Indonesia

Indonesia,officially theRepublic of Indonesia,is a country inSoutheast AsiaandOceania, between theIndianandPacificoceans. Comprising over17,000 islands, includingSumatra,Java,Sulawesi, and parts ofBorneoandNew Guinea, Indonesia is the world's largestarchipelagic stateand the14th-largest country by area, at 1,904,569 square kilometres (735,358 square miles). With over 280 million people, Indonesia is the world'sfourth-most-populous countryand the most populousMuslim-majority country. Java, the world'smost populous island, is home to more than half of the country's population.
Indonesia operates as apresidential republicwith an electedlegislatureand consists of38 provinces, nine of which havespecial autonomous status.Jakarta, the largest city, is the world'ssecond-most-populous urban area. Indonesia sharesland borderswithPapua New Guinea,Timor-Leste, and theeastern part of Malaysia, as well asmaritime borderswithSingapore,Peninsular Malaysia,Vietnam,Thailand, thePhilippines,Australia,Palau, andIndia. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of theworld's highest levels of biodiversity.
TheIndonesian archipelagohas been a valuable region fortradesince at least the seventh century, when Sumatra'sSrivijayaand later Java'sMajapahitkingdoms engaged incommercewith entities frommainland Chinaand theIndian subcontinent. Over the centuries, local rulers assimilated foreign influences, leading to the flourishing ofHinduandBuddhistkingdoms.Sunnitraders andSufischolars later broughtIslam, and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands ofMalukuduring theAge of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries ofDutch colonialism, Indonesia securedits independenceafterWorld War IIand has since faced challenges such as corruption, natural disasters, and separatism, alongsidedemocratisationand rapid economic growth.
Indonesian society comprises hundreds ofethnicandlinguisticgroups, withJavanesebeing the largest. The nation's identity is unified under the mottoBhinneka Tunggal Ika, defined by anational language, cultural and religious pluralism, a history ofcolonialismand rebellion against it. Anewly industrialised country, Indonesia'seconomyranks as the world's16th-largest by nominal GDPand the8th-largest by PPP. As the world's third-largest democracy and amiddle powerin global affairs, the country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including theUnited Nations,World Trade Organization,G20,BRICSand a founding member of theNon-Aligned Movement,Association of Southeast Asian Nations,East Asia Summit,APECand theOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation.
The nameIndonesiaderives from theGreekwordsIndos(Ἰνδός) andnesos(νῆσος), meaning "Indian islands".The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850,George Windsor Earl, an Englishethnologist, proposed the termsIndunesians—and, his preference,Malayunesians—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago orMalay Archipelago".In the same publication, one of his students,James Richardson Logan, usedIndonesiaas a synonym forIndian Archipelago.Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to useIndonesia. They preferredMalay Archipelago(Dutch:Maleische Archipel); theNetherlands East Indies(Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularlyIndië;the East(de Oost); andInsulinde.
After 1900,Indonesiabecame more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.Adolf Bastianof the University of Berlin popularised the name through his bookIndonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first native scholar to use the name wasKi Hajar Dewantarawhen in 1913, he established a press bureau in the Netherlands,Indonesisch Pers-bureau.
The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since the time ofhomo erectusor "Java Man," with fossils dating back 2 million to 500,000 BCE.Fossils ofhomo floresiensis, found on Flores, date around 700,000 to 60,000 BCE, whilehomo sapiensarrived around 43,000 BCE.Sulawesi and Borneo are home to the world's oldest knowncave paintings, dating back 40,000 to 60,000 years,and megalithic sites such as western Java'sGunung Padang, Sulawesi'sLore Linduas well as Sumatra's Nias and Sumba reflect early human settlements and ceremonial practices.
Around 2,000 BCE,Austronesian peoplesbegan arriving in Southeast Asia from the island now known asTaiwan, gradually displacing nativeMelanesiansto the far eastern part of the archipelago as they spread east,and would eventually form the majority of Indonesia's modern population. Favorable agricultural conditions and advancements likewet-field rice cultivationby the 8th century BCEenabled the growth of villages and kingdoms by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic location fostered inter-island and international exchange with civilisations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, profoundly influencing Indonesian history and culture through trade.
By the 7th century CE, theSrivijayanaval kingdom thrived on trade, adopting Hindu and Buddhist influences. The 8th to 10th centuries saw the rise and decline of the BuddhistSailendraand HinduMataramdynasties, leaving monumental legacies like theBorobudurandPrambanantemples.Majapahit, a Hindu kingdom established in the late 13th century in eastern Java, dominated much of the archipelago under the leadership ofGajah Madain a period often referred to as the "Golden Age" in Indonesian history.Islamarrivedin the 13th century in northern Sumatra,and following gradual adoption in other islands, it became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the 16th century, blending with pre-existing traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture, particularly in Java.
In 1512, Europeans began arriving in the archipelago led by Portuguese traders underFrancisco Serrãoto seek monopolyof the lucrativespice tradein theMaluku Islands.Dutch and British traders soon followed, with the former establishing theDutch East India Company(Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC) in 1602 that eventually became the dominant European power for almost two centuries. After the VOC's dissolution in 1799 due to bankruptcy, theDutch East Indieswas established as a nationalised colony,marking the beginning of formal colonial rule by theNetherlands. Over the next century and a half, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous, as they faced continuous rebellions from local leaders like PrinceDiponegoroin central JavaImam Bonjolin central Sumatra,Pattimurain Maluku, andfighters in Aceh.Dutch dominance only extended to Indonesia's modern boundaries in the early 20th century,with the establishment of Dutch posts inNew Guinea.
TheJapanese invasionandoccupation of the IndiesduringWorld War IIended Dutch ruleand encouraged Indonesia's independence movement.Only two days afterJapan's surrenderin August 1945,SukarnoandMohammad Hattaissued theProclamation of Indonesian Independence, and they became the country's first president and vice-president along withSutan Sjahriras Prime Minister.The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule, prompting the start ofIndonesia's war of independence against the Dutch. The conflict lasted until 1949 when the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence in theDutch–Indonesian Round Table Conferencefollowing international pressure.Despite political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians found unity in their fight for independence.
Sukarno shifted Indonesia from democracy to authoritarianism and maintained power by balancing the opposing forces of political Islam,the military, and theCommunist Party of Indonesia(PKI).Tensions between the latter two culminated inan attempted coupin 1965, leading to aviolent anti-communist purgeled by the army's Major GeneralSuhartothat killed at least 500,000 people and imprisoned around a million more.The PKI was blamed for the coup and destroyed,weakening Sukarno's power. Suhartocapitalised on this, becoming president in 1968 and establishing a US-backed"New Order"administration,which fosteredforeign direct investmentand drove three decades of substantial economic growth.
Indonesia was the worst affected country by the1997 Asian financial crisis,bringing outwidespread discontentwith the New Order's corruption and political suppression and ultimately ended Suharto's presidency.In 1999, East Timor seceded after acontroversial 25-year occupationfollowingIndonesia's 1975 invasion.Since 1998, Indonesia has strengthened democracy by granting regional autonomy and holding thefirst direct presidential election in 2004.
Political, economic and social instability, andterrorismwere persistent in the 2000s. The economy has performed strongly since 2007, althoughcorruptioncontinues to be a chronic issue. Relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious but sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas.A political settlement to an armedinsurgency in Acehwas achieved in 2005.
The southernmost country in Asia, Indonesia lies between latitudes11°Sand6°Nand longitudes95°Eand141°E. It is also atranscontinental country, spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania and is the world's largestarchipelagic state, stretching 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south.The exact number Indonesia's islands varies according to different sources, usually ranging from 13,000 to 17,000, and with around 922 permanently inhabited.Its five largest islands areSumatra,Java,Borneo(shared with Brunei and Malaysia),Sulawesi, andNew Guinea(shared with Papua New Guinea).
The country features diverse topography, including towering mountains, vast lakes, and extensive river systems.Puncak Jaya, at 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), is Indonesia's highest peak, whileLake Tobain Sumatra, covering 1,145 km(442 sq mi), is the largest lake. The country's major rivers, primarily in Kalimantan and New Guinea, include theKapuas,Barito,Mamberamo,SepikandMahakam, serving as vital transportation and communication routes for remote riverine communities.
Indonesia's equatorial position ensures a relatively stable climate year-round,characterised by two main seasons:dry seasonfrom May to October andwet seasonfrom November to April, with no extremes of summer and winter.The climate is predominantlytropical rainforest, with cooler climates in mountainous areas over 1,300 to 1,500 metres (4,300 to 4,900 feet) above sea level. The oceanic climate (KöppenCfb) prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near thetropicalmonsoonandtropical savanna climates, the subtropical highland climate (KöppenCwb) is more pronounced during dry season.There is a variation in rainfall patterns, with regions like western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua receiving more precipitation, while areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, are drier. The warm waters covering 81% of Indonesia's area keep land temperatures stable, with high humidity (70-90%) and moderate, predictable winds influenced by monsoon cycles. Major weather hazards include strong currents in straits, such as theLombokandSape Straits,rather than typhoons or storms.
Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from theprojected effects of climate change,including a temperature rise of 1.5 °C (3 °F) by 2050 due to unreduced emissions.This warming could intensify droughts, disrupt rainfall patterns critical to agriculture,and increase occurrences of food shortages, diseases, and wildfires.Rising sea levelswould also threaten the country's densely populated coastal regions,and impoverished communities are expected to be disproportionately affected by climate change.
Indonesia's geology is shaped by its position on the PacificRing of Fire, where theIndo-AustralianandPacific platessubduct beneath theEurasian platewhere they melt at about 100 kilometres (62 miles) deep. This tectonic activity makes the region highly unstable with volcanoes and earthquakes.A chain of volcanoes stretches fromSumatrathroughJava,Baliand theLesser Sunda Islands, and theBanda IslandsofMalukuto northeasternSulawesi.Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active.Whilevolcanic ashhas made agriculture unpredictable in some areas,it has also created fertile soils that have historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.Between 1972 and 1991, Java experienced a total of 29 volcanic eruptions.
The archipelago has witnessed several powerful volcanic eruptions with global repercussions. Amassive supervolcano eruptedwith a maximumvolcanic explosivity index(VEI) of 8 at present-dayLake Tobaaround 74,000 BCE, causing a globalvolcanic winter, a cooling of the climate and possibly influencing human evolution.Theeruption of Mount Tambora in 1815, the most recently confirmed VEI-7 eruption, made much of the Northern Hemispherewithout summer in 1816,caused 92,000 deaths and produced vast volcanic ash that blanketed nearby areas. Theeruption of Mount Krakatoa in 1883, a VEI-6 eruption, produced the loudest sound in recorded history and caused 36,000 deaths due to the eruption itself and tsunamis, with additional effects around the world years after the event.Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the2004 Indian Ocean earthquakeand the2006 Yogyakarta earthquake.
Recognised byConservation Internationalas one of 17megadiverse countries, Indonesia hosts one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity due to its tropical climate, large size, and archipelagic geography. The country's flora and fauna include a mix of Asian andAustralasianspecies.TheSunda Shelfislands (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) have a wealth of Asian fauna as they were once linked to mainland Asia, while Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku and Papua evolved unique ecosystems due to their separation from the continental landmasses.Papua, once part of the Australian landmass, is home to over 600 bird species closely related to Australia.Indonesia is second only to Australia in totalendemicspecies, with 6% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.
The country also boasts 80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of coastline, featuring diverse sea and coastal ecosystems, such as dunes and mangroves,as well as coral reefs in theCoral Trianglethat harbour the highest diversity ofcoral reef fishglobally, with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia.TheWallace Line, described by English naturalistAlfred Russel Wallace, marks the biogeographical divide between Asian and Australasian species, with the region between the Wallace andWeber Lines(calledWallacea) hosting unique biodiversity as described in Wallace's 1869 book,The Malay Archipelago.Indonesia's extensive forests, comprising 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forest,are deemed crucial for the region's ecological balance and carbon storage.
Indonesia faces severeenvironmental challengesdue to extensive deforestation,peatland destruction, and over-exploitation of resources, driven by industries such as logging, plantations and agriculture since the 1970s,and in most recent years, palm oil.Forest cover declined from 87% in 1950 to 48% in 2022,highlighting the country as a leading forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases.These issues are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.They also threaten indigenous and endemic species, with theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN) listing many as critically endangered, such as theBali myna,Sumatran orangutan,andJavan rhinoceros.Environmental degradation has prompted some academics to label these activities as ecocide.
As of 2023, Indonesia has designated 21.3% of its land asprotected areasand aims to align its strategy with the 2022Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.Additionally, 411 marine reserves account for 9% of the country's maritime area, with a target to increase this to 30% by 2045. However, a recent study highlights that the current efforts are off track and existing marine reserves are poorly managed.Approximately 390 marine areas are managed by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for classification asother effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs), though there is no national mechanism for reporting them.
Indonesia's conservation framework includes 55 national parks, covering around 9% of the country's surface area. Among these, nine are predominantly marine parks,with six recognised asWorld Heritage Sites, seven as part of theWorld Network of Biosphere Reservesand five wetlands of international importance under the 1971Ramsar Convention. Notably, Indonesia has over 100 marine protected areas spanning 15.7 million hectares as of 2012 managed by the Ministry of Forestry and local governments. Previous targets included reaching 20 million hectares by 2020 under former PresidentSusilo Bambang Yudhoyono's 2009 initiative and 10% of territorial waters, or 31 million hectares.
Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. Following thefall of the New Order in 1998, sweepingconstitutional reformshas restructured the executive, legislative, and judicial branches while maintaining itsunitary stateframework despite the push to decentralise powers to regional entities.ThePresidentserves ashead of state,head of government, and commander-in-chief of theArmed Forces(Tentara Nasional Indonesia, TNI) and overseeing domestic and foreign policies. Presidents may serve up to two consecutive five-year terms.
ThePeople's Consultative Assembly(Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR) is Indonesia's highest representative body, responsible for amending the constitution, inaugurating or impeaching the president, and formalising state policies.It consists of two houses, thePeople's Representative Council(Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR), which has 575 members and handles legislation and executive oversight, and theRegional Representative Council(Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, DPD) with 136 members, which focuses on regional matters.Since 1998, reforms have significantly enhanced the DPR's governance role,while the DPD represents Indonesia's diverse regional interests.
Indonesia's judiciary includes several key institutions. TheSupreme Court(Mahkamah Agung) is the highest judicial authority, handling final appeals and case reviews. TheConstitutional Court(Mahkamah Konstitusi) addresses constitutional and political matters, while the Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) oversees Islamic personal law cases.Additionally, theJudicial Commission(Komisi Yudisial) monitors judicial performance.
Indonesia has had a multi-party system since 1999 where no political party has won a majority of seats in thelegislative elections. Political parties are broadly categorised into two groups, secular and nationalist parties such as theIndonesian Democratic Party of Struggle(PDI-P), theParty of the Functional Groups(Golkar), and theGreat Indonesia Movement Party(Gerinda), and Islamic parties such as theNational Awakening Party(PKB) andProsperous Justice Party(PKS). Indonesia's political spectrum is characterised by preference for pragmatism over ideological adherence to fit the prevailing political climate,as well as by what is calledcartel parties, with extensive power-sharing among parties and limited accountability to voters.Pre-election alliances are also the norm, which is unlike in many democracies where the reverse case are common.
In 1955, the first general election was held to elect members of the DPR and theConstitutional Assembly(Konstituante). Themost recent elections in 2024brought eight political parties to the DPR, with aparliamentary thresholdof 4% of the national vote.At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a president until 2004. Since then, the president is elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD.Beginning with the2015 local elections, elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2013, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in2019.
Indonesia is divided into several administrative levels. At the first level are theprovinces, each with a legislature (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, DPRD) and an electedgovernor. The number of provinces has grown from 8 in 1945to 38 today, with the most recent one, Southwest Papua, established in 2022.The second level includesregencies(kabupaten) and cities (kota), led by regents (bupati) and mayors (walikota), respectively, both supported by legislatures (DPRD Kabupaten/Kota). Below this aredistricts(kecamatan, calleddistrikin Papua), and the fourth level comprisesvillages, known by various names likedesa,kelurahan,kampung,nagari(in West Sumatra), orgampong(in Aceh). Villages are subdivided into community groups (rukun warga, RW) and neighbourhood groups (rukun tetangga, RT), with further subdivisions like hamlets (dusunordukuh) in Java.
The village level is the lowest administrative unit but holds significant influence over daily life. Village governments are led by elected heads (lurahorkepala desa) and handle local matters.Since the implementation of regional autonomy in 2001, regencies and cities have become key administrative units, responsible for most government services. Nine provinces—Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta,Papua,Central Papua,Highland Papua,South Papua,Southwest Papua, andWest Papua—are granted aspecial autonomous status(otonomi khusus) from the central government. A conservativeIslamic territory, Aceh has the right to apply aspects of sharia law.Yogyakarta uniquely retains itspre-colonial monarchy, with itsSultanandDukeserving as governor and vice governorand the Papuan provinces are the only ones where indigenous people hold privileges in local governance.
Indonesia follows an "independent and active" (bebas aktif) foreign policy, a term coined by founding fatherMohammad Hattain 1948by which the country aims to navigate great power politics, maintain autonomy and avoid alignment with major powers.The President holds the ultimate authority in determining foreign policy directionswhile theForeign Affairs Ministryis responsible for formulating and implementing foreign policy. Meanwhile, the Parliament (DPR) provides oversight and ratifies international treaties. Indonesia is considered to be amiddle powerinternationally.
As the largest country in Southeast Asia and a founding member of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Indonesia puts ASEAN as the cornerstone of its foreign policy.Indonesia hasactively supported Palestinewhile refraining from formaldiplomatic relations with Israel, though the two countries maintain discreet ties.In the past decade and a half, Indonesia has built deeprelations with China, primarily relating to substantial investments in infrastructure and trade,while at the same time maintaining a strategicpartnership with the United States, focusing on economic cooperation, security, and counterterrorism efforts.
Indonesia has beena member of the United Nationssince 1950and is a founding member of theNon-Aligned Movement(NAM), theOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation(OIC) and theEast Asia Summit.Indonesia is also a signatory to theASEAN Free Trade Areaagreement, theCairns Group, and theWorld Trade Organization(WTO). Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since 1967but it has established an overseas aid programme of its own in 2019.The country also plays a role in maintaining international peace and security, deploying thousands of military and police personnel to multiple United Nations peacekeeping missions, including inLebanon, theDemocratic Republic of the Congo, andMali.
TheIndonesian National Armed Forces(TNI) consist of theArmy(TNI-AD),Navy(TNI-AL) (including theMarine Corps), and Air Force (TNI-AU), with the Army comprising around 400,000 active personnel. Established during theIndonesian National Revolution, the TNI initially engaged in guerrilla warfare alongside informal militias. Its territorial structure focuses on maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats.Though political reforms in 1998 removed TNI's formal legislative role, it continues to wield political influence, albeit reduced fromits peak during the New Order.Defence spending in 2022 was 0.7% of GDP,with controversies surrounding military-owned commercial ventures.
Since independence, Indonesia has struggled to maintain unity against separatist movements and insurgencies,notably inAcehandPapua. While the former ended peacefully in 2005,the latter has continued amid an implementation of regional autonomyand well-documented human rights abuses by the TNI, including extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances and restrictions on freedom of expression, as reported by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the UNHRC.Indonesia's historical military engagements includeconflicts with the NetherlandsoverDutch New Guinea, opposition to the British-backed creation of Malaysia (Konfrontasi), the anti-communist mass killings, and theinvasion of East Timor, which was Indonesia's largest military operation.
Law enforcement in Indonesia is primarily handled by theIndonesian National Police(POLRI), supported by other agencies under the president, ministries, or state-owned companies. These agencies perform specific policing duties and are supervised and trained by the POLRI, which serves as the country's national civilian police force responsible for maintaining law and order.
Indonesia has a documented history of racial discrimination and conflicts, particularlyagainst Chinese Indonesiansand Papuans,which has at times escalated into violence, notably theanti-Chinese riots in 1998and the ongoingPapua conflictsince 1962. Other minorities such as the LGBTQ also face challenges, where a rapid surge ofanti-LGBTQ rhetorichas been observed since the mid-2010safter a relative obscurity onthe topicin the decades prior.Discrimination against religious minorities is also common.
Issues regarding free speech and the right to assembly are prevalent despite constitutional protections.Laws such as the Electronic Information and Transactions (Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik, ITE) Law are often used to criminalise dissent, with critics and activists facing charges for expressing opinions online.Peaceful protests, particularly those addressing sensitive issues such as indigenous rights in Papua or environmental concerns, are frequently met with a heavy-handed response from law enforcement.The government on occasions imposes restrictions on assembly permits, particularly for those critical of authorities or advocating rights.
Indonesia operates amixed economywhere both the private sector and the government play significant roles.As the onlyG20member state in Southeast Asia,it has the region's largest economy and is classified as anewly industrialised country. In 2024, its nominal GDP wasUS$1.402 trillion,ranking 16th globally, while its GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) wasUS$4.658 trillion,ranking 8th. Per capita GDP in PPP isUS$16,542, while nominalper capita GDPisUS$4,980.Based on 2022 data, services dominate the economy in terms employment (48.8%), followed by agriculture (29.2%) and industry (21.8%), while in terms of share of GDP, both services and industry dominate (roughly 41% each), with agriculture coming second (12.4%).
The economic structure hasshifted significantly over time,transitioning from agriculture in the 1950s and 1960sto gradual industrialisation and urbanisation from the late 1960s to the 1980s.Falling oil prices in the 1980s prompted diversification into manufactured exports, resulting in substantial economic growth (the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%) and poverty reduction from 60% to 15%.However, the economy took a severe hit during theAsian economic crisis in the late 1990s, when the GDP fell by 13%, inflation reached 78% and GDP grew by only 0.8% in 1999.The economy began recovering in the early 2000s, with growth rates between 4% and 6% from 2004 to 2024along with prudent banking regulations, better monetary and fiscal policies and flexible exchange rates.These factors, coupled with strong domestic consumption, helped Indonesia weather the2008 financial crisis.Although theCOVID-19 pandemicin the early 2020s caused a recession, the economy rebounded within a year.
Indonesia boasts abundant natural resources, including nickel, coal, and petroleum, which dominate its export portfolio.It imports refined and crude petroleum, and vehicle parts, with major trade partners including China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea, and Thailand.Owing to plentiful rainfall, sunshine and fertile soil, Indonesia is amajor agricultural country, ranking among the leading producers of palm oil, rubber, coffee, tea, cassava, rice, wheat, coconut oil, and tobacco.Despite these resources and decades of development, disparities in wealth, employment and economic opportunities persist between densely populated and economically advantaged regions in the western islands like Java and Sumatra, and sparsely populated, underdeveloped areas in the east like Maluku and Papua.
Tourism plays a significant role in Indonesia's economy, contributingUS$14 billion to GDP and drawing 11.6 million international visitors in 2023.Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, China and India are the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia.
The tourism industry thrives on Indonesia's natural and cultural wealth. The country boasts a well-preserved natural ecosystem, with rainforests covering 57% of its land area (225 million acres). Popular natural destinations include the rainforests of Sumatra and Kalimantan, particularly the Orangutan wildlife reserves. Indonesia also has one of the world's longest coastlines, stretching 54,716 kilometres (33,999 mi). Cultural tourism features prominently, with attractions like the ancientBorobudurandPrambanantemples, theTorajahighlands, and the traditional festivities ofBali.
Indonesia is home toten UNESCO World Heritage Sites, includingKomodo National Parkand theCosmological Axis of Yogyakarta. Additionally, 18 other sites are on the tentative list, such asBunaken National Parkand theRaja Ampat Islands. Historical tourism is also a major draw, with attractions like the colonial heritage of the Dutch East Indies inJakartaandSemarang, as well as theroyal palacesofPagaruyungandUbud.
Government spending on research and development is relatively low at 0.28% of GDP in 2020.Despite being ranked 54th among 133 countries on the 2024Global Innovation Index, the country performs above expectations for its upper middle-income status.Historical innovations includeterasering, the terracing techniques for rice cultivation, and thepinisiboats of theBugisandMakassar people.In the 1980s,Tjokorda Raka Sukawatideveloped theSosrobahuroad construction technique that is now used internationally.Indonesia also produces passenger trains and freight wagons through its state-ownedIndonesian Railway Industry(Industri Kereta Api, INKA), which exports trains abroad.
Indonesia has a history of manufacturing military and commuter aircraft and is the only country in Southeast Asia to do so. Its state-owned aerospace company,Indonesian Aerospace(PT. Dirgantara Indonesia, PTDI), has supplied components toBoeingandAirbusand co-developed theCN-235with Spain'sCASA.Former PresidentB. J. Habibie, who was an aerospace engineer before getting into politics, played a key role in advancing the country's aerospace research.Recently, Indonesia has been collaborating with South Korea on the 4.5-generation fighter jetKAI KF-21 Boramae.
Indonesia's space program, managed by theNational Institute of Aeronautics and Space(Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional, LAPAN), launched its first satellite in 1976 (Palapa) with assistance from the United States,making Indonesia the first developing country with a satellite system. As of 2024, Indonesia has launched 19 satellites for communication and other purposes.Recently, the government licensedStarlinkto provide internet connectivity to rural and underserved regions.
Indonesia's transport system reflects its archipelagic geography and population distribution heavily concentrated on Java.In 2022, the predominant road network spanned 548,097 kilometres (340,572 miles) as of 2022,which includesTransjakartathat operates the world's longest bus rapid transit system. Common urban transport includesrickshawslikebajajandbecakand shared taxis such asangkotand minibuses.
Railways are primarily located in Java and parts of Sumatra and Sulawesi,serving freight and passenger transport, including commuter and inter-city rail services like those inthe Greater JakartaandYogyakarta. In the late 2010s, rapid transit systems were introduced in Jakarta andPalembang, with more planned for other cities.Indonesia, in collaboration with China, inaugurated its firsthigh-speed railcalledWhooshin 2023 that connects Jakarta andBandung. It was the first such system in Southeast Asia and the Southern Hemisphere.
Air and sea transport also play significant roles.Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, Indonesia's largest,served 49 million passengers in 2023, followed byNgurah RaiandJuanda International Airports.Garuda Indonesia, the national flag carrier since 1949, is one of the world's leading airlines and a member of the global airline allianceSkyTeam. ThePort of Tanjung Priok, the country's busiest and most advanced,handles over half of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.
Indonesia is amajor energy producer and consumer, producing 5,500terawatt-hours(18.8quadrillionBritish thermal units) and consuming 3,081 terawatt-hours (10.514 quadrillion British thermal units) worth of energy in 2023.The country's totalinstalled power generationcapacity in 2022 is approximately 83.8 gigawatts (GW),primarily from coal (61%).Other significant sources include natural gas, oil, and renewables such as geothermal, hydropower, and solar.The state-ownedState Electricity Company(Perusahaan Listrik Negara, PLN) holds a monopoly on electric power distribution in the country.
Indonesia's energy mix is still dominated by non-renewable sources, with coal being the majority, followed by natural gas and oil. Renewables, including geothermal (5%), hydropower (7%), and solar (1%), make up a smaller but growing share.The potential for renewable energy is immense, particularly in geothermal, where the country ranks as one of the world's largest producers.The country is the world's largest producer and exporter of thermal coaland a significant exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG).
The government plans to transition towards greener energy sourcesand achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2060.In the latest energy plan in early 2025, the government aims for a 71-gigawatt expansion in power capacity by 2034, with a focus on renewables.However, the country has insufficient infrastructure for renewable energy, faces difficulties in providing electricity access to remote areas,and continues to rely heavily on coal.
The2020 censusrecordedIndonesia's populationas 270.2 million, thefourth largest in the world, with a moderately high population growth rate of 1.25%.Javais the world's most populous island,where 56% of the country's population lives.The population density is 141 people per square kilometre (370 people/sq mi),ranking 88th in the world, although Java has a population density of 1,171 people per square kilometre (3,030 people/sq mi).In 1961, the first post-colonial census recorded a total of 97 million people.It is expected to grow to around 295 million by 2030 and 321 million by 2050.The country currently has a relatively young population, with a median age of 31.5 years (2024 estimate).
The spread of the population is uneven throughout the archipelago, with a varying habitats and levels ofdevelopment, ranging from themegacityof Jakarta touncontacted tribesin Papua.As of 2022, about 58% of the population lives in urban areas.Jakarta is the country'sprimate cityand thesecond-most populous urban area globally, with over 34 million residents.About 8 millionIndonesians live overseas; most settled in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.
Indonesia is home to around 600 distinct native ethnic groups,predominantly descended fromAustronesian peoplesoriginating inProto-Austronesian languages, likely from modern-day Taiwan. TheMelanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia, represent another significant ethnic grouping.The Javanese, making up 40.06% of the population,are the largest ethnic group and politically dominant,primarily residing in central and eastern Java but also has sizeable numbers in other provinces. Other major groups include theSundanese,Malay,Batak,Madurese,Betawi,Minangkabau, andBugis.A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.
The official language,Indonesian, is a variant ofMalaybased on itsprestige dialectthat became the archipelago'slingua francaover the course of centuries.It was firstpromoted by nationalists in the 1920sand gained official status in 1945 following independence under the nameBahasa Indonesia, and has since been widely adopted due to its use in education, media, business, and governance.While nearly all Indonesians speak Indonesian, most also speak one of over 700 local languages, often as their first language.These are predominantly from theAustronesian family, with over 270Papuan languagesin eastern Indonesia.Javaneseis the most widely spoken local language,and it holds co-official status inYogyakarta.
TheDutchand other European-descended populations like theIndos, though significant during colonial times, always represented a small fraction of the population, numbering around 200,000 in 1930.The Dutch language never gained substantial traction due to the Dutch colonial focus on commerce rather than cultural integration.Dutch fluency exists today in small numbers among some older generations and legal professionals,as specific legal codes remain available only in Dutch.
Indonesia officially recognisessix religions:Islam,Protestantism,Roman Catholicism,Hinduism,Buddhism,Confucianism—while also acknowledgingindigenous religionsfor administrative purposesand religious freedom in the constitution.As of 2023, 87.1% of the population (244 million Indonesians), are Muslims, making Indonesia the world's most populous Muslim-majority country,with Sunnis constituting 99% of the Muslim population.Christians, comprising 10% of the population, form majorities in several eastern provinces,while Hindus and Buddhists are primarily Balinese and Chinese Indonesians, respectively.
Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's natives practisedanimismanddynamism, worshiping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural (hyang) inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests.Such beliefs are common to theAustronesian peoples.These indigenous traditions, such as SundaneseSunda Wiwitan, JavaneseKejawènand Dayak'sKaharingan, have profoundly influenced modern religious practices, resulting in a less orthodox and syncretic form of faith like Javaneseabangan,Balinese Hinduismand Dayak Christianity.
Hinduism reached the archipelago in the 1st century CE,followed by Buddhism in the 6th century.Both religions shaped Indonesia's religious history through influential empires like Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, leaving a lasting cultural impact that remains today despite both no longer being the majority.Islam arrived as early as the 8th centurythrough Sunni and Sufi traders from theIndian subcontinentandsouthern Arabian peninsula, mixing with local cultural and religious traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture (santri).By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion on Java and Sumatra, resulting from the combination of trade,dawahsuch as by theWali Sangaand Chinese explorerZheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates.
Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonisation, such as byJesuitFrancis Xavier,though the spread of the former faced challenges under the policies of VOC and the Dutch colonial era. The latter's primary branches includeCalvinismandLutheranism,though a multitude of other denominations exist in the country.A small Jewish presence has existed in the archipelago, primarily descendants of Dutch and Iraqi Jews, though their numbers have dwindled since independence in 1945. Only a few Jews remain today, mostly in major cities like Jakarta,Manadoand Surabaya.One of the remaining synagogues,Sha'ar Hashamayim, is located in Tondano, North Sulawesi, which is around 31 km from Manado.
Interfaith relations in Indonesia are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila,which emphasises belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance. While the principle promotes harmony,religious intolerance continues to be a recurring issue.Religion is central to the lives of the overwhelming majority of Indonesians, which reflects its integral role in the country's society, culture and identity.
Indonesia hasone of the largest education systemsin the world, with over 50 million students, 4 million teachers, and more than 250,000 schools spanning the archipelago.Overseen by theMinistry of Primary and Secondary Education, theMinistry of Higher Education, Science, and Technologyand theMinistry of Religious Affairsfor Islamic schools,the system follows a 6-3-3-4 structure: six years of elementary school, three years each of junior and senior secondary school, and four years of tertiary education.While literacy rates are high (96%),it is lower in rural and remote areas. Enrolment rates vary across educational levels, with near-universal enrolment in primary education (97.9%), but drop to 81.7% and 64.2% in lower and upper secondary education and to around 42.6% for tertiary education.
Government spending on education accounts for approximately 3.6% of GDP in 2022.In the same year, there are 4,481 higher education institutions in the country, including universities, Islamic institutions and open universities.University of Indonesia,Gadjah Mada University, and theBandung Institute of Technologyare the top three universities in the country, all of which rank within the world's top 300 universities.
Issues regarding quality and equity are persistent, in particular urban-rural disparities, inadequate school infrastructure, and a lack of qualified teachers.The system also lags behind in international benchmarks, such as theProgramme for International Student Assessment(PISA) where Indonesian students consistently rank near the bottom in reading, mathematics, and science.The higher education sector has been struggling with underfunding, low quality, limited research output and a mismatch between graduates' skills and labour market needs.
Indonesia has made significant progress in developing itshealthcare systemsince 1945. Initially, healthcare services were limited, with a shortage of doctors, hospitals, and infrastructure.In the late 1960s, the government began establishingcommunity health centres(puskesmas) to provide basic services in rural areas.With the help from theWorld Health Organizationin the 1970s and 1980s, Indonesia implemented an immunisation program to combat diseases like polio and measles.The system experienced a major transformation in 2014 with the launch ofJaminan Kesehatan Nasional(JKN), auniversal health caremanaged by theSocial Security Agency on Health(BPJS Kesehatan).It is one of the world's largestsingle-payer systems, covering over 83% of the population (225.9 million) in 2021.
Government spending on healthcare accounts for 3.71% of GDP in 2021.Primary healthcare is delivered throughpuskesmas, hospitals, and private clinics. While the healthcare system lags behind those in ASEAN neighbours like Malaysia and Singapore,significant outcomes have been achieved, such as life expectancy increase (from 54.9 years in 1973 to 71.1 years in 2023),child mortality decline (from 15.5 deaths per 100 live births in 1972 to 2.1 deaths in 2022),polio eradication in 2014,and decreasing cases of malaria.
Some chronic health issues persist, includingchild stuntingthat affects 21.6% of children under five according to a 2022 data.Low air quality, particularly in major cities,contributes to respiratory illnesses, while maternal and child health indicators remain areas of concern, with amaternal mortalityrate the third highest in the region.Additionally, Indonesia has one of thehighest smoking ratesglobally (34.8% of adults), contributing to a high prevalence of non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular issues and lung cancer.
The cultural history of Indonesia spans over two thousand years, influenced by the Indian subcontinent, China, the Middle East, Europe,Melanesian, and Austronesian peoples. These influences have shaped the country's multicultural, multilingual, and multi-ethnic identity,distinct from its indigenous roots. Indonesia holds16 items recognised by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage, includingwayangpuppet theatre,batik,angklung, thesaman dance, andpencak silat. Recent joint nominations addedpantun,kebaya, andkolintangto the list.
Indonesian arts encompasses traditional and contemporary forms shaped by influences from India, the Arab world, China, and Europe, driven by cultural exchange and trade.Bali'sartistic traditions, such as classicalKamasanandWayang-style painting, are renowned, originating from visual narratives depicted oncandibas-reliefs from eastern Java.Traditional architecture reflects ethnic diversity, with iconic and traditional houses (rumah adat) like Toraja'sTongkonan, Minangkabau'sRumah Gadang, Java'sPendopo, andDayaklonghouseseach showcasing unique customs and histories.Other traditional crafts, including carpentry and masonry, showcase intricate decorations and techniques passed down through generations.
Discoveries ofmegalithic sculpturesled to the flourishing of tribal art among the Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja communities,who utilised wood and stone as primary sculpting materials. From the 8th to 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation excelled in sophisticated stone sculpting and architecture, heavily influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic culture. This period produced monumental works like theBorobudurandPrambanantemples,which today remain celebrated as masterpieces of Indonesia's sophisticated artistic and architectural heritage.
Indonesia's musical heritage predates historical records, with indigenous tribes using chants and traditional instruments like theangklung,gamelan, andsasandoin rituals. Influences from other cultures have enriched Indonesian music, such as thegambusandqasidafrom the Middle East,keroncongfrom Portugal,anddangdut(one of the country's most popular music genres), which incorporates Hindi, Malay, and Middle Eastern elements.Today, Indonesian music enjoys regional popularity in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei due to cultural similarities andlanguage intelligibility.
With over 3,000 traditional dances, Indonesian dance forms have its origins in rituals and religious worship,such as a dance of witch doctors andHudoq, as well as periods of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influence. While modern and urban dances shaped by Western, Japanese, and South Korean cultures are growing in popularity, traditional dances like those of Java, Bali, and Dayak remain a living tradition.
Indonesia's rich cultural history is also reflected in its diverse clothing styles, with national costumes likebatikandkebayabeing widely recognised, which have its roots in Javanese, Sundanese and Balinese cultures.Traditional attire varies by region and by each province, such as the Batakulos, Malay and Minangkabausongket, and Sasakikat, and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.
Traditional Indonesian theatre, such as wayang shadow puppetry often depicts Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata.Other forms of dramas, such asLudruk,Ketoprak,Sandiwara,Lenongand Balinese dance dramas often incorporate humour, music, and audience interaction.Unique traditions like the MinangkabauRandaicombine music, dance, and martial arts (silat), telling semi-historical legends during traditional ceremonies and festivals.Modern theatre, exemplified byTeater Koma, addresses social and political themes through satire.
The first film produced in the archipelago wasLoetoeng Kasaroeng(1926), a silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp, and the film industry expanded post-independence withUsmar Ismail's pioneering work in the 1950s.During the latter part of Sukarno era in the 1960s, films were used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment, while Suharto's New Order imposed censorship to maintain social order.Film productions peaked in the 1980s with notable titles such asPengabdi Setan(1980),Tjoet Nja' Dhien(1988) andWarkopcomedy films, but the industry declined in the next decade.
In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence,and independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion and love,producing notable films such asPetualangan Sherina(2000) andAda Apa dengan Cinta?(2002) andLaskar Pelangi(2008). The 2022 filmKKN di Desa Penariset box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with 9.2 million tickets sold.TheIndonesian Film Festival(Festival Film Indonesia), awarding theCitra Award, has celebrated cinematic achievements since 1955.
Mediafreedom in Indonesia significantly improved after the fall of Suharto's rule, during which media was tightly controlled by the Ministry of Information.The television landscape shifted from a monopoly by public broadcasterTVRI(1962–1989) to a competitive market with national and provincial networks. By the 21st century, television signals have reached every village, offering up to 11 channels.Private radio stations provide news, while foreign broadcasters offer diverse programming. Print publications also expanded significantly after 1998.Indonesia's internet development began in the early 1990s, with the first commercialInternet service provider, PT. Indo Internet, starting operations in 1994.By 2018, the country had 171 million internet users,primarily aged 15 to 19, who accessed the internet mostly through mobile phones rather than computers.Internet penetration continues to grow annually.
Indonesian literature has roots inSanskritinscriptions from the 5th century and a strongoral tradition,while early modern literature originates in Sumatran tradition.Traditional forms such assyair,pantun,hikayat, andbabaddominate early prose and poetry, with notable works such asSyair Abdul Muluk,Hikayat Hang Tuah,Sulalatus Salatin, andBabad Tanah Jawi. The establishment ofBalai Pustakain 1917 marked a push to develop indigenous literature, leading to a literary Golden Age in the 1950s and 1960s.Influenced by the dynamics of the country's political and social landscape,modern literature includes works from notable figures likeChairil Anwar,Pramoedya Ananta Toer, andAyu Utami.
Indonesian cuisine has many regional cuisines, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences such as Chinese, African, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.Rice is the leadingstaple foodand is served withside dishesof meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili),coconut milk, fish, and chicken are fundamental ingredients.
Some popular dishes such asnasi goreng,gado-gado,sate, andsotoare ubiquitous and considered national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chosetumpengas the official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary traditions.Other popular dishes includerendang, one of the manyMinangkabau cuisinesalong withdendengandgulai. Another fermented food isoncom, similar in some ways totempehbut uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and is prevalent inWest Java.
Badminton andfootballare the most popular sports in Indonesia. Indonesia is among the few countries that have won theThomasandUber Cup, the world team championship of men's and women's badminton. Along withweightlifting, it is the sport that contributes the most toIndonesia's Olympic medal tally.Liga 1is the country's premier football club league. On the international stage,Indonesiawas the first Asian team to participate in theFIFA World Cupin1938as the Dutch East Indies.On a regional level, Indonesia won a bronze medal at the1958 Asian Gamesas well as three gold medals at the1987,1991, and2023 Southeast Asian Games(SEA Games). Indonesia's first appearance at theAFC Asian Cupwas in1996.
Other popular sports includeboxingand basketball, which were part of the firstNational Games(Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) in 1948.Sepak takrawandkarapan sapi(bull racing) inMaduraare some examples of Indonesia's traditional sports. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such ascaciinFloresandpasolainSumba.Pencak silatis an Indonesian martial art that, in 2018, became one of the sporting events in the Asian Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading competitors. In Southeast Asia, Indonesia topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977,most recently in2011.
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