Grand Duchy of Lithuania

TheGrand Duchy of Lithuaniawas asovereign statein northeastern Europe that existed from the 13th century,succeeding theKingdom of Lithuania, to the late 18th century,when the territory was suppressed during the 1795partitions of Poland–Lithuania. The state was founded byLithuanians, who were at the time apolytheisticnation of several unitedBaltic tribesfromAukštaitija. By 1440 the grand duchy had become the largest European state, controlling an area from theBaltic Seain the north to theBlack Seain the south.
The grand duchy expanded to include large portions of the formerKievan Rus'and other neighbouring states, including what is nowBelarus,Lithuania, most ofUkraineas well as parts ofLatvia,Moldova,PolandandRussia. At its greatest extent, in the 15th century, it was the largest state in Europe.It was amulti-ethnicandmulticonfessionalstate, with great diversity in languages, religion, and cultural heritage.
The consolidation of the Lithuanian lands began in the late 13th century.Mindaugas, the first ruler of the grand duchy, was crowned as theCatholicKing of Lithuaniain 1253. The pagan state was targeted ina religious crusadeby theTeutonic Knightsand theLivonian Order, but survived. Its rapid territorial expansion started late in the reign ofGediminas,and continued under the co-leadership of his sons,AlgirdasandKęstutis.Algirdas's sonJogailasigned theUnion of Krewoin 1386, bringing two major changes in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: theconversion to Christianityof Europe's last pagan state,and the establishment of adynastic unionbetween the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and theCrown of the Kingdom of Poland.This marked the beginning of the rule of other countries by thepatrilinealmembers of the Lithuanian rulingGediminiddynasty, who since the 14th–15th centuries ruled not only Lithuania, but alsoPoland,Hungary,Croatia,Bohemia, andMoldavia.
The reign ofVytautas the Great, son of Kęstutis, marked both the greatest territorial expansion of the grand duchy (it became one of the largest countries territorially in Europe) and the defeat of the Teutonic Knights in theBattle of Grunwaldin 1410.It also marked the rise of theLithuanian nobility. After Vytautas's death, Lithuania's relationship with theKingdom of Polandgreatly deteriorated.Lithuanian noblemen, including theRadvila family, attempted to break the personal union with Poland.However, unsuccessfulwarswith theGrand Duchy of Moscowforced the union to remain intact.
Eventually, theUnion of Lublinof 1569 created a new state, thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In thisfederation, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania maintained its political distinctiveness and had separate ministries, laws, army, and treasury.The federation was terminated by the passing of theConstitution of 3 May 1791, when it was supposed to become a single country, the Commonwealth, under one monarch, one parliament and with no Lithuanian autonomy. Shortly afterward, the unitary character of the state was confirmed by adopting theReciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations. However, the newly reformed Commonwealth was invaded by Russia in 1792 and partitioned between neighbouring states. A truncated state (whose principal cities wereKraków,WarsawandVilnius) remained that was nominally independent. After theKościuszko Uprising, the territory was completelypartitionedamong theRussian Empire, theKingdom of PrussiaandAustriain 1795.
The name of Lithuania (Litua) was first mentioned in 1009 inAnnals of Quedlinburg. Some older etymological theories relate the name to a small river not far fromKernavė, the core area of theearly Lithuanian stateand a possible first capital of the would-be Grand Duchy of Lithuania, is usually credited as the source of the name. This river's original name isLietava.As time passed, the suffix -avacould have changed into -uva, as the two are from the same suffix branch. The river flows in the lowlands and easily spills over its banks, therefore the traditional Lithuanian formliet- could be directly translated aslietis(to spill), of the root derived from the Proto-Indo-Europeanleyǝ-.However, the river is very small and somefind it improbable that such a small and local object could have lent its name to an entire nation. On the other hand, such a fact is not unprecedented in world history.A credible modern theory of etymology of the name of Lithuania (Lithuanian:Lietuva) is Artūras Dubonis's hypothesisthat Lietuva relates to the wordleičiai(plural ofleitis, a social group of warriors-knights in the early Grand Duchy of Lithuania). The title of theGrand Duchywas consistently applied to Lithuania from the 14th century onward.
Naming convention of both title of ruler (hospodar)and the state changed as it expanded its territory. Following the decline of theKingdom of Rutheniaand incorporation of its lands into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania,Gediminasstarted to title himself as "King of Lithuanians and many Ruthenians",while the name of the state became the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Ruthenia.Similarly the title changed to "King of Lithuanians and Ruthenians, ruler and duke of Semigallia" whenSemigalliabecame part of the state.The 1529 edition of theStatute of Lithuaniadescribed the titles ofSigismund I the Oldas "King of Poland, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Ruthenia, Prussia, Samogitia, Mazovia, and other [lands]".
The country was also called the Republic of Lithuania (Latin:Respublica Lituana) since at least the mid-16th century, already before the Union of Lublin in 1569.
Thefirst mention of the name Lithuaniais found in theAnnals of Quedlinburg, which describes the missionary expedition ofBruno of Querfurtto Yotvingians.In the 12th century, Slavic chronicles refer to Lithuania as one of the areas attacked by theRus'. Pagan Lithuanians initially paidtributetoPolotsk, but they soon grew in strength and organized their own small-scale raids. At some point between 1180 and 1183 the situation began to change, and the Lithuanians started to organize sustainable military raids on theSlavicprovinces, raiding thePrincipality of Polotskas well asPskov, and even threateningNovgorod.The sudden spark of military raids marked consolidation of the Lithuanian lands inAukštaitija.The Lithuanians are the only branch within the Baltic group that managed to create astate entityin premodern times.
TheLithuanian Crusadebegan after theLivonian OrderandTeutonic Knights, crusadingmilitary orders, were established inRigaand inPrussiain 1202 and 1226 respectively. The Christian orders posed a significant threat to pagan Baltic tribes, and further galvanized the formation of the Lithuanian state. The peace treaty withGalicia–Volhyniaof 1219 provides evidence of cooperation between Lithuanians andSamogitians. This treaty lists21 Lithuanian dukes, including five senior Lithuanian dukes from Aukštaitija (Živinbudas,Daujotas,Vilikaila,DausprungasandMindaugas) and several dukes fromŽemaitija. Although they had battled in the past, the Lithuanians and the Žemaičiai now faced a common enemy.Likely Živinbudas had the most authorityand at least several dukes were from the same families.The formal acknowledgement of common interests and the establishment of a hierarchy among the signatories of the treaty foreshadowed the emergence of the state.
Mindaugas, the dukeof southern Lithuania,was among the five senior dukes mentioned in the treaty with Galicia–Volhynia. TheLivonian Rhymed Chronicle, reports that by the mid-1230s, Mindaugas had acquired supreme power in the whole of Lithuania.In 1236, the Samogitians, led byVykintas, defeated the Livonian Order in theBattle of Saule.The Order was forced to become a branch of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia, making Samogitia, a strip of land that separatedLivoniafrom Prussia, the main target of both orders. The battle provided a break in the wars with the Knights, and Lithuania exploited this situation, arranging attacks on the Ruthenian provinces and annexingNavahrudakandHrodna.
In 1248, a civil war broke out between Mindaugas and his nephewsTautvilasandEdivydas. The powerful coalition against Mindaugas included Vykintas, the Livonian Order,Daniel of GaliciaandVasilko of Volhynia. Taking advantage of internal conflicts, Mindaugas allied with the Livonian Order. He promised to convert to Christianity and exchange some lands in western Lithuania in return for military assistance against his nephews and the royal crown. In 1251, Mindaugas was baptized andPope Innocent IVissued apapal bullproclaiming the creation of theKingdom of Lithuania. After the civil war ended, Mindaugas was crowned asKing of Lithuaniaon 6 July 1253, starting a decade of relative peace. Mindaugas later renounced Christianity and converted back to paganism. Mindaugas tried to expand his influence inPolatsk, a major centre of commerce in theDaugava Riverbasin, andPinsk.The Teutonic Knights used this period to strengthen their position in parts of Samogitia and Livonia, but they lost theBattle of Skuodasin 1259 and theBattle of Durbein 1260.This encouraged the conquered Semigallians andOld Prussiansto rebel against the Knights.
Encouraged byTreniota, Mindaugas broke the peace with the Order, possibly reverted topagan beliefs. He hoped to unite all Baltic tribes under the Lithuanian leadership. As military campaigns were not successful, the relationships between Mindaugas and Treniota deteriorated. Treniota, together withDaumantas of Pskov, assassinated Mindaugas and his two sons, Ruklys and Rupeikis, in 1263.The state lapsed into years of internal fighting.
From 1263 to 1269, Lithuania had three grand dukes –Treniota,Vaišvilkas, andŠvarnas. The state did not disintegrate, however, andTraideniscame to power in 1269. Traidenis strengthened Lithuanian control inBlack Ruthenia, fought with the Livonian Order, winning theBattle of Karusein 1270 and theBattle of Aizkrauklein 1279, and assisted theYotvingians/Sudovians to defend from theTeutonic Order.For his military assistance,Nameisisrecognized Traidenis as hissuzerain.There is considerable uncertainty about the identities of the grand dukes of Lithuania between Traidenis' death in 1282 and the assumption of power byVytenisin 1295. The country's capital was located inKernavėuntil 1316 or 1321 where Traidenis and Vytenis mainly resided and led to its prosperity.
During this time, the Orders finalized their conquests. In 1274, theGreat Prussian Rebellionended, and the Teutonic Knights proceeded to conquer other Baltic tribes: theNadruviansandSkalviansin 1274–1277, and the Yotvingians in 1283; the Livonian Order completed its conquest of Semigalia, the last Baltic ally of Lithuania, in 1291.The Orders could now turn their full attention to Lithuania. The "buffer zone" composed of other Baltic tribes had disappeared, and Grand Duchy of Lithuania was left to battle the Orders on its own.
TheGediminid dynastyruled the grand duchy for over a century, and Vytenis was the first ruler of the dynasty.During his reign Lithuania was in constant war with the Order, the Kingdom of Poland, and Ruthenia. Vytenis was involved in succession disputes in Poland, supportingBoleslaus II of Masovia, who was married to a Lithuanian duchess,Gaudemunda. In Ruthenia, Vytenis managed to recapture lands lost after the assassination of Mindaugas and to capture the principalities ofPinsk[lt]andTurov. In the struggle against the Order, Vytenis allied withRiga's citizens; securing positions in Riga strengthened trade routes and provided a base for further military campaigns. Around 1307, Polotsk, an important trading centre, was annexed by military force.Vytenis also began constructing a defensive castle network alongNemunas.Gradually this network developed into the main defensive line against the Teutonic Order.
The expansion of the state reached its height under Grand DukeGediminas, also titled by some contemporaneous German sources asRex de Owsteiten(English:King ofAukštaitija),who created a strong central government and established an empire that later spread from theBlack Seato theBaltic Sea.In 1320, most of the principalities of western Rus' were either vassalized or annexed by Lithuania. In 1321, Gediminascaptured Kiev, sendingStanislav, the lastRurikidto ruleKiev, into exile. Gediminas also re-established the permanent capital of the Grand Duchy inVilnius,presumably moving it fromOld Trakaiin 1323, which previously served as the country's capital since 1316 or 1321.The state continued to expand its territory under the reign of Grand DukeAlgirdasand his brotherKęstutis, who both ruled the state harmonically.During theinaugurationsofLithuanian monarchsuntil 1569, theGediminas' Capwas placed on the monarch's heads by theBishop of VilniusinVilnius Cathedral.
Lithuania was in a good position to conquer the western and the southern parts of the formerKievan Rus'. While almost every other state around it had beenplundered or defeated by the Mongols, the hordes stopped at the modern borders of Belarus, and the core territory of the Grand Duchy was left mostly untouched. The weak control of the Mongols over the areas they had conquered allowed the expansion of Lithuania to accelerate. Rus' principalities were never incorporated directly into theGolden Horde, maintaining vassal relationships with a fair degree of independence. Lithuania annexed some of these areas as vassals through diplomacy, as they exchanged rule by the Mongols or theGrand Prince of Moscowwith rule by the Grand Duchy. An example isNovgorod, which was often in the Lithuanian sphere of influence and became an occasional dependency of the Grand Duchy.Lithuanian control resulted from internal frictions within the city, which attempted to escape submission toMoscow. Such relationships could be tenuous, however, as changes in a city's internal politics could disrupt Lithuanian control, as happened on a number of occasions with Novgorod and other East-Slavic cities.
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania managed to hold off Mongol incursions and eventually secured gains. In 1333 and 1339, Lithuanians defeated large Mongol forces attempting to regainSmolenskfrom the Lithuanian sphere of influence. By about 1355, the State ofMoldaviahad formed, and the Golden Horde did little to re-vassalize the area. In 1362, regiments of the Grand Duchy army defeated the Golden Horde at theBattle at Blue Waters.
In 1380, a Lithuanian army allied with Russian forces to defeat the Golden Horde in theBattle of Kulikovo, and though the rule of the Mongols did not end, their influence in the region waned thereafter. In 1387, Moldavia became a vassal of Poland and, in a broader sense, of Lithuania. By this time, Lithuania had conquered the territory of the Golden Horde all the way to the Dnieper River. In a crusade against the Golden Horde in 1398 (in an alliance withTokhtamysh), Lithuania invaded northern Crimea and won a decisive victory. In an attempt to place Tokhtamish on the Golden Horde throne in 1399, Lithuania moved against the Horde but was defeated in theBattle of the Vorskla River, losing the steppe region.
Lithuania was Christianized in 1387, led byJogaila, who personally translated Christian prayers into theLithuanian languageand his cousin Vytautas the Great who founded many Catholic churches and allocated lands for parishes in Lithuania. The state reached a peak (becoming one of the largest countries territorially in Europe) underVytautas the Great, who reigned from 1392 to 1430.Vytautas was one of the most famous rulers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, serving as theGrand Dukefrom 1401 to 1430, and as thePrinceofHrodna(1370–1382) and the Prince ofLutsk(1387–1389). Vytautas was the son ofKęstutis, uncle of Jogaila, who became King of Poland in 1386, and he was the grandfather ofVasili II of Moscow.
In 1410, Vytautas commanded the forces of the Grand Duchy in theBattle of Grunwald. The battle ended in a decisive Polish-Lithuanian victory against theTeutonic Order. Thewar of Lithuania against military Orders, which lasted for more than 200 years, and was one of the longest wars in the history of Europe, was finally ended. Vytautas backed the economic development of the state and introduced many reforms. Under his rule, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania slowly became more centralized, as the governours loyal to Vytautas replaced local princes with dynastic ties to the throne. The governours were rich landowners who formed the basis for the nobility of the Grand Duchy. During Vytautas' rule, theRadziwiłłandGoštautasfamilies started to gain influence.
In 1440,Casimir IV Jagiellonwas sent by his older brotherWładysław IIIto Lithuania to rule in his name, however instead a manifestation of the sovereignty of Lithuania occurred when Casimir was elected as the Grand Duke of Lithuania upon his arrival to Vilnius on 29 June 1440 and subsequently titled himself as a "free lord" (pan – dominus), this way breaching the agreements of theUnion of Grodno (1432)and terminating thePolish–Lithuanian union; Casimir also became the King of Poland in 1447.Following Casimir's death in 1492, the factual termination of the Polish–Lithuanian union also occurred during the reign of Casimir's sonsAlexander JagiellonandJohn I Albertwho had respectively ruled Lithuania and Poland separately in 1492–1501.
The rapid expansion of the influence ofMoscowsoon put it into a comparable position to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and after the annexation ofNovgorod Republicin 1478, Muscovy was among the preeminent states innortheastern Europe. Between 1492 and 1508,Ivan IIIfurther consolidated Muscovy, winning the keyBattle of Vedroshaand capturing such ancient lands ofKievan Rus'asChernihivandBryansk.
On 8 September 1514, the allied forces of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, under the command of Hetman Konstanty Ostrogski, fought theBattle of Orshaagainst the army of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, under Konyushy Ivan Chelyadnin and Kniaz Mikhail Golitsin. The battle was part of a long series ofMuscovite–Lithuanian Warsconducted by Russian rulers striving to gather all the former lands of Kievan Rus' under their rule. According toRerum Moscoviticarum Commentariiby Sigismund von Herberstein, the primary source for the information on the battle, the much smaller army of Poland–Lithuania (under 30,000 men) defeated the 80,000 Muscovite soldiers, capturing their camp and commander. The Muscovites lost about 30,000 men, while the losses of the Poland–Lithuania army totalled only 500. While the battle is remembered as one of the greatest Lithuanian victories, Muscovy ultimately prevailed in the war. Under the 1522 peace treaty, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania made large territorial concessions.
The wars with the Teutonic Order, the loss of land to Moscow, and the continued pressure threatened the survival of the state of Lithuania, so it was forced to ally more closely with Poland, forming areal unionwith theKingdom of Polandin theUnion of Lublinof 1569. The union was formally called theKingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, however now commonly known as thePolish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During the period of the Union, many of the territories formerly controlled by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were transferred to theCrown of the Polish Kingdom, while the gradual process ofPolonizationslowly drew Lithuania itself under Polish domination.
Following the death of Grand Duke Sigismund II Augustus in 1572, a joint Polish–Lithuanian monarch was to be elected as in the Union of Lublin it was agreed that the title "Grand Duke of Lithuania" will be received by a jointly elected monarch in theElection sejmon his accession to the throne, thus losing its former institutional significance, however the Union of Lublin guaranteed that the institution and the title "Grand Duke of Lithuania" will be preserved.
In 1573,Henry Valuawaselectedas the first joint Polish–Lithuanian monarch, however his rule was short and he never personally visited the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, despite being announced as the Grand Duke of Lithuania.
The double election of 1575 was held in the presence of a small number of Lithuanian lords, who additionally supported the Habsburg candidate Emperor Maximilian II, however, the race for the crown was won by Stephen Báthory, crowned on May 1, 1576.The Lithuanian lords, at a convention in Grodno (on 8-20 April 1576), protested this choice, threatening to break the union and giving themselves the right to choose a separate ruler.However, the king managed to rally the Lithuanian delegation by promising to preserve their rights and freedoms.On May 29, 1580, inVilnius Cathedral, King and Grand DukeStephen Báthoryreceived from the hand of the bishop of SamogitiaMerkelis Giedraitisablessed sword and hat, given by PopeGregory XIIIthrough the envoy Paweł Uchański.This was a recognition by the Pope of the ruler's successes in the struggle against the infidels.In Lithuania, this ceremony was treated as the celebration of the elevation of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, during which Lithuania's sovereignty was manifested.Báthory's reign was marked with successfulLivonian campaignagainst tsarIvan the Terrible's military forces, which resulted in the reintegration ofPolotskto Lithuania and the restoration of control of theDuchy of Livonia.
The rule of Lithuania by the Gediminid–Jagiellonian family representatives resumed throughmatrilineal linefollowing the death of Báthory (1586) whenSigismund III Vasa(son ofCatherine Jagiellon) waselected in 1587.On 28 January 1588, Sigismund III confirmed theThird Statute of Lithuaniawhich stated that the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth is afederationof two countries – Poland and Lithuania where both countries have equal rights within it and separated the powers of the ruler, theSeimas, the executive and the courts (this for the first time in European history ensured therule of lawin the state, but Lithuania's citizens, who were subjects to the Statute, were only nobles).During thePolish–Swedish War (1600–1611)Polish and Lithuanian forces achieved victory and restoredstatus quo ante bellum, notably winning the decisiveBattle of Kircholmin 1605, while during thePolish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)Polish and Lithuanian armies achieved territorial gains (e.g. restored the control ofSmolensk, the capital of theSmolensk Voivodeship, in 1611) and for the first timefully capturedRussia's capitalMoscowin 1610.Sigismund III's son,Władysław IV Vasa, began ruling Lithuania in 1632 and achieved military success and popularity during theSmolensk War, but he renounced his claims to the Russian throne per theTreaty of Polyanovkain 1634 and failed at reclaiming the Swedish throne.
John II Casimir Vasa's reign was initially marked with disastrous military loses as during theDelugein the mid-17th century most of the territory of Lithuania was annexed by theTsardom of Russiaand even the Lithuania's capital Vilnius wascaptured for the first time by a foreign army and ravaged.In 1655, Lithuania unilaterallysecededfrom Poland, declared the Swedish KingCharles X Gustavas the Grand Duke of Lithuania and fell under theprotection of the Swedish Empire.However, by 1657 Lithuania was once again a part of the Commonwealth following the Lithuanian revolt against the Swedes.The Lithuania's capital Vilnius was liberated in 1661.
Throughout this Polish–Lithuanian Union period, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania remained a separate state and retained many rights in the federation (including separate name, territory, coat of arms, ministries, ruling system, laws, army, courts, treasury, and seal) until theConstitution of 3 MayandReciprocal Guarantee of Two Nationswere passed in 1791.
Following thepartitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, most of the lands of the former Grand Duchy were directly annexed by theRussian Empire, the rest byPrussia. In 1812, just prior to theFrench invasion of Russia, the former Grand Duchy revolted against the Russians. Soon after his arrival in Vilnius, Napoleon proclaimed the creation of aCommissary Provisional Government of the Grand Duchy of Lithuaniawhich, in turn, renewed thePolish-Lithuanian Union.The union was never formalized, however, as only half a year later Napoleon'sGrande Arméewas pushed out of Russia and forced to retreat further westwards. In December 1812, Vilnius was recaptured by Russian forces, bringing all plans for the recreation of the Grand Duchy to an end.Most of the lands of the former Grand Duchy were re-annexed by Russia. TheAugustów Voivodeship(laterAugustów Governorate), including the counties ofMarijampolėandKalvarija, was attached to theKingdom of Poland, a rump state in personal union with Russia.
Administrative structure of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1413–1564).
After the baptism in 1252 and coronation of KingMindaugasin 1253, Lithuania was recognized as a Christian state until 1260, when Mindaugas supported an uprising inCourlandand (according to the German order) renounced Christianity. Up until 1387, Lithuanian nobles professed their own religion, which waspolytheistic.Ethnic Lithuanians were very dedicated to their faith. The pagan beliefs needed to be deeply entrenched to survive strong pressure from missionaries and foreign powers. Until the 17th century, there were relics of old faith reported by counter-reformation activeJesuitpriests, like feedingžaltyswith milk or bringing food to graves of ancestors. The lands of modern-dayBelarusandUkraine, as well as localdukes(princes) in these regions, were firmlyOrthodoxChristian (Greek Catholic after theUnion of Brest), though. While pagan beliefs in Lithuania were strong enough to survive centuries of pressure from military orders and missionaries, they did eventually succumb. A separateEastern Orthodox metropolitan eparchywas created sometime between 1315 and 1317 by the Constantinople PatriarchJohn XIII. Following theGalicia–Volhynia Warswhich divided theKingdom of Galicia–Volhyniabetween the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and theKingdom of Poland, in 1355 theHalych metropolywas liquidated and its eparchies transferred to the metropoles of Lithuania and Volhynia.
In 1387, LithuaniaconvertedtoCatholicism, while most of the Ruthenian lands stayedOrthodox, however, on 22 February 1387, Supreme DukeJogailabanned Catholics marriages with Orthodox, and demanded those Orthodox who previously married with the Catholics to convert to Catholicism.At one point, though,Pope Alexander VIreprimanded the Grand Duke for keeping non-Catholics as advisers.Consequently, only in 1563 did Grand DukeSigismund II Augustusissue a privilege that equalized the rights of Orthodox and Catholics in Lithuania and abolished all previous restrictions on Orthodox.There was an effort to polarise Orthodox Christians after the Union of Brest in 1596, by which some Orthodox Christians acknowledged papal authority and Catholic catechism, but preserved their liturgy. The country also became one of the major centres of the Reformation.
In the second half of the 16th century, Calvinism spread in Lithuania, supported by the families ofRadziwiłł,Chodkiewicz,Sapieha,Dorohostajskiand others. By the 1580s the majority of the senators from Lithuania wereCalvinistorSocinianUnitarians (Jan Kiszka).
In 1579,Stephen Báthory, King ofPolandand Grand Duke of Lithuania, foundedVilnius University, one of the oldest universities inNorthern Europe. Due to the work of the Jesuits during theCounter-Reformationthe university soon developed into one of the most important scientific and cultural centres of the region and the most notable scientific centre of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.The work of the Jesuits as well as conversions from among the Lithuanian senatorial families turned the tide and by the 1670sCalvinismlost its former importance though it still retained some influence among the ethnically Lithuanian peasants and some middle nobility.
IslaminLithuania, unlike many other northern and western European countries, has a long history starting from 14th century.Small groups of MuslimLipka Tatarsmigrated to ethnically Lithuanian lands, mainly under the rule of Grand DukeVytautas(early 15th century). In Lithuania, unlike many other European societies at the time, there was religious freedom. Lithuanian Tatars were allowed to settle in certain places, such asTrakaiandKaunas.Keturiasdešimt Totoriųis one of the oldest Tatar settlements in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. After a successful military campaign of theCrimean Peninsulain 1397, Vytautas brought the firstCrimean Tatarprisoners of war toTrakaiand various places in theDuchy of Trakai, including localities nearVokėriver just south of Vilnius. The first mosque in this village was mentioned for the first time in 1558. There were 42 Tatar families in the village in 1630.
The majority of inhabitants ofLithuania proper, which included the voivodeships ofVilnius,TrakaiandSamogitia, spoke Lithuanian.These areas remained almost wholly Lithuanian-speaking, both colloquially and by ruling nobility.Despite its frequent oral use, Lithuanian did not begin to be used in writing until the 16th century.
Ruthenians, ancestors of modern Belarusians and Ukrainians, living in the eastern and southern lands of the Grand Duchy spokeRuthenian language.The Ruthenian language had an old writing tradition.The language of the Orthodox Church wasOld Church Slavonic, while official documents used the so-calledChancery Ruthenian, close to but not identical to the spoken language, which over time absorbed many Lithuanian and Polish words.
Some Poles (mainlyburghers, clergy, merchants, andszlachta) moved to Lithuania, although this migration was small-scale.After theUnion of Lublin, this movement significantly increased.Polish was adopted also gradually by the local inhabitants.Already in early 16th century, Polish became the Lithuanian magnates' first language.The following century it was adopted by the Lithuanian nobility in general.The Polish language also penetrated other social strata: the clergy, the townspeople, and even the peasants.Since the 16th century,Polishwas used much more often than other languages for writing.Polish finally became the Commonwealth's official chancellery language in 1697.
Other important ethnic groups throughout the Grand Duchy of Lithuania wereJewsandTatars.Jews spoke mainly in the eastern dialect of Yiddish.TheLithuanian Tatarsused a language ofKipchak originthat was full of borrowings fromTurkishandArabic.It ceased to be used in the 16th century, and was replaced by Ruthenian and Polish, written in theArabic alphabet.Brought in 1397 from Crimea,Karaitesused a dialect of WestKaraite language, whileHebrewwas used for religious purposes.
In addition,Livonia, which had been politically connected to the Grand Duchy since the mid-16th century, was inhabited byLatgalianswho spoke adialectof theLatvian language.Inhabiting the towns, mainly in Livonia, the mostly Protestant Germans used a local variety of German calledBaltendeutsch.Prussian and Yotvingians refugees, pushed out by the Teutonic Knights, also found their footing in the Grand Duchy.Similarly, Russian Old Believers emigrated to Lithuanian lands in the 17th century.
The Grand Duchy's linguistic and ethnic situation, as well as the fusion of Lithuanian and Ruthenian elements in its culture, became the trigger for a long-running debate among historians from Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine over whether the state was essentially Lithuanian or Ruthenian-Lithuanian, in which the more advanced Ruthenian culture played a central role.
Before the Lithuanian expansion into the Ruthenian lands, Lithuanian was the only language of public life.However, the conquests, already initiated byMindaugasin 13th century, began the process of fusing Ruthenian and Lithuanian culture and, in the absence of its own writing tradition, adopting Ruthenian as the language of administration and written communication.From at least the time ofVytautas, but probably much earlier, the language of internal administration wasChancery Ruthenian, a language similar to, but not the same as, the spoken language used by Ruthenians living in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.As for the correspondences with foreign courts the grand ducal chancellery prepared it in the language appropriate to the recipient: Latin for the correspondence with the West, German with theTeutonic Orderand Chancery Ruthenian with the East Slavic and Tatar rulers.
The language used at court continued to be Lithuanian until the mid-16th century, the other being Ruthenian; later, both languages began to be replaced by Polish.Ruthenian culture dominated the courts of theGediminidprinces since the 14th century, especially those ruling directly over Ruthenian subjects.Grand DukeJogailawas most likely bilingual, knowing and speaking Lithuanian and Ruthenian, and was able to communicate in theSamogitian dialectof the Lithuanian language.The Lithuanian language was still strongly present at the Vilnius court ofCasimir Jagiellon, who had to learn it when he assumed power in the Grand Duchy in 1444.Casimir's assumption of power in Poland in 1447 marked the end of the existence of a separate court in Vilnius (it later existed only in years 1492–1496 and 1544–1548). Many Lithuanians and Ruthenian nobles joined the court in Kraków, they learned Polish language over time.Casimir was the last Grand Duke to know the Lithuanian language.From 1500, the elite of the Lithuanian state rapidly adopted the Polish language.
The process of moving away from Ruthenian to Polish in administration was soon apparent. The first were the nobles ofPodlachia, who adopted Polish laws as early as the 1440s, and repeatedly demanded that official documents be written in Polish, since they no longer knew Ruthenian.The political reforms of 1564–1566 establishedsejmiks, local land courts, appellate courts modelled on Polish system, through which the Polish language flowed into Lithuania.The first codification of Lithuanian laws, the Statute of Lithuania, was issued in Chancery Ruthenian (1529), but was quickly translated into Latin (1530) and Polish (1532).Court Chancellorof the Grand Duchy of LithuaniaLew Sapiehanoted in the preface of theThird Statute of Lithuania(1588) that all state documents to be written exclusively in Ruthenian.Despite this, after the Polish translation of the statute was published in 1614, it was not reissued in Ruthenian ever again.Polish was increasingly used in official documents, especially after the Union of Lublin.Finally, in 1697, the Sejm, as part of the equalization of law between Lithuania and Poland, confirmed that only the Polish language was to be used in administration in Lithuania,although Ruthenian continued to be used on a few official documents until the second half of the 18th century.
After the baptism, the use of Latin, still the main language of learning and writing in Western Europe, also spread in Lithuania as a language of document. Latin was the second language of the grand ducal chancellery in the 14th–16th centuries, although it was used less frequently than Ruthenian in internal administration.This was accompanied by the spread since mid-15th century of the legend of the Roman origin of the Lithuanian nobility (from thePalemon lineage), and the closeness of the Lithuanian language and Latin. This let some intellectuals in the mid-16th century to advocate for replacement of Ruthenian with Latin, as they considered Latin as the native language of Lithuanians.
Despite the appearance of literature in Lithuanian in the 16th century, the language did not gain the status of a chancellery language in the Grand Duchy until the late 18th century.Unlike neighboringPrussia, where the custom of issuing official documents in Lithuanian, especially those addressed to Lithuanian subjects, appeared as early as the 16th century.The Prussian chancellery translated two universals of 1639 and 1641 prepared by the royal chancellery ofWładysław IVin Latin forbidding the passage of his subjects from thePolish-Lithuanian Commonwealthto Prussia, which was then a Polish fief.In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the first document in Lithuanian was a translation from the Polish text of theMay 3 Constitution, which was issued in 1791.Subsequently, several documents were published in Lithuanian during theKościuszko Uprising.Of course, Lithuanian was used in speech, in administrative offices and by government officials when dealing with residents who were unable to communicate in another language.Vilnius city charter of November 18, 1551 declared that summons to court and verdicts had to be announced in Lithuanian, Polish, and Ruthenian.A similar charter was issued in Kaunas in 1540.
In 1260, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the land ofLithuania, and ethnic Lithuanians formed the majority (68%) of its 400,000 people.With the acquisition of newRuthenianterritories, in 1340 this portion decreased to 30%.By the time of the largest expansion towardsRus'lands, which came at the end of the 13th and during the 14th century, the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was 800 to 930 thousand km, just 10% to 14% of which was ethnically Lithuanian.
On 6 May 1434, Grand DukeSigismund Kęstutaitisreleased his privilege which tied the Orthodox and CatholicLithuanian noblesrights in order to attract theSlavic noblesof the eastern regions of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania who supported the former Grand DukeŠvitrigaila.
An estimate of the population in the territory of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania together gives a population at 7.5 million for 1493, breaking them down by ethnicity at 3.75 millionRuthenians(ethnicUkrainians,Belarusians), 3.25 million Poles and 0.5 million Lithuanians.With theUnion of Lublin, 1569, Lithuanian Grand Duchy lost large part of lands to the Polish Crown.
According to an analysis of the tax registers in 1572,Lithuania properhad 850,000 residents of which 680,000 were Lithuanians.
In the mid and late 17th century, due to Russian and Swedish invasions, there was much devastation and population loss on throughout the Grand Duchy of Lithuania,including ethnic Lithuanian population inVilnius surroundings. Besides devastation, the Ruthenian population declined proportionally after the territorial losses toRussian Empire. By 1770 there were about 4.84 million inhabitants in the territory of 320 thousand km, the biggest part of whom were inhabitants of Ruthenia and about 1.39 million or 29% – of ethnic Lithuania.During the following decades, the population decreased in a result ofpartitions.
Prussian tribes(ofBalticorigin) were the subject of Polish expansion, which was largely unsuccessful, so DukeKonrad of Masoviainvited theTeutonic Knightsto settle near the Prussian area of settlement. The fighting between Prussians and the Teutonic Knights gave the more distant Lithuanian tribes time to unite. Because of strong enemies in the south and north, the newly formed Lithuanian state concentrated most of its military and diplomatic efforts on expansion eastward.
The rest of the former Ruthenian lands were conquered by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Some other lands in Ukraine were vassalized by Lithuania later. The subjugation of Eastern Slavs by two powers created substantial differences between them that persist to this day. While there were certainly substantial regional differences in Kievan Rus', it was the Lithuanian annexation of much of southern and western Ruthenia that led to the permanent division between Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Russians, and even four Grand Dukes of Lithuania are appeared on theMillennium of Russiamonument.
In the 19th century, the romantic references to the times of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were an inspiration and a substantial part of both theLithuanianandBelarusiannational revival movements andRomanticism in Poland.
Notwithstanding the above, Lithuania was a kingdom under Mindaugas, who was crowned by the authority of Pope Innocent IV in 1253. Vytenis, Gediminas and Vytautas the Great also assumed the title of King, although uncrowned by the Pope. A failed attempt was made in 1918 to revive the Kingdom under a German Prince,Wilhelm Karl, Duke of Urach, who would have reigned as Mindaugas II of Lithuania.
In the first half of the 20th century, the memory of the multiethnic history of the Grand Duchy was revived by the people connected with theKrajowcymovement,such asLudwik Abramowicz,Konstancja Skirmuntt,Michał Pius Römer, Juozapas Albinas Herbačiauskas,Józef MackiewiczandStanisław Mackiewicz.This feeling was expressed in poetry byCzesław Miłosz.
TheAct of Independence of Lithuania, signed by theCouncil of Lithuaniaon February 16, 1918, proclaimed that "the Council of Lithuania, as the sole representative of the Lithuanian nation, based on the recognized right tonational self-determination, and on theVilnius Conference's resolution of September 18–23, 1917, proclaims the restoration of the independent state of Lithuania, founded on democratic principles, with Vilnius as its capital, and declares the termination of all state ties which formerly bound this State to other nations".In thepreambleof the most recentConstitution of Lithuania, adopted during the1992 Lithuanian constitutional referendum, the continuity of Lithuanian statehood is also stressed.
Pseudoscientifictheory oflitvinismwas developed since the 1990s.
Famous Lithuanian sports clubsBC ŽalgirisandFK Žalgirisas well thelargest indoor arena in Lithuaniaare named after theBattle of Grunwald(Žalgirio mūšis).
According to the 10th article of theLaw on the State Flag and Other Flags of the Republic of Lithuania(Lithuanian:Lietuvos Respublikos valstybės vėliavos ir kitų vėliavų įstatymas), adopted by theSeimas, thehistorical Lithuanian state flag(with horseback knight on a red field, which initial design dates back to the reign of Grand DukeVytautas the Great)must be constantly raised over the most important governmental buildings (e.g.Seimas Palace,Government of Lithuaniaand itsministries, Lithuaniancourts,municipal councilbuildings) and significant historical buildings (e.g.Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania,Trakai Island Castle), also inKernavėand in the site of theSenieji Trakai Castle.