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Vol. 1985/0 022 
  
 
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Conformém ent au règlement (CEE, Euratom) n° 354/83 du Conseil du 1er février 1983 
concernant l'ouverture au public des archives historiques de la Communauté économique 
européenne et de la Communauté européenne de l'énergie atomique (JO L 43 du 15.2.1983, 
p. 1), tel que modifié par le règlement (CE, Euratom) n° 1700/2003 du 22 septembre 2003 
(JO L 243 du 27.9.2003, p. 1), ce dossier est ouvert au public. Le cas échéant, les documents 
classifiés présents dans ce dossier ont été déclassifiés conformément à l'article 5 dudit 
règlem ent. 
In accordance with Council Regulation (EEC, Euratom) No 354/83 of 1 February 1983 
concerning the opening to the public of the historical archives of the European Economic 
Community and the European Atomic Energy Communit y (OJ L 43, 15.2.1983, p. 1), as 
amended by Regulation (EC, Euratom) No 1700/2003 of 22 September 2003 (OJ L 243, 
27.9.2003, p. 1), this file is open to the public. Where necessary, classified documents in this 
file have been declassified in conformity with Article 5 of the aforementioned regulation. 
In Übereinstimmung mit der Verordnung (EWG, Euratom) Nr. 354/83 des Rates vom  1. 
Februar 1983 über die Freigabe der historischen Archive der Europäischen 
Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft und der Europäischen Atomgem einschaft (ABI. L 43 vom  15.2.1983, 
S. 1), geändert durch die Verordnung (EG, Euratom) Nr. 1700/2003 vom 22. Septem ber 2003 
(ABI. L 243 vom 27.9.2003, S. 1), ist diese Datei der Öffentlichkeit zugänglich. Soweit 
erforderlich, wurden die Verschlusssachen in dieser Datei in Übereinstimmung mit Artikel 5 
der genannten Verordnung freigegeben. 
ΕΠΙΤΡΟΠΗ ΤΩΝ ΕΥΡΩΠΑΪΚΩΝ ΚΟΙΝΟΤΗΤΩΝ
τελIκό
5  Μαρτίου 1985ΟΟΜ(85) 70
Βρυξέλλες,
ΑΝΑΚΟΙΝΩΣΗ ΤΗΣ ΕΠΙΤΡΟΠΗΣ ΠΡΟ Σ ΤΟ  ΣΥΜΒΟΥΛΙΟ
ικά με την προοταοία των ζώ ω ν κατα τις  διεθνείς μεταφορές
ΟΟΜ(85) 70 τελικό

(?<^vv\ 'h*
EXPLANATORY N O TE
_ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (1 )  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
O n
 the 12 M ay 1981 the Council adopted Directive 81/389/EEC establishing 
certain measures necessary for the application of Directive 77/489/EEC con­
cerning the protection of animals in international transport.
The Commission agreed to ask the Standing Committee for A gricu ltura l Research 
(SCAR) to exmaine whether there are good physiological, ethological and 
economic reasons for lim itin g  the fin a l journey to the abattoir of animals 
for immediate slaughter and, i f  so, of recommending a  maximum duration for 
such journeys.
The S C A R  studied th is question on the basis of an extensive examination of the 
problems by a  group of experts representative of the Member States.
The conclusions and considerations reached by SCAR, and the expert report 
e n title s  "In terna tio na l Transport of Farm Animals intended for slaughter 
are annexed to the present communication.

ΣΧΕΔΙΟ
ΑΝΑΚΟΙΝΩΣΗ ΤΗΣ ΕΠΙΤΡΟΠΗΣ ΠΡΟΣ ΤΟ ΣΥΜΒΟΥΛΙΟ  
αχετικά με την προστασία των ζώων κατά τις διεθνείς μεταφορές
1. Εισαγωγή
Την 12η Μα ίου 1981 το Συμβούλιο θέσπισε την οδηγία 81/489/ΕΟΚ (ΐ) περί καθο­
ρισμού ορισμένων αναγκαίων μέτρων για την εφαρμογή της οδηγίας 77/489/ΕΟΚ  
περί της προστασίας των ζώων κατά τις διεθνείς μεταφορές.
Η Επιτροπή συμφώνησε να ζητήσει από τη Μόνιμη Επιτροπή Γεωργικών Ερευνών  
(ΜΕΓΕ) να εξετάσει κατά πόσον υφίστανται σοβαροί φυσιολογικοί, εθολαγικοι  
και οικονομικοί όροι για τον περιορισμό της διάρκειας της τελικής διαδρομής  
της μεταφοράς στο σφαγείο των ζώων που προορίζονται για άμεση σφαγή και, εφο—  
σον υφίστανται, να συστήσει τη μέγιστη χρονική διάρκειά τους.
Η ΜΕΓΕ μελέτησε το θέμα αυτό μέσω αντιπροσωπευτικής ομάδας εμπειρογνωμόνων  
των Κρατών μελών και ασχολήθηκε με εκτεταμένη εξεταση των προβλημάτων.
Στην παρούσα ανακοίνωση επισυνάπτονται τα πορίσματα και οι σκεψεις της ΜΕΓΕ  
καθώς και η έκθεση των εμπειρογνωμόνων που τιτλοφορείται "Διεθνείς μεταφορές  
ζώων εκτροφής προς σφαγή".
2. Έκθεση της Μόνιμης Επιτροπής Γεωργικών Ερευνών
Αφού μελέτησε την έκθεση των εμπειρογνωμόνων η Μόνιμη Επιτροπή Γεωργικών Ερευ­
νών συμφώνησε τα εξής :
"Ως εκ τούτου θα φανεί, τόσο από το περιεχόμενο ι  ων πι ί  pr.pntir κεφαλαίων, ηηη  
και από τα πορίσματα που προκύπτουν απο τα διαθέσιμα δεδομένα, οτι απαιτούνται  
περισσότερες πληροφορίες, προτού καταστεί δυνατό να δοθεί οριστική απάντηση  
στο βασικό ερώτημα :
(1) ΕΕ αριθ. L 150 της 06.06.1981, σ. 1

-  2 -
"Υφίστανται σοβαροί' φυσιολογικοί, εθολογικοί και οικονομικοί όροι για τον πε­
ριορισμό της διάρκειας της τελικής διαδρομής της μεταφοράς οτο σφαγείο των  
ζώων που προορίζονται για άμεση σφαγή και, εφόσον υφίστανται, να συστήσει  
τη μεγίστη χρονική διάρκεια τους".
Ιδιαίτερα, φαίνεται αναγκαία περαιτέρω ερευνά στους ακολούθους τομείς .
(1) Παροχή τροφής και όδατος
Πού και πώς πρέπει να παρέχεται τροφή και νερό στα ζώα πριν και κατά τη μετα­
φορά τους, ανάλογα με την ηλικία, το είδος και τις φυσιολογικές συνθήκες;
(2) Ανάπαυση
Ποια η σημασία της ανάπαυσης των ζώων κατά τη διάρκεια της μεταφοράς;
Με ποιο τρόπο είναι δυνατόν να παρέχεται στα ζωα ο κατάλληλος τοπος αναπαυσης  
κατά τη διάρκεια της μεταφοράς; Υπάρχει ανάγκη διακοπής της μεταφοράς - και  
σέ ποια διαστήματα — και εκφόρτωσης των ζωων προς αναπαυση;
(3) Αριθμός μεταφερομένων ζώων
Ποιος ο αριθμός των μεταφερομένων ζώων και ποιο το μεγεθας των ομάδων ανα εί­
δος, ηλικία, φύλο και φυσιολογικές συνθήκες;
(4) Εξαερισμός
Ποιες οι απαιτήσεις εξαερισμοό για τους διαφορετικούς τροπους μεταφοράς των  
διαφορετικών ειδών και τάξεων του ζωικού κεφαλαίου;
(5) Φυσιολογ ία
Η συνεχής έρευνα των διαφόρων φυσιολογικών παραγόντων δυναται να βοηθήσει στις  
αλλαγές σχετικά με την κατάσταση έντασης και τη συμπεριφορά των ζώων κατά τη  
διάρκεια της μεταφοράς. Ποια η σημασία αυτών των παρατηρήσεων σε σχέση με τις  
ανάγκες των ζώων για τροφή ή νερό ή ανάπαυση;
Η συγκέντρωση στοιχείων,σχετικά με τα ζωα που μεταφερονται, που περιλαμβάνει στοι­
χεία σχετικά με τις ασθένειες, τη θνησιμότητα και τις κακώσεις κατα τη μεταφορά,  
καθώς και η επίπτωση των συνθηκών μεταφοράς στην ποσότητα και την ποιότητα του  
κρέατος, είναι ουσιαστικής σημασίας. Η εργασία αυτή απαιτεί την κατά το δυνατό

- 3 -
στενότερη συνεργασία μεταξύ των Κρατών μελών της Κοινότητας. Η Επιτροπή δυνα  
ται να συντρέξει, λαμβάνοντας τις ακόλουθες πρωτοβουλίες, που αφορούν :
(1) τον προγραμματισμό, το συντονισμό και τη συζητηση των ερευνών, εργαστη­
ριακών ή στην επιχείρηση, προκειμένου να γίνει χρήση των δυνατοτήτων και  
των διευκολύνσεων που προσφέρουν εμπειρογνώμονες των Κρατών μελών
(2) την περαιτέρω ενθάρρυνση της ανταλλαγής πληροφοριών, μέσω σεμιναρίων και  
μεταξύ εργαστηρίων’
(3) τη συνεχή ανταλλαγή ερευνητών και άλλων ατόμων που έχουν πρακτική κατάρ­
τιση ή δύνανται να προσφέρουν τη διοικητική εμπειρία τους.
Υπάρχουν ενδείξεις σχετικά με τις προτεραιότητες πάνω στις οποίες πρεπει να βα­
σιστούν οι εργασίες για να λυθεί το πρόβλημα της έλλειψης πληροφοριών σε ορι­
σμένα θέματα’  σφαώς, από περισσότερη εργασία θα προκόψουν περισσότερα αποτελέ­
σματα, αλλά όχι αναγκαία, και όλες οι απαντήσεις".
3. Η Επιτροπή έλαβε υπόψη τη σχετική έκθεση. Σχετικά με τα πορίσματα και τις συ­
στάσεις που διατυπώθηκαν, θεωρεί ότι θα είναι ανώριμο προς το παρόν να υπο­
βάλει προτάσεις στο Συμβούλιο για τροποποιήσεις των ισχυουσών κοινοτικών οδη­
γιών που έχουν θεσπισθει στον τομέα αυτό.
4. Είναι εμφανές ότι, εφόσον πρέπει να βρεθεί καλύτερη επιστημονική βάση ώστε να  
καταστεί δυνατή η πρόοδος στα σχετικά προβλήματα, θα είναι απαραίτητο να δια­
τεθούν περισσότερα κονδύλια για επί μέρους τομείς της έρευνας και για να ενι-  
σχυθούν τα σχέδια συνεργασίας μεταξύ των Κρατών μελών προς συντονισμό των με­
ταφορών ζώων, έτσι ώστε να είναι δυνατή η συλλογή βασικών στοιχείων.
5. Ταυτόχρονα, η Επιτροπή έστρεψε την προσοχή της στην ανάγκη να ληφθούν στο άμε­
σο μέλλον περισσότερες πρακτικές πρωτοβουλίες για νσ διευκυλυνθει η εφαρμογή  
των ισχυουσών κοινοτικών διατάξεων σχετικά με τις διεθνείς μεταφορές ζωων.
Το Κοινοβούλιο στο ψήφισμά ταυ αριθ. 229/83 ιδιαίτερα εξέφρασε την επιθυμία  
για περαιτέρω βελτίωση των διεθνών μεταφορών αλόγων προς σφαγή.

Τα προβλήματα αυτά εξετάζονται και από το Συμβούλιο της Ευρώπης σε περιπτώσεις  
όπου προκύπτουν ειδικά θέματα μεταφορών για κράτη μη μέλη.
Ενόψει της κατάστασης αυτής, η Επιτροπή θεωρεί τοι η ανάπτυξη των Ευρωπαϊκών  
Κωδίκων Πρακτικής για τις διεθνείς μεταφορές ζώων θα έπαιζε σημαντικό ρόλο  
στο άμεσο μέλλον. Είναι αναγκαίο,ακόμα και εντός των ορίων των υπαρχόντων δε­
δομένων και γνώσεων, να βελτιωθεί η διάδοση των γνώσεων στο επίπεδο της εκπαί­
δευσης και ιδιαίτερα όσον αφορά πολλούς πολίτες που ασχολούνται καθημερινά με  
τις διεθνείς μεταφορές ζώων.
Η ανάπτυξη των κωδίκων αυτών από την Επιτροπή απαιτεί σημαντική εργασία και  
στενή συνεργασία με τις αρχές των Κρατών μελών καθώς και διαβουλεόσεις των εν­
διαφερομένων μερών εντός της Κοινότητας.
Λόγω της έλλειψης των απαραίτητων χρηματοδοτικών πηγών καθώς και προσωπικού,  
δεν είναι εφικτή σήμερα ούτε η πραγματοποίηση περαιτέρω ερευνών ούτε η ανάπτυ­
ξη των πρακτικών συμβουλευτικών κωδίκων. Η Επιτροπή έχει ήδη αναφέρει στο Συμ­
βούλιο αυτό το πρόβλημα που είναι γενικό στους τομείς εργασίας που περιλαμβά­
νουν την προστασία των ζώων εκτροφής.

ANNEX
In te rn a tion a l transport of farm animals 
intended for slaughter
An examination of whether there are good p h ysio lo g ica l, ethological 
and economic reasons for lim itin g  the fin a l journey to the 
a b a tto ir of animals intended for immediate slaughter and, i f  so, 
of recommending a  maximum duration fo r such journeys.
September 1984

Contents Page
1. Introduction
1.1. Reasons fo r the report 1
1.2. Background and key factors 2
1.2.1. Stress factors 5
1.2.2. Feeding and watering 9
1.2.3 Grouping 1 1
2. General c r ite r ia  1 1
2.1. O n  farm preparation 1 1
2.1.1. Feeding and watering 12
2.1.2. Grouping 1 4
2.1.3. Assembly p oints, markets and lairages 16
2.2. Transport 17
2.2.1. Loading and the actual journey 18
2.2.2. Grouping and space requirements 25
2.2.3. Feeding and watering 28
2.3. At the a b a tto ir 32
2.3.1. Unloading and handling 32
2.3.2. Immediate slaughter or lairage to
precede slaughter 35
3. Specific c rite r ia  39
Methods of transport
3.1. Road vehicles 40
3.2. Rol l- o n /r o ll- o ff fe rrie s  42
3.3. Trains 43
3.4. F itted vessel 44
3.5. Transport by a irc ra ft 46

page ~
4. Economic, marketing and social considerations 49
4.1. Death rate and in ju rie s  49
4.1.1. M o rta lity and in ju rie s  in horses 50
4.1.2. Mortality and injuries in cattle 50
4.1.3. Mortality and injuries in pigs 53
4.1.4. M ortality and in ju rie s  in sheep 55
4.1.5. Mortality and injuries in poultry 56
4.2. Influence of transportation on carcase weight 57
4.2.1. Weight loss 57
4.2.2. Weight losses in c a ttle  57
4.2.3. Weight losses in pigs 59
4.2.4. Weight losses in sheep 60
4.2.5. Weight losses in pou ltry 6 1
4.3. Influence of transport on meat q u a lity  6 1
4.3.1. Meat q u a lity  in c a ttle  62
4.3.2. Meat q u a lity  in pigs 64
4.3.3. Meat q u a lity  in lambs 67
4.3.4. Meat q u a lity  in p o u ltry 68
5. Conclusions and recommendations fo r fu rth e r research 69
and development.
6. Acknowledgement 73
7. Appendix 1: References 74
8. Appendix 2  89
An examination of transport according to the behaviour 
of d iffe re n t species.

1.
1. Int roduct i on
1.1. Reasons for the report
The aim of th is  examination was to attempt to answer the 
question posed to the Commission of the European Communities 
(CEC) Standing Committee fo r A g ricu ltu ra l Research (SCAR) by 
the Council of the European Communities. The question asked 
in 1980 was:
Are there good physiolo g ica l, e th o lo g ica l, and economic 
reasons for lim itin g  the fin a l journey to the a b a tto ir of 
animals intended for immediate slaughter and, i f  so, of 
recommending a  maximum duration fo r such journeys?
Within the European Communities thousands of slaughter animals 
are transported from one country to another every day.
Distances range from a  few kilometres to hundreds and thousands 
of kilom etres. The duration of such journeys runs from a  few 
hours to som e days. For some years there have been complaints 
because animals transported in te rn a tio n a lly  were found in a  
poor condition in tra n s it or at th e ir d estination.
In attempting to answer the main question, based on an examina­
tion of the current s c ie n tific  lite ra tu r e , and valued experience 
in practice and to cover such complaints, four main considera­
tions were id e n tifie d :
1. Are certain types of transport b ette r than others?
For example, road versus r a il versus boat.
2. W hat are the e ffe cts of loading, reloading and unloading 
on the welfare of transported animals?
3. What are the economic aspects of tra n sp o rta tio n ?
4. Is research needed to answer questions on in te rn a tio n a l 
transport of farm animals?

2.
1.2. Background and keyfactors
Concern has focussed on tra nsp o rtatio n  and its  e ffe c ts , 
not only because of the need to assess stock requirements 
and normal comfort during tra v e l, but because of b ru isin g , 
or even death, occurring before a rriv a l at the destination 
(Pearson and K iIgour, 1980). Hails (1978) in his study 
pointed out some key factors:
(1) The great increase in numbers of animals now being 
transported
(2) The complicated nature of the variables operating 
during transportation
(3) Weather, loading density and distance tra v e lle d  
are factors in stress
(4) Prior husbandry experience is a  very important fa cto r.
(5) Many vehicles used for stock transport are poorly 
designed
(6) The concern for the animal being transported is in 
d ire ct proportion to its  value
(7) S om e diseases are associated with tra nsp o rta tio n .
According to Pearson and Ki Igour (1980)_the transport of 
animals involves a  great va rie ty  of factors with which 
animals have to cope. I f  each fa cto r is taken separately 
i t  would pose few problems for the transported animal, but 
in combination they m ay lead to changes of behaviour and 
metabolism or cause pathological conditions. Among the factors 
to be considered are clim atic conditions, handling, food and 
water intake, exercise, social in te ra ctio n s, transport types, 
environment change and duration of journey.

3.
In 1971 "The European Convention fo r the Protection of 
Animals during International Transport" was promulgated 
by the Council of Europe. The aim of the Convention is to 
establish com m on minimum provisions fo r the protection of 
animals ensuring th e ir welfare. The most important regulations 
relevant to the transport of farm animals were discussed 
by A D LE R  (1982), namely, that in the country of export the 
animals should be inspected by a  veterinary o ffic e r who is 
responsible fo r
(1) the animals being deemed f i t  fo r transport
(2) sa tisfa cto ry loading arrangements
(3) a  c e rtific a te  stating id e n tity , that the animals 
are f i t  to tra ve l and a  record of the means of 
tra nsp o rtatio n .
Veterinary o ffic e rs  in a ll countries through which animals 
are transported are e n title d  to prescribe rest and care for 
the animals where considered necessary.
The Convention lays down the follow ing points:
1. Adequate space and room to lie  down should provided.
2. Vehicle construction shall ensure protection against 
inclement weather conditions and proper v e n tila tio n .
3. Boxes and cages should be labelled and easy to clean;
they must ensure safety of the animals and allow inspection.
4. Floors must be s o lid , close boarded and prevent slip p in g.
5. There shall be segregation according to species, age 
(young and adult should be separated), sex (uncastrated 
adults should be kept separate from female adults boars 
and s ta llio n s  separate from each oth e r).
6. Bovines shall not be tie d  by the horns. Ties should be of 
adequate strength and allow fo r lying down, eating,and 
drin kin g. B ulls above 18 months of age shall be tie d  and 
f itte d  with nose rings fo r handling only.

4.
7. Solipeds sh all wear halters and sh all have in d ivid ua l 
s ta lls  or th e ir hind feet unshoed.
8. Suitable equipment shall be used to prevent slip p in g  and 
fa llin g  down.
9. Consignants of livestock shall be accompanied by an 
attendant (unless carried in containers or other measures 
taken).
10. Animals becoming i l l  or injured shall have veterinary 
attendance as soon as possible and i f  necessary shall be 
slaughtered without unnecessary s u ffe rin g .
11. I l l  or injured animals shall be considered not f i t  for 
tra nsp o rtatio n . Those becoming i l l  or in ju re d  are to be 
given f ir s t  aid and submitted to ve te rina ry examination.
12. W hen animals placed above each other in containers or on  
flo o rs the fa llin g  of droppings on animals underneath 
shall be avoided.
The 10 Member States of the European Communities and 8 non- 
member countries (A ustria, Cyprus, Finland, Norway, Spain, 
Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey) signed the Convention. Since 
1979 the European Communities as a  group has had the status 
of a  contracting party. E E C  Directives 77/489 and 81/389 
embody the Convention.
In in te rn a tio n a l transport of farm animals special problems 
appear because the animals are often imported or in tra n s it 
from countries, which have not signed the Convention.
For example, especially d if f i c u l t  situ a tio n s arise on the 
German border with transport from Poland and the Soviet Union, 
because refusals on th is border are not p ra ctica b le , and 
because East Germany does not take back such transports.

5.
The necessary regulation c e rtific a te s  concerning the law 
re la tin g  to contagious diseases from these countries v e rify  
the health and absence of epidemics but they do not give 
inform ation on the fitn e ss to tra ve l of the animals, the time 
of loading and the rest periods.that have to be kept (.Geyei> 
1982). O ne of the main problems is , who is responsible fo r 
the animals during in te rn a tio n a l transport. The animals are 
loaded in foreign countries, and they are not accompanied by 
the owner, but by hired people. This results in the conse­
quence that in the case of complaints d ire ct influences on 
the owner are nearly impossible.
1.2.1. Stress factors
The stress concept and its  re la tio n  to transport is central 
to the understanding of the reactions of livestock during 
transportation.
Selye (1950) considered stress to be a  response of the organism 
to some experimental treatment or environmental feature that 
induces deviation from homeostasis. The environmental factors 
which lead to stress are referred to as stressors.
Adaptation involves both metabolic adjustments and behavioural 
(coping) responses. Stress occurs when normal adaptive mechanisms 
are in e ffic ie n t to control certain s itu a tio n s . Stress is the 
process by which environmental factors ovei—tax these control 
systems in an in d iv id u a l, thus a c tiva tin g  responses whose 
effects are prolonged and u ltim a te ly  detrim ental to that 
individ ua l in that they reduce its  fitn e s s  (Broom, 1983).
Stress can be assessed by d ire ct or in d ire c t signs of the 
a ctivatio n  of the main hormonal systems involved in adaptation, 
the p itu ita ry -a d re n a l system which releases corticosteroids 
and the sympathetic-adrenal medullary system which release 
catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline). In addition 
various behavioural responses which a lte r the state of an 
in d ivid ua l or signal the fa ilu re  of the in d ivid u a l to cope 
with the s itu a tio n  are recognisable stress responses.

6.
Because of the dynamics of the stress response and the m u lti­
p lic it y  of its  components, there is no single measure of the 
degrees of stress which must therefore be assessed by the 
simultaneous measurement of several "in d ic a to rs " (Stephens,
1980; Dantzer et a l. ,  1983).
Transport to slaughter is lik e ly  to involve several factors 
which m ay be stressors (Porzig 1969, Dantzer and Mormède 1979 
pp 12-21, van L o g te stijn  and R om m e 1981). These include:
1. Physical factors such as noise, v ib ra tio n  and fo rce fu l 
contact with the vehicle or other animals. These can be 
exacerbated by, fo r example, close confinement, poor 
vehicle design, and excessive movement of vehicle. They 
may result in in ju rie s  which fu rth e r stress the animal.
2. Environmental factors such as temperature, hum idity, 
oxygen level or the presence of noxious gases. These 
factors m ay be of minor importance at the s ta rt of a  
journey but m ay become important as the journey progresses. 
High temperature often associated with high hum idity, is
a  frequent stressor.
3. Metabolic factors such as those re su ltin g  from in s u ffic ie n t 
consumption of water or food. These m ay be present even 
when water and food have been available but not consumed.
4. Factors re su ltin g  from lack of exercise or prolonged 
standing.
5. Factors re su ltin g  from novelty or from treatment by handlers 
or other animals. The loading procedures, the transporter 
and the other animals being transported w ill often be strange 
and frig h te n in g  to the animal. The human handlers may not 
tre a t the animals in a  manner which minimises stress and 
in d ivid u a l animals, forced in to  close proxim ity to others 
who may be u n fa m ilia r, are often under stress and m ay fig h t.

7.
Fighting can lead to in ju rie s  and fu rth e r stress.
These factors may have a  greater e ffe ct in concert than when 
acting in d iv id u a lly . For example an environmental temperature 
which is not s u ffic ie n tly  high to have any adverse e ffe ct 
m ay be a  stressor i f  i t  occurs at the same time as forced 
association with strangers. Such in teractio n s and indeed the 
re la tiv e  importance of the various fa cto rs, are poorly undei 
stood. The most dramatic e ffe ct of transport is the death 
of an animal before or very soon a fte r reaching the destina­
tio n . This is an important problem in pigs and has been the 
subject of much research (fo r example Van Logtestijri et a l. 
1982), because pigs are more susceptible to transport stress 
than other species of farm animals (Sybesma 1968; Lendferg, 
1970, 1975). Tarrant (1982) described the porcine stress 
syndrome as the acute reaction to stress, mediated by the 
sympathetic nervous system, which can cause severe distress 
and even death. In re la tio n  to th is , i t  has to be noted that 
affected animals show severe signs of dyspnoea, cyanosis 
and hyperthermia, and they m ay develop rig o r in the limbs 
before death occurs. This links up with the findings of 
Clark (1979), who found in 70%  of the transport related deaths 
d iffu se  and severe pulmonary congestion, often accompanied 
by a  moderate degree of pulmonary oedema. The hearts of these 
pigs were contracted and pale. Thirteen per cent of the other 
dead animals showed a  va rie ty of lesions from acute to chronic, 
in addition to the pulmonary congestion and oedema, while 
only 1.9% had no lesions at a ll.  C irculato ry collapse also 
occurs in b ro ile rs . LoTiger and Torges (1977) observed a  
death rate of 0.08%^after transport of 56,000 birds. A  per­
centage of 0.07% died because of c irc u la to ry  collapse, while 
the others died from in ju rie s  (0.004%) and non-transport- 
related diseases or infections (0.004%). This is comparable 
to hens with a  death rate of 1.46% in which also most of the 
casualties died because of acute c irc u la to ry  heart collapse 
and 0.17% of in ju rie s  or diseases (0.13%) of d iffe re n t organs

8.
which occurred before tra nsp o rtatio n .
Bergmann, (1978, 1979) studied changes in cardiac and skeletal 
muscles of pigs follow ing transport stress and found c lin ic a l 
signs of exhaustion and acute c irc u la to ry  in s u ffic ie n c y .
A ll these symptoms are a ttrib u ta b le  to the excessive muscle 
metabolism which leads to acidosis and hypercapnia. The con­
centrations of lactate and carbon dioxide in the c irc u la tio n  
stim ulate the release of catecholamines and anaerobiosis 
even fu rth e r. Therefore, one of the suggestions is that the 
pigs are thought to die in a  state of cardiogenic shock, but 
there is no physiological evidence which v e rifie s  th is 
assumption. Another suggestion, much more important than the 
environmental influences, is the stress s u s c e p tib ility  of the 
pigs. Many cases of transport losses in pigs, which range 
between 70 and 80%  during tra n sp o rta tio n , while the remainder 
occur in the a b a tto ir, can be a ttrib u te d  to the malignant 
hyperthermia syndrome (MHS). This syndrome, which is an 
in d icatio n  for s tre s s -s u s c e p tib ility , is g e n e tica lly deter­
mined, probably by an autosomal recessive gene. Pigs suffe rin g  
from the M H S, can be id e n tifie d  at an age of 6-12 weeks by 
means of the halothane-test. A s a  result of th is  test the 
percentage of reactors in the Dutch Landrace breed could be 
dram atically reduced (Sybesma and Eikelenboom 1969-1979).
Stress, whatever its  cause has economically important effects 
on meat q u a lity  as well as being bad for the welfare of the 
animals. The dark cu ttin g  or D F D  (dark, firm , dry) condition 
is a  d ire ct consequence of stress and exhaustion during the 
preslaughter· period (Tarrant, 1981) and has been observed to 
occur in many meat species. The physiology of D F D  depends on 
muscle glycogen breakdown that is stim ulated by c irc u la tin g  
adrenaline and by the c o n tra c tile  a c tiv ity  of muscle during 
preslaughter transport and handling, e.g. during social re­
grouping in young b u lls (Tarrant, 1982, McVeigh and T arra n t, 
1983).

9;
The P S E  (pale, s o ft, exudative) condition, on the other hand, 
has a  genetic base and is associated with hereditary suscepti­
b i l i t y  to stress in pigs (MHS). Environmental stressors m ay 
increase the incidence or severity of the PSE-condition, its  
elim ination p a rtly  on selection of stre ss-re sista n t slaughter 
stock.
In ju rie s , including bru isin g, m ay also occur during transport 
and, besides reducing carcass and meat q u a lity , may be at the 
source of intense su ffe rin g . The incidence of death, in ju rie s , 
reduced meat q u a lity , s u s c e p tib ility  to disease and physio­
logical and behavioural signs of stress is much higher during 
or a fte r transports than during any other comparable period 
of the lif e  of farm animals.
Although i t  is apparent that transportation is a  c r it ic a l 
period for the animal, adverse economic and welfare effects 
can be a lle via te d  by good conditions and careful handling.
1.2.2. Feeding and Watering
"The European Convention for the Protection of Animals during 
International Transport" advises that food and water shall be 
given at suitable in te rva ls. Animals shall not be le ft more 
than 24 hours without being fed and watered. This period may, 
however, be extended i f  the journey to the destination where 
the animals are unloaded can be completed w ithin a  reasonable 
time. The animals shall be fed and watered by the attendant 
of the tra nsp o rt, and cows are to be milked at in te rva ls of 
not more than 12 hours.
There are doubts that these times su it a ll animals. These 
figures are not based on s c ie n tific  research and maybe young 
animals or monogastric animals need to be fed and watered 
more often. Feeding and watering during transportation are 
important and are discussed in fu rth e r d e ta il la te r in the 
report (p 12). There is national le g is la tio n  which covers 
in terna l transport in each Member State.

10.
According to the report of the A g ric u ltu ra l Departments (1978) 
experts in animal husbandry and n u tritio n  are of the opinion 
that even calves which are s t i l l  on. a  liq u id  die t m ay go for 
24 hours between feeds without i l l  e ffe c t. While even longer 
periods would not necessarily harm the animal, an in te rv a l as 
long as 36 hours could cause a  setback to the c a lf's  develop­
ment. I f  the length of journey were such that feeding became 
necessary on the way, the calves should be unloaded and rested 
for 2  or 3 hrs before being fed, and should then only be given 
a  maintenance level of feed.
These experts advise furthe r that fo r ruminating c a ttle  and 
sheep water is more important than food on a.journey. While 
ruminating animals could tra ve l fo r 36 hrs or possible more 
between feeds without suffe rin g  any i l l  e ffe c t, they should 
not go fo r in te rva ls longer than 24 hrs without being watered. 
Under good environmental conditions a  period of more than 
24 hrs without water would not necessarily be detrim ental 
but 36 hrs would probably be excessive.
According to the Convention adequate food and water shall be 
available fo r p o u ltry unless the journey is less than 1? hrs 
or a  journey tasting less than 24 hrs for day-old chicks 
providing the journey is completed w ith in  24 hrs of hatching.
Despite both national and in te rn a tio n a l le g is la tio n  on feeding 
and watering which requires livestock to be fed and watered 
at sp e cific stated in te rva ls there are doubts that such time 
in te rva ls suit a ll species and ages.

11.
1.2.3. Groupi ng
This is a  key fa cto r but very l i t t l e  work has been carried 
out as yet. The 1971 Convention of the Council of Europe 
la id  down, i f  animals of various species tra v e l in the sam e 
tru ck, vehicle, vessel or a irc ra ft, they shall be segregrated 
according to species. Furthermore special measures shall be 
taken to avoid adverse reactions which might re su lt from the 
transport in the sam e consignment of species n a tu ra lly 
h o stile  to each other. W hen animals of d iffe re n t ages are 
carried in the same tru ck, vehicle, vessel, or a ir c r a ft, adult 
and young animals shall.be kept separate; th is  re s tric tio n  
shall not, however, apply to females tra v e llin g  with th e ir 
young which they suckle. With regard to bovine, and porcine 
animals, mature uncastrated males shall also be separated from 
each other; th is shall also apply to s ta llio n s .
The Convention, however, does not make any remarks on group 
size or loading density.
Although in n a tional and in te rn a tio n a l le g is la tio n  loading 
densities are quoted fo r various species, weights and ages 
of animals, group size is not mentioned despite its  obvious 
i mport ance.
2. General c rite ria
2.1. On-farm preparation
According to Wythes et a l. (1980) good welfare on the farm 
primary to transport is a  matter of good handling, yard design 
and construction. The Ammerdown Group  (1980) however, comes to 
the conclusion that th is  welfare leaves much to be desired, 
due to over-vigorous treatment, the use of s tic k s , e le c tric  
prodders and dogs.

12.
2.1.1. Feeding and watering
The questions whether to feed and water animals before long 
journeys, the qua n tities of food and water and the best time 
fo r the last meal before loading, have not been yet s a tis - 
fa c to rily  answered.
Cattle
Dodt et a l. (1979) found, that bullocks fasted in yards for 
24 and 48 hours were more bruised than those not fasted.
They a ttrib u te d  the difference to agonistic behaviour in order 
to establish the new social rank. Wythes et a l. (1980) found 
horns account fo r approximately half of a ll bruising in c a ttle . 
Thus dehorning would improve animal welfare during marketing 
and grouping before transport. The German Gutachten (1977) 
advises not to feed and water c a ttle  before loading above a  
weight of the rumen of about 10 to 15%  of the animal's live  
weight. Only watering ca ttle  does not induce any problem. 
Stephens (1982) could not detect any e ffe ct on "digestive 
scours" in calves, that were e ithe r overfed or not fed at a ll 
and transported fo r two hours a fte r the last meal of milk 
replacer.
Pi gs
Food can have a  detrim ental influence on the w ell-being of 
pigs. Schütz (1975) found a  highly s ig n ific a n t increase in 
heart rate in co rre la tio n  with a  shorter lapse of time between 
feeding and tra nsp o rtatio n . A  fastin g  period of 24 hrs before 
transport appeared to have the lowest negative influence on 
the cardio-va%ular system during transport. A  longer fa stin g  
period than 24 hrs caused considerable weight losses. The 
Meat 8 Livestock Commission (1974) recommends that pigs should 
be watered but not be fed on the day of c o lle c tio n  to be 
slaughtered. Wythes et a l. (1980) report a  Queensland survey, 
showing smaller transport losses in pigs during transport if

13.
they had been given no food in excess of 12 hrs before loading, 
compared with those that had been fed u n til.tra n s p o rt. Warris 
(1982) compared the e ffe cts of d iffe re n t fa stin g  times before 
transport. In order to prevent economically important losses 
the author advises that the time between the last meal and 
actual k illin g  should not exceed 18 hrs. Markov (1981) reports 
weight losses in pigs on transport up to 10,2%, caused by 
journeys of 2,5 to 3 days.
There obviously is a  com m on opinion that pigs should not be 
fed at the day of c o lle ctio n  for transport. Everybody agrees 
that pigs should have water available u n til the actual loading 
sta rts .
Sheep
Hinrichsen (1979) and Grandin (1981) recommend that sheep 
should be watered and fed s u ffic ie n tly  but not excessively 
before tra nsp o rtatio n . If the transport w ill not last longer 
than 8 hrs Grandin prefers a  fasting period (fo r food and 
water) of 16 hrs p rio r to loading. Hinrichsen demands feeding 
of 1  day old lambs destined for fa tte n in g , in in tervals no 
longer than 8 hrs during transport.
There is general agreement that on the day of transportation 
pigs should be allowed water ad lib itu m  but not other feeds.  
From the e xistin g  regulations on watering, feeding and 
recting p rio r to export fo r species other than p ig s  and the 
recommendations for fasting periods p r ior to transport it  is 
clear that more research is required to establish d e fin itiv e  
guidelines.

14.
2.1.2. Grouping
Unfam iliar environments are one of the most s tre s s fu lt aspects 
of transport and preslaughter handling procedures. P la tt (1982) 
recommends a  period of conditioning at assembly lairages.
For bulk transport of free ranging animals th is  period of 
adjustment is p a rtic u la rly  relevant. The lairages should be 
located near the embarkation points. In th is  period stock 
become used to the d ie t, that w ill be fed on the voyage it s e lf .  
The animals also become more manageable and loading is less 
st r e s s fu ll.
Cattle
Strange farm animals penned together w ill s ta rt a  fig h t in 
order to establish a  rankorder. Kenny &  Tarrant (1981) showed 
that mixed penning of steers before slaughter increased the 
incidence of mild and moderately bruised carcasses, but not 
the number of severe ones. Apart from dehorning unnecessary 
mixing of strange groups of animals w ill reduce the incidence 
of bruised carcasses. Thus pens for lairage should not be too 
large, in order to be able to keep groups separated.
Pigs
A fter a  fa tte ning  period of about 4 months, without having 
encountered strange pigs, slaughter pigs were suddenly removed 
(Van Putten and Lambooy 1982) from th e ir usual pen and mixed 
with pigs they had never met before. There was much resultant 
confusion and fig h tin g . The mixing of pigs for transport 
causes stressors to accumulate, for example (1) leaving a  
fa m ilia r environment (2) losing the contact of penmates
(3) encountering antagonism with strange pigs.

15.
Van Putters, and Lambooy (1982) showed fo r a ir transport 
th a t, by grouping and mixing a  few days in advance, strange 
pigs destined to tra ve l in one compartment of a  container 
then handling was easier and less s tre s s fu l. Furthermore 
such a  practice avoided the use of tra n q u illiz e rs  such as 
Azaperone and the a fte r e ffe cts. Schmidt and Van Lengerken 
(1980) and Schlicht (1980) advised strongly in order to 
prevent losses not to mix pigs from d iffe re n t pens.
Experience gained from a ir transport Moss (1978), Schmidt 
and Van Lengerken (1980) Schlicht (1980) and by many others 
should be considered for application to other forms of 
in terna tio na l transport.
The Meat and Livestock Commission (1974) strongly advises 
that pigs from d iffe re n t fatte ning  pens should be kept 
separately before loading in order to reduce stress and the 
like liho o d  of fig h tin g .
Sheep
The Arnmerdown Group (1980) advised that sheep should be 
handled with great care.  Extensive haemorrhages may be 
caused by lif t in g  by the fleece. Such handling is lik e ly  
to create both stress and physical damage and th is  often 
becomes apparent only a fte r the animal has been slaughtered.
To prevent rough handling, the group recommended adequately 
sized, strongly b u ilt holding pens, a  ramp to toad the animals 
at the tailb oa rd  level of lo rrie s  and wherever possible the 
avoidance of s tic k , e le c tric  goads, dogs and noise.
Prearranged grouping of animals well before the actual transport 
starts decreases social stress considerably during transport 
and thereby prevents accumulation of stressing factors.

16.
2.1.3. Assembly p oints, markets and lairages
O n  the continent animals are picked up at the farms of o rig in  
and are transported d ire c tly  to the slaughter-house or the 
assembly point fo r export. In Great B rita in  and Ireland 
animals often pass through a  market, assembly point or lairage 
before s ta rtin g  th e ir fin a l journey. The Ammerdown Group 
(1980) reports that 50%  of a ll c a ttle  and 70%  of a ll sheep 
pass through market before being transported to the slaughter­
house. Pigs are only exceptionally sold via auctions.
Cattle
According to the Ammerdown Group (1980) c a ttle  generally are 
loaded, unloaded or reloaded no less than four times. Even 
with adequate f a c ilit ie s  th is procedure causes much stress 
and physical damage and reduces carcass q u a lity . Apart from 
th is the bruises and s tre s s fu ll situ a tio n s are detrimental 
for the animal's welfare. These c a ttle  su ffe r from noise, 
from mixing with unfam iliar animals again and again, attacks 
from animals in adjourning pens, restlessness by continous 
moving of other animals and blows and noise w hilst being driven 
from one place to another.
According to D ow  (1976) the purpose of lairage is to reduce 
the level of stress induced by previous handling. In Great 
B rita in  before export animals must be rested fo r at least 
10 hrs in a  Government approved lairage at or near the port 
or a irp o rt of departure (A g ricu ltu ra l Department, T978).
The follow ing requirements have to be s a tis fie d :
(1) The animals in lairage must be provided with an adequate 
supply of suitable food and water,
(2) A ll animals must be examined at the lairage by an o f f ic ia l 
veterinary o ffic e r. H e  issues a  c e rtific a te  v a lid  for
18 hrs from the time of examination.

17.
(3) Lairage operators must keep proper records of the 
animals' movements.
(4) Calves must weigh at least 50 kg, and any underweight 
calves are turned back.
Detailed requirements for lairages include the provision of:
(1) s u ffic ie n t clean bedding;
(2) separate pens fo r d iffe re n t species arranged so that
not more than 40 c a ttle , 40 pigs or 100 sheep are detained 
in one pen or enclosure;
13) experienced and competent supervision
(4) is o la tio n  pens
(5) regular cleaning and desinfection.
Not withstanding som e general ideas about how to keep animals 
at lairage, in order to let them re st, fa r too l i t t l e  informa­
tio n  is available to establish d e fin itiv e  g u id e lin e s.
In terms of pre-transport preparation, from regulations 
requiring watering, feeding and resting p rio r to export 
(A griculture Departments 1978) to varying recommendations as 
to fasting periods p rio r to transport (Stephens (1982),
Warris (1982), Grandin (1981), lead to the conclusion that 
much more research is required before d e fin itiv e  guidelines 
can be given.
2.2. Transport
Inte rn a tion a l transport may last from a  few hours to some weeks. 
Host experiences and research are based on re la tiv e ly  short 
duration transportation w ithin one country. It would not be 
correct to extrapolate these data to in te rn a tio n a l transport 
lasting som e days. Besides, during transportation over long 
distances extreme clim atic differences m ay be encountered and 
long periods of waiting for clearing by customs at the borders 
can occur.

18.
2.2.1. Loading and the actual journey
O ne of the most stre ssfu l parts related to transportation 
is loading. This applies especially to moving the animals 
from th e ir home-pen into the transporting vehicle.
Horses
Loading of horses is d if f ic u lt  i f  the loading bridge is not 
quite stable, i f  the outside and inside lig h t-c o n d itio n s  are 
d iffe re n t and i f  the hoofs on the loading-bridge sound 
hollow (Frohner, 1961). Therefore Hinrichsen &  Korner (1978) 
advise to keep the noises as low as possible during loading 
and to cover the loading-bridge with straw or with coconut 
matt i ng.
Catt_le
Cattle trucks should load from the end rather than from the 
side. Side-loading trucks m ay confront c a ttle  with the decision 
to turn once they are inside (Anderson, 1973), and then end up 
turning around completely therefore facing the door (Sutton 
et a l., 1967) and making it  very d if f i c u l t  for other animals 
to enter. According to Grandin (1980b) c a ttle  move more easily 
i f  they can see an animal ahead, i f  the driveway is curved 
instead of s tra ig h t, and surrounded by s o lid  fences. Cattle 
enter f a c ilit ie s  more e a sily, i f  they are well l i t .
Well designed ramps encourage c a ttle 'to  move and climb.
Handlers should keep in mind that c a ttle  move slowly and should 
not be forced by e le c tric  prods and rough treatment to move 
fa s t. Such routines, acknowledging c a ttle  behaviour, would 
help to minimize transport stress.
In another study Grandin (1979) reports that leg and foot 
in ju rie s  can occur i f  the truck is not properly positioned 
against the loading dock, and recommends that the loading 
chute should be equipped with telescoping side pannels and a  
se lfa lig n in g  dock bumper to prevent animals from jumping out 
through the gap between the back of the truck and the chute.

19.
Many animals are injured because the loading chute is too 
steep.
The slope of a  permanently in s ta lle d  loading chute for ca ttle  
or hogs should not exceed 20°. The slope of portable or ad­
justable chutes should not exceed 25°. Stairsteps ramps are 
best fo r c a ttle  and pigs. Prolonged tra v e llin g  is not 
necessarily detrim ental to the welfare of c a ttle . Friend et al. 
(1981) transported 150 Angus x  Hereford calves, weighing 
on average 1  6 A  kg fo r 70 hrs by r a il and 36 hrs by truck.
Despite th is tra v e llin g  during five  days, no negative effects 
or stress could be detected. Castmann (1977) reports that 
during the f ir s t  30 hrs of transport (German Democratic Rep.) 
no tissue losses occur. Afterwards the weight-losses of the 
carcass are about 0,12% per hr. Losses were higher in young 
animals and lower in older ones.
Pi gs
According to Van Putten 8  Lambooy (1982) in most pig farms 
handling and loading fa c ilit ie s  are very poor, and designers 
never seem to have cared about i t ,  despite the results of 
many experiments, in d icatin g  that these conditions do matter. 
Schlicht (1980) stresses th is point and so does Gratz (1981).
Van Putten &Elshof (1978 analysed the stressing factors in 
handling and loading slaughter pigs by means of radio telem etric 
recording of the heart rate of 50 pigs. The loading bridge 
caused the largest stress. The e le c tric  probe-stick had an 
increasingly bad e ffe ct every time it w a r. used. Lnlei ing an 
unknown dark room was much m o  re stre ssfu l than entering a  
re la tiv e ly  lig h t unknown room and took three times as long.
The slope of the loading bridge had a  d ire ct co rre la tion  with 
the heart rate of the pigs. The C .B.I. (1977) gives the f o llo ­
wing advice concerning the treatment of slaughter pigs at 
the farm:

20.
(1) tagging should not be done in the fatte n in g  pen but on 
the lif t in g  platform  or in a  special pen at the base 
of the loading ramp;
(2) special lig h t switches should be in s ta lle d  to always 
enable pigs to walk from a  re la tiv e ly  dark place to a  
bright one;
(3) no obstacles should hinder pigs w h ilst they are being 
driven through the passages, fo r example narrow places 
(doors), unstable parts of the flo o r (v e n tila tio n  grids) 
steps or sharp turns;
(4) slaughter pigs should remain inside on th e ir way to the 
lo rry , because they hate rain and wind and have never 
had any sim ila r experience;
(5) every fa tte ning  pen should have a  door, leading to a  
broad passage way
(6) no trough should be in th e ir way;
(7) only small groups (about ten pigs) should be driven at a  
time, by a  m an with a  board behind them.
The S c ie n tific  Commission on Intensive Livestock (1978) reports 
that at several farms in Holland farmers have begun to build 
small c o lle ctin g  sheds placed against the outer wall of the 
pig shed, equipped with a  ramp to make it  easier for the 
animals to be loaded into trucks. O n  the evening before trans­
p o rta tio n , the pigs are driven into these small c o lle c tin g  pens 
by the stockman. Only pen-mates are placed together to prevent 
fig h tin g . Upon being loaded the pigs w ill leave these u nfam iliar 
surroundings more re a dily than i f  they were loaded d ire c tly  
from th e ir habitual s ta lls  or pens. There is evidence that 
m o rta lity is lower during transport when the animals are 
collected into the special preloading pens a  few hours before 
transport. Also under the conditions of in d u s tria l pig produc­
tio n  in Eastern Germany Schlicht (1980) recommends d rivin g  
slaughter pigs 1  to 2  hr p rio r to transp o rtatio n  c a re fu lly  to 
the ramp in order to avoid uneasiness and excitement. They are 
kept there t i l l  loading, and due to th is  procedure pigs get

21.
used to the changed environmental conditions (temperature, 
lig h t, flo o r) and to walking.
Drawer (1971) summarizes cruel methods often used in practice 
in d rivin g  animals in to  the transport vehicle. A n example 
is forcing animals to move faster than they normally walk. 
Pigs especially move m uch slower than human beings. The 
excessive use of e le c tric  goads, often applied to handicaped 
or injured animals to the last animals of a  crowd wedged in 
is very cruel. P ulling or throwing pigs down o ff lo rrie s  
without using a  ramp is cruel.
Since pigs often balk at bright su nligh t, i f  they have to 
leave the stable in the course of loading, Grandiri (1982b) 
recommends covered loading chutes. I f  a  statio n ary ramp is 
not available the loading bridge can be covered with canvas 
or plywood. These closed rar-.ps and the lo rry  should be 
equipped with a r t i f i c i a l  lig h tin g . Schlicht (1980) also 
recommends roofing ramps to protect animals from inclement 
weather conditions which may cause them to refuse to enter 
the ramp; and advises that the animals be allowed to walk 
across an even bridge into the lo rry  in order not to stress 
them by forcing them to climb a  steep loading bridge.
According to Smith 8 Allen (1976) transport losses are 
re la tiv e ly  low below 10°C but increase rapidly above 18°C.
The authors developed a  hyperbolic curve from which the 
m o rta lity at any temperature can be predicted. Allen et al. 
(1974) as well as Sybesma et al. (1978) report seasonal 
changes in deathrate of pigs on tra nsp o rt, revealing the 
summer months are much higher than the winter months. 
According to Sybesma et a l. (1978) seasonal flu ctu a tion s of 
0.53% in August and 0.27% in December are possible although 
they found that these differences are less important than 
the s trik in g  differences between the average deathrate of 
d iffe re n t slaughter-houses; 0.72% and 0.22%.

22.
There are indications that pigs are in a better condition  
after travelling long distances compared to short distances  
but information is limited. In a study by Augustini (1976)  
pigs were transported either for 300 km or 30 km. He found  
that the pigs were in a better shape after the longer lasting  
transportations. With increasing transport distance heart  
frequency and body temperature decreased. He also stated that  
the biggest negative influence arose from weather conditions  
(high temperature and a high relative humidity). The next  
important negative influence was the loading-density and  
transport distance was third in the priorities of negative  
influences. Whether this can also be applied to very long  
distances, is not known.
Climatic conditions during transport are a major concern of  
many authors, especially since pigs are very sensitive to hot  
temperatures. Van Putten 8 Lambooy (1982) give the example  
that crossing the Alps may mean a frost of -10°C, whereas  
next day in Italy the temperature may rise to 20°C and more.
The authors are concerned about regulations for large venti­
lation openings being too strict. Driving style also  
influences deathrate during transport.The Meat and Livestock  
Commission (1974) recommends driving at even speeds with a  
minimum of severe braking. As far as possible loaded vehicles  
should keep on the move. If vehicles are stationary for any  
lengnt of time, including stationary rest periods, air flow  
is greatly reduced, heat builds up, and the likelihood of  
losses increases. Scharner et al. (1979) performed electro­
cardiographic investigations on pigs for slaughter transported  
by a lorry across 10 and 40 km. Heart frequency depended on  
the kind of road the driver took. Driving on the even and bend­
less Autobahn led to a decrease and a certain constancy of  
heart frequency. Driving on normal roads and adaptation to  
that kind of traffic, with all the stopping and speeding up  
increased heartrate. According to the Scientific Commission  
(1978) there are big differences between truck drivers and  
enquiries have shown that some truck drivers have a worse

23.
record of dead pigs during transport than their colleagues.
It is recommended that truck drivers who understand the  
behaviour of pigs are better able to handle these animals  
with calmness and firmness, and are preferred for this type  
of work.
The use of tranquillizers on pigs may assist by reducing  
stress, fighting and weight loss in transit. However current  
legislation in most countries limits their use. Therefore  
tranquillizers should not be administered less than 24 hr  
before slaughter, which is of very little value in practice.  
Allen et al. (1974) mention that the use of Azaperone in  
Belgium significantly reduced the number of transport deaths  
and lowered the incidence of inferior meat quality.
Verstraaten 8 Dietmann (1979) have tested the blocker Carazolol  
as an alternative. They found that unlike.sedativa this B-  
blocker did not cause drownsiness. The numbers of transport  
losses and of animals with a poor meat quality (PSE) were  
significantly higher in the group of animals not treated.
Sheep
Sheep should be loaded as quietly as possible, avoiding the  
use of sticks and other forms of force. Most of the damage  
occurring during haulage takes place at loading and unloading.  
Attempts to hurry stock usually have the opposite effect,  
causing stock to slip and fall. Partitions or rear loading gates  
should not be used to force sheep into the vehicle (Meat 8  
Livestock Commission, 1974). Probably the longest journeys  
are in transporting sheep. Since Australia is one of the main  
countries exporting sheep then tong distances have to be  
covered to reach the destinations. Export of living sheep  
for instance from Australia or from New Zealand may take place  
by road, by rail and then by sea through a tropical conditions.  
This transportation might take as long as 30 days (Pearson 8  
Kilgour, 1980). According to these authors some experiences  
show that even such long transportation times can be sustained

24.
by the animals provided adequate care is given and if  
possible some pre-training is undertaken before the final  
journey.
Drivers of international transporters should select transit  
routes very carefully to avoid problems. Transport by road  
cah be unexpectedly extended if the driver does not find the  
right way and gets lost. This has happened with drivers from  
East European countries in Germany and caused in one case  
a high deathrate in sheep Pevec ,  1982).
Poultry
Gerrits&De Koning (1982) describe loading of broilers.
By the most used loading method in The Netherlands 16 crates  
are placed on pallets and are transported between the lorry  
and boilerhouse using a tractor forklift. In the broilerhouse  
four catchers fill the crates, while two other persons handle  
the empty crates and the full ones. The full crates are  
stacked by two people on the lorry, while a third man placed  
16 empty crates on an empty pallet. The catching of broilers  
in a broiler-house is usually done by picking up a bunch of  
four or five animals by the legs and squeezing them into the  
crate. Another method of catching, which is not applied as  
frequently, but nevertheless merits attention, involves  
catchers crawling around on the floor and picking up two  
animals by the sides with both hands. In this method the wing  
remains closed; the risk of injuries to leg- or hipjoints is  
reduced. If broilerhouses do have doors in the side-wall another  
method is practicable. Two people pick up the animals in bunches  
of five and hand them over to the "carriers", who walk to the  
lorry with a bunch in each hand. The lorry is parked at the  
door and the two or three people there, stack the crates on the  
loading floor of the lorry.

25.
Obviously loading and unloading facilities group size and  
loading density are of crucial importance.  The effect of  
group size and composition on livestock during transport  
is little known and needs research.
2.2.2. Grouping and space requirements
The European Convention for the Protection of Animals during  
International Transport (Council of Europe, 1972) states  
which animals may be grouped together and for which animals  
it should be strongly avoided. But it is not only grouping  
which is of great importance for transportation since space  
requirements are of similar significance. Unfortunately, the  
European Convention does not give any information concerning  
the space needed during transportation.
Many authors observed that unfamiliar animals start fighting  
if they are grouped together. As described previously,  
fighting during transport can be reduced if animals are kept  
together for some time before loading. In some countries,  
before export, animals have to be kept for a certain time  
period in lairages and in the course of loading prearranged  
animals have to be grouped together and not mixed with other  
animals.
Horses
Horses rest in a lying position only if they are familiar with
the environment. They are also able to rest while standing
for a longer time. Since there is probably no familiarity with
the environment during transportation, the expert opinion
recommends an area of 1.75 m (0.7 x 2.5 m) for adult horses
transported. Because foals (up to 6 months) usually lay down
after a short period of transportation, a minimum space
requirement of 1.4 m (1.0 x 1.4 m) is considered as necessary.
Young horses (6—24 months) show the heed to lie down after
having been on transport for more than 48 hrs. For those a
2 ·  ·minimum space requirement of 1.2 m (0.6 x 2.0 m) or a minimum
lavinq area of 2.4 m2 (1.2 x 2.0 m) is recommended (Gutachten,7 y 1977).

26.
Cattle
For cattle German experts recommend, depending on live weight,2for calves up to 150 kg 0.33 - 0.70 m , for calves and young
cattle from 150 to 300 kg 0.7 - 1.10 m2, for cattle between
2300 and 700 kg of live weight 1.10 - 1.60 m , for pregnant2and lactating cows 1.30 - 1.70 m and for old bulls 1.75 - 2.00  
m per animal. Group size of young calves (40 - 80 kg) should  
not exceed 25 - 30 animals, calves (80 - 150 kg) 15 - 25  
animals, and older calves (150 - 220 kg) and young cattle up  
to 300 kg live weight 10 - 15 animals in lorries and 20 - 25  
animals in a train wagon. Group size of pregnant and lactating  
cows and old bulls should consist of not more than 5 animals  
in lorries and 10 - 12 animals in a train wagon. These re­
commendations are based on practical experience not on  
scientific research.
Pigs
If the loading density is too high, this may cause unnecessary
suffering for the transported animals. However, if the loading
density is too low, standing pigs cannot support each other
and animals will fall down if sudden movements of the vehicle
occur. Information on the best loading density is absent.
Schütz (1975) observed that pigs tie down during transportation.
To make it possible for all pigs to lie down at the same time
2an area per pig of 100 kg live weight of 0.5 m must be  
provided. This demand is underlined in experiments by Von  
Mickwitz (1982), who found that a high animal density (less  
than 0.4 r n 2)  leads to an increase of body temperature, heart  
rate and respiratory rate. This means higher stress for the  
animals and results in a higher amount of PSE meat, because  
animals were slaughtered with high body temperatures (up to  
41°C).

27.
Von Mickwitz (1982) concluded the limit for loading density
2for slaughter pigs (100 kg live weight) is 0.5 m .  The Meat
and Livestock Commission (1974) confirms the recommendations
2for slaughter pigs in other countries (0.5 - 0.6 m ), but
2indicates that a range from 0.4 - 0.5 m ,  would be adequate  
for baconers. The same source holds the opinion that variations  
in weight of pigs, weather conditions, vehicle design and  
construction preclude the recommendation of precise loading  
densities.
Sheep
Sheep should be transported in groups, which do not contain  
more than 20 animats. The groups should be separated on the  
transport vehicles by fences. Rams have to be transported as  
single animals, if they are not transported with sheep of  
their own herd Hinrichsen. ,  1979). Platt (1982) reports that  
on ships sheep are kept in pens with about 50 - 60 heads.
Müller (1982) who travelled with sheep from Australia to the  
Middle East by ship, considered an average floor space of  
0.30 - 0.33 m per animal to be sufficient. According to tms  
author, densities of 0.25 to 0.45 m had no influence
on death rate during transport. Sheep should not be too losely  
packed, because this results in bruising whilst the vehicle  
is in motion.
There is much conflicting evidence on journey times. Schmidt  
and Lengerken (1980)  found death rate increased with distance  
to the slaughterhouse whereasAugustini (1976) found pigs in  
"a better shape" after transportation over 300 km as against  
30 km. Although in national and international legislation  
loading densities are quoted for various species, weights and  
ages of animals, group size is not mentioned despite its obvious  
importance. The regulations on loading densities are based  
more on opinion and negotation than on scientific information  
which can only come after planned research.

28.
2.2.3. Feeding and watering
The European Convention for the Protection of Animals during  
International Transport (Council of Europe, 1972) states:
"During transport animals shall be offered water and appropriate  
food at suitable intervals. Animals shall not be left more  
than 24 hours without being fed and watered. This period may,  
however, be extended if the journey to the destination where  
the animals are unloaded can be completed within a reasonable  
period". Whether this period has been based on physiological  
data is doubtful.
Horses
If horses are transported from Poland to Italy by rail, they  
are watered at the border station in the Federal Republic  
of Germany after having left the German Democratic Republic.
The transport has lasted about 18 hours then. The description  
of Weichert (1981) shows that the horses are unloaded and  
some start to drink right away on the platform. Others, however,  
are much too excited to drink and have to be walked up and  
down the platform for about a quarter of an hour before being  
able to drink. If horses are found sick or injured, they are  
excluded from the transport and slaughtered in the nearest  
abattoir immediately (Bornkessel, 1982). Horses imported to  
Germany and transported by truck reach their destination within  
24 hrs, so they are not fed and watered. Horses in transit to  
France are watered (Geyer, 1982).
Cattle
Bisschop (1961) studying feeding and resting behaviour of  
cattle during breaks in long journeys, showed a consistent  
pattern of behaviour in the cattle. The cattle were unloaded  
into pens containing water and lucerne hay. The animals spent  
a short period of intensive feeding, during which they ingested  
about 2 kg of hay. A short period of fidgeting, walking around,  
desultory picking at the remaining food, drinking, possibly  
eliminating and finally lying down to rest, ruminate and sleep

29.
followed. The period of rest lasted up to an hour. After that,  
when the animals felt hungry again, they were restless and  
moved about searching for food. Sutton et al. (1967) found  
that under similar conditions cattle showed a marked preference  
to walk around slowly before settling down to eat and drink.  
During a combined journey of truck and rail described by Friend  
et al. (1981), calves started immediately eating hay and  
drinking water after loading into the railcar, reflecting the  
deprivation during the 750 km journey by truck to the rail­
road station. The calves continued eating and drinking  
regardless of the smoothness of the ride. When the car was  
standing still, consumption was greatly reduced as calves lay  
down to rest. When the car started moving again, the calves  
stood up and commenced eating and drinking. Apparent hay  
(5.1 kg) and water (21.1) consumption per head was normal.  
According to Jackson (1974) during a 24 hr. air journey,
Hereford cattle browsed at hay but did not drink water.
These 4 reports suggest that cattle do eat and drink during  
transport, if the movements of the means of transport are not  
too vigorous (Friend et al., 1981). However, if they are,  
cattle have to be unloaded in order to be able to eat, to  
drink and to rest (Bisschop, 1961; Jackson, 1971); as is the  
case with horses.
Pigs
If slaughter-pigs are transported from The Net her l  and·', via  
Belgium and France to Italy, they hardly make use of the  
drinking nipples, made operational at the border between  
France and Italy after having been transported for at least  
24 hours (Van Putten & Lambooy, 1982). One could imagine  
several reasons for this behaviour. The assumption that they  
are not thirsty is a very simple one. However, there may be  
other reasons, which are much more complicated to deal with.

30.
One could for instance assume, that these pigs did not use  
the drinking nipples, because they were not familiar with  
them. This possibility was tested by comparing the drinking  
behaviour of 160 pigs used to drinking nipples with that of  
80 pigs being watered with troughs. There appeared to be no  
difference between the pigs with nipples and the ones with a  
trough. However, pigs under a heavy stress did drink very  
little in contrast with pigs not being stressed. The latter  
did drink relatively much, no matter whether they were fed  
or not. The time before, during which they were not watered  
(24 hrs. of 48 hrs.) did not influence the amount of water  
intake (Lambooy, 1982).
It is not very likely, that the pigs drinking little were not  
thirsty. Inspection of the blood and carcasses of the slaughter­
ed pigs showed a certain amount of dehydration. Nevertheless  
the claim is made that these pigs were not thirsty because  
they converted their body fat into water. Another observation  
does not support the assumption that pigs in transport are  
not thirsty. Many pigs for breeding purposes are transported  
by lorry from Belgium to the airport of Amsterdam. These  
transports last at least five hours. At Schiphol airport the  
pigs are unloaded and, once on the ground, are watered from  
water troughs. Under such circumstances they appear to be  
really thirsty and are eager for water (Van Putten & Lambooy /  
1982).
There may be another reason for not drinking from the drinking  
nipples during a stop at the French-Italian border. Friend and  
others (1981) report the behaviour of calves during a rail  
transport of 2.5 days. Food and water were available during  
the whole transport. However, during the stops the calves  
did neither eat nor drink. They used these occasions to rest.  
Maybe transported pigs also are too tired to drink during the  
stops and simply rest.

31.
There is no reason at all to presume that horses are more  
stress susceptible than pigs. If this applies also to pigs,  
it would mean that pigs on their way to Italy have to be un­
loaded from time in order to let them drink. This would be in  
accordance with the procedure we use with horses and also with  
the necessity to unload cattle to let them eat and drink.
The necessity to unload depends largely on whether the vehicle  
moves in a very unpredictable way like lorries, or provides  
a more or less stable environment enabling the animals to  
rest, to eat and to drink, like on ships in calm water and  
sometimes on trains. Jackson (1973) accompanied a transport  
of 120 pigs (age between 6  and 9  weeks) from England to Italy  
by ferry and railroad, w h ich  lasted 7  days. During i .n e  journey  
508 kg of creep feed and 10,910 1.  of water were consumed by  
the pigs.
Sheeg
According to Geyer (1982), the duration of sheep transports  
by road from the middle and western parts of Poland and from  
Eastern Germany last no longer than 2 4  hours. It has to be  
supposed that sheep transports from the East of Poland and  
from the Soviet Union do not reach destinations in France  
within 2 4  hours. For this reason sheep from the Soviet Union  
had to be unloaded, fed and watered. If the animals arrive at  
their destination place however within a "reasonable time  
(according to Geyer, 1982, not longer than additional 6 hours)  
they are not unloaded. The author assumes that the unloading  
of 400 sheep out of multiple floor trucks causes more stress  
to the animals than a duration of the transport of about 30 
hours.
Vigorous movements of the vehicle prevents animals from  
drinking. During stops animals often prefer resting to drinking.  
Therefore it is useless to install expensive watering devices  
without giving the animals a real chance to consume the water.

32.
The requirements for "a real chance" differ from species  
to species. For horses it means unloading. For other animals  
research is urgently needed.
2.3. At the abattoir
2.3.1. Unloading and handling
Arriving at a slaughter-house at the end of the journey the  
animals should be unloaded immediately. Animals should not  
have to wait in a standing transport vehicle. For unloading  
the same basic rules should be applied as for loading.
Grandin (1981, 1982b) claims that unloading chutes should be  
constructed differently from those used for loading. A chute  
used for unloading any type of livestock should be wide and  
straight to provide a clear, unimpeded path to exit. If the  
chute is curved too sharply, the animals may refuse to leave  
the truck because the chute appears to be a dead end.  
Disembarkation of sea-transported livestock can also be hazai—  
dous for the animats. The water-level at ports affects the  
angle of the gangway on which the cattle are driven off the  
ship; a correlation was found between the steepness of the  
gangway and the damage to the animals (Muller 8 Von Horsten,  
1982).
Cattle
According to Drawer (1971) hurrying too much while driving  
cattle on slippery ramps and ways may cause painful fractures  
of vertebra and other bones, and bruises. At abattoirs special  
vehicles should be available for injured animals. According  
to Grandin (1979,1980b) livestock often get injured while they  
are being loaded or unloaded. Leg and foot injuries can occur  
if the truck is not positioned properly against the loading  
dock. In cattle 66% of the bruises of the loin area occur  
during loading or unloading of trucks. The double deck trucks  
which unload through the side instead of through the rear may  
be a factor in the high percentage of bruised loins.

33.
The major problem in such trucks occurs when cattle are being  
unloaded from the top deck since they have to walk down an  
internal ramp from the top deck, negotiate a 90° turn, and  
walk out the door at the bottom of the ramp. If the animals  
become excited or are rushed by the handlers, they can dumb  
their loins against the side of the door.
Pigs
For unloading pigs various types of platforms are used. The  
upper deck of the lorry is nearly always unloaded first and  
because the unloading platforms have been adjusted to the  
height of the lower deck, it is necessary to bridge a difference  
in heigt of about 1  m when unloading the upper deck. Pigs  
prefer to walk up a slope rather than down one. They become  
frightened when they have to walk down the slope. The truck  
drivers are usually in a hurry, so that the pigs tend to be  
handled with a lack of patience and often with undue force.
The pigs are driven down the slope with the help of an electric  
goad. Those pigs that cannot get up, because of cramp or  
because of disease or injury, will be tramped underfoot during  
the process. They will have to be dragged off the truck. This  
is usually accompanied by beating or kicking or they are  
dragged across the floor, often with a chain attached to one  
of the hind legs (Scientific Commission on intensive livestock.,  
1978).
At the end of the journey, which often means after two or three  
days of travelling, pigs may not be too well received. They  
may arrive at night and then have to wait in lairage until the  
next day to be slaughtered. They may even have the misfortune  
to arrive on a Saturdaynight and in that case they have to wait  
a whole weekend. Mostly they are showered after arrival, but  
sometimes such facilities are not present.
After transport pigs should be showered, but not continuously.  
They prefer 2 showers of a quarter of an hour to un-  
interupted showering during a two hours rest at the slaughtei

34.
house (Van Putten SLambooy., 1982).
Sheep
According to the Meat and Livestock Commission (1974) unloading  
facilities for sheep at the lairage should provide unloading  
ramps to reduce steepness of lorry tailboards. Adequate lighting  
is necessary in the unloading area during the hours of darkness.  
The use of "Judas-sheep" to lead sheep from transport vehicles  
to lairage pens would reduce handling and stress to a minimum.
Poult ry
Gerrits & De Koning (1982) describe the unloading of broilers.  
After arriving at the slaughter-house the broiler stacks are  
de-stacked. Only a small number of slaughter-houses are equiped  
with a mechanical de-stacker. In many cases the full crates  
are dropped onto a roller conveyor; the top crate from a stack  
falls down about two meters. During the manual de-stacking the  
crates are not always kept in a horizontal position, so that  
sometimes all broilers are pressed together along one side of  
that crate.
In order to avoid delay in unloading then transportation should  
be well planned. Delayed unloading is unacceptable if animals  
have been transported in a way nobody can take care of them,  
or in vehicles without adequate ventilation during stops.
Because the animals are tired after long journeys special  
arrangements should be made to prevent them from stumbling and  
falling down ramps.

35.
2.3.2. Immediate slaughter or Lairaqe to precede slaughter
According to the European Convention for the Protection of  
Animals for slaughter, animats shall not be taken to the place  
of slaughter unless they can be slaughtered immediately.
Animals which are not slaughtered immediately on arrival shall  
be lairaged. Kenny and Tarrant (1982) noted that a so-called  
rest period in practice is usually unavoidable in order to  
ensure the continuity of the supply of animals for processing.  
Several authors doubt that animals are able to rest or re­
cover from the stress of transport in the given types of  
lairages.
After transportation animals often are ptaced together with  
strange groups in lairages. Grandin (1979) and K en n y  and 
Tarrant (1982) investigated mixing of unfamiliar groups of  
cattle. This caused a high level of agonistic behaviour and  
resulted in a high level of physiological stress. Cattle  
became stressed if they were sorted and regrouped more than  
once during a 48 h period. Mixing was counterproductive as it  
prevented the animals resting and they frequently become  
exhausted and sometimes injured. According toKenny and  
Tarrant (1982) the behavioural response to mixed penning is  
most obvious and intense among young bulls. They observed that  
the animals showed an immediate and high level of aggressive  
and mounting activity which gradually abated over a considerable  
number of hours, as the social hierarchy was established and  
the animals became exhausted. The total number of behavioural  
interactions per minute at 30 min after mixing was 1.29;after  
150 min 1.21 and after 240 min still 0.95.
Kilgour (1976) reported that the shape of pens is an important  
factor. Cattle, like pigs and sheep, prefer to rest along the  
fence, also square pens mean that cattle are more crowded than  
in long, narrow pens. Bulls start to fight, if the distance  
between animals is less than 5.5 m, even in formed groups.

36.
Bulls are very sensitive to disturbance and greatly stimulated  
by seeing other socially active cattle, whether fighting or  
mounting. Mixing strange bulls can best be carried out towards  
evening, immediately before feeding.
Dark-cutting in cattle which spend the night in the slaughter  
plant stockyards can be practically eliminated in steers if  
the animals are kept unmixed in the stockyards. Bulls should  
be slaughtered as soon as possible after arrival. Loads of  
cattle which have been shipped for long distances or through  
bad ,-weather should be allowed to rest for one or two hours  
only and then slaughtered (  Grandiry 1980).
The effect of penning of steers before slaughter on the  
occurrence of dark-cutting meat was investigated by Grs-'d' ^
(1979). She described observations on 423 steers penned in  
groups at a show ground, transported by road for 5 h to an  
abattoir, where they were again penned in groups until  
slaughter. The animals were treated as follows:
No of animals Treatment % DFD
80 Transport ed immedi at e1y 0
penned and slaughtered  
on arrival at abattoir
45 1  night penned at show- 0
ground, slaughtered on  
arrival
84 2 nights penned at show- 3.5
ground, slaughtered on  
arrival
29 3 nights penned at show- 10
ground, slaughtered on  
arrival
79 1  night penned at show- <figure missing)
ground, 1  night in lairage
109 1  night penned at show- 17
ground, 1  night in lairage

37.
Grandin (1980) points out that one of the reasons the incidence  
of dark-cutters is lower in the U.S. (0.5%) than in England  
(8-10%) is that the majority of the fed steers and heifers  
are handled in large homogenous groups and not mixed with  
strange animals. Investigations indicated that mixing strange  
steers together only once would usually not cause dark cutters  
if the animals were slaughtered within 24 h after mixing.
If strange steers were mixed together, and then re-sorted,  
so that their social hierarchy was disturbed two or three  
times within 48 h prior to slaughter the incidence of dark  
cutters rose sharply.
McVeigh et al (1982) studied muscle glycogen breakdown during  
mixed penning of young Friesian bulls. Mixing was accompanied  
by a high degree of physical activity, which gradually -  
lessened during the 6 h stress period. Physical exchanges  
between the newcomers and the established group consisted of  
aggressive butting and pushing, and frequent mounting.
Physical activity was probably accompanied by emotional arousal  
in response to a novel and threatening situation. Stressed  
bulls showed increases over controls in body temperature  
(P 0.001), heart rate (P 0.001), serum nonesterified fatty  
acids (P 0.05) and plasma creatine kinase (P 0.01).
Muscle glycogen content fell during stress to 41% of the value  
for the control animals (P 0.001). Recovery of muscle glycogen  
concentration to resting values took 3 to 7 days under  
favourable conditions (McVeigh et al 1982; McVeigh and Tarrant  
1982).
Augustini (1981) investigated the effect of different waiting  
times and group compositions in the lairage for bulls raised  
in loose yards. He found that lengthening the waiting time  
on the day of arrival and also prolonging the time in lairage  
till the next morning was closely associated with an increase  
of dark-cutting beef in M. semimembranosus. Only if the animals  
were slaughtered immediately after arrival was dark-cutting  
avoided. When bulls were mixed together, waiting times up to  
90 min resulted in some incidence of high ultimate pH values.

38.
The frequency of dark-cutting in beef was lower in groups  
which were not mixed together. In these groups a prolonged  
waiting time (at least 1.5 to 3 h) was necessary to produce  
this quality fault. The pH value at 48 h post mortem was  
closely correlated with glycogen concentration and meat  
temperature (both measured in M. semimembranosus at 30 min  
post mortem) but not with the concentrations of creatine  
phosphate, ATP and lactate.
Kol'k and Kol'k (1972) studied the influence of different  
starvation times and overnight penning in lairages on the meat  
pH values. The pH value was measured on a total of 305 cattle.  
Starvation times were from 0 to 28 h. Starvation did not improve  
the pH value. On the contrary, for animals kept in lairage  
overnight, the number of carcasses showing pH values above 6.2  
was twice as great as in animals slaughtered immediately after  
arriving.
GeschwindtandEhinger (1979) studied the influence of different  
waiting times before slaughter in broilers. For this purpose  
the animats were placed on the ramp of the slaughterhouse for  
0 to 4 h. The ambient temperature was 20 to 24° C, inside the  
boxes it was 13° C higher than outside. The concentration of  
carbon dioxide was between 0.2 and 0.3 volumes per cent and  
the concentration of ammonia was 4 ppm at the end of the experi­
ment. The weight loss after the first hour was 2.6 per cent and  
after 4 h was 3.75 per cent. By increasing waiting periods up  
to 3 h the tenderness of breast and thigh meat was decreased.
The water binding capacity was at a minimum after 3 h of waiting  
before slaughter. Blood parameters including haematocrit,  
haemoglobin, serum protein, serum lipids and serum cholesterol  
indicated an increasing stress situation.

39.
3. Specific criteria
Methods of transport
Animals are transported by road, rail, sea and air. Each  
method has its unique advantages, the most common method  
of transport of farm animals within or between European  
countries is transport by road. National legislation within  
Member States ensures minimum construction requirements.
For example, the Agricultural Department (1978) state that  
livestock vehicles must conform to statutary construction  
and maintenance standards. These are intended to ensure  
that animals do not get injured or suffer in vehicles which  
are poorly designed or maintained or not properly equipped.  
The requirements cover the provision of:
(1) floors constructed so as to give a proper foothold to the  
ani mals
(7) interiors which are free from dangerous projections  
(3) ramps for loading and unloading constructed according to  
certain specifications.
(A) suitably designed and constructed partitions used to  
separate the animals
(5) rigid sides and suitable roofs to vehicles, to protect  
the animals from the weather
(6) adequate ventilation
(7) easy access to the animals
(8) arrangements to prevent overcrowding, including specifi­
cations of maximum pen sizes.
Several authors believe all transport vehicles have to be  
equipped with lights. These requirements apply for all means  
of transport.

40.
Road vehicles
Road vehicles are the main transport method to carry pigs.
Pigs are transported in specially designed trucks which have  
two storeys, with a lower and upper deck; some trucks may  
have three decks. Pig transporters are designed to carry  
between 75 and 100 pigs at a time (Scientific Commission on  
Intensive Livestock). Van Putten and Lambooy (1982) recommend  
a distance of 3 m between partitions in a lorry.
According to the Meat and Livestock Commission (Technical  
Bulletin N° 14,1980) some vehicles have an inadequate head-  
room which accentuates overcrowding. It is assumed that precise  
recommendations for heights between decks in pig vehicles are  
not possible as there are considerable variations in the size  
and weight of pigs carried. However, as a guide each animal  
must be able to stand up and there should be sufficient head-  
room for the proper circulation of air. Each pen on each floor  
should be easily accessible to personnel. But this is difficult  
to achieve due to the low distance between the decks and the  
loading density.
Van Putten (1982) states that vehicle loading ramps are  
generally at an angle of 30° to the ground. This is, as men­
tioned earlier, too steep for pigs. The loading ramp should not  
exceed an angle of 15°, which makes the ramp too long to be  
a part of the lorry and therefore should be equipment at the  
fattening farm. According to Sybesma et al. (1978) lorries are  
now available with hydraulic lifts, which makes loading and  
unloading less stressful for the animals. A claimed disadvantage  
of hydraulic lifts is that the process of loading and unloading  
is more time consuming compared with other methods.
About 10 years ago containers to carry pigs were discussed.
Van Putten (1973) and Wohlfahrt and Schroter (1974) reported  
good results using this method in respect of deathrate; pigs  
also arrived far less stressed at the abattoir. The higher  
organizational requirements of this method probably meant  
it never became popular.

4 1.
A continuing problem seems to be the proper ventilation of  
the lorries. According to Van Putten and Lambooy (1982) pigs  
are very hot after loading on a lorry because of the physical  
and psychological stress. The authors state that ample venti­
lation-openings are vital even for transport lasting only some  
hours. There are many publications on the influence of high  
temperatures, but no information about the impact of very low  
temperatures on pigs in long duration transportation. One  
solution could be to equip lorries with air conditioning  
Horses, cattle and sheep (depending on the fleece) are less  
sensitive to cold conditions than pigs, although these species  
have to be protected from inclement weather.
In international transport cattle are carried in trucks with 
two decks holding about 70 bulls (Geyer, 1982). For trucks  
transporting sheep the Meat and Livestock Commission (1980) 
recommends adequate partition points, ideally at 30 cm centres, 
should be provided. Partitions should be provided for at least 
every 2.4 m of vehicle length. The top deck of three-deck 
vehicles should be totally enclosed. To reduce the slope of the 
deck, lorries should be built on either the stepped frame 
principle or with a lower than normal turntable height.
According to Geyer (1982) one lorry can carry 300 to 500 sheep 
or lambs. The same author reported horses intended for slaughter  
are transported by trucks carrying 18-22 animals.
According to Loliger (1974) and Loliger and Tnrges (1977)
transportation of poultry destined for slaughter is carried out
nearly exclusively by road. Poultry (broiler, poulards, finished
laying hens) are transported in special containers which have
openings for ventilation on each side. The height is between
23 and 26 cm. The density in the container depends on the weight
of poultry: up to a live weight of 1250 g the area provided
2per animal is 250 cm , up to a live weight of 1500 g an area
2of 320 cm and for animals heavier than 1500 g an area of 
2360 cm is recommended.

42.
Each cage contains 12-20 broiler or 10-17 laying hens.
The loading capacity of a lorry with trailer is between 10  
and 15.000 broiler and laying hens, or 1000 to 1200 turkeys.
These authors expect the duration of transport of broilers  
to be between 3 and 6 h and for finished laying hens 12 to  
15 h in Germany.
According to the same authors turkeys are transported for both  
short and long journeys with distances up to 600 km. Turkeys are  
transported in metal containers (each for 6-12 animals) in  
5-7 tiers on the lorry. The sides of the containers consist  
of bars or fences that allow proper ventilation. The tiers  
of containers are divided by solid horizontal partitions.
In multiple deck lorries concern is expressed about the droppings  
falling from the upper decks on to the animats beneath, and  
from the lorry on the road. Animals become wet and cold from  
the faeces of their conspecies. Droppings lost on roads are  
not desirable if there is any danger of pathogenic contamina­
tion.
3.2. RolL-on/roll-off ferries
From the United Kingdom the greatest proportion of livestock  
exported for breeding, further fattening and slaughter goes  
by roll-on/roll-off transport. Five veterinary officers  
accompanied livestock from certain major English ports for a  
six-week period. They published in detail on this method of  
transport (Brown et al. 1976). Livestock lorries were loaded  
as late as possible on the ferries. These lorries were placed  
nearest to fans or open spaces, where the vehicles had the  
best ventilation. If the hold was not full, the vehicles were  
given extra space all around, or if the hold was full, they  
were placed in the best position available. The best positions  
were those in the centre since the ones on the sides of the  
ship were not this good. Problems can occur in ventilation,  
probably due to a breakdown in communication, or lack of know­
ledge, rather than an actual mechanical fault. Temperatures  
in the hold varied on different trips from 14° C to a maximum

43.
of 2A° C. These were independent of the external weather  
conditions. Temperatures up to 26° C were recorded. The higher  
temperatures usually occurred in the forward pens of the  
upper tiers. If two or more rows of vents were provided,  
ammonia was not usually experienced. In aluminium containers  
with limited ventilation, ammonia was frequently noticed.
All vehicles were provided with access doors^ so all pens were  
accessible to some extent. Some vehicles had safety grills  
inside the doors. Few lorries had two metal cross bars insic-e  
each door to prevent animals falling out when the doors were ^  
opened. Unloading time from ferries was generally very rapid  
and livestock lorries were unloaded as soon as possible.
3.3. Trains
The European Convention requiries that railway trucks shall  
be marked, covered and constructed to prevent escape and  
ensure safety and adequate ventilation.
Vehicles shall prevent escape, ensure safety and have a roof  
and tying facilities. Partitions shall be rigid. The advantage  
of transportation of livestock by trains is that they are  
accompanied by personel. For long duration transportation  
they carry feed and in some cases water. But if the water is  
not permanently available livestock are provided with it on  
stops during the journey. Another advantage of transport by  
train is that trains in transit are controlled permanently and  
the position of the train is always known. In the accompanying  
travel documents the locations, time and duration of feeding  
and watering are noted. About one fourth of the horses exported  
from Poland are transported by railroad. The transoorts are  
carried out by the German or the French Railroad Administrations.  
The area of these wagons is 25 to 33 m .  The middle of the  
wagon is reserved to feed or inspect so that the area is 2„4
pto 2.75 m per horse. Eight to ten horses are loaded per wagon  
in a right angle to the driving direction.

44.
Only sports horses are loaded in the driving direction.  
Ventilation wings, depending on the weatheo are totally or  
partly opened and the sliding door is 15 to 35 cm open  
(Bornkessel, 1982).
Jackson (1973) reports the transport of 120 piglets from the  
United Kingdom to Italy in a railcar converted into 4 pens  
each of 4.65 m2.  A central area between the doors of 2.74 x  
2.44 m was left for feed, water and bedding for the pigs.
The journey lasted 7 days and included 2 days of waitingtime.  
The only serious problem was with ventilation. The ventilators  
could not be adjusted from inside the railcar so the choice  
was between cold or condensation and Jackson (1973) believes  
that if plenty of food is available it is better to keep the  
ventilators open.
Fitted vessel
The European Convention incorporates specific regulations  
about sea transport. The articles 25 to 30 of the Convention  
state, that animals should be tied, or properly accommodated  
in pens or containers, with adequate passageways between to  
allow access. All parts of the vessel where animals are  
accommodated should be provided with drainage and kept in a  
sanitary condition. The number of attendants shall be suffi-  
cient. The vessel shall be provisioned with sufficient  
drinking water and appropriate foodstuffs. Provisions for the  
isolation of ill or injured animals are required.
Dow (1976) states that there are matters for concern  
due to transport by sea. First, an increasing number of ships  
engaged in livestock import and export, which once flew the  
British flag, are passing under flags of other nationalities.  
This might be true for several other member states of the EEC  
also. Second there is growing evidence of ships' captains  
sailing under owners' order but contrary to their best judge­
ment on the suitability of conditions for their livestock  
cargoes.

45.
Transport of horses by sea was important for military reasons  
as a means of mass transportation in the past. Sea transport  
of sports horses has been replaced by airtransport. Except in  
countries, which prohibit the import of horses by air for  
reasons of controlling diseases. Horses are kept on ships in  
containers of the following minimum size: 85 cm wide long,  
and 200 cm high. The containers are arranged at right angles  
to the sailing direction, in order to balance the dashing of  
waves and the rolling of the ship. The passages between the  
containers have to be 90 cm wide to make a change of the  
position possible during the journey. The horses are loaded  
on a gangway which should have sidewalls of 150 cm (Hinrichsen  
and Korner, 1978).
World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) (1982 a)  
field investigations into the bulk transport of horses for  
slaughter showed a high proportion of injuries when the horses  
were examined at the place of disembarkation. In some instances  
the unsatisfactory mode of transport, i.e. bad design features  
of the transporter and equipment, is clearly the cause of these  
injuries. However, there have been occasions when the mode  
of transport was clearly not a fault and the causes remained  
obscure. Ethological studies into equine behaviour and the  
effects of stressful stimuli in horses indicate that horses  
react substantially differently from domestic farm animals,  
particularly in relation to bulk transport. In this respect;  
a special case may well be to preclude horses from this type  
of transport unless the most stringent safeguards are applied  
- according to the opinion of the WSPA. Horses transported in  
bulk for slaughter purposes are usually tethered alongside  
each other or in close proximity with each other within the  
confines of pens. While these arrangements permit desirable  
bodily contact to be maintained, the individual distances  
required between animals for peaceful coexistence is not  
provided. The results are bite wounds.

46.
According to Müller and Von Hörsten (1982) sea transport is  
the cheapest way to transport cattle. Cattle transported  
in these ways as well as those reported by Von Hörsten (1979)  
are destined for breeding. Increasing ambient temperatures led  
to higher body temperatures, respiratory rates and pulse rates  
in animals transported on the deck of the vessel.
Sheep are transported by sea from Australia to the Middle East.  
Several of the ships used are carrying 90.000 to 100.000  
sheep on six decks. Five to six stockmen take care of the  
animals supervised by a livestock officer who is responsible  
for nutrition, health, treatments, records and the monitoring  
of temperature and ventilation levels (  Platt, 1982).
Muller (1982) has also accompanied these transports. He  
described the climatic conditions. The temperature increased  
from 21°C to 36°C on the E-deck and the relative humidity  
from 6551 to 9 5 % . NH^ - concentration varied between 7 and  
35 ppm and CO^ - concentration between 0.08 and 0.1 0/00.
Strewing superphosphate reduced the NH^ - concentration from  
15 to 4 ppm and in one transport reduced the losses.
3.5. Transport by aircraft
Air transport is the most careful, but the most expensive  
method to carry animals. It is possible for an animal to be  
taken to any part of the world in a matter of hours, thus  
increasing its survival potential. Millions of animals are now  
carried by aircraft each year, but, because of its high costs,  
air transport is more widely used for the movement of zoo  
animals, wild animals for laboratories, and valuable domestic  
animals, such as racehorses, and breeding animals, than for  
the routine transport of livestock (Halls, 1978). Transport  
by air shall be described even if animals of high value are  
transported by this method so far.
Regulations for horses transports are provided in the Live  
Animal Regulations of the International Air Transport Assiciation  
IATA).

47.
According to Hinrichsen- andKorner (1978) normal planes,  
freight or transformed passenger planes serve as the means  
of transport. The number of horses transported by a plane  
depends on the type of plane. The animals are loaded in  
containers outside the aircraft. As soon as an animal is in  
a container, it is secured by a belt that runs across its  
back. This prevents the mounting of the horses in the container.  
The loading of the container is carried out with the help of  
a special lifting platform, which conveys them up to 8 m into  
the cargo department. The critical stages on the flight are  
the take off and landing. The horses calm down as soon as  
the flight altitude is reached.
Similar observations were made by Jackson (1974) with cattle;  
resting behaviour seemed to increase in the animals as the  
journey continued. The transport of one-day old chicks by air  
is reported by Hoogerbrugge and .OrmeL (1982). Generally 3 to  
12 hours after hatching the chicks are transported by truck  
to the airport, then the boxes are put in pallets or directly  
loaded into the belly of the aircraft. The time between  
loading and take off has to be as short as possible since  
during loading there is usually only natural ventilation in  
the aircraft.
In modern aircraft heating is present in all compartments.
This means that only in the case of mistakes or accidents is  
the death of 1-day old chicks caused by low temperatures.
During the flight the authors collected data about temperature  
values inside the plane. The data show a large difference in  
temperatures found in boxes located at different places.  
Sometimes the authors found temperatures exceeding 35°C.
These high temperatures are dangerous for the chicks. The  
heat produced in the chick box can only be removed by con­
vection or ventilation. As most chick boxes are surrounded by  
other boxes the net heat loss by ventilation is about zero.
So the only possible way to reduce the heat is by convection.  
The loading configuration of the boxes depends on the size  
of the boxes and on the compartment in the aircraft.

48.
To prevent boxes from moving they are often stacked Like  
bricks. This means that air circulation between the boxes  
is limited and heat removal is reduced.
Much better ventilation is possible when there is an open  
space between each stack of boxes. But this will render the  
adherence between the individual boxes to be poor, making  
the use of so-called "spacers" necessary to keep the box  
structure rigid.
In most aircraft the fresh air inlet is situated at the top  
of the compartment and the outlets at the side wall or at the  
loading floor so that the ventilation system does not suit  
the transport of large numbers of chicks. The authors are  
of the opinion that the present ventilation system is inadequate  
for animal transport, which involves a layered system of  
stacking. For chicks and poultry the removal of warm air is  
less than the ventilation rate of the aircraft would suggest.  
Muller (1978) calculated ventilation rates per kg bodyweight  
for the air transport of the different species of domestic  
animals, which will allow a satisfactory transportation  
of these animals. As ventilation-rates during flight are  
smaller than at ground level it is necessary to have additional  
ventilation equipment provided during loading etc. The tempera­
ture of the-cabin is easy to keep about 18-24°C while the  
ambient temperature outside is about -50°C. Critical conditions  
arise in the course of landing and on the ground itself, where  
the temperature of the cabin or cargo department cannot be  
cooled down by inlet of ambient air of high temperatures.
These situations occur in the tropics as well as in temperate  
zones if the loading density of the aircraft is too high.
In all transport methods satisfactory ventilation is crucial,  
and this must function effectively during all climate  
conditions and for the different species sex and age; having a  
direct relationship to group size and stocking density.

49.
Economie, marketing and social considerations  
Economie effects of transportation of animals include losses  
caused by death, bruising, lower meat quality and weight loss.  
Whilst in most countries transport deaths have decreased  
recently reports of lower meat quality caused by stress  
during transport have increased. Further considerations of  
economic aspects include comparisons of the means of transport  
and the advantages or disadvantages of slaughter near the  
point of production. This report does not deal with the  
economic aspects of the entrepreneurial considerations of  
international trade in slaughter animals.
»
Death rate and injuries
Death rates in international transport seem to have decreased  
recently under western European conditions. One of the reasons  
might be that animals intended for export are selected care­
fully to pass the veterinary inspection and certification of  
fitness for transportation.
There might be another reason, however. There is the possibili­
ty that the remarkably low death rate could be a result of an  
insufficient registration of major fatalities. Everyone who is  
engaged in transportation of livestock knows cases of high  
mortalities where the authorities were notified too late or for  
other reasons were not able to react. Examples of such cases  
are high death rates in cattle caused by prolonged waiting times  
in North African ports where the cattle were not unloaded because  
of Ramadan; calf losses in France were caused by an unsuitable  
lorry, calves broke through the upper decks; high sheep losses  
were caused by excessive driving time without a break because  
the driver got lost.  But the statistics in which such cases  
are registered are unknown.

50.
A.1.1. Mortality and injuries in horses
According to Bornkessel (1982) the loss of horses transported  
by train from Poland to France is on average 0.8% observed at  
the German border. Geyer (1982) found from a total of 27,000  
horses transported by road from Poland to France in 1980 five  
animals were dead at the border station of Helmstedt, and six  
horses had to be excluded from further transport because of  
severe injuries or sickness.
A.1.2. Mortality and injuries in cattle
Transportation can result in high calf mortality, especially  
when the animals are transported at an early age (Stephens,
1982). For example, calves younger than 1A days of age that  
were transported over long distances have shown a mortality rate  
as high as 23% (Staples and Haugse, 197A). Calves are susceptible  
particularly in the first days of life or during long distance  
transport (Barnes et al. 1975). For example in several shipments  
of calves by air from the USA to Italy in 196A, mortality during  
shipment was very low, but heavy losses occurred during the  
first 8 days after transport, in some cases more than 9%  
(Claxton, 1968). Rodenhoff and Schonherr (1971) found that  
transport mortality in cattle carried by rail was twice as high  
as it was during road transport. Deaths of cattle during road  
or rail transport were estimated at 0.01% and the most frequent  
causes of death were suffocation or cardiac insufficiency  
(Istvan, 1979).
Apart from these findings, most of the information on transport  
mortality in adult cattle is related to sea transport. Losses  
in cattle exported from Australia in 1956-1958 were caused by  
heat stroke, high humidity and injuries sustained during  
excessive movements of the ship (Lavers, 1959). Contributory  
causes were overcrowding, inadequate drinking water, incorrect  
feed and failure of cattle to adapt. During shipment of 350  
cattle from New Zealand to South East Asia 102 died (Donaldson,  
1970). Andersen and Lowe, (1971) concluded from a study of ship­
ments of cattle by this route that mortality could be reduced

51.
simply by providing adequate ventilation and water supply.
The effect of overcrowding has also been demonstrated during  
the sea transport of 5275 breeding cows from West Germany to  
Morocco in fourteen shipments between November 1974 and March 1975,  
mortality was 1.3% in pregnant cows and abortions accurred in  
4.5.% (von Mickwitz et al., 1976), of 5509 pregnant cows in 23  
shipments, 0.69% of the animals died and 4.64% had abortions of  
those transported on deck, whereas 2.0% died and 6.92% had  
abortions when the animals were kept below deck, (von Horstein,
1979).
Bruises are traumatic injuries without penetration of the skin,  
where tissue and blood vessels are damaged to such an extent that  
there is extravasion into the surrounding tissue (Petersen, 1978).
The economic loss resulting from bruises in the 1 )  S livestock  
industry was estimated at approximately § 46 million annually  
and of this § 22.4 million was in cattle (Grandin, 1980).
Bruised meat cannot be used for human food. Bruising results from  
an animal striking its body against a sharp object or being hit  
by an abusive or careless handler. Studies in Australia indicated  
that horns are one of the major causes of bruises, bruising being  
almost doubled in groups of horned cattle when compared with  
groups of polled cattle. Tipping did not reduce the bruise  
losses. In a further study Grandin (1981) found that cattle which  
had been handled roughly during weighing and loading at the feed-  
lot had 15.5% bruises causing price discount. Cattle which had  
been carefully walked onto the scales and trucks with a minimum  
of excitement had only 8.35% discountable bruises. The author  
observed that putting just one or two extra cattle on a truck  
can double the amount of bruising. The highest percentage of  
bruises were located in the valuable loin area. A total of 45%  
of the bruises occurred on the loin, 23% on the back, 2% on the  
rump, 15% on the flank, 11% on the rib and 4% on the shoulder.
Overall 10.5% of cattle surveyed had discountable bruises, and
5% of them had discountable loin bruises, 2.3% had loin bruises
which were so severe that they extended all the way through the carcass.

52.
The cattle in this survey had been trucked 80 to 240 km  
(Grandi n, 1981).
Bruising was more frequent in cows and resulted in higher  
average trimming losses than in steers (2.6 kg versus 1.6 kg,  
respectively), (Yen, 1978). The weight of bruised tissue trimmed  
off the carcasses of cows was related to the length of trans­
portation and increasing fatigue may be important in that respect.
Meischke (1975) found a connection between bruising and the  
number of stops in a train journey. Bruise trim on equal journeys  
was 0.89 kg/carcass when there were four stops versus 1.2 kg/  
carcass when there were 10 stops.
The Australian Meat Board reported that 10% of all cattle surveyed  
were downgraded for bruising (Dow, 1976). A survey in Australia  
in 1971 indicated that beef losses due to bruising were valued  
at about §17 million (Thornton and Gracey, 1974). Three trials,  
each with 100 bullocks previously grazing improved pasture,  
compared bruising in cattle starved for 24 and 48 h before  
transport for slaughter. Overall the weight of bruised trim from  
fed bullocks (0.48 kg) was less than that from bullocks starved  
for 24 h (0.99) or 48 h (1.03 kg). Overall, duration of feed  
withdrawal had no significant effect (Dodt, et a l.  1979).
Shipping fever is the most important disease associated with the  
transport of cattle and has caused severe economic losses, parti­
cularly in Canada and in the USA. It has also been reported in  
most European countries (Hails, 1978). It occurs mainly in store  
cattle fatigued after long transport with insufficient feed  
(Thornton and Gracey, 1974) although it can occur in calves  
(Barrett and Neylon, 1971). The syndrome is characterised by  
fever, dyspnea and pneumonia. The disease is initiated by lowered  
host resistance, as a result of exposure to stressors during  
transportation (Irwin, 1979). Typical stressors which were found  
to alter the immune system of animals include heat, cold, crow­
ding, mixing, noise and restraint (Kelly, 1980; Tarrant, 1982).

53.
4.1.3. Mortality and injuries in pigs
In the Netherlands (Van Logtestijn et al., 1982) the overall  
transport death rate, including lairage, decreased from .42%  
in 1972 to .3% in 1980. The number of deaths in the lairage was  
on average .07% in 1972 and .05% in 1980. It is well known that  
transport losses are much higher during the summer months than  
in the winter months due to higher temperature and humidity.  
Transport losses are also caused by rough, abusive and otherwise  
inconsiderate treatment of pigs by handlers and transport  
personnel. The death rate of pigs, transported for 2 or 3 days  
over long distances (about 2500 km) was only 0.17% (Marov,1981).  
However the possibility that pigs suffered from severe stress  
to such an extent that their meat quality was decreased was not  
investigated. During transport by road of 2,000 pigs from the  
Netherlands to Italy the death rate amounted to only .1%
(Lambooy, 1982). Similarly, in the UK between 0.5% and 0.12%  
of pigs taken to slaughter die en route or in lairage.
A Swedish investigation (Fabiansson, et al.1979) showed that  
the death rate during transport to and lairage at 25 abattoirs  
was 0.13%. These losses remained static over several years.
The financial losses due to deaths amounted to about three  
million Swedish crowns per year. In Germany the death rate  
during transport increased from 1962 (0.24%) to 1975 (1.0%)  
(GRATL, 1981). Since then losses remained constant at 1%. The  
authors calculated the financial losses for 1980 to be 102  
million DM per year (1% of a total of 34.8 million slaughter pigs  
at an average price of 300 DM per slaughter pig).
According to Nielsen (1982) transport losses were reduced when  
lorry and lairage were fitted with ventilation, in which case  
losses amounted to 0.24 per thousand in transport and 0.68 per 
thousand in lairage compared to 0.46 and 1.06 respectively with­
out venti lation.

54.
Contrary to the European results, Clark (1979) reported that  
transport losses of slaughter pigs increased recently in Saskat­
chewan. The losses increased from 2 per thousand in 1974 to a  
high of 4 per thousand in 1978. The highest losses occurred at  
the hottest (July-August) and coldest (December-January) months  
of the year. Seventy per cent of the deaths happened in transit,  
the remainder occurred at the abattoir before slaughter. The  
pigs were transported in trucks for an average distance of  
150 km (15-450 km).
The Meat and Livestock Commission (UK) found in a survey of  
10,000 pigs that over 50% of all carcasses were damaged. The  
carcasses of 44.4% of all pigs surveyed were damaged particularly  
around the head and shoulders by fighting. Fourteen pigs were  
dead on arrival at the factory, of these 8 were badly damaged  
by fighting. Bruising occurred in 7.9% of all carcasses.
Bruising was not confined to any specific part of the body  
although it was more common in the central pelvic area. The  
causes included striking with sticks, kicking, crowding in gate­
ways, trampling at loading, unsatisfactory vehicle or lairage  
floors and the misuse of slap markers. Visual inspection did  
not always show the full extent of the damage. Some surface  
discolourations which appeared to be of little importance were  
found on cutting to conceal serious bruising necessitating  
condemnation. Skin blemishes or discolouration occurred in  
3.6% of the carcasses. These seldom penetrated into the undei—  
lying tissue but were of importance where carcasses or rind-on-  
joints were sold. Blemishes were caused by urine scald, a conse­
quence of inadequate bedding on long journeys or of holding pigs  
for long periods in lairages without bedding and with inadequate  
drainage.

55.
4.1.4. Mortality and injuries in sheep
There are few reports in the literature of sheep losses during  
road transport. Heat stroke was found as the main cause of  
mortality in sheep transported by sea from Australia to Singapore,  
and in shipments from Brazil to Iran. Mortality rates on these  
transports were 0.3 to 1.7% for 8 to 9-day voyages and 3.6%  
for 18 to 20-day voyages (Gardiner and Craig, 1970); Mondino  
Silva, 1973). Other causes of mortality were Salmonella infection  
and hypocaIcaemia (Hails, 1978).
Geyer (1982) reported very low mortality in transit. In 1980  
there were 14 deaths among 234,434 sheep transported by road.
There are some reports of much higher road losses. In the  
summer of 1982, German police stopped a truck transporting  
sheep from Poland to France at Baden where the Polish-speaking  
driver had lost his way. Veterinary authorities found many  
animals dead and others in such poor conditions that they  
ordered immediate slaughtering. The total losses were 65 out  
of 400 transported sheep (Pevec, 1982).
The Meat and Livestock Commission of the UK (1974) reported  
bruising damages in 10% of all fat lambs and hoggets. According  
to this study the fat lamb and sheep industry has an annual  
output of £ 120 (stg) to £ 140 million. If 10% of these animals  
marketed are reduced in value by 2p/lb carcass weight, the total  
loss will amount to about I 1.0 million. The report found three  
main categories of damages. Bruising was most severe in milk-fed  
lambs and was evident over the shoulder, in the area of the ribs,  
on the loin, the rump and down the hind leg. Damage appeared to  
be worse in lighter weight lambs. Bruising of weaned lambs and  
hoggets was seen mainly along the back and on the rump. The cause  
of a particular bruise was difficult to pinpoint, but stick marks  
wool pulling, crowding in gateways and trampling by other lambs  
during drawing, loading or in transit, all contributed. Bruises  
may also be caused by rough handling when ear tagging prior to  
loading, or subsequently during the process of loading or unloading.

56.
Poor vaccination techniques can result in secondary abscesses,  
causing severe damage. Blood splash (blood spots or streaks  
in various parts of the lean meat) may assume serious proportions  
in certain conditions.
4.1.5. Mortality and injuries in poultry
Losses during transport of broiler fowl in Germany in January -  
March, April - May, and June - July were 0.22, 0.18 and 0.23%,  
respectively, while in old hens losses for the same periods  
were 0.16, 0.17 and 0.53% respectively (Hails, 1978).
Sei-igmann and Lapinsky (1970) found mortalities of 0.32% in  
28,704 slaughter poultry and of 0.64% in 19,195 birds delayed  
at a wholesaler for 2 - 3  days with no feed and water. Loliger  
and Torges (1977) found that transport-related deaths in one day  
old chicks are nowadays very rare, if transport does not last  
longer than 60 h and the ambient temperature is at least 25°C  
and not too high. Chicks normally travel well if ventilation is  
adequate, (King, 1970).
Hoogerbrugge and Ormel (1982) investigated the effect of tempera­
ture on one day old chicks transported in boxes by air. They  
found that when the temperature is over 34°C and ventilation is  
limited the temperature inside the box will increase rapidly  
to values exceeding 40°C. There is a strong correlation between  
body temperature and the higher temperature inside the box.
When the body temperature rises above 40°C the activity of the  
chickens rises, further increasing heat production, and the  
chicks start panting. When the body temperature reaches values  
of about 43 to 44°C chicks become comatose and die very quickly.  
According to Loliger and Torges (1977) the death rate is between  
0.02 and 0.4% in broilers and between 0 and 2.5% in spent hens.  
The losses are higher in summer than in winter.

57.
The reasons for higher transport losses in laying hens compared  
to broilers were longer transportation times and higher suscepti­
bility to transport stress. The same authors found a death rate  
of 0.59% in turkeys. Most losses were caused by chronic peri­
carditis, epicarditis, liver cirrhosis and intestinal diseases.  
However, injuries attributable to the method of loading were  
rare. Scholtyssek and Ehinger (1976) examined broilers after 2,
4 and 6 h journeys and found more bruising after longer transport  
times and in transport cages with more space.
Unsuitable transport vehicles, prolonged waiting times, and
rough handling contribute to an increased death rate in farm * .
animals.
4.2. Influence of transportation or, carcase weight
4.2.1. Weight losses
The reduction of live weight and carcass weight during transport  
is of major concern to the livestock and meat industries (Tarrant,  
1982). Loss of live weight results from excretion, evaporation  
and respiratory exchange (Dantzer, 1982). Loss of carcass weight  
during prolonged transportation is due to the dehydration of  
the carcass tissues and to mobilization of depot fat and muscle  
glycogen. Tissue protein catabolism may also occur, due to gluco­
corticoid action (Trenkle, 1981). Loss of weight due to tissue  
breakdown in fasted animals will occur earlier in monogastric  
animals than in ruminants (Tarrant, 1982).
4.2.2. Weight losses in cattle
Shorthose (1965) calculated that the approximate rate of carcass  
weight loss in steers was 0.75% per day for transport and holding  
times lasting from 3 to 8 days. Liveweight losses in cattle were  
about 8% for the first 24 h of transport, considerably in excess  
of the loss expected from fasting alone. During the next two days  
liveweight fell about 2% per day. Mayes et al (1979) found that  
slaughter cattle handled and transported a distance o if  85 km in

58.
5 h shrank by 2% of liveweight. Those handled and transported  
1,250 to 1,625 km during a 26 h period shrank by 6.3%.
The long distance journey described by Friend et al (1981)  
referred to previously in this report, resulted in weight losses  
of 10.6% in calves transported by truck. The rail shipment had  
a lower weight loss than the truck shipment (4.1% during the  
truck transport to the train, and 2.1% during rail transport  
and truck ride to the destination). The calves transported by  
rail had a significantly higher average daily gain at 7 and  
14 days post transit, but there was no difference between the  
road and rail transports after 28 days. The effects of dehydration  
after a long journey (1,420 km) by road and rail on liveweight,  
carcass weight and muscle properties of cattle were examine:! by  
Wythes (1980). After unloading, bullocks were watered without  
feed for 0, 3.5, 7, 28 or 32 h or watered with feed for 32 h,  
prior to a 16 h preslaughter fast. This treatment allowed 108  
bullocks in the first three treatments (36 animals per treatment)  
to be slaughtered after resting for one day and the remaining  
108 after resting for two days. Bullocks lost 10.4% of initial  
liveweight (656 kg) in transit. The mean liveweight of 583 kg  
on arrival increased when the animals had access to water, so  
that after 3.5 h on water the net liveweight loss was reduced  
(P 0.05) to 6.0% of the initial liveweight. After longer periods  
the loss varied from 6.8 to 7.3%. The net loss of the group also  
offered lucerne hay was 6.7%. In another study cattle lost up  
to 13.5% of initial liveweight during long distance- transport  
to abattoirs in northern Australia (Wythes, unpublished data).
Losses of body weight are reported to be the most significant  
economic effect of transport, Leach (1982). Self and Gay (1972)  
monitored liveweight changes in 4,685 feeder cattle, weighing  
between 255 and 275 kg, transported by road over distances  
between 240 and 1,824 km (average 1,023 km) in the USA. Cattle  
collected directly from ranches showed an average loss of 7.2%  
body weight, while those collected from auction markets averaged

59;
a 9.1% Loss (P 0.05). Weight loss increased by 0.38% for  
every 100 km of the journey. Weight Losses are influenced by  
the seasons, they are greater in summer months than in coèler  
periods.
4.2.3. Weight Losses in pigs
Live weight Losses are high initially; about 0.5 to 1% of Live  
weight is Lost per hour of transport in piglets. Of Live weight  
Lost during trucking for 2 h 42% was accounted for by excretory  
products, while 58% was attributed to evaporative Loss and  
respiratory exchange. Of the Latter data 36% was attributed  
to road travel and 22% to the stress of handling and confinement.  
Live weight Loss - when corrected for excretory Losses - was  
correlated to ambient temperature and humidity, and increased  
with duration of transport or social grouping (Dantzer, 1982).
The weight Loss during transport for 2.5 to 3 days was 10.2%  
on average (Markov, 1981). In transports from Holland to Italy  
by road 5.2% was the average Liveweight loss for 6 transports  
totalling 1,200 pigs (Lambooy, 1982). Actual losses deoend  
Largely on climatic conditions. These Losses are considerable  
and enforce the suspicion that long lasting transports mean a  
Lot of suffering for the transported pigs. Weight losses are  
caused by excretion and by depletion of the reserves of bodyfat  
during Lengthy fasts. This situation has not necessarily a  
detrimental effect on their health (Van den Bergh, 1977). The  
influence of preslaughter fasting on carcass and Liver yield in  
pigs was examined by Warriss and Brown (1983). They found that  
Live weight began to be Lost by pigs almost immediately after  
food withdrawal. Loss of carcass weight started after between  
9 and 18 h. Although no difference was found in the composition  
of chops from animals fasted for different lengths of time there  
was evidence that some of the carcass weight loss was attributable  
to loss of water. Liver weight decreased rapidly over the first  
24 h after food withdrawal and a large part, but not all, of this  
decrease was loss of water and glycogen. The rates of loss between  
18 and 48 h of fast were 0.21% of live weight and 0.11% of carcass

60.
weight per hour.
Results suggest that the effects of transport are independent  
of, and additional to, those of fasting (Warris et al 1983).  
Significant losses in carcass yield can be attributed to transport  
even in pigs which have been fed before transport. Fed pigs lost  
on average 1  kg of liveweight in the first hour of road transport  
and an additional 0.4 kg per hour in journeys lasting for 6 h.
The 1  kg live weight lost during 1  h transport is mainly due  
to loss of gut contents and urine. On the other hand, carcass  
weight was significantly reduced in a 6 h transport group, by  
about 1  kg of carcass weight. »
4.2.4. Weight losses in sheep
Lambs of 40 kg liveweight starved for 18 h, then transported  
for 1.5 h lost 0.9 kg (Rudloff, 1974). Sheep will lose up to  
3.6 kg during transport for 24 h, but this is mainly loss of  
ingesta, as tissue loss appears to be only slight during journeys  
of this length, (Thornton and Gracey, 1974). However, during  
prolonged transport by rail (more than 3 days) in South Africa,  
it was shown that significant losses in carcass yield can occur  
(Sutton and van den Heever, 1968). In lambs, loss of carcass  
weight was nearly a linear function of fasting time and occurred  
at a rate of about 1.5% of initial carcass weight per day for up  
to four days of fasting (Starke, 1948 cited by Shorthose, 1965).
A series of New Zealand lamb experiments has indicated that  
carcass weight reduction resulting from pre-slaughter starvation  
is a source of loss to the meat industry. Carcass losses start  
between 8 and 24 h off pasture and a loss of about 0.25 kg by  
24 h has been noted (Kirton et al., 1972).

61.
The Meat and Livestock Commission, UK,(1974) reported the  
influence of distance from farm to slaughterhouse on liveweight  
and carcass weight. Milk lambs and weaned lambs (totalling 1,100)  
were transported between 9 and 160 km (average 66 km). The milk  
lambs were slaughtered within 3 and 6 h of loading, the weaned  
lambs were held over night and slaughtered within 22 - 26 h of 
loading. The findings indicated a small increase in live weight  
Loss with increasing distance. Killing out percentage based on  
farm liveweights were higher where liveweight losses in transit  
were low.
4.2.5. Weight losses in poultry ■ >
Broilers transported for 1.5, 3 and 4.5 h had weight losses of  
1.3, 2.3 and 3.1% respectively (Scnoltyssek et al 1977).
In another study Scholtysser and Ehinger (1976) reported  
significant differences in weight losses in broilers were observed  
in some trials after journeys of 2, 4 and 6 h. Blood corticosterone  
concentration and creatine kinease activity, indicating tissue  
damage, reached their highest values after 4 h of transport.
4.3. Influence of transport on meat quality
In addition to the problems of bruising and loss of carcass  
weight discussed in the previous two sections, transportation  
of meat animals to slaughter may adversely affect meat quality.
The two most common stress-related meat quality defects are pale,  
soft, exudative (PSE) and dark-cutting or dark, firm, dry (DFD)  
meat. PSE meat is of normal acidity and keeping quality, but is  
abnormally pale and watery and gives lower yields in cooked and  
processed products. DFD meat is of low acidity, poor keeping  
quality, dark in colour, and has a high water-binding capacity.  
Abnormally low pH values in the hot carcass (pH^ values below  
6.0) are associated with PSE meat, whereas high final or ulti­
mate pH values (pH values above 6.0) indicate DFD meat.

62.
4.3.1. Meat Quality in Cattle
According to Leach (1982) the most common defect in beef attri­
butable to transport is probably dark-cutting, in which in vivo,  
depletion of the glycogen reserves of the muscles results in  
failure of the pH to fall to normal levels post mortem.
Prolonged stress, emotional as well as physical, which may  
result from mixing strange animals, e.g. in overnight lairing,  
withholding food and water or exposure to marked diurnal tempera­
ture variations. Substantial losses of muscle glycogen pre  
slaughter result in dark-cutting meat. Tarrant and Sherington  
(1980) observed that dark-cutting in beef may be caused by  
hardship arising from higher meat factory throughput of (grass  
fed) cattle in the autumn. When throughput is particularly high,  
stress is likely to result from delays in transport and in­
creased mixing of cattle during the preslaughter periods.
They observed a seasonal effect with more dark-cutters in the  
period September to January (5.2%) than from February to August  
(1.2%). The degree and duration of excitement and anxiety have  
a major effect upon the incidence of dark-cutting (Hedriek, 1981).  
Dark cutting beef was induced by the indiscriminate use of an  
electrical goad such as the "hot-shot". Short-term mistreatment  
(2h)  did not produce dark-cutting, but longterm mistreatment  
did. Young bulls are particularly susceptible to the DFD  
condition because of higher levels of aggressive and sexual  
activity among male animals (Tarrant, 1982). There is a period  
of intense behavioural stress after mixing while a dominance  
hierarchy is being established. The reaction of steers to social  
regrouping is less energetic.
Shorthose et al (1972) studied the effects of a long journey  
of 400 Shorthorn steers transported 322 km by road to a railhead.  
The animals were rested for 16 h, with water available, and then  
railed 966 km to the meatworks, a journey which took a further  
42 h. Steers rested and fed for 4 days rather than 2 days after  
the long journey to slaughter had a lower pH in M. longi ss i  mus  
dorsi and flexor nrofundus 24 h post mortem and a lower 48 h pH

63.
in M vastus .lateralis. It was possible that muscular activity  
during the journey depleted the glycogen concentration of the  
leg muscle (M vastus lateralis)  more than in M longissimus  
dorsi.  It was of commercial interest that the extra holding  
period reduced the proportion of animals with a 24 h pH value  
above 5.8 in M longissimus dorsi. The extra holding period  
before slaughter did not significantly affect the mechanical  
properties of the cooked leg or loin muscles or the percentage  
loss of weight during cooking.
Cervenka (1968) found, that with increasing distance and duration  
of transport the pH of the meat increased but little in cattle  
transported by rail. Fischer and Augustini (1980) studied the  
effect of different transport temperatures and food deprivation  
for several days. Ho Istein-Fr^esian bulls were transported for  
4 h in an air conditioned truck at 2, 12 or 36° C and 65%  
relative humidity and were slaughtered immediately afterwards.  
Temperature had no effect on heart rate, but at 36°C ambient  
temperature the rectal temperature was significantly raised  
during transport. Measurements taken at 45 min and 48 h post j  
mortem showed a tendency towards lower glycogen and higher  
lactate and glucose contents, particularly in M semitendinosus  
and M semimembranosus.  Final pH and water binding capacity were  
not influenced by this treatment. In bulls transported under  
the same conditions but then penned without feed for 48 h before  
slaughter, muscle glycogen decreased by 50% and half the animals  
had final pH values higher than 6.2 in lorygi ss imur .  _  dort; i.
Final pH values and water-binding capacity values in other  
muscles also differed significantly between starved and non-  
starved animals.
Cervenca (1971) reported that the meat pH was only marginally  
higher in slaughter cattle transported at higher ambient  
temperature (30 — 34°C) than in cattle transported in a cold  
season (0 to 4°C). Resting bullocks after a long journey of  
1,420 km for two days rather than one day significantly reduced  
the pH values of the M longissimus dorsi at 24 h post mortem

64.
from 5.64 to 5.57 (Wythes et al, 1980).
Tarrant (1981) concluded from questionnaires he circulated  
that preslaughter stress was the most frequently cited cause  
of dark-cutting in beef. Problems were associated with in­
adequate handling, transport and penning of cattle. Problems  
with transport were specified as overlong distances or times  
in transit, bad conditions during transport and insufficient  
recovery time after transport. Also climate was seen as an  
important factor causing dark-cutting in beef. The specific  
climatic features mentioned were inclement weather, large  
daily temperature fluctuations and excessively hot or cold »
environmental temperatures.
4.3.2. Meat quality in pigs
In pigs, as in cattle, there is ample evidence that stress  
and exhaustion occur during preslaughter transport and handling.  
Clark (1973) showed that lower meat quality (DFD) and lower  
yield of liver resulted from long distance transport of pigs  
by road in Britain. The average distance travelled by pigs to  
a bacon factory was 193 km. Pigs then fed sugar in solution to  
replenish lost stores of liver and muscle glycogen, gave better  
meat quality (lower ultimate pH values) and better yields of  
liver. Gallwey, Tarrant and McMahon (1977) studied carcass yield  
and meat quality in pigs after road transportation of 80 km  
and overnight lairage at a bacon factory. Their results supported  
those of Clark (1973). They observed that sugar-feeding (2.2 kg  
of syrup) of pigs after transport lowered the ultimate pH of the  
meat, improved the keeping quality of the cured meat, gave a  
higher carcass yield and a substantial increase in liver weight  
compared to control pigs that were held overnight after transport,  
with access to water only.
The ultimate pH of 34% of the muscles of the control group were  
abnormally high (above 6.0) compared with 8% in the sugai— fed  
group. The hot carcass weight of sugai— fed pigs was significantly  
greater than that of the controls, and the carcass yield was

65.
significantly higher f or the sugar-fed pigs (77%) than for the 
controls (73.7%). Sugar feeding produced an increase of 34%  
in cold liver weight. The added weight consisted almost entirely  
of carbohydrate and moisture.
Gallwey and Tarrant (1978) showed that there is a relatively  
high incidence of pigmeat of abnormally high ultimate pH value  
(DFD) in the Irish bacon industry. The source of pigs, factory,  
time of year and grade had significant effects on ultimate pH  
value of pork. However, over 80% of total variation in the ulti­
mate pH of pork remained unexplained by the general variables  
mentioned and was considered to be due to specific environmental  
stressors acting on individual pigs during the preslaughter  
period; transport being only a part of it.
Pigs from small fattening units had the lowest pH^ values, pigs  
from large fattening units had intermediate values and pigs  
brought at market and from dealers had the highest values.
This was considered to be due to better preslaughter handling  
and transport of pigs from small units. They were usually  
delivered by the owner to a local factory in small unmixed groups.  
The higher values of pigs from large fattening units were probably  
caused by a combination of factors contributing to increased  
stress, such as mishandling during loading and unloading, in­
adequate transport type, fighting among pigs from different  
pens and possible adverse physiological effects of intensive  
husbandry practices. In addition to the above stress factors  
pigs purchased from dealers and markets (which had the highest  
pH^ values) frequently suffered from exposure, low nutritional  
status, travel fatigue and the effects of interaction between  
groups collected from different sources.
DFD meat is also a common problem in the British pigmeat  
industry as can be seen from the data of Kempster and Cuthbertson  
(1975) and Chadwick and Kempster (1983). Exhaustion of pigs  
during preslaughter road transportation and penning at the  
factories is a widespread problem with serious economic impli­
cations for the pigmeat industry and negative welfare implications

66.
also. In the Netherlands it was estimated that up to 15% of  
all slaughter pigs suffer from being transported to such a  
degree that their physiology before slaughter and their meat  
quality afterwards are definitely abnormal (van Logtestijn, 1970).
Post mortem muscle metabolism determines the occurrence of PSE  
and DFD properties, and these were also recorded on the basis  
of the chemico-physical properties of the meat. It was found  
that there was an extraordinarily high proportion of PSE meat  
in all conditions of transport studied (about 53% in M lonqissimus  
dorsi and about 31% in M semimembranosus). No definite differences  
in pH value, colour brightness, water-binding capacity and state  
of rigor were observed between the variants.
It is evident that even very careful transportation cannot  
prevent poor quality in the meat if the animal is constitutionally  
disposed in that direction. The results emphasise the need for  
very good ventilation, particularly on sultry days, and a  
reasonable stock density. These measures will be unavailing  
however, unless the constitution of the modern pig can be  
improved by breeding.
In a subsequent experiment with halothane tested pigs it was  
shown that under uniform transport conditions the significant  
differences in PSE occurrence between animals were explained  
almost exclusively by halothane reaction, Augustini and Fischer  
(1982). A further reason for  the difference within treatments  
was due to differing degrees of muscling. This supports the  
opinion that the incidence of PSE meat determined more by genetic  
factors than by preslaughter treatment. It is important to  
standardise the method of judgement of meat quality. Von Mickwitz  
(1982) found that at routine meat inspection, of 237,058 slaughtered  
pigs only 99 (0.41%) were classified as PSE, but when measured  
the carcass pH at 45 min post mortem (at the same slaughterhouse)  
the frequency of PSE-type carcasses based on low pH^ values  
increased to 20.6% (239 of 1160 carcasses examined).

67.
According to Nielsen (1982) the longer and more stressful the  
preslaughter treatment is for the pigs the more pigs have DFD  
meat and the fewer pigs have PSE meat. The author reports an  
experiment in which 84 pigs were taken 20 m to the stunning pen  
without any kind of force being used while the same number of  
pigs were normally transported and held in lairage. The results  
showed that the extremely considerate treatment on the day of  
slaughter led to a higher incidence of PSE meat, but no DFD  
occurred. Activity during transport and lairage ensured a certain  
amount of muscle energy (glycogen) consumption and thus fewer  
pigs with PSE meat.
Prange et al (1977) transported (60 to 70 min) a total of  
1,010 slaughter pigs either by truck conventionally or in con­
tainers each of which contained 7 pigs of one fattening group.
The method of transportation did not influence the pH-value,  
colour brightness and drip loss of the pork. Transport losses 
were reduced when the animals were transported in containers due  
to less voluntary muscular activity. However, because the treat­
ment of the animals was the same after arrival at the slaughter­
house, the advantage of containerized transport may be lost and  
no benefit achieved in terms of meat quality.
4.3.3. Meat quality in lambs
The effect of transport and physical stress on ultimate pH of  
lambs were studied by Chrystall et al (1982). In the first part  
of the experiment, transport (400 km, 9.5 h) and light exercise  
(2 km walking) were shown to have very little effect on mean  
ultimate pH values of M longissimus dorsi but there was an  
increase in inter-animal variability in pH^ values. In the second  
stage, recovery from severe stress was followed by serial slaughter  
of groups of animals. Ultimate pH values were still slightly  
elevated above normal after 24 h of recovery. The inter-animal  
variability in pHu in the stressed groups was very high with  
some animals being relatively insensitive to stress and others  
recovering very rapidly.

6 8.
4.3.4. Meat quality in poultry
Scholtyssek et al (1977) investigated the influence of transporta­
tion and starvation on the carcass quality of broilers. They  
only found significant physiological effect of stress or  
exhaustion after starvation for longer than 12 h. The carcass  
quality showed little affect, only the tenderness was reduced,  
when the birds were starved for longer than 12 h.
Ristic and Schòn (1977) studied the effect of transport distances  
of 10 - 15, 36 and 90 km in broilers. The water-binding capacity  
of watei— cooled carcasses was better after 36 km than after  
either of the other two distances studied.
Ehinger and Gschwindt (1979) investigated the effect of transport  
times between 0 and 6 h on meat quality. They found that water  
binding capacity and loosely bound water were worst after > ' ■ and
3 h of transport, respectively. Meat tenderness was lowest after
4 h. They also found that by increasing waiting periocbthe  
tenderness of the breast and thigh meat decreased. The water-  
binding capacity also decreased. Female birds had greater  
roasting losses from both breast and thigh meat and higher pH  
in the thigh than male birds. The pH at 15 and 45 min post  
slaughter was 5.87 and 5.74 respectively in non-transported birds,  
6.3 and 6.18 in birds transported for one hour, and 6.1 after
six hours of transport. Ehinger and Geschwindt (1981) studied  
the influence of transportation for 2, 4 and 6 h on meat quality  
and on physiological parameters, in 240 birds of four commercial  
strains (Lohmann, Hybro, Hubbard, Ross). Water-holding capacity  
of raw breast meat, tenderness and cooking losses in thigh and  
breast meat were not substantially influenced by transport and  
strain, but female birds showed inferior results with these  
characteristics. pH^ was lowered significantly after 4 and 6 h  
of transportation in breast and thigh meat. Scholtyssek and  
Ehinger (1976) examined criteria of meat quality in broilers  
after journeys of 2, 4 and 6 h and found negative effects on the  
shear force values after the longer transport times.

69.
Much work has been carried out on liveweight Loss and Loss in  
carcase yield follouing transport. Both occur but vary considei—  
ably with different species,, transport methods and practices.  
Similar work has been carried out on meat quality with similar  
findings.
5. Conclusions and recommendations for further research and
development
1. It is obvious that transportation is a critical period for the
animal but the effects of transport can be alleviated by good  
conditions and handling. There is also much evidence that care­
ful handling reduces bruising to livestock and thus to the
carcase and that most of such damage occurs at loading and un­
loading if the facilities for those procedures and the way in
which they are carried out are unsatisfactory. As generalisation
consideration of all the available and relevant scientific  
information contained in the previous pages, both experimental  
and that obtained by observation under normal working conditions  
indicates that attention to the preparation of livestock prior  
to transport, improved loading and unloading facilities at the  
beginning and end of transport, improved handling and physical  
transport conditions would all result in improved animal welfare  
during transport of livestock to slaughter.
2. It is obvious that animals will tire during transport and they  
may be seen to rest in preference to eating after a long journey  
However, other stressors can still occur on short journeys and  
conclusions on the merits andde-merits of long as against short  
journeys cannot be drawn with any certainty.
3. To enable a valid conclusion to be reached on the question posed  
at the beginning of this study more information is required on,  
amongst other matters, the interpretation of the various physio­
logical measurements which can be made on livestock during  
transport; which of those measurements are most useful with  
regard to deciding on criteria which will indicate the onset of

70.
distress and the relationship of those physiological measurements  
with a time limit to be set for any journey, and in particular  
the final journey of livestock to the slaughterhouse.
Despite the great deal of available knowledge which if used  
would enable animals to be transported, according to their  
species, age and condition with little stress, there are many  
areas where it is impossible to make specific recommendations  
on transport conditions because vital information is lacking.
The appropriate time prior to a journey, during a journey, and  
after a journey at which feeding and watering by species, age *·  
and physiological condition is administered is not precisely  
known. There are great differences between the monogastric  
species and the ruminant and there will be considerable differences  
in their requirements at different times of the year. Stocking  
densities by species, age, physiological condition and method  
of transport are based very much on practical observations but  
there is still much more information required, which could be  
obtained by observational studies, before advice on stocking  
densities that provide for all species and all methods of  
transport can be promulgated. In addition the ventilation require­
ments of the various methods of transport are not precisely  
known for all species, age and physiological condition of animals;  
and the effect of lack of rest for all livestock is an area in  
which very little, if any, work has been carried out.
At the present time with the'vast majority of transport methods,  
limiting factors for journey time will depend on:
(1 ) The species (whether ruminant or monogastric) age and
physiological condition (pregnant or not pregnant, shorn  
or unshorn in the case of sheep etc.)
(2) climatic conditions during the journey
(3) the construction and ventilation of the means of transport  
(A) methods of loading and unloading

71 .
(5) methods of preparation of Livestock prior to the  
journey
(6) methods of reception of livestock at the end of the  
journey.
6. The range of combinations of all these factors is almost infinite  
and except in a very few instances it is impossible to draw  
conclusions on journey time. On a very hot day, with fat pigs,  
poor preparation, with poor loading facilities and a poor
means of transport, all lead to the conclusion that the journey  
time must be as short as possible (indeed a journey in such  
conditions may not even be indicated) whereas on the other hand · >  
with good preparation, good means of transport, with adequate  
room, ventilation, and watering and feeding facilities on board,  
it could be argued that a journey of indefinite length is  
possible without distressing the livestock so carried.
7. So more information is required before definitive conclusions  
can be reached on what limit should be placed on the duration  
of the transport of livestock being conveyed to slaughter.
However, it still may not be possible to reach such conclusions  
even after further investigation. Further research is certainly  
required into:
(1) when and how to feed and water animals prior to and during  
transport by age, species and physiological conditions
(2) the importance of rest during transport and by what means  
animals cbd be provided with environments during transport  
in which they can rest, or is there a need for journeys  
to be broken for the provision of rest
(3) stocking densities by species, age, sex and physiological  
condition;
(4) ventilation requirements of the different modes of  
transport for the different species;

72.
(5) the economic effects of the various methods of transporta­
tion on the quality of the meat produced;
(6) information on morbidity and mortality during transport  
by species, age and physiological condition;
(7) investigation of the design of lairages at slaughterhouses  
and the provision of water and feed (or not) prior to  
slaughter;
(8) further investigation of the various physiological measure­
ments which can be used for assessment of changes in the  
physiological and psychological status of livestock and  
the significance of those measurements in relation to  
assessment of any time limit which should be placed upon  
the journey of livestock being moved to slaughterhouses.
There would appear to be two main methods by which this further  
research can be carried out and both require the closest possible  
co-operation between Member States of the European Communities.
(1) Observational studies of transported livestock in intra-  
Community trade
(2) Laboratory investigations using the expertise and facilities  
which exist within the Community on a co-ordinated basis,  
to encourage the exchange of information in small seminars  
and workshops; by the exchange of research workers; and
the funding of specific research contracts.

73.
6. Acknowledgement
Over a period of three years (1980-1984) a small group of scientists  
with willing helpers examined the scientific literature available.
A number of important studies have been reported since work on this  
examination started in 1980 and there is a clear need for more  
research, development of ideas and training. Those reviewing,  
compiling and editing this report have met on only a few occassions  
and the final document, although the answers are not yet complete,  
is a valued judgement of the information currently available.
The experts involved met under the chairmanship of W. Sybesma,  
Instituut voor Veeteeltkundig Onderzoek, Schoonoord, Zeist, The  
Netherlands. Major contributions were made by D. Buchenauer and 
D. Smidt (D), R. Ddntzer (F), P.N. Demertzis (Gr), M. Verga (I),
P.V. Tarrant (Irl), G.van Putten (NL), R.Moss and D.M. Broom (UK),
Cooroination at the Commission of the European Communities was by 
J.Connell and T.Golden. The fine work of all of those involved is most  
gratefully acknowledged and the document produced is an excellent  
example of enthusiastic cooperation and harmonisation of the data  
and views present in many different countries on questions of  
international animal transportation to slaughter.

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Lühn,  E.1980 Deaths in transit: what British surveys
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Schlicht, H. 1980
Schmidt, H. 1980
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1983 The influence of pre-slaughter fasting on
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International 1/3, 6-8.

8 8.
Wohlfart, E,  
Schroter, G.1973 Zum Lebendtransport von Schweinen in
Spezialbehaltem. Tierzucht, 283-285.
WSFA 1982 a) Bulk transport of horses - need for
special consideration. Animals  
International II/5, 6-7.
b) Live horse transports in Europe - soon  
be replaced by carcase trade? Animals  
International II/5, 7-8.
Wythes,  J.R.  
S'northose, W.R.  
Schmidt, P.J.  
Davis, C.N.
W v s  .  J.R.1980 Effects of various rehydration procedures
after a long journey on liveweight, carcasses  
and muscle properties of cattle. Aust. J.  
Agric. Res. 31, 849-855.
Transport and handling of livestock from farm  
to slaughter.
Y-h, ·  < ; . 
Anderson, B.  
Jones, P.N.  
Shaw, F.D.1978 Bruising in cattle transported over long
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is full reference for YEH, 1978).

89
Appendix 2
8.An examination of transport according to the behaviour of different  
species
The main purpose of this report is to examine questions of transport.  
However since this section, the main and salient points of which are  
in the text, exists dealing with species it seemed useful also to  
present this information as an appendix to the text.
There are obvious differences both within and between species in their 
physiological and behavioural reactions to transport methods and 
practices.
1. Horses intransport
The few reports of horses destined for slaughter in international 
long lasting transports are that of BcrnkhsseL <1982) and Geyer 
(1982). Both authors describe transportati on of horses from Poland 
or Soviet Union to France, Belgium or the Netherlands via Germany. 
Bornkessel (1982) gives a description of a rail transport. If the 
horses are found to be fit for transport by Polish veterinarians, 
they are fed and watered before loading, also the shoes have to be 
removed. The horses are tethered in a way that allows them to take 
hay from the floor and tie down. They are separated from any 
neighbour by beams.
From 1973 to· 19/9 most transport of horses was done by train. But 
since then the transports changed to· the road, so that in 1980 only 
9000 (25%)  horses were transported by train, but 27000 horses were 
carried by road. The transport of horses by road is criticized by 
Weichert (1981). Heholds the opinion that transport by road is more 
adversive to horses than rail transport and that the inspections at 
the border are not done intensively enough, Little infomation about 
the physiological response to transport in horses is known. The iwosf 
frequent causes of death or serious sickness were chronic diseases 
of the legs and respiratory organs, and disorders of the heart and 
circulatory system, while injuries were found on the legs and bite 
injuries on the head and neck areas.

90
Cattle in transport
Kenny and Tarrant (1981) gave a review of the behaviour of cattle  
during transport and penning before slaughter. The following is an  
extract of this paper. The authors divided behaviour during transport  
in four stages: behaviour after loading, standing in transit, lying  
down in transit, and behaviour in stationary wagons.
Bisschop (1961), one of the cited authors, found two different  
sets of behaviour occurring in the interval between loading and  
departure. In one case, where the interval lasted 1.5 h the  
steers (of mixed breeds) were very nervous and restless, showed  
trembling and kept on butting each other and changing their positions^  
in the trucks. They defaecated and urinated copiously. This state  
lasted for the first 4 h after departure. During the following
8.5 h the animals settled down; they stood resting. In two other  
studies of the same author (one consisted of cattle of mixed breeds  
and the other of Afrikanertype cattle), 3 h elapsed between loading  
and departure. No animals showed nervousness, trembling or more  
than normal elimination. They did, however, mill about. The author  
offers no explanation for this difference. However, the first group  
travelled 8 h to the railroad station and seemed to spend just one  
night there. The other groups travelled 2.5 days and 5.5 days  
to the railroad station, respectively. It is possible that the first  
group had not suffi cient time to complete formation of a social  
hierarchy. Sutton (1968), another cited author, noted the behaviour  
after loading of Afrikaner-type oxen from a single herd. Initially  
they were restless and anxious. A high state of alertness was suggested,  
This stage of unsettled behaviour lasted only 30 min, probably due  
to the established nature of the group. According to the mentioned  
authors, groups of cattle tend to settle down soon after departure,  
although occasional groups exhibit continued nervousness as described  
above. While they are in motion, animals stand parallel to each other  
and at right angles to the direction of travel of the train, facing  
indiscriminately in either direction. This position appeared to be  
the best to counteract the sideways sway of the truck when it was  
moving.

91
An animal rarely changes its position while the train is moving,  
once the parallel pattern across the railway truck has been formed.  
Cattle often lie down in the trucks while they are moving. In a
9.5 h journey by ro ad ,Anderson (1973) found 25 animals out of  
a total of 494 down. Of these 20 were lying in a normal position  
and were easily brought to their feet. In rail travel the animals  
usually do not lie down until 20 h after the journey has started.
When they were unloaded in rest periods, they remained standing for  
13-17 h after reloading, before the first one lay down. In the course  
of a 96 h journey without off-loading all the cattle lay down at one  
point or another (Sutton, 1967). Up to 13 h travelling after the  
first rest period it was easy to force bullocks to their feet.
From this journey time on, more animals were found down and were »
assisted to their feet with increasing difficulty. After 31 h  
travelling some 50% of the heavier and 25% of the lighter bullocks  
were down in the wagons. The period spent lying down averaged  
15 min, but could be up to 5 h at a time. A greater percentage of  
animals lay down in the padded than in the unpadded wagons.
Standing animals continued to maintain the parallel pattern across  
the truck, although occasionally the animals nearest the one lying  
down stood lengthwise in the truck with their heads over it.
Standing animals were careful not to trample on recumbant ones.
However, another author found that the animal with the heavier  
bruise trim weight was down in the truck during the journey.
Tramping would be unlikely if the animals were calm or not thrown  
off balance. In transport by road the animals became unsettled when  
the vehicle was stationary. During rail transport the standing  
position was rarely changed until the train came to a halt. The  
animals frequently moved to face the direction while the train was  
moving or to haphazard positions. However, the transverse position  
was immediately re-assumed when the train started to move.
Friend et al. (1981) reported on a tong journey of about 2000 km  
by rail and road. As mentioned before 150 Angus X Hereford steer  
and heifer calves weighing about 165 kg were transported from  
Tennessee to Texas. 50 of these calves were loaded into a conventional  
cattle truck and transported directly to the destination point. The  
other calves were transported by truck 750 km where they were trans-

92
ferred to the railcar. After loading the calves immediately commenced  
eating hay and drinking water, reflecting the water deprivation  
during transport to the railcar. The calves remained highly active  
for the first two hours after loading. After 2-5 h after loading  
two-thirds of the animals on the bottom deck were lying down.
None were lying down on the upper deck, but these were disturbed  
several times by personnel checking equipment.
Many of the cattle were lying down while the train was standing  
(-25%' of the time in transit) or moving at slow speed (30 km/h  
or less). Lying while the car was moving was a common occurrance  
from midnight (6 h after loading) of the first day on. If the ride  
was rough, almost all would stand. Those that remained lying were  
usually along a wall. Examinations of videotapes showed that the  
calves positioned themselves in a random manner throughout the car  
regardless of speed and smoothness of ride. The calves continued  
to eat hay and drink regardless of the smoothness of the ride.
When the car was standing still, consumption was greatly reduced  
as calves lay down to rest. When the car started moving, the calves  
stood up and commenced eating and drinking. Apparent hay (5.1 kg)  
and water 21 l) consumption per head was normal.
The calves showed no heat stress despite the presence of only a  
slight breeze. The combined transport by truck and railcar lasted  
69.2 h and the transport by truck 36 h.
Shorthose et al. (1972) described a transport of cattle in Australia,  
where cattle are transported often long distances to slaughter. In  
this case a group of 400 Shorthorn steers was transported 322 km  
by road to a railroad station. The animals were rested for 16 h,  
with water available and then railed 966 km to the meatwork, a  
journey which took a further 42 h. The cattle had been without feed  
for approximately 4 days. After arrival, three groups of 20 animals  
were split from the group and put into a bare resting paddock. The  
remaining 340 animals were held together, in another bare resting  
paddock. One groupv(no. 1) had access to water and another group (no.
2) to feed and water for one day after arrival and both groups  
were killed 2 days after arrival. Two groups (no. 3 and 4) were

93
slaughtered 4 days after arrival. Group 3 had access to feed for  
2 days and water for 3 days prior to slaughter and group 4 had  
access to both feed and water for 3 days. In the first 23.5 h in  
the holding paddock the apparent water consumption by the 60 steers  
in the groups 2, 3 and 4 was 25.9 1  /head. 20 l/head was consumed  
in the first 5.5 h. From 23.5 to 50.5 h consumption by the 40  
cattle of groups 3 and 4 was 11.4 l/head in the period 50.5 ~ 73.5 h  
after entering the holding paddock.
On the first day the apparent consumption of molassed hay was  
0.66 kg/head, groups 2, 3 and 4. This increased to 0.86 kg/head  
on the second day, groups-3 and 4, and 0.92 kg/head on the third  
day, group 4. "*
Kenny and Tarrant’  (1982) in their review report about transportation  
of horned cattle, when animals are left undisturbed there is always  
more activity among groups of horned cattle than among dehorned  
cattle. Heterogenous groups were always midway between the horned  
and hornless groups in activity. On closer observation, most of  
the activity seemed to be of the avoidance type. No serious degree  
of malicious horning or aggressive behaviour was observed but  
many incidences of accidental horning and impedance of free movement  
were noted. Horned cattle find it hard to manoeuvre without brushing  
other stock in the crowded conditions and some horning can occur  
when new positions are being taken up. The incidence of bruising in  
horned groups transported by rail was observed to be 41.84 versus  
20.1% in polled cattle. Other authors observed that there was a  
significantly higher amount of bruised tissue on the carcasses of  
horned cattle transported by truck to the slaughterhouse.
The long horns of Afrikaner type cattle in which the most observations  
have been made are especially likely to cause damages. But Kenny  
and Tarrant (1982) conclude generally that dehorning is an important  
requirement where cattle are transported in groups. Many animals  
are nowadays either polled or alrady dehorned as calves.

94
During a 24 h air journey, Hereford cattle browsed at hay but did  
not drink and for the most part appeared unconcerned during the  
whole flight. Resting behaviour seemed to be increased in the number  
of animals as the journey went on (Jackson, 1974).
Bailey et al. (1982) observed that in sea transport smaller cattle  
should not be kept with more than 40 head per pen even if large  
enough to carry more animals. In larger groups animals can get  
injured when they are caught against the fence while frightened  
animals all push in one direction. The authors recommend that groups  
of large size animals should not contain more than 20 animals for  
the safety of both the animals and their attendants.
The authors found that four -footed animals are generally more stable  
and show less stress than humans do during rough seas.
Von Horsten (1979) observed that cattle kept on deck changed their  
ruminating behaviour. With increasing ambient temperature and  
duration of the journey they always started To ruminate sooner  
after eating. Also the time per ruminated bite shortened with the  
duration of the journey. It lasted 70-80 sec at the beginning of  
the journey and decreased to 50-60 sec.
In cattle kept below deck such chanqes could not be observed.
The amount of consumed feed decreased with higher wind velocity in  
both cattle kept on deck and below deck. It also decreased in  
cattle on deck with ambient temperatures higher than 25°C. The feed  
intake of cattle below deck did not change since the temperature  
there was nearly constant. With increasing temperatures cattle on  
deck drank more water, e.g. with temperature of 18°C they drank  
between 24 and 28 kg water and at 28°C the consumption was between  
32 and 38 kg per day.
Bailey et al. (1982) observed the behaviour of steers weighing about  
630 kg during a sea transportation. Five animals were kept in modified  
20 ft containers (standard shipping unit 8 x 8 x 20 ft, approximately  
one-half a truck trailer) equipped with a water bucket and a feed  
though. From dusk to dusk (a 25 h period) animals were lying down

9S
55% of the time, standing 30%, eating grain 7%, eating straw 5%,  
and drinking 3%. In Light periods steers spent more time with  
the activities standing, eating and drinking and Less time with  
Lying down than in night periods.
Some physioLogicaL responses of cattLe to transportation  
Leach, (1982) reports in a review of effects of transports on physio  
LogicaL systems: in 350 caLves and steers, aged 13-14 months, tran  
sported 35 km to sLaughter, Loading caused high increases in cortisoL,  
gLucose, Lipids, protein Bnd urea, aLL indicating that the animaLs  
were stressed. Tissue protein cataboLism may aLso occur, due to  
gLucocorticoid (cortisoL) action (TrenkLe, 1981), which can resuLt »  
in decreasing tissue protein. Steers were more affected than caLves.
In animaLs then fasted 24 h before sLaughter gLycogen vaLues were  
haLved and 48 h fasting reduced them seven foLd , compared with  
animaLs ki L  Led on arrivaL. In 1.5 ~ 2.5 yaar oLd heifers
transported by road for 1.5 h and in 2.5 _ 4.5 year oLd cows
transported for 2 h cortisoL LeveLs and totaL white ceLL counts  
showed a marked increase over pre-transport vaLues. The white ceLL  
count had returned to normaL vaLues within 10 h, whiLe cortisoL LeveL  
was normaL within 48 h.
Serum enzyme activity of caLves, weighing 107 - 165 kg, transported  
by road 266 - 310 km, rose significantLy; GOT increased by 7 - 38%,
GPT 29 - 83%, LDH 14 - 42% and CPK 30 - 38%. The rate and degree  
of rise was greatest for CPK, but it aLso feLL most rapidLy.
In cattLe serum vaLues of GOT, LDH, and aLdosterone (ALD) rose after  
transport and continued to increase to the time of sLaughter, 20  
50 h Later. The rise in ALD was most marked and reLated to transport  
distance, age and ambient temperature. After Long journeys pH was  
normaL or sLightLy Lowered, pCO^ vaLues were consistentLy decreased.  
ChLoride LeveLs were aLways raised and some groups showed a sLight  
hypocaLcaemia. In 18 — 30 month oLd Limousin cattLe transported  
by road for over 500 km bLood vaLues of pCC^ end PO 2 decreased whiLe  
pH increased.

96
Transportation has been shown to result in a decreased plasma  
concentration of glucose and total proteins with a concomitant  
increased level of urea and uric acid (Agnes and Genchi , 1972).
These authors suggested that such changes resulted from the muscular  
activity and starvation imposed by the journey. Stephens (1982)  
studied the effect of * a road journey on kidney function in very  
young calves (usually under 1  week) intended for slaughter. From  
group of 14 such calves bLCod samples were taken for urea estimation  
at a market. Some degree of dehydration was observed as a conse­
quence of scouring, while microscopic observations of the kidney in  
transport death calves showed signs of tissue degeneration.
Subsequently the calves were loaded onto a standard cattle transporter
capable of carrying up to 100 calves. After a 4-hours
journey to the abattoir a second blood sample was taken immediately.
The data for the blood urea levels were 50.2 mg/ml on the start  
and 59.1 mg/ml on the end of the journey. The difference was not  
si gni fi cant.
According to Stephens (1982) in simulated transport studiesthere was  
small decrease of 5% in renal blood flow during the first few minutes  
of exposure. After a few minutes, the renal blood flow regained  
normal levels and than was elevated for the duration (45 min) of  
transport stimulation. Heart rate increased from 100 beats/min  
to over 140 beats/min and remained at this level for the duration  
of the transport stimulation.
Stephens (1982) investigated the effects of transportation on heart  
rate (HR) and plasma corticosteroid levels in calves aged 2 - 4  months.  
Calves standing and unfettered, HR was elevated from a resting level  
of about 80 beats/min (b.p.m.) to about 110 - 115 b.p.m. for 1  hour  
while the transporter was in motion.
Morisse. et al. (1982) report some changes in blood components and  
biochemical parameters of 25 young calves stressed by transportation  
and starvation compared to 25 calves of the same age kept in optimal  
conditions at the farm of origin. Results show significant differences  
in stressed animals concerning: increase in thrombocytes and neutro-  
P'l'.r munis, decrease in lymphnc.vtps counts, increase in urea and

97
sérotonine (serum and total blood), increase in creatinine and 17  
hydroxysteroids (urine), decrease in proteins, gamma-globulins and  
glycemia (serum).
The effect of transportation on blood serum composition was investi­
gated by Mormede et al. (1981). Blood samples were taken before,  
during and after a 12 h transport by road with a stop at a transit  
centre. Transport induced increases in blood urea, creatinine,  
bilirubine, SGOT and LDH, suggestive of damages to kidney and liver.  
Energetic metabolites (glucose, triglycerides) were observed to  
decrease. Some degree of cellular damage was evident from the  
increased level of beta-glucuronidase. For most variables, the changes  
observed at the different stages of the transport were additive,  
a result which would suggest that they reflect more the effect of  
the transport duration than the consequences of the different components  
of the transport process. Trucking the calves produced an increase  
in cortisol levels which was maximum at the time of arrival in the  
transit centre. The cortisol levels returned to initial levels  
within one day. Plasma cortisol levels are of limited interest since  
the pituitary-adrenal axis habituates very rapidly (Dantzer, 1982).
4. Pigs in t ransport
To estimate strains of transportation Augustini and Fischer (1982)  
investigated the heartrate during transportation. For this purpose  
77 barrows weighing 100 kg were transported singly for 14.5 min.
The highest frequency rates were observed before and after transport.  
The values climbed steeply during driving to the weighing point,  
they dropped slightly while weighing and climbed even more during  
driving to the lorry. Within t he first minutes inside the lorry  
the heart rate dropped sharply. During transport the rate remained  
at a relatively constant level of about 130 beats/min. During tran­
sport no animal lay down but, rather, they intensively investigated  
the new surroundings. While unloading and weighing at the end of  
the transport, the heart rate values again increased. During  
transport the rectal temperature increased on average by 0.7oG (from
39.05 in stall to 39.70 immediately after transport). A rest period  
of 45 minutes was needed before these values dropped, but the initial

98
values in the stall were not reached in this time.
The authors also compared loading either with the tail-gate lift  
or by ramp. During loading with the tail-gate lift the heart rate 
dropped whereas ramp-loading led to a steep rise in heart rate.
The initial value in the stall was 83.1 beats/min., during driving  
to the lorry 194.7 and during loading 217.8. A further investigation  
of the same authors showed, when limits of loading density (0.35  
or 0.70 m2/100 kg), temperature (2°C, 19°C, 29°C) and relative  
humidity (60 or 90%) are exceeded during transport special stress  
is placed on the pig. The testing of various combinations of these  
factors during constant duration of transport (100 min.) showed the  
strong influence of transport distance. In all situations the heart ■»  
rate decreased with increasing duration of transport. The degree of  
decrease was influenced by respective treatment combinations.
Without considering relative humidity and loading density, transport  
at 19°C produced more favourable values than that at 2°C or 29°C.
2Relative humidity (60 and 90%) and loading density (0.35 and 0.70 m /  
100 kg liveweight) led to differing results in each temperature range.  
The values were obviously strongly influenced by varying levels of  
physical activity during thermoregulation and by the amount of room  
avai lable.
The values at loading and at the end of transport were closely  
correlated. In many cases there was also a highly significant corre­
lation between rectal temperature and heart frequency.
Augustini andFischer (1977) estimated the degree of exhaustion with  
the help of a grading system. Slaughter pigs were transported for  
100 min. with the above mentioned densities and temperatures. The  
highest degree of exhaustion showed pigs which were transported at  
a density of 0.35 m2 and at temperatures of 19°C, and 29CC and at a  
humidity of 90%.
The lowest degree of exhaustion were observed in pigs which were  
transported at lower density (0.70 (m )  and temperatures of 2°C with  
60% humidity and 19°C with 60%. The activity after transport was  
highest in pigs which were transported at 19°C.

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According toMickwitz (1982) the heart rate during transport
of slaughter pigs under practical conditions were influenced by  
times of feeding prior to commencement of transportation. He found  
that pigs fed 24 h-prior to the transport had the lowest heart rate  
during, and immediately after transport and during the rest period  
instead of animals which were fed 1, 4, 8 or 12 h prior to the  
transport.
Sybesma et al. (1978) reported on the cause of genetic constitution  
and deathrate. Investigations showed that the Malignant Hyperthermia  
Syndrome is genetically determined by a autosomal recessive  
hereditary trait. There are differences in susceptibility between ^  
different breeds. The meaty type Pietrain is more susceptible to  
stress than less meaty breeds. Only 3.1% of Large White pigs reacted  
halothane positive, while in Dutch Landrace 22.2%. The deathrate of  
halothane positive pigs during transport was 3.35%, whereas in none  
susceptible pigs deathrate was only a tenth of it (0.32).
The author reported on other experiments, in which from 172 crossbred  
pigs 44 pigs reacted positive. Of those during transport 3 animals  
died, while none of the 128 negative reacting pigs died. From 557  
Dutch Landrace pigs, more than 226 reacted positive and 331 reacted  
negative. The losses were 13 and 7 (0.57% and 0.21%, resp.) The  
author concluded that effective selection for a pig more resistant  
to transport loss is possible.
Behaviour of pigs on transport
On a 7 day long journey from England to Italy by train Jackson (1973)  
observed no signs of restlessness which was not due to the pigs being  
either thirsty or hungry. The pigs did not appear to be affected by  
the movement of the wagon, although when violent shunting was being  
carried out, they were all on their feet, swaying in unison. They  
did huddle on few occasions when it became cold, but most of the time  
they were happily wandering around the pen, only becoming disturbed  
at meat times. All pens tended to behave in the same way even though  
they were well separated from each other. If one pen was sleeping,  
the other pens tended to be sleeping, if one pen had a few pigs on

100
its feet and the rest sleeping the other pens were usually the same.
One form of play was very noticeable. Each pen of pigs happened
to have three metal rings located one foot above floor level. Much
of the time pigs would be playing with these, sometimes two pigs
would be playing with the same ring at the same time but more
usually only one pig. The ring would be nosed and bitten by the pigs.
The author concluded that rail travel is an excellent way of
moving animals on long journeys provided they are accompanied.
Augustini et al. (1977) observed pigs during transportation by road
at different densities (0.35 and 0.70 m^/pig) and temperatures
(2°, 19°, 29°C). At low temperature during transportation pigs
shivered with cold especially if the humidity was high. The higher
animal density led to considerable motor activity until each animal
found a place, then the pigs calmed down quickly. At 19°C the
2animals felt well at low density (0.70 m /pig) whereas in high  
density at the same temperature pigs showed high excitation and  
panic reactions. They calmed down very slowly. If there was at the  
same temperature the higher humidity many animals breathed heavily.  
According to Pearson and Killgour(1980) several authors considered  
that pigs do not fight during motion but do so when the vehicle is  
stationary. In addition a correlation has been found between the  
number of bites and the time the lorry was standing still. When  
the transport times were reduced by 50% by cutting out long stops  
the number of bites was reduced by 23%.
6. Some physiological responses of pigs to transport
Herding pigs to a lorry and subsequent transport led to increases  
in haemoglobin and hexokinase activity, indicating stress. The levels,  
however, returned to normal after 1.5 to 2 hrs rest. Blood values  
of haemoglobin, hexokinase and lactate were also lowered by a resting  
period at the slaughterhouse (Prange et al. 1977).

1 0 1
Sheep in transport
Platt (1982) recommends that sheep transported by sea should be  
allowed to make some adjustments before sailing because in the  
event of initial rough weather conditions injuries could be caused  
on overcrowded pens and inpartially occupied pens. According to the  
same author sheep are kept to about 50-60 head per pen. Each pen  
contains three feed and three water troughs. The daily ration of  
feed is about 1 kg/animal in two feeds, water is supplied continuously.  
The normal air flow is not sufficient to dissipate the levels of  
humidity and ammonia in the centre pens. There the installations of  
fans is indicated to disperse fumes when animals are resting. ^
After the author the most common diseases are those of respiratory  
and gastro-intestinal tracts, also infections keratitis (pink eye).
With voyages of 10-14 days duration, there are significant loss of  
condition with accompanying sickness and mortalities during the  
latter half of the journey. Losses of 1.2 to 1.4% are not uncommon,  
which means 1000-1500 sheep die on the larger stock carriers.
If sheep are not kept separately with respect to the same age, higher  
deathrates among sub-adults arise. Carcass examinations showed tnat  
these animats could not compete for food with older and more  
aggressive animals. A more judicious grading system at the time of  
loading to separate animals is necessary. The author points out  
the importance of a rest of at least 24 h after embarkation before  
further transport.
Some physiological responses of sheep to transportation  
Reid and Mills (1962) found that the cortisol and blood glucose level  
were less affected during transport in sheep accustomed to indoor  
housing compared with those taken directly from pasture. Pearson and  
Killgour (1976) took plasma cortisol levels at the time of throat cat,  
it has been found that the levels rise from a base of less than  
10 ng/ml to 22.7 + 6.0 ng/ml for travelling 20 km, 49.8 + 10.9 ng/ml  
for 30 km, 69.7 + 19.2 ng/ml for 60 km and a peak of 77.9 _+ 18.3 ng/ml  
for those travelling 100  km to the abattoir, even though the journey  
was on the day before slaughter. Greater distances travelled continued  
to give high levels of cortisol ranging between 61.0 + 22.3 ng/ml

102
and 76.3 + 13.7 ng/ml, up to 225 km. As all the Lambs arrived at  
the abattoir within a few hours of one another and were subjected  
to similar treatment, there appears to be some link between the  
distance travelled from the farm at the levels of plasma cortisol  
next day at slaughter.
According toPearson et al. (1977) in transport up to 2 hours there  
is an increase of the mean level of cortisol. Subsequently there  
was a slight fall as travelling time further increased to 8 hours.  
Killgour and De Langen(1970) studied short term transportation in  
sheep. Using a fluorimetric assay they estimated a cortisol level  
of 66 ng/ml in 12 sheep after a 90 min. truck journey compared with  
minimal disturbance levels of 36 ng/ml.
9. Behaviour of sheep
Sutton and De Heever (1968) observed sheep on a long rail trip and  
they found that adult Merino sheep seldom lie down in railway trucks  
even on a 5-day journey. When rested after 2 to A days travelling  
without water or food no preference was shown, but after 5 days  
there was a preference for water. In the rest pens only 0.4 kg of  
lucerne hay per sheep was eaten in 24 hours, indicating that if the  
regulatory 4 h rest was given, very little food would be taken up.  
Ewbank (1975) concluded from studies on the road transport of store  
lambs indicating that after transport and return to their field,  
these lambs grazed for only 2 to 3 hours and spent the next 22 hours  
resting. According to Killgour (1976) where animals have not been  
able to lie down (older stock start to lie down for longer periods  
after long journeys) resting takes precedence over feeding on arrival  
at the destination. This was also the reaction of trucked calves  
during halting times.
10. Some physiological responses of poultry to transport
A significant effect of stress in poultry can be measured by the  
content of corticosterone and creatine kinase. Both increased signi­
ficantly, reaching the highest concentrations following 4 hrs of  
transport (Scholtyssek & F.hringer·, 1976). Besides stress this also  
indicates tissue damage as a consequence of transportation.

103
Corticosterone appeared to be correlated at a high level with the  
amount of loosely bound water. This is in agreement with other  
findings concerning meat quality. Water binding capacity had a  
minimum at 3 hrs following transport in combination with decreasing  
tenderness in breast and thigh meat CGschwindt SEhringer., 1979).  
Other blood parameters, as haemoglobin, haematocrit, serum proteins,  
lipids and cholesterol also showed significant effects due to  
transportation, which was reflected in meat pH too ('Eli ringer & 
Gschwindt, 1981). Another factor occurring in relation to transport  
is starvation. In broilers, exposed to stress situations as star­
vation and transport, a physiological imbalance developed (Gschwindt,  
1977). Liver glycogen, microhaematocrit, total serum lipids and ,
proteins changed significantly in a short time whereas blood glucose,  
serum cholesterol and creatine kinase were only significantly changed  
after longer periods of stress.