Informasi

Informasinyaéta hasil tina pamrosésan, pangumpulan, manipulasi sarta pangaturandataku cara anu bisa nambahanpangaweruhnu narimana.
Informasi salaku konsép, miboga rupa-rupa harti, mimiti ti kagunaan sapopoé tepi ka wewengkon teknis. Sacara umum, konsép informasi raket pisan hubunganana jeung alpukah-alpukah ngeunaanwatesan,komunikasi,kadali,data,wangun,paréntah,pangaweruh,harti,rangsangan méntal,pola,persépsi, sartapanyajian.
Balaréa ramé ngomongkeunÉra Informasisalaku kamajuan tina Éra PangaweruhCitakan:Weasel wordatawamasarakat informasi, sartatehnologi informasi. Malahinformatika,élmu informasikatutélmu kompiyutermindeng jadi perhatian, kecap "informasi" mindeng digunakeun tanpa tinimbangan nepikeun ka méngpar tina sakuduna.
Numutkeun kana "Oxford English Dictionary", harti kecap 'informasi' (en:information) nu pangmimitina dina sajarahBasa Inggris, nyaéta "the act of 'informing', or giving form or shape to the mind, as in education, instruction, or training", basa Sundana, "ngalakukeuninforming, atawa mikeun wangun atawa rupa pikeun pikiran, saperti nu aya dina atikan, pituduh, atawa palatihan". Kutipan ti taun 1387:  "Five books come down from heaven for information of mankind." (Lima buku turun ti sawarga salaku informasi keur umat manusa). Kecap 'informasi' ogé kungsi dipaké salakuitempalatihan, contona hiji pituduh husus (dina palatihan). "Melibee had heard the great skills and reasons of Dame Prudence, and her wise information and techniques." (1386).
Kecap dina basa Inggris ieu jelas-jelas diturunkeun tina kecap pagawéanto informku cara nambahan rarangkén ahir "-ation" (ngaliwatan basa Perancis ti basa Latin "-tio"), dina kontéks mikeun atawa mére hiji bentuk atawa gambaran pikeun pikiran, ngadisiplinkeun, maréntah, atawa ngajarkeun: "Men so wise should go and inform their kings." (1330).  Kecapinformsorangan datang (ngaliwatan basa Perancis) tina kecap pagawéan basa Latininformare, 'méré bentuk, ngabentuk idé tina..'. Salian ti éta, dina basa Latin sorangan geus aya kecapinformationu hartina konsép atawa idé, tapi sajauh mana mibanda pangaruh pikeun ngamekarkeun kecapinformationdina basa Inggris teu écés nepi ka ayeuna.
Salaku catetan ahir, kecap basa Yunani kuno pikeun 'form' (bentuk) nyaéta 'eidos', tur kecap ieu kawentar pisan pamakeánana dina wewengkon téhnis filosofis kuPlato(diteruskeun ku Aristotle atawa Aristotélés) pikeun nuduhkeun idéntitas idéal atawa eusi tina hiji hal (tingal ogéTiori Ngeunaan Rupa-rupa Bentuk). "Eidos" bisa ogé dihubungkeun jeungpikiran,proposisiatawa malahan (dihubungkeun jeung)konsép.
Informasitéh nyaéta kaayaan hiji sistim anu keur ditoongan atawa ditalungtik (system of interest). Warta nyaéta informasi nu geus dimatérialisasi. Informasi téh nyaéta kualitas hijiwartati saurangpangirimka hiji atawa leuwih ti hijipanarima. Informasi aya patalina ngeunaan hiji hal (ukuran paraméter, mindengna kajadian, jsb). Ditempo ti belah dieu, informasi mah teu kudu akurat. Informasi bisa bener atawa bisa salah, jujur atawa ngan saukursound of a kiss. Malahan mah gangguan nu geus ilahar ngahalangan jalur komunikasi jeung nyiptakeun salah paham bisa ogé diasupkeun kana salah sahiji bentuk informasi.  Sanajan kitu bisa dibilang, lamunjumlahinformasi dina warta nu ditarima nambahan, warta téh bisa disebut akurat atawa bener.
Modél ieu ngasumsikeun aya hiji pangirim nu pasti jeung sahenteuna aya hiji panarima. Loba révisi tina modél ieu ngasumsikeun ayana basa anu dipikanyaho ku pangirim sarta sahenteuna hiji tina nu narima. Aya ogé variasi modél anu nuduhkeun informasi salaku hal anu bakal dibéjakeun dina warta lamun téa mah informasi éta dikirim ti hiji pangirim ka hiji panarima nu sanggup ngartikeun warta éta. Sanajan kitu, nalika ngabutuhkeun ayana pangirim nu pasti, modél "informasi salaku hiji warta" ieu henteu mangaruhan idé yén informasi téh hiji hal anu bisa ditalungtik atawa ditempo tina lingkungan, conto nu ngaliwatan observasi, maca, atawa ngukur.
Informasi téh hiji istilah nu miboga loba harti gumantung kana kontéksna, tapi raket pisan kana sababaraha konsép sarupaning harti, pangaweruh, paréntah, komunikasi, réprésentasi, jeung rangsangan méntal. Kalawan basajan bisa disebutkeun yén informasi téh nyaéta hij warta nu ditarima jeung dipikaharti. Patali jeung data, informasi bisa didéfinisikeun salaku kumpulan fakta ti mana urang bisa nyindekkeun. Bisa jadi loba kénéh aspék lain tina informasi sabab éta téh mangrupa pangaweruh anu ayana ku jalan diajar atawa pangalaman atawa paréntah. Mung sacara umum, informasi mangrupa hasil pamrosésan, manipulasi, jeung nyusun data ku cara nu bisa nambahan pangaweruh jalma nu narimana.
Tiori komunikasinyaéta ukuran numerik tina kateupastian hiji kajadian. Contona urang bisa nyarita yén "sinyal éta miboga informasi rébuan bit". Tiori komunikasitendsmaké konsépéntropi informasi, anu dimimitian sacara umum kuC.E. Shannon(tempo di handap).
Bentuk lian tina informasi nyaétainformasi Fisher, konsép tiR.A. Fisher. Konsép ieu dipakéna dina terapan statistika pikeuntiori éstimasijeung dina sains sacara umum. Informasi Fisher nyaéta jumlah informasi nu dibawa ku warta-warta ngeunaan paraméter nu teu bisa ditalungtik, teu bisa di baca, tapi bisa diitung ngaliwatanfungsi kasarupaan(en:likelihood function) anu ngadéfinisikeun hiji sistim. Contona, ngagunakeun fungsi kasarupaan normal, informasi Fisher nyaéta sabalikna tina (en:reciprocal of) varians fungsi kasebut. Saupama fungsi kasarupaan teu dipikanyaho, informasi Fisher bisa diitung tina data skor nu didistibusi normal salaku sabalikna tina momén kaduana.
Sanajan informasi jeung data mindeng silihganti dipaké, saéstuna duanana téh béda. Data mah mangrupa kumpulan informasi nu teu pakait, jeung euweuh gunana saacan dianalisis atawa diévaluasi kalawan bener. Ngaliwatan évaluasi, sanggeus aya hubungan anu raket di antara data-data nu aya, mangka data téh geus bisa jadi informasi. Data nu sarua ieu bisa dipaké pikeun tujuan lian. Kacindekanana, saacan data ngajadi informasi, euweuh gunana.
Tetempoan yén informasi téh hiji warta mimiti datang saprak dipedarna hiji makalah tulisanClaude Shannondina taun 1948 anu gedé pangaruhna, nyaéta "A Mathematical Theory of Communication." Makalah ieu nyadiakeun pondasitiori informasisarta ngahargaan kecap 'informasi' lain ngan saukur ku harti téhnis tapi ogé ku ukuran nu jelas. Upamana lamun parangkat nu ngirim sacara sarua bisa ngirimkeun salah sahiji tina sakumpulan nu eusinaN{\displaystyle N}warta, mangka ukuran "informasi nu dihasilkeun sawaktu hiji warta dipilih tina kumpulan éta" téh nyaétalogaritmabasis dua tinaN{\displaystyle N}. (Ukuran ieu disebutnainformasi-diri). Dina makalah ieu, Shannon neruskeun:
Cara komplémentér atawa cara heubeul pikeun ngukur informasi disadiakeun kutiori informasi algoritmik. Sacara singget, tiori ieu ngukur eusi informasi tina daptar simbol-simbol dumasar kana sakumaha bisa diprédiksina maranéhanana, atawa sakumaha gampang ngadaptarkeun ngaliwatan hijiprogram: eusi informasi tina hiji runtuyan nyaéta jumlah bit program pangpondokna nu ngitungna. Runtuyan di handap bakal mibanda ukuran informasi algoritmik nu leutik, lantaran polana gampang dikira-kira, sarta lantaran pola ieu téh silihsambung, ukuranana moal robah. Informasi Shannon bakal méré ukuran informasi nu sarua pikeun unggal simbol, lantaran maranéhananaacak sacara statistik, sarta unggal simbol anyar bakal ngaronjatkeun hasil ngukurna.
Penting pisan pikeun mikawanoh watesan-watesan tiori informasi tradisional jeung tiori informasi algoritmik kana persépsi 'pangarti manusa'. Contona, nalika harti tina eusi warta, Shannon nulis,"Frequently the messages have 'meaning…' these semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem.  The significant aspect is that the actual message is one selected 'from a set of possible messages'".
Dina tiori informasi, sinyal-sinyal minangka bagian tina prosés, lain substansi; maranéhanana ngalakukeun hij hal sarta henteu miboga harti anu husus. Ku cara ngagabungkeun tiori informasi algoritmik jeung tiori informasi bisa dicindekkeun yén lolobana sinyal acak ngandung informasi panglobana lantaran bisa dihartikeun dina sagala cara jeung teu bisa didedetkeun (komprési).
Michéal Reddy nulis yén "'signals' of themathematical theoryare 'patterns that can be exchanged'.  There is no message contained in the signal, the signals convey the ability to select from a set of possible messages." ('Sinyal-sinyal' dinatiori matématisnyaéta 'pola-pola nu bisa dirobah'. Euweuh warta nu aya dina sinyal, sinyal-sinyal éta bisa milih sorangan tina sakumpulan warta nu mungkin). Dina tiori informasi, "the system must be designed to operate for each possible selection, not just the one which will actually be chosen since this is unknown at the time of design".   (Sistim kudu didésain sangkan jalan dina unggal pilihan nu mungkin, lain ngan saukur hiji pilihan nu bakal dipilih, lantaran hal ieu teu dipikanyaho sawaktu tahap désain).
Information is any representedpattern. This view assumes neither accuracy nor directly communicating parties, but instéad assumes a separation between an object and its representation.  Consider the following example:economic statisticsrepresent aneconomy, however inaccurately. What are commonly referred to as data incomputing,statistics, and other fields, are forms of information in this sense. Theelectro-magneticpatterns in acomputer networkand connecteddevicesare related to something other than the pattern itself, such astext charactersto be displayed andkeyboardinput.Signals,signs, andsymbolsare also in this category.  On the other hand, according tosemiotics, data is symbols with certain syntax and information is data with a certain semantic.Paintinganddrawingcontain information to the extent that they represent something such as an assortment of objects on a table, aprofile, or alandscape. In other words, when a pattern of something is transposed to a pattern of something else, the latter is information. This would be the case whether or not there was anyone to perceive it.
But if information can be defined merely as a pattern, does that méan that neitherutilitynor méaning are necessary components of information? Arguably a distinction must be made between raw unprocessed data and information which possesses utility,valueor some quantum of méaning. On this view, information may indeed be characterized as a pattern; but this is anecessarycondition, not asufficientone.
An individual entry in a telephone book, which follows a specific pattern formed by name, address and telephone number, does not become "informative" in some sense unless and until it possesses some degree of utility, value or méaning. For example, soméone might look up a girlfriend's number, might order a take away etc. The vast majority of numbers will never be construed as "information" in any méaningful sense. The gap between data and information is only closed by a behavioral bridge whereby some value, utility or méaning is added to transform méré data or pattern into information.
When one constructs a representation of an object, one can selectively extract from the object (sampling) or use asystemof signs to replace (encoding), or both. The sampling and encoding result in representation. An example of the former is a "sample" of a product; an example of the latter is "verbal description" of a product. Both contain information of the product, however inaccurate. When one interprets representation, one can predict a broader pattern from a limited number of observations (inference) or understand the relation between patterns of two different things (decoding). One example of the former is to sip asoupto know if it is spoiled; an example of the latter is examining footprints to determine the animal and its condition. In both cases, information sources are not constructed or presented by some "sender" of information. 
Regardless, information is dependent upon, but usually unrelated to and separate from, the medium or media used to express it. In other words, the position of a théoretical series of bits, or even the output once interpreted by acomputeror similar device, is unimportant, except when soméone or something is present to interpret the information. Therefore, a quantity of information is totally distinct from its medium.
Often information is viewed as a type ofinputto anorganismor designed device. Inputs are of two kinds. Some inputs are important to the function of the organism (for example, food) or device (energy) by themselves. In his bookSensory Ecology,Dusenbery called these causal inputs. Other inputs (information) are important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time (and perhaps another place). Some information is important because of association with other information but eventually there must be a connection to a causal input. In practice, information is usually carried by wéak stimuli that must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be functional to the organism or device. For example, light is often a causal input to plants but provides information to animals. The colored light reflected from a flower is too wéak to do much photosynthetic work but the visual system of the bee detects it and the bee's nervous system uses the information to guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often finds nectar or pollen, which are causal inputs, serving a nutritional function.
Information is any type of sensory input. When an organism with anervous systemreceives an input, it transforms the input into an electrical signal. This is regarded information by some. The idéa of representation is still relevant, but in a slightly different manner. That is, whileabstract paintingdoes not represent anything concretely, when the viewer sees the painting, it is nevertheless transformed into electrical signals that créate a representation of the painting. Defined this way, information does not have to be related to truth, communication, or representation of an object.Entertainmentin general is not intended to be informative.Music, theperforming arts,amusement parks, works offictionand so on are thus forms of information in this sense, but they are not necessarily forms of information according to some definitions given above. Consider another example: food supplies both nutrition and taste for those who éat it. If information is equated to sensory input, then nutrition is not information but taste is.
Information is any type of pattern that influences the formation or transformation of other patterns. In this sense, there is no need for a conscious mind to perceive, much less appreciate, the pattern. Consider, for example,DNA. The sequence ofnucleotidesis a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind.Systems theoryat times seems to refer to information in this sense, assuming information does not necessarily involve any conscious mind, and patterns circulating (due tofeedback) in the system can be called information. In other words, it can be said that information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not créated or presented for that purpose.
WhenMarshall McLuhanspéaks ofmediaand their effects on human cultures, he refers to the structure ofartifactsthat in turn shape our behaviors and mindsets. Also,pheromonesare often said to be "information" in this sense.
(See alsoGregory Bateson.)
In 2003, J. D. Bekenstein claimed there is a growing trend inphysicsto define the physical world as being made of information itself (and thus information is defined in this way). Information has a well defined méaning in physics. Examples of this include the phenomenon ofquantum entanglementwhere particles can interact without reference to their separation or the speed of light. Information itself cannot travel faster than light even if the information is transmitted indirectly. This could léad to the fact that all attempts at physically observing a particle with an "entangled" relationship to another are slowed down, even though the particles are not connected in any other way other than by the information they carry.
Another link is demonstrated by theMaxwell's demonthought experiment.  In this experiment, a direct relationship between information and another physical property,entropy, is demonstrated.  A consequence is that it is impossible to destroy information without incréasing the entropy of a system; in practical terms this often méans generating héat.  Thus, in the study oflogic gates, the théoretical lower bound of thermal energy reléased by anAND gateis higher than for theNOT gate(because information is destroyed in anAND gateand simply converted in aNOT gate). Physical information is of particular importance in the théory ofquantum computers.
Records are a specialized form of information. Essentially, records are information produced consciously or as by-products of business activities or transactions and retained because of their value.  Primarily their value is as evidence of the activities of the organization but they may also be retained for their informational value.  Soundrecords managementensures that the integrity of records is preserved for as long as they are required.
The international standard on records management, ISO 15489, defines records as "information created, received, and maintained as evidence and information by an organization or person, in pursuance of legal obligations or in the transaction of business". The International Committee on Archives (ICA) Committee on electronic records defined a record as, "a specific piece of recorded information generated, collected or received in the initiation, conduct or completion of an activity and that comprises sufficient content, context and structure to provide proof or evidence of that activity".
Records may be retained because  of their business value, as part of thecorporate memoryof the organization or to meet legal, fiscal or accountability requirements imposed on the organization. Willis (2005) expressed the view that sound management of business records and information delivered "…six key requirements for goodcorporate governance…transparency; accountability; due process; compliance; meeting statutory and common law requirements; and security of personal and corporate information."