Central Europe

Central Europeis a geographical region ofEuropebetweenEastern,Southern,WesternandNorthernEurope.Central Europe is known for its cultural diversity;however, countries in this region also shares historical and cultural similarities.
Whilst the region is variously defined, it often includesAustria,Croatia, theCzech Republic,Germany,Hungary,Liechtenstein,Lithuania,Poland,Slovakia,Slovenia,SwitzerlandandRomania's western region ofTransylvania.From the early 16th centuryuntil the early 18th century,parts of present-day Croatia and Hungary were underOttomanrule. During the 17th century, the empire also occupied southern parts of present-day Slovakia.During the Early Modern period, the territories of Poland and Lithuania were part of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Meanwhile, theArchduchy of Austria, theKingdom of Bohemia(Czech Republic), theDuchy of Carniola(part of present-day Slovenia), the variousGerman Principalitiesand theOld Swiss Confederacywere within theHoly Roman Empire. By the end of the 18th century, theHabsburg monarchy, a prominent power within the Holy Roman Empire, came to reign over the territories of Austria,Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia and Slovenia, alongside parts ofSerbia, Germany,Italy, Poland and Switzerland.
Since theCold Warthe countries that make up Central Europe have historically been, and in some cases continue to be,divided into either Eastern or Western Europe.After World War II, Europe was divided by theIron Curtaininto two parts, thecapitalistWestern Blocand thesocialistEastern Bloc, although Austria, Switzerland andYugoslavia(encompassing the territories of present-day Croatia, Slovenia and various otherBalkansnations) declared neutrality. TheBerlin Wallwas one of the most visible symbols of this division.Respectively, countries in Central Europe have historical, cultural andgeopoliticalties with these wider regions of Europe.
Central Europe began a "strategic awakening" in the late 20th and early 21st century,with initiatives such as theCentral European Defence Cooperation, theCentral European Initiative,Centrope, and theVisegrád Four Group. This awakening was accelerated by writers and other intellectuals, who recognized the societal paralysis of decaying dictatorships and felt compelled to speak up againstSovietoppression.
In the early Middle Ages, Central Europe had a diverse landscape, with various ethnic groups inhabiting the region.Germanic tribes, among them theFranks,AlemansandBavarians, were predominantly situated in the west, whileSlavic tribeswere predominantly in the east.However, the region encompassed a wide spectrum of additional tribes and communities.
From the late 6th century to the early 9th century, the area roughly corresponding to theCarpathian Basinwas part of the Avar Khaganate, the realm of thePannonian Avars.While the Avars dominated the east of what is now Austria, its north and south were under Germanic and Slavic influence, respectively.Meanwhile, the territories now comprising Germany and Switzerland were under the influence of theMerovingian dynasty, and later theCarolingian dynasty.Various Slavic tribes that inhabited eastern Central Europe established settlements during this period, primarily in present-day Croatia, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia.The territory of Lithuania was inhabited byBaltictribes. Amongst them were theSamogitians,AukštaitiansandCuronians.
TheHoly Roman Empirewas founded at the turn of the 9th century, following the coronation ofCharlemagnebyPope Leo III.At its inception, it incorporated present-day Germany and nearby regions, including parts of what is now Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovenia and Switzerland. Three decades later,Great Moravia, centred in present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia, became one of the first West Slavic states to be founded in Central Europe. In the late 9th Century, theHungarian tribes, originating inNorthandCentral Asia,settled in the Carpathian Basin and established thePrincipality of Hungary.
The earliest recorded concept of Europe as a cultural sphere (instead of simply a geographic term) was formed byAlcuin of Yorkin the late 8th century during theCarolingian Renaissance, limited to the territories that practisedWestern Christianityat the time. "European" as a cultural term did not include much of the territories where the Orthodox Church represented the dominant religion until the 19th century.
Following the Christianization of various Central European countries, elements of cultural unity emerged within the region, specificallyCatholicismandLatin. Eastern Europe remainedEastern Orthodox, and was dominated byByzantinecultural influence. After theEast–West Schismin 1054, significant parts of Eastern Europe developed cultural unity and resistance to Catholic Western and Central Europe within the framework of theEastern Orthodox Church,Church Slavoniclanguage and theCyrillic alphabet.
According to historianJenő Szűcs, at the end of the first millennium Central Europe became influenced by Western European developments. Szűcs argued that between the 11th and 15th centuries, not only did Christianization influence the cultures within Central Europe, but well-defined social features were also implemented in the region based on Western characteristics. The keyword of Western social development after the turn of the millennium was the spread ofMagdeburg rightsin some cities and towns of Western Europe. These began to spread in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries, bringing about self-governments of towns and counties.
In 1335, theKings of Poland,BohemiaandHungary and Croatiamet in the castle ofVisegrádand agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce, inspiring the post-Cold WarVisegrád Group.
In 1386,Jogaila, theGrand Duke of Lithuania, converted to Christianity (specifically Catholicism) and subsequently became King of Poland through marriage toQueen Jadwiga of Poland. This initiated theChristianization of Lithuania. It also resulted in theUnion of Krewo, signifying a personal union between theGrand Duchy of Lithuaniaand the Kingdom of Poland. The union commenced an enduring political alliance between the two entities and laid the foundations for the later establishment of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569.
Between the 15th and early 16th centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia, which was at the time inpersonal unionwith the Kingdom of Hungary, served as a significant maritime gateway of Central Europe, with its ports facilitating key trade routes between Central Europe and the Mediterranean.TheRepublic of Ragusaemerged as a prominent hub for cultural exchange during this time.Following the Ottoman and Habsburg wars of the 16th and 17th centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia,under Habsburg rule, began to regain its position as a significant trade route, restoring ports and revitalising commercial activity.
Before 1870, the industrialization that had started to develop in Northwestern and Central Europe and the United States did not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world. Even inEastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind.Russia, for example, remained largely rural and agricultural, and its autocratic rulers kept the peasants in serfdom.The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century,but it developed further and became an object of intensive interest towards the 20th century. However, the first concept mixed science, politics, and economy – it was strictly connected with the aspirations of German states to dominate a part of European continent calledMitteleuropa. At theFrankfurt Parliament, which was established in the wake of theMarch Revolutionof 1848, there were multiple competing ideas for the integration of German-speaking areas, including themitteleuropäische Lösung(Central European Solution) propagated by Austria, which sought to merge the smaller German-speaking states with the multi-ethnic Habsburg Empire, but was opposed by Prussia and others. An imperialistic idea ofMitteleuropaalso became popular in theGerman Empireestablished in 1871, which experienced intensive economic growth. The term was used when theUnion of German Railway Administrationsestablished theMitteleuropäische Eisenbahn-Zeit(Central European Railway Time)time zone, which was applied by the railways from 1 June 1891 and was later widely adopted in civilian life, thus the time zone name shortened to the present-dayCentral European Time.
The German term denoting Central Europe was so fashionable that other languages started referring to it when indicating territories fromRhinetoVistula, or evenDnieper, and from theBaltic Seato theBalkans.An example of this vision of Central Europe may be seen inJoseph Partsch's book of 1903.
On 21 January 1904,Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein(Central European Economic Association) was established inBerlinwith economic integration of Germany and Austria (with eventual extension to Switzerland,Belgiumand theNetherlands) as its main aim. Another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic, and cultural domination. The "bible" of the concept wasFriedrich Naumann's bookMitteleuropain which he called for an economic federation to be established after World War I. Naumann's proposed a federation with Germany and the Habsburg empire as its centre, eventually uniting all external European nations through economic prosperity.The concept failed after the German defeat inWorld War I.The revival of the idea may be observed during theHitler era.
Theinterwar period(1918–1938) brought a new geopolitical system, as well as economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took on a different character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part – particularly to the countries that had (re)appeared on the map of Europe. Central Europe ceased to be the area of German aspiration to lead or dominate and became a territory of various integration movements aiming at resolving political, economic, and national problems of "new" states, being a way to face German and Soviet pressures. However, the conflict of interests was too big and neitherLittle EntentenorIntermarium(Międzymorze) ideas succeeded. Hungarian historian Ádám Magda wrote in her studyVersailles System and Central Europe(2006): "Today we know that the bane of Central Europe was theLittle Entente, military alliance ofCzechoslovakia, Romania andKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes(later Yugoslavia), created in 1921 not for Central Europe's cooperation nor to fight German expansion, but in a wrong perceived notion that a completely powerless Hungary must be kept down".Theevents preceding World War II in Europe—including the so-calledWestern betrayal/Munich Agreementwere very much enabled by the rising nationalism and ethnocentrism that typified that period.
The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe. Before World War I, it embraced mainly German-speaking states, with non-German speaking territories being an area of intended German penetration and domination – German leadership was to be the 'natural' result of economic dominance.Post-war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept. At that time the scientists took an interest in the idea: the International Historical Congress inBrusselsin 1923 was committed to Central Europe, and the 1933 Congress continued the discussions.
According toEmmanuel de Martonne, in 1927, Central Europe encompassed Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Switzerland, northern Italy and northern Yugoslavia. The author uses both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe, but he doesn't take into account the legal development or the social, cultural, economic, and infrastructural developments in these countries.
The avant-garde movements of Central Europe contributed to the evolution of modernism, reaching its peak throughout the continent during the 1920s. TheSourcebook of Central European avantgards(Los Angeles County Museum of Art) contains primary documents of the avant-gardes in the territories of Austria, Germany, Poland (including western parts of present-dayBelarusandUkraine, and southern parts of Lithuania), Czechoslovakia (including the Czech Republic and Slovakia), Hungary, Romania and Yugoslavia (including present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia,Montenegro,North Macedonia,Serbiaand Slovenia) from 1910 to 1930.
With thedissolution of the Holy Roman Empirearound 1800, there was a consolidation of power among theHabsburgsandHohenzollernsas the two major states in the area. They had much in common and occasionally cooperated in various channels, but more often competed. One approach in the various attempts at cooperation, was the conception of a set of supposed common features and interests, and this idea led to the first discussions of aMitteleuropain the mid-nineteenth century, as espoused byFriedrich ListandKarl Ludwig Bruck. These were mostly based on economic issues.
Mitteleuropamay refer to a historical concept or a contemporary German definition of Central Europe. As a historical concept, the German termMitteleuropa(or alternatively its literal translation into English,Middle Europe) is an ambiguous German concept.According toFritz FischerMitteleuropawas a scheme in the era of theReich of 1871–1918by which the old imperial elites had allegedly sought to build a system of German economic, military and political domination from the northern seas to the Near East and from the Low Countries through the steppes of Russia to the Caucasus.Later on, professor Fritz Epstein argued the threat of a Slavic "Drang nach Westen" (Western expansion) had been a major factor in the emergence of aMitteleuropaideology before the Reich of 1871 ever came into being.
In Germany the connotation was also sometimes linked to the pre-war German provinces east of theOder-Neisse line.
The term "Mitteleuropa" conjures up negative historical associations among some people, although the Germans have not played an exclusively negative role in the region.Most Central European Jews embraced the enlightened German humanistic culture of the 19th century.Jews of turn of the 20th century Central Europe became representatives of what many consider to be Central European culture at its best, though the Nazi conceptualisation of "Mitteleuropa" sought to destroy this culture.The term "Mitteleuropa" is widely used in German education and media without negative meaning, especially since the end of communism. Many people from thenew states of Germanydo not identify themselves as being part of Western Europe and therefore prefer the term "Mitteleuropa".
During World War II, Central Europe was largely occupied by Nazi Germany. Many areas were a battle area and were devastated. The mass murder of the Jews depopulated many of their centuries-old settlement areas or settled other people there and their culture was wiped out. BothAdolf HitlerandJoseph Stalindiametrically opposed the centuries-old Habsburg principles of "live and let live" with regard to ethnic groups, peoples, minorities, religions, cultures and languages and tried to assert their own ideologies and power interests in Central Europe.There were various Allied plans for state order in Central Europe for post-war. While Stalin tried to get as many states under his control as possible,Winston Churchillpreferred a Central European Danube Confederation to counter these countries against Germany and Russia. There were also plans to add Bavaria and Württemberg to an enlarged Austria.There were also various resistance movements aroundOtto von Habsburgthat pursued this goal. The group around the Austrian priestHeinrich Maieralso planned in this direction, which also successfully helped the Allies to wage war by, among other things, forwarding production sites and plans forV-2 rockets,Tiger tanksand aircraft to the USA.Otto von Habsburg tried to relieve Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and northern Yugoslavia (particularly the territories of present-day Croatia and Slovenia) from Nazi German, and Soviet, influence and control.There were various considerations to prevent German and Soviet power in Europe after the war. Churchill's idea of reaching the area around Vienna before the Russians via an operation from the Adriatic had not been approved by the Western Allied chiefs of staff.As a result of the military situation at the end of the war, Stalin's plans prevailed and much of Central Europe came under Russian control.
FollowingWorld War II, parts of Central Europe became part of theEastern Bloc. The boundary between the two blocks was called theIron Curtain. Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia remained neutral.
The post-World War II period brought blocking of research on Central Europe in theEastern Bloccountries, as its every result proved the dissimilarity of Central Europe, which was inconsistent with theStalinistdoctrine. On the other hand, the topic became popular in Western Europe and the United States, much of the research being carried out by immigrants from Central Europe.Following theFall of Communism, publicists and historians in Central Europe, especially the anti-communist opposition, returned to their research.
According to Karl A. Sinnhuber (Central Europe: Mitteleuropa: Europe Centrale: An Analysis of a Geographical Term)most Central European states were unable to preserve their political independence and becameSoviet satellites. Besides Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia, only the marginal European states ofCyprus,Finland,Maltaand Sweden preserved their political sovereignty to a certain degree, being left out of any military alliances in Europe.
The opening of theIron Curtainbetween Austria and Hungary at thePan-European Picnicon 19 August 1989 then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer anEast Germanyand the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated.It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. After the picnic, which was based on an idea byOtto von Habsburgto test the reaction of the USSR and Mikhail Gorbachev to an opening of the border, tens of thousands of media-informed East Germans set off for Hungary.The leadership of the GDR in East Berlin did not dare to completely block the borders of their own country and the USSR did not respond at all. 
This broke the bracket of the Eastern Bloc and Central Europe subsequently became free from communism.
According to American professorRonald Tiersky, the 1991 summit held inVisegrádattended by theCzechoslovak, Hungarian and Polish presidents was hailed at the time as a major breakthrough in Central European cooperation, but theVisegrád Groupbecame a vehicle for coordinating Central Europe's road to the European Union, while development of closer ties within the region languished.
American professorPeter J. Katzensteindescribed Central Europe as a way station in a Europeanization process that marks the transformation process of theVisegrád Groupcountries in different, though comparable ways.According to him, in Germany's contemporary public discourse "Central European identity" refers to the civilizational divide between Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.He argued that there is no precise way to define Central Europe and that the region may even include Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia and Serbia.
The issue of how to name and define the Central European area is subject to debates. Very often, the definition depends on the nationality and historical perspective of its author. The concept of "Central Europe" appeared in the 19th century. It was understood as a contact zone between the Southern and Northern areas, and later the Eastern and Western areas of Europe. Thinkers portrayed "Central Europe" either as a separate region, or a buffer zone between these regions.
In the early nineteenth century, the terms "Middle" or "Central" Europe (known as "Mitteleuropa" in German and "Europe centrale" in French) were introduced in geographical scholarship in both German and French languages. At first, these terms were linked to the regions spanning from the Pyrenees to the Danube, which, according to German authors, could be united under German authority. However, after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the French began to exclude France from this area, and later the Germans also adopted this perspective by the end of World War I.
The concept of "Central" or "Middle Europe", understood as a region with German influence, lost a significant part of its popularity after WWI and was completely dismissed after WWII. Two defeats of Germany in the world wars, combined with the division of Germany, an almost complete disappearance of German-speaking communities in these countries, and the Communist-led isolation of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland and Yugoslavia from the Western world, turned the concept of "Central/Middle Europe" into an anachronism. On the other side, the non-German areas of Central Europe were almost universally regarded as "Eastern European" primarily associated with the Soviet sphere of influence in the late 1940s–1980s.
For the most part, this geographical framework lost its attraction after the end of the Cold War. A number of Post-Communist countries rather re-branded themselves in the 1990s as "Central European.", while avoiding the stained wording of "Middle Europe," which they associated with German influence in the region. This reinvented concept of "Central Europe" excluded Germany, Austria and Switzerland, reducing its coverage chiefly to Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Lithuania and Yugoslavia.
The main proposed regional definitions, gathered by Polish historianJerzy Kłoczowski, include:
Former University of Vienna professor Lonnie R. Johnson points out criteria to distinguish Central Europe from Western, Northern, Eastern and Southern Europe:
He also thinks that Central Europe is a dynamic historical concept, not a static spatial one. For example, a fair share ofBelarusandRight-bank Ukraineare in Eastern Europe today, but 240 years ago they were in thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.Johnson's study on Central Europe received acclaim and positive reviews in the scientific community.However, according to Romanian researcherMaria Bucur, this very ambitious project suffers from the weaknesses imposed by its scope (almost 1600 years of history).
The World Factbookdefines Central Europe as: Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland.The Columbia Encyclopediaincludes: Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland. While it does not have a single article defining Central Europe,Encyclopædia Britannicaincludes the following countries in Central Europe in one or more of its articles: Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina,Croatia,the Czech Republic, Germany,Hungary, Lithuania,Poland, Romania,Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland.
The German EncyclopaediaMeyers Grosses Taschenlexikon(Meyers Big Pocket Encyclopedia), 1999, defines Central Europe as the central part of Europe with no precise borders to the East and West. The term is mostly used to denominate the territory between theScheldetoVistulaand from theDanubeto theMoravian Gate.
According toMeyers Enzyklopädisches Lexikon,Central Europe is a part of Europe composed of Austria,Belgium, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany, Hungary,Luxembourg,Netherlands, Poland,Romaniaand Switzerland, and northern marginal regions of Italy and Yugoslavia (northern states –CroatiaandSlovenia), as well as northeastern France.
The GermanStändige Ausschuss für geographische Namen(Standing Committee on Geographical Names), which develops and recommends rules for the uniform use of geographical names, proposes two sets of boundaries. The first follows international borders of current countries. The second subdivides and includes some countries based on cultural criteria. In comparison to some other definitions, it is broader, including Luxembourg, Estonia, Latvia, and in the second sense, parts of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Italy, and France.
TheFrenchEncyclopédie Laroussedefines Central Europe as a region comprising Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Liechtenstein, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland.
There is no general agreement either on what geographic area constitutes Central Europe, nor on how to further subdivide it geographically.
At times, the term "Central Europe" denotes a geographic definition as theDanuberegion in the heart of the continent, including the language and culture areas which are today included in the states of Austria,Bosnia and Herzegovina,Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary,Moldova, Poland, Romania,Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia,Ukraineand usually also Germany.
The terminology EU11 countries refer the Central,EasternandBaltic Europeanmember states which accessed in 2004 and after: in 2004 Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia; in 2007 Bulgaria, Romania; and in 2013 Croatia.
The EU-fundedInterregregion "Central Europe" includes the following countries and regions:
TheCentral European Free Trade Agreementincludes the following countries:
The choice of states that make upCentral Europeis an ongoing source of controversy.Although views on which countries belong to Central Europe are vastly varied, according to many sources (see sectionDefinitions) the region includes some or all of the states listed in the sections below:
Depending on the context, Central European countries are sometimes not seen as a specific group, but sorted as either Eastern or Western European countries.In this case Austria, Germany, Liechtenstein and Switzerland are often placed in Western Europe, while Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia are placed in Eastern Europe.
Croatia is alternatively placed in Southeastern Europe.Additionally, Hungaryand Sloveniaare sometimes included in the region.
Lithuania is alternatively placed in Northeastern Europe.
Some sources also add regions of neighbouring countries for historical reasons, or based on geographical and/or cultural reasons:
Geography defines Central Europe's natural borders with the neighbouring regions to the north across theBaltic Sea, namely Northern Europe (orScandinavia), and to the south across theAlps, theApennine peninsula(or Italy), and theBalkan peninsulaacross theSoča–Krka–Sava–Danube line. The borders to Western Europe and Eastern Europe are geographically less defined, and for this reason theculturaland historical boundaries migrate more easily west–east than south–north.
Southwards, thePannonian Plainis bounded by the riversSavaandDanube– and their respective floodplains.ThePannonian Plainstretches over the following countries:Austria,Croatia,Hungary,Romania,Serbia,SlovakiaandSlovenia, and touches borders ofBosnia and HerzegovinaandUkraine("peri- Pannonian states").
South of theEastern Alps(spanning Austria, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Slovenia and Switzerland),theDinaric Alpsextend for 650 kilometres along the coast of theAdriatic Sea(northwest-southeast), from theJulian Alpsin the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, north–south. According to theFreie Universität Berlin, thismountain chainis classified asSouth Central European.The city ofTriestein this area, for example, expressly sees itself as acittà mitteleuropea. This is particularly because it lies at the interface between theLatin,Slavic,Germanic,GreekandJewish cultureon the one hand and the geographical area of theMediterraneanand theAlpson the other. A geographical and cultural assignment is made.
The Central Europeanflora regionstretches from Central France (theMassif Central) to the NorthernBalkans, CentralRomania(Carpathians) and SouthernScandinavia.
Central Europe is one of the continent's most populous regions. It includes countries of varied sizes, ranging from tiny Liechtenstein to Germany, the second largest European country by population. Demographic figures for countries entirely located within notion of Central Europe ("the core countries") number around 173 million people, out of which around 82 million are residents of Germany.Other populations include: Poland with around 38.5 million residents,Czech Republic at 10.5 million,Hungary at 10 million,Austria with 8.8 million, Switzerland with 8.5 million,Slovakia at 5.4 million,Croatia with 4.3 million,Lithuania with 2.9 million, Slovenia with 2.1 millionand Liechtenstein at a bit less than 40,000.
If the countries which are sometimes also included in Central Europe were counted in, partially or in whole – Romania (20 million), Latvia (2 million), Estonia (1.3 million), Serbia (7.1 million)– this would contribute around an additional 30.4 million, although this figure would vary depending on whether a regional or integral approach is used.If smaller, western and eastern historical parts of Central Europe would be included in the demographic corpus, a further 20 million people of different nationalities would also be added in the overall count, surpassing a total of 200 million people.
Currently, the members of theEurozoneinclude Austria, Croatia, Germany, Lithuania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. The Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland use their own currencies (koruna,forint,Polish złoty, respectively), but are obliged to adopt the Euro. Switzerland uses its own currency (Swiss franc), as does Serbia (dinar) and Romania (Romanian leu).
In 2018, Switzerland topped the HDI list among Central European countries, also ranking No. 2 in the world. Serbia rounded out the list at No. 11 (67 world).
Theindex of globalizationin Central European countries (2016 data):Switzerland topped this list as well (#1 world).
Legatum Prosperity Indexdemonstrates an average and high level of prosperity in Central Europe (2018 data).Switzerland topped the index (#4 world).
Most countries in Central Europe tend to score above the average in theCorruption Perceptions Index(2018 data),led by Switzerland, Germany, and Austria.
Central Europe contains the continent's earliest railway systems, whose greatest expansion was recorded in Austrian, Czech,German, Hungarian and Swiss territories between 1860-1870s.By the mid-19th century Berlin, Vienna,Zurich,PestandPraguewere focal points for network lines connecting industrial areas ofSaxony,Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia and Lower Austria with the Baltic (Kiel,Szczecin) and Adriatic (Rijeka, Trieste).By 1913, the combined length of the railway tracks of Austria and Hungary reached 43,280 kilometres (26,890 miles). By 1936, 70% of theSwiss Federal Railwaynetwork had undergone electrification.
Rail infrastructure in Central Europe remains the densest in the world. Railway density as of 2022, with total length of lines operated (km) per 1,000 km2, from highest to lowest is Switzerland (129.2), the Czech Republic (120.7), Germany (108.8), Hungary (85.0), Slovakia (74.0), Austria (66.5), Poland (61.9), Slovenia (59.6), Serbia (49.2), Croatia (46.3) and Lithuania (29.4).
Before the first railroads appeared in the 1840s, river transport constituted the main means of communication and trade.Earliest canals included Plauen Canal (1745), Finow Canal, and alsoBega Canal(1710) which connectedTimișoaratoNovi SadandBelgradevia the Danube.The most significant achievement in this regard was the facilitation of navigability on the Danube from theBlack seatoUlmin the 19th century.
The economies of Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland tend to demonstratehigh complexity. Industrialisation reached Central Europe relatively early beginning with Germany and theCzech landsnear the end of the 18th century.
The industrialization of the cities of Romaniaand Serbiastarted in theinterwar period, and did not make significant progress until the post ww2 era.
Central European countries are some of the most significant food producers in the world. Germany is the world's largesthopsproducer with 34.27% share in 2010,3rd largest producer ofryeandbarley, 5th rapeseed producer, 6th largest milk producer, and 5th largest potato producer.Poland is the world's largesttriticaleproducer, 2nd largest producer of raspberries,currants, 3rd largest of rye, the 5th apple andbuckwheatproducer, and 7th largest producer of potatoes.The Czech Republic is the world's 4th largest hops producer and 8th producer of triticale.Slovenia is one of the world's leading producers of honeyand the world's 6th largest hops producer.Hungary is world's 5th hops and 7th largest triticale producer.Serbia is the world's 2nd largest producer ofplumsand 2nd largest producer ofraspberries.
Central European business has a regional organisation, Central European Business Association (CEBA), founded in 1996 in New York as a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting business opportunities within Central Europe and supporting the advancement of professionals in America with a Central European background.
Central European countries, especially Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany and Switzerland are some of the most competitive tourism destinations.
Student performance has varied across Central Europe, according to theProgramme for International Student Assessment. In the 2012 study, countries scored medium, below or over the average scores in three fields studied.
The first university established east of France and north of the Alps was inPraguein 1348 byCharles IV, Holy Roman Emperor. TheCharles Universitywas modeled upon theUniversity of Parisand initially included the faculty of law, medicine, philosophy, and theology.
In 1991,Ernest Gellnerproposed the establishment of a truly Central European institution of higher learning in Prague (1991–1995).Eventually, theCentral European University(CEU) project was taken on and financially supported by the Hungarian philanthropistGeorge Soros, who had provided an endowment of US$880 million, making the university one of the wealthiest in Europe.Over its 30-year history CEU has become one of the most internationally diverse and recognisable universities in the world. For example, as of 2019, 1217 students were enrolled in the university, of which 962 were international students, making the student body the fourth most international in the world.CEU offers highly selective programs with a student to faculty ratio of 7:1.In 2021, the admission rate into its programs was 13%.CEU has thus become a leading global university in Europe promoting a distinctively Central European perspective while emphasizing academic rigor, applied research, and academic honesty and integrity.CEU is a founding member of CIVICCA, a group of prestigious European higher education institutions in the social sciences, humanities, business management and public policy, such asSciences Po(France),The London School of Economics and Political Science(UK),Bocconi University(Italy) and theStockholm School of Economics(Sweden).In 2019, Central European University leadership announced their preparatory work on moving CEU to Vienna due to legal constraints against academic freedom in Hungary.
Research centres of Central European literature includeHarvard University(Cambridge, MA),Purdue University,and Central European Studies Programme (CESP),Masaryk University,Brno, Czech Republic.
Central European countries are mostlyCatholic(Austria, Croatia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia) or historically both Catholic andProtestant(theCzech Republic, Germany, Hungary and Switzerland). Large Protestant groups includeLutheran,Calvinist, and theUnity of the Brethrenaffiliates. Significant populations ofEastern CatholicismandOld Catholicismare also prevalent throughout Central Europe.OrthodoxChristianity is a minority denomination observed to varying extents across Central Europe.
Central Europe has been the center of theProtestantmovement for centuries, with the majority of Protestants suppressed and annihilated during theCounterreformation.
Historically, people inBohemiain today's Czech Republic were some of the first Protestants in Europe. As a result of theThirty Years' Warfollowing theBohemian Revolt, manyCzechswere either killed, executed (see forOld Town Square execution), forcibly turned into Roman Catholics, or emigrated toScandinaviaand theLow Countries. In the aftermath of theThirty Years' War, the number of inhabitants in theKingdom of Bohemiadecreased from three million to only 800,000 due to multiple factors, including devastating ongoing battles such as the significantBattle of White Mountainand theBattle of Prague (1648). However, in recent years, most Czechs report as overwhelmingly non-religious, with some describing themselves as Catholic (10.3%).
Before theHolocaust(1941–45), there was also a sizeableAshkenazi Jewishcommunity in the region, numbering approximately 16.7 million people.Poland, Lithuania and Hungary had the largest Jewish populations in Europe as a percentage of their total populations, with Jews constituting 9.5% of the Polish population in 1933.
Certain countries in Central Europe, particularly the Czech Republic, Germany and Switzerland have sizeableatheistandnon-religiouspopulations. In 2021, 48% of the Czech population declared that they had no religion.In 2022, 43.8% of the German population declared that they had no religion.Meanwhile, 33.5% of the Swiss population stated that they were not affiliated with any religion.
Central European cuisinehas evolved over centuries due to social and political change and is generally diverse. However, the national cuisines of western Central Europe share notable similarities, as do the cuisines of eastern Central Europe. Sausages, salamis and cheeses are popular in most of Central Europe, with the earliest evidence of cheesemaking in the archaeological record dates back to 5,500 BCE (Kuyaviaregion, Poland).Other popular food items in Central Europe include soups, stews, pickled and fermented vegetables.Schnitzel,goulashandcabbage rollsare popular in the region.
Another common feature among Central European cuisines, particularly Austrian, Croatian, Lithuanian, Slovenian and Swiss cuisine, is the use of wild ingredients in traditional dishes, spanning from wild herbs to mushrooms and berries. Beer consumption is also prominent in parts of Central Europe, where the Czech Republic has the highestbeer consumption per capitaglobally, followed by Austria, with Germany coming 4th. The cuisines of Central European countries that are included in broader definitions of Eastern Europe share similarities and traditions with other Eastern European cuisines. This is particularly evident in the cuisines of Lithuania and Poland, which feature dishes likeborscht,pierogiandsour rye soup.
Generally, the countries in the region have been progressive on the issue of human rights: death penalty is illegal in all of them, corporal punishment is outlawed in most of them and people of both genders can vote in elections. However, Central European countries are divided on the subject ofsame-sex marriageand abortion. Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Poland also have a history of participation in the CIA's extraordinary rendition and detention program, according to theOpen Society Foundations.
Regional writing tradition revolves around the turbulent history of the region, as well as its cultural diversity.Its existence is sometimes challenged.Specific courses on Central European literature are taught atStanford University,Harvard UniversityandJagiellonian Universityas well as cultural magazines dedicated to regional literature.Angelus Central European Literature Award is an award worth 150,000.00 PLN (about $50,000 or £30,000) for writers originating from the region.Likewise, theVilenica International Literary Prizeis awarded to a Central European author for "outstanding achievements in the field of literature and essay writing".
There is a number of Central European Sport events and leagues. They include:
Football is one of the most popular sports. Countries of Central Europe hosted several major competitions. Germany hosted two FIFA World Cups (1974and2006) and two UEFA European Championships (1988and2024). Yugoslavia hosted theUEFA Euro 1976before the competition expanded to 8 teams. Recently, the2008and2012UEFA European Championshipswere held in Austria & Switzerland and Poland & Ukraine respectively.
Central Europe is a birthplace of regional political organisations:
Central Europe is a home to some of world's oldest democracies. However, most of them have been impacted bytotalitarianism, particularlyFascismandNazism. Germany and Italy occupied all Central European countries, except Switzerland. In all occupied countries, theAxis powerssuspended democracy and installed puppet regimes loyal to the occupation forces. Also, they forced conquered countries to apply racial laws and formed military forces for helping German and Italian struggle against Communists. AfterWorld War II, almost the whole of Central Europe (the Eastern and Middle part) had been transformed intocommunist states, most of which had been occupied and later allied with theSoviet Union, often against their will through forged referendum (e.g.,Polish people's referendum in 1946) or force (northeast Germany, Poland, Hungary et alia). Nevertheless, these experiences have been dealt in most of them. Most of Central European countries score very highly in theDemocracy Index.
In spite of its turbulent history, Central Europe is currently one of world's safest regions. Most Central European countries are in top 20%.
The time zone is a standard time which is 1 hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. Countries using CET include:
Central Europe is mentioned in the 35th episode ofLovejoy, entitled "The Prague Sun", filmed in 1992. While walking over the well-regarded and renownedCharles Bridgein Prague, the main character, Lovejoy, says: "I've never been to Prague before. Well, it is one of the great unspoiled cities in Central Europe. Notice: I said: 'Central', not 'Eastern'! TheCzechsare a bit funny about that, they think of Eastern Europeans asturnip heads."
Wes Anderson's Oscar-winning filmThe Grand Budapest Hoteldepicts a fictional grand hotel located somewhere in Central Europe which is in actuality modeled on theGrandhotel PuppinKarlovy Varyin theCzech Republic. The film is a celebration of the 1920s and 1930s Central Europe with its artistic splendor and societal sensibilities.