He has worked during the past thirty years in, and with, a wide range of organisations. More than 20 years of this has been in Africa. This has been in urban planning and housing, architecture and construction - in policy, practice, training and research. His main research focus is the changing relationship between the state and civil society. Recent research has included: housing policy formulation and governance, urban planning and management, land access, and the effect of globalisation on urban areas. His main interests are widening participation and community empowerment, with a focus on low-income groups. He has also become increasingly involved in promoting participation of civil society in human settlements issues in Europe and Africa. Since 1996 he has been based in Edinburgh.