Neolithic Europe

TheEuropean Neolithicis the period from the arrival ofNeolithic(New Stone Age) technology and the associated population ofEarly European FarmersinEurope,c.7000 BC(the approximate time of the first farming societies inGreece) untilc.2000–1700 BC (the beginning ofBronze Age Europewith theNordic Bronze Age). The Neolithic overlaps theMesolithicandBronze Ageperiods in Europe as cultural changes moved from the southeast to northwest at about 1 km/year – this is called theNeolithic Expansion.
The duration of the Neolithic varies from place to place, its end marked by the introduction of bronze tools: insoutheast Europeit is approximately 4,000 years (i.e. 7000 BC–3000 BC) while in parts of Northwest Europe it is just under 3,000 years (c.4500 BC–1700 BC). In parts of Europe, notably the Balkans, the period afterc.5000 BCis known as theChalcolithic(Copper Age) due to the invention ofcopper smeltingand the prevalence of copper tools, weapons and other artifacts.
The spread of the Neolithic from thePre-Pottery Neolithicin the Near East to Europe was first studied quantitatively in the 1970s, when a sufficient number ofC age determinationsfor early Neolithic sites had become available.AmmermanandCavalli-Sforzadiscovered a linear relationship between the age of an Early Neolithic site and its distance from the conventional source in the Near East (Jericho), thus demonstrating that the Neolithic spread at an average speed of about 1 km/yr.More recent studies confirm these results and yield a speed of 0.6–1.3 km/yr at a 95% confidence level.
Regardless of specific chronology, many European Neolithic groups share basic characteristics, such as living in small-scale, family-based communities, subsisting ondomesticatedplants and animals supplemented with the collection of wild plant foods and with hunting, and producing hand-made pottery, that is, pottery made without thepotter's wheel. Polishedstone axeslie at the heart of the neolithic (new stone) culture, enabling forest clearance for agriculture and production of wood for dwellings, as well as fuel.
There are also many differences, with some Neolithic communities in southeastern Europe living in heavily fortified settlements of 3,000–4,000 people (e.g.,Seskloin Greece) whereas Neolithic groups inBritainwere small (possibly 50–100 people) and highly mobile cattle-herders.
The details of the origin, chronology, social organization, subsistence practices and ideology of the peoples of Neolithic Europe are obtained fromarchaeology, and not historical records, since these people left none. Since the 1970s,population geneticshas provided independent data on the population history of Neolithic Europe, including migration events and genetic relationships with peoples inSouth Asia.
A further independent tool,linguistics, has contributed hypothetical reconstructions of early European languages and family trees with estimates of dating of splits, in particular theories on the relationship between speakers ofIndo-European languagesand Neolithic peoples. Some archaeologists believe that the expansion of Neolithic peoples from southwest Asia into Europe, marking the eclipse of Mesolithic culture, coincided with the introduction of Indo-European speakers,whereas other archaeologists and many linguists believe theIndo-European languageswere introduced from thePontic–Caspian steppeduring the succeedingBronze Age.
Archeologists trace the emergence of food-producing societies in theLevantineregion of southwest Asia to the close of the last glacial period around 12,000 BC, and these developed into a number of regionally distinctive cultures by the eighth millennium BC. Remains of food-producing societies in theAegeanhave been carbon-dated toc.6500 BCEatKnossos,Franchthi Cave, and a number of mainland sites inThessaly. Neolithic groups appear soon afterwards in the rest ofSoutheast Europeand south-central Europe. The Neolithic cultures of Southeast Europe (including theAegean) show some continuity with groups in southwest Asia andAnatolia(e.g.,Çatalhöyük).
In 2018, an 8,000-year-old ceramic figurine portraying the head of the "Mother Goddess", was found near Uzunovo,Vidin Provincein Bulgaria, which pushes back the Neolithic revolution to 7th millennium BC.
Current evidence suggests that Neolithic material culture was introduced to Europe via western Anatolia, and that similarities in cultures of North Africa and the Pontic steppes are due to diffusionoutof Europe. All Neolithic sites in Europe containceramics,and contain the plants and animals domesticated in Southwest Asia:einkorn,emmer,barley,lentils,pigs,goats,sheep, andcattle. Genetic data suggest that no independent domestication of animals took place in Neolithic Europe, and that all domesticated animals were originally domesticated in Southwest Asia.The only domesticate not from Southwest Asia wasbroomcorn millet, domesticated in East Asia.The earliest evidence ofcheese-making dates to 5500 BC inKuyavia,Poland.
Archaeologists agreed for some time that the culture of the early Neolithic is relatively homogeneous, compared to the late Mesolithic. DNA studies tend to confirm this, indicating that agriculture was brought to Western Europe by the Aegean populations, that are known as 'the Aegean Neolithic farmers'. When these farmers arrived in Britain, DNA studies show that they did not seem to mix much with the earlier population of theWestern Hunter-Gatherers. Instead, there was a substantial population replacement.
The diffusion of these farmers across Europe, from the Aegean to Britain, took about 2,500 years (6500–4000 BC). The Baltic region was penetrated a bit later,c.3500 BCE, and there was also a delay in settling thePannonian plain. In general, colonization shows a "saltatory" pattern, as the Neolithic advanced from one patch of fertile alluvial soil to another, bypassing mountainous areas. Analysis ofradiocarbondates show clearly that Mesolithic and Neolithic populations lived side by side for as much as a millennium in many parts of Europe, especially in theIberian peninsulaand along the Atlantic coast.
Investigation of the Neolithic skeletons found in theTalheim Death Pitsuggests that prehistoric men from neighboring tribes were prepared to fight and kill each other in order tocapture and secure women.The mass grave atTalheimin southern Germany is one of the earliest known sites in the archaeological record that shows evidence of organised violence in Early Neolithic Europe, among variousLinear Pottery culturetribes.The archaeological site ofHerxheimcontained the scattered remains of more than 1000 individuals from different, in some cases faraway regions, who died around 5000 BC. Whether they were war captives orhuman sacrificesis unclear, but the evidence indicates that their corpses werespit-roastedwhole and then consumed.
In terms of overall size, somesettlements of the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture, such asTalianki(with a population of around 15,000) in western Ukraine, were as large as thecity-statesofSumerin theFertile Crescent, and these Eastern European settlements predate the Sumerian cities by more than half of a millennium.
With some exceptions, population levels rose rapidly at the beginning of the Neolithic until they reached thecarrying capacity.This was followed by a population crash of "enormous magnitude" after 5000 BC, with levels remaining low during the next 1,500 years.
The oldest golden artifacts in the world (4600 BC - 4200 BC) are found in theVarna Necropolis, Bulgaria - grave offerings on exposition inVarna Archaeological Museum
Populations began to rise after 3500 BC, with further dips and rises occurring between 3000 and 2500 BC but varying in date between regions.Around this time is theNeolithic decline, when populations collapsed across most of Europe, possibly caused by climatic conditions, plague, or mass migration. A study of twelve European regions found most experiencedboom and bustpatterns and suggested an "endogenous, not climatic cause".Recent archaeological evidence suggests the possibility ofplaguecausing this population collapse, as mass graves dating fromc.2900 BCEwere discovered containing fragments ofYersinia pestisgenetic material consistent withpneumonic plague.
The Chalcolithic Age in Europe started from about 3500 BC, followed soon after by the EuropeanBronze Age. This also became a period of increased megalithic construction. From 3500 BC, copper was being used in the Balkans and eastern and central Europe. Also, thedomestication of the horsetook place during that time, resulting in the increased mobility of cultures.
Nearing the close of the Neolithic,c.2500 BC, large numbers ofEurasian steppe peoplesmigrated inSoutheastandCentralfrom eastern Europe, from thePontic–Caspian steppenorth of theBlack Sea.
Genetic studies since the 2010s have identified the genetic contribution of Neolithic farmers to modern European populations, providing quantitative results relevant to the long-standing "replacement model" vs. "demic diffusion" dispute in archaeology.
The earlier population of Europe were the Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, called the "Western Hunter-Gatherers" (WHG). Along with theScandinavian Hunter-Gatherers(SHG) andEastern Hunter-Gatherers(EHG), the WHGs constituted one of the three main genetic groups in the postglacial period of earlyHoloceneEurope. Later, the Neolithic farmers expanded from the Aegean and Near East; in various studies, they are described as theEarly European Farmers(EEF); Aegean Neolithic Farmers (ANF),First European Farmers (FEF), or also as the Early Neolithic Farmers (ENF).
A seminal 2014 study first identified the contribution of three main components to modern European lineages (the third being "Ancient North Eurasians", associated with the laterIndo-European expansion). The EEF component was identified based on the genome of a woman buried c. 7,000 years ago in aLinear Pottery culturegrave inStuttgart, Germany.
This 2014 study found evidence for genetic mixing between WHG and EEF throughout Europe, with the largest contribution of EEF in Mediterranean Europe (especially in Sardinia, Sicily, Malta and among Ashkenazi Jews), and the largest contribution of WHG in Northern Europe and among Basque people.
Nevertheless, DNA studies show that when the Neolithic farmers arrived in Britain, these two groups did not seem to mix much. Instead, there was a substantial population replacement.
Since 2014, further studies have refined the picture of interbreeding between EEF and WHG. In a 2017 analysis of 180 ancient DNA datasets of the Chalcolithic and Neolithic periods from Hungary, Germany and Spain, evidence was found of a prolonged period of interbreeding. Admixture took place regionally, from local hunter-gatherer populations, so that populations from the three regions (Germany, Iberia and Hungary) were genetically distinguishable at all stages of the Neolithic period, with a gradually increasing ratio of WHG ancestry of farming populations over time. This suggests that after the initial expansion of early farmers, there were no further long-range migrations substantial enough to homogenize the farming population, and that farming and hunter-gatherer populations existed side by side for many centuries, with ongoing gradual admixture throughout the 5th to 4th millennia BC (rather than a single admixture event on initial contact).Admixture rates varied geographically; in the late Neolithic, WHG ancestry in farmers in Hungary was at around 10%, in Germany around 25% and in Iberia as high as 50%.
During late Neolithic and earlyBronze Age, the EEF-derived cultures of Europe were overwhelmed by successive invasions ofWestern Steppe Herders(WSHs) from thePontic–Caspian steppe.These invasions led to EEFpaternalDNA lineages in Europe being almost entirely replaced with WSH paternal DNA (mainlyR1bandR1a). EEF mtDNA however remained frequent, suggesting admixture between WSH males and EEF females.
There is no direct evidence of the languages spoken in the Neolithic. Some proponents ofpaleolinguisticsattempt to extend the methods ofhistorical linguisticsto the Stone Age, but this has little academic support. Criticising scenarios which envision for the Neolithic only a small number of language families spread over huge areas of Europe (as in modern times),Donald Ringehas argued on general principles oflanguage geography(as concerns "tribal", pre-state societies), and the scant remains of (apparently indigenous) non-Indo-European languages attested in ancient inscriptions, that Neolithic Europe must have been a place of great linguistic diversity, with manylanguage familieswith no recoverablelinguistic linksto each other, much like western North America prior to European colonisation.
Discussion of hypothetical languages spoken in the European Neolithic is divided into two topics,Indo-European languagesand "Pre-Indo-European" languages.
Early Indo-European languages are usually assumed to have reached Danubian (and maybe Central) Europe in theChalcolithicor earlyBronze Age, e.g. with theCorded WareorBeaker cultures(see alsoKurgan hypothesisfor related discussions). TheAnatolian hypothesispostulates arrival of Indo-European languages with the early Neolithic.Old European hydronymyis taken byHans Kraheto be the oldest reflection of the early presence of Indo-European in Europe.
Theories of "Pre-Indo-European" languages in Europe are built on scant evidence. TheBasque languageis the best candidate for a descendant of such a language, but since Basque is alanguage isolate, there is no comparative evidence to build upon.Theo Vennemannnevertheless postulates a "Vasconic" family, which he supposes had co-existed with an"Atlantic" or "Semitidic"(i. e., para-Semitic) group. Another candidate is aTyrrhenianfamily which would have given rise toEtruscanandRaeticin the Iron Age, and possibly alsoAegean languagessuch asMinoanorPelasgianin the Bronze Age.
In the north, a similar scenario to Indo-European is thought to have occurred withUralic languagesexpanding in from the east. In particular, while theSami languagesof the indigenousSami peoplebelong in the Uralic family, they show considerablesubstrateinfluence, thought to represent one or more extinct original languages. The Sami are estimated to have adopted a Uralic language less than 2,500 years ago.Some traces of indigenous languages of the Baltic area have been suspected in theFinnic languagesas well, but these are much more modest. There are early loanwords from unidentified non-IE languages in other Uralic languages of Europe as well.
Guus Kroonen brought up the so-called "Agricultural Substrate Hypothesis", based on the comparison of presumable Pre-Germanic and Pre-Greek substrate lexicon (especially agricultural terms without clear IE etymologies). Kroonen links that substrate to the gradual spread of agriculture in Neolithic Europe from Anatolia and the Balkans, and associates the Pre-Germanic agricultural substrate language with theLinear Pottery culture. The prefix*a-and the suffix*-it-are the most apparent linguistic markers by which a small group of "Agricultural" substrate words - i.e.*arwīt("pea") or*gait("goat") - can be isolated from the rest of the Proto-Germanic lexicon.According to Aljoša Šorgo, there are at least 36 Proto-Germanic lexical items very likely originating from the "agricultural" substrate language (or a group of closely related languages). It is proposed by Šorgo that the Agricultural substrate was characterized by a four-vowel system of */æ/ */ɑ/ */i/ */u/, the presence of pre-nasalized stops, the absence of a semi-vowel */j/, a mobile stress accent, and reduction of unstressed vowels.
Some Neolithic cultures listed above are known for constructingmegaliths. These occur primarily on the Atlantic coast of Europe, but there are also megaliths on western Mediterranean islands.
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