davidaulloa/AmericanStories huggingface dataset:
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18

so far as our observed information
regarding upper air currents at sea
falls short, there will be an uncer-
tainty for that 500 miles of air
navigation in midocean.
The accounts that come to us of
the close watch that the aviators in
Newfoundland are keeping of the
local weather conditions make one
feel that those local air conditions
are playing too important part in
the plan. To be sure, it is highly
important that the local starting
conditions should be as favorable as
possible, because the start is like the
"take off" in running jump, and
we'll started is we'll begun; but the
jump has still to be made.
By choosing the proper condition
westerly wind may be secured for
the whole journey by taking a high
altitude for the fight.
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
On the
Azores Route

In the fight by way of the Azores
the aeroplanes would cross the
track frequented by the transatlan-
tic lines, but most Of the way would
be off the beaten track, and there
would be little possible assistance
from passing vessels. Of course, the
distance of fight is much less, but
this hardly outweighs the safeguard
OF vessels on the longer route.
By this route a new element of
weather conditions enters, for in the
passage from Newfoundland to the
Azores the air conditions change
very materially in type, the prevail
ing winds at sea level changing from
west to north, whereas from New
foundland to Ireland they remain
the same to which the aviators of
northern ATTITUDES have been accus-
toned, although the prevailing
winds change from west to a more
uniform distribution from all points
of the compass. Much of our
knowledge of the upper air move
ments in the region of the Azores is
due to the researches Of Rotch and
Clayton, of the Blue Hill Observa-
tory, near Boston, the latter having
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
NeWfOuf7dland's
Frequent Fogs

The fog conditions just east Of
Newfoundland are very bad. Di-
rectly off the coast at this season of
the year about As per cent of the
days are foggy, so that for the first
$50 miles from St. johns the fliers
most likely will have fogs to obscure
the surface waters; but 800 miles
east Of St. Johns the fog conditions
have become so much bcttered that
only one day in five is foggy.
The prevailing surface winds over
this part Of the course are from the
west, and for the higher flying
heights from the northwest; but it
will be the conditions on the day Of
fight that will control the destiny of
the avators, and not average condi-
tons.
The best preparation for the
transatlantic flight necessitates the
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
Experience Gained
I'm War

When the American aviators we're
flying at the front they had posted
for their information the wind con-
ditions at various flying heights for
the day Of journey. These were
carefully worked out by the meteor
ologists based on the weather map
conditions and the particular place
of flight; for the environment had
to be most carefully taken into &C
count. For the ocean aviator the
environment is the broad Atlantic.
For the ocean fights, for the first
part of the trip, the conditions aloft
as related to those at sea level for
the region of the Blue Hill Obser-
vatory would be generally applica
BILE. For the last part Of the flight,
straight across, the conditions found
to obtain for the British Islands,
where numerous observations have
been made, would be applicable
But for the greater part Of the
ocean trip the aviator would have
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
The Question
OF Altitude

The type of weather elected for
the start-off will depend on whether
the plans are made for a flight at
high or low attitudes. If a low
flight is planned, then the weather
map of the North Atlantic, with OBJ
servations made at sea level, will be
directly useful. But if it is decided
to make the main fight at high alti-
tudes, then such weather map will
form the basis only of complicated
calculations which will permit the
drawing of a weather map showing
the conditions at heights of one or
two or three miles above the sea
level. And herein lies the triumph
Of modern naeteorology
If the flight is to be made at low
attitudes the most favorable weather
conditions for the whole flight will
be when an area of high barometric
pressure lies over the middle and
eastern North Atlantic, between the
ATTITUDES of 40 degrees and so de-
grees north, with a not too deep
area of low barometric pressure ly-
ing far to the north, eastward of
Iceland. The American law follow
ing the high should be over the
eastern states, but not so close as
to give an easterly wind for a start
off.
This would give winds at low al
titudes from the southwest or west
nearly the whole way across the
ocean.
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
One Cyclone
After Another

There are usually three or four
cyclones and anticyclones passing
across the American continent from
west to east at any one time, with
their centre thousand miles or so
apart, sthe more eastwardly at a
speed of about thirty miles an hour,
and their passage gives US our
changes IN wind and weather.
Over the North Atlantic Ocean
there are seldom more than two or
three of these cyclones and anti
cyclones and they generally pursue
a more northeasterly course, going
from the latitude Of Boston (say) to
that Of London; and the move east
wardly only about twenty miles an
hour, which is much slower than in
America.
These cyclones and anticyclones
change their shape somewhat in
crossing the ocean and become more
oyiiiiletllCdA WIN stronger and
steadier general winds, and COM
paratively slow changes in the wind
direction. AS the cyclones approach
and reach the British and French
coasts they change again somewhat
in form and character and the wind
changes become very abrupt.
A west wind is desirable for the
best fight conditions; for thereby
the speed of the aeroplane would be
increased by the speed of the wind.
For head wind the true movement
of the plane would be the speed of
the plane diminished by the speed of
the wind.
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
Up to British
Government

To properly link up the undertaking
in the same year the company was
formed in France, q British company
was also organized and attained Par
liamentary powers to undertake ex
permental work on the tunnel. This
company has already expended about
million dollars in preparatory work,
and, under the control of the govern
ment, it is generally expected that
they will now be permitted to carry
out the actual work of the tunnel con-
struction, as they are reported to have
the necessary financial backing.
On the other hand, as the British
company has no such ninety-nine- year
concession after the opening of the
tunnel as the French company, it is
possible that the English government
will itself undertake the construction
Of the tunnel proper. Whichever way
the cat jumps, it remains only for the
government to press the button for
work to begin without delay. Accord
ing to some enthusiasts not even Par
liamentary sanction is required, the
government having sufficient powers
under the Defence of the Realm act.
While from an engineering point of
view the tunnel, when completed will
undoubtedly rank high among the feats
accomplished by human skill and labor,
at tho same time it is not anticinntod
that any difficulties in the work in this
day OF advanced engineering will be
encountered which cannot be readily
overcome.
In tho Channel the sea Is not tho
difficulty; tho only risk lies in the
geological aspect The first layer un-
dor the Channel is white chalk, and
beneath this 10 a belt Of gray chalk
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
The after
of Safety

AS regards the safety of fiiers it
must be said that it will depend on
the perfect functioning of the en-
CINE, and the fact that one of the
three United States naval planes
that started was put out Of commits
sion by failure at the beginning of
the fight indicates the uncertainty
that yet exists for aeroplane motors.
The wings are but fragile mocha
nisms, and their disruption easily ac-
complished, together with the put
ting out of commission of the wire
less apparatus. The faithful, unerr-
ing pigeon can hardly perform his
work as rescuer under the condi-
tons Of an ocean flight, even
though he worked miracles during
the war strife.
What man can accomplish, these
aviator men will do!
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
Dangers of
the Azores

That local wind disturbances of
most serious nature are to be ex-
pected in the course of such flight
is most certain. They occur at all
attitudes and from a variety of
causes. But the most prolific source
at high attitudes will be the huge
pillows that occur in flowing streams
of air, just as water waves are
raised by wind on a water surface,
only about eleven hundred times the
size of water waves in magnitude.
The running into the troughs of
these waves or into the spraying
crests will cause gustiness that
will test the strength of the ma
chimes and the skill of the naviga-
tors. Winds of 100 miles an hour
must be expected, and perhaps ex-
ceeded, making not only the preser-
walton of the equilibrium of the ma
chine difficult, but the position cal
culations very uncertain.
The instrumental difficulties Of
the flight will be exceedingly
troublesome. The barometer is the
key to the aviator's position in the
air and, indeed, TO the atmospheric
conditions in general, and he can
get no barometer readings at sea
level during his flight. Conse-
quently the uncertainties of the al
titude' will amount to as much as
the Irregularities in the barometric
pressures from day to day, and may
amount in extreme cases to thou
sand feet, or even more. This
might have considerable effect on
the calculated speeds.
The instrumental determination
Of drift due to side winds may be
subject to great error, since there
will be no fixed ground object to
use as check. Thus, even such a
looming objective as Ireland might
be missed, and as for the Azores,
they do not subtend a very large
angle.
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
blows still inward and around the

blows still inward and around the
centre in spiral clockwise.
The surface and loqcer quinds at
the front Of the anticyclone blow
from the centre and from the north,
northwest and west, oriented from
south to north; while the winds at
the rear of the anticyclone blow
from the south, southeast, east and
northeast, oriented from the north
to the south. But aloft the winds
at the front blow spirally toward
the centre from the south, south
east, east and northeast, oriented
from south to north; while at the
rear they blow from the north,
northwest, west and southwest, orr
ented from north to south.
The air is usually clear or with
but little cloud in an anticyclone.
The front or eastern side is cold
and the western side warmer.
In effect a cyclonal air move
ment Counter clockwise) near the
ground is changed to an anticyclonal
movement (clockwise) high above
the ground. SO also an anticyclonal
al movement (clockwise) at the
ground is changed to a cyclonal (an
tlcyclonaD movement high aloft.
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18

barometer over the eastern North
Atlantic would be most favorable,
since this would give southwest or
west or northwest winds across the
ocean in the upper air. But strong
objection to this would be that the
start would have to be made in
stormy local weather.
There are three weather phases of
the transatlantic flight problem, and
it is absolutely necessary to consider
them separately.
/. The weather at the start, and
Newfoundland weather is about as
mean" as is to be found any,
where. 1t covers the first few hun
dred miles of the flight and extends
over the foggiest and most uncer-
tain navigation conditions to be met
with anywhere. This covers the
first few hours of the flight. Local
atmospheric disturbances are preva.
lent in this region.
2. The weather conditions of the
broad North Atlantic and stretching
over a distance Of 1900 miles or
more and covering the main period
Of the fight. The conditions here
are more steady than at the ends.
3. The weather conditions for the
landing and covering the coast of
northwest Europe and extending out
to sea one or two hundred miles,
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
Gillian
The
before the can be begun

route Is 100 feet, and cover of chalk
100 feet thick would be left undis-
turbcd above the crown Of the tunnel
to provide against any danger from
an enemy or the sea, so that the
tunnel would descend to level of
about 2S0 feet below the seas surface.
Iron tubes will be built up az tho
tunnel advances, precisely az in tho
London "tubes." Owing TO tho ex-
traordjnary advance in the art Of tun-
nellinE in recent years, tho work could
be done quickly, and it IN estimated
that the tunnel itself could be COM
pleted in five or five and half years.
Sir Francis Fox Is mentioned M the
engineer who may have charge OF the
work on tho British section Of tho tun-
mel. He Is great tunnclling expert,
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
Problems of the Air, as Aeroplane Voyagers Will
Find Them, Explained by
N[eeorologist

would be encountered on the west
side, at the centre strong veering
winds, and on the east side cross
winds from the south In flying at
high attitudes a head or partly cross
wind from the north would be met
on the west, and west or concur
rent winds on the eastern side.
There have been at various times
daily surface weather charts pub
lished of the Atlantic Ocean
and the neighboring mainlands of
America and Europe: The interna-
tional charts published by the signal
service in the seventies; the long
series of Hoffmeyer-Neumayers
daily synoptic weather charts of
the sos and zoos published by
the Danish and German govern
ments, and the daily charts of the
northern hemisphere published by
the United States Weather Bureau
from January /, 1914, and which
were interrupted by the war. The
knowledge derived from those charts
of ocean level atmospheric condi-
tons, particularly Of the winds, sup
plemented by studies of the upper
air made at the two continental ends
of the line of flight, forms the basis
of the ocean flight weather prog-
nostications.
Over the North Atlantic Ocean
there is in general a high baromet-
ric pressure south of latitude As de-
grees with correspondingly stable
weather, and a low pressure to the
north. In the neighborhood of Ice
land there is very low average
pressure, and that region is CORE
spondingly stormy.
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18

poets of this big engineering UNDER
taking are interesting. In 1875
French company was formed to con-
struct the tunnel from the French end
This company still remains in existence
with a concession from the French
government, which holds good for
ninety-nine years after the opening of
the tunnel. SO far as France is con-
cerned, this organization doubtless will
handle the French end.
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
Photos from Gilliams servicc.

any difficulty as to gauge or minimum
structures and without the passengers
having to change cars.
In the course of time, doubtless moro
than two pairs OF rails will be re-
qulred to deal with the enormous
volume Of traffic which in each direc-
ton must inevitably develop.
At labor prices before the war 1t
had been estimated that tho cost of the
tunnel would be in the neighborhood
OF $80000,000, but wages have gone up
considerably since them az we'll as the
cost OF raw material, and 1t now Is
believed that tho tunnel will cost at
least s100,o00,000 and some day $685.
100000, which probably is close to
tho correct figure.
In this connection. the financial as
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18

things We should do to-
X gether," once said the
First Napoleon to the
sa'a British Ambassador In Paris.
tA' remark was made shortly after
'as peace Of Amiens, and the Emperor
ssieFed to tunnel beneath the Eng
..'A channel, connecting England and
ssass. A great French engineer
PANIED Matthew had suggested the plan
," ne daring Napoleon, and he had at
'' 'aKen 1t up. as 1t appealed to
>" vivid Imagination and love Of
''asf'akinga Of a difficult and gigantic
hs!ura
Al. "as' the British Ambassador,s re-
L. was is not a matter of record
- certain It is that tho proposa)
-, not IT. that time looked upon
avs FAVOR in England, and the tunnel
ss not undertaken.
L.. mas required moro than one hun
~ years 70 bring the British people
An; Ann 70 Napoleon's suggestion, and
p'ontful il they would even now
8. receptive IL it had not been for
hts. ~ ana Inc German T.
s. England preliminary work bas
d. .ss'n BY starting work to com
a. we railway line between Dover
a. 1''sestonc which was blocked bv
d landslide at tho beginning Of
ns saf' Millions Of tons of earth now
'ng removed and tho line Is be-
$40 A,a afresh. When this road Ia in
fA,''n 1t win bring trains direct
ss ~ london TO the mouth Of the pro.
Hs<d tunnel, ~ 'i'-
=. : .Iss for the entrance on tbs rr.n.s
s. a"s been secured. some way from
~ 'ss'' which, as on ths English
lk,.s.. CONSISTS Of cliffs, and additional
;. fahway construction also will
resent plans provide for tbs hn,,d
b. a.. s"S tunnels. zach eighteen feet
H. : sf' Connected by cross CALLER
|Iln.. Intervals Of 200 yards. Tho
In I, r'a'a be worked by electricity
kxsles -. g ease Of the simpIon tunnel
Va :, = 'wslvs and a half miles long.
~ : present IL tho longest.
- "azimum depth Of water on tho
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
The Unknown Bourne" of Atlantic Ocean Weathe

u%HE ruling weather conditions
form a most important factor
i in the transatlantic flight,
and upon the selection Of the
.,orer air conditions, more than
unon any other feature except the
proper functioning Of the engines
will depend the success of the at
tempt.
M one who is not we'll versed in
,ha science of meteorology realizes
Tho difficulty in selecting the right
restber conditions and appreciates
efficiently the cautious delay of
tbe British aviators in making their
start.
The facts concerning the air con-
aitions are, briefly stated, as fol-
lows:
North of about latitude 40 there
;s a constant procession of huge at
mospheric whirls progressing in an
easterly direction at greatly varying
speeds across the ocean. These
huge whirls are the cyclones (areas
of low barometer) and out cyclones
(areas of high barometer) usually
from 500 to 1000 miles across and
mile or two deep, but each with
circulation of air distinctly its own.
In the cyclone the wind blows
from the outer rim inward spirally
toward and around the centre
Counter clockwise) at the ground,
or sea level. and at low attitudes.
But these directions veer toward
the right with ascent and up in the
air, mile or two, the winds blow
outward and away from the centre
counter clockwise. SO that near the
Mrface of the ground or sea the
winds on the front of the cyclone
blow toward the centre from the
south, southeast, east and north
east, oriented from south to north;
while the winds at the rear of the
cyclone blow from the north, north
west, west and southwest, oriented
from north to south. But oloft the
winds blow from the centre from
the northwest, west and southwest,
priented from south to north, on
the front of the cyclone; and from
the east, northeast, north and north
west, oriented from north to south,
BIT the rear Of the cyclone.
The surface winds increase in We
locity as the centre of the cyclone is
approached; and the upper winds in
general decrease somewhat as they
fecede from the centre.
The southeast quadrant go de-
grees) Of the cyclone is the region
Of clouds, rain, thunder squalls, VIC
lent local winds; and in fact is the
dangerous area where bumps" are
likely to occur to discomfort the
aviator.
The air on the eastern side of a
cyclone is usually warm and cold on
the western side.
In the anticyclone the wind
blows from the centre outward
spiraily around the centre toward
the outer edge (clockwise), at the
ground or sea level; and at low alti-
1udes; but these directions change
with the ascent and at high alti-
tndes of couple of miles the wind
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
Following The
Handy Ship Lane

The northern route, straight from
Newfoundland to Ireland or the
English Channel, will offer the pro-
lection Of the transatlantic steam
ships, for by swerving slightly to
the south all but the first five hun
dred miles of the aviators' course
can be directly over the ship lanes
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
Thirfy-tw0 Miles
Long

The total length Of the tunnel, in
Guiding the approaches on both sides Of
the strait, will be thirty-two miles, of
which rather more than twenty-one and
a half miles will be under the sea.
When the tunnel Is completed it Is es-
timatcd that trains can run from Lon.
don to Paris in less than six hours.
As soon as trains cnn pass under tho
Channel they will be able to traverse
France, Belgium, Holland, Spain. Italy,
Germany, Austria-Hungary and Tur-'
key az far AZ Constantsnople without
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18

to. depend on pure theory and the
mcagre records of cloud observa-
tions that are available as indicating
the upper winds on the North At
lantic. We know that the lower air
conditions are not quite the same
in midocean as on land, and just in
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18

thus embracing the last two or three
hours of the flight. The landing
conditions can hardly be picked;
they must be taken as found, and
the gales Of this section are historic.
The weather conditions to be Sc
lected for the fight must be the
best averaging up that can be made
of all three of these conditions.
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
By Prof. Frank Waldo, Phi. D.

transmission of information of the
current daily weather conditions in
the eastern United States and Cana
da, and the air conditions over the
North Atlantic and northwest coast
of Europe by wireless from ships to
the Point Of departure in New
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18

blow, he claims, would have the force
of 3-inch solid projectile. The ma
chine, with all appurtenances, Is moved
forward by system of caterpillar
tractors and the debris is carried away
on belt conveyors.
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
Cross Winds
The Real Danger

But cross winds are the most
troublesome. In flying straight
through cyclone from west to
east it can be seen that for low alti-
tudes a cross wind from the north
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18

eral speed Of about 500 feet a sec
ond, striking several hundred thousand
blows minute on the face to be ex-
cavated and pulverizing the materials
from five inches in greatest dimension
down to impalpable powder" Each
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18

foundland, so that the types of
weather to be encountered can be
prognosticated These conditions in
connection with the local weather
conditions furnish the entire work
ing weather plan.
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18

and their security much increased
by opportunities for radio or rocket
communication.
For a flight from Newfoundland
to Ireland at high attitudes an area
of low barometer just west of New
foundland and an area of high
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18

made a voyage Of upper al. explo-
ration into those ATTITUDES and sert
balloons aloft to ascertain the upper
air current.
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18

and acted as special adviser for the
Swiss government in the boring Of the
Simplon.
New-York tribune. [volume] (New York [N.Y.]) 1866-1924, 1919-05-18
From London to Paris by Subway Very Soon

(H\Hls is one Of the great
things We should do TO-
. - gether," once said the