with economic needs, by increasing the role of 
entrepreneurs and employers in accrediting professional study programmes, by developing 
study programmes and evaluating their suita bility, by verifying study outcomes and 
evaluating the distribution of study places acros s academic disciplines, and by ensuring their 
conformity with trends in national economic de velopment. Latvia also aims to increase the 
share of graduates in natural sciences , engineering and technology programmes. 
In 2010, in collaboration with 16 i ndustry associations and prof essional organisations, further 
teacher education in accordance with industry ne eds began to be implemented, with the aim of 
raising the competence of the teachers and s upervisors involved in initial and further 
vocational education. 
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Latvia EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP  5.64  % 5.71  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Latvia’s level of investment in education  is above the EU average. However, education and 
training budgets have suffered si gnificant cuts due to the economi c and financial crisis since 
2008. The main challenge for Latvia will be to preserve expenditure on education and 
 
 - 89 - training, in a context of strict fiscal consolidation,  in order to facil itate future growth, 
following the general recommendation resu lting from the European Semester 2011. 
Latvia is implementing measures  to ensure cost-effi ciency in all area s of education. The 
school network has been adjusted  to needs and a ‘money follows  the pupil’ fundi ng model has 
been introduced. Funding from the Structural Funds has been invested in the creation of 
competence centres, the development of speciali sed vocational schools, and the modernisation 
of higher education. 
Latvia intends to increase the f unding for higher education by 2015 up to 1.2  % of GDP. At 
present, it constitutes 0.7  % of GDP. It plans to offset a r ecent decrease with savings arising 
from allocating funding to higher education instit utions for certain scholarships in accordance 
with actual demand. In 2011, less funding will be re quired for study loans, as loan interest 
rates have dropped significantly a nd are not expected to  rise again. Enrolment in programmes 
in lower priority areas will also be decreased. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
In line with the recommendation in the Memo randum of Understanding, Latvia has adopted 
measures in the areas of vocational and hi gher education. Such measures, supported by the 
Structural Funds, address in particular youth unemployment associated with the 
incompatibility of skills with  the requirements of the labour market, and structural reforms 
aimed at modernisation of the higher education sector. 
 
 - 90 - LITHUANIA 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training. 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Lithuania EU average EU Benchmarks 
LITHUANIA   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  60.6  % 79.6  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 25.7  %0
6 24.3  %0
9 21.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 23.0  %0
6 26.2  %0
9 - 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study 
results) 
 
 
Science 20.3  %0
6 17.0  %0
9 - 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  16.5  % 8.1 % b 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  42.6  % 43.8  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  5.9 % 044.0 % 8.5 % 039.1 % 10 12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
01 =2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e08 =2008, 09 =2009, = estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 
 - 91 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
In order to achieve the employment target of 72.8
 % by 2020, the long-term challenges 
include increasing the labour supply by raising th e retirement age, ensuring that the labour 
force has adequate skills, implementing targeted measures for disadvantaged groups and facilitating return to work af ter childcare. A well-designed and accessible lifelong learning 
system would help to contain the nega tive trends in adult lifelong learning
9 and encourage 
occupational mobility. This requires sufficient incentives to upgrade skills, with one possible 
means being the introduction of a training voucher system for work ers, especially targeted at 
the low-skilled and older workers. The new fo recasting tools for labour demand will help to 
better match qualifications to wh at is required by the market. 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
At 8.1  % in 2010, Lithuania’s early school leaving rate  is below the EU average. The national 
target set for 2020 is to keep the le vel of early school leavers below 9  %. Lithuania introduced 
a new data collection and monitoring sy stem for early school leaving in 2010 ( the Information 
System on Children not in Education and Pupil Absenteeism ), which collects regular updates 
and provides data analysis on children living in each municipal territory. Non-attendees who 
miss more than half of the lessons of the comp ulsory curriculum per month are recorded in 
the information system. The ma in priority target groups ar e young persons, mainly males, 
from rural areas, and young people with special educational needs, with a focus on lower secondary education and vocational training. 
The measures addressing early school leaving cover improving the quality and availability of 
early childhood education and care, where Lit huania has strongly incr easing participation 
rates, although further progress is need ed to reach the EU average level. 
Other measures include raising the quality and e fficiency of assistance to pupils in general 
education, providing support for pupils with sp ecial needs and pupils from disadvantaged 
backgrounds, developing vocational education and training and ensuring good quality second-
chance educational provision (e.g. Youth Centres ). 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
At 43.8
 % in 2010, Lithuania has one of the highest le vels of tertiary a ttainment in the EU, 
after two decades on the increase. Participatio n in higher education is remaining stable. 
Lithuania has made about the same progress as the EU average in incr easing the number of 
MST graduates.  Nevertheless, in this context a more sustainable gender balance remains to be 
achieved as far as female students are concerned. 
Lithuania is implementing a number of measures  to sustain tertiary attainment at the 40  % 
level, such as the state-supporte d study loan scheme, social sc holarships, financial support for 
students with disabilities, or targeted schol arships for certain type s of study programmes. 
                                                 
9  Participation in lifelong learning in Lithuania is very low (4.5  % in Lithuania, 13.8  % in the EU in 2009), 
with rates extremely low for the low-skilled (3.2  %) and older workers (1.9  % of 45–54 year olds). 
 
 - 92 - Some monitoring of potential decr eases in numbers of tertiary education graduates linked to 
the new funding system for higher education a nd the introduction of tuition fees may be 
relevant. 
Having adopted the new Law on Research and Higher Education in 2009, the government is 
keeping up its efforts to raise the quality of  higher education and address the mismatches 
between the supply of tertiary educati on graduates and labour market needs. 
4. MOBILITY  
Lithuania takes part in the Comenius, Leonardo da Vinci, Erasmus and Grundtvig 
programmes, the NordPlus Framework Programme (for schools, higher education institutions 
and adult learners) and the Academic Exchange Programme, and runs other projects, some 
supported by the EU Structural Funds, that encourage learning mobility. Lithuania also has 
learning mobility schemes based on bilateral agreements with educational and training institutions inside the EU and beyond (e.g. Japan, Israel, China). 
As regards tertiary education Lithuania has an outbound long-term mobility (3.6
 % of students 
per year) that is slightly  above the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the 
EU Erasmus programme (1.2  % of students in 2008/09) is also above the EU average. 
Lithuania is among the countries that recognis e teachers’ participation in international 
learning mobility as part of th e upgrading of their qualifications. 
The command of foreign languages is the major obs tacle to learning mobility in Lithuania. In 
order to address the issue and to facilitate participation in learning mobility, special courses for upgrading knowledge of foreign languages are provided. 
Lithuania’s approach to learning mobility app ears to be fully in line with the Council 
Recommendation ‘Youth on the move — promo ting the learning mobility of young people’ 
adopted in 2011. 
5. L
IFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Lithuania approved a Strategy fo r Ensuring Lifelong Learning in 2008, together with an 
Action Plan for its implementation. However, as the strategy and the action plan are rather 
general, the targets, deadlines and financing sources are not clearly indicated, and assessing 
the impact could be challenging. 
The EU Structural Funds are one of the larg est sources of financ ing for lifelong learning 
services in Lithuania. Lithua nia began to develop possibilities for pupils aged 14–19 to 
choose a learning pathway by way of differen tiated or individualised curriculum content 
through a School Improvement Programme Plus pr oject, supported by the European Social 
Fund, on the ‘Provision of options for choosi ng a learning pathway fo r students aged 14–19, 
phase II, wider differentiation an d individualisation of learning  to achieve the quality of 
education needed for today’s world of labou r’. The project is to be finalised in 2012. 
In 2008 Lithuania conducted a survey on future skills, the resu lts of which were used in 
forecasting levels of students’ admission to vocational schools and higher education 
establishments in 2009. In 2010, Lithuania starte d implementing a project for putting in place 
a monitoring system to ensure quality and effi ciency in the provision of career services in 
general education and in particul ar in VET, where enrolment is  very low. In  2010, a research 
project on the demand for specialists and sk ills was undertaken, which was a basis for 
developing a map of the needs for specialists and skills in the various economic sectors for the 
 
 - 93 - period 2011–2016. Lithuania is continuing to work  on the development of the public policy 
framework for forecasting skills demand. 
Although the measures outlined above are consis tent with the main challenges identified 
during the European Semester, namely the need  for a well developed lifelong learning system 
and for upgrading and forecasting skills for the labour market, the deterioration in lifelong indicators seems to suggest the need fo r a more focused implementation approach. 
6. I
NVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Lithuania EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education, % of GDP  5.90  % 4.91  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
 
Public investment in education  as a percentage of GDP ha s fallen since 2000 and is now 
slightly below the EU average. 
The education budget in Lithuania was adversel y affected by the econo mic crisis between 
2009 and 2011. The main effects could be observed on the salaries of educational staff, where 
the planned increases at all leve ls of education were suspende d, and salary adjustments were 
made in the higher education and research sector. 
Social support schemes for pupils from disadvantaged families are continued in spite of the 
effects of the crisis. In order to support fa milies with school-age children and provide pupils 
with nourishing meals at school, Lithuania has le gal provisions specifyi ng that children from 
low-income families are entitled to free meals an d free provision of school supplies for every 
school year. 
Prioritising investment in educa tion and training in the contex t of budgetary re strictions, in 
order to enhance growth in line with the general recomme ndation resulting from the 2011 
European Semester, will be a significant challenge for Lithuania. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
Lithuania offers a contrasted picture as regard s the performance of its education system, with 
a high rate of tertiary education attainment and relatively low early school leaving levels. At 
the same time it faces major challenges in othe r areas, such as pre-school education, school 
achievement and adult learning. 
Lithuania has taken several initiatives to st rengthen the learning ca pacity of the school 
population and to maintain achieveme nts at all levels of education. 
Particular challenges will be for Lithuania to step up efforts to improve early childhood 
education and care, performance in specific subjects and adult participation in lifelong 
learning.   
 
 - 94 - LUXEMBOURG 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training. 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Luxembourg EU average EU Benchmarks 
LUXEMBOURG   
  
 
2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 94.7  % 94.3  %08 85.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading (35.1  %) 26.0  %09 21.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 22.8  %0623.9  %09 24.006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science 22.1  %0623.7  %09 20.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 16.8  % 7.1  % b,u 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 21.2  % 46.1  % b 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 6.5 % 03 13.4  % b 8.5 % 039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
01= 2001, 03= 2003, 5= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, u= unreliable 
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average  performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 
 - 95 - The Luxembourg education system is simultaneously faced with the diversity of the academic 
population, which has rates of foreign st udent participation of between 35 and 50  %, 
depending on the educational level, and the multilingual nature of the system, which provides teaching in Luxembourgish, German and French in  primary education, and also in English at 
the beginning of the lower cycle of secondary education and in certain  vocational institutions. 
2. E
UROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
Over the last ten years the e ducation budget in Luxembourg has in creased steadily  in absolute 
terms, but has dropped slightly as a share of GDP, and is below the EU average (this does not 
include spending on higher education). The c ountry’s performance is fairly mixed in 
comparison to other EU countries, with problems in early school leaving and higher education 
attainment. The NRP stresses the reforms alr eady introduced in the fields of primary, 
secondary and professional educatio n as well as professional training. 
With an early school leaving (ESL) rate of 9  % (2008–2009),10 Luxembourg has reached its 
target and is considering a more ambitious objective. However, th e migrant population in 
particular is still hit heavily by early school  leaving. For children from immigrant families 
where none or only one of the offi cial languages is spoken at home, gaining proficiency in all 
three official languages is difficult. For student s without fluency in the three languages, a 
number of career paths will be closed. 
Upper secondary attainment, at 76.8  % in 2009, is below the EU average of 78.6  %. This can 
be partly explained by strong ne t migration, with many young adults  that have been educated 
outside the national educatio n system. In addition, tertia ry attainment rates (30  % in 2009)11 
are below the EU average (32.3  %), despite the strong demand for workers with tertiary 
qualifications. This low rate is , however, linked to the fact th at Luxembourg does not define 
this indicator on the basis of the Eurostat La bour Force Survey (LFS) (according to which 
Luxembourg has a 46.6  % rate), defining it instead on th e basis of only the resident 
population. The NRP underlines the objective of ensuring that 40  % of the resident population 
hold a university (or equivalent) degree and presen ts a series of measures aimed at achieving 
this objective. Several measures focus on in creasing the number of students embarking on 
higher education. These include allowing the valid ation of prior learning and experience to 
give access to university studies, increasing shor t higher education studies , establishing a link 
between higher education programmes and co mpanies’ needs in order to promote 
employability of higher education graduates, and offering financial support to all students 
whether they are studying in Luxembourg or outs ide the country. Policy measures to promote 
entry to higher education and to ensure succe ssful completion of studies within a reasonable 
timeframe are not clearly described in the NRP. Close monitoring of the impact of these measures will be important. 
Adult participation in lifelong learning (13.4
 % in 2009) has improved. This would be further 
improved through a coherent and closely monitored lifelong learning strate gy, particularly for 
the population aged 55–64 with a low education leve l. The reform of vocational education and 
training (VET) will provide more possibilities to  bridge the gap between vocational training 
and higher education. A key challenge will be to  increase the quality and attractiveness of 
                                                 
10  National figure. The Eurostat figure stands at 7.7  %. 
11  National figure. The Eurostat figure stands at 46.8  %. 
 
 - 96 - VET studies and to raise the standard to excelle nt in order to provide a qualified workforce to 
the labour market and offer j ob prospects to the learners. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Recommendation (4) 
Take steps to reduce youth unemployment by re inforcing training and education measures 
aimed at better matching young pe ople’s skills to labour demand. 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
At present Luxembourg does not define the edu cation indicators on the ba sis of the Eurostat 
Labour Force Survey (LFS) but on the basis of th e early school leaver detection system set up 
by the Ministry of Education and Vocatio nal Training and on th e resident population. 
 
3.1. Early school leaving 
Luxembourg has set a national target of 10  % of school leavers by 2020. However, if the 
objective is reached and the rate stabilised by 2015 the national target might be replaced by a 
more ambitious one. 
Luxembourg performs better than th e EU average in the area of Early leavers from education 
and training . In 2008–2009 the share of early  school leavers reached 9  % (Eurostat figure: 
7.7 %). A decline in the number of early scho ol leavers began in 2003, due to improved 
guidance, systematic follow-up of students who drop out and the creation of new academic 
possibilities for students with difficulties. In th is area Luxembourg has put in place a set of 
measures to address early school leaving, including the promotion of success in school, 
strengthening counselling activities and implementing a progra mme to reintegrate pupils into 
school taking into account the diversif ied origin of the school population (35  % to 50  % of the 
pupils are of foreign origin). A seco nd-chance school was opened in March 2011. 
As regards the quality of teaching at primary and secondary level Luxembourg has also put in 
place tools for monitoring and assessing pr ogress via the agency for school quality 
development ( Agence pour le développement de la qualité scolaire — ADQS ). 
Participation in early childhood education  is slightly above the EU average in Luxembourg. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
The tertiary education attainment  rate in Luxembourg is far above the EU average and 
already above the 2020 headline target. Measured  in percentage points , Luxembourg is the 
EU Member State that has progressed most in this area after Ireland. The number of MST 
graduates  in Luxembourg has grown only moderate ly since 2000 (below the EU average), 
while the share of female MST graduates is  above the EU averag e and close to gender 
balance. 
With regard to tertiary attainment, Luxembourg has se t a national target of 40  %. In 2009 the 
share of 30–34 year olds with tertia ry education attainment reached 30  %, while the Eurostat 
figure shows a share of 46.6  %. Luxembourg has decided to ba se the calculation method on 
the resident population in order to better a ssess the ability of the Luxembourg education 
system to prepare young people to  complete tertiary education. 
 
 - 97 - The measures taken focus, on the one hand, on  secondary education and aim to equip the 
highest number of future students with the key competencies needed to successfully complete 
tertiary education; on the othe r hand, they focus on broadening the offer of higher education 
curricula. . The Luxembourg State also gives financial contribution to students who take 
higher or university education. The financial aid can consist of two parts: a grant paid by the 
State into the student's personal account and a loan at an interest rate of only 2%. 
Higher education in Luxembourg features the rece nt creation of a higher education institution, 
the University of Luxembourg, established in  2003 with three faculties: Technology and 
Information; Law, Economics and Finance; a nd Arts and Human and Educational Sciences. 
Several new study programmes have been created  and integrated into the Bologna system. 
The University makes higher education in Luxem bourg more transparent, as the structure of 
the studies is directly linked to  the Bologna Process. Alongside  education, the University of 
Luxembourg puts strong emphasis on research. Five principal research priorities have been set 
and are a part of the multiannual contract ( 2010–2013) signed between the University and the 
government of Luxembourg. 
Despite the fact that Luxembourg has its ow n university, most stude nts undertake studies 
outside the country. The high enrolment rate of tertiary students outside the country is due 
mainly to the size of Luxembourg and to the f act that the national higher education system 
does not provide all third-level studies. 
 
4. MOBILITY  
Luxembourg is committed to promoting and f acilitating outgoing/inc oming mobility for 
learners, teachers and workers, especially within the ‘Grande Région’  (‘Greater region’, 
which covers neighbouring regi ons of LU, DE, BE and FR).  A legal basis has been 
established for cross-border vocational training, ea sing the mobility of trainees, especially for 
jobs for which theoretical training is not availa ble in Luxembourg schools. Given the fact that 
Luxembourg attracts many workers from neighbouri ng countries, it orga nises courses in the 
Luxembourgish language in France and Ge rmany. A Germano-Luxembourgish secondary 
school has also been created. 
As regards tertiary education, Luxembourg has the highest outbound long-term mobility 
(80.2  % of students per year) in Eur ope, affecting the large major ity of students, while short-
term mobility under the EU Erasmus programme (14.1  % of students in 2008/09) is clearly 
above the EU average and also the highest in Europe. 
One of the priorities of the University of Luxe mbourg is the internationa l mobility of students. 
All bachelor students are legally bound to spe nd one semester abroad. The University of 
Luxembourg also takes in students from fo reign universities. Agreements on student 
exchanges with foreign universities have been  signed or are under negotiation. Financial aid 
(grants and loans) is provided for students studying abroad by the national government and 
with the help of the Erasmus programme. The m obility of students in initial VET is organised 
via the EU’s Lifelong Learning Programme  (Leonardo da Vinci and Grundtvig). 
The mobility of teachers and trainers in initial  VET and continuing VET is also organised via 
the EU-funded programmes (Leonardo da Vinc i, Grundtvig, Comenius), the VETPRO 
programme and Cedefop study visits. 
 The national language Institute ( Institut national des langues ) reformed in 2009, which offers 
the teaching of eight language s, also contributes to rem ove obstacles to mobility. 
 
 - 98 - 5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
At present Luxembourg does not have a sing le comprehensive lifelong learning strategy. 
With the government programme 2009–2013, Luxembourg is committed to improving and 
promoting LLL by developing a coherent LLL st rategy. This will involve establishing a 
system for the validation of non-formal and informal learni ng, designing a national 
qualifications framework and creating th e concept of the counselling centre ( maison de 
l’orientation ) for pupils, students and adults. 
A project ‘Strategy LLL’ (S3L), supported by bo th the Ministry of Education and the EU, was 
launched in May 2011. The aim is to inform th e public about LLL opportunities and to engage 
a national dialogue on LLL. As a follow-up to th is process, a white paper will be published 
and will serve as basis for shaping an LLL strategy. 
Luxembourg has created the ‘ Agence pour le développement de la qualité scolaire ’, with the 
aim of developing a comprehensive quality assurance reference framework in education and training at the level of th e education system, school, cl ass and individual pupil. 
In the context of the implementation of the education reforms, lifelong learning for teaching 
staff is a main concern of the Mi nistry of Education and Training. 
Luxembourg faces a need for specific profession al skills required by a highly specialised and 
strongly competitive labour market, featuri ng a large financial services sector. 
The VET reform radically overh auled vocational education in 2008. This reform is scheduled 
to be fully implemented for the school year  2011/2012. In order to better match VET with 
present and future labour market needs, all vocat ional training courses have been reorganised. 
An observatory for training  has also been created with th e aim of monitoring and analysing 
the future careers of trainees and the perf ormance of VET, and carrying out prospective 
studies on trends in jobs and market needs. 
As regards the quality of education and the re cognition of professional experience, a national 
qualifications framework (NQF) will be established by the end of 2011. It should be linked to 
the EQF. 
One of the biggest challenges for Luxembourg remains the integration of children with a 
migrant background into the multi lingual school system. With this end in view several 
initiatives have been taken to facilitate th e schooling of children of different origins. 
As regards adult particip ation in lifelong learning , Luxembourg has made significant progress 
too (a break in time series in 2009 has, however, contributed to the result) and today performs 
above the EU average. 
6. I
NVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Luxembourg EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education, % of GDP 3.74  %01 3.15  %07 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
01=2001, 07=2007 
 
 - 99 - The overall national budget has decreased sl ightly since 2009, although the education budget 
has not been affected. 
Public investment in education as a percentage  of GDP has dropped slightly since 2000 and is 
currently below the EU average.  However, it has to be consid ered that Luxembourg data do 
not include spending on higher education (f or which the EU average is about 1.1  % of GDP). 
The budget devoted to education in 2009, 2010 a nd 2011 (in absolute terms) has increased 
slightly. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
In line with the recommendation formulated w ithin the first European Semester, Luxembourg 
has adopted a series of measures in the area of education and training in order to ensure better 
matching between the skills of its young people and the needs of the labour market. 
In this context it has developed the concept of counselling centre ( maison de l’orientation ) 
providing guidance services fo r pupils, students and adults. 
Luxembourg has also implemented a VET reform  which comprises the establishment of a 
validation system for previously acquired professional experience. 
Finally, Luxembourg has decided to introduce a national qualifications framework, which will 
be linked to the EQF and is set to be come operational before the end of 2011. 
 
 - 100 - MALTA 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training. 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Malta EU average EU Benchmarks 
MALTA   
  
 
2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary)  100  % 93.9  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading - - 21.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics - - 24.0  %06 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science - - 20.3  %06 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  54.2  % 36.9  % b 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  7.4 % 18.6  % 22.4  % 33.6  % -    40  % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  4.3 %04 5.7 %  8.5 % 03 9.1  % 10 12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
01 =2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e08 =2008, 09 =2009, = estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 101 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
Insufficient qualifications and training are a nother bottleneck in reaching the government’s 
employment targets. Since Malta has few natural resources, economic growth is 
overwhelmingly dependent on its human capita l. The notable discrepancy between the 
demand for and supply of skills in  Malta suggests that there is a need to improve the skills 
base of the labour force in order to respond to  the structural changes the economy has been 
undergoing since the beginning of the decade and to further attract foreign investment in high 
value-added activities. The NRP describes a number of ongoing progra mmes aimed at raising 
the skills of the labour force, namely appren ticeship and training schemes. The government 
also plans to invest further in  its Scholarship Scheme, specifically in the area of science and 
technology, and to extend the existing postgra duate support programme to include post-
doctoral opportunities to  support research and innovation act ivities. In addition, skills 
shortages in specific high adde d-value areas have been partly addressed in fu rther and higher 
education through the introductio n of flexible courses in co llaboration with industry and 
university-business forums. 
The NRP outlines a number of measures to improve education outcomes with substantial 
budgetary allocations in 2011.
12 A major challenge in this area is the high rate of early school 
leavers, which the NRP sets out to address. Measures aim to improve social and educational services to students in compulsory educa tion and to introduce mu lti-disciplinary teams 
(including social workers, psychologists, coun sellors) to help truant children and their 
families. In addition, to make education mo re attractive, the Maltese government will 
introduce vocational subjects in  secondary school and extend the provision of vocational 
subjects at post-secondary level. Some measures are also envisaged to a ttract adults with less 
than upper secondary education into higher educ ation. The government also plans to set up a 
national system for the accreditation of furt her and higher education programmes and the 
recognition of informal learning. 
The set of measures that target education reflect the AGS priorities and should enable 
progress towards the national be nchmarks within the Europe  2020 strategy. Nevertheless, 
given the importance of higher education for ce rtain high added-value sectors, for instance 
business and financial services and ICT, the NRP does not appear suffi ciently ambitious in 
tackling the challenge of insufficient qualificatio n and training. In addition, the NRP does not 
adequately analyse the sources of the high rate of early school leaving, which makes it 
difficult to properly address the problem in a comprehens ive way. Malta’s early school 
leaving rate is still the highest in the EU, at 36.8
 % vs 14.4  % on average in the EU, despite 
significant progress made in the past. If the same  pace of progress is maintained in the decade 
ahead, the national target set by Malta for 2020 (29  %) does not seem ambitious enough. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Recommendation (3) 
Take action within the period 2011–2012 to 
                                                 
12  €  340 million out of €  2.9 billion, an increase of €  32 million over 2010. 
 
 - 102 - Focus education outcomes more on labour market  needs, notably by making additional efforts 
to improve access to higher education and by st rengthening the effectiveness of the vocational 
training system. Take further measures to  reduce early school leaving by identifying, 
analysing and measuring its causes by 2012 and by setting up a regular monitoring and 
reporting mechanism on the success rate of the measures. 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
While Malta is the poorest EU performer in terms of the ear ly-leaving rate (36.8  %, compared 
to the EU average of 14.4  % in 2009), the country also showed good progre ss on this indicator 
over the period 2000–2009 (the ESL rate in 2000 stood at 54.2  %). The Maltese government 
recognises the importance of tackling this issue and of reducing the level of ESL. 
Malta has addressed ESL through a host of policy measures in the three areas of prevention, 
intervention and compensation in the National Reform Programme (NRP) and the national ET 
2020 report of 2011. This is in line with the Eu ropean Semester recommendation to Malta and 
with the approach outlined in the Council Recommendation on policies to reduce early school 
leaving  of 2011. 
Specific short- and medium-term measures in clude guidance and dropout prevention for high 
school students and their families; creation of transition paths between compulsory and 
vocational education and traini ng (VET); inclusion of VET and science subjects in the 
secondary school curricula; increased learning opportunities  through new educational 
providers and programme accredita tion in the area of further a nd higher education; investment 
in learning infrastructure; revi ew of curricula; and more lifelong learning and adult education 
opportunities. It should be noted in  this context that Malta perf orms above the EU average on 
participation in  early childhood education.  
New NRP measures start as early as 2011. Prev iously, a national core competence policy was 
introduced and streaming in th e upper primary years was removed in favour of having mixed-
ability classes. On the one hand, these measures  intend to avoid channelling pupils to different 
school types too early. On the ot her hand, they guide students at risk of early school leaving 
towards interesting career paths in work s ectors in demand by industry through vocational 
education and training or by giving them second-chance learning opportunities in key 
competences. A diversified offer of schools an d programmes will stimulate competition and 
innovative, more interesting le arning and teaching environments  in the education sector. 
Certain measures will only yield initial results in 2013. 
Currently, statistical reports are made on pupils leaving com pulsory education and tracer 
studies are carried out. The skills  levels are assessed in the PISA  studies. To tackle the high 
rate of early school leaving, the Maltese authorities have expresse d their intention to track the 
educational, vocational and employment progress of all Malta’s early school leavers until they 
reach the age of 20. Advice, guidance and su pport services on employment and education 
options will be provided. In addition, an expe rt statistician has been  commissioned to give a 
clear picture of education and ESL in Malt a. The government has set a goal of seeing 85  % of 
young people continue their studies after the age of 16 (the end of compulsory education). 
These measures are consistent with the challe nges identified during the European Semester 
2011 and in line with the re levant recommendations. 
 
 - 103 - 3.2. Tertiary attainment 
While Malta’s tertiary attainment rate is stil l far below the EU average, Malta is the EU 
country with the highest growth rate since 2000, the rate almost tripling by 2010. In addition, 
Malta has seen strong growth in the number of MST graduates (70  % over eight years), 
compared to the EU average (33  % over the same period) with a slight improvement of the 
gender balance too. The creati on of the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology 
(MCAST) largely contributed to this increase, in  particular the growth of the figure for MST 
graduates. Measures undertaken or planned focu s on further investment in the capacity of 
post-secondary vocational instit utions such as a new campus for MCAST, investment in 
human capital, including more scholarships (s uch as ESF-funded STEPS), and targeted VET 
programmes. Non-traditional adul t learners who do not fulfil th e regular admission criteria 
may nevertheless enter tertiary education under  a maturity clause to provide alternative 
pathways to a tertiary degree. In addition, newly set up accreditation and licensing mechanisms for new further and higher educat ion providers and programmes will broaden the 
educational offer. 
Skills shortages in specific high-value areas  are being addressed in further and higher 
education through university-bus iness forums and other clos e ties with employers. Among 
others, advanced VET institutions such as  MCAST offer flexible courses designed in 
collaboration with industry. 
Measures to increase participation in highe r education include the creation of the Malta 
Qualifications Framework, revi sion of curricula, more information and guidance on study 
opportunities and scholarships for prospective stude nts, new financial in centives to study and 
validation of non-formal and informal learning. To improve completion rates, the University 
of Malta awards a Higher Education Certificate to students who have successfully completed 60 ECTS points but do not go for a full Bachel or degree (normally a minimum of 180 ECTS 
points). 
These measures are consistent with the challe nges identified during the European Semester 
2011 and in line with the re levant recommendations. 
4. M
OBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Malta has an outbound long-term mobility (10.9  % of students 
per year) that is clearly above the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the EU 
Erasmus programme (1.5  % of Maltese students in 2008/09) is above the EU average. 
The EU’s Lifelong Learning Programme with its  sectoral sub-programmes as well as the 
Youth in Action Programme play an important role in fostering transnational mobility in Malta. In the higher education sector, mobility flows show a strong imbalance as the number 
of incoming students for credit mobility signif icantly exceeds the number of outgoing Maltese 
students. Further efforts will therefore be  necessary to address this challenge. 
The national grants are portable abroad. In the academic year 2010/2011, the two EU 
programmes were suspended in Malta, which m eant that EU funds could not be used for 
outgoing mobility from Malta. 
The University of Malta is improving its management of mobilit y periods, including 
promotion, the academic calendar and recognition practices. It encourages teacher mobility 
and assesses the report s of returning exchange students to further adapt its services. 
 
 - 104 - 5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Malta is currently developing its  lifelong learning strategy, which is  to be in place before the 
end of 2011. The strategy is being put in place by the newly created Di rectorate for Lifelong 
Learning (DLLL), which also r uns adult education courses a nd an LLL Centre for over 9  900 
registered learners and provide s higher education scholarships to raise specific skill levels. 
The training of adult trainers is a priorit y. The DLLL also intends to develop skills for 
creative industries using EU structural funds. 
Malta’s high ESL rate and low employment rate  of women and older workers was addressed 
by a number of measures proposed on adult lear ning courses and alternative access pathways 
to higher education. In addition, the extension of  educational opportunities in VET at existing 
post-secondary institutions and the opening of the education market to new providers should 
enhance skills levels furt her in the labour force. 
MCAST is expanding its course offer and infra structure (equipment, campus facilities) to 
increase the attractiveness of  VET for non-traditional learners and increase the supply of 
highly specific job competences in industry. 
Students over 25 years lacki ng minimum entry qualifications may nevertheless take a higher 
education degree at the University of Malta. MC AST’s courses are also open to older learners 
through such a maturity clause. The ITS lik ewise allows access to courses with lower 
qualifications. Apprenticeship schemes and training by the Employment and Training 
Corporation (ETC) offer ta ilored VET opportunities. 
A 2008 conference looked into the ‘skills for the future’, followed by a workshop with experts 
a year later. Malta was also involved in European-level activ ities in the field of skills 
anticipation with Cedefop. Sectoral skill needs are being explored by a number of ESF-funded 
projects. 
These measures are consistent with the challe nges identified during the European Semester 
2011 and with the relevant recommendations. 
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Malta EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education, % of GDP  4.49% 6.01% 4.88% 5.07% 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
On investment in education  as a percentage of GDP, Malta has been performing close to the 
EU average and investment rates have increased between 2000 and 2008, despite some decline in the period 2005–2007. In  2007 the share of GDP spent on education was above the 
EU average by almost 1 percentage point. In addi tion, as a result of a relatively low number of 
tertiary students, spending on tert iary education as a percentage of GDP is relatively low, 
despite a high level of spending per student. 
In 2008 Malta was hit by the economic crisis bu t recovered, with exports , business investment 
and employment starting to pick up in 2010.  
 
 - 105 - The funding level for the education and training sector increased substa ntially over the period 
2006–2010, from €193m to €241m despite the crisis  years. The 2011 national budget further 
invests in education as  a priority sector. 
In the same five-year period, public financial support for the University  of Malta and MCAST 
for both recurrent and capital expenditure e xpanded considerably, from €32m to €53m and 
from €11m to €16m respectively. Funds for maintenance grants and scholarships also 
increased from €19m to €22m. 
The increased investment in the educati on sector reflects the general recommendation 
resulting from the European Semester 2011 that  expenditure be boosted in growth-friendly 
sectors. This effort should allow the national benchmarks within the Europe 2020 strategy to 
be reached. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
Malta faces with a threefold challenge: a high rate  of early school leaving, a relatively modest 
rate of tertiary education attainment a nd a vocational training system in need of 
modernisation. 
The European Semester recommendations call in  particular on Malta to further address the 
high early school leaving (ESL) rate by 2012. The measures already in place appear to be 
pointing in a positive direction and addressing a ll the aspects of ESL prevention, intervention 
and compensation, including guidance and monito ring. The evaluation of the impact of these 
measures will be crucial. 
As far as participation in tertiary education is concerned, if the upwar d trend noted in recent 
years is maintained, it should allow Malta to reach its ambitious national target. Malta has 
also been strengthening linkages wi th business and industry, in part icular in tertiary VET, to 
improve effectiveness and address specific skill shortages, in line with the recommendations 
resulting from the European Semester. 
 
 - 106 - THE NETHERLANDS 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key ar eas for the implementation of ET2020, as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training.  
1. BENCHMARKS  
Netherlands EU average EU Benchmarks 
NETHERLANDS   
  
 
2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  99.5  % 99.5  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading (9.5  %) 14.3  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 11.5  %0613.4  %0924.006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science 13.0  %0613.2  %0920.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  15.4  % 10.1  %b 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  26.5  % 41.4  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  16.4  % 0316.5  % 8.5 % 039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 107 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
The Netherlands performs well in education, acro ss all levels of schooling. The percentage of 
early school leavers has fallen from 15.4
 % (2000) to 10.9  % (2009) and is below the 
European average of 14.4  %. Tertiary attainment of th e population aged 30–34 has risen 
significantly in the last decade, from 26.5  % (2000) to 40.5  % (2009), exceeding both the 
current European average of 32.2  % and the 2020 European target. By 2020, the tertiary 
attainment rate is projected to reach 45  %. Rather than increasing participation in tertiary 
education further, the government intends  to shift the policy focus to quality. 
According to the NRP, the government’s e ducation policy focuses on creating the right 
conditions to improve the system’s performanc e. Regarding early school leaving, measures 
focus primarily on prevention, i.e. making sure that young people do not leave education 
without basic qualifications, a lthough there are no specific meas ures for the hard-to-reach 
groups or those who have already dropped out of school.  
In tertiary education, a high pa rticipation rate is accompanied by high drop-out rates, with the 
likelihood of graduation falling below 70  %. In addition, instituti ons need to address the 
growing challenge of combining an ever-inc reasing number of students with academic 
excellence. The measures set out in the NRP include the introduction of a new funding 
mechanism in tertiary education, based on sp ecialisation and on encouraging excellence. 
While the government intends to invest up to EUR 300 million between 2011 and 2016 in 
intensifying teaching in tertia ry education, it remains to be seen if higher education 
institutions can indeed deliver  better quality in the light  of rising student numbers. 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
The Netherlands performs better than the EU av erage in the area of ear ly school leaving. The 
share of early school leavers was 10.1  % in 2010, close to the 2020 benchmark of 10  %. The 
Netherlands has set itself the target to reduce the share  of young people aged 18 to 24 without 
basic qualifications to below 8  % by 2020. This target would imply a reduction to a yearly 
maximum of 25,000 early leavers. In the sc hool year 2009/2010, there were 39,600 early 
leavers, a reduction by 3,000 compared to the year  before. Based on curre nt trends, the target 
should be reached. 
Tackling early school leaving is a clear priority of th e Dutch government. Many policy 
measures have already been implemented, including the introduction of an Education 
Database and online absentee re gistration system and results-o riented voluntary agreements 
with schools and municipalities. The comprehe nsive Dutch approach, in which central and 
local governments, educational inst itutions and youth ca re services work together at regional 
level, has been identif ied as a best practice in the C ouncil Recommendation on early school 
leaving. 
 
 
 - 108 - 3.2. Tertiary attainment 
The share of the population aged 30–34 with te rtiary education atta inment has improved 
significantly over the last decade and is already above not only the EU average, but also the 
2020 benchmark. In 2010, the attainment rate was 41.4  %, compared to the EU average of 
33.6  % and 2020 benchmark of 40  %. By 2020, the tertiary attainment rate is projected to 
reach 45  % of the population aged 30–34. However, the Dutch government did not provide a 
target for 2020 in its National Reform Programme . Its main argument for not setting a target 
is that the share of th e population completing ter tiary education in the Netherlands has already 
exceeded the European 2020 target and w ill rise further in the coming years. 
The Netherlands has made good progress in increasing the number of MST graduates , and the 
growth rate has been above the EU average. Ho wever, the share of female MST graduates is 
the lowest among all EU countries. 
Rather than focusing on further increasing par ticipation in tertiary  education, which may 
negatively affect completion rates, the Dutch government is committed to further 
improvements in the quality of education a nd to reducing high drop-out rates. From 2008, 
concrete arrangements with higher education institutions have been made to reduce drop-out rates, although no specific targets have been  set, and the government will put in place 
additional measures, such as more emphasis on selection and guidance a nd the introduction of 
a fine for students staying t oo long in tertiary education. 
These measures consistently focus on the main ch allenges identified for tertiary education in 
the framework of the European Semester, i.e. high participation coupled with high drop-out 
rates and the need to ensure academic relevance and excellence. 
4. M
OBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, the Nether lands has an outbound long-term mobility (2.3  % of 
students per year) slightly below the EU average (2.8  %), while EU Erasmus programme-
based short term-mobility (0.8  % of students in 2008/09) is on the EU average. 
Almost 8  % of primary schools have actively been involved in intern ationalisation. Pupil 
exchanges have been common for some time now in the upper years of secondary school (years 4, 5 and 6). A considerable  number of pupils in the four th year of senior secondary 
general education (HAVO) and years 4 and 5 of pre-university (V WO) education have 
participated in such exchanges. The numb er of MBO work placements abroad will be 
gradually increased. The Netherlands supports the emphasis on learning mobility and is willing to bring its own aims for secondary voca tional education into lin e with the European 
benchmark, which has yet to be determined. The government has earmarked €
 10 million for 
2011 for incoming and outgoing mobility of outst anding students. Student financing is 
portable, so that entire de gree programmes can be follow ed abroad, provided that the 
programmes are of high quality. The government  also intends to de velop a pilot mobility 
programme to give teachers in  higher education an opportunity  to spend time teaching abroad. 
Teachers will be selected on the basis of excellence. Teacher mobility in primary and secondary education is supported by means of  individual grants, and funding is provided 
through the EU-funded Comenius Programme and the Dutch Pr omotion of International 
Orientation and Cooperation Programme. 
The Netherlands has been making commendable efforts to promote learning mobility among 
less-represented groups, such as secondary  school pupils and teach ers. Given the high 
participation rates in tertiary ed ucation, mobility in this sector c ould be further strengthened to 
 
 - 109 - help reduce drop-out risk by increasing student  motivation and improving the overall quality 
of learning. 
5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
The Netherlands has an explicit lifelong lear ning strategy, though its implementation is not 
captured in one policy document.  An inte r-ministerial Learning and Working Project 
Department (PLW) was set up in 2005, with staff from the Ministry of Social Affairs and 
Employment and the Ministry of Education, Cu lture and Science, to decide on specific 
measures to promote adult learning. As regard s adult participation in lifelong learning, the 
Netherlands performs above both the EU aver age and the 2020 target, although in the last 
decade there has been limited progress in increa sing the rate further. Following a decline in 
the period 2004–2006, the partic ipation rate is now back to the 2003 level. 
PLW built broad regional networks and infrastructu re for lifelong learning with the help of a 
subsidy scheme and completed its task at the end of 2010. Lifelong learning should now 
become part of the core policy-making of sect or departments within the ministries involved, 
mainly Education and Social Affair s. It remains to be seen how this will affect the results of 
the Dutch lifelong learning policy and its ambition to  increase participation in general, and in 
particular for some hard-to-reach target group s, such as low-skilled people, older people, 
jobseekers, and small and medium-sized en terprises. New policy measures focus on 
awareness-raising and improving procedures to recognise prior learning. To this end, 
legislation is curren tly under preparation. 
These actions are consistent with  the main principles of lifelong learning strategies agreed at 
EU level, in particular a holistic approach, fl exible pathways and partnerships between the 
different stakeholders. There is still a mismatch  between labour market needs and the skills 
obtained in the Dutch education system, in part icular in the VET sector, where there are a 
relatively high number of vacan cies per unemployed person. The government has proposed a 
new action plan for secondary vocational education (MBO), fo cusing on skills, covering 
2011–2015, presented to Parliament in February  2011. Under this plan, the government 
assigns overall responsibility for developing an d updating the qualification structure to the 
newly-created Education-Business Allianc e. From the 2012/2013 school year onwards, 
students in vocational training will not have to choose a specific course from the outset, but 
will first be able to enrol in fields of traini ng containing modules from different courses with 
related content. It is hoped this measure will help to reduce the number of early school 
leavers. 
Furthermore, once every three year s, a comprehensive survey will be carried out to evaluate 
how satisfied the business community is with the results of the MBO reforms. The findings 
will be published as a separate section of th e annual benchmarking exercise conducted by the 
Secondary Vocational Educati on Council. From 2012 onwards, the MBO action plan will 
provide for a ‘performance kit’ with resources enabling targets to be agreed with individual 
MBO institutions. It is important that provision  be tailored to the needs of business in the 
region and dovetail with the key economic ar eas identified in the government’s memorandum 
on business. 
The Ministry of Education, Cultu re and Science uses various tools to regulate educational 
provision. The so-called ‘macro-effi ciency’ test is designed to en sure that there are not too 
many graduates in a field for which there is  no demand in the Neth erlands. In order to 
stimulate the creation of new jobs, the Minist ry has decided that ed ucation programmes for 
 
 - 110 - jobs in new areas of the economy have a great er chance of being approved than education 
programmes leading to traditional jobs. 
Overall, these measures are in accordance with th e general principles agreed at EU level for 
better matching of skills needs w ith labour market requirements.  
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Netherlands EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP  4.96  % 5.46  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Public investment in education  as a percentage of GDP in the Netherlands has increased by 
half a percentage point since 2000 and is  now clearly above the EU average. 
Since the onset of the crisis, the Netherlands has adopted reductions in education grants, as 
well as a wage freeze and a freeze of the gene ral and vocational education budget. In 2011, 
the government also proposed cutting the bud get for government-funded higher education 
institutions. Considerable ch anges in funding mechanisms a nd re-allocation of funds have 
also been proposed, such as the replacement of  scholarships for master’s programmes with a 
social loan system. The overall education polic y of the new government is to push education 
institutions to deliver more quality with th e same or less funding, by becoming more efficient 
and focused, and by concentrating on the primar y processes of education. More performance-
based funding will be introduced at all levels. Ex tra money will be given to raise the quality 
of the primary processes (i.e . education/teaching), while the budget not contributing to the 
primary processes will be cut. 
While recognising the need to focus on efficien cy in a context of budge tary restrictions, it 
would also be important for the Ne therlands to continue to actively invest in education, in line 
with the general recommendations issued at th e end of the European Semester, to preserve 
and/or reinforce economic growth. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
The Netherlands has strengthened the implemen tation of its lifelong learning strategy by 
setting up new structures ensuring inte r- and intra-governmental coordination. 
The Netherlands performs well at all levels of education and has set ou t to raise performance 
further by improving quality rather than increa sing participation, whic h is already high. This 
is in line with the challenges identified in the European Semester to ensure academic 
relevance and excellence. In order to raise long-term student mobility rates, which are below the EU average, the government has earmarked €
 10 million for incoming and outgoing 
mobility of outstanding students. In addition to  Community instruments, a specific national 
instrument, BIOS, promotes mobility of teacher s in primary and secondary schools. Mobility 
is thus linked to performance and quality im provement, in line with the Europe 2020 goals. 
Should further budget cuts appear to be necessar y, a challenge for the Netherlands will be to 
match them with the general recommendation re sulting from the European Semester 2011 for 
 
 - 111 - ‘smart’ fiscal consolidation inte nded to preserve or  prioritise growth-enha ncing expenditure in 
sectors such as education and training. 
 
 - 112 - POLAND 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline target and the related national ta rgets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training.  
1. BENCHMARKS  
Poland EU average EU Benchmarks 
POLAND   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary)  58.3  % 70.9  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 23.2  % 15.0  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 19.8  %0620.5  %0924.0  %0622.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science 17.0  %0613.1  %0920.2  %0617.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  7.4 %01 5.4 % 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  12.5  % 35.3  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  5.0 % 04 5.3 %  8.5 % 03 9.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
01= 2001, 03= 2003, 04= 2004,  06 = 2006,  09 =2009  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 113 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
Poland has been carrying out extens ive reforms to modernise all levels of its education system 
and has improved its results in OECD PISA studies. The numbers le aving school early are 
considerably below the EU average, and highe r education attainment is slightly above 
average. However, the education system faces se rious difficulties in providing adequate skills 
required by the labour market. Skills and jobs mismatches, especially among young people, 
should be addressed by implementing the proposed  effective lifelong lear ning strategy, reform 
of the higher education syst em, linking it better w ith labour market ne eds, and further 
investment in vocational education programmes,  targeting the low-skilled and older workers 
in particular. Work has already started on  implementing the National Qualifications 
Framework on top of the nationa l register of qualifications  (scheduled for 2012). A policy 
document, ‘The prospect of Life long Learning’, is soon to be adopted. The NRP sets out plans 
for legislative amendments to link education mo re closely to the need s of the labour market, 
e.g. by enabling schools to implement training courses preparing to confirm qualifications. 
The NRP also envisages facilitating the transition  from education to first employment and job 
creation in new, less crisis-pr one industries. In addition, Pola nd is addressing challenges in 
this area through higher education reform, expected  to be implemented in the second half of 
2011. The reform is intended to encourage unive rsities to provide more flexible, higher-
quality curricula which would reduce the skil ls mismatch by involving employers in the 
education process and by strengt hening university-business links to ensure an appropriate 
range of fields of studies that meet labour mark et needs. Access to tailored and individualised 
support programmes, including dedi cated training and apprentic eship programmes leading to 
a first vocational experience, is low. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Recommendation (4) 
Implement the proposed lifelong learning strate gy, enhance apprenticeships and dedicated 
vocational training and educati on programmes for older worker s and low-skilled workers. 
Strengthen links between science and industry by implementing the ‘W e build on Knowledge’ 
programme (‘Budujemy na Wiedzy’). Implement the higher education reform programme 
‘Partnership for Knowledge’ (‘Partnerstwo dla Wiedzy’) so as to better align educational 
provision with labour market needs. 
3. E
UROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
Poland is one of the best performers in the EU  regarding early school le aving, with a rate of 
5.4 % in 2010, against an EU average of 14.1  %. Poland intends to reduce this rate to 4.5  % by 
2020. 
Poland is undertaking several preventive and co mpensating measures to tackle early school 
leaving, such as extending the duration of co mprehensive education at the level of lower 
secondary school to prevent earl y segregation, or organising tr aining courses and classes for 
adults who want to improve th eir education and competences. 
 
 - 114 - As regards preventive measures , Poland will have to put part icular emphasis on increasing 
participation in early childhood e ducation and care. While  the rate ha s increased significantly 
since 2000, it still is the lowest among the EU Member States (67.5  % against EU average of 
92.3  %). New legislation (2011) aims to simplify  the setting up of nurseries, to encourage 
enterprises to set up nurseries and ensure th e legal employment of ‘nannies’. As from the 
school year 2011/2012, all five-year-olds and fr om 2014, all four-year-olds will have a 
guaranteed right to pre-primary education, but  the number of public kindergartens and 
nurseries is currently insufficient and will n eed to be increased. The state budget will grant 
financial support to activities im plemented by local governments. 
To improve analysis and monitoring , the modernisation of the SEI (System of Educational 
Information) decided in 2011 and to be implemented as of 2013, will support the identification of failures to fu lfil compulsory pre-primary pr eparation, compulsory schooling 
and education. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
The rate of tertiary education attainment  was 35.3
 % in 2010, slightly above the EU average 
of 33.6  %. Progress in the period 2000-2009 has been one of the strongest in the EU. The 
proposed national target to attain 45  % by 2020 is an ambitious goa l but in accordance with 
the past trend. In 2008, the share of drop- outs from higher education amounted to 36  %. 
Poland has made significant progre ss in increasing the number of MST graduates , for which 
the growth rate has been almost three times the EU average, resul ting in a doubling of the 
number of graduates since 2000. The rise in nu mber is also coupled with a better gender 
balance. There is, however, scope for a furthe r increase in the number  of MST graduates. 
The biggest challenges in modernising the higher  education system are to ensure that the 
subjects offered are a better match for the need s of the labour market and to improve the 
quality of teaching to provide  students with the more practical knowledge required by 
employers that will help them find a first job after graduation. In line with the specific 
recommendation issued in the framework of the European Semester, Poland is addressing 
these challenges through higher ed ucation reform, which is expected to be implemented in the 
second half of 2011. The reform is intended to encourage uni versities to provide more 
flexible, higher-quality curri cula, which would reduce the skills mismatch by involving 
employers in the education process and by streng thening university-busin ess links in order to 
ensure an appropriate range  of fields of studies meeting labour market needs. 
4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Poland  has an outbound long-term mobility (1.8  % of students 
per year) below the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mob ility under the EU Erasmus 
programme (0.5  % of students in 2008/09) is also below the EU average. 
Mobility in Poland is mainly financed unde r the Lifelong Learning Programme, Youth in 
Action and several national and bilateral prog rammes. The main barriers identified include 
lack of language competences and shortcomi ngs in recognition of learning outcomes. These 
barriers are being addressed by work on th e National Qualification Framework and by 
introducing compulsory foreign language le ssons at different educational levels. 
The implementation at national leve l of the principles of cooperat ion developed in the areas of 
EQF, EQARF, ECVET and EUROPASS will also  be important for reducing barriers to 
mobility in learning. 
 
 - 115 - These measures consistently address the challenges identified. 
To promote the mobility of young people in vocationa l education in particular, the Ministry of 
National Education disseminates examples of good practice.  This is supported by a special 
survey on international c ooperation and student exchanges between VET schools. 
5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Poland has made progress in developing its li felong learning strategy. The document named 
Lifelong Learning  Perspective  is set to be finall y adopted by the Council of Ministers before 
the end of 2011. 
As indicated in the outcome of the European  Semester, the biggest challenge facing the 
education and training system, including VET, is to respond better to th e needs of the labour 
market, given the particularly high unemploy ment rate among young people under the age of 
25 (26% in March 2011). 
In line with the specific Eu ropean Semester recommendati on, improving the relevance of 
education and training to the labour market  and maximising access to lifelong learning and 
continuing training, particularly for the low-sk illed and for groups at risk such as the 
unemployed or older workers (the participation of adults in lifelong learning is only 5.3  %, 
against the EU average of 9.1  %.) is on the policy agenda. It woul d also be benefi cial to foster 
closer partnerships between education/training providers and employers, for example by 
reinforcing work-based learning in VET, includi ng apprenticeships (star ting from first grades) 
to facilitate the transition of  young people from education to work through practical training, 
and by increasing incentives for employers to take on young workers. 
The reform of the VET system is in progress and is expected to be implemented in 2012/2013. 
Proposed changes include increasing the attrac tiveness of VET and better matching it with 
labour market needs. The reform of higher education al so aims to ensure closer cooperation 
and links with employers, in line with the European Semester indications. 
Another challenge is to improve  guidance services, especially  for young people, in both VET 
and tertiary sectors, to  inform them about the prospects of finding a job after graduation in the 
studies of their choice. Fostering entrepreneur ship attitudes at all stages of education and 
training will also be important. 
Poland has also reported several measures to ca rry out a skills forecast and to use it to shape 
the education and training on offer nationally and regionally. 
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Poland EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP  4.89  % 5.09  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
 
 - 116 - Investment in education  has remained stable since 2000 and is close to the EU average, 5.09  % 
versus EU average of 5.07  %.   
Poland does not report any explic it influence of the crisis on public education budgets or 
reform in any sector of education. School  teacher salaries actually increased by 7  % in 2010. 
Combined with increases in previous years, the overall salary increase for teachers was 30  % 
compared to 2007. 
In addition to new curriculum and delivery mode ls, reforms aiming to raise participation in 
pre-primary and primary education have not been  affected by the crisis. The European Social 
Fund co-finances major reforms of  the Polish education system. 
The increase in spending on higher education recorded since 2007 (16.8  % over four years) 
was maintained. Moreover, spending on higher  education is being rationalised: while 
maintaining the rate of growth in the level of finance for universities, an additional grant will 
be awarded to entities promoting academic excellence (Krajowe Naukowe O środki Wiod ące 
— KNOW  — Leading National Scientific Centres).   
The budget for education in 2011 is estimated at 37.2 billion z ł (about €  9.3 billion), which is 
6.3 % higher than in 2010 (35 billion z ł — €  8.75 billion). 
Developments observed in the Polish education and training budget are fu lly consistent with 
the call for preserving and promoting growth-e nhancing investment that resulted from the 
European Semester 2011. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
The document Lifelong Learning Perspective , to be adopted in late 2011, and its 
accompanying Action Plan, represent significan t progress towards developing a national 
lifelong learning strategy as recommended in th e framework of the European Semester. The 
new comprehensive approach can play a key role  in fostering human capital development and 
constitute a guiding principle for all Polish sectoral strategies. 
Consistent with the challenges identifie d during the European Semester, Poland is 
modernising its vocational training system th rough a package of proposals set forth in 2011, 
to be implemented from 2012–13 onwards. This should enable Poland to increase the provision of apprenticeship places, and to pr omote dedicated vocatio nal training aimed at 
developing the skills of both the older and the unskilled workforce. 
Poland is also implementing a new higher ed ucation reform adopted in 2010, intended to 
reduce skills mismatches, in line with the European Semester recommendation, by 
introducing a novel approach based on learning outcomes, which is consistent with the 
objectives of the European Qua lifications Framework (EQF). 
 
 - 117 - PORTUGAL 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline target and the related national ta rgets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training.  
1. BENCHMARKS  
Portugal EU average EU Benchmarks 
PORTUGAL   
  
 
2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  78.9  % 88.2  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09  95 % 
 
Reading (18 EU countries) 26.3  % 17.6  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Maths (25 EU countries) 30.706 23.7  %0924.0  %0622.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science (25 EU countries) 24.506 16.5  %0920.2  %0617.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  43.6  % 28.7  %  17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  11.3  % 23.5  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  4.3 %04 p5.8 %p 8.5 % 039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
04= 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = br eak, p = provisional, 
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 118 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Implement the measures as laid down in Implementing Decision 2011/344/EU and further 
specified in the Memorandum of Unders tanding of 17 May 2011 and its subsequent 
supplements. 
Agreements under the Memorandum of U nderstanding on Specific Economic Policy 
Conditionality, 17 May 2011 
Education and training 
4.10. The Government will continue action to t ackle low educational attainment and early 
school leaving and to improve the quality of sec ondary education and vocational education 
and training, with a view to increasing efficien cy in the education sector, raise the quality of 
human capital and facilitate labour market ma tching. To this purpose, the Government will: 
i. Set up an analysis, monitori ng, assessment and reporting syst em in order to accurately 
evaluate the results and impacts of education and training policies, notably plans already 
implemented (concerning cost saving measur es, vocational educa tion and training and 
policies to improve school results and contain early school leaving). [Q4-2011] 
ii. Present an action plan to improve the quality  of secondary education services including via: 
(i) the generalisation of trus t agreements between the G overnment and public schools, 
establishing wide autonomy, a simple fo rmula-based funding framework comprising 
performance evolution criteria, and accountability ; (ii) a simple result-oriented financing 
framework for professional and private schools in association agreements based on fixed per-
class funding plus incentives linke d to performance criteria; (iv) a reinforced supervisory role 
of the General Inspectorate. [Q1-2012] 
iii. Present an action plan aimed at (i) ensuri ng the quality, attractiven ess and labour market 
relevance of vocational education and training through partnerships with companies or other 
stakeholders; (ii) enhancing career guidanc e mechanisms for prospective students in 
vocational educational training. [Q1-2012] 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
The current rate of early school leaving (2010) at 28.7  % is the second highest in the EU 
(average 14.1  %). However, Portugal has shown a rapid improvement on this indicator over 
the last decade (43.6  % in 2000 and 31.2  % in 2009). Nevertheless, it  continues to be a major 
structural weakness of the national education system. 
Portugal has set an ambitious national target to cut the rate of early school leaving to 10  % by 
2020, with an interim target of 15  % in 2014. It proposes the follo wing intermediate targets: 
27 % in 2011, 23  % in 2012 and 19  % in 2013. 
The authorities say progress relies on a numbe r of ongoing measures impl emented in the last 
few years and should be continued with a vi ew to attaining the national target. These 
measures include the diversifi cation of supply at secondary level, the implementation of 
projects to prevent and correct low achievem ent and school drop-out, an d the reorganisation 
of the schools network, contributing to improvi ng pupils’ integration across education cycles. 
Particular emphasis is now put on the Education 2015 Programme to commit schools and 
 
 - 119 - schools clusters to achieving th e national objectives of improving students’ basic skills in 
mathematics and Portuguese, and reducing grade retention rates and early school leaving. The 
‘New Opportunities’ initiative, which has impr oved the availability of vocational training in 
basic and secondary education, supports the reorganisation of education and training guidance 
services to be implemented over the sc hool year 2011/2012. Finally, the extension of 
compulsory education to the age of 18, adopted in 2009, comp lemented by financial support 
to low income families, will likely contribute to raising the rate of  secondary education 
completion as from 2013/2014. 
The newly-elected government has indicated that several policy changes should be 
implemented in the short to medium term. However, there is no indication of change in the national target of 10
 % early school leavers in 2020, which is  in line with the commitment to 
reduce early school leaving under the Memorandum of  Understanding. It is  therefore essential 
to ensure swift implementation of measures , accompanied by close monitoring of their 
effects. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
While the current rate of ter tiary attainment (2010) at 23.5  % is still below the EU average 
(33.6  %), Portugal has made signifi cant progress since 2000 (11.3  %). Portugal also made 
strong progress in increasing the number of  maths, science and technology graduates  and now 
stands above the 2010 EU benchmark level.  
Portugal has set a national target of 40  % tertiary graduates by 2020 and an intermediate target 
of 30  % for 2014. 
The National Reform Programme emphasises Portugal’s renewed and more diversified 
framework for higher education open to new layers of society. Between 2005 and 2009, the 
proportion of the population aged 20 enroll ed in higher education increased by 19  %, the 
number of students over th e age of 23 enrolled for the first time in higher education increased 
11 times and the number of graduates increased by 20  %, which was accompanied by a more 
specialised scientific base. 
Ongoing measures expected to contribute to at taining the national target include extending 
compulsory education to the age of 18; th e Confidence Contract signed in 2010 by the 
government and all public universities, polytechnics  and higher education institutions aiming 
to provide the labour market with an additional 100 000 graduates in four years; the increase in the supply of EQF level 5 technical specialisation course s; extension of the distance 
learning supply network , aiming at multiplying by four the number of students enrolled; the 
increase in the supply of prof essionally-oriented Ma ster’s degrees to attract 30 000 new 
students in the next four year s; the progressive integration of young people following a New 
Opportunities pathway; the implementation of  new conditions for access to higher education 
for those over the age of 23; and finally the quality assurance action of the Agency for the 
Evaluation and Accreditation of Higher Educ ation. Development Programmes signed in 2010 
under the Confidence Contract guaranteed availa bility of the necessa ry funding for higher 
education institutions, while in return, institut ions made a commitment to implement austerity 
measures and to optimise resources. 
Recent developments in the socio-economic situ ation may have an adverse effect in the 
attainment of the national target  and will require close monitoring of the measures adopted, in 
particular the implementation of the Confidence Contract. 
 
 - 120 - 4. MOBILITY  
Portugal has implemented several measures to promote outgoing/incoming learning mobility 
of students in various education sectors. Rega rding pre-school and sc hool education, Portugal 
has relied mainly on the transnational mobility actions supported by the Lifelong Learning Programme. Regarding virtual mobility, besides eTwinning, there was also emphasis on the International Network of European Clubs for schools, a Portuguese in itiative covering about 
25 countries and intended to promote knowledge about the EU and cooperation among students. 
In the field of vocational educa tion and training, to facilitate the mobility of citizens within 
the EU, the Instituto do Emprego e Formação Profissional provides information on the education and training system, the Nationa l System for the Recognition, Validation and 
Certification of Competences and the Port uguese Professions Framework. The Youth in 
Action Programme has contributed  support to a wide number of projects promoting informal 
and non-formal learning mobility through youth ex changes, transnational youth initiatives, 
voluntary activities abroad and youth exchange s with neighbouring partner countries. The 
‘INOV Programme’ facilitates and promotes th e international mobility of young graduates, 
providing internships in enterprise s and international organisations. 
Under the Confidence Contract, higher education institutions made a comm itment to invest in 
internationalisation, and a number of strategi c alliances with inte rnationally renowned 
institutions have already been  established. It is also worth mentioning that low-income 
students now receive Erasmus grants that are 50
 % higher, and that the loan system for higher 
education student mobility established in 2007 supported more than 14 000 students in December 2010. Regarding learning mobility of teachers and other higher education staff, 
bursaries provided by the Foundation for Scie nce and Technology allow beneficiaries to 
acquire knowledge and experience abroad. Also , the Welcome II Programme under the Marie 
Curie Action has supported the recruitment of European researchers to  work in Portuguese 
institutions. 
5. L
IFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
In Portugal, the lifelong learning approach has become an integrated element across the entire 
framework that governs the education and trai ning sector, although there is no formal single 
document setting out a lifelong learning strate gy. Efforts to modernise and reform the 
education and training system include the development of the National Qualifications System, 
including the RVCC process, the implementati on of the ‘New Opportun ities’ initiative, and 
various interventions in pre-primary, basic, seco ndary and higher education. In particular, pre-
primary education has been extended to all children aged between three and five, with 
universal access provided for five-year-olds. Significant improvements were made during the 
period 2000–2009. Nevertheless, Portugal still perfor ms below the EU average in this area. 
Progress made since 2005 under the ‘New Opport unities’ initiative can be summarised as 
follows: (i) around 50  % of students enrolled in seconda ry education follow a vocational 
pathway; (ii) around 1 million active workers were  or are involved in qualification processes 
with the support of European Structural F unds; and (iii) the ongoing implementation of a 
system ensuring the integrated management of  education and training offers, as well as 
permeability between different education and training modalities. Access to higher education for those over the age of 23 and the availabili ty of more Technical Specialisation Courses 
have also contributed to  strengthening the life long learning dimension. 
 
 - 121 - Recent initiatives to improve skills forecasting include: (i) the functi oning of the Sectoral 
Councils for Qualification, whose main aim is  to identify updating needs relative to the 
National Qualifications Catalogue ; (ii) preparatory work to de velop a national system for the 
forecasting of skills and competences; a nd (iii) the action of the working group13 with the 
objective of identifying 100 professions with  strategic importance for developing the 
Portuguese economy, for which new training scheme s will be provided, especially to ensure 
the retraining of the unemployed. 
The government intends to make an in-depth a ssessment of the ‘New Op portunities’ initiative 
which may bring changes in policy regarding sk ills and qualifications. However,  there should 
be continued strong emphasis on developing the Na tional Qualifications Sy stem, as well as on 
ensuring the quality, attractiven ess and labour market relevan ce of vocational education and 
training.   
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Portugal EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 5.42  % 4.89  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
On i nvestment in education as a percentage of GDP, Portuga l is performing below the EU 
average, as spending levels have been declin ing slightly since 2000 and investment rates are 
likely to decrease, due to budget cuts adopted and further fiscal consolidation measures 
included in the agreement on an Economic Adjustment Programme for 2011–14 signed with 
the joint mission of the Co mmission, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the 
European Central Bank (ECB). 
The Ministry of Education budget for 2011 was cut by 8.3  % compared with 2010 and by 
9.2 % compared with 2009. The Ministry of  Science Technology and Higher Education 
budget was also subject to an overall reduction. 
Measures to achieve savings in basic and s econdary education includ e reductions in wages 
common to all public administration official s earning more than EUR 1 500 a month, the 
freezing of career progression for teachers and othe r school staff, the review of remuneration 
criteria for management posts, changes in crite ria for the allocation of social benefits for 
pupils and students, and the review of criteri a for the public subsidising of private and 
cooperative schools. 
Following the signature of the Memorandum of Understanding supporting international 
financial assistance from the European Union and the IMF, Portugal made a commitment to 
reduce costs in education, with the aim of saving EUR 195 million by ra tionalising the school 
network through the creation of schools clus ters, lowering staff needs, centralising 
procurement and rationalising transfers to private schools in asso ciation agreements. 
                                                 
13 Set up under the Initiative for Competitiveness and Employment. 
 
 - 122 - 7. CONCLUSIONS  
With a view to improving the qua lity of the education and trai ning system, Portugal is taking 
measures to tackle early school  leaving and low educational a ttainment. Measures include the 
diversification of supply at sec ondary level, the reorganisation of the schools network and the 
implementation of specific projects addressi ng low achievement at school. The Education 
2015 Programme has the potential to provide th e right framework for better coordinated 
measures in this area. 
Portugal should also continue with its efforts to make its education and training system, 
particularly its vocational training system, bette r adapted to the needs of the labour market. 
Enhancing career guidance services remain s an issue to be addressed.       
 
 - 123 - ROMANIA 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training.  
1. BENCHMARKS  
 
Romania EU average EU benchmarks 
ROMANIA   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  67.6  % 82.3  %0985.2  % 91.7  %0
9  95 % 
 
Reading 41.3  % 40.4  %0921.3  % 20.0  %0
9 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 52.7  %0647.0  %0924.0  %06 22.2  %0
9 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science 46.9  %0641.4  %0920.3  %06 17.7  %0
9 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  22.9  % 18.4  % 16.0  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  8.9 % 18.1  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4-week period)  1.4 %04 1.3 %  8.5 %03 9.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
01 = 2001, 03 = 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 = 2007, 08 = 2008, 09 = 2009, e = estimate, b = break, p = provisional  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries; ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 124 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Implement the measures laid down in Counc il Decision 2009/459/EC, as amended by Council 
Decision 2010/183/EU, together with the measures laid down in Council Decision 
2011/288/EU and further specified in the Me morandum of Understanding of 23 June 2009 
and its subsequent supplements and in the Memorandum of Understa nding of 29 June 2011 
and its subsequent supplements. 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
Romania is implementing an ambitious reform under the new Education Law at all levels of 
education. Nevertheless, the chal lenge of early school leaving is  not addressed explicitly in 
the reform. With only 14.6  % of early school leav ers employed one year after finishing their 
studies, compared with 35  % of secondary and 60.9  % of tertiary graduates,14 early school 
leaving is a major cause of une mployment, feeding a vicious ci rcle of poverty and educational 
under-achievement. 
At 18.4  % in 2010, Romania has an early school leavi ng rate above the EU average and is one 
of the few Member States where early school leav ing has increased during the last three years, 
undermining some of the progress in the previo us decade. Furthermore, the increasing ESL 
rate is coupled with poor ba sic skills, with more than 2 in 5 pupils among 15 year-olds 
classified as low achievers according to PISA . The main cause of early school leaving is 
poverty, and its incidence is signifi cantly higher in rural areas, where the barriers to access to 
upper secondary education are bigg est, and among the Roma population. 
Romania has no coherent system for collecting data on and monitoring early school leaving 
and is not using evidence-based policies. Recent progr ess in improving data availability in 
this area should be continued and consolidate d. The main priority target groups for measures 
against early school leaving are young people from  rural and disadvantaged areas, of Roma 
origin or with special educational needs, w ith a focus on lower se condary education and 
vocational training. 
The main measures addressing early school  leaving include impr oving the quality and 
availability of early chil dhood education and care, provid ing support for students from 
disadvantaged areas and for developing vocatio nal education and training and continuing to 
develop second-chance educational provision. A number of measures planned in the new 
Education Law, such as postponing tracking, lengthening lower secondary education and 
introducing after-school programmes,  can also contribute to a ddressing early school leaving. 
Other measures, such as the introduction of pe r-capita financing, the pl anned decentralisation 
of pre-university education and the consolidation of the school network, would need to be 
managed carefully. 
Overall, there is a need to consolidate all existing programmes in order to identify a few 
priority measures, adequately budgeted and ba sed on clear identification and monitoring of 
the groups at risk of early school leaving. Although early school leaving is one of the 
                                                 
14  http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/ewco/2010/02/RO1002019I.htm. 
 
 - 125 - priorities for European Social Fund in Roma nia, these resources have been insufficiently 
accessed so far. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
The expansion of tertiary educat ion needs to continue in order to match the requirements of a 
competitive economy. At 18.1  % in 2010, Romania still has the lo west tertiary attainment in 
the EU, despite doubling graduation rates during the last decade. In recent years enrolment 
and completion rates have been on a downward tr end. Participation in tertiary education by 
students from urban areas is double the rate for rural areas. Attracting more students from 
lower-income families, particularly from rural areas, remains a big challenge. 
Furthermore, high youth unemployment among ter tiary graduates reveal s wide gaps in the 
quality of tertiary education and mismatches be tween tertiary offers and labour market needs, 
which will create a major bottleneck once economi c growth resumes. Current efforts in this 
area should be continued, particularly using th e tracer studies in the pipeline. Additional 
levers for influencing the education offered by tertiary institutions  can be identified. 
One area in which Romania has made progress is the increase in maths, science and 
technology graduates , where the growth rate has been above the EU average and the gender 
balance has also improved. 
The national report mentions a number of measur es planned, such as free tuition for students 
from disadvantaged backgrounds or the introdu ction of a study loan programme, which could 
give low-income students better access to tertiary  education. While raisin g the attainment rate, 
the government also needs to continue its effort s to improve the quality of tertiary education 
and align it to the need s of the labour market. 
4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Romania has an outbound long-term mobility (2.0  % of students 
per year) below the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mob ility under the EU Erasmus 
programme (0.3  % of students in 2008/09) is also  clearly below the EU average. 
The new Education Law encourages all learning mobility, and particularly for future teachers 
and doctoral and post-doctoral students. Learning mobility for these two target groups is also supported from structural funds. As insufficient f unding has been identified as one of the main 
barriers, the planned study loan agency c ould contribute to increasing learning mobility. 
5. L
IFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Adult participation in lifelong learning in Romani a remains stagnant at very low levels (1.3  % 
in 2010). The adoption of a Lifelong Learning  Strategy, continuing progress towards the 
national qualifications framew ork, the revision of the occ upations classification and the 
planned revision of the legisl ative framework in the sector of adult education should be 
accompanied by programmes stimulating particip ation in lifelong learning. Although the NRP 
mentions programmes and/or projects to s timulate continuing vocational training for 
employees and to involve social partners in order to correlate the education and training 
systems with trends on the labour markets, further incentives for employers engaging in 
continuing vocational training and closer integr ation with active labour market policies are 
needed to scale up participation, pa rticularly by low-skilled adults. 
 
 - 126 - Considerable progress has been made in the area of skills forecasting, with a number of 
initiatives at local, regional a nd sectoral levels. At regional and local levels, structural funds 
are financing a number of scheme s on integration of graduates in to the labour market, skills 
forecasting and strategic planning of the vocationa l education offer. A nu mber of structural 
funds projects are aiming to rein force the school guidance network. 
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Romania EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education, % of GDP 2.86  % 4.25  %07 4.86  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
07 = 2007 
As regards investment in education, Romania considerably improved spending levels between 
2000 and 2007 in both absolute and relative term s, but is still below the EU average. 
Under the Education Law, education should receive 6  % of GDP, but recent budgets were 
probably much lower. In general, the econom ic crisis between 2009 and 2011 had a negative 
effect on the education budget. Teachers’ an d education staff sala ries were cut by 25  % 
starting with July 2010, and this was onl y partially offset in January 2011. 
Romania aims to attract additional funding from th e structural funds in the next period. This is 
crucial considering the current low absorpti on rate for the ESF and the current budgetary 
constraints. Strengthening administrative capacity in the education sector is crucial for better 
accessing structural funds. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
The main policy challenge for Ro mania is to improve the quality of the education and training 
system. The recent rise in early school leavin g rates combined with poor basic skills, as 
indicated by PISA, are at the root of skill mismatches on th e labour market. The ambitious 
education reform agenda implemented via the ne w education law includes relevant reforms, 
such as improving the quality of early chil dhood education and care, and postponing early 
tracking, but it should be reinforced by stream lining and broadening pr ogrammes for student 
support. 
Current efforts to better align higher educ ation offer to labour market needs should be 
sustained, and additional reforms are necessary  for broadening access to higher education. A 
broader offer of tuition-free pl aces for disadvantaged students  or study loan programmes 
could open access for low income students.  
Finally, increasing adult participation in lifelong learning is crucial, particularly for the low-
skilled. This requires additi onal fiscal and financial ince ntives. Not only the long-term 
competitiveness but also the economic recovery risks otherwise to be constrained by the inadequate skills levels of the work force.          
 
 
 - 127 - SLOVAKIA 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training.  
1. BENCHMARKS  
Slovakia EU average EU benchmarks
SLOVAKIA   
  
 
2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  76.1  % 77.9  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 27.8  % 22.3  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 20.9  %0621.0  %0924.0  %0622.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science 20.2  %0619.3  %0920.3  %0617.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  6.7 %02 4.7 % 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  10.6  % 22.1  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4-week period)  3.7 %032.8 %  8.5 %039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
02 = 2002, 03 = 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 = 2007, 08 = 2008, 09 = 2009, e = estimate, b = break, p = provisional  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries; ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 128 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
By means of the 2020 targets, the NRP establ ishes a longer-term vision for the necessary 
modernisation of the Slovak economy, i.e. reco gnising the importance of education and R&D 
and the need to increase the employment partic ipation rate and streng then social inclusion. 
The high prevalence of skills mi smatches is another distinctiv e feature of the Slovak labour 
market. 
A number of measures are planned to impr ove the relevance of school education and 
vocational education and training to labour ma rket needs. The government has also set a 
target for the basic competences assessed by  the Programme for International Student 
Assessment (PISA) and plans to increase investme nt in school infrastructure, particularly in 
information and communication technology  (ICT). Other plans aim to reduce the 
administrative burden within schools and to in troduce school quality assessment systems and 
work-based learning schemes in vocational education and training  (VET). Overall, a 
comprehensive package of reforms has been laun ched to tackle the skills mismatches on the 
labour market with the aid of  better education and training. 
Plans to review the adult learning and continuing VET system are another positive 
development, as a recent law on this subject does not respond to the challenges adequately. 
Although the new plans have some positive aspects, they do not appear to put forward any incentives to boost adult pa rticipation in lifelong learning, wh ich remains one of the lowest in 
the EU (2.8
 % against the EU average of 9.3  % in 2009). 
The trade balance remains negative and high-tec h exports have a large content of high-tech 
imports, suggesting that considerable scope re mains for expansion of the higher value-added 
sectors. One basic prerequisite, however, is an appropr iately skilled workforce that could be 
employed in those sectors. Against this ba ckground, most indicators on the degree of 
innovation capacity in the Slovak economy are weak or very weak (e.g. R&D spending, 
spending on and quality of tertiary education,  number of patents, etc.) and several even 
deteriorated over the last decade. Tertiary  education attainment  remains low (17.6  %), well 
below the EU average (32.3  %). The quality of tertiary edu cation in particular remains an 
issue, as suggested by a variety of indicators  (university rankings, nu mber of international 
publications, low attraction of st udents from abroad, etc.) and the relatively high proportion of 
students studying abroad despite free ter tiary education being provided at home. 
Reforms proposed in higher education tackle many of the current pr oblems; however, much 
will depend on implementation. Slovakia has set an ambitious target of 40  % tertiary 
education attainment, which is in line with  the Europe 2020 head line target. The NRP, 
however, provides no information on how it will be achieved. Given the current figures, a considerable effort will be required to secure a high completion rate for current students and to attract people already on the labour market into higher education. Greater investment in 
higher education and closer coope ration with businesses (includi ng on design of curricula) to 
increase its relevance to the labour market are also instruments to develop a well-functioning 
knowledge triangle (education, research a nd innovation), to make private and public 
investment in R&D more effective and more  attractive and progressively to build the 
innovation capacity of the Slovak economy. Ag ainst this backgroun d, higher education 
institutions that focus on supporting not onl y outgoing but also incoming students and 
researchers would promote mobility conducive to high-quality education and research. 
 
 - 129 - Overall, the consolidation strategy does not sufficiently safeguard growth-enhancing 
expenditure, including on transpor t infrastructure and education. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Recommendation 1 
 (…) safeguard growth-enhanci ng expenditure and us e available room to  increase revenue 
through environmental and property taxes and by increasing the efficiency of VAT collection. 
Recommendation 5 
Speed up the implementation of planned educa tion, vocational educatio n and training reforms 
and take steps to improve the qu ality of higher educat ion and its relevance to market needs. 
Develop a framework of incentives for both individuals and employers to encourage 
participation of the low-skilled in lifelong learning. 
 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
Slovakia is the top performer in th e area of early school leaving (4.7  % in 2010). The target 
set for 2020 (6  %) takes into account the expected incr ease in the proportion of marginalised 
Roma children who are at higher risk of not completing s econdary education. 
However, this best performance in terms of the share of pupils leaving school ea rly is coupled 
with average results in terms of the quality of education. A ccording to the OECD’s PISA 
survey, school education is dominated not on ly by average performance but also by great 
differences between the best-performing and p oor-performing schools. In this regard, the 
Slovak government has set the target that, wh ile maintaining the dr op-out rate at 6  %, the 
quality of primary education should be impr oved (average score of 505 in PISA by 2018). 
Both the National Reform Programme and the ET 2020 national report acknowledge the 
importance of integrating the ma rginalised Roma population in or der to keep the early school 
leaving rate low. The government will assess th e role of special schools (where most Roma 
children are placed), increase the number of specialised education staff and pedagogical 
assistants and improve access to VET for disadvantaged groups. The government will 
strengthen both pre-primary education in kinderg artens and the ‘class zero’ system to prepare 
children from marginalised  communities for school. 
Slovakia will launch a central regi ster of pupils and children in order to gather statistics, 
including on early school leaving. It will also put in place a school quality assessment system 
with a new integrated system of internal and external eval uations aiming at improving school 
management. 
One important factor to prevent early school leaving is the possi bility for early school leavers 
who do not finish compulsory school to cont inue their studies at a secondary vocational 
school in a two-year vocational pr ogramme. At the same time, th ey have a chance to complete 
courses required for compulsory educat ion. Any individual who has dropped out of 
compulsory attendance at primary or seconda ry school has a second chance to complete 
primary school, at any time, by taking up the e ducational course and continuing his or her 
studies at any secondary school. Pupils who su spend their studies at secondary school have 
the possibility to complete their secondary edu cation at a later date, by following full-time or 
part-time (external) forms of study. 
 
 - 130 - 3.2. Tertiary attainment 
Despite the progress made since 2000 (10.6  %), Slovakia still has a low tertiary attainment 
rate with 22.1  % compared with the European average of 33.6  % in 2010. Both the National 
Reform Programme and the ET 2020 national re port give priority to increasing to 40  % the 
share of the population aged 30–34 y ears with tertiary educationa l attainment or equivalent. 
This ambitious target is in line with the Eu rope 2020 headline target. However, the reports 
give no information on how this figure will be achieved. 
Slovakia’s main instruments to increase particip ation in tertiary edu cation, particularly by 
under-represented groups, are the grants for soci ally disadvantaged students and students with 
disabilities. Besides these, every student in Slov akia can apply for a (low-interest) loan from 
the National Student Loan Fund. 
In addition to the low attainment rate, quality remains an issue, as suggested by a number of 
indicators, such as university rankings, and by the relatively  high share of students choosing 
to study abroad. Improving the quality of hi gher education, as called for in the Council 
Recommendation adopted in the framework of the first Europ ean Semester, should be given 
priority in the years ahead. As higher edu cation is suffering from low investment with 
negative consequences for quality, the measures  planned in the areas of accreditation and 
quality assurance and of institutional financin g are the first steps in the right direction. 
Slovakia also intends to put greater empha sis on research and on excellence in higher 
education and to encourage closer cooperati on between universities and businesses, making 
higher education more relevant to  the needs of the labour market . To this end, an information 
system is planned which would show both the demand for certain professions and the levels 
of the salaries. 
4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Slovak ia has an outbound long-term mobility (10.7  % of 
students per year) clearly above the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the 
EU Erasmus programme (0.7  % of students in 2008/09) is sl ightly below the EU average. 
Learning mobility for pupils, trai nees, students, learners and al so education staff is mainly 
supported by the Lifelong Learning Program me. The LLP funds are being topped up by 
national co-financing (EUR 760  000 annually). Other national inst ruments (including internet 
information portals) are in place. 
The national grant programme is  targeted at supporting outgoi ng and incoming mobility of 
students, PhD students, higher education staff and researchers (annual budget of 
EUR 900  000). 
A new act, adopted in 2009, on pedagogic and vocational employees should facilitate mobility 
of teachers and validation of  learning acquired abroad. 
Slovakia is trying to promote mobility by making greater use of Europass, increasing the 
number of study programmes in English in Slov akia and tightening cooperation with regional 
authorities. 
5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Slovakia adopted its Lifelong Learning Strate gy in 2007, followed by a specific Law on 
Lifelong Learning. This law establishes the basis for implementation of the national system of 
qualifications, the national qualifications fram ework and the system for validation of non-
 
 - 131 - formal and informal learning, together with th e system for monitoring skills needs. The law 
neither defines any specific set of financia l incentives for promo ting lifelong learning nor 
provides any incentives to boost participation. 
Meanwhile, according to Eurostat’s Labour For ce Survey (LFS), participation in lifelong 
learning in Slovakia is amongst the lowest in the EU (2.8  % against the EU average of 9.1  % 
in 2010). This is particularly cr itical for the low-skilled who are the hardest hit on the labour 
market, especially during economic downturns , as highlighted in the Commission Staff 
Working Document accompanying the Council Recommendation on the European Semester. The statistics show that Slovakia has the lowest employment rate for low-skilled people in the 
EU (14.3
 % in 2009 compared with the EU average of 46.2  %), which suggests that they have 
very limited access to the labour ma rket without further training. 
The Lifelong Learning Strategy focuses main ly on education and training for the adult 
population by introducing mechanisms for valid ating non-formal learning, information and 
guidance systems and participati on in OECD’s PIAAC programme. Part of the strategy is the 
lifelong guidance strategy which will be reviewed to respond to changing skills requirements 
on the labour market and to impr ove the information and guidance services to individuals via 
a network of career guidance centres . Timely revision of the strate gy is crucial, as the current 
split of guidance services — one provided by public employment services and one provided by 
the education system — seems to create inefficiencies and contributes indirectly to skills 
mismatches.    
Recent reforms focused on VET and its relevanc e to labour market needs, including creation 
of skills councils at national, regional and se ctoral levels. Among other tasks, these councils 
are involved in defining qualifi cations standards and developi ng the national system of 
qualifications. With the aim of improving th eir relevance to the labour market, the 
government also plans to introduce work-based le arning schemes in VET. However, there is a 
risk that the planned system of forecasting skil ls needs could become a tool used only for the 
purpose of lifelong learning and retraining of the adult popul ation, in particular the 
unemployed. 
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Slovakia EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education, % of GDP  3.93  % 3.59  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Investment in education,  as a percentage of GDP, has decreased since 2000, whereas it has 
risen in the EU as a whole. Slovakia is ther efore lagging behind the EU average and the gap 
has become wider. The low level of investment  has negative conseque nces on the quality of 
the education and training system, both because it does not attract a criti cal mass of talents to 
the teaching profession and because it has insuffi cient means to modernise the infrastructure 
of the institutions. 
The crisis has had a negative effect on public investment in educat ion. After 2009, when the 
budget was increased by 9  % compared with 2008, there were decreases of 0.5  % in 2010 and 
of 4  % in 2011. This same level of expenditure is also planned for 2012 and 2013. 
 
 - 132 - Investment in higher education followed the generally negative trend. In 2009 there was an 
increase of 9.5  % compared with 2008, but this was followed by a decrease of 4  % in 2010. 
This same level of expenditure is also expected in 2011 and 2012. 
Structural funds are a major s ource of funding for the whole e ducation and training system in 
Slovakia. 
Overall, as identified in the framework of th e European Semester, the challenge is still to 
make sure that budgetary consolidation safe guards and even increases growth-enhancing 
expenditure, such as on education. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
The planned education and traini ng reforms provide an opportunity  to respond to the manifold 
challenges by taking speedy measures on both vo cational education and training and tertiary 
education. To improve the quality of highe r education, the planned measures focus on 
financing, quality assurance and labour market relevance. Reforms in VET will focus on skills 
mismatches and better forecasting. Increasing adu lt participation in lif elong learning remains 
a big challenge: efforts need to be redoubled, in  particular with regard to the low-skilled. 
Finally, implementation of the reforms needs to be accompanied by adequate financing and investment, in line with the outcome of the European Semester.   
 
 - 133 - SLOVENIA 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training. 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Slovenia EU average EU benchmarks 
SLOVENIA   
  
 
2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  85.2  % 91.3  %09 85.2  % 91.7  % - 95 % 
 
Reading 16.5  %0616.5  %06 21.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics  
17.7  %0620.3  %09 24.0  %0622.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science  
 
13.9  %0614.8  %09 20.3  %0617.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  6.4 %01 5.0 % u, p 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  18.5  % 34.8  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4-week period)  13.3  %0316.2  %  8.5 %039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
01 = 2001, 03 = 2003, 06 = 2006 08 = 2008, 09 = 2009,  p = provisional, u = unreliable  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries; ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 134 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
Slovenia already has a very low rate of early school leaving (5
 % compared with the EU 
average of 14  %) and a rather good rate of ter tiary education attainment (34.8  % against the 
EU average of 33.6  %). The target for 2020 is to maintain these results and increase the higher 
education attainment rate further. The NRP also  envisages intensive investment in training to 
improve key skills and employability, with the ai m of reducing skills mismatches. It also 
describes plans to improve pathways from edu cation to the labour market, with a focus on 
providing career guidance servi ces throughout the education syst em. Within higher education, 
policy efforts are being geared to shortening the average number  of years of study, increasing 
the proportion of graduates and strengthening the vocational element. The Scholarship Act 
has been amended (it is currently  going through the parliamentar y procedure) with the aim of 
improving links between educationa l institutions and employers, pa rticularly with a view to 
targeting deficit professions, in the light of rising graduate unemployment. Finally, there are 
plans to modernise the employment service with  the objective of matching the supply of skills 
to labour market needs better. However, the NR P contains no plans to improve the system to 
identify current and projected labour market needs in a timely manner. Currently, the public 
employment service provides only a partial pi cture of the skills required by employers, 
without any forward-looking element in the form of improved career guidance and human 
capital investment. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Recommendation 2 
Increase the employment rate  of older workers through late r retirement, and by further 
developing active labour market policie s and lifelong learning measures. 
Recommendation 5 
Set up a system to forecast skills and compet encies needed to achieve a responsive labour 
market. Evaluate the effectiveness of the public employment servic e, notably on career 
guidance and counselling services , to improve the matching of  skills with labour market 
needs. 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
With an early school leaving rate of 5  % in 2010, Slovenia is one of the best performers in the 
EU (EU average: 14.1  %). Its target is to keep the rate at 5  % up to 2020. Slovenian pupils 
achieve relatively high scores in internationa l achievement tests (PISA and PIRLS), which 
suggests that the good quantitative performa nce is coupled with good-quality education. 
Nevertheless, despite the favourable data, Sloveni a recognises that measures are needed to 
prevent drop-outs or to mitigate and reduce them when they nevertheless occur. Measures are therefore focusing on prevention, intervention and compensation. The Elementary School Act 
provides for the following prevention and interv ention measures: remedial classes for pupils 
with learning disabilities, s upplementary education for childre n whose native language is not 
Slovene, education of children with special needs, additiona l professional and learning 
 
 - 135 - assistance, along with the possibility of ex tending pupil status for two years following the 
nine-year basic education. 
Compensation measures include various short vocational education and training programmes 
offered particularly to young a dults. The network of Lifelong Learning Centres formed in 
2008 and funded by the European Social Fund provi de a means of moving education closer to 
the individual’s home, opening education to the wider environment and interconnecting the 
numerous educational organisations that offer formal and informal education and training 
programmes. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
There has been considerable prog ress with the tertiary or eq uivalent attainment rate (34.8  % in 
2010) which is above the EU average of 33.6  %. Moreover, the attainment rate of young 
people is significantly higher than  that of older workers. The situation is set to improve 
further as overall entry rates into tertiary programmes are rather high. Slovenia has set the 
target of increasing the level of tertiary education from 34.8  % of the younger generation in 
2010 to 40  % by 2020 so as to meet the needs both of  the labour market and of society at 
large. 
As for the number of graduates in maths,  science and technology (MST) graduates, the 
growth rate has been well below the EU aver age, although the number of graduates has 
increased by 15.4% in Slovenia.  The share of female graduates has not yet reached the EU 
average. The overall share of MST graduates (24  %) is still relatively low, despite favourable 
employment opportunities and projecte d new job openings in these fields. 
With the numbers in enrolling generations d ecreasing, the number of  places available has 
exceeded the number of acceptances for entr y into the higher education programmes for 
several successive years. Therefore, the higher education offer is no obstacle to inclusion of 
younger generations in tertiary education. Free regul ar study in the first and second cycles and 
numerous forms of indirect support for students (scholarships, health insurance, subsidised 
accommodation, meals and transport, tax relief fo r student work, etc.) further stimulate or 
clear the way for studies. The new financing system adopted in 2011 en ables higher education 
institutions to obtain funds for special m easures aimed at increasing access to higher 
education. 
Despite the rising graduation rate s, the system shows some signs  of inefficiency. Tertiary 
education suffers from a high dr op-out rate with only around 65  % of those entering finishing 
their studies. In addition, students take more than six years, on average, to complete their studies at undergraduate level which is one of the longest times among OECD countries. 
These long studies are partly due to high re petition rates. As also highlighted in the 
Commission Staff Working Docu ment adopted in the framew ork of the first European 
Semester, since this long duration of tertia ry studies also has a negative impact on 
employment prospects, policy efforts geared to  shortening the average number of years spent 
in tertiary education are justified. 
To modernise higher education, sp ecial attention is being paid to implementation of the new 
National Higher Education Programme for 2011–2020 that covers all tertiary education and 
includes both higher education in stitutions and vocational colleges. The National Programme 
addresses the link between education and science,  cultural policy and business; as such, it has 
the potential to contribute to th e quality and efficiency of high er education and excellence in 
research. The main objectives of the Nationa l Programme include creation of structural 
partnerships between higher e ducation institutions and the business community, international 
mobility, fair access to higher education and unimpeded completion of studies. 
 
 - 136 - 4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Slovenia  has an outbound long-term mobility (2.1  % of students 
per year) below the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mob ility under the EU Erasmus 
programme (1.0  % of students in 2008/09) is above the EU average. 
The majority of learning mobility in Sl ovenia is supported by the Vseživljenjsko u čenje 
(Lifelong Learning) and Mladi v akciji (Youth in Action) European Action Programmes. 
There are also some national schemes to suppo rt learning mobility that  are financed from 
national funds on the basis of a nnual calls for tender, which ar e mostly intended for students 
at tertiary level for study programmes that are rare or not available in Slovenia. 
The Lifelong Learning Programme is the basi c measure to promote learning mobility for 
education staff, Comenius for teachers, headma sters and future teachers, Erasmus for teaching 
staff in higher education, Leona rdo da Vinci for professionals in the vocational education and 
training system and Grundtvig for adult education professionals. 
The major obstacle is still rec ognition of knowledge gained from learning mobility. In 
addition, some students from a lower socio-eco nomic background cannot afford to engage in 
mobility. 
5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Slovenia adopted a comprehensive Lifelong Le arning Strategy in 2007. The cornerstones are 
improving the quality of education and traini ng by updating the programmes, curricula and 
knowledge maps, developing educational and learning strategies, improving access to 
education, recognising the knowledge gained and strengthening research and cooperation with 
non-governmental institutions  and social partners. 
While the strategy itself is built on the concept of  learning from cradle to grave, currently two 
areas are receiving special atte ntion and funding: pre-school edu cation and adult education. In 
the case of pre-school educati on, the focus is on ensuring permanent high-quality pre-school 
education and access, in particular  in areas with high migration, while in adult education it is 
on offering further training to ente r or re-enter the labour market. 
Slovenia has made progress on developing a national qualifications framework. These 
developments have been coupled with con tinuing reforms in vocational education and 
training. The focus is on rec ognition of non-formally acquire d knowledge and skills, better 
inclusion of key competences in the education sy stem and stronger use of instruments such as 
Europass, the EQF, ECVET and EQARF. 
Making vocational education and training more attractive remain s a challenge. The change in 
the structure of post-secondary  education reflects declining interest in vocational upper 
secondary programmes, which is creating a sk ills deficit in the labour market. Slovenia 
therefore plans to increase the number of study programmes and professional standards for 
which students can obtain sk ills and professional qualif ications in post-secondary 
programmes. Further investment in training, as  announced in the country’s National Reform 
Programme, with the aim of improving skills and, consequently, long-term employability 
should remain a priority. 
Development of career guidance and counselling services has been hi gh on the policy agenda 
since the end of the 90s. Impl ementation of the Labour Market Regulation Act of January 
2011, which puts particular emphasis on guidance and counselling, is a step forward. In 
response to the need for better matching of skills to the demands of the labour market, 
 
 - 137 - Slovenia is currently making efforts to introdu ce career guidance services in the whole cycle 
of education and to provide inform ation on future professional careers. 
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Slovenia EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education, % of GDP  5.89  %01 5.22  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Investment in education in Slovenia is above  the EU average. Although Slovenia was among 
the EU countries hit hardest by th e economic crisis in terms of real GDP, so far education and 
training have maintained the same level of f unding as before the cris is. Funding for research 
and higher education has increased. 
In 2008, public expenditure by the state and muni cipalities on formal education in Slovenia 
totalled EUR 1  937.8 million or 5.19  % of GDP15, of which 2.35  % was intended for primary 
education, 1.15  % for secondary education and 1.21  % for tertiary education. 
Almost half (45.2  %) of the funds for formal education were earmarked for primary education, 
23.3  % for tertiary, just over one fifth (22.1  %) for secondary and 9.4  % for pre-school 
education. In the breakdown of all costs for ed ucational institutions, public expenditure made 
up 88  %, private spending 11.5  % and international costs 0.5  %. The programme-oriented 
budget introduced in 2009 aims to make more effective use of public funds, improve 
transparency and increase inter-sectoral cooperation. 
Given the current budgetary constr aints, continuing to prioritise  investment in education and 
training will remain an important issue. 
7. CONCLUSIONS IN RELATION TO THE CHALLENGES IDENTIFIED IN THE EUROPEAN 
SEMESTER  
While Slovenia has a well-performing educa tion system, there are shortcomings with 
matching the skills obtained in the education system to the needs of the labour market. 
Although Slovenia recognises the importance of a na tional forecast of future skills needs on 
the labour market, it has no plan s to develop a comprehensive sy stem to identify current and 
projected labour market needs. Further efforts should be made to address deficit professions 
efficiently and design a long-term system for an alysing and forecasting future skills needs. 
The implementation of the measures related to career guidance and counselling services 
foreseen in the Labour Market Regulation Ac t will require close monitoring and regular 
evaluation.    
                                                 
15     According to the Statistical information No. 23/2010 published by the Statistical Office of the Republic of 
Slovenia, the share of public expenditure spent on formal education in 2008 has been revised to 5.19% of GDP from 5.22% of GDP as published by Eurostat. 
 
 
 - 138 - SPAIN 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training.  
1. BENCHMARKS  
Spain EU average EU Benchmarks 
SPAIN   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  100.0  %99.3  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09  95 % 
 
Reading 16.3  % 19.6  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 24.7  %0623.7  %09 24.006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study 
results) 
  
Science 19.6  %0618.2  %09 20.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  29.1  % 28.4  % b 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  29.2  % 40.6  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  10.5  % 0510.8  % 8.5 % 039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009 b = break  
PISA: reading: 25 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 139 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
Combating the worryingly high levels of early school leaving is, as Spain rightly recognised 
in its NRP, a precondition for addressing the high unemployment rates among young people 
and reducing the risk of social exclusion. Th e very high rate of early school leaving (31.2
 %, 
i.e. more than twice the European average) contrasts sharpl y with very high tertiary 
educational attainment (39.4  %). The Spanish NRP draws attention to specific programmes 
for reducing early school leaving that have already been introduced in a bid to get young 
people to stay on in the education system at least until they get thei r compulsory education 
certificate. The measures mainly consist of reinforcement, guidance and support programmes 
(PROA) and Initial Professional Qualificatio n Programmes (PCPI). They are backed by the 
Ministry of Education's Action Plan 2010–2011 and are run in conjunction with the 
Autonomous Communities through a specific programme to reduce early school leaving. 
Measures to promote vocational training have  led to more places and new options in 
vocational training programmes. 2011 will show th e first results of these measures. It is 
essential that the commitments on reducing ear ly school leaving be sustained and follow a 
broad perspective. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Recommendation (2) 
Adopt the proposed pension reform to extend the statutory retirement  age and increase the 
number of working years for the calculation of pensions as pla nned; regularly review pension 
parameters in line with changes to life expectancy, as planned, and develop further 
measures to improve lifelong learning for older workers.  
 
Recommendation (6) 
Assess by the end of 2011 the impacts of the la bour market reforms of September 2010 and of 
the reform of active labour market policies of February 2011, accompanied, if necessary, by 
proposals for further reforms to reduce la bour market segmentation, and to improve 
employment opportunities for young people; ensure close monitoring of the effectiveness of 
the measures set out in the National Reform Programme to reduce early school leaving, including through prevention policies, and facilita te the transition to vo cational education and 
training.  
3. E
UROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving  
As stressed in the European Semester analysis , early school leaving remains a very serious 
problem affecting 28.4  % of the 18–24 age group (2010 data). The rate has been high for over 
a decade, with the percentage diminishing only slightly in 2009 (-0.7  %) and more 
significantly in 2010 (-2.8  %). It impacts on par ticipation in lifelong learning (LLL) and the 
chances of young people getting a foothold in the labour mark et (the youth unemployment 
rate stands at 41.6  %). Given the current high ESL rates and the slow progress achieved in the 
 
 - 140 - past, Spain's national target of  getting the figure down to 15  % by 2020 (intermediate target 
for 2015: 23  %) appears ambitious. 
Spain attaches great importance to achieving th is target by way of regulations, plans and 
programmes either adopted or in process of adoption; these were mentioned in the 2011 
Spanish ET2020 national report and in the 20 11 National Reform Programme (NRP). The 
Sustainable Economy Act of February 2011 also a ddresses the challenges in the education and 
training system, in particular in  the area of vocational training. 
Most measures to reduce ESL referred to in the European Semester analysis — such as 
increasing the availability of Initial Profe ssional Qualification Pr ogrammes (PCPI) or the 
Ministry of Education’s 2010–2011 Action Pla n, are intervention measures focusing on 
students in the last years of co mpulsory secondary education. 
Preventive measures are implemented main ly through the Reinforcement, Guidance and 
Support Plan (PROA) referred to in the European  Semester analysis. These measures mainly 
target migrants and include improving admission  requirement for pupils in public schools to 
avoid school segregation; promoting forei gn pupils' access to non-compulsory education 
stages and to adult education; and improvi ng the recognition and validation of academic 
certificates. 
In addition, free education has been extended to pre-school for 3 to 5 years-olds. The Educa 3 
plan (started in 2008 with an annual investme nt of over €100m) will continue until 2012, to 
increase the number of places o ffered for children aged 0 to 3. 
Compensation measures target young drop-outs with  a view to helping them re-enter the 
education and training system by setting up guidance and counselling units, by improving 
access to formal education — facilitating acce ss to the ESO certificate (Educación Secundaria 
Obligatoria) and to intermediate VET — and pr ovisions to enhance voca tional training, in line 
with the specific European Semester recommendation. 
The Ministry of Education action plan includes a research programme to encourage analysis 
and monitoring of the situation in this area and is therefore a positive step towards implementing the European Semester recommendation on keeping a watch on the 
effectiveness of the NRP measures. 
A report was commissioned by the General E ducation Committee for the analysis and 
monitoring of the Spanish and international educational benchmarks in the Education and 
Training Strategy 2020.  
The working group in charge of the report would also carry out the monitoring and reviewing 
of the main actions taken to decrease early leaving of education and training. The document 
"European Educational Objectives: Educatio n and Training Stra tegy 2020. Spanish Report 
2010-11" was adopted by the Ministry of E ducation and the Autono mous Communities on 18 
October 2011. 
3.2. Tertiary Attainment 
Spain clearly performed above the EU average of 33.6
 % in 2010 and has already reached the 
EU benchmark for 2020 of 40  %. There has been rapid progress in the recent past, with 
Spain’s rate of tertiary attainment increasing by 11.4 percentage points from 29.2  % in 2000 to 
40.6  % in 2010. Spain’s nationa l target for 2020 is 44  % (intermediate target for 2015: 41%). 
The adaptation to the Bologna process will be completed during the academic year 2010–
2011. The most significant measure adopted in  Spain to improve and modernise higher 
 
 - 141 - education has been the 2015 University Stra tegy, adopted in January  2009. It includes the 
social dimension as a cross-cutting objectiv e within the European Higher Education Area. 
With the aim of encouraging equality and equa l opportunities the Ministry of Education has 
included new broader Scholarship, Grant a nd Equity programmes in the 2010–2011Action 
Plan. 
In its NRP Spain states that it intends to focu s on the monitoring and qua lity assurance of new 
qualifications. These measures will help tackle  the challenges of impr oving the employability 
and adaptability of graduate s, and encouraging excellenc e, internationalisation and 
independence of university instit utions. Further increases in te rtiary attainment should focus 
primarily on tertiary level vocat ional education and training (VET). 
4. MOBILITY  
Spain is adopting measures to promote mob ility, equity and bette r language skills. A 
scholarship and grant system has been designed  to provide access to ed ucation and facilitate 
equal opportunities, academic performance a nd mobility, and the Spanish National Agency 
for European Educational Programmes (OAPEE) fosters participation in the mobility aspects 
of the Lifelong Learning Programme. As regard s tertiary education, Spain remains the most 
popular destination for incoming Erasmus students. 
Spain shows outward bound long-term mobility (1.2  % of students per year) below the EU 
average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the EU Erasmus programme (1.4  % of 
students in 2008/09) is above the EU aver age. In higher education the focus of 
internationalisation and mobility forms part of the 2015 University Strategy. 
Future plans are to expand mobility in VET, including complementary grants for the Erasmus 
VET programme. 
To boost quality vocational training and mobilit y opportunities, policies are being developed 
in conjunction with the Autonomous Commun ities as part of the 2010–2011 Territorial 
Cooperation Programmes. 
Mobility of teachers in the various Autonomo us Communities is enhanced by training stays 
and on-the-job training modules. Most of these measures can be embedded in the 
comprehensive framework offered by the Council Recommendation ‘Youth on the move — promoting the learning mobility of young people’. 
The Ministry of Education is also directing a European mob ility project for counsellors 
(Project Academia) in conjuncti on with all regional administ rations, so that counsellors 
include a European dimension and mobility element in their work. 
5. L
IFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
An Action Plan for Lifelong Learning  focusing on adult learners is  in advanced preparation 
and will be submitted to the Counc il of Ministers shortly. It ha s been drafted in consultation 
with the main stakeholders and the Autonomo us Communities. The main objectives are to 
find better ways of coordinating resources, redu ce the number of adults  without a secondary 
compulsory schooling certificate, combat the problem of poverty and social exclusion of 
immigrant and disadvantaged groups, enhance a culture of lifelong le arning and monitor the 
sector with a view to improvi ng its quality and efficiency. 
 
 - 142 - The economic and financial crisis has had a nega tive effect on budgets fo r adult education in 
general, but the creation of on line communication and information plans is helping to promote 
lifelong learning and inform citizens of what adult education is available. 
In formal, non-formal and informal education, action is being taken at  central and regional 
level to facilitate access to lifelong learning (Open/distance Universit y, collaboration with 
Armed Forces, ‘Mentor Classrooms’, etc.). 
Lifelong learning is a common objective for both th e Ministry of Education and the Ministry 
of Labour and Immigration. Both institutions are working on such issues as the recognition of 
professional skills acquired through work experience or via non-formal education. 
In 2009 Spain adopted regulations on the certific ation procedure for pr ofessional competences 
acquired through work experience and informal tr aining channels, following the results of an 
experimental  programme conducted in 2003 and the wo rk conducted by the Ministries of 
Education, and Labour and Immigration, in c oordination with the Autonomous Communities 
and with the participation of the Ge neral Council for Vocational Training. 
Work has been in progress since 2003 to pinpoint  the skills and qualifications demands of the 
labour market.  The National Catalogue of Professional Qu alifications, currently in preparation 
for Government approval, compri ses 518 different qualifications. 
Measures to adapt VET to labour market demands include curriculum reforms to revise and 
broaden vocational training and the co rresponding certificates. Since 2009, 50 VET 
certificates have been published and a furthe r 64 are due, many of them in the energy and 
water related occupations. 
In-service training for teachers,  trainers and educators is gu aranteed by law. Since 2010 the 
Cooperation Programme for Teachers' Lifelong Lear ning has been especially concerned with 
basic competences, ICT, multilingualism and school management quality systems. 
The Ministry of Education is promoting a compre hensive plan to set up an integrated system 
of vocational guidance. Work in 2010–2011 targ ets regional administrations, guidance 
providers and potential users. 
Other measures Spain has identified as of stra tegic importance for its education and training 
system include: foreign language learning (the  Language Action Plan is operational for the 
period 2010–2012); information and communication technologies (throu gh the ICT initiative 
‘School 2.0’); and the promotion of innovation, creativity and entrepreneurship (opening the 
education and training system to the business world and linking it to labour market needs). 
The measures outlined above woul d appear to be positive moves to deal with the challenges 
identified in the European Semester analysis, in particular the need  to improve employment 
opportunities for young people. 
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
 
Spain EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education, % of GDP 4.28  % 4.62  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
 
 - 143 - In terms of investment in education  as a percentage of GDP for the period 2000-2008, Spain 
performs at below EU averag e levels, but the increase in spending on education as a 
percentage of GDP has been faster since 2000 than on EU average. Since the Spanish GDP 
increased more rapidly than the EU average, inve stment in education has in fact grown faster 
than in the EU as a whole in absolute terms. 
Investment in education in Spain has been stable after 2008, in 2009 the expenditure on 
education was 4.98% in relation to GDP, and in 2010 the estimated figure was 4.91%. 
Available figures indicate that in 2011 th e total education and training budget was down by 
around 4  % compared to 2010. At the central level, the budget of the Ministry of Education 
for non-university education and tertiary education was € 2897m in 2010 and €2801m in 
2011. The total education and training budget, in cluding the resources of the Autonomous 
Communities, was € 44 483m in 2010 and € 42 738m in 2011. 
Most of the budget decrease affect s the pay of teachers and rela ted academic staff working in 
the public or private government dependent (concertado) education system. In general staff 
expenditure accounts for around 80  % of all education and traini ng expenditure in Spain, and 
the pay cuts have been between 5  % and 10  % for civil servants. 
Pre-primary education, ESL, vocational tr aining and promoting equality by way of 
scholarships and grants were defined as pr iorities by the government, which therefore 
maintained or even increased their budget alloca tions in spite of the economic and financial 
crisis. Money spent on scholarship s and grants increased by 3.86  % in 2010 and by a further 
2.58  % in 2011. 
Analysing detailed figures on Spanish educa tion budgets can be somewhat complex, due to 
the multiple institutional levels involved ( central government and Autonomous Communities) 
and to different data aggregation methods. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
Spain’s early school leaving (ESL) indicator re mains high despite a series of far-reaching 
measures undertaken in recent years, such as  preventive action targeting special groups like 
the migrant population. It is important then that th is area of action remains a clear priority and 
that the political momentum is maintained if the ambitious national ESL target is to be met.  
The difficult transition from secondary educa tion to an attractive and efficient vocational 
education and training system is having a nega tive effect on youth unemployment rates and 
social exclusion. In this context, the Sustainable Economy Act  is expected to bring about 
improvements, in particular as regards vocational training.    
 
 - 144 - SWEDEN 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training.  
1. BENCHMARKS  
Sweden EU average EU Benchmarks 
SWEDEN   
  
 
2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  83.6  % 94.7  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 12.6  % 17.4  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 18.306 21.1  %0924.006 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science 16.406 19.2  %0920.306 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  7.3 % 9.7  % b, p 16.0  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  31.8  % 45.8  % p 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  17.5  %0124.5  % 8.5 %039.1 % p 12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
01 =2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e08 =2008, 09 =2009, = estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 145 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
Early school leaving plays an important role in labour mark et exclusion, as both youth and 
adult unemployment rates are more than twi ce as high for people who have not completed 
upper secondary education.
16 Reducing early school leaving is an obvious way of bringing 
unemployment down and making the labour force more productive. The incidence of early 
school leaving has, however, not diminished over the last decade (2000: 7.3  %, 2009: 10.7  %), 
but the trend has been more positive since 2006.17 According to the national target, the 
percentage of 18–24 year-olds w ho have not completed upper secondary school and who are 
not studying should be less than 10  % by 2020. Combined with a decline in educational 
quality, as revealed by the PISA tests, and th e low attractiveness of the teaching profession, 
early school leaving can lead in  the long run to skills shortage s and become a bottleneck for 
growth in a highly open and export-orien ted economy. The National Reform Programme 
includes ongoing reforms which can have an impact on early school leaving, notably the reform of upper secondary education, by str onger differentiation of the vocational and 
academic tracks, the introduction of an appren ticeship scheme, and stronger support at the 
transition between lower and upper secondary education. However, the ongoing reforms 
would benefit from a more c oherent strategy to reduce early  school leaving, monitoring and 
evaluating the impact of measures taken, and a stronger focus on groups at risk, such as 
migrant youth or boys. 
Sweden has a tertiary education attainment (43.9
 %, 2009) well above the EU 2020 headline 
target. However, drop-out rates from higher education are rather hi gh and the throughput of 
university students is slow, show ing that there is scope for greater efficiency in higher 
education. 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
At 9.7  % in 2010, Sweden performs bett er than the EU av erage in early school  leaving and is 
already below th e target of 10  % set for 2020. However, Sweden is one of the few countries in 
the EU in which early school leaving rates have  not decreased since 200 0. There has been no 
progress in upper secondary schoo l leavers, while the number of pupils having difficulties 
graduating from lower secondary education is increasing, especially among boys with migrant 
background. Early school leaver s are particularly vulnerable on the Swedish labour market 
and are at high risk of unemployment, as well as social exclusion and poverty. 
A number of systemic reforms are currently being implemented, notably the reform of upper 
secondary education, introducing more curri culum differentiation between academic and 
vocational tracks, and mainstreaming a new appr enticeship track. The reform of the transition 
from lower to upper secondary will both increase entry requirements for upper secondary and 
                                                 
16  Unemployment rates among persons with no upper secondary education are more than double the 
corresponding rates for those who have completed upper secondary education in both the youth segment (33.4
 % vs 15.4  % in Q4  2010) and among adults (11.3  % vs 5.6  %). 
17  However, the statistics have to be taken with caution due to breaks in the series for this indicator. 
 
 - 146 - introduce a one-year personalised transition prog ramme for pupils who do not meet the entry 
requirements. 
Sweden has the data infrastructur e to monitor developments in early school leaving at school 
and local level. The Government intends to mon itor the situation of ‘r isk populations’ such as 
young men and newly arrived migrants. From the autumn 2011 municipalities will find it 
easier to monitor early school leaving, as upper s econdary institutions will have the obligation 
to notify municipal authorities about enrolments and drop-outs. 
Between 2009 and 2011 additional funding has been made availa ble to adult VET and adult 
high school education, and a temporary increase in student support has been introduced for 
early school leavers aged 20–24 who are unemployed. 
As evidence shows, early school leaving plays an  important role in labour market exclusion, 
which further translates into social exclusi on. While the above measures provide the right 
response to the policy challenge and are in li ne with the Commission’ s assessment during the 
European Semester, they would benefit from a mo re integrated and cohe rent approach, better 
focusing and close monitoring. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
45.8  % of young adults in Sweden had tertiary education attainment in 2010, well above the 
EU 2020 headline target and exceeding Sweden’s  national target for 2020. Sweden continues 
the modernisation of its higher education, by introducing a new quality evaluation system and 
by introducing from 2013 quality based resource allocation for higher education institutions.  
A temporary boost in funding in tertiary education between 2010 and 2011 allowed the creation of additional student places in higher education. The newly established higher vocational education programmes have high de mand, and high insertion rates on the labour 
market for graduates.  
Sweden has an inclusive higher education sy stem, opened to lifelong learning. An important 
part in the Swedish higher educ ation system of life long learning is the po ssibility to take 
short courses, not necessarily leading to formal degrees.   
However, rather high average age of university entrants (22.1 years in 2007
18), drop-out rates 
(46% in 2008)19 and a relatively slow throughput of uni versity students lead to a relatively 
late entry of graduates into th e labour market. OECD calculations  estimate that this leads to 
one of the highest cumulative expenditure per student over the average duration of tertiary 
studies. There is scope for further improving the efficiency of higher education, while 
maintaining its important role in lifelong learning. There was limited progress in increasing the number of MST graduates,  which grew between 2000 and 2008 by less than half the EU 
average, with the female share of MST graduate s on the other hand clearly above EU average.  
The level of study support has been increased with effect from July 2011 and has been more 
closely linked to study results in order to acceler ate the throughput of students. There has also 
been recent progress in advancing the entry to tertiary educati on. A study identifying the main 
causes of dropping-out from higher education was published in 2011. 
                                                
 
18  When excluding incoming students the average age of  university entrants in Sweden are 20.9 years.  
19  OECD, Education at a Glance 2010. Includes students entering single courses who may never intend to 
study all courses needed for a degree, an estimated 40% in Sweden. 
 
 - 147 - While Sweden has a well-performing tertiary education system in international comparison, 
rather high drop-out rates and ra ther slow throughput suggest th at there is scope for further 
improvement. 
4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education Sweden  has an outbound long-term mobility (3.0  % of students 
per year) near the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the EU Erasmus 
programme (0.6  % of students in 2008/09) is below the EU average. 
Sweden introduced tuition fees for non-EU/ EEA students from 1 July 2011, accompanied by 
new programmes of scholarships for non-EU/EEA  students. Student mobility has recently 
been increasing in Sweden. A number of initiatives are aimed at promoting outward mobility: an inquiry on improvements in the use of student support fo r studies abroad and a pilot 
scholarship programme for promoting outward mobility of teachers and students (2010-2011) 
are ongoing. Sweden has taken steps to set up a National Qualifications Framework, relating 
it to the public education and tr aining system as a first step and towards introducing ECVET. 
5. L
IFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Sweden has not formulated a specific strate gy for lifelong learning, but has a well developed 
and coherent lifelong learning approach. Adult participation in lifelong learning is among the 
highest in the EU and has been supported by additional government grants during the economic recession. 
With regard to flexible pathways, the reformed  upper secondary ed ucation will br ing in higher 
levels of tracking and more differentiated path ways, with greater curriculum differentiation 
between the academic, VET and apprenticeshi p tracks. VET graduates will no longer 
automatically qualify for entry to higher educatio n, but will be entitled to additional courses in 
upper secondary schools or in municipal adult education in order to  become eligible. 
The National Agency for Higher Vocational Ed ucation (NAHVE) collects information about 
skills needs and ensures that higher vocational education programmes are aligned with labour 
market needs. The reformed upper secondary  vocational programmes will be advised and 
supported by tripartite National Programme  Councils, which will also follow up how 
successful graduates are in finding jobs. A study on demand and supply for higher education 
qualifications is being ca rried out by the National Agency for Higher Education. 
6. I
NVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Sweden EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP  7.21  % 6.74  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Sweden allocates over 6  % of GDP to education, and hence has the third highest rate of 
investment in education  (after Denmark and Cyprus) among the EU Member States. 
 
 - 148 - While Sweden experienced a sharp drop in GD P in 2009, the country’s strong fiscal position 
allowed the government to invest more in  education, with a view to countering 
unemployment. 
Additional publicly funded plac es in higher education, adu lt education and continuing 
vocational training were among the main counter cyclical measures taken during the economic 
crisis. This brought about an increase in the nu mber of people in education and training in 
2010–2011, meeting the increased demand for edu cation caused by the dip in the labour 
market. In Sweden education has enjoyed a prio rity in terms of investment, which has been 
maintained during the economic crisis.   
When the economic crisis hit Sweden, ESF funds were offered to support projects that would 
help employees at risk of dismissal to get more  up-to-date training that would help them stay 
in their jobs or find new jobs if actually dismissed. Following this some €55m was paid out to 
around 70 projects that strategically helped bo th individuals as well as small and larger 
companies to come through the crisis, and come out stronger. 
7. CONCLUSIONS IN RELATION TO THE CHALLENGES IDENTIFIED IN THE EUROPEAN 
SEMESTER  
Sweden has a broad-based and modern edu cation system. There is further scope for 
improvement in consolidating the reduction of th e early school leaving rate and in reversing 
the decline in the quality of school education, as  shown by PISA. Current reforms, such as the 
reform of upper secondary e ducation, initiatives in the ar ea of vocational education and 
training, and measures that suppor t the transition between the diffe rent levels of education, 
have strong potential to remedy the situ ation, but should be monitored carefully. 
The ongoing efforts for modernisation of higher e ducation address many of the challenges in 
the area. Increasing efficiency in higher educ ation, by continuing initiatives aimed at 
accelerating throughput or reducing drop-out, coul d have a positive impact in terms of both 
public finances and the labour market and would t hus help boost Sweden’s growth potential.   
 
 - 149 - UNITED KINGDOM 
Starting with the country’s perf ormance in relation to the edu cation and training benchmarks 
and the challenges identified during the first Europe 2020 European Semester, this country 
summary analyses the country’s situation on the basis of the ET 2020 national reports and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas  for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe 2020 and the European Semester, i.e. m easures relevant for achieving the Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with m obility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment  in education and training. 
1. BENCHMARKS  
United Kingdom EU average EU Benchmarks 
UNITED KINGDOM  
  
 
2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  100  % 97.3  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 19.0  %0618.4  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics 19.8  %0620.2  %09 24.0  %06 22.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science 16.7  %0615.0  %0920.3  %06 17.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  18.2  % 14.9  % b 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  29.0  % 43.0  % 22.4  % 33.6  % -    40  % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  20.0  % 07 19.4  % 8.5 % 03 9.1  % 10 12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
01 =2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e08 =2008, 09 =2009, = estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
 
 - 150 - 2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Analysis presented in the Commission St aff Working Document accompanying the 
Recommendation for a Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the economic and employme nt policies of the Member States 
UK performance is better than the EU average on participation in early childhood education, 
on reducing the number of low achievers in re ading, maths and science, on completion of 
upper secondary education and in adult educati on. Rates of participatio n in higher education 
are currently good, but coul d be adversely affected by the intr oduction of tuition fees of up to 
£
 9 000 p.a. for degree courses in England. Problem s in vocational education have prevented 
significant increases in medium level skills. Ac cording to a report of the Government’s ‘UK 
Commission for Employment and Skills’ (UKCES),20 based on current trends the UK’s 
relative international position is unlikely to improve between 2010 and 2020, and for low and 
intermediate level skills the UK is projected to remain ranked in the bottom half of the OECD countries. 
While the share of people aged 25–64 havi ng attained high skill levels is, at 33.4
 %, high in 
the UK (EU: 25.2  %), in 2009, the share of adults having completed ISCED21 level 3 
education was low, at 41.2  % compared to 46.8  % on average for the EU. UK public spending 
on education as a percentage of GDP has grow n since 2000 and is now a bove the EU average, 
but educational performance (as measured by PISA scores) remains static. The OECD22 notes 
that an insufficient supply of high-quality vo cational programmes and te rtiary education study 
places is hampering human capital formation and growth. 
The measures which have been announced to promote skills should help alleviate the 
bottlenecks. The increase in annual funding fo r adult apprenticeships will be up to £  250  m per 
year, with sufficient funding in place for 75  000 more adults by 2014–15. Other measures 
such as student loans for advanced further education courses and Li felong Learning Accounts 
may assist in overcoming this bottleneck. There will be a £  2.5 bn pupil premium fund to 
support the education of disadvantaged child ren and a new national scholarship fund to 
support students from disadvant aged backgrounds, reaching £  150  m per year by 2014–15. 
The budget details, where available, specify  a maximum limit but no minimum. Thus, the 
level of ambition is high, but more details on certain schemes are required to make a full 
assessment of the plans’ effectiveness (for ex ample on the extent to which employers will 
actually provide the extra apprenticeship places  for which funding is being made available, 
and on the new targeting mechanisms for support to students from disadvantaged 
backgrounds — see below). 
The measures in the NRP were supplemente d on 12 May by the publication of a document 
entitled ‘Supporting Youth Employment’, which summarised the Government’s approach to 
this problem and announced some new m easures. These included implementing the 
vocational education reforms recommended by a recent independent review, requiring 
secondary schools to offer careers advice, providing apprenticeships for ‘up to 10  000’ 
vulnerable young people and trialling new ‘secto r-based academies’ to train up to 50  000 
young unemployed people to work in particular s ectors. Given that these measures were not 
included in the NRP, it was not possible to conduct a full analysis of them. However, as with 
                                                 
20  UK Commission for Employment and Skills, Ambition 2010 Report, August 2010. 
21  International Standard Classification of education.  Level 3 is broadly equivalent to upper secondary 
education. 
22  OECD Economic Survey of the UK, March 2011. 
 
 - 151 - some of the rest of the package, while these are clearly all steps in the right direction, the 
number of people for whom help is envisage d appears small relative to the size of the 
problem, and there is a lack of evidence on whethe r the target numbers will be reached and of 
how much the new initiatives will really  add to current levels of support. 
The proportion of UK 18–24 year-old s who are early leavers from  education and training, at 
15.7  %, is higher than the EU average of 14.4  % and much higher than the EU target of 10  %. 
The problem is more acute for boys than girl s. In England, the numbe r of 16–24 year-olds not 
in education, employment or training was 938  000 in the final quarter of 201023, a record high. 
Furthermore, pupils’ educational performance in the UK remains st rongly related to parents’ 
income and background.  
Plans to tackle early school leaving include ra ising the age for leaving compulsory education 
from 16 to 17 in 2013 and to 18 from 2015. A coordinated range of policy measures and investment has not yet been specified. Pl ans to make more money available for 
apprenticeships and to create a new type of ‘t echnical’ school in 24 localities should make 
vocational education and training more accessible for young people. However, according to the National Institute of Economic and Social Research neither the expansion of apprenticeships nor the expansion of the work experience scheme are sufficient to address the scale of the youth unemployment problem. 
Furthermore, some further reforms may exacerbate  the problem of early school, leaving in the 
UK. In England, the ‘Education Maintenance Allowance’ (EMA) — a payment of up to £
 30 
per week to children from poorer families who re main in post-16 education — was closed to 
new applicants as of January 2011 and replaced w ith a smaller, more targeted bursary scheme; 
total funding was reduced from £  560  m to £  180  m. The government draws on research by the 
National Foundation for Education Research which says that 90  % of students who receive 
EMA would still continue with their education without the paym ent. However, Institute for 
Fiscal Studies (IFS) research s hows that the EMA has raised pa rticipation as well as boosting 
grades; the costs of providing the allowance ar e offset by the financial gains of getting young 
people into training. There remains a risk that this new policy will  not be as effective as the 
EMA in tackling educational disadvantage, sugg esting a case for specific short and medium-
term nationwide measures to drive greater progress. 
Council Recommendation on the implementation of the Integrated Guidelines for the 
economic and employment polic ies of the Member States 
Recommendation (3) 
Take steps by 2012 to ensure th at a higher share of young people enter the labour market with 
adequate skills and to improve the employability of 18 to 24 year-olds who left education or 
training without qualifications. Address skill s hortages by increasing the numbers attaining 
intermediate skills, in line with labour market needs. 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
As pinpointed in the outcome of the European Semester, early school leaving remains a major 
challenge for the UK, especially in the light of high youth unemployment, and of the reduced 
                                                 
23  Source: UK Department for Educatio n, Statistical release ‘NEET statistics Quarterly brief’, table 1(b) (dated 
24 February 2011). 
 
 
 - 152 - cash incentives for disadvantaged young people who remain in education (which result from 
government policy target such funds on the mo st needy). The UK performs below the EU 
average, with a rate of 14.9  %, compared to the EU average of 14.1  % in 2010; this is 
considerably higher than the EU target of 10  %, and the ESL rate has decreased only 
moderately over the past decade (18.2  % in 2000). 
The UK has not established a national target fo r reducing early school leaving but has recently 
undertaken a number of measures to analys e and monitor this phenomenon, including the 
publication of data on young people and education, development of local authority systems to 
monitor young people’s participat ion in education, and (in Sco tland only) the provision of 
information to young people. 
The UK is focusing particularly on preventi on measures to stop potential problems 
developing into barriers to the participation of young people from disadvantaged 
backgrounds. In addition to boo sting participation in early childhood education, where the UK 
already performs above the EU average, thes e measures include providing schools with extra 
funding if they take disadvantaged students, th e aim being to raise th eir attainment levels . 
Measures have been introduced to provide 15  weekly hours of early  education to the 20  % 
most disadvantaged 2 year-olds. Policies to in crease the number of schools that are run by 
parents, head teachers and t eachers are also referred to. 
Northern Ireland aims to increase the prop ortion of school leavers achieving Level 2 
qualifications with a coordina ted range of strategies tack ling such things as school 
improvement, a revised curriculum, literacy and numeracy targets and ba rriers to learning for 
at-risk groups. 
The UK Government believes that the best measure to prevent early school leaving is to raise 
overall attainment in schools. It has introduced  a new performance measure of the number of 
pupils who have secured a ‘C’ grade in core subjects (the ‘English Baccalaureate’) and will 
provide extra school funding for measures that  help disadvantaged pupils achieve more. 
Under the heading of ‘measures to prevent early school leaving’, the UK report also refers to 
such diverse policies as: the teaching of ‘sys tematic synthetic phonics’ (to help literacy 
acquisition); devolving power to school heads and teachers; and rationalising grants to local 
authorities for preventative approaches. In Sc otland, the Government aims to offer post-16 
learning for every young person wh o wants it. The Welsh governme nt has highlighted learner 
attainment at age 15 as a key priority area.   
As measures to compensate for early school leav ing, the UK highlights: the decision to raise 
the education participation age in Engl and to 17 (in 2013) and 18 (in 2015), and the 
commitments to fund training for young people  who do not possess a Level 2 or 3 
qualification and to expand the funding for a pprenticeships, which seems quite ambitious. 
The measures in place are in line with the sp ecific recommendation issued in the framework 
of the European Semester, that  the UK ‘take steps by 2012 to en sure that a higher share of 
young people enter the labour market with adequate  skills and to impr ove the employability 
of 18 to 24-year-olds who left education or training without qualifica tions...’. In addition, 
boosting the consistency, coordination and bala nce between ESL prevention, intervention and 
compensation is likely to improve overall e ffectiveness. The measures for improving basic 
skills are also consistent with the recomm endation to provide young people with adequate 
skills for the labour market. Producing a significant impact by increasing the numbers 
attaining intermediate skills, in line with labou r market needs, will be particularly important. 
 
 - 153 - 3.2. Tertiary attainment 
The UK has progressed significantly from 29  % in 2000 to the current te rtiary attainment rate 
of 43  % (2010), which is well a bove the EU average (33.6  %). The growth in the number of 
MST graduates  exceeded the EU benchmark but, at the same time, was below the EU average. 
No national target has been set. As measures to increase higher education entrance rates, the 
UK refers to: allowing universities to recruit an additional 10  000 students in 2010/11; 
allowing universities to charge students up to £  9 000 a year (not in Scotland); obliging 
universities to invest some of their additi onal income in improving access; mitigating any 
negative impact of the increased fees on stud ents from disadvantaged backgrounds, in line 
with the challenge identified in the framew ork of the European Semester. The Welsh 
Government will ensure that We lsh domiciled students will not have to pay hi gher university 
fees, wherever in the UK they decide to study. 
Measures to improve completion rates of students in higher education include taking into 
account each university’s retention rates when drawing up its agreemen t with the government 
on improving access. In Scotland, those institutions that recruit large numbers from the most 
deprived neighbourhoods will receive addi tional funding to improve retention. 
The implications of the significant increases in tuition fees combined with specific 
arrangements for disadvantaged groups will requir e careful monitoring to ensure that they do 
not discourage participation in  higher education by people fr om socially disadvantaged 
backgrounds, nor attainment rate s, in accordance w ith the indications of the European 
Semester. 
4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, the UK’s outbound long-term mobility (0.6  % of students per 
year) is well below the EU average (2.8  %) and in fact the lowest in the EU, while short-term 
mobility under the EU Erasmus programme (0.3  % of students in 2008/09)  is also well below 
the EU average. 
Examples of recent measures to promote outgoing / incoming student mobility are: pilot 
projects to test approaches to the applica tion of credits in UK VET; 339 new collaborative 
links between UK HEIs and HEIs from the rest of the world; and bilateral study programmes 
which have enabled over 1600 UK students sin ce 2007 to spend three weeks in China and 
India. The UK also reports improvements in the academic re cognition of foreign 
qualifications and/or periods of study abroad. 
The Scottish and Welsh Governments have f unded projects to prom ote outward student 
mobility. 
Specific steps to promote the learning mobility of  teachers and other educational staff, or to 
identify and reduce any obstacles  to learning mobility, are not mentioned, apart from financial 
compensation to cover the cost of re placing teachers on Comenius placements. 
In an increasingly globalised econo my, most countries now recognise  that it is beneficial both 
to individuals and to the economy for students to  undertake a part of th eir studies abroad. The 
benefits include the acquisition of key competences that employers value such as communication skills, an understanding of other cultures and languages, personal 
management, teamwork, the development of pers onal networks etc. Furt her targeted efforts 
would therefore be appropriate to improve th e UK’s weak educational mobility performance, 
in particular as regards outbound students. 
 
 - 154 - 5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
The United Kingdom appears to have an explic it comprehensive lifel ong strategy. Although 
the approach to lifelong learning is well deve loped, however, no further progress is reported 
in this area. 
Adult participation rate s in LLL are more than twice the EU average. 
In particular, the Scottish educa tion system is one of the few in the EU that has a coherent and 
comprehensive LLL strategy to support the long-te rm development of education and training 
reform across all sectors and levels. The st rategy is based on evidence and supported by 
agreed financing arrangements and performance targets. 
Consistent with the recommendation of the Eu ropean Semester to provide young people with 
adequate skills for the labour market and to improve the employability of those who left 
school without qualifications, th e UK reports measures in VET and adult education to reduce 
and prevent unemployment. Recent measures to improve skills forecasting have included a series of proposals with increased focus on ba sic skills, simplifying f unding arrangements and 
reducing central bureaucratic  control over colleges a nd training organisations. 
In Scotland, an integrated employment and skills  (IES) service has been put in place to make 
it quicker and easier for job-s eekers to access professional advice, and a new Labour Market 
Intelligence framework will set out a clear st rategy for improving LMI provision and access. 
Such positive developments, in particular to im prove the supply and quality of VET, could be 
enhanced, in particular by way of specific measur es to take the results on board in planning 
processes with a view to increasing the cr itical mass of potential beneficiaries. 
6. I
NVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
UK EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP  4.46  % 5.36  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Investment in education  (public spending on education as a percentage of GDP) has shown 
significant growth since 2000 and is  now above the EU average. 
During the recent budget cutting exercise, the education and training budget remained 
relatively protected in comparison to other polic y areas. The Government has prioritised areas 
which support long-term growth (includi ng schools, early years provision, and 
apprenticeships), core universal frontline services, and services which protect the most disadvantaged, including: funds to support the attainment of th e most disadvantaged and to 
provide incentives for good schools to take on pu pils from poorer backgrounds; 15 hours free 
early years education for 3 and 4 year-olds and disadvantaged 2 year-olds; Sure Start 
Children’s Centres, offering universal services for all families and targeted services focused on the neediest ones; and an e xpansion of 16–19 age group provision. 
The ministry’s administrative budget will, however, be reduced by a third by 2014–15, and 
schools and other frontline services will have to make further savings. 
The Government is also encouraging a greater diversity of organisatio ns providing education 
and giving schools and local authorities greater flexibility over their budgets. 
 
 - 155 - In further education, funding will be targeted at  learners with very low levels of skills, 
unemployed people, adult apprenticeships, and at  giving a second chance to 19 – 24 year-olds 
without a secondary level qualification. Learners  and employers will be expected to pay for 
intermediate and higher level training courses:  new FE loans will be introduced from 2013–14 
for learners aged 24 years or more on courses above secondary level 3. 
This is consistent with the specific European Semester recommendation on addressing 
shortages in intermediate skills in  line with labour market needs. 
In higher education, to boost investment res ources against a backgroun d of growing student 
demand, universities in England will charge students up to £  9 000 a year for the teaching 
elements of their courses (the cost of acco mmodation etc. is already paid by students). 
Students will start to repay loans when they earn £  21 000 or more p.a. The maintenance grant 
for students from households with an income up to £  25 000 p.a. will be increased. As pointed 
out earlier in this document, in accordance with the indications of the European Semester, the 
impact of tuition fees combined with arrangement s for disadvantaged students will have to be 
monitored to ensure that this does not lead to  lower participation and attainment rates in 
tertiary education. 
7. CONCLUSIONS  
Tackling early school leaving (ESL) remains a challenge in the UK in  terms of boosting the 
employability of young job-seekers. The meas ures in place are consistent with the 
recommendation that the UK ‘take steps by 2012 to ensure that a higher share of young 
people enter the labour market with adequate ski lls and to improve the employability of 18 to 
24-year-olds who left educatio n or training without  qualifications...’ and may become even 
more effective through mutual coordination.  To improve the employability of young people wit hout qualifications, the UK is giving more 
emphasis to the acquisition of basic skills, whic h are in turn essential for the acquisition of 
further skills. To improve the match between skills and labour market needs, the UK is simplifying requirements for education and training providers and facilitating access to 
occupational guidance for job-seekers.  The impact of tuition fees in higher education will have to be monitored to prevent any negative effects on participation and attainment rates. 
 
 - 156 - CROATIA 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Croatia EU average EU Benchmarks 
CROATIA   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  45.9  %0368.8  %09 85.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading - 22.5  %09 21.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics - 33.2  %09 24.0  %0622.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science - 18.5  %09 20.2  %0617.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  8.0 %02 3.9 % u 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  16.1  % 22.6  % u 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  1.8 % 032.0 %  8.5 % 039.1 % 12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
02= 2002, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional,  u=unreliable 
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ 
2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Not applicable. 
 
 - 157 - 3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
Croatia has already reached the 2010 EU benc hmark as regards early school leaving (ESL)  
and Croatia’s performance in this area is among the best in Europe. Data from the Ministry of 
Science, Education and Sports (MoSES) showing developments in this area over the last 
decade reflect a decrease from 8  % to 3.9  %. 
The Teacher Training Agency is putting in place emergency and prevention programmes 
focusing on groups at risk, comprising children from families of lower educational attainment, 
pupils with difficulties and Roma children. This  measure follows the outcomes of a study 
carried out by MoSES in cooperation with the So cial Research Institute which showed that 
truancy often leads to early sc hool leaving and the pupils con cerned often come from these 
backgrounds. 
The following national measures have contribu ted to good results as regards prevention of 
ESL in Croatia: 
- School is compulsory from the age of six to 15, and for children with special needs, 
to the age of 21. County and city offices sh are responsibility for sending children to 
school using their information on permanen t residents in geographical areas and 
primary schools in that same area.  
- According to the ‘Act on Textbooks for Primary and Secondary Schools’ (2006), free 
textbooks have been provided to all primary school pupils  since 2007 in order to 
secure education on equal terms for all. 
- The ‘Act on Early Childhood Education, Prim ary and Secondary Education’ entitles 
pupils to free local tr ansportation to school. 
- In 2005, a project was implemented providing an adequate number of schools in each 
county, which secured education for pupils (i ncluding pupils with special needs) in 
vicinity of their home, allowing them to grow up in their families. 
For the purpose of avoiding drop-outs at all levels  of education, there exis ts particular need to 
support the development and functioning of services supporting pupil/students who are 
experiencing hardship and need temporary psychological support and counselling.  In that 
respect and with the main aim of better inclus ion of preschool childre n/pupils/students with 
disabilities or in need of temporary assistan ce or advising in educa tion and capacity building 
of educational institutions, Ministry of Scie nce, Education and Sports prepared a grant 
scheme ( Integration of disadvantaged groups  in regular education system,   4.038.000 €)  in 
order to support formal education institutions  in increasing the number of persons at a 
disadvantage who are both enrolling and comp leting their education;  to support actions 
aiming at improving quality of education of persons at a disadvantage  as well as to facilitate 
social inclusion of persons at a disadvantage in educational institutions. Projects will start with implementation in 2012. 
 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
Tertiary education attainment  rate in Croatia, at 22.6
 %, is below the EU average, although the 
rate has risen by over 5 per centage points over the last  decade. In the area of MST graduates,  
the increase since 2000 is of 127.2  %,  higher than the EU average. 
 
 - 158 - The government adopted a decision to  subsidise costs for the first year of regular study for all 
students. Many different types of indirect st udent support exist in Cr oatia, including support 
for meals, accommodation, local transport, health in surance, tax relief for parents with student 
children and for disadvantaged students who di d not have access to higher education due to 
the civil war. Approximately 40  % of students are studyi ng free of charge. 
These temporary measures are being further deve loped as they do not me et the observed needs 
of the student population. 
Croatia plans to use the EU fund ‘Instrument fo r Pre-Accession’ (IPA) to adjust the curricula 
according to the Croatian Qualifications Framework, to support disadvantaged groups, introduce curricula in the English language, strengthen student servic es, financial governance 
in higher education institutions and analytic and statistical systems. 
To respond to the need to restructure the fina ncial governance of Croati an universities, the 
Ministry organised a conference with speakers  from several European countries presenting 
their national implementation practices.  
A new law plans to abolish the present inadequa te system of tuition fees, and enrolment fees 
has been proposed instead. In October 2011 the Agency was admitted to full European Association for Quality Assurance in  Higher Education (ENQA) membership. 
 
The Agency for Science and Higher Education is currently conducting an external quality 
assurance evaluation in 20 hi gher education institutions. 
Finally, the system for academic staff will be reformed and institutions will receive autonomy 
to set criteria for hiring their staff. This has hith erto been under the responsibility of a series of 
committees. 
4. M
OBILITY  
International learning mobility has been adopted as a strategic priority for the development of 
the higher education system. Full accession to mobility programmes, the Lifelong Learning 
Programme and Youth in Action Programme, is a pre-accession requirement for the Republic 
of Croatia to become a member of the European Union.  
Since Croatia joined the Bologna Process in 2001 , the Ministry has made continuous efforts to 
strengthen institutional capacity for mobility as  regards training of staff at the Ministry, 
sectoral agencies and international relati ons offices of higher education institutions. 
Preparations for accession to the Lifelong Learning Programme and Youth in Action 
Programme included the establishment in 20 07 of the Agency for Mobility and EU 
Programmes. Since 2011, Croatia has been fully implementing the Lifelong Learning 
Programme which has significantly increased participation at all levels. The Croatian National 
Agency for LLP is the contact point for Europa ss and Euroguidance. Croatia has appointed a  
representative to the Eurydice network and has set up a Eurydice Unit in MoSES. 
An internet portal, ‘Study in Croatia’, was launched in November 2010. This is a 
comprehensive source of information about highe r education in Croatia aimed at prospective 
international students. 
 
 - 159 - 5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Regarding adult participation in  lifelong learning, Croatia’s performance with 2  % is clearly 
below the EU average and has improved little since 2000. 
Croatia will explicitly outline Lifelong Learning in the new law in order to facilitate entry into 
higher education by non-traditiona l learners and to regulate the introduction of quality non-
degree programmes. The aim is to integrate all LLL programmes in internal accreditation 
systems, which will allow higher education instit utions to establish pr ocedures for validation 
of non-formal and informal learning. 
Croatia established 13 VET Sector Councils, each of them  composed of 20 members 
appointed by the Minister, whose role is to identify and define the qualifications needed in the VET sector, to define and make  known the needs of the labour market, and to analyse existing 
and needed competences. These VET Councils  also provide suggestions for curricular 
networks and VET institutions. 
In March 2011, a technical specification Nationa l Information System for Science and Higher 
Education (NISSHE) was developed. Its aim is to develop a national information collection 
and analysis system of higher education provi sion in Croatia. This operation will create a 
robust national system providing da ta relevant for the development of educational policies, 
which is not possible with the current, dispersed information systems. 
Croatia is actively supporting the goals set at the EU level, which are stipulated in the 2006 
“Communication on Adult Learning : It is Never Too Late to Learn”, and the 2007 “Action 
Plan on Adult Learning: It is Always a Good Time  to Learn”. In recent years, the Government 
of the Republic of Croatia ha s accordingly made significant institutional and legislative 
changes in the adult education sector. The A dult Education Act passed in 2007 regulated, for 
the first time, the normative framework for maki ng adult education an integral and equally 
important part of the Croatian education system . In 2008, four by-laws ensued from the Adult 
Education Act: the By-law on Public Certif icates in Adult Education, the By-law on 
Standards and Specifications in Adult Educati on Institutions, the By-law on the Contents, 
Form and Method of Keeping Pedagogical Docu mentation and the By -law on Records in 
Adult Education Institutions. Since 2003, the MoSES has supporte d the concept set forth in 
“A Literate Croatia: The Way to a Desirable Fu ture”, through projects  funded entirely by the 
state budget. Accordingly, primary education, as well as  vocational training, is free of charge 
for the participants. The aim is to increase the overall level of li teracy and to reduce 
unemployment by enabling individu als over the age of 15 to finish primary education and 
complete a training programm e for simple occupations. 
 
By means of EU funding, speci fically within IPA IV Com ponent OP Human Resources 
Development, Ministry of Science, Education an d Sports has prepared interventions with the 
intention of improving Croatia’s adult and higher education syst em and enabling learners of 
all ages to acquire competencies in order to better respond to labour market needs. 
 Within grant scheme Regional network of local learning institutions  (€ 3.407.682,34) total of 
20 grants were awarded to most successful adu lt education institutions with the aim of  
developing an effective educati onal and training system that is  responsive to labour market 
needs, primarily in the ten sel ected counties but also across the entire territory of the Republic 
of Croatia as well as with the aim to  improve key competencies and other competencies of adult learners which will enable them to pa rticipate more actively in the labour market. 
Similar activities are planned to be supporte d in the next IPA 2010-2011 programming period 
within the grant scheme “ Capacity Building of the Adul t Education Institutions”  whose main 
 
 - 160 - aim is to strengthen the capacitie s of the adult education institu tions in order to improve the 
quality of the adult education provision and thus positively affect labour market competitiveness of adult learners.   Furthermore, with the aim of further strength ening the capacity of the adult education (AE) 
system at national level with a special focus on a selected number of the ten most vulnerable 
counties, service contract titled  Regional network of local learning institutions  is being 
implemented with the aim of improvement of th e capacity of adult education institutions in 
the ten selected counties; provision of assistance in disseminating information on the 
methodology for modernizing existing and/or  designing new short AE programmes and 
awareness-raising activities for potential adult learners regarding adu lt education training 
programmes and regional networks established.   Improved quality of AE programmes, modern ised provision, highly qualified teachers, 
introduction of quality assurance system are just some of the requirements for better AE system.  
 
6. I
NVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Croatia EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 3.72  %02 4.33  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
02= 2002 
Public investment in education,  as a percentage of GDP, si gnificantly increased in Croatia 
since 2000, but is still near ly one per cent of GDP below the EU average. 
Due to the economic crisis, cuts in the budget have been applied in several areas. The National Programme of Measures for th e Implementation of Compulsory Secondary 
Education has been temporarily postponed and/or cancelled (free textbooks, free local 
transportation to schools, incr ease in numbers of pupils pe r class, closing of schools). 
The Ministry has instructions on employing teachers to  replace those who retire. Teachers are 
replaced only after examina tion of required documents a nd consent by the Management 
Board. 
Furthermore, due to a budget de crease, funds for new buildings  have been limited, and funds 
for teaching equipment and school libraries have been cut. 
Budgetary provisions for hi gher education in 2011, compar ed to 2010, rose by 0.7
 %; 
however, this was a 1.8  % decrease compared to 2008. There ar e plans to raise the budget for 
2011, to give an increase of 0.5% over the 2008 budget.  
Despite the decrease of the State budget for nati onal education because of the economic crisis, 
the budget for international learning mobility si gnificantly increased. This is a direct 
consequence of the full implementation of the European Lifelong Lear ning Programme since 
January 2011. 
 
 - 161 - By means of funding from IPA IV Human Res ources Development OP 2007-2013 the total of 
47.37 m euros are allocated for the purpose of enhancing overall educational system in 
Croatia.  
 
 - 162 - ICELAND 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Iceland EU average EU Benchmarks 
ICELAND   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  57.8  % 95.1  % 0985.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 14.5  % 16.8  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics - 17.0  %0924.0  %0622.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science - 17.9  %0920.2  %0617.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  29.8  % 22.6  % 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  31.0  % 40.9  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  29.5  % 0325.2  % 8.5 % 039.1 % 12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, , 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional 
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Not applicable. 
 
 - 163 - 3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
Regarding e arly leavers from e ducation and training,  the situation in Ic eland is improving, 
but it still has a significa ntly higher share than the average in the EU. 
To analyse and monitor developments, Icela nd has taken measures such as annual data 
collection on registrations and graduation from  schools for each age group. Headmasters have 
also taken part in surveys to tackle early sc hool leaving. Furtherm ore, research on early 
school leaving is being conducted at the Universi ty of Iceland. Iceland also takes part in 
international surveys, such as a recent OE CD survey on graduations and drop-out in upper 
secondary education. 
Iceland undertakes specific measures to tackle early school leaving. The ri ght of students with 
difficulties to specific learning aids is ensured in laws on pre-primary education, primary and 
secondary education, upper secondary educatio n and teacher education adopted in 2008. The 
laws particularly target students not having Icel andic as their first language. The legislation 
from 2008 ensures the access of all students up to  the age of 18 to upper secondary education. 
In addition, in 2011, the government adopted a d ecision to secure the right of every young 
person up to the age of 25 to educat ion at upper secondary school level.  
Upper secondary schools have  the freedom to develop fl exible study paths and have 
developed study programmes based on job skills rather than academic skills. A new formal 
certificate after two years of study  has been legalised to give more students the opportunity to 
graduate. This is done according to the nati onal qualification framework adopted in the 
recently published general section of the na tional curriculum guide for upper secondary 
schools. The financing of schools on the basis of the number of  pupils registered who have 
taken part in formal evaluation is deemed to be an incentive for schools to monitor and take 
action to prevent drop-outs. 
Laws on adult education adopted in 2010 aim to create opportuni ties for early school leavers 
to re-enter education, and possibilities for in formal and non-formal education to be accredited. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
In Iceland, the share of the population with tert iary education attainment has improved and is 
now above the EU 2020 benchmark. 
In underrepresented geographica l areas, higher education centre s have been established and 
special programmes have been offere d to prepare students for university. 
Over the last two years, the government has in creased funding for student loans to enable 
students from less advantaged backgrounds to enter higher education. A 2011 government 
project aims to provide financia l support for the long-term unemp loyed to allow them to enter 
higher education or pre-tertiary education. 
The model for government funding is an incentive for higher education institutions to increase 
completion rates. The system, which is the same  for public and private institutions, is based 
on the number of students taking examinations in each course each year. Since 2010, a fixed 
 
 - 164 - sum, which rises according to the level of st udies, has been added for each student that 
graduates. 
To safeguard the activities of publ ic universities outside Reykjavik,  the Minister of Education, 
Science and Culture launched a new policy in 2010 to set up a collabor ative network between 
universities. Among other things , this offers a common information system, a joint student 
register and web tool for distance education, a common administrative and support service, a 
joint centre for graduate studies, the use of th e same system for performance assessment and 
cooperation with regiona l knowledge centres and lifelong learning centres. 
4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Icelan d has an outbound long-term mobility (18.2  % of students 
per year) clearly above  the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the EU 
Erasmus programme (1.2  % of students in 2008/09) is  also above EU average. 
Iceland participates actively in the Lifelong L earning Programme (LLP) as well as in similar 
Nordic programmes. 
The LLP National Agency actively promotes the possibilities offe red by the Lifelong 
Learning Programme. Iceland’s participati on in LLP is very high. For instance, 98  % of 
secondary schools and 60  % of primary schools have particip ated in Comenius partnership 
projects that involve mutual visits for teacher s and classes. Participation in Erasmus has led 
universities to offer a wide range of courses and programmes taught in English. 
The University of Iceland runs an informa tion office, which also accommodates the LLP 
Agency, on studies abroad which is open to the public. Students can get loans from the 
Student Government Loan Fund to finance studie s abroad as well as in  Iceland. Mobility is 
facilitated by the fact that all higher education institutions use the European Credit Transfer System and the diploma supplements. Iceland is in the process of implementing learning 
outcomes and quality measures in line with Bologna standards. 
5. L
IFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
As regards adult participation in lifelong learning , this has fallen, but from a very high level, 
and Iceland still performs signifi cantly above the EU average. 
There is no specific legislati on or special policy document on  lifelong learning in Iceland. 
The work on a national qualifications framewor k, covering all levels and forms of education 
in a lifelong learning perspectiv e, has been undertaken jointl y by the authorities, social 
partners and providers. It has enabled stakehol ders to identify competencies acquired in 
education today more clearly. Work will continue in the second half of 2011, by analysing and forecasting skills needs for different profes sions in a more focused and consistent way. 
Occupational Councils, appointed  for all branches of VET, started their main work in 
February 2010, in cooperation with providers. An Occupational Committee composed of their 
chairmen was also established to serve as a forum of coordination and cooperation between 
different VET sectors. There are plans to set up Professional Councils to define more directly 
and in more detail the needs of each profession. 
 
 - 165 - The Act on Adult Education contains provisions  on the recognition of providers, recognition 
of non-formal and informal learni ng and certification of curricul a in adult education, as well 
as for funding the Adult Education Fund. 
The Adult Education Fund has strengthened the work of the lifelong le arning centres operated 
by social partners in the country. There are guidance counsellors bot h within the formal 
system and in the lifelong lear ning centres. A separate budget has been earmarked for a VET 
fund to support companies that provide a pprentices with workplace learning.    
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Iceland EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 5.93  % 7.57  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Investment in education  as a percentage of GDP has increased significantly since 2000, to  
one of the highest levels in Europe. The increa se in Iceland was higher than for the EU as a 
whole, widening the gap between Iceland and the EU average.  
The economic and financial crisis led to a re duction of the education budget in all sectors 
between 2008 and 2009. The cuts mainly affected  staff costs, replacement of equipment and 
maintenance costs, and led to measures such as  cuts in teaching hours, merging of classes or 
pre-primary provision and mixing of age groups in schools. This trend continued in 2010, 
with the exception of adult education, for whic h there was a significant increase in public 
investment in 2010, based on an agreement betw een the social partners and the government. 
The cuts did not affect govern ment funding for student loan s, which was considerably 
increased as a reaction to the 2008 economic crash (+ 37  % between 2008 and 2009, + 18  % 
between 2008 and 2010). 
 
 - 166 - NORWAY 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Norway EU average EU Benchmarks 
NORWAY   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary)  79.7  % 96.6  %0985.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading 17.5  % 14.9  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics - 18.2  %0924.0  %0622.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science - 15.8  %0920.2  %0617.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  13.3  % 17.4  %  17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  37.7  % 47.3  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  17.1  % 0317.8  %  8.5 % 039.1 %  12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
03= 2003, 06 =2006, 09 =2009  
PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, ma ths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Not applicable. 
 
 - 167 - 3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
Norway performs below the EU average as rega rds early school leavi ng, with a rate of 17.4  % 
compared to the EU average of 14.1  % in 2010. The situation has deteriorated since 2000 
(13.3  %). 
The ET2020 national report puts the focus on Lower and Upper Secondary education and 
training. Regarding the former, the national report refers to  a White Paper ‘Motivation — 
Mastering — Possibilities in Lower Secondary  Education’ (Stortingsmelding no 22 (2010–
2011) that aims to increase pupi ls’ motivation to learn and to  give them experience in 
achieving better qualifications. With a view to Upper Secondary educatio n, the national report 
refers to the initiative 'New  Chances/New Possibilities', ‘ Ny Giv ’. 
One key feature is improved cooperation with county municipalities. As a result, a common 
set of indicators has been drawn up with a vi ew to producing comparable data on school drop-
outs. The so-called ‘Transition project’, in troduced in autumn 2010, focuses on providing 
follow-up action for pupils with the poorest resu lts to improve their reading, literacy, writing 
and numeracy skills. The ‘Follow-up Project’ (’ Oppfølgingsprosjektet ’) is a joint project 
between the follow-up service and the Norw egian Labour and Welfare Administration 
(NAV), focusing on young people that are neither in school, nor at work. 
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
The share of young people with a tertiary de gree went up between 2000 and 2010 by about 10 
percentage points, amounting to 47.3  %. This is above the European average (33.6  %) and the 
EU benchmark to be met by 2020. 
The share of graduates in the fields of mathem atics, science and tec hnology (MST) in Norway 
amounts to 11.7  % and is below the EU average (41.5  %). The gender bala nce has improved 
over the years (26.8  % in 2000) but the shar e of females — now 30.1  % — is still below the 
EU average (32.3  %). 
In 2009, the Norwegian government presented a White Paper setting out its ‘Education 
Strategy’. It confirms the principle of  free higher education. A total of 3  800 new student 
places were created on the basis of updated needs estimates. The White Paper contains, 
among other things, measures (1) to monitor how higher education institutions follow up their 
students, (2) to arrange seminars on best pr actice to reduce drop-out and (3) to improve 
teaching methods. The White Paper also addres ses cooperation between higher education and 
the world of work with a view to improving c ooperation between univers ities and enterprises. 
Increasing completion rates was one of the ma in aims of the 2003 quality reform in higher 
education that set up, among other things, (1) a significant fina ncial incentive for education 
institutions to improve comple tion rates, as budget allocations in part  depend on student 
completion rates; (2) a support system for student s, in which loans are converted into grants 
only if studies are completed on schedule and successfully; (3) new forms of student guidance, evaluation and assessment; and (4) an  ‘Individual Education Plan’ that sets out 
student plans and is a tool to compare plans and real progress. 
 
 - 168 - 4. MOBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Norway  has an outbound long-term mobility (5.1  % of students 
per year) clearly above the EU average, whil e short-term mobility under the EU Erasmus 
programme (0.6  % of students in 2008/09) is below the EU average. 
In 2009, the Norwegian government presented a White Paper on the ‘Int ernationalisation of 
Education’, setting out new measures to ensure the development of skills which are needed in 
an increasingly globalised world and guiding pr inciples for the internationalisation of 
education in Norway. 
One issue is to render Norwegian edu cation institutions more attractive for foreign  students 
and academics (in particular by creating Ma ster programmes in English). The ET2020 
national report points out evidence that uni versities and large uni versity colleges have 
established solid arrangements for receiving fore ign students, while smaller institutions tend 
to face difficulties in this respect. 
The other issue is to increase participation in learning mobility during all phases of learning. 
Raising awareness of the added value of international mobility is considered important. The Norwegian Mobility Survey (drawn up by the Norwegian Centre for International 
Cooperation in Higher Education, SIU) presents an annual analys is of factors that influence 
ingoing and outgoing mobility to and from Norway, including the main barriers to 
international learning mobility. It identifies as key obstacles among Norwegian students their 
reluctance to leave the country, partly because they do not see the need to move abroad, and 
lack of information about possibilities of studying abroad. 
There is an economic incentive for exchange and mobility in the Norwegian funding system. 
Every educational institution is given disbur sement for the total number of ingoing and 
outgoing students. Norwegian higher education st udents are entitled to portable grants and 
loans from the State Educational Loan Fund. The same amount is paid regardless of whether 
the beneficiary studies in Norway or abroad. 
5. L
IFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Norway does not have a dedicated lifelong lear ning strategy. However, a White Paper on 
Education and Training (Stortingsmelding no 44 (2008 – 2009) ‘Utdan ningslinja’) presents 
measures for providing a coherent and compre hensive strategy. The White Paper was debated 
in the Norwegian Parliament in March 2010 and covers all levels of the education system, 
including adult education, w ith a strong focus on the fact  that many young people fail to 
complete upper secondary education. The ET 2020 national report stresses the benefits of 
education for individuals, society, the labour ma rket and the welfare st ate and presents the 
Norwegian government’s aim to strengthen the e ducation system’s capacity to form a basis 
for lifelong learning through in troducing new measures in primary and lower secondary 
schools, upper secondary educ ation and training, vocational schools, higher education and 
formal and non-formal adult education. 
Regarding new skills and jobs, the government  strives to improve forecasting models. 
Statistics Norway published in 2010 a repor t entitled ‘Demand and supply of labour by 
education towards 2030’ with forecasts for future demand and supply of skills. The underlying model (MOSART) will be further developed to present forecasts at a more detailed level. The Ministry of Education an d Research is working towards a system that 
would not only help to project future skills need s but also provide a forum for discussion with 
 
 - 169 - a view to anticipating changing skills needs. In  particular, a partial forecast model for future 
supply and demand for teachers is under preparation. 
6. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Norway EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 5.42  %01 6.51  % 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
01= 2001 
Concerning Investment in education , Norway has one of the highe st levels of public spending 
on education in Europe, amounting in 2008 to 6.51  % of GDP (in comparison to 5.07  % as the 
EU average).  
The Norwegian government’s point of view is that evidence from the management of the 
economic crisis in the 1980s showed the importa nce of investing in education in times of 
crisis. In response to the recen t crisis, the parliament adopted  in February 2009 a financial 
stimulus package with several measures in the field of education and training. 
 
 - 170 - TURKEY 
1. BENCHMARKS  
Turkey EU average EU Benchmarks 
TURKEY   
  
 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2020 
Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary)  11.6  % 32.5  % 0985.2  % 91.7  %09 - 95 % 
 
Reading - 24.5  %0921.3  % 20.0  %09 17.0  % 15 % 
 
Mathematics - 42.1  %0924.0  %0622.2  %09 - 15 % Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 
 
 
Science - 30.0  %0920.2  %0617.7  %09 - 15 % 
Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24)  58.8  % 43.1  % 17.6  % 14.1  % 10 % 10 % 
Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34)  - 14.7  % 22.4  % 33.6  % - 40 % 
Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period)  1.2 % 032.5 %  8.5 % 039.1 % 12.5  % 15 % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 
‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU averag e performance levels’ (weighted averages) 
2. EUROPE 2020:  OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER  
Not applicable. 
3. EUROPE 2020  HEADLINE TARGETS  
3.1. Early school leaving 
Although Eurostat data suggest th at the proportion of early sc hool levers has decreased by 
15.7 percentage points between 2000 and 2010, Turkey  has the highest recorded rate in this 
 
 - 171 - report compared to EU-27. One possible reason for this could be the short duration of 
compulsory primary education (now eight ye ars, extended from only five a decade ago). 
Another reason is inequality in education accord ing to social class, region and gender. Girls 
are significantly more at risk of leaving schoo l early than boys, probably because of cultural 
and economic reasons. In 2007, 39.4  % of dropouts were boys, and 55  % girls. Geographical 
differences are a third reason: remote rural regions and villages have some of the highest rates of early school leaving. 
The country has set a target of 100
 % schooling in primary and 12-year compulsory secondary 
education to increase participati on in school education and has ta ken a number of measures to 
monitor developments which w ill indirectly reduce early school leaving. The measures 
include e-school, a computerised web-based da ta management system which follows every 
student for the entire duration of schooling until graduation; and Accelerated Classroom 
Education Programmes, short-term transition pr ogrammes reintegrating 10–14-year-olds that 
have left education back into primary school. In the framework of the e-school management 
system, the so-called ‘Progre ssive non-attendance management ’ implemented by the Ministry 
of National Education (MoNE) is a tool to solve non-attendance through following up 
individuals in primary educati on. In addition, the Ministry of Education, together with the 
Ministry of Labour, has drawn up an ‘Action plan to enhance the relationship between 
Employment and Vocational Education’ to provi de vocational education and training in line 
with the needs of labour market.  
3.2. Tertiary attainment 
While the tertiary education attainment  rate is far below the EU average, Turkey has made 
progress in increasing the number of MST graduates , for which the growth rate has been 
clearly above the EU average. 
Turkey has launched a number of measures to increase tertiary education attainment. For 
instance, universities have been given, by law, the possibility of starting distance education 
programmes using ICT. In addition, the number of academic staff has been increased thanks 
to instructor training programmes, and staff development programmes have been 
implemented. Moreover, financia l resources in tertiary edu cation have been improved, and 
there are funds directed to providing equal opportunities. A public financial management and 
control system has been established by law and self-assessment has been established in many 
areas. Furthermore, to increase rates of entry into higher education and to widen access for 
underrepresented groups, new universities have b een established. The number has grown from 
130 in 2008 to 165 in 2011, responding to increasing de mand for tertiary education. Finally, to 
improve completion rates of stude nts in tertiary education, stude nts who stop their studies can 
re-apply within five years and continue the same courses. 
4. M
OBILITY  
As regards tertiary education, Turkey has an outbound long-term mobility (1.5  % of students 
per year) clearly below the EU average (2.8  %), while short-term mobility under the EU 
Erasmus programme (0.3  % of students in 2008/09) is also below the EU average. 
In the framework of the EU-funded Lifelong Learning Programme and Youth Programmes, 
the Turkish National Agency manages mobility in education. 
To promote learning mobility, measures implemented include: (1) in school education  — the 
ministry promotes mobility easing procedures  with circular letters  to the target groups 
 
 - 172 - (administrators, teachers, staff of provincial di rectorates, inspectors and students) and ‘Project 
coordination teams’ established in 81 provincial directorates and (2) in higher education  — 
within the scope of ‘Regulation on Esta blishing Common Edu cation and Training 
Programmes’, cooperation with higher education in stitutions abroad is encouraged to support 
mobility both for undergraduates and graduates. Th e Council of Higher Education participates 
in international projects as a partner to in crease mobility (Farabi Exchange Programme). 
To promote learning mobility for teachers, th e main source of funding is the EU Erasmus 
programme. In addition, the Council of Higher Education promotes the mobility of staff 
through projects such as ‘Post Doctorate Rese arch Support’ and ‘Master Research Support’. 
The biggest challenge in increasing mobility is that financial resources available remain far 
below actual demand. 
5. LIFELONG LEARNING , NEW SKILLS AND JOBS , OTHER MEASURES  
Turkey is in the process of developing a nd implementing a coherent and comprehensive 
lifelong learning strategy. With re gard to the schooling rate in 2012/13, the following targets 
are planned: pre-primary education 50  %, primary education 100  %, secondary education 
100  % and tertiary education 33  %. As concerns adult participation in lifelong learning, 
Turkey has made progress in relative terms, but the participation rate remains among the 
lowest in Europe. One programme to remedy the situation is the so-called ‘Mother and 
daughter at school’ adult edu cation programme. Concerning th e principles of shared 
responsibility, effective financial mechanisms, fl exible pathways, quality initial education and 
targeted continuing training, Turkey’s lifelong le arning strategy paper has 16 priorities, which 
are coherent with the Europe 2020 objectives. 
In order to improve the assessment of future sk ills requirements and to match skills better with 
the needs of the labour market, Turkey ha s developed several initiatives since 2009. A 
National Careers Information System has been introduced to facilitate access to vocational 
guidance programmes for all ages. An Action Plan  was released in July  2010 to strengthen the 
relationship between employment and vocational education as well as to tackle and reduce 
unemployment. Furthermore, there have been m easures in primary education to improve the 
development of skills, such as guidance for teachers on children’s skills development in areas such as social sciences, technology and ma thematics. Turkey has created a National 
Professional Information System to follo w career development processes and support 
guidance in schools. 
6. I
NVESTMENT IN EDUCATION  
Turkey EU average 
 
2000 2008 2000 2008 
Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 3.48  % 2.86  %06 4.88  % 5.07  % 
Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
01= 2001, 06= 2006 
Public investment in education  as a percentage of GDP has decreased since 2000 in Turkey, 
but as a result of robust economic growth it sti ll increased in absolute terms over the same 
period. The economic and financial crisis has affected education and training budgets. In 
 
 - 173 - 2009, the allocation for education as a share of GDP was 3.8  %; it decreased to 3.4  % in 2010 
and rose again to 3.8  % in 2011. 
In 2011, the Ministry of Educati on took the largest share of th e central management budget in 
Turkish history, with 34.112.163TL.