davidaulloa/AmericanStories huggingface dataset:
Evening star., 1961-05-28

first time in nearly two weeks,
Justice officials revealed that
the decision to send marshals
into the South was made six
days before they went.
Mr.. Kennedy first moved
into the racial strife on the
night. of May IA, after the
Freedom Riders had their first
encounters with mob violence.
A fire bomb was thrown into
a stalled bus outside Admission,
Ala, and the demonstrators
who reached Birmingham were
met by a club-wielding mob.
The Attorney General that
night directed the FBI to in
vestigate the incidents.
On the following day, JUS
tice officials started debating
what course to take to protect
the rights of people to travel in
terstate without mob violence.
It was then that the decision
was made to use marshalls, If
necessary.
Kennedy Aide Attacked
Mr.. Kennedy sent his admin
istrative assistant, John Seig-
enthaler, to Birmingham. Mr.,
Seigenthaler later was injured
in the May 20 outbreak Of vio-
lence in Montgomery which
took Justice Officials by sur
prise.
The department had been
led to believe that Montgomery
had an effective Police Depart
ment. The only question was
whether the 110-man force was
large enough to deal with mob
action If it developed. AS il
turned out, the police didn't
show up until after damage
was done.
The beatings were still going
on when the Justice Depart
ment was notified. John Doar,
first assistant in the depart
ment's Civil Rights Division,
was at the bus station to watch
the arrival Of the Freedom
Riders.
When the mob took over, he
ran across the street to the
Federal building and called the
department from the United
States Attorneys office.
ITS the most horrible thing
I've ever seem" he reported to
Washington. Its terrible, ter
rible."
President Issued Order
The battle plan, adopted
nearly a week earlier, went
into effect. The Attorney Gen
Ieral tried unsuccessfully to
Evening star., 1961-05-28

reach Gov. John Patterson of
Alabama. Then he called Pres
ident Kennedy, who issued or
derS for him to take all neces-
sary steps.
The Federal officers deput-
lied as marshals were on their
way before the Attorney Cen
eral announced publicly that
he had sent them.
When Gov. Patterson called
Mr.. Kennedy he bitterly pro-
tested the Federal intervention.
And that night, the marshalS
faced another outbreak OF vio-
lence.
Since then. Mr.. Kennedy and
his aides have made hundreds
of personal calls to all groups
involved. The theme: The
courts are the place to settle
differences. not the streets.
Evening star., 1961-05-28
U. S. Gives $4,000
To Singapore Relief

SINGAPORE, May 26 (AP).
The United States Govern
ment is contributing $4,000 to
an estimated 10000 persons
left homeless by a fire that
swept a crowded shack area of
Singapore two days ago.
Consul General William Mad
dox announced the United
States gift as the Singapore
government donated more than
100000 and the British gov
ernment pledged $4,000.
More than 1900 families
were left homeless by the fire,
which claimed two lives and
injured dozens.
Evening star., 1961-05-28
WIDOW TO REMARRY
U.S.. MorshoIs 7 roined
In Riot Control DUTY

the now-familiar arm bands,
have had to escort Negro chill
dren to previously all-white
schools through crowds of op-
posing parents.
Under present law, marshals
are not officially civil service
employees. They do not take
competitive examinations for
their jobs, but are appointed in
each of the 81 Federal judicial
districts.
Qualifications Needed
Until 1854, the deputy mar
Shals were under Civil Service"
C. w. Palmer, assistant to the
deputy Attorney General, said.
Nov they're on Schedule B,
which means they can be ap-
pointed if they have certain
qualifications"
The qualifications include a
physical examination, at least
a high school education, two
years law enforcement expert
ence and a year and a half of
other working experience. The
last two requirements can be
waived. Mr.. Palmer said. If the
applicant has had college or
law training.
The deputy marshal receives
$4,830 for his probationary
year. II he successfully COM
pleteS the training course and
his record is good. he receives
1886 the second year, and Is
put on permanent tenure with
regular pay increases.
The deputies work for the
United States marshal in each
judicial district. The marshal,
generally a political appointee,
is nominated by the President
and approved by the Senate
and serve for four years.
Pay Up to $1S,347
They make as much as $13,-
BAT a year in New York, and as
little as $3.50 in small juris-
dictions. The marshal in Wash
ington gets $13,070 a year.
After the Little Rock epi-
sode in 1883" another Justice
Department official said, "it
was decided that every newly
appointed marshal should re-
ceive training"
The program was set up by
marshals in Washington, and
is now held at the National
Training Schools for Boys. The
deputy marshal receives class
room training on law and court
procedure, weapons and riot
control.
They also receive firearm in
struction at a firing range, and
instruction in judo and other
physical defense tactics.
But whatever the deputies
learn in training programs, JUS
tice officials believed that they
learned even more valuable les
sons helping to avert mob vio-
lence in Montgomery.
Evening star., 1961-05-28
CzechS Honor Eaton

PRAGUE, May 27 (AP).-
Cyrus Eaton, Cleveland indus
trialist and winner of the Lenin
peace prize, today received an
honorary doctorate from Sofia
University, the official Czech
news agency CTK reported.
Evening star., 1961-05-28

five OUT OF SIX deputy OIuI6Q
States marshals sent to stem
racial violence in Alabama last
week had received riot control
training. Such training became
mandatory after similar Incl
dents in Little Rock, Ark, in
1858.
A Justice Department spokes-
man said yesterday all newly
appointed deputy marshalS
undergo a two-week general
training course in Washington,
and that most have some law
enforcement experience before
they are appointed.
He said that 514 out of the
600 Federal officers sent into
Montgomery, Ala, to protect
Freedom Riders from mob
violence had been through the
two-week course. All Of the 20
marshals sent from the District
had been trained, he said.
Some Deputized for Job
About 125 of the Federal Off
GERS sent to Montgomery eight
days ago we're deputy marshals
in their home communities.
The others were deputized as
marshals for the Montgomery
duty. They included guards
from Atlanta Penitentiary and
the Federal Reformatory at
Chillicothe, Ohio, as we'll as
agents Of the Treasury Depart
mems Alcohol and Tobacco Tax
Unit, and Texas border patrol
men from the immigration and
Naturalization Service.
District Marshal James j. P.
McShane, who commanded the
marshals in holding back a
mob at a Negro church, in
Montgomery, is a veteran Of
the New York City police.
Attorney General Robert
Kennedy has credited the mar
Shals with averting violence at
the church in Montgomery last
week before Alabama National
Guard units arrived at the
scene. The marshals, dressed
in civilian clothes and wearing
identifying arm bands. were
equipped with tear gas, re-
volvers, and riot sticks.
Used in Strike in 18S0s
1t was apparently the first
time since the railroad strikes
in the 1880s that armed Fed
eral marshals had been used
on such a scale. It was an
incongruous chapter in the
history Of the marshals. who
are primarily officers of Fed
eral courts, used to serving
summons and transporting
Federal prisoners.
The position of United States
marshal was created in 1893,
when a judiciary act made the
marShals the "sheriffs" of
Federal courts. They did the
bidding Of Federal judges, and
handled prisoners awaiting
Federal court trials.
AS the country moved West,
the United States marshal and
his deputies bacame powerful
law enforcement officials in
Federal Territories. Television
script writer's constantly re-
mind audiences Of this phase
Of marshal history. But as
Territories became States, the
marshals reverted to their
earlier roles as court officers.
Protected the Mails
In the railroad strikes near
Chicago in 1886, armed deputy
marshals rode trains to prevent
workers from halting mail de-
livery.
In recent years m ar S h a S
have had to learn new tactics
to do the bidding" of the
Federal courts. United States
court decisions, upholding the
Supreme Courts anti-segrega-
tion rulings, have had to be
carried out by marshals. In
several instances, officers with
Evening star., 1961-05-28
Alabama Cool Reached, ,
Attorney General Says

Attorney General Robert Kennedy said yesterday that
far the accomplished
do in Alabama.
other Justice officials in close touch with both Sou
hern leaders Freedom
Evening star., 1961-09-20
Space Doctor
ExpectsRedsto
Reach Moon
BY the Associated Press

A key figure in the Uniteo
States Mercury astronaut pro-
gram says the Russians prop
ably win beat the Americans to
the moon.
Retired Air Force Brig. Gen.
Don Flickinger, a surgeon who
helps in the selection of United
States spacemen, told the Ma
tional Rocket Club yesterday
that II truly cannot see for
us a successful soft lunar land
ing and return mission during
this decade"
President Kennedy has or
dered an expedited program to
place an American crew on the
moon within the next 10 years.
Gen. Flickinger quoted DR..
Edward Teller, noted atomic
scientist, as saying two years
ago that when the Americans
finally reach the moon they
would find Russians there.
Predicts Red Gain
II almost don't see how it
can be otherwise" said Gen.
Flickinger, former assistant for
bioastronautics to the COM
mander Of the Air Force Air
Research and Development
Command.
: Gen. Flickinger said he based
Evening star., 1961-09-20

group engineer who will direct
the work, said.
One Year Is Target
I'VE hope to complete the
new buildings within a year
after we break ground" Mr..
Campagna told newsmen at the
present NASA space task group
headquarters at Hampton, Va.
Some 200 people are expected
to move from Hampton to
Houston within a month, a
space task group spokesman
said. These would be mostly a
housekeeping crew" to set up
quarters.
Reaction in the Hampton
area to the announced move
was generally calm though a
number of local officials ex-
pressed disappointment. John
P. Yancy, chairman of a COM
mittee for keeping the space
effort at its Langley Air Force
Base site in Hampton, declared: /:
We're sorry to see it go and
just hope it will help the space
program :"
Evening star., 1961-09-20


many space missions dncluding
the first Apollo-B flight around
the noon. the 43-year-old Air
Force officer would not be
going along on this trip. This
one was for younger men. Col
Grissom was officially the crews
instructor-adviSer; they called
him their "den mother"
The spacemen reviewed flight
procedures on the way up. Each
man knew his role by heart.
Each had made many actual
space flights, some of consider
able duration. and each had
simulated the entire moon mis-
sion in an isolation chamber at
least once.
Carloads of Fuel
For days, checkout and serv-
icing crews had been swarming
over the huge rocket. Logistics
experts had almost lost track
of how many carloads of fuel
had gone into the rockets huge
NAV: Carloads of RP-1 kero-
sene for the first and second
stages; carloads of feather
light, unbelievably cold liquid
hydrogen for the third and
fourth and fifth stages; car
load upon carload of "Lox"
liquid oxygen-as the oxidizer
for every stage. Wisps of vapor
drifted lazily from valves along
the rockets side. Icy frost
formed around the bottom two
stages, but not around the up
per ones, which were better
insulated to protect their cargo
of liquid hydrogen.
Electronics men had salts
fled themselves that all the
wires, contacts and gizmos in
the huge bird we're working
well. They double-checked the
telemetry in Lunar Control,
which would keep the rocket
continually under surveillance
during flight.
Radiomen checked out the
Lunar Communications Net, a
complex of wire and wireless
that stretched around the world
and out to the moon itself. BY
means of this net. Lunar Con-
troll would be able to talk to the
spacecraft throughout the jour-
ney. Huge dish antennas and
receivers were spotted around
the world at Canaveral, at
several points on the Ameri-
can East Coast, at Jodrell Bank
in England, in South Africa,
Australia and Hawaii, and at
Goldstone Dry Lake in the Cal
Evening star., 1961-09-20
Climate Important

minute hold" was called as
scheduled.
The pilot reflected briefly
during the hold on the awe
some responsibility that had
been handed him. He was re-
sponsible for three lives and
500 million worth of rocket,
to be sure, but lives and rock
cts had been lost before. and
in any case responsibility for
men and property was a part
of any military command. !. He
was thinking, rather, of his
responsibility for the missions
success. The Nations prestige
had been laid on the line; it
was up to him to deliver.
He was glad when the count
down resumed. Let Presidents
and philosophers worry about
prestige, he told himself, I've
got my hands full driving this
beast. E ,.
Tomorrow: 5-4-3-2-1-
0-liftOff.)
Evening star., 1961-09-20
Arub League Council
Backs Algerian Rebels

CAIRO, Sept. 20 (AP) The
Arab League Council meeting
ended a five-day session yes
terday reiterating support for
the Algerian NationalistS
against France.
A council resolution also sup
ported the policies of the Al
gerian rebel regime aiming at
achieving Legitimate goals of
self determination, independ-
ence and the unity and SOW
ereignty Of Algerians over their
territory"
Evening star., 1961-09-20
Radio Relay on Moon

Radio Relay on Moon
A technician at Lunar Con-
troll shot a radio impulse to a
transporter on the moon. This
gadget, placed there by an un-
manned Surveyor Spacecraft
three years before, was a tiny
radio relay station powered by
energy from the sun. Its only
job was to receive radio signals
and Immediately retranSmit
them. This transporter was
one of three homing beacons
and navigation aids that would
be useful during the lunar ap-
proach and landing phase.
The technician pushed the
button and waited. Precisely
212 seconds later an instrument
on his console told him the
signal had been received on the
moon, retransmitted and re-
celved on earth. The delay was
an indication of the tremendous
scope of the mission ahead:
The moon was nearly 240,000
miles away and radio waves
travel "only" 10000 miles a
second, the speed of light.
1t was 6:25 am. when the
elevator reached the top of the
gantry. and Col. Grissom and
the crew stepped out. The
countdown was on schedule at
T minus 100 minutes. With no
subsequent delays the rocket
would blast off at 8:05 am.
There was an incongruous.
ancient-history overtone to
this most modern of adven-
lures. Just as the ancients used
to consult astrologers tefore
embarking on important enter
.priseS, the men in charge Of
Operation Moon had asked
astronomers for advice. Only
on certain days, and only at
certain times on those days,
would conditions be favorable
for a launch. This period was
called the 'launch window.
GA Hours for Trip
Like the Russians, who had
chosen a November day for
historical reasons, the Ameri-
cans wanted their initial land
ing to be on July 4. Astronomers
said it could be done, provided
the launch occurred between
sos and 9:24 am. (EST) on
the first of July. 1t would
take "a hours to make the
crossing.
A submariner would have
been at home in the crowded
cockpit of the Spacecraft. Three
form-fitting couches not un-
like those used years before
by the Mercury Astronauts
filled most of the crafts liv-
ing space. Instruments were
everywhere, artfully arranged
Evening star., 1961-09-20

achieving the goal. before this
decade is out, of landing a man
on the moon and returning him
safely to earth"
He had hoped the goal could
be achieved during his admin
istration-t that a lunar landing
could be linked in history to
his name. But the inevitable
slippages of a big space pro-
gram. plus the working of the
Constitutions 22d Amendment
limiting presidential tenure,
had robbed him of this dis
tinction.
Two days earlier, when the
lengthy countdown began, prof.
ect chiefs told themselves it was
a wonder the mission was this
far along. At the beginning
there had been fumbling, false
starts and empire-building. In
the middle, agonizing review,
"re-thinking" and congressional
kibitzing. And when the Rus
SLAMS landed a lunar team in
time for the Red Revolutions
anniversary in November, 1867,
the public's disappointment
threatened the program fur
ther.
All Eyes On Rocket
Mr.. Kennedy had warned in
1861: If we are to go only
half way, or reduce our sights
in the face of difficulty, in
my judgment it would be better
not to go at all" And so he
pushed the program through to
mid-1969 and somehow the job
got done.
Now the worlds eyes were
on the enormous rocket which
soon would be committed to a
64-hour flight to the moon.
The then Space Administrator,
James E. Webb, had spoken
at the start of the program of
a rocket "aS big around as
the Washington Monument and
two-thirds as tall" And there
it stood.
On the biggest launching pad
ever built, the rocket looked
even larger than Mr.. Webb's
description, at least to three
men who had Just stepped from
a bus at its base. These three
would make the trip. starting
in just two hours.
They moved into an elevator
in the gantry tower next to
the srocket-an elevator that
would take them up the equiva-
lent of 80 stories. 1t. Col. Virgil
GriSsom, the second American
in space. rode up with them.
A multimillion -mile veteran Of
Evening star., 1961-09-20
Major Is Pilot

Inside, the crew turned
quickly to their pre-launch
duties. The man in the mid
die chair, an Air Force major
in his early 30s with over 500
hours in space, was pilot and
commander. He had been Girls
SONS co-pilot on the first cir
cumlunar flight in 1867, a year
after his maiden cruise in space
in an Apollo-A three-week or
bital mission.
The co-pilot, who doubled
as communication, was a Navy
test pilot, a lieutenant, with
a radio engineering degree. He
had only about 100 hours in
space, but a substantial part
of this time was on missions
involving rendezvous in orbit.
He was regarded as one of the
hottest precision flyers in the
business, and had been given
special training in handling
the controls during a lunar
landing.
The third man, also Navy
two-Striper, had the navigator's
assignment. In the countdown
period he was probably the
busiest man aboard. checking
infinitely complex computers,
celebrating Instruments. COM
pairing notes with the comput-
ing center on the ground. 1t
had been decided at the outset
that the spacecraft's naviga-
tion system would be self-suf- =
ficient, with back-up support
from the earth if necessary.
The countdown proceeded
uneventfully, as countdowns
came to have a way of doing
in the late SOS. At so minutes
before zero-7:15 ANA 10
Evening star., 1961-09-20

ifornia desert. One or more of
these would have the space
craft in fine-of-sight contact
at all times.
Evening star., 1961-09-20

his estimates on "our presen.
knowledge of the physical en-
vironments incident to a
manned lunar mission and the
biologic equivalents thereto,
plus the state Of our techno-
logical art as is concerned with
both the vehicle and the COM
ponentS."
Gen. Flickinger predicted that
the next Soviet space achieve
ment might be placing a creN1
of several members in q four
day parking orbit" around the
earth similar to that which
would be involved in a lunar
landing.
He said the Soviet crew might
direct the release of a lunar
probe at the proper time, with
the probe aimed at q soft
landing with research equip
ment.
Gen. Flickinger, now q pri-
vate consultant, said the most
important single biomedical
problem facing science, with
regard to space flights of two
to seven days. is that Of radia-
ton.
Most Gauge Energy
He said the energy from the
sun and more distant sources
is yet to be fully measured
and until this is done the
significant combined dose rates
and total effect of radiation
cannot be determined.
MY feeling is that some
Of our earlier calculations may
be on the low side and further
investigations and computations
may yield problem, for more
extended space optration, Of
somewhat greater magnitude
than now realized" Gen Flick
niger said.
Despite these problems, l
am very optimistic regarding
mans ability to personally ex-
plore and exploit space for
many as yet unforeseeable
benefits to all mankind"
But he added that it will not
be quick or easy.
Evening star., 1961-09-20
Houston Site Picked
For Space Headquarters

ment-owned Michoud Ordnance
Plant in New Orleans.
The space agency said both
the Southern climate and the
nearness to educational institu-
tions influenced its choice of
Houston for the command
center.
The thousand acres OF water
front land in Harris County,
bordered by Clear Lake and the
Houston Power & Light Co. S
salt water canal, was made
available by Rice University.
Rice and other nearby uni
versities will be tapped for SCI
entific know how and educa-
tional facilities, a NASA spokes-
man said.
Medical Center Near
About 200 miles away, at
Brooks Air Force Base in San
Antonio, Tex, is the aerospace
medical center, where the et-
feet Of space travel on humans
is being investigated.
The Canaveral-New Orleans
Houston nnoon-shoot complex is
entirely within a region per-
mitting out-of doors work for
most of the year. NASA pointed
out.
.NASA Administrator James
Webb said the expansion of
Canaveral. the big rocket-fabri-
cation plant at New Orleans
and the location of the new
space flight laboratory at
Houston, will make possible the
establishment q an integrated
system connect6h by deep-water
transportation and capable of
handling the large space craft
and launch vessels in the Apollo
manned lunar landing project.
Four Units Planned
Four separate units win be
built at Houston: A flight
project facility, an equipment
evaluation laboratory, a flight
operations facility and an en-
vironmental testing laboratory.
Announcement of the choice
of the Houston site came first
from the Houston office of Vice
President johnson. 1t was made
there by representative
Thomas, Democrat Of Texas. A
short time later the civilian
space agency made it official
here.
Construction of at least three
space flight facilities at the
new Appollo center is scheduled
to begin within eight months,
Ralph Campagna, space task
Evening star., 1961-09-20

to double, where possible, as
shielding against dangerous
radiations in space.
Food lockers were full of rea-
sonably palatable items selected
with three things in mind: A
balanced diet of about $500
calories a day: a minimum of
preparation needed; a low-resi-
due content. Enough water for
the whole journey was aboard;
instead of recycling waste
water, this would be pumped
into containers to serve as
auxiliary shielding. An ample
oxygen supply was on board,
too; engineers had decided that
the weight advantage from an
oxygen-recycling system would
not be worth the trouble.
Col. Grissom supervised the
crews preparations. made his
own laSt-minute check of con-
ditions in the capsule, and told
a waiting technician> to seal
the entry port. He returned to
the elevator, reflecting on his
own feelings eight years ear
lier when he first went out into
the unknown. ----..
Evening star., 1961-09-20
Operation Moon
July I, 1869: Countdown Begins
For Biggest Adventure Ever
CHAPTER IL
By WILLIAM HINES
Star Science Writer

Tuesday, July l. 1869, dawned hot clear and calm at
the lunar spaceport in the bookdockS few miles north
of. Cape Canavera. This the day to which former
President Kennedy had pointed the Nation eight years
earlier, when he had told Congress
81 believe that this Nation should commit itself to