Sicilians

TheSicilians(Sicilian:Siciliani), orSicilian people, are aRomance-speakingEuropeanethnic groupwho areindigenousto the island ofSicily, the largest island in theMediterranean, as well as the largest and most populous of theautonomous regionsofItaly.
The Sicilian people are indigenous to the island of Sicily, which was first populated beginning in thePaleolithicandNeolithicperiods. According to the famous Italian historianCarlo Denina, the origin of the first inhabitants of Sicily is no less obscure than that of the first Italians; however, there is no doubt that a large part of these early individuals traveled to Sicily fromSouthern Italy—others from theIslands of Greece, and the coasts ofIberiaandWestern Europe.
The aboriginal inhabitants of Sicily, long absorbed into the population, were tribes known to the ancient Greek writers as theElymians, theSicanians, and theSicels, the last being anIndo-European-speaking people of possibleItalicaffiliation, who migrated from theItalian mainland(likely from theAmalfi CoastorCalabriavia theStrait of Messina) during thesecond millennium BC, after whom the island was named. The Elymian tribes have been speculated to be aIndo-Europeanpeople who migrated to Sicily from eitherCentral Anatolia,Southern-Coastal Anatolia, Calabria, or one of theAegean Islands, or perhaps were a collection of native migratory maritime-based tribes from all previously mentioned regions, and formed a common "Elymian" tribal identity/basis after settling down in Sicily. When the Elymians migrated to Sicily is unknown, howeverscholars of antiquityconsidered them to be the second oldest inhabitants, while the Sicanians, thought to be the oldest inhabitants of Sicily by scholars of antiquity, were speculated to also be apre-Indo-European tribe, who migrated viaboatfrom theXúquer riverbasin inCastellón,Cuenca,ValenciaandAlicante. Before the Sicanians lived in the easternmost part of the Iberian peninsula. The name 'Sicanus' has been asserted to have a possible link to the modern river known inValencianas theXúquerand inCastilianas the Júcar. The Beaker was introduced in Sicily from Sardinia and spread mainly in the north-west and south-west of the island. In the northwest and in the Palermo kept almost intact its cultural and social characteristics, while in the south-west there was a strong integration with local cultures. The only known single bell-shaped glass in eastern Sicily was found in Syracuse.
All three tribes lived both asedentarypastoralandorchard farminglifestyle, and asemi-nomadicfishing,transhumanceandmixed farminglifestyle. Prior to theNeolithic Revolution, Paleolithic Sicilians would have lived ahunter-gathererlifestyle, just like mosthuman culturesbefore the Neolithic. The riverSalsuwas the territorial boundary between the Sicels and Sicanians. They worebasic clothingmade ofwool,plant fibre,papyrus,esparto grass,animal skins,palm leaves,leatherandfur, and created everydaytools, as well asweapons, usingmetal forging,woodworkingandpottery. They typically lived in anuclear familyunit, with someextended familymembers as well, usually within adrystone hut, aneolithic long houseor a simplehutmade of mud, stones, wood, palm leaves or grass. Their main methods of transportation were horseback, donkeys andchariots. Evidence of petwildcats,cirneco dogsandchildren's toyshave been discovered in archaeological digs, especially incemetery tombs. Their diet was a typicalMediterranean diet, including unique food varieties such asGaglioppo,AcitanaandDiamante citron, while in modern times theCalabrian Salami, which is also produced in Sicily, and sometimes used to makespicy 'Nduja spreadable paste/sauce, is a popular type of salami sold inBraziland theAnglosphere. All 3 tribes also specialised in buildingmegalithicsingle-chambereddolmen tombs,a tradition which dates back to the Neolithic. "An important archaeological site, located in Southeast Sicily, is theNecropolis of Pantalica, a collection of cemeteries with rock-cut chamber tombs.Datingfrom the 13th to the 7th centuries BC., recent estimates suggest a figure of just under 4,000 tombs. They extend around the flanks of a large promontory located at the junction of theAnapo riverwith its tributary, theCalcinara, about 23 km (14 mi) northwest ofSyracuse. Together with the city of Syracuse, Pantalica was listed as aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site in 2005. The site was mainly excavated between 1895 and 1910 by the Italian archeologist,Paolo Orsi, although most of the tombs had already been looted long before his time. Items found within the tombs of Pantalica, some now on display at the Archaeology Museum in Syracuse, were the characteristic red-burnished pottery vessels, and metal objects, including weaponry (small knives and daggers) and clothing, such as bronze fibulae (brooches) and rings, which were placed with the deceased in the tombs. Most of the tombs contained between one and seven individuals of all ages and both sexes. Many tombs were evidently re-opened periodically for more burials. The average human life span at this time was probably around 30 years of age, although the size of the prehistoric population is hard to estimate from the available data, but might have been around 1000 people."
Nuragicceramic remains, (fromSardinia), carbon dated to the 13th century BC, have been found inLipari.The prehistoricThapsos culture, associated with the Sicani, shows noticeable influences fromMycenaean Greece.The type of burial found in thenecropolisof the Thapsos culture, is characterized by large rock-cut chamber tombs, and often oftholos-typethat some scholars believe to be of Mycenaean derivation, while others believe it to be the traditional shape of the hut. The housing are made up of mostly circular huts bounded by stone walls, mainly in small numbers. Some huts have rectangular shape, particularly the roof. The economy was based on farming, herding, hunting and fishing. There are numerous evidences of trading networks, in particular of bronze vessels and weapons of Mycenaean and Nuragic (Sardinian) production. There were close trading relationships/networks established with theMilazzo Cultureof theAeolian Islands,and with theApennine cultureof mainland southern Italy. In Sicily's earlierprehistory, there is also evidence of trade with theCapsianandIberomaurusianmesolithiccultures fromTunisia, with somelithic stonesites attested in certain parts of the island.
Another archaeological site, originally identified byPaolo Orsion the basis of a particular ceramic style, is theCastelluccio culturewhich dates back to the Ancient Bronze Age (2000 B.C. approximately), and is seen as sort of a "prehistoric proto-civilization", located betweenNotoandSiracusa.The discovery of a prehistoric village in Castelluccio di Noto, next to the remains of prehistoric circular huts, led to finds ofCeramicglassdecorated with brown lines on a yellow-reddish background, and tri-color with the use of white. The weapons used in the days of Castelluccio culture weregreen stoneandbasaltaxes and, in the most recent settlements, bronze axes, and frequently carved bones, considered idols similar to those ofMalta, and ofTroy II and III. Burials were made in rounded tombs carved into the rock, with doors with relief carving of spiral symbols and motifs that evoke the sexual act. The Castelluccio culture is dated to a period between 2200 BC and 1800 BC,although some believe it to be contemporary to the Middle-LateHelladic period(1800/1400 BC).""Sites related to the Castelluccio culture were present in the villages of south-east Sicily, includingMonte Casale, Cava/Quarry d'Ispica,Pachino,Niscemi, Cava/Quarry Lazzaro, nearNoto, ofRosolini, in the rockyByzantine districtof coastal Santa Febronia inPalagonia, in Cuddaru d' Crastu (Tornabé-Mercato d'Arrigo) nearPietraperzia, where there are remains of a fortress partly carved in stone, and – with different ceramic forms – also nearAgrigentoinMonte Grande. The discovery of a cup of 'Etna type' in the area ofComiso, among local ceramic objects led to the discovery of commercial trades with the Castelluccio sites ofPaternò,AdranoandBiancavilla, whose graves differ in making due to the hard basaltic terrain and also for the utilization of thelava cavesas chamber tombs. In the area aroundRagusa, there have been found evidences of mining among the ancient residents of Castelluccio; tunnels excavated by the use of basalt bats allowed the extraction and production of highly soughtflints. Somedolmens, dated back to this same period, with sole funeral function, are found in different parts of Sicily and attributable to a people not belonging to the Castelluccio Culture."
The Sicelianpolytheisticworship of the ancient and nativechthonic,animistic-cult deities associated with geysers known as thePalici, as well as the worship of thevolcano-fire godby the name ofAdranos, were also worshiped throughout Sicily by the Elymians and Sicanians. Their (Palici) centre of worship was originally based on three small lakes that emittedsulphurousvapors in thePalagonianplains, and as a result these twin brothers were associated with geysers and theunderworld. There was also a shrine to the Palici in Palacia, where people could subject themselves or others totests of reliabilitythrough divine judgement; passing meant that an oath could be trusted. The mythological lineage of the Palici is uncertain. According toMacrobius, the nymphThaliagave birth to the divine twins while living underneath the Earth.They were most likely either the sons of the native fire god Adranos, or, as Polish historian "Krzysztof Tomasz Witczak" suggests, the Palici may derive from the oldProto-Indo-Europeanmythemeof thedivine twins.Mount Etnais named after themythologicalSiciliannymphcalledAetna, who might have been the possible mother to the Palici twins.Mount Etna was also believed to have been the region whereZeusburied theSerpentinegiantTyphon, and the humanoid giantEnceladusin classical mythology. TheCyclopes, giant one-eyed humanoid creatures inclassical Greco-Roman mythology, known as the maker of Zeus'thunderbolts, were traditionally associated with Sicily and theAeolian Islands. The Cyclopes were said to have been assistants to the Greek blacksmith GodHephaestus, at his forge in Sicily, underneath Mount Etna, or perhaps on one of the nearby Aeolian Islands. The Aeolian Islands, off the coast of Northwestern Sicily, were themselves named after the mythological king and "keeper of the heavy winds" known asAeolus.In hisHymn toArtemis, Cyrene poetCallimachusstates that the Cyclopes on the Aeolian island ofLipari, working "at the anvils ofHephaestus", make the bows and arrows used byApolloandArtemis.TheHesiodicLatin poetOvidnames three Cyclopes "Brontes, Steropes and Acmonides" working asforgersinside Sicilian caves.
BesidesDemeter(theGreekgoddess ofagricultureandlaw), andPersephone(the Greekpersonifiedgoddess ofvegetation),ThePhoenicianbull godMoloch(a significant deity also mentioned in theHebrew Bible), the Phoenicianmoon goddessoffertilityandprosperityAstarte(with herRomanequivalent beingVenus), thePunicgoddessTanit,and theweather&war godBaal(which later evolved into theCarthaginiangodBaal Hammon), as well as the Carthaginian chief god Baal Hammon, also had centres ofcultic-worshipthroughout Sicily. Theriver Anapuswas viewed as the personification of the river godAnapusin Greek-Sicilian mythology.The Elymians inhabited the western parts of Sicily, while the Sicanians inhabited the central parts, and the Sicels inhabited theeasternparts.
From the 11th century BC,Phoeniciansbegan to settle in western Sicily, having already started colonies on the nearby parts ofNorth AfricaandMalta. Sicily was later colonized and heavily settled byGreeks, beginning in the 8th century BC. Initially, this was restricted to theeasternand southern parts of the island. As theGreekandPhoeniciancommunities grew more populous and more powerful, the Sicels and Sicanians were pushed further into the centre of the island. The independentPhoeniciancolonial settlements were eventually absorbed byCarthageduring the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC,Syracusewas the most populousGreek city statein the world.Sicilian politicswas intertwined with politics inGreeceitself, leadingAthens, for example, to mount the disastrousSicilian Expeditionagainst Syracuse in 415–413 BC during thePeloponnesian War, which ended up severely affecting a defeated Athens, both politically and economically, in the following years to come. Another battle which Syracuse took part in, this time under the TyrantHiero I of Syracuse, was theBattle of Cumae, where the combinednaviesof Syracuse andCumaedefeated anEtruscan force, resulting in significant territorial loses for the Etruscans.Theconstant warfarebetweenAncient Carthageand theGreek city-stateseventually opened the door to an emergingthird power. In the 3rd century BC, theMessanan Crisis, caused byMamertinemercenariesfromCampania, when the city-states ofMessina(Carthaginian-owned) andSyracuse(Dorian-owned) were being constantly raided and pillaged byMamertines, during the period (282–240 BC) when Central, Western and Northeast Sicily were put under Carthaginian rule, motivated the intervention of theRoman Republicinto Sicilian affairs, and led to theFirst Punic WarbetweenRomeandCarthage. By the end of thewarin 242 BC, and with the death ofHiero II, all of Sicily except Syracuse was in Roman hands, becoming Rome's first province outside of the Italian peninsula. For the next 600 years, Sicily would bea provinceof the Roman Republic and laterEmpire. Prior to Roman rule, there were three nativeElymiantowns by the names ofSegesta,EryxandEntella, as well as severalSiculiantowns calledAgyrion,Kale Akte(founded by the Sicel leaderDucetius),EnnaandPantalica, and oneSicaniantown known asThapsos. (Greek: Θάψος)
Sometime after Carthage conquered most of Sicily except for the Southeast which was still controlled by Syracuse,Pyrrhus of Epirus, theMolossianking ofEpirus, was installed as King/Tyrant of Sicily from 278 to 275 BC, even capturing the nativeElymianmountain-city ofEryx, which was previously under Carthaginian fortification & protection before he captured it. Pyrrhus even attempted to captureLilybaeum(Siege of Lilybaeum) from thePunics, which didn't succeed. A couple years later (275 BC), Envoys fromSouthern Italyhad notified him that of all theGreek citiesin Italy, only Tarentum hadn't fallen to the Romans. Upon hearing this, coinciding with the fact that the Sicilian city-states had started becoming hostile towards him, due to him trying to force Sicily into becoming amartial state, Pyrrhus made his decision to depart from the island and dethrone himself, leaving Syracuse and Carthage in charge of the island again. As his ship left the island, he turned and, foreshadowing thePunic Wars, said to his companions: "What a wrestling ground we are leaving, my friends, for the Carthaginians and the Romans." While his army was being transported by ship to mainland Italy, Pyrrhus' navy was destroyed by the Carthaginians at theBattle of the Strait of Messina, with 98 warships sunk or disabled out of 110. After Pyrrhus of Epirus landed on Mainland Italy, his Roman opponents had mastered up a large army underRoman consulManius Curius Dentatus, while he was still Tyrant of Sicily. After Pyrrhus was defeated at theBattle of Beneventum (275 BC)by the Romans, he decided to end his campaigns against Southern Italy, and return toEpirus, resulting in the loss of all his territorial gains in Italy. The city of Tarentum however still remained under Epirote control.
The ancient historianDiodorus Siculuswho wrote and recorded the monumentaluniversal historyBibliotheca historica, and the ancientDoric-Greekrevolutionary scientist, inventor and mathematicianArchimedeswho anticipated moderncalculus, andanalysisby applying methods ofinfinitesimalsandexhaustionto rigorously derive and prove the range ofgeometrictheorems, and invented the innovativeArchimedean screw,compound pulleys, and defensive war machines to protect his native town of Syracuse from invasions, were both born, grew up in, lived and died in Sicily.
As the Roman Empire was falling apart, aGermanictribe known as theVandalsalong with aScythiantribe originating from theEuropean Steppeknown as theAlanstook over Sicily for a relatively brief period beginning in 440 AD under the rule of their kingGeiseric, forming theKingdom of the Vandals. The Vandals and Alans gained a monopoly on the Mediterraneangrain tradeduring their monarchical reign, with all grain taxes being monitored by them. Due to theWestern Roman Empirebeing too preoccupied with war inGaul, when the Vandals & Alans startedinvadingSicily in 440, the Romans could not respond. Eastern Roman EmperorTheodosius IIsent a failed expeditionary force to deal with them in 441, which ended in a Vandal-Alan counter-victory. However, they soon lost these newly acquired possessions, except for one toehold inLilybaeum, toOdoacer(anArian ChristianBarbarianstatesman & general of possibleEast Germanic&Hunnicdescent, andclient kingunderZenowhosereign over Italymarked theFall of the Western Roman Empire) in 476 and completely to theOstrogothicconquest of Sicily byTheodoric the Greatwhich began in 488; although theGothswereGermanic, Theodoric sought to reviveRomanculture and government and allowed freedom of religion. In contrast to the prior Carthaginian, Syracusan (Dorian) and Roman Empires which ruled Sicily in the past, Sicily did not serve as a distinct province or administrative region under Germanic control, although it did retain a certain amount of autonomy. TheGothic Wartook place between theOstrogothsand theByzantine Empire(with its capital-city based atConstantinople, modernIstanbul), and during the reign ofJustinian I, Sicily was brought back underGreco-Roman ruleunder the military expeditions of Byzantine generalsFlavius BelisariusandNarses, resulting inByzantine-Greek languageandreligionbeing embraced by the majority of the population. It was Syracuse where the Byzantine EmperorConstans IIdesired to move his capital in 663 AD, a decision which eventually led to his assassination. Sicily remained underautonomousstableByzantine ruleas theTheme/Province of Sicily(Theme (Byzantine district)) for several peaceful centuries, until an invasion byArabMuslims(Aghlabidsfrom theBanu Tamim Clan) in the 9th century.
Besides Sicily, the Theme or province of Sicily also included the adjacent region ofCalabriain Mainland Italy. The capital city ofByzantine SicilywasSyracuse. The province was looked after by the imperial governor known as aPraetor, and was militarily protected under a general by the title ofDux. Sicily itself was divided into many districts known as aTurma. The ByzantineExarch of Ravennan ItalynamedTheophylact, between 702 and 709, originally came from Sicily. After he got promoted into the Exarchate, Theophylact marched from Sicily toRomefor unknown reasons, a decision which angered the local Roman soldiers living there, however the newly electedPope John VI, was able to calm them down.While Theophylact was still Exarch, Byzantine EmperorJustinian IIseized all the leading citizens and officials of Ravenna at a local banquet, and dragged them abroad a ship to Constantinople. He sentenced all but one of the Ravennan captives to death, the exception being ArchbishopFelix, who was permanently blinded instead.This was due to a recent rebellion whichRavennatook part in, in 695. Justinian II later sacked Ravenna, weakening the Exarchate in charge of it. Theophylact was not a victim of the catastrophe, but was the first Exarch to experience a weakened Ravenna. Theophylact possibly moved back to Sicily after he retired from the Exarchate in 709. Theophylact might have also been theStrategosof Sicily from 700 to 710. The Strategos of Sicily was also able to exercise some control over the autonomous duchies ofNaples,GaetaandAmalfi, depending on the local political situation or faction at the time.
TheAghlabidinvasions were in part caused by the Byzantine-Sicilian military commanderEuphemius, who invited the Aghlabids to aid him in his rebellion against the imperial governor of Sicily in 826 AD. A similar situation happened a century prior, when the imperial governor of Sicily (Sergios), had declared a Byzantine official fromConstantinopleby the name ofBasil Onomagoulos(regnal nameTiberius) as rival emperor, when false news reached Sicily that Constantinople had fallen to theUmayyads. WhenEmperor Leo the Syriansent anadministrative officialnamedPaulto Sicily, the people and army of Syracuse surrendered Basil and his rebels up to him, leading to the beheading of Basil, while the former governor Sergios was able to escape tothe parts of Mainland Italy controlled by the Lombards. Another rebellion took place between the years 781–793, when the aristocratic governor of Sicily,Elpidius, was accused of conspiring againstEmpress Irenein favour ofNikephoros. After Elpidius's forces were militarily defeated by Empress Irene's large fleet dispatched in Sicily, he, along with his lieutenant, theduxofCalabrianamed Nikephoros, defected to theAbbasid Caliphate, where he was posthumously acknowledged as rival emperor. After losing another military expedition, this time againstAsia Minorwith the help of the Abbasids, he advised theAbbasidEmirofMesopotamia,Abd al-Malik ibn Salih, to "throw away his silk and put on his armour", warning him against the aggressive new reign ofNikephoros I.The Muslim conquestwas a see-saw affair; the local population resisted fiercely and theArabssuffered considerable dissension and infighting among themselves during this process. Not until 965 was the island's conquest successfully completed by theFatimid Caliphate, with Syracuse in particular resisting almost to the end (Siege of Syracuse (877-878)).Jawhar the Sicilian, the Fatimid general ofSlavicorigins that led theconquest of Egypt, under CaliphAl-Mu'izz li-Din Allah, was born and grew up inRagusa, Sicily. Jawhar served asviceroyofEgyptuntil 973, consolidating Fatimid control over North Africa, and laying the foundations forCairo.
The first phase ofMuslimrule began with the conquests of the third AghlabidEmirZiyadat Allah I of Ifriqiya, and consolidated with the reign of the ninth EmirIbrahim II of Ifriqiyaafter the conquest ofTaormina. The first attempt tocapture Syracusewas under generalAsad ibn al-Furat, although it ended in a Byzantine victory. A combination ofPersianandAndalusiantroops helped to capture the Island between 830 and 831. After a revolt was suppressed, the Fatimid CaliphAl-Mansur Billahappointed a member of theKalbiddynasty,Al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Kalbi, as First Emir of Sicily. The Kalbids ruled Sicily from 948 to 1053.Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, fourth ruler of theZiridSanhajadynasty in North Africa, attempted to annex the island for the Zirids, but his attempts failed. The new Arab rulers initiatedland reforms, which in turn increased productivity and encouraged the growth of smallholdings, a dent to the dominance of the landed estates. The Arabs further improved irrigation systems throughQanats, introducing oranges, lemons, pistachio, and sugarcane to Sicily.Ibn Hawqal, aBaghdadimerchantwho visited Sicily in 950, commented that a walled suburb called the Kasr (the palace) was the center of Palermo, with the great Friday mosque on the site of the later Roman Catholic cathedral. The suburb of Al-Khalisa (Kalsa) contained the Sultan's palace, baths, a mosque, government offices, and a private prison. Ibn Hawqual reckoned there were 7,000 individual butchers trading in 150 shops. By 1050, Palermo had a population of 350,000, making it one of the largest cities in Europe, behind Moorish-Spain's capital Córdoba and the Byzantine capital of Constantinople, which had populations over 450–500,000. Palermo's population dropped to 150,000 under Norman rule. By 1330 Palermo's population had declined to 51,000, possibly due to the inhabitants of the region being deported to other regions ofNorman Sicily, or to the NormanCounty of Apulia and Calabria. The local population conquered by the Muslims were Greek-speaking Byzantine Christians,but there were also a significant number of Jews.Christians and Jews were tolerated in Muslim Sicily asdhimmis, and had to pay theJizyapoll tax, andKharajland tax, but were exempt from theZakatalms-giving tax Muslims had to pay. ManyJewsimmigrated to Sicily during Muslim rule, but left after the Normans arrived.
In the 11th century, the mainland southern Italian powers were hiringNorman mercenaries, who wereChristiandescendants of theVikings; it was theNormansunderRoger I(of theHauteville dynasty) who conquered Sicily from the Muslimsover a period of thirty yearsuntil finally controlling the entire island by 1091 as theCounty of Sicily. In 1130,Roger IIfounded the NormanKingdom of Sicilyas an independent state with its ownParliament, language,schooling, army and currency, while the Sicilian culture evolved distinct traditions, clothing, linguistic changes,cuisineand customs not found in mainlandItaly.A great number of families fromnorthern Italybegan settling in Sicily during this time, with some of their descendants forming distinct communities that survive to the present day, such as theLombards of Sicily. Other migrants arrived fromsouthern Italy, as well asNormandy,southern France,Englandand other parts ofnorthern Europe.
The Siculo-Norman rule of theHauteville dynastycontinued until 1198, whenFrederick II of Sicily, the son of aSiculo-Normanqueen and aSwabian-Germanemperor ascended the throne. In fact, it was during the reign of this Hohenstaufen kingFrederick II, that the poetic form known as asonnetwas invented byGiacomo da Lentini, the head Poet, Teacher andNotaryof theSicilian School for Poetry. Frederick II was also responsible for theMuslim settlement of Lucera. His descendants governed Sicily until thePapacyinvited aFrenchprince to take the throne, which led to a decade-and-a-half ofFrench ruleunderCharles I of Sicily; he was later deposed in theWar of the Sicilian VespersagainstFrench rule, which put the daughter ofManfred of Sicily–Constance IIand her husbandPeter III of Aragon, a member of theHouse of Barcelona, on the throne. Theirdescendantsruled the Kingdom of Sicily until 1401. Following theCompromise of Caspein 1412 the Sicilian throne passed to theIberianmonarchs fromAragonandCastile.
In 1735, theSpanish eraended whenCharles Vfrom theHouse of Bourbonwas crowned king. For the better part of the next century-and-a-half, Sicily was inpersonal unionwith the other Southern ItalianKingdom of Naples, with the official residence located inNaples, under theBourbon dynasty. After theNapoleonic Wars, KingFerdinand I, who had just recently been restored back to the throneship ofSouthern Italyin 1815, made a decision to administratively and politically merged the two separate Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, which ended up forming theKingdom of the Two Siciliesin 1816. In 1861, however, Sicily became part of theKingdom of Italyas a result of theRisorgimento. Prior to the Risorgimento, the Two Sicilies were conquered by theKingdom of Sardiniaduring theExpedition of the Thousand(led bygeneralGiuseppe Garibaldi) in 1860, and subsequently brought under the monarchial realm ofSardinia. After the unification of Italy and theFascist era, a wave ofSicilian nationalismled to the adoption of theStatute of Sicily, under which the island has become anautonomous region. Since 1946, the island enjoys the most advanced special status of all theautonomous regions.
Sicily has experienced the presence of a number of different cultures and ethnicities in its vast history, including the aboriginal peoples of differingethnolinguisticorigins (Sicani,SiculiandElymians),Bruttians,Morgetes,Oenotrians,PhoeniciansandCarthaginians,Ancient Greeks(Magna Graecia),Mamertines,RomansandJewsduring theancientandclassical periods.
In the early medieval era, Sicily experienced the brief rule ofGermanicVandalsandIranicAlansduring theKingdom of the Vandals and Alans, while underByzantine,SaracenandNormanrule, there wereByzantine Greeks,ArabsandNormans.From the late medieval period into the modern era,Aragonese,SpaniardsandFrenchruled over and left a minor impact on the island, whileAlbanianssettled and formed communities which still exist today known as theArbereshe.
About five million people live in Sicily, making it thefourth most populated region in Italy. However, in the first century after theItalian unification, Sicily had one of the most negativenet migration ratesamong the regions of Italy because of millions of people moving to the Italian mainland and countries likeGermany,Sweden,Belgium, theUnited States,Canada,Australia,Brazil,Argentina, theUnited Kingdom,France,New Zealand,SingaporeandSouth Africa. Many Sicilian communities, including those formed by the descendants of the Sicilian migrants, are all over the world. It is estimated that the number of people of Sicilian descent in the world is more than six million.The most famous community is represented by theSicilian Americans.
Like the other parts of Southern Italy, immigration to the island is relatively low compared to other regions of Italy because workers tend to head toNorthern Italyinstead, in search of better employment and industrial opportunities. The most recentISTATfiguresshow around 175,000 immigrants out of the total of almost 5.1 million population (nearly 3.5% of the population);Romanianswith more than 50,000 make up the most immigrants, followed byTunisians,Moroccans,Sri Lankans,Albanians, and others mostly from Eastern Europe.As in the rest of Italy, the primary religion isRoman Catholicism(but with combinedLatin&Byzantine Rites) and the official language isItalian;Sicilianis currently not a recognised language in Italy.
In Sicily, there are threemetropolitan areas:
Overall, there are fifteen cities and towns with a population above 50,000 people, these are:
The most common Sicilian names areGiuseppe,MariaandSalvatore. The most common Sicilian surnames areRusso,MessinaandLombardo.
In 2008, the number of Sicilians abroad was well over 1 million. The countries in which they are most numerous on this date are: United States, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, France and Canada. The population of the Diaspora without including those in the United States is 629,114 individuals.
In the United States, the Sicilian-Americans are a large subset of Americans whose ancestors came from Sicily. This group is perhaps the largest part of the Sicilian diaspora.
The entire autochthonous population ofMaltais of Sicilian origin, but theMaltesegenerally do not consider themselves Sicilian due to centuries of cultural and geographical separation, and the fact thattheir native languageevolved fromSiculo-Arabicinstead ofItalo-Dalmatianlike the modernSicilian language.
Several studies involvingwhole genome analysisof mainlandItaliansand Sicilians have found that samples fromNorthern Italy,Southern ItalyandSicilybelong to their own unique/distinct separate clusters, while a genetic gap is filled by an intermediateCentral Italiancluster, creating a continuous cline of variation that mirrors geography.Genetically, Sicilians cluster the closest to otherSouth Italians, and especially toCalabrians.Other studies have also demonstrated that the population of Sicily is genetically very similar to that ofMalta, and toGreek speakinggroupsfrom theIonian Islands, theAegean Islands,Creteand thePeloponnesewhile the rest ofmainland Greeceappears as slightly differentiated, by clustering with the otherSouthern Balkanpopulations such as Albanians ofAlbania,Kosovoand theArbëreshë people.
According to one study,Y-DNA haplogroupswere found at the following frequencies in Sicily:R1(36.76%),J(29.65%),E1b1b(18.21%),I(7.62%),G(5.93%),T(5.51%),Q(2.54%).R1 and I haplogroups are typical inWest EuropeanandNorth Europeanpopulations while J, T, G, Q and E1b1b (and their varioussubclades) consist of lineages with differential distribution acrossEuropeand theMediterranean. The five mainMtDNA haplogroupspresent in Sicily arehaplogroups H,K,X,WandU, which are also the five most commonly found MtDNA-haplogroups inEuropeand theCaucasus.
The Norman Kingdom of Sicily was created in 1130, withPalermoas its capital, 70 years after the initial Norman invasion and 40 after the conquest of the last town, Noto in 1091, and would last until 1198. Today, it is in north-west Sicily, aroundTrapani,PalermoandAgrigentowhereNormanY-DNA is the most common, with 8% to 20% of the lineages belonging to haplogroup I1. Ancient and medievalGreekgenetic paternal legacy is estimated at 37% in Sicily. Sicilians are ofEuropeangenetic origin, with modern genetic profiles that are closely similar to people who lived in the region ofMagna Graeciaduring theClassical antiquityperiod, these people were a mix ofItalicRomanandGreekgenetic ancestry.Sicilians closely resemble mainlandItaliansandGreeksgenetically.
It is a misconception that Sicilians are of primarilyMoorishor otherwiseAfricanorigin, but this has been entirely disproven by genetic analysis of Siciliangenomes.The falsified myth that SicilianDNAwas of Moorish origin was fabricated byAnti-Italianxenophobicnativistsfrom primarilyanglophonic nations.Overall the estimatedCentral EuropeanandNorthwestern Europeanpaternal contributions in South Italy and Sicily are about 63% and 26% respectively.
Fernandes et al. (2019), The Arrival of Steppe and Iranian Related Ancestry in the Islands of the Western Mediterranean, found that in Sicily, Western Steppe Herders ancestry arrived by ~2200 BCE and likely came at least in part from Spain. 4 of the 5 Early Bronze Age Sicilian males had Steppe-associated Y-haplogroup R1b1a1a2a1a2 (R-P312). Two of these were Y-haplogroup R1b1a1a2a1a2a1 (Z195) which today is largely restricted to Iberia and has been hypothesized to have originated there 2500–2000 BCE.
Today in Sicily most people are bilingual and speak bothItalianandSicilian, a distinctRomance language.ManySicilianwords are ofGreekorigin, while smaller numbers of otherloan wordsare fromNorman,Arabic,Catalan,Occitan,Spanishand other languages. Other dialects of Sicilian, or those very closely related to it, are also spoken insouthern Calabria,SalentoandSalerno.
Sicilian was an early influence in the development of standard Italian, although its use remained confined to an intellectual elite. This was aliterary languagein Sicily created under the auspices ofFrederick IIand his court of notaries orMagna Curiawhich, headed byGiacomo da Lentini, also gave birth to theSicilian School, widely inspired by troubadour literature. It is in this language that appeared the firstsonnet, whose invention is attributed to Giacomo da Lentini himself. Sicilian was also the official language of theKingdom of Sicilyfrom 1300 to 1543.
Prior to the 20th century, large numbers of Sicilian people spoke only Sicilian as their mother tongue, with little or no fluent knowledge of Italian. Today, although not officially recognized by the Italian Republic, the Sicilian language is described as "a stableindigenous languageof Italy" byEthnologueand is recognized as a minority language byUNESCO.It has also been identified as a language by the Sicilian Region.Even so, Italian continues to be the sole official language recognized by the Italian Republic and predominates in the public arena, being used aseveryday languagein the daily lives of many Sicilians.
TheSiculo-Arabicdialect was a vernacularvariety ofArabiconce spoken inSicilyand neighbouringMaltabetween the end of the ninth century and the mid to late thirteenth century.The language became extinct in Sicily, but in Malta it eventually evolved into what is now theMaltese language.
TheSiculishdialect is themacaronic"Sicilianization" ofEnglish languagewords and phrases by immigrants fromSicilyto theUnited Statesin the early 20th century. Forms of Siculish are also to be found in other Sicilian immigrant communities ofEnglish-speaking countries, namely Canada and Australia. A surprising similarity can often be found between these forms, through either coincidence, trans-national movements of Sicilian immigrants, or more likely, through the logical adaptation ofEnglishusing linguistic norms from the Sicilian language.
There are two main historicalethno-linguisticminorities in Sicily, theLombards of Sicilyand theArbëreshë:
Historically, Sicily has been home to many religions, includingIslam,Native religions,Judaism,ClassicalPaganism,Carthaginian religions, andByzantine Orthodoxy, the coexistence of which has been historically seen as an ideal example of religiousmulticulturalism. Most Sicilians today are baptized asCatholic. Catholicism andLatinizationin Sicily originated from the islands Norman occupiers and forced conversion continued under the Spanish invaders, where the majority of Sicily's population were forced to convert from their former religions.Despite the historical push for Catholicism in Sicily, a minority of other religious communities thrive in Sicily.
Sicilian Catholics
For Catholics in Sicily, theVirgin Hodegetriais the patroness of Sicily. The Sicilian people are also known for their deep devotion to some Sicilian female saints: the martyrsAgathaandLucy, who are the patron saints of Catania and Syracuse respectively, and the hermitSaint Rosalia, patroness of Palermo. Sicilian people have significantly contributed to the history of many religions. There have been four SicilianPopes(Agatho,Leo II,Sergius I, andStephen III)and a SicilianEcumenical Patriarch of Constantinople(Methodios I). Sicily is also mentioned in theNew Testamentin theActs of the Apostles, 28:11–13, in whichSaint Paulbriefly visits Sicily for three days before leaving the Island. It is believed he was the first Christian to ever set foot in Sicily.
Sicilian Muslims
During theperiod of Muslim rule, many Sicilians converted toIslam. Many Islamic scholars were born on the island, includingAl-Maziri, a prominent jurist of theMalikischool ofSunniIslamic Law.Under the rule ofFrederick II, all Muslims were expelled from the Island following a rebellion of local Saracens who wished to keep their local independence in Western Sicily but were not allowed to due toPope Gregory IX's demands.Any remaining Muslim was eventually expelled by theSpanish inquisition.
In more recent years, many immigrants from predominantly Muslim countries likePakistan,Albania,Bangladesh,Morocco,Egypt, andTunisiahave arrived on Sicily.In 1980, Catania, a city on the eastern coast of Sicily, became home to Italy's first modern mosque. Also known as the Omar Mosque, it was financed byLibya.
Sicilian Jewish community
There is a legend that the Jews were first brought to Sicily as captive slaves in the 1st century after theFall of Jerusalemin 70 CE by the Romans. However, it is generally presumed that Sicily's Jewish population was ceded before the destruction of theTemple of Jerusalem.Rabbi Akivavisited the city of Syracuse during one of his trips abroad. Judaism in Sicily was the first monotheistic religion to appear on the Island. The Jewish Sicilian community remained until the Aragonese rulers' QueenIsabella I of CastileandFerdinand II of Aragon, expelled them in the year 1493 with theAlhambra Decree. On 3 February 1740, the NeapolitanKing Charles III– hailed as an Enlightenment King, issued a proclamation containing 37 paragraphs, in which Jews for the first time were formally invited to return to Sicily. However, the effort was generally unsuccessful.
The Sicilian Jewish community still has several active members and has made a limited recovery in recent years. In the year 2005, for the first time since the Expulsion, a PassoverSederwas conducted in Sicily (in Palermo), held by a Milanese Rabbi. The Jewish community in Sicily is led in part by Rabbi Stefano Di Mauro,a Sicilian American descendant of Sicilianneofiti. He opened a small synagogue in 2008, but he has not yet set up a full-time Jewish congregation in Sicily. Services are held weekly onShabbatand theHigh Holy Days. Also, Shavei Israel has expressed interest in helping to facilitate the return of the SicilianBnei Anusimto Judaism.
.137 Valenza, Giuseppe.ELAMITI ELIMIOTI ELIMIIl teatro genealogico degli Elimi nel crocevia del Mediterraneo. Prefazione Vaccarella, Ilaria.2022. ISBN 978-88-908854-2-6