davidaulloa/AmericanStories huggingface dataset:
Evening star., 1962-12-25
SCIENTISTS HAVE MADE

-
SCIENTISTS HAVE MADE
much progress of late in
arriving at beginnings.
The manner and time of
the beginning Of the world
are still debatable. But in
laboratory and field they
have recently been coming
very close to how and when
life began on this planet.
BY accident or miracle it
began 81 billion years ago.
There are five radioactive
clocks, and they all agree.
Algal deposits similar to the
algae found in streams and
ponds have been found in
rock formations Of that dis
tant period.
Similar rock formations of
older periods contain no
signs of life.
The rocks of 81 billion
years ago containing algal
deposits have been found in
both the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres and
on the continents of the East
and the West.
AT about the same time all
over the world, inanimate
molecules became animate,
began 10 take nourishment
and multiply. Life began.
Two billion, seven hundred
million years ago. That's a
long time. A billion is a
thousand million, and a
million a thousand thou
sand. - -..-. ..s--.
What viStas Of time and
space we are asked to con-
templateI
We are told that our Milky
Way contains billions of solar
systems and that it is but
one Of an unknown number
of galaxieS. The farthest-
known galaxie-located by
radio, for its too distant to
be seen through the largest
optical telescopes many
million light years away.
Since light travels at the
speed Of 10000 miles a Sec
ond, that distance amounts
to quardrillions or quintil-
lions Of miles.
More than one hundred
years ago Thoreau, who was
trained as a surveyor, must
have suspected the distances
involved. He wrote:
"Stars are the apexes Of
what wonderful triangles"
Surely it was easier to ac-
cept the unimaginable "in-
finity" Of the mathematician
or the eternity of the theo-
Logan than to grasp such
duration or distance.
SUCH FIGURES DWARF
the numerals we use to des-
ignate the year-l962 ammo
Domini.
But they do not diminish
the Importance of the event
this day marks-the ami
versary Of the birth Of the
Man who is God.
II also marks the begin
ming Of the religion which
eventually sparked Europe
into becoming the most sue
cessful of the continents and
thus, II not in other ways,
affecting all Of our lives.
Nor do these tremendous
dimensions Of time and space
diminish the Importance OF
the recent event TO this little
family.
Life has come a long way
from its original unicellular
and bicellular forms In al
most 8 billion yeats Of ma
lures favorable environment
Of atmosphere, changing sea-
sons, rain and snow.
The pattern Of that last
leaf on the tree was COM
plex.
But this baby in the bassi-
nette!
When I see him breathing
softly, so warm, pink and
healthy, then awaken with
a smile that shows he is al
ready enjoying life; when I
note that his genes have die
tated some visible character
istics Of his grandfather-I
know that life cannot be an
Evening star., 1962-04-25
NucIeor Tests by U. S.
Total More Than 200

and several others IN the same
Hardtack II series which upset
American experts estimates of
the effectiveness of detectorS
for a nuclear test ban treaty.
The United States had an
nounced 168 blasts in all en-
vironments before President
EiSenhower's announcement of
unilateral test ban effective
October 81, 1858. Since the
United States resumed under
ground testing last September,
81 shots have been announced,
bring the admitted total Of
American tests to 1876.
American officials freely
acknowledge that all tests have
not been announced so it is
safe to say that the American
total has topped 200 before the
resumption Of atmospheric
testing this month.
All of the 80 tests in the
Hardtack II series Of 1858 were
babies compared to the huge
H-bombs that the United States
exploded at the peak Of its
big g-bomb era in 1952-54.
The Mike explosion of OPP
Grafton Ivy, the first American
test of a hydrogen device. was
estimated to have the explosive
power Of IA million tons of TIT
GA megatons).
Evening star., 1962-04-25

The United States has tested
more than 200 nuclear weapons
in the atmosphere, under
ground, underwater and at high
attitudes since the worlds first
atomic explosion in New Mexico
on July is, 1945.
The American total is per-
haps so higher than the Soviet
Unions aggregate since 1949
No one this side of the Iron
Curtain can claim to know
however, how many nuclear
shots the Kremlin scientists
have conducted.
The last United States nu-
clear test in the atmosphere
was fired October 80, 1858,
from a 25-foot tower at the
Nevada testing site.
1t was a tiny" blast whose
explosive power was the equiv
alenta of only 300 pounds OF
TINT.
Titania, as the test was code
named. had followed by 51a
hours the United States larg-
est Underground blast Of the
Hardtack II series of Septem-
ber-October, 1858. The huge
Blanca test was estimated to
be 1872 kilotons. Zone kiloton
is the equivalent in explosive
power Of 1000 tons of TNT0.
1t was the Blanca explosion
Evening star., 1962-04-25
Early Test FoIIout Seen
Limited to ropic Belt

rises higher, going into the
stratosphere (above $4,000 feet
in the tropics.
Tropospheric fallout rs to
earth relatively quickl' ter a
nuclear blast. Half of .. falls
in about 20 to 80 days.
Shakespeare fallout, on the
other hand, takes anywhere
from six months to several
years to begin to come down,
depending on where the burst
is fired. From the Russian
shots in polar ATTITUDES, ii
comes down quickly.
Force Carries It
From weapons Of the big
megaton class, practically all
of the radioactive debris is
carried up into the stratosphere
because Of the great force of
the explosion.
Smaller weapons, of the kill
oton class. would deposit virtu-
ally all their debris in the
troposhpere-except in the
cases where they were hurled
by rockets high into the strato-
sphere and exploded.
Presumably many Of the
American tests, whether in.
volving kiloton or megator
weapons, would be of this high
lofted variety.
President Kennedy has de.
clared that the tests would "be
conducted under conditions
which restrict the radioactive
fallout to an absolute min
imum, far less than the con-
tamination created by last falls
Soviet series"
Evening star., 1962-04-25

explosion at an altitude oi
about 48 miles above Johnston
Island in July, 1858, and an
earlier experimental shot at q
lower level constitutes the only
available data up to now. The
weaponeerS want to know more
about the behavior of neutrons
in an airleSs void and the
transmission, if any. of shock
waves.
8. Explore further the effect
of thermonuclear detonation
on electronic equipment, to
learn how extensive and for
what length of time is radar
"blacked out" by side effects
of a nuclear blast. They also
are interested in the possibility
that neutron radiation could
cause electronic conlputors to
forget the guidence informa-
ton cranked into missiles.
4. To conduct realistic tests
of nuclear warheads on mis-
siles. None have ever been
fired this way by the United
States.
S. Test new designs and per-
haps configuration of free
falling and rocket powered
bombs delivered by aircraft.
6. Test naval and nuclear
weapons. The Navy now has
nuclear warheads for torpe-
does, nuclear mines and nu-
clear depth charges. But they
were designed by using data
obtained in two previous un-
derwater shots, with old and
comparatively low-yield de-
vices.
Pentagon officials said an
other major goal of the tests
will be improved safety mech
anisms. They said scientists
will be looking for new ways
to safeguard atomic weapons
from accidental firing or Sabo-
tage.
Evening star., 1962-04-25
Other Areas
Divided On
AT esting
BY the Associated Press

The United States Informa-
ton Agency reported today il
has found strong support in
Latin America, the Philippines
and Thailand for United States
resumption of atmospheric nu-
clear testing.
But it said opinion in areas
including the Middle East
South Asia and Africa is op-
posed to testing.
Even critical comment, how.
ever" the agency said, was in
no way comparable to the Sc
we're criticism leveled against
the Soviet Union when it broke
the moratorium last fall.
Generally, there has beer
reluctant acceptance of what is
considered inevitable or, in
some instances, necessary-re-
sumption Of United States at.
mospheric testing"
The agency said its conclu-
sionS about foreign attitude.
toward the Pacific tests re.
suited from an analysis of for,
eign editorial comment anC
public reaction following Presi.
dent Kennedy's speech or
March 2. At that time Mr.
Kennedy announced a decision
to go ahead with the tests un.
less the Soviets agreed, prior tC
late April, to an enforceable
test ban treaty.
The agency said that with
few exceptions comment COW
cred in its survey showed a
large measure of understand
ing of the motives behind the
United States decision"
Evening star., 1962-04-25

banners, shoes and other be-
longings of the students.
The demonstration was led
by Japan's Zengakuren Student
Federation. which has vowed
to demonstrate at the embassy
every day the United States
carries on nuclear tests in the
Central Pacific.
After the police repulsed
them, the students marched to
Tokyo's Shimbasi Railway Sta
tion, sang the Communist In
ternationale and staged q
brief sitdown strike.
Socialists Plan SitdOwn
The United States test de-
cision prompted other protests
from various groups in Japan.
Saburo Eda, secretary-general
of the Socialist Party, said the
Socialists would stage sitdowns
at the United States Embassy
A similar warning was issued by
the leftist Japanese Council
Against Atomic and Hydrogen
Bombs.
The government issued a mild
statement on the Washington
announcement that tests will
begin as soon as is operationally
feasible.
For world peace and welfare,
Japan is opposed to any kind of
nuclear testing by any coun-
try" said Masayoshi Ohira,
cabinet secretary.
Warship Move Urged
In Madras, Indian elder
statesman c. Rajagopalachari
called on Prime Minister Nehru
to send a warship to the Christ
mas Island area in an attempt
to stop the United States tests.
Earl Bertrand Russell, Brit
ish philosopher and paeificist,
urged last week that India and
seven other nonaligned nations
send ships to the test zone area.
Mr.. Nehru indicated in Par
lament yesterday he didn't
think much of Lord Russell's
plan. But the Indian Prime
Minister called on both the
Evening star., 1962-04-25
Effort to Ban Blasts
Goes Back 8 Years

chev's transforming visit to the
United States in September
produced the spirit of Camp
David"
From November 25 to Decem-
Der 18, 1859, a second East
West technical conference con-
vened to study the degradation
Of the test-ban control system
discovered by the United States
in its Hardtack II series. The
meeting broke up in wide dis
agreement; the Soviet Union
refused to accept American
evidence that test-ban con-
troll would be much more diff
cult than originally supposed.
President Eisenhower had ex-
tended the United States 12-
month unilateral moratorium to
IA months. ending December
81, 1859, but after the failure
of the second technical confer
ence he pronounced the United
States free to resume testing
He said he would give advance
notice before doing so.
New Plan Offered
AS the treaty negotiations
ground tediously on in Geneva
the United States and Britain
presented a new threshold
plan, which added some under.
ground tests, those of 20 kilo-
tons or larger, which were moi
decoupled, to the list of shots
prescribed. The Soviet Unior
responded by accepting thi;
idea if the United States ane
Britain would join in a stimuli.
taneous pledge not to test weap.
ons smaller than 20 kilotons un.
derground. CA kiloton is the ex.
plosive equivalent of 1000 tom
of TNT)
| Prime Minister Macmillan
and President Eisenhower re-
Sponded favorably to the So
Wet counter-proposal in a com
munique from Camp David OF
March 90, 1860. but insisted tn,
! threshold treaty should b.
signed first and then eacl
would be ready to institute (
voluntary moratorium o
agreed duration" below tn
threshold, to be accomplished
by unilateral declarations o
each of the three powers. Join
research to lower the thresholc
should start as soon as possible
the two leaders said.
The Soviet Union cooled
toward the test-ban negoti
ationS after the American u:
spy plane was downed deep in
side the Soviet Union, May l
. 1860, and Premier Khrushche,
torpedoed the Paris summit
conference on May 16.
The summit had been antici.
Evening star., 1962-04-25

United States and Russia to re-
frain from teStS-aT least until
the II nation disarmament
talks are completed at Geneva.
United Nations Acting Sec
retary General q Thant also
urged the atomic powers yes
terday to refrain from further
nuclear weapon explosions.
Mr.. Thant, speaking at a
New York luncheon, recalled
that the U. N. general assembly
last fall had called for an end
to nuclear tests.
Both the United States and
Russia told the Assembly at the
time they would not be found
by the resolution.
Black Omen Seen
The London Daily Mail noted
that Prime Minister Mac.
millan's arrival in the United
States would probably coincide
with the start of the rev United
States tests. Many would see
in such a melancholy coinci-
dence a black omen for the
future, the conservative paper
said.
Chinese Nationalist news
papers in Formosa lauded the
United States decision and pre-
dicted it would mark a turning
point in the cold war. The
official Central Daily News said
the move was part of United
States policy of maintaining
peace through deterrent
strength"
In Moscow. the Soviet news
agency TaSs reported the
United States test announce
ment without comment.
Evening star., 1962-04-25
Cubon-Run School
Shut in GuuyuquiI

QUITO, Ecuador, April Is
(AP) ).-Ecuador'S Education
Ministry yesterday closed q
Cuban-operated school in the
port city of Guayaquil.
The schools director, JUL
da Cordova Reyes, a Cuban
woman, was ordered to show
proof that she was in Ecuador
legally.
Lorenzo Hinojosa, forme Il
Guayaquil security chief, filed
a formal complaint charging
the school was a center OF
Communist propaganda.
Evening star., 1962-04-25

lpated as the forum for final
agreement on a nuclear test
ban treaty.
In the almost 2l2 years of
treaty negotiations, Soviet.
American and British diplo-
mats had agreed on a preamble,
II articles and one annex, but
disagreements on key points of
inspection persisted.
The summit failure ended
the Eisenhower administrations
chances to negotiate a test-ban
treaty.
The Kennedy administration
made one last effort in 1861 to
get a Soviet agreement. Am
bassador Arthur Dean offered
seven concessions when negoti-
ations resumed on March 81,
1861.
But the Soviet Union re-
sponded by backing away from
the single-administrator plan
for the control organization and
substitution of the veto-ridden
"troika" or tripartite board in
which the Soviet bloc, the
Western Allies and a group of
neutrals could veto impartial
inspection.
j Russia Resumes Tests
On April 18, 1861, the United
States and Britain tabled a
complete draft treaty banning
tests down to a 20-kiloton
threshold underground. Both
nations stand ready today to
sign that treaty, but the Soviet
Union has shown no interest.
! While the Geneva negotia-
!, tions continued, the Kremlin
secretly prepared for a new
test series. Radio Moscow an
nounced on August 80 the So
|. Wet Union would resume nu-
clear tests. They began Sep
|, tember and grew into a series
;; of more than 40 shots ending
late in October. One had a
force of 80 megatons (the
equivalent explosive power OF
80 million tons of TNT) and
the largest was So megatons.
On September 8, President
Kennedy and Prime Minister
! Macmillan appealed to Premier
Khrushchev to agree immedi-
ately mot to conduct nucleal
tests which take place in the
;. : atmosphere and produce radio.
J active fallout." They Offered
! the Soviet Union what woulc
!. :. in effect be an atmospheric
: : test ban without inspection.
: : The Soviet Union continued
: testing, however, and the
: t. United States resumed under.
. . ground nuclear experiments ir
: = Nevada on September IS.
4 On November 2, 1861, Pres.
> ident Kennedy ordered that
preparations be made for re-
sumption of atmospheric tests
in the Pacific. On March 2
1862, the President announced
his decision to resume nucleal
, testing in the atmosphere in
' the latter part of April, unless
the Soviet Union signed an eff
fectively inspected nuclear test
: ban treaty by then.
Evening star., 1962-04-25

OeTeTdI ODJccLiNcS
The objectives of the new
United States series generally
are these:
/. Improve the explosive
yield so that bigger warheac
power can be carried longer
distances without increasing
the booster and missile size.
2. Explore the effects of very
high-altitude nuclear explosions
to try to advance the anti
missile missile program. A tes
Evening star., 1962-04-25
Rv the Associated Press

The early fallout from the
forthcoming United States
nuclear tests in the Pacific is
expected to be limited mainly
to a belt some 1000 to $500
miles wide in tropical latitudes
All indications point to its
being relatively slight at any
one place. And virtually none
of this early fallout is expected
to reach the United States.
Weather Bureau fallout spe-
cialists said in an interview
that:
Prevailing wind patterns in
the equatorial regions are such
that the tropospheric fallout
from the tests would very likely
be limited essentially to areas
around the earth which lie
between Is degrees north or
south of a line passing through
either Of the two main test
sites.
Sites Listed
These sites are Christmas
Island, near the equator, an6
Johnston Island, some 1,20C
miles northwest of Christina:
Island.
Tropospheric fallout is thai
part Of the fallout which re.
mains in the troposphere -
the layer of atmosphere from
the earth's surface up to 5000
feet, over the tropics. It's CELL
ing is lower over polar areas
$1,000 feet.
This kind of fallout is to
be distinguished from stratos-
pheric fallout-the fallout that
Evening star., 1962-04-25
Kennedy Bars
| A.Tests for
| Propaganda
By JOHN M. HIGHTOWER
Associated Press staff Writer

ed that each explosion in thu
United States nuclear test
series must be justified by 9
military necessity. He ruled out
shots designed to impress The
Russians or to make favorable
propaganda for the United
States.
Mr.. Kennedy yesterday auth
orized the tests to proceed, but
aides said he has been reluct-
ant to let the tests be held al
all. Only after repeated unsuc-
cesSful appeals to Soviet Pre-
mier Khrushchev to try to gel
Soviet agreement to an en-
forceable test ban treaty die
he give final approval.
From the day Mr.. Kennedy
took office in January, 1861, hi
was under pressure mostly from
military leaders and many
members of Congress to ap.
prove resumption of testing. He
chose to negotiate.
His efforts were unsuccessful
The United States began under
ground testing. But Mr.. Ken
nedy noted in an announcement
that if Russia continued its at
mospheric tests of weapons sys.
TENS and the United State:
failed to do so, Russia might
vault into the lead in the nu.
clear arms race.
Two Courses Seen
Under the circumstances, the
President felt there were only
two lines of action available
to preserve the relative balance
in the world:
l. To resume testing to what
ever extent was militarily justi.
fled.
2. To freeze the arms race
by bringing it to an end with
a nuclear test ban treaty which
would prohibit all testing anc
provide safeguards against
cheating. He said the treaty
should also contain safeguard:
against secret preparations by
the Soviet Union for a future
test series.
On March 2, Mr.. Kennedy
announced in a speech that tbs
United States would resume nu.
clear testing in the atmosphere
unless "the Soviet Unior
should now be willing to accept
a (test-ban) treaty, sign it be.
fore the latter part Of Apri
and apply it Immediately"
II Russia did this, added Mr.
Kennedy. there would be NJ
need for our tests to begin"
In this fateful atmosphere
the foreign ministers met IL
Geneva. Their meeting ended
in an impasSe.
On April 10, the United
States and Britain declared
that, unless there was a radi
cal change in the Soviet posi-
ton, more tests would be in
evitable. And British Prim,
Minister Macmillan sent
personal appeal to Mr.. Khru
shchev to renew negotiation
by accepting the principle o
international inspection.
Soviet Tests Expected
Mr.. Khrushchev turned dowr
the appeal and accused tn,
West Of bad faith. He claimet
the Western powers were de-
termined to test again anC
said the Soviet Union woulc
test If they did.
There is some belief, espe.
cially among British leaders
that the effect of further test.
ing by Russia and the Unitec
States will be to narrow tn,
gap between them in nucleal
weapons development.
According to this theory, i
the Soviet government decide,
it has achieved virtual equal
ity with the United States, /
may be willing to make an &C
ceptable agreement to bring tn,
race to an end.
Evening star., 1962-04-25
Austrian Expected

President Kennedy and
Chancellor Alfons Gorbach of
Austria will confer at the White
House on May 3, diplomatic
informants said today
Evening star., 1962-04-25
TESTS
Continued From Page Al

Continued From Page Al
tiations although noting the
United States was freed from
its pledge to withhold further
tests.
There were no known nuclear
tests from November 8, 1858,
until the sudden Soviet resump-
ton of atmospheric shots on
September /, 1861.
New Theory
A few weeks after the treaty
negotiations began in Geneva,
analysis of underground tests
in the Hardtack II series showed
the conference of experts had
greatly overestimated both the
ability to detect secret under
ground shots and the ability
to distinguish them from earth
quakes.
Early in 1859, DR.. Albert L.
Latter of the Rand Corp,
released his decoupling theory,
by which underground shots
could be muffled in big holes
to appear one-three-hundredths
of their actual size.
Negotiations toward a test
ban treaty begged down in &C.
neva with the adverse Ameri-
can findings on effectiveness of
inspection and in the face of
the traditional Soviet sensitiv-
ity to inspections behind the
Iron Curtain.
British Prime Minister Mac
milan then flew to Moscow in
late February with a new
proposal for Soviet Premier
Khrushchev: The West might
accept an annual ceiling on the
number of on-site inspection oi
suspicious underground events
if the Soviet Union woulc
abandon its demand for a veto
on inspectors movements.
Offer Spurned
On April 13, 1859, President
Eisenhower presented Soviet
Premier Khrushchev with ar
alternative to a test ban-s
"phaSed" treaty, in which
| underground tests would not bt
banned in the first stage unit
an effective inspection system
to verify compliance could bt
, established.
Premier Khrushchev spurnec
this alternative ten days later
but adopted as his own Prime
! Minister Macmillan's plan set
: ting an annual quota for on-sitt
: inspections. President Eisen'
hover agreed to explore it.
' These maneuvers kept thu
Geneva test-ban negotiation!
: alive through the summer o.
1859, until Premier Khrush-
Evening star., 1962-04-25
Angry Tokyo Students
Storm u. S. Embassy

TOKYO April 25 (AP).-Denouncing the United States
decision to nucear tests 100 eftwng tried
storm the American Embassy today but 200 police stopped
them so yards short of the gate.
One plainclothesman cut about the face brief
fierce battle that left the street Uttered anti-nucear
Navajo times., 1962-08-29
JETS TO SALUTE NAVAJO TRIBAL FAIR

AFSWC. Albuquerque, NM. -
More than 2Ojet fighters and bomb
ers from Kirkland Air Force Base
in Albuquerque are scheduled to
present an aerial salute to the
Navajo Tribal Fair, Saturday
morning, September 8.
Pilots and crews from the Air
Force Special Weapons Center, the
Naval Weapons Evaluation AGILITY,
and the New Mexico Air National
Guard will begin their flights over
the fair grounds at II am.
Navajo will see the giant B52
jet bomber. largest plane in the
Air Force: the Navy's Wgilante
fighter r-bcmber which operates
from aircraft carriers: and the