Evening star., 1900-10-27
Changes That Have Taken Place in
the Present Century.
THE PRINCIPLE OF NATIONALITY
influences of Trade and the Spread
of knowledge.
LITTL LIE RE AL PR OG RE SIS
Written for The Evening Star by James Bryce
VI. P. author of The American Common

CIpSe Vi llllS century Is d VI tic
relations toward one another of the great
European nations now with the relations
which existed when the last century came
to its end. Such comparison helps one to
realize the nature of the changes which
have passed, not only upon Europe as a
whole, but also upon the character of ma
tional life and national self-conscousness
in each of the nations.
When this century began national feeling
/ had III each nation far less to do with the
policy of the state than it has now. Pol
icy, especially foreign policy, was practi-
cally left to the ruler; and the ruler
though he might sometimes be influenced
by popular sentiment, or might defer to it,
was mostly guided by his own dynastic in
terests. 1t was only in England that any
government should now call a free gov
ernment existed. Even in England the king
had good deal of power and the borough
holding oligarchy good deal more. Still
in England there was distinct national
feeling, and it was hostile to the French
France under the republic and Napoleon
turned this hatred. The mutual dislike of
Frenchmen and Germans was much less
strong. So, too. was that of Frenchmen
and Spaniards though both sentiments did
exist as the natural fruit OF former wars.
Elsewhere there was hardly any national
animosities Italy did not exist as a poit
lcal community, and the Italians had so
little sense of unity as a people that they
could have but little common aversion to
any other people. In Germany most of
the princes groveled before Napoleon, and
were glad to profit by his favor.
Growing Feeling of Nationality.
During the first half of the century the
feeling of nationality grew apace. 1t was
awakened by the examples of France and
by the conquering career of Napoleon who
trampled upon the other nations till they
turned and
sion for German national union dates from
the great rising against the French in 1913
France evoked the spirit which was des-
tined ultimately to weld Germany together
for the tremendous struggle of 1870 So it
was first the French and then the Austrian
occupation of Italy that gave birth to the
movement which in Italy was at the same
time and in the same minds a struggle for
political freedom and a struggle for no.
litcal unication. The foreigner was the
nindrance to both, so the Italians drew
themselves together into one for the eXpul-
sion Of the foreign tyrants.
The sense of an even more cruel oppres-
sion made the Greeks into a nation out of
a mixed race of Hellenes, Albunians and
SlaNS. Russia was still far back in dark
ness, and although the branches of the
Russian race Were united by devotion to
the czar and the Orthodox faith. the feel
ing or nationality in the modern meaning
OF the term did not develop itself in her
till own time.
Meanwhile the example of Italy and Ger
many had been telling on the smaller peo-
pies. 1t has worked in ROumania in Sor
via. in Bulgaria. among the Germans Of
SchleswiG- liolstein, in the Austrian en-
pre-, even in Iceland, not to speak of Ire
,ahu, .d, ~nere 1t had, of course, long existed.
though it grew much faster in the second
quarter of the century under Daniel O'con-
nell and the repeal agitation
The Principle of Nationality,
Inc prlnclple of nationality, defeated after
a severe struggle in 1919, triumpbcd in
Italy in lS'o- 20, and in Germany in 1sG6'71
and since then has prevailed in the smaller
countries Oh southeastern Europe which
have been freed from Turkish rule Ma
E"nai sentiment is now powerful all over
Europe, and powerfully affects the n0lict,
OF al lhe great states, 1t used to be he
heNed that its victory would usher in a
ptf1od OF peace and of freedom because
Wien each nationality had reached its nat
ural territorial limits a dangerous source
of quarrels between states would have hen
removed. Stability having been attained
SUOC feeling would follow
So, too, Golden and thinkers of his school
expected that free trade, whose general ac
cc2tance they deemed certain wouid also
make strongly for peace, because each ma
ton. perceivinS the benefits of unrestricted
commercial intercourse, would feel that
peace would promote its material interest.
So further, every one expected that as
people became better educated more free
and more enlightened they would renounce
War, tne old game OF mDnarChS,'' Seeing
now much happier and more prosperous
they would be under a system of pacitic
industrialism.
Rival Forces.
But new forces came into play. National
sentiment, in rendering each nation more
proud Of itself, made it more jealous of its
neshbors, more eager to strengthen itself
a their expense. That sort of ambition
which had formerly animated monarchs now
spread through the body of the pCople
Free trade did not extend its dominion
from England over continental Europe on
the contrary, the producers and manufac-
turerS of the continent conceived their in
tcleStS TO lie in imposing protective tariffs.
Commerce between different countries did
indeed. increase vastly. and goes on increas-
in; population grows and as scientific
discovery stimulates industrial production
But 50 also does the competition increase
be tween the manufacturers and exporters
in different countries, and this competition
has led not only to much il-feelng between
the competing countries. but also to a race
70" the acquisition of new territories out
side Europe. which are To be turned into
markets for the exports of the states that
can appropriate them.
For Selfish Ends
As commerce has in some instances en-
bittered the relations of nations, 80 even
popular government has disclosed new
ethods by which they may he embittered
for the selfish ends of ministers or politi-
clans A government which finds itself in
domestic difficulties owing to the resistance
of party in its own country may be
tempted to plunge into a foreign war in
order to distract attention from its own
shortcomings rally the nation to its sup
port. Louis Napoleon played this desperate
game, to his own undoing, in 1870. Even
Bismarck did not Scrupe to use foreign
policy as counter in the game of foreign
politics, and in other countries less domi-
mated by the government than Germany
was under Bismarck the same eXpedient
has been reSorted to-
Spread of knowledge.
Each people knows far more about other
peoples than it did 100 years ago. Each
has far better means of following the polti-
cal life of the others. This we owe partly
TO facilities of communication, partly to
the newspapers and the habit of reading
which has increased their circulation, and
which they in turn have stimulated.
But the newspapers have been by no
means an unmixed blessing. 1t would be
nearer the truth to say that they have be-
come a fertile source of international mis-
understandings and dislikes 1t is easier
to attack another country than to praise it.