Niger

Niger,officially theRepublic of the Niger,is alandlocked countryinWest Africa. It is aunitary stateborderedbyLibyato thenortheast,Chadto theeast,Nigeriato thesouth,BeninandBurkina Fasoto thesouthwest,Malito thewest, andAlgeriato thenorthwest. It covers a land area of almost 1,270,000 km(490,000 sq mi), making it the largest landlocked country in West Africa and the second largest landlocked nation in Africa behind Chad. Over 80% of its land area lies in theSahara. Its predominantlyMuslimpopulation of about 25 millionlives mostly in clusters in the south and west of the country. The capitalNiameyis located in Niger's southwest corner along the namesakeNiger River.
Following the spread of Islam to the region, Niger was on the fringes of some states, including theKanem–Bornu Empireand theMali Empirebefore more significant parts of its territory became included in states such as theSultanate of Agadezand theSonghai Empire. It was colonized by France during theScramble for Africaas part ofFrench West Africa, becoming adistinct colonyin 1922. Since obtaining independence in 1960, Niger has experienced five coups d'état and four periods ofmilitary rule. Niger's seventh and most recent constitution was enacted in 2010, establishing a multiparty, unitary semi-presidential system. Following the most recentcoup in 2023, the country is once again under amilitary junta.
Its society reflects a diversity drawn from the independent histories of someethnic groupsand regions and their period living in a single state. TheHausaare the country's largest ethnic group, making up more than half the population.Frenchis the country's official language, although it is spoken mainly as a second language and by a minority of the population; ten indigenous languages have the status ofnational language, of whichHausais the most spoken one.
According to the UN's Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) report of 2023, Niger is one of the poorest countries in the world.Some non-desert portions of the country undergo periodic drought anddesertification. Theeconomyis concentrated aroundsubsistence agriculture, with some export agriculture in the less arid south, and the export ofraw materials, includinguranium ore. It faces challenges to development due to its landlocked position, desert terrain, lowliteracy rate,jihadist insurgencies, and the world's highestfertility ratesdue tobirth controlnot being used and the resulting rapidpopulation growth.
The name comes from theNiger Riverwhich flows through the west of the country. The origin of the river's name is uncertain. Alexandrian geographerPtolemywrote descriptions of thewadiGir(in neighbouring modernAlgeria) and theNi-Gir'Lower Gir'to the south, possibly referring to the Niger River.The modern spellingNigerwas first recorded byBerberscholarLeo Africanusin 1550,possibly derived from theTuaregphrase the(e)gărăw-n-gărăwănmeaning'river of rivers'.There is broad consensus among linguists that it does not derive from the Latinniger'black'as was first erroneously believed.The standard pronunciation in English is/niːˈʒɛər/, while in some Anglophone media/ˈnaɪdʒər/is also used.
Stone tools, some dating as far back as 280,000 BC, have been found inAdrar Bous,BilmaandDjadoin the northernAgadez Region.Some of these finds have been linked with theAterianandMousteriantool cultures of theMiddle Paleolithicperiod, which flourished in northern Africa circa 90,000 BC–20,000 BC.It is thought that these humans lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle.During the prehistoricAfrican humid period, the climate of theSaharawas wetter and more fertile, a phenomenon archaeologists refer to as the "Green Sahara", which provided "favourable" conditions for hunting and later agriculture and livestock herding.
TheNeolithicera, beginning circa 10,000 BC, saw a number of changes such as the introduction ofpottery(as evidenced at Tagalagal, Temet and Tin Ouffadene), the spread of cattle husbandry, and the burying of the dead in stonetumuli.As the climate changed in the period 4000–2800 BC the Sahara gradually begandrying out, forcing a change in settlement patterns to the south and east.Agriculture spread, including the planting ofmilletandsorghum, and pottery production.Iron and copper items appear in this era, with finds including those atAzawagh,Takedda,Marendetand theTermit Massif.TheKiffian(circa 8000–6000 BC) and laterTenerian(circa 5000–2500 BC) cultures, centred onAdrar BousandGoberowhere skeletons have been uncovered, flourished during this period.
Societies continued to grow with regional differentiation in agricultural and funerary practices. A culture of this period is theBura culture(circa 200–1300 AD) named for theBura archaeological sitewhere a burial replete with iron and ceramic statuettes were discovered.The Neolithic era saw the flourishing of Saharan rock art, including in theAïr Mountains, Termit Massif, Djado Plateau, Iwelene, Arakao, Tamakon, Tzerzait,Iferouane, Mammanet andDabous; the art spans the period from 10,000 BC to 100 AD and depicts a range of subjects, from the varied fauna of the landscape to depictions of spear-carrying figures dubbed 'Libyan warriors'.
By at least the 5th century BC the territory of what is now Niger had become an area of trans-Saharan trade. Led byTuaregtribes from the north, camels were used as a means of transportation through what is later a desert.This mobility which would continue in waves for centuries was accompanied with further migration to the south and intermixing between sub-Saharan African and North African populations, and the spread ofIslam.It was aided by theMuslim conquest of the Maghrebin the 7th century, the result of three Arab invasions, which resulted in population movements to the south.Empires and kingdoms existed in the Sahel during this era. The following adopts a roughly chronological account of some empires.
The Mali Empire was aMandinkaempire founded bySundiata Keita(r. 1230–1255) inc.1230and existed until the 1600s. As detailed in theEpic of Sundiata, Mali emerged as a breakaway region of theSosso Empirewhich itself had split from the earlierGhana Empire. Thereafter Mali defeated the Sosso at theBattle of Kirinain 1235 and then Ghana in 1240.From its heartland around the later Guinea-Mali border region, the empire expanded under successive kings and came to dominate the Trans-Saharan trade routes, reaching its greatest extent during the rule ofMansa Musa(r. 1312–1337).At this point parts of what are now Niger'sTillabéri Regionfell under Malian rule.A Muslim, Mansa Musa performed thehajjin 1324–25 and encouraged the spread ofIslamin the empire, and it "appears that most ordinary citizens continued to maintain their traditional animist beliefs instead of or alongside the new religion".The empire began "declining" in the 15th century due to a combination of internecine strife over the royal succession, weak kings, the shift of European trade routes to the coast, and rebellions in the empire's periphery byMossi,Wolof,TuaregandSonghaipeoples.A rump Mali kingdom continued to exist until the 1600s.
TheSonghai Empirewas named for its main ethnic group, theSonghai or Sonrai, and was centred on the bend of theNiger RiverinMali. Songhai began settling this region from the 7th to 9th centuries;by the 11th centuryGao(capital of the formerKingdom of Gao) had become the empire's capital.From 1000 to 1325, the Songhai Empire managed to maintain peace with the Mali Empire, its neighbour to the west. In 1325 Songhai was conquered by Mali until regaining its independence in 1375.Under kingSonni Ali(r. 1464–1492) Songhai adopted an expansionist policy which reached its apogee during the reign ofAskia Mohammad I(r. 1493–1528); at this point the empire had expanded from its Niger-bend heartland, including to the east where most of later western Niger fell under its rule, includingAgadezwhich was conquered in 1496.The empire was unable to withstand repeated attacks from theSaadi dynastyofMoroccoand was decisively defeated at theBattle of Tondibiin 1591; it then collapsed into a number of smaller kingdoms.
Inc.1449in the north of what is now Niger, theSultanate of Aïrwas founded by Sultan Ilisawan, based inAgadez.Formerly a trading post inhabited by a mixture of Hausa and Tuaregs, it grew as a strategic position on the Trans-Saharan trade routes. In 1515, Aïr was conquered by Songhai, remaining a part of that empire until its collapse in 1591.In the following centuries, it "seems that the sultanate entered a decline" marked by internecine wars and clan conflicts.When Europeans began exploring the region in the 19th century, most of Agadez lay in ruins and was taken over by the French (see below).
To the east, theKanem–Bornu Empiredominated the region aroundLake Chadfor a period.It was founded by theZaghawaaround the 8th century and based inNjimi, north-east of the lake. The kingdom gradually expanded, including during the rule of theSayfawa dynastywhich began inc.1075underMai(king)Hummay.The kingdom reached its greatest extent in the 1200s, partly due to the effort ofMaiDunama Dibbalemi(r. 1210–1259), and grew "richer" from its control of some Trans-Saharan trade routes; most of eastern and south-eastern Niger, includingBilmaandKaouar, was under Kanem's control in this period.Islam had been introduced to the kingdom by Arab traders from the 11th century, gaining more converts over the following centuries.Attacks by theBulalapeople in the 14th century forced Kanem to shift westwards of Lake Chad where it became known as the Bornu Empire ruled from its capitalNgazargamuon what is later theNiger-Nigeria border.Bornu "prospered" during the rule ofMaiIdris Alooma(r. circa 1575–1610) and re-conquered most of the "traditional lands" of Kanem, hence the designation 'Kanem–Bornu' for the empire. By the 17th century and into the 18th the Bornu kingdom had entered a "period of decline", shrinking back to its Lake Chad heartland.
Circa 1730–40 a group ofKanurisettlers led by Mallam Yunus left Kanem and founded theSultanate of Damagaram, centred on the town ofZinder.The sultanate remained nominally subject to theBorno Empireuntil the reign of Sultan Tanimoune Dan Souleymane in the 19th century, who declared independence and initiated a phase of expansion.The sultanate managed to resist the advance of the Sokoto Caliphate (see below), and was later captured by the French in 1899.
Between the Niger River and Lake Chad layHausa Kingdoms, encompassing the cultural-linguistic area known asHausalandwhich straddles what later became theNiger-Nigeria border.The Hausa are thought to be a mixture of autochthonous peoples and migrant peoples from the north and east, emerging as a distinct people sometime in the 900s–1400s when the kingdoms were founded.They gradually adopted Islam from the 14th century, and sometimes this existed alongside other religions, developing into syncretic forms; some Hausa groups such as the Azna resisted Islam altogether (the area ofDogondoutchiremains an animist stronghold).The Hausa kingdoms were not a compact entity but several federations of kingdoms more or less independent of one other. Their organisation was hierarchical and somewhat democratic: the Hausa kings were elected by the notables of the country and could be removed by them.The Hausa Kingdoms began as seven states founded, according to theBayajiddalegend, by the six sons of Bawo.Bawo was the only son of the Hausa queenDauramaandBayajiddaor (Abu Yazidaccording to certain historians) who came fromBaghdad. The seven original Hausa states (also referred to as the 'Hausa bakwai') were:Daura(state of queenDaurama),Kano,Rano,Zaria,Gobir,KatsinaandBiram.An extension of the legend states that Bawo had a further seven sons with a concubine, who went on to found the so-called 'Banza (illegitimate) Bakwai':Zamfara,Kebbi,Nupe,Gwari,Yauri,IlorinandKwararafa.A smaller state not fitting into this scheme wasKonni, centred onBirni-N'Konni.
TheFulani(also called Peul, Fulbe etc.), a pastoral people found throughout the Sahel, began migrating to Hausaland during the 1200s–1500s.During the later 18th century some Fulani were unhappy with the syncretic form of Islam practised there; exploiting also the populace's disdain with corruption amongst the Hausa elite, the Fulani scholarUsman Dan Fodio(from Gobir) declared ajihadin 1804.After conquering most of Hausaland (though not the Bornu Kingdom, which remained independent), he proclaimed theSokoto Caliphatein 1809.Some of the Hausa states survived by fleeing south, such as the Katsina who moved toMaradiin the south of what later became Niger.Some of these surviving states harassed the Caliphate and a period of wars and skirmishes commenced, with some states (such as Katsina and Gobir) maintaining independence whereas elsewhere newer ones were formed (such as theSultanate of Tessaoua). The Caliphate managed to survive until, "fatally weakened" by the invasions of Chad-based warlordRabih az-Zubayr, it finally fell to the British in 1903, with its lands later being partitioned between Britain and France.
Other smaller kingdoms of the period include theDosso Kingdom, aZarmapolity founded in 1750, which resisted the rule of Hausa and Sokoto states.
In the 19th century, some European explorers travelled in the area that would become known as Niger, such asMungo Park(in 1805–1806), theOudney-Denham-Clappertonexpedition (1822–25),Heinrich Barth(1850–55 withJames RichardsonandAdolf Overweg),Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs(1865–1867),Gustav Nachtigal(1869–1874) andParfait-Louis Monteil(1890–1892).
Some European countries already possessed coastal colonies in Africa, and in the latter half of the century they began to turn their eyes towards the interior of the continent. This process, known as the 'Scramble for Africa', culminated in the1885 Berlin conferencein which the colonial powers outlined the division of Africa into spheres of influence. As a result of this,Francegained control of the upper valley of theNiger River(roughly equivalent to the present territory ofMaliand Niger).France then set about making a reality of their rule on the ground. In 1897, the French officerMarius Gabriel Cazemajouwas sent to Niger. He reached theSultanate of Damagaramin 1898, and stayed inZinderat the court of Sultan Amadou Kouran Daga. He was later killed, as Daga feared he would ally with the Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr.In 1899–1900, France coordinated three expeditions—theGentil MissionfromFrench Congo, theFoureau-Lamy MissionfromAlgeriaand theVoulet–Chanoine MissionfromTimbuktu—with the aim of linking France's African possessions.The three eventually met atKousséri(in the far north ofCameroon) and defeated Rabih az-Zubayr's forces at theBattle of Kousséri. The Voulet-Chanoine Mission was "marred by atrocities", and "became notorious" for pillaging, looting, raping and killing local civilians on its passage throughout southern Niger.On 8 May 1899, in retaliation for the resistance of queenSarraounia, captain Voulet and his men murdered all the inhabitants of the village ofBirni-N'Konniin what is regarded as "one of the worst massacres in French colonial history".The "brutal" methods of Voulet and Chanoine caused a "scandal" and Paris was forced to intervene; when Lieutenant-ColonelJean-François Klobbcaught up with the mission nearTessaouato relieve them of command he was killed. Lt.Paul Joalland, Klobb's former officer, and Lt.Octave Meyniereventually took over the mission following a mutiny in which Voulet and Chanoine were killed.The Military Territory of Niger was subsequently created within theUpper Senegal and Nigercolony (later Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger) in December 1904 with its capital atNiamey.Theborderwith Britain's colony of Nigeria to the south was finalised in 1910, a rough delimitation having already been agreed by the two powers via treaties during the period 1898–1906.The capital of the territory was moved to Zinder in 1912 when the Niger Military Territory was split off from Upper Senegal and Niger, before being moved back to Niamey in 1922 when Niger became a fully fledged colony withinFrench West Africa.The borders of Niger were drawn up in stages and had been fixed at their later position by the 1930s. Territorial adjustments took place in this period: the areas west of the Niger river wereattachedto Niger in 1926–1927, and during the dissolution of Upper Volta (modern Burkina Faso) in 1932–1947 most of the east of that territory was added to Niger;and in the east theTibesti Mountainsweretransferredto Chad in 1931.
The French generally adopted a form of indirect rule, allowing existing native structures to continue to exist within the colonial framework of governance providing that they acknowledged French supremacy.The Zarma of the Dosso Kingdom in particular proved amenable to French rule, using them as allies against the encroachments of Hausa and other nearby states; over time the Zarma thus became one of the "more educated and westernised" groups in Niger.Perceived threats to French rule, such as the Kobkitanda rebellion inDosso Region(1905–1906), led by the blind cleric Alfa Saibou, and the Karma revolt in the Niger valley (December 1905 – March 1906) led by Oumarou Karma were suppressed with force, as were the latterHamallayyaandHaukareligious movements.While "largely successful" in subduing the "sedentary" populations of the south, the French faced "considerably more difficulty" with the Tuareg in the north (centered on the Sultanate of Aïr in Agadez), and France was unable to occupy Agadez until 1906.Tuareg resistance continued, culminating in theKaocen revoltof 1916–1917, led byAg Mohammed Wau Teguidda Kaocen, with backing from theSenussiinFezzan; the revolt was violently suppressed and Kaocen fled to Fezzan where he was later killed.A puppet sultan was set up by the French and the "decline and marginalisation" of the north of the colony continued, exacerbated by a series of droughts.While it remained "something of a backwater", some limited economic development took place in Niger during the colonial years, such as the introduction ofgroundnutcultivation.Measures to improve food security following a series of devastating famines in 1913, 1920, and 1931 were introduced.
During theSecond World War, during which time mainland France was occupied byNazi Germany,Charles de Gaulleissued the Brazzaville Declaration, declaring that the French colonial empire would be replaced post-war with a less centralisedFrench Union.The French Union, which lasted from 1946 to 1958, conferred a limited form of French citizenship on the inhabitants of the colonies, with some decentralisation of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies. It was during this period that theNigerien Progressive Party(Parti Progressiste Nigérien, or PPN, originally a branch of the African Democratic Rally, orRassemblement Démocratique Africain– RDA) was formed under the leadership of former teacherHamani Diori, as was the left-wingMouvement Socialiste Africain-Sawaba(MSA), led byDjibo Bakary. Following the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of 23 July 1956 and the establishment of theFifth French Republicon 4 December 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within theFrench Community. On 18 December 1958, an autonomous Republic of Niger was officially created under the leadership of Hamani Diori. MSA was banned in 1959 for its perceived excessive anti-French stance.On 11 July 1960, Niger decided to leave the French Community and acquired full independence at midnight, local time, on 3 August 1960;Diori thus became the firstpresidentof the country.
For its first 14 years as an independent state, Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori.The 1960s saw an expansion of the education system and some limited economic development and industrialisation.Links with France remained, with Diori allowing the development of French-leduraniummining inArlitand supporting France in theAlgerian War.Relations with other African states were mostly "positive", with the exception ofDahomey(Benin), owing to aborderdispute. Niger remained a one-party state throughout this period, with Diori surviving a planned coup in 1963 and an assassination attempt in 1965; most of this activity was masterminded by Djibo Bakary's MSA-Sawaba group which had launched an abortive rebellion in 1964.In the 1970s, a combination of economic difficulties,droughtsand accusations of rampant corruption and mismanagement of food supplies resulted in acoup d'étatthat overthrew the Diori regime.
The coup had been masterminded by Col.Seyni Kountchéand a military group under the name of theConseil Militaire Supreme, with Kountché going on to rule the country until his death in 1987.The first action of the military government was to address the food crisis.Whilst political prisoners of the Diori regime were released after the coup, political and individual freedoms in general deteriorated during this period. There were attempted coups (in 1975, 1976 and 1984) which were thwarted, their instigators being punished.
Kountché sought to create a 'development society', funded mostly by the uranium mines inAgadez Region.Parastatalcompanies were created, infrastructure (building and new roads, schools, health centres) constructed, and there was corruption in government agencies, which Kountché did not hesitate to punish.In the 1980s, Kountché began cautiously loosening the grip of the military, with some relaxation of state censorship and attempts made to 'civilianise' the regime.The economic boom ended following the collapse in uranium prices, andIMF-led austerity and privatisation measures provoked opposition by some Nigeriens.In 1985, a Tuareg revolt inTchintabaradenwas suppressed.Kountché died in November 1987 from a brain tumour, and was succeeded by his chief of staff, Col.Ali Saibouwho was confirmed as Chief of the Supreme Military Council four days later.
Saibou curtailed the most repressive aspects of the Kountché era (such as the secret police and media censorship), and set about introducing a process of political reform under the overall direction of a single party (theMouvement National pour la Société du Développement, or MNSD).A Second Republic was declared and a new constitution was drawn up, which was adopted following areferendumin 1989.General Saibou became the first president of the Second Republic after winning thepresidential electionon 10 December 1989.
President Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of trade union and student demands to institute amulti-party democratic system. On 9 February 1990, a violently repressed student march in Niamey led to the death of three students, which led to increased national and international pressure for further democratic reform.The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990.Meanwhile, trouble re-emerged in Agadez Region when a group of armed Tuaregs attacked the town of Tchintabaraden (seen by some as the start of the firstTuareg Rebellion), prompting a military crackdown which led to deaths (the precise numbers are disputed, with estimates ranging from 70 to up to 1,000).
The National Sovereign Conference of 1991 brought about multi-party democracy. From 29 July to 3 November, a national conference gathered together all elements of society to make recommendations for the future direction of the country. The conference was presided over by Prof.André Salifouand developed a plan for atransitional government; this was then installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993. After the National Sovereign Conference, the transitional government drafted a constitution that eliminated the previous single-party system of the 1989 Constitution and guaranteed more freedoms. The new constitution was adopted by areferendumon 26 December 1992.Following this, presidentialelectionswere held andMahamane Ousmanebecame the first president of the Third Republic on 27 March 1993.Ousmane's presidency saw four government changes and legislativeelectionsin 1995, and an economic slump.
The violence in Agadez Region continued during this period, prompting the Nigerien government to sign a truce with Tuareg rebels in 1992 which was ineffective owing to internal dissension within the Tuareg ranks.Another rebellion, led by dissatisfiedTouboupeoples claiming that, like the Tuareg, the Nigerien government had neglected their region, broke out in the east of the country.In April 1995 a peace deal with a Tuareg rebel group was signed, with the government agreeing to absorb some former rebels into the military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life.
The governmental paralysis prompted the military to intervene; on 27 January 1996, Col.Ibrahim Baré Maïnassaraled acoupthat deposed President Ousmane and ended the Third Republic.Maïnassara headed aConseil de Salut National(National Salvation Council) composed of military officials which carried out a six-month transition period, during which a constitution was drafted and adopted on 12 May 1996.
Presidential campaigns were organised in the months that followed. Maïnassara entered the campaign as an independent candidate and won theelectionon 8 July 1996, the elections were viewed nationally and internationally by some as irregular, as the electoral commission was replaced during the campaign.Meanwhile, Maïnassara instigated anIMFandWorld Bank-approved privatisation programme which enriched some of his supporters and were opposed by the trade unions.Following fraudulent local elections in 1999 the opposition ceased any cooperation with the Maïnassara regime.In unknown circumstances (possibly attempting to flee the country), Maïnassara was assassinated atNiamey Airporton 9 April 1999.
Maj.Daouda Malam Wankéthen took over, establishing a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution with a French-stylesemi-presidential system. This was adopted on 9 August 1999 and was followed by presidential and legislativeelectionsin October and November of the same year.The elections were generally found to be free and fair by international observers. Wanké then withdrew from governmental affairs.
After winning the election in November 1999, PresidentTandja Mamadouwas sworn into office on 22 December 1999 as the first president of the Fifth Republic. Mamadou brought about administrative and economic reforms that had been halted due to the military coups since the Third Republic, and helped peacefully resolve a decades-long boundary dispute with Benin.In August 2002, unrest within military camps occurred inNiamey,Diffa, andNguigmi, and the government was able to restore order within days. On 24 July 2004, municipal elections were held to elect local representatives, previously appointed by the government. These elections were followed by presidential elections, in which Mamadou was re-elected for a second term, thus becoming the first president of the republic to win consecutive elections without being deposed by military coups.The legislative and executive configuration remained somewhat similar to that of the first term of the president:Hama Amadouwas reappointed as prime minister andMahamane Ousmane, the head of the CDS party, was re-elected as the president of the National Assembly (parliament) by his peers.
By 2007, the relationship between President Tandja Mamadou and his prime minister had "deteriorated", leading to the replacement of the latter in June 2007 bySeyni Oumaroufollowing a successful vote of no confidence at the Assembly.President Tandja Mamadou sought to extend his presidency by modifying the constitution which limited presidential terms. Proponents of the extended presidency, who rallied behind the 'Tazartche' (Hausa for 'overstay') movement, were countered by opponents ('anti-Tazartche') composed of opposition party militants and civil society activists.
The north saw the outbreak of aSecond Tuareg Rebellionin 2007 led by theMouvement des Nigériens pour la justice(MNJ). With a number of kidnappings the rebellion had "largely fizzled out inconclusively" by 2009.The "poor" security situation in the region is thought to have allowed elements ofAl-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb(AQIM) to gain a foothold in the country.
In 2009, President Tandja Mamadou decided to organize a constitutional referendum seeking toextend his presidency, which was opposed by other political parties, and went against the decision of the Constitutional Court which had ruled that the referendum would be unconstitutional. Mamadou then modified and adopted a new constitution by referendum, which was declared illegal by the Constitutional Court, prompting Mamadou to dissolve the Court and assume emergency powers.The opposition boycotted the referendum and the constitution was adopted with 92.5% of voters and a 68% turnout, according to official results. The adoption of the constitution created a Sixth Republic, with apresidential system, the suspension of the 1999 Constitution, and a three-year interim government with Tandja Mamadou as president. The events generated political and social unrest.
In acoup d'étatin February 2010, a military junta led bySalou Djibowas established in response to Tandja's attempted extension of his political term.TheSupreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy, headed by Djibo, carried out a one-year transition plan, drafted a constitution and held elections in 2011.
Following the adoption of a constitution in 2010 andpresidential electionsa year later,Mahamadou Issoufouwas elected as the first president of the Seventh Republic; he was thenre-electedin 2016.The constitution restored the semi-presidential system which had been abolished a year earlier. An attempted coup against him in 2011 was thwarted and its ringleaders arrested.Issoufou's time in office was marked by threats to the country's security, stemming from the fallout from theLibyan Civil WarandNorthern Mali conflict,an insurgency in western Nigerbyal-QaedaandIslamic State, the spillover of Nigeria'sBoko Haram insurgencyinto south-eastern Niger, and the use of Niger as a transit country for migrants (often organised bypeople-smugglinggangs).French and American forces assisted Niger in countering these threats.
On 10 December 2019, a large group of fighters belonging to theIslamic State in the Greater Sahara(IS-GS)attackeda military post inInates,killing over seventysoldiersand kidnapping others.The attack was the deadliest single incident Niger's military has ever experienced.On 9 January 2020, a large group of IS-GS militantsassaulteda Nigerien military base at Chinagodrar, in Niger'sTillabéri Region, killing at least 89 Nigerien soldiers.
On 27 December 2020, Nigerienswent to the pollsafter Issoufou announced he would step down, paving the way to apeaceful transition of power.No candidate won an absolute majority in the vote:Mohamed Bazoumcame closest with 39.33%. Per the constitution, a run-off election was held on 20 February 2021, with Bazoum taking 55.75% of the vote and opposition candidate (and former president)Mahamane Ousmanetaking 44.25%, according to the electoral commission.
At the start of 2021 with theTchoma Bangou and Zaroumdareye massacres, IS-GS began killing civilians en masse.On 21 March 2021, the IS-GS militantsattackedseveral villages aroundTillia, killing 141 people, mostly civilians.
On 31 March 2021, Niger's security forces thwarted anattempted coupby a military unit in the capital,Niamey. Gunfire was heard in the presidential palace. The attack took place two days before newly elected presidentMohamed Bazoumwas due to be sworn into office. The Presidential Guard arrested some people during the incident.On 2 April 2021, Bazoum was sworn in as thePresident of Niger.
Late on 26 July 2023, acoup by the militaryoverthrew Bazoum, putting an end to the Seventh Republic and thegovernmentof Prime MinisterOuhoumoudou Mahamadou.On 28 July, GeneralAbdourahamane Tchianiwas proclaimed as thede factohead of state of the country.Former finance ministerAli Lamine Zeinewas declared the newPrime Minister of Niger.
The coup was condemned by ECOWAS, which in the2023 Nigerien crisisthreatened to use military intervention to reinstate the government of Bazoum if the coup leaders did not by 6 August.The deadline passed without military intervention, though ECOWAS imposed sanctions, including cuts of Nigerian energy exports to Niger which had previously provided 70–90% of Niger's power.In November the coup-led governments of Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger formed theAlliance of Sahel Statesin opposition to potential military intervention.On 24 February 2024 several ECOWAS sanctions against Niger were dropped, reportedly for humanitarian and diplomatic reasons,and Nigeria agreed to resume electricity exports to Niger.
In the buildup to the August ECOWAS deadline, the junta requested help from the RussianWagner Group,though Wagner mercenaries were not known to have entered the country as a result.In October the junta expelled French troops from the country, presenting the move as a step towards sovereignty from the former colonial power,and in December it suspended cooperation with theFrancophoniealleging its promotion of French interests.UN resident coordinatorLouise Aubinwas also expelled in October after the junta alleged "underhanded maneuvers" by U.N secretary-general António Guterres to prevent the country's participation in the UN General Assembly.In October the U.S. officially designated the takeover as a coup, suspending most Niger–US military cooperation as well as hundreds of millions of dollars of foreign assistance programs.In April 2024, Russian military trainers and equipment began to arrive in Niger under a new military agreement,and the US agreed to withdraw troops from Nigerfollowing the termination of a Niger–US agreement that had allowed US personnel to be stationed in the country.
Niger is alandlockednation in West Africa located along the border between theSaharaandSub-Saharanregions. It bordersNigeriaandBeninto the south,Burkina FasoandMalito the west,AlgeriaandLibyato the north andChadto the east.
Niger lies between latitudes11°and24°N, and longitudes0°and16°E. Its area is 1,267,000 square kilometres (489,191 sq mi) of which 300 square kilometres (116 sq mi) is water. This makes it less than twice the size ofFrance, and the world's 21st largest country.
Niger borders seven countries and has a total perimeter of 5,697 kilometres (3,540 mi). The longest border is withNigeriato the south (1,497 km or 930 mi). This is followed byChadto the east, at 1,175 km (730 mi),Algeriato the north-northwest (956 km or 594 mi), andMaliat 821 km (510 mi). Niger has borders in its further southwest withBurkina Fasoat 628 km (390 mi) andBeninat 266 km (165 mi) and to the north-northeastLibyaat 354 km (220 mi).
The lowest point in Niger is theNiger River, with an elevation of 200 metres (656 ft). The highest point isMont Idoukal-n-Taghèsin theAïr Mountainsat 2,022 m (6,634 ft).
Niger's terrain is predominantly desert plains andsand dunes, with flat to rolling savanna in the south and hills in the north.
The hotter and drier climate withindesertareas causes more frequent fires in some regions.In the south, there is a tropical climate on the edges of the Niger River basin.
The territory of Niger contains five terrestrial ecoregions:Sahelian Acacia savanna,West Sudanian savanna,Lake Chad flooded savanna,South Saharan steppe and woodlands, andWest Saharan montane xeric woodlands.
The north is covered by deserts and semi-deserts. The typical mammal fauna consists ofaddaxantelopes,scimitar-horned oryx, gazelles, and in the mountains, Barbary sheep. TheAïr and Ténéré National Nature Reservewas founded in the northern parts to protect these species.
The southern parts are naturally dominated savannahs. TheW National Park, situated in the bordering area to Burkina Faso andBenin, belongs to "one of the most important areas" for wildlife in Western Africa, which is called the WAP (W–Arli–Pendjari) Complex. It has a population of theWest African lionand one of the last populations of theNorthwest African cheetah.
Other wildlife includes elephants, buffaloes,roan antelopes,kob antelopesand warthogs. TheWest African giraffeis found in the further north where it has its last relict population.
Environmental issues include destructive farming practices as a result of population pressure, illegal hunting, bush fires in some areas and human encroachment upon the flood plains of the Niger River for paddy cultivation. Dams constructed on the Niger River in the neighboring countries of Mali and Guinea and within Niger are cited as a reason for a reduction of water flow in the Niger River—which has a direct effect upon the environment. A "lack of adequate staff" to guard wildlife in the parks and reserves is another factor cited for loss of wildlife.
Farmer-managed natural regenerationis practiced since 1983 to increase food and timber production, andresiliencetoclimate extremes.
Niger's new constitution was approved on 31 October 2010. It restored the semi-presidential system of government of the 1999 constitution (Fifth Republic) in which the president of the republic, elected byuniversal suffragefor a five-year term, and a prime minister named by the president shareexecutive power. Since the July2023 Nigerien coup d'état, the government has been led byAbdourahamane Tchiani.
Niger pursues a moderate foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with the West and the Islamic world as well as non-aligned countries. It belongs to the UN and its main specialized agencies and in 1980–81 served on theUN Security Council. Niger maintains a special relationship with former colonial power France and has close relations with its West African neighbors.
Niger is a charter member of theAfrican Unionand theWest African Monetary Unionand also belongs to theNiger Basin AuthorityandLake Chad Basin Commission, theEconomic Community of West African States, theNon-Aligned Movement, theOrganisation of Islamic Cooperationand theOrganization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa(OHADA). The westernmost regions of Niger are joined with contiguous regions of Mali and Burkina Faso under theLiptako–Gourma Authority.
The border dispute with Benin, inherited from colonial times and concerning inter aliaLété Islandin theNiger River, was solved by theInternational Court of Justicein 2005 to Niger's advantage.
The Niger Armed Forces (Forces armées nigériennes) are the military and paramilitary forces of Niger, under the president as supreme commander. They consist of the Niger Army (Armée de Terre), the Niger Air Force (Armée de l'Air) and the auxiliary paramilitary forces, such as theNational Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie nationale)and theNational Guard (Garde nationale). Both paramilitary forces are trained in military fashion and have some military responsibilities in wartime. In peace time their duties are mostly policing duties.
The armed forces are composed of approximately 12,900 personnel, including 3,700gendarmes, 3,200national guards, 300 air force personnel, and 6,000 army personnel. The armed forces of Niger have been involved in several military coups over the years with themost recent in 2023.Niger's armed forces have a long history of military cooperation with France and the United States. From 2013, Niamey was home to a U.S. drone base. On 16 March 2024, Niger's government announced that it was breaking off "with immediate effect" its military cooperation agreement with the United States.
The current Judiciary of Niger was established with the creation of the Fourth Republic in 1999. The constitution of December 1992 was revised by national referendum on 12 May 1996 and, again, by referendum, revised to the current version on 18 July 1999. It is based on theCode Napoleon"Inquisitorial system", established in Niger during French colonial rule and the 1960 Constitution of Niger. The Court of Appeals reviews questions of fact and law, while the Supreme Court reviews application of the law and constitutional questions. The High Court of Justice (HCJ) deals with cases involving senior government officials. The justice system also includes civil criminal courts, customary courts, traditional mediation, and a military court.The military court provides the same rights as civil criminal courts; however, customary courts do not. The military court cannot try civilians.
Law enforcement in Niger is the responsibility of the Ministry of Defense through theNational Gendarmerieand the Ministry of the Interior through theNational Policeand theNational Guard. TheNational Policeis primarily responsible for law enforcement in urban areas. Outside big cities and in rural areas, this responsibility falls on theNational Gendarmerieand theNational Guard.
Government finance is derived from revenue exports (mining, oil and agricultural exports) as well as various forms of taxes collected by the government. In the past, foreign aid has contributed to large percentages of the budget. In 2013, Niger's government has adopted a zero-deficit budget of 1.279 trillion CFA francs ($2.53 billion) which is claimed to balance revenues and expenditures by an 11% reduction in the budget from the previous year.
The 2014 budget was 1.867 trillion CFA which is distributed as follows according to: public debt (76,703,692,000 CFA), personnel expenditures (210,979,633,960 CFA), operating expenditures (128,988,777,711 CFA); subsidies and transfers (308,379,641,366 CFA) and investment (1,142,513,658,712 CFA).
The importance of external support for Niger's development is demonstrated by the fact that about 45% of the government's FY 2002 budget, including 80% of its capital budget, derives from donor resources.The most important donors in Niger are France, theEuropean Union, theWorld Bank, theInternational Monetary Fund, and variousUnited Nationsagencies (UNDP,UNICEF,FAO,World Food Program, andUnited Nations Population Fund).
Other principal donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Canada, andSaudi Arabia.WhileUSAIDdoes not have an office in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing nearly $10 million each year to Niger's development.The U.S. also is a major partner in policy coordination in such areas as food security and HIV/AIDS.
Niger is divided into 7Regionsand one capital district. These Regions are subdivided into 36departments. The 36 Departments are currently broken down into Communes of varying types. As of 2006there were 265 communes, including communes urbaines (Urban Communes: as subdivisions of major cities), communes rurales (Rural Communes), in sparsely populated areas and postes administratifs (Administrative Posts) for largely uninhabited desert areas or military zones.
Rural communes may contain official villages and settlements, while Urban Communes are divided into quarters. Niger subvisions were renamed in 2002, in the implementation of a decentralisation project, first begun in 1998. Previously, Niger was divided into 7 Departments, 36 Arrondissements, and Communes. These subdivisions were administered by officials appointed by the national government. These offices will be replaced in the future by democratically elected councils at each level.
Thepre-2002departments (renamed as regions) and capital district are:
The economy of Niger centers on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largesturaniumdeposits. In 2021, Niger was the main supplier of uranium to the EU, followed by Kazakhstan and Russia.Drought cycles, desertification, a 2.9% population growth rate, and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut the economy.
Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Niger:
Niger shares a common currency, theCFA franc, and a common central bank, theCentral Bank of West African States(BCEAO), with seven other members of theWest African Monetary Union. Niger is also a member of theOrganization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa(OHADA).
In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund program forHeavily Indebted Poor Countries(HIPC) and concluded an agreement with the Fund forPoverty Reduction and Growth Facility(PRGF). Debt relief provided under the enhanced HIPC initiative significantly reduces Niger's annual debt service obligations, freeing funds for expenditures on basic health care, primary education, HIV/AIDS prevention, rural infrastructure, and other programs geared at poverty reduction.
In December 2005, it was announced that Niger had received 100% multilateraldebt relieffrom theIMF, which translates into the forgiveness of approximately US$86 million in debts to the IMF, excluding the remaining assistance under HIPC. Nearly half of the government's budget is derived from foreign donor resources. Future growth may be sustained by the exploitation of oil, gold, coal, and other mineral resources. Uranium prices have recovered somewhat in the last few years.A drought and locust infestation in 2005 led to food shortages for as many as 2.5 million Nigeriens between March and August 2025.
Niger was ranked 137th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024.
As of 2021, the population of Niger was 25,252,722.Niger's population has rapidly increased from its population of 3.4 million in 1960 and has a current growth rate of 3.3% (7.1 children per mother).
This growth rate is one of the highest in the world and is a source of concern for the government and international agencies.The population is predominantly young, with 49.2% under 15 years old and 2.7% over 65 years, and predominantly rural with only 21% living in urban areas.
A 2005 studystated that over 800,000 people (nearly 8% of the population)in Niger are enslaved.
As in most West African countries, Niger has a wide variety of ethnic groups. The ethnic makeup of Niger in 2001 was as follows:Hausa(55.4%),Zarma&Songhay(21%),Tuareg(9.3%),Fula(French:Peuls;Fula:Fulɓe) (8.5%),Kanuri Manga(4.7%),Tubu(0.4%),Arab(0.4%),Gourmantche(0.4%), other (0.1%).TheZarmaandSonghaydominate the Dosso, Tillabéri, and Niamey regions, theHausadominate the Zinder, Maradi, and Tahoua regions,Kanuri Mangadominate the Diffa region, andTuaregsdominate the Agadez region in Northern Niger.
French, inherited from the colonial period, is theofficial language. It is taught in school as a second language and serves as the administrative language. Niger joined theOrganisation Internationale de la Francophoniein 1970,though it suspended cooperation with the group months after the 2023 coup.
Niger has ten recognizednational languages, namelyArabic,Buduma,Fulfulde,Gourmanchéma,Hausa,Kanuri,ZarmaandSonghay,Tamasheq,TassawaqandTebu.Each is spoken as a first language primarily by the ethnic group with which it is associated.Hausa and Zarma-Songhai, the two most spoken languages, are widely spoken throughout the country as first or second languages.
Niger is asecular countryandseparation of state and religionis guaranteed by Articles 3 and 175 of the 2010 Constitution, which dictate that future amendments or revisions may not modify the secular nature of the republic of Niger.Religious freedomis protected by Article 30 of the same constitution.Islam, widespread in the region since the 10th century, has greatly shaped the culture and mores of the people of Niger. Islam is the most dominant religion, practiced by 99.3% of the population according to the 2012 census.
The other two main religions of Niger areChristianity, practiced by 0.3% of the population, and Animism (traditional indigenous religious beliefs), practiced by 0.2% of the population.Christianity was established earlier in the country by missionaries during the French colonial years. Other urban Christianexpatriatecommunities from Europe and West Africa are also present.Religious persecutionhas flared in recent years in Niger; Christian charity Open Doors now lists Niger as the 37th most difficult country in which to be a Christian on theirWorld Watch List, 'reflecting how pressure is increasing on Christians in this [...] nation.'Relations between Muslims and Christians have generally been cordial, according to the respective representatives of Christian and Muslim groups in Niger.
The numbers of Animist practitioners are a point of contention. As recently as the late 19th century, much of the south center of the nation was unreached by Islam, and the conversion of some rural areas has been only partial. There are still areas where animist based festivals and traditions (such as theBori religion) are practiced bysyncreticMuslim communities (in some Hausa areas as well as among someToubouandWodaabepastoralists), as opposed to several small communities who maintain their pre-Islamic religion. These include the Hausa-speakingMaouri(orAzna, the Hausa word for "pagan") community inDogondoutciin the south-southwest and theKanurispeaking Manga nearZinder, both of whom practice variations of the pre-Islamic HausaMaguzawareligion. There are also some tiny Boudouma and Songhay animist communities in the southwest.Over the past decade, syncretic practices have become less common among Muslim Nigerien communities.
The majority of Muslims in Niger areSunni, 7% areShi'a, 5% areAhmadiyyaand 20%non-denominational.Islam was spread into what is now Niger beginning in the 15th century, by both the expansion of theSonghai Empirein the west, and the influence of theTrans-Saharan tradetraveling from theMaghrebandEgypt.Tuaregexpansion from the north, culminating in their seizure of the far eastern oases from theKanem–Bornu Empirein the 17th centuries, spread distinctivelyBerberpractices.
BothZarmaandHausaareas were greatly influenced by the 18th- and 19th-centuryFula-ledSufibrotherhoods, most notably theSokoto Caliphate(in today's Nigeria). Modern Muslim practice in Niger is often tied to theTijaniyaSufibrotherhoods, although there are small minority groups tied toHammallismandNyassistSufi orders in the west, and theSanusiyain the far northeast.
A small center of followers ofSalafimovement within Sunni Islam have appeared in the last thirty years, in the capital and inMaradi.These small groups, linked to similar groups inJos, Nigeria, came to public prominence in the 1990s during a series of religious riots.
Despite this, Niger maintains a tradition as asecular state, protected by law.Interfaith relations are deemed very good, and the forms of Islam traditionally practiced in most of the country are marked by tolerance of other faiths and lack of restrictions on personal freedom.Alcohol, such as the locally produced Bière Niger, is sold openly in most of the country.
Theliteracy rateof Niger is among the lowest in the world; in 2005 it was estimated to be only 28.7% (42.9% male and 15.1% female).Primary education in Niger is compulsory for six years.The primary school enrollment and attendance rates are low, particularly for girls.In 1997, the gross primary enrollment rate was 29.3 percent, and in 1996, the net primary enrollment rate was 24.5 percent.
About 60 percent of children who finish primary schools are boys, as the majority of girls rarely attend school for more than a few years.Children are often forced to work rather than attend school, particularly during planting orharvestperiods.Nomadicchildren in the north of the country often do not have access to schools.
The child mortality rate in Niger (deaths among children between the ages of 1 and 4) is high (248 per 1,000) due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country's children. According to the organizationSave the Children, Niger has the world's highestinfant mortality rate.
Niger also has the highestfertility ratein the world (6.49 births per woman according to 2017 estimates);this has resulted in nearly half (49.7%) of the Nigerien population being under age 15 in 2020.Niger has the 11th highestmaternal mortalityrate in the world at 820 deaths/100,000 live births.There were 3 physicians and 22 nurses per 100,000 persons in 2006.
Clean drinking water is scarce by global standards, with significant differences between urban and rural areas. Niger is located at the bottom of theUN Human Development Index. Roughly 92% of the population lives in rural areas in the Tillabéri region along the western frontier, and there is a chronic scarcity of clean water, particularly during the hot season, when temperatures regularly exceed 40 degrees Celsius.
Just 40% of the 30,000 inhabitants inTéra, a city northwest of the country's capital of Niamey and near to the Burkina Faso border, have access to a working public water infrastructure.Société de Patrimoine des Eaux du Niger (SPEN), Niger's water authority, opened ten boreholes and built a water treatment plant in 2018 to provide potable water toTéraand the surrounding areas. The water supply ran out about a year later, and the water treatment facility was forced to close.
With the help of a donation fund from theDutch government, theEuropean Investment Bankis collaborating with the Niger water authority to find solutions to Niger's water issues. TheWorld Bankidentified Niger as one of the 18 fragile regions ofSub-Saharan Africa. The EU bank has a history of investing in regions like these.
The European Investment Bank and the Niger Water Authority are looking at two options for dealing with Téra's water shortages. The first choice is to repair the water tank on the outskirts of town. Another choice is to treat and transport water from the Niger River, which is located more than 100 kilometres to the east. Villages between Téra and theNiger Riverwill also have access to sewage. The European Investment Bank will also look at renewable energy as a way to save costs.
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Niger ranks 121st out of 127 countries with sufficient data. Niger's score of 34.1 indicates a serious level of hunger.
In 2025, according to theWorld Health Organization, Niger became the first African country and the fifth country worldwide to eradicateonchocerciasis.
Nigerien culture is marked by variation, evidence of the cultural crossroads whichFrench colonialismformed into a unified state from the beginning of the 20th century. What is now Niger was created from four distinct cultural areas in the pre-colonial era: theZarmaandSonghaidominated theNiger Rivervalley in the southwest; the northern periphery ofHausaland, made mostly of those states which had resisted theSokoto Caliphate, and ranged along the long southern border with Nigeria; theLake Chad basinandKaouarin the far east, populated byKanurifarmers andTouboupastoralists who had once been part of theKanem–Bornu Empire; and theTuaregnomads of theAïr Mountainsand the Sahara in the vast north.
Each of these communities, along with smaller ethnic groups like the pastoralWodaabeFula, brought their own cultural traditions to the new state of Niger. While successive post-independence governments have tried to forge a shared national culture, this has been slow forming, in part because the major Nigerien communities have their own cultural histories, and in part because Nigerien ethnic groups such as theHausa, Tuareg and Kanuri are but part of larger ethnic communities which cross borders introduced under colonialism.
Until the 1990s, government and politics was inordinately dominated byNiameyand theZarma peopleof the surrounding region. At the same time the plurality of the population, in the Hausa borderlands betweenBirni-N'KonniandMaine-Soroa, have often looked culturally more to Hausaland in Nigeria than Niamey. Between 1996 and 2003, primary school attendance was around 30%,including 36% of males and only 25% of females. Additional education occurs throughmadrasas.
The Guérewol festival is a traditional Wodaabe cultural event that takes place inAbalakinTahoua regionorIn'GallinAgadez Region. It is an annual traditional courtship ritual practiced by the Wodaabe (Fula) people of Niger. During this ceremony, young men dressed in elaborate ornamentation and made up in traditional face painting gather in lines to dance and sing, vying for the attention of marriageable young women. The Guérewol festival is an international attraction and was featured in films and magazines as prominent as theNational Geographic.
"La Cure salée" (English: Salt Cure) is a yearly festival of Tuareg and Wodaabe nomads inIn'GallinAgadez Regiontraditionally to celebrate the end of the rainy season. For three days, the festival features a parade ofTuaregcamel riders followed with camel and horse races, songs, dances, and storytelling.
Niger began developing diverse media in the late 1990s. Prior to the Third Republic, Nigeriens only had access to tightly controlled state media.Now Niamey contains scores of newspapers and magazines; some, likeLe Sahel, are government operated, while many are critical of the government.Radio is the most important medium, as television sets are beyond the buying power of many of the rural poor, and illiteracy prevents print media from becoming a mass medium.
In addition to the national and regional radio services of the state broadcasterORTN, there are four privately owned radio networks which total more than 100 stations. Three of them—theAnfani Group, Sarounia and Tenere—are urban-based commercial-formatFMnetworks in the major towns.There is also a network of over 80 community radio stations spread across all seven regions of the country, governed by the Comité de Pilotage de Radios de Proximité (CPRP), a civil society organisation. The independent-sector radio networks are collectively estimated by CPRP officials to cover some 7.6 million people, or about 73% of the population (2005).
Aside from Nigerien radio stations, theBBC's Hausa service is listened to on FM repeaters across wide parts of the country, particularly in the south, close to the border with Nigeria.Radio France Internationalealso rebroadcasts in French through some of the commercial stations, via satellite. Tenere FM also runs a national independent television station of the same name.
Despite relative freedom at the national level, Nigerienjournalistssay they are often pressured by local authorities.The state ORTN network depends financially on the government, partly through a surcharge on electricity bills, and partly through direct subsidy. The sector is governed by theConseil Supérieur de Communications, established as an independent body in the early 1990s, since 2007 headed byDaouda Diallo. International human rights groups have criticised the government since at least 1996 as using regulation and police to punish criticism of the state.
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