Africa

Africais the world's second-largest and second-most populouscontinentafterAsia. At about 30.3 million km(11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% ofEarth's land area and 6% of its total surface area.With nearly 1.4 billion people as of 2021, it accounts for about18% of the world'shuman population. Africa's population is the youngest among all the continents;themedianage in 2012 was 19.7, when the worldwide median age was 30.4.Based on 2024 projections, Africa's population will reach 3.8 billion people by 2099.Africa is the least wealthy inhabited continentper capitaand second-least wealthy by total wealth, ahead ofOceania. Scholars have attributed this to different factors includinggeography,climate,corruption,colonialism, theCold War,andneocolonialism. Despite this low concentration of wealth, recent economic expansion and a large and young population make Africa an important economic market in the broader global context. Africa has a large quantity ofnatural resourcesand food resources, includingdiamonds,sugar,salt,gold,iron,cobalt,uranium,copper,bauxite,silver,petroleum,natural gas,cocoa beans, andtropical fruit.
The continent is surrounded by theMediterranean Seato the north, theArabian Plateand theGulf of Aqabato the northeast, theIndian Oceanto the southeast and theAtlantic Oceanto the west. The continent includesMadagascarand variousarchipelagos. It contains54 fully recognised sovereign states, eightcities and islands that are part of non-African states, and twode factoindependentstates with limited or no recognition. This count does not includeMaltaandSicily, which are geologically part of the African continent.Algeriais Africa's largest country by area, andNigeriais its largest by population. African nations cooperate through the establishment of theAfrican Union, which is headquartered inAddis Ababa.
Africa straddles theequatorand theprime meridian. It is the only continent to stretch from the northerntemperateto the southern temperate zones.The majority of the continent and its countries are in theNorthern Hemisphere, with a substantial portion and a number of countries in theSouthern Hemisphere. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, except for a large part ofWestern Sahara,Algeria,LibyaandEgypt, the northern tip ofMauritania, and the entire territories ofMoroccoandTunisia, which in turn are located above thetropic of Cancer, in thenorthern temperate zone. In the other extreme of the continent, southernNamibia, southernBotswana, great parts ofSouth Africa, the entire territories ofLesothoandEswatiniand the southern tips ofMozambiqueand Madagascar are located below thetropic of Capricorn, in thesouthern temperate zone.
Africa is highlybiodiverse;it is the continent with the largest number ofmegafaunaspecies, as it was least affected by theextinction of the Pleistocene megafauna. However, Africa is alsoheavily affected by a wide range of environmental issues, including desertification, deforestation,water scarcity, andpollution. These entrenched environmental concerns are expected to worsen asclimate change impacts Africa. The UNIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Changehas identified Africa as the continent mostvulnerable to climate change.
Thehistory of Africais long, complex, and varied, and has often been under-appreciated by the globalhistorical community.InAfrican societiestheoral wordis revered, and they have generally recorded their history viaoral tradition, which has ledanthropologiststo term themoral civilisations,contrasted withliterate civilisationswhich pride thewritten word.During thecolonial period, oral sources were deprecated by European historians, which gave them the impression Africa had no recorded history.African historiographybecame organized at the academic level in the mid-20th century, and saw a movement towards utilising oral sources in a multidisciplinary approach, culminating in theGeneral History of Africa, edited by specialists from across the continent.
Africa, particularlyEastern Africa, is widely accepted to be the place of origin of humans and theHominidaeclade, also known as thegreat apes. The earliesthominidsand their ancestors have been dated to around 7 million years ago, andHomo sapiens(modern human) are believed to have originated in Africa 350,000 to 260,000 years ago.Africa is also considered by anthropologists to be the most genetically diverse continent as a result of being the longest inhabited.In the 4th and 3rd millennia BCAncient Egypt,Kerma,Punt, and theTichitt Traditionemerged inNorth,EastandWest Africa, while from 4000 BC until 1000 AD theBantu expansionwas substantial in laying the foundations for societies and states inCentral,East, andSouthern Africa. SomeAfrican empiresincludeWagadu,Mali,Songhai,Sokoto,Ife,Benin,Asante, theFatimids,Almoravids,Almohads,Ayyubids,Mamluks,Kongo,Mwene Muji,Luba,Lunda,Kitara,Aksum,Ethiopia,Adal,Ajuran,Kilwa,Sakalava,Imerina,Maravi,Mutapa,Rozvi,Mthwakazi, andZulu.Slave tradescreated variousdiasporas, especiallyin the Americas. From the late 19th century to early 20th century, driven by theSecond Industrial Revolution, most of Africa wasrapidly conquered and colonisedbyEuropean nations, save forEthiopiaandLiberia.European rule hadsignificant impacts on Africa's societies, and colonies were maintained for the purpose of economic exploitation andextractionof natural resources. Most present states emerged froma process of decolonisationfollowingWorld War II, and established theOrganisation of African Unityin 1963, the predecessor to the African Union.The nascent countries decided to keep their colonial borders, withtraditional power structuresused in governance to varying degrees.
Afriwas aLatinname used to refer to the inhabitants of what was then known asnorthern Africa, located west of theNileriver, and in its widest sense referring to all lands south of theMediterranean, also known asAncient Libya.This name seems to have originally referred to a native Libyan tribe, an ancestor of modernBerbers;seeTerencefor discussion. The name had usually been connected with thePhoenicianwordʿafarmeaning "dust",but a 1981 hypothesishas asserted that it stems from theBerberwordifri(pluralifran) meaning "cave", in reference to cave dwellers.The same wordmay be found in the name of theBanu IfranfromAlgeriaandTripolitania, a Berber tribe originally fromYafran(also known asIfrane) in northwesternLibya,as well as the city ofIfraneinMorocco.
UnderRomanrule,Carthagebecame the capital of the province then namedAfrica Proconsularis, following its defeat of theCarthaginiansin theThird Punic Warin 146 BC, which also included the coastal part of modernLibya.The Latin suffix-icacan sometimes be used to denote a land (e.g., inCelticafromCeltae, as used byJulius Caesar). The later Muslim region ofIfriqiya, following its conquest of theByzantine (Eastern Roman)Empire'sExarchatus Africae, also preserved a form of the name.
According to the Romans, Africa lies to the west of Egypt, while "Asia" was used to refer toAnatoliaand lands to the east. A definite line was drawn between the two continents by the geographerPtolemy(85–165 CE), indicatingAlexandriaalong thePrime Meridianand making theisthmusof Suez and theRed Seathe boundary between Asia and Africa. As Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of "Africa" expanded with their knowledge.
Other etymological hypotheses have been postulated for the ancient name "Africa":
In accordance withAfrican cosmology, African historical consciousness viewed historical change and continuity, order and purpose within the framework of human and their environment, the gods, and their ancestors.In African societies, the historical process is largely acommunalone, with eyewitness accounts,hearsay, reminiscences, and occasionallyvisions, dreams, and hallucinations crafted into narrativeoral traditionswhich are performed and transmitted through generations.In oral traditions time is sometimesmythicaland social, and ancestors were considered historical actors.InAfrican epistemology, the epistemic subject "experiences the epistemic object in a sensuous, emotive, intuitive, abstractive understanding, rather than through abstraction alone, as is the case inWestern epistemology" to arrive at a "complete knowledge", and as such oral traditions,music,proverbs, and the like were used in the preservation and transmission of knowledge.Oral tradition can beexotericoresoteric. It speaks to people according to their understanding, unveiling itself in accordance with their aptitudes.In studying traditions, historians consider the role the mind and memory has in shaping a tradition. The concrete, rather than the abstract, is often remembered as events are condensed and crystallised intoclichésover time.
Africa is considered by mostpaleoanthropologiststo be theoldest inhabited territoryon Earth, with the Human species originating from the continent.During the mid-20th century,anthropologistsdiscovered manyfossilsand evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as seven million years ago (Before present, BP). Fossil remains of several species of early apelike humans thought to haveevolvedinto modern humans, such asAustralopithecus afarensisradiometrically datedto approximately 3.9–3.0 million years BP,Paranthropus boisei(c. 2.3–1.4 million years BP)andHomo ergaster(c. 1.9 million–600,000 years BP) have been discovered.
After the evolution ofHomo sapiensapproximately 350,000 to 260,000 years BP in Africa,the continent was mainly populated by groups ofhunter-gatherers.These first modern humans left Africa and populated the rest of theglobeduring theOut of Africa IImigration dated to approximately 50,000 years BP, exiting the continent either acrossBab-el-Mandebover theRed Sea,theStrait of Gibraltarin Morocco,or theIsthmus of Suezin Egypt.
Other migrations of modern humans within the African continent have been dated to that time, with evidence of early human settlement found in Southern Africa, Southeast Africa, North Africa, and theSahara.
The size of the Sahara has historically been extremely variable, with its area rapidly fluctuating and at times disappearing depending on global climatic conditions.At the end of theIce ages, estimated to have been around 10,500BC, the Sahara had again become a green fertile valley, and its African populations returned from the interior and coastal highlands insub-Saharan Africa, withrock art paintingsdepicting a fertile Sahara and large populations discovered inTassili n'Ajjerdating back perhaps 10 millennia.However, the warming and drying climate meant that by 5,000BC, the Sahara region was becoming increasingly dry and hostile. Around 3500BC, due to a tilt in the Earth'sorbit, the Sahara experienced a period of rapid desertification.The population trekked out of the Sahara region towards the Nile Valley below theSecond Cataractwhere they made permanent or semi-permanent settlements. A major climatic recession occurred, lessening the heavy and persistent rains in Central andEastern Africa. Since this time, dry conditions have prevailed in Eastern Africa and, increasingly during the last 200 years, inEthiopia.
The domestication of cattle in Africa preceded agriculture and seems to have existed alongside hunter-gatherer cultures. It is speculated that by 6,000BC, cattle were domesticated in North Africa.In the Sahara-Nile complex, people domesticated many animals, including the donkey and a small screw-horned goat that was common from Algeria toNubia. Between 10,000 and 9,000BC, pottery was independently invented in the region of Mali in the savannah of West Africa.In thesteppesandsavannahsof the Sahara andSahelin Northern West Africa, people possibly ancestral to modernNilo-SaharanandMandécultures started to collect wildmillet,around 8,000 to 6,000BC. Later,gourds,watermelons,castor beans, andcottonwere also collected.Sorghum was first domesticated in EasternSudanaround 4,000BC, in one of the earliest instances of agriculture in human history. Its cultivation would gradually spread across Africa, before spreading to India around 2000BC.
People around modern-day Mauritania started makingpotteryand built stone settlements (e.g.,Tichitt,Oualata). Fishing, using bone-tippedharpoons, became a major activity in the numerous streams and lakes formed from the increased rains.In West Africa, the wet phase ushered in an expandingrainforestand wooded savanna fromSenegaltoCameroon. Between 9,000 and 5,000BC,Niger–Congo speakersdomesticated theoil palmandraffia palm.Black-eyed peasandvoandzeia(African groundnuts), were domesticated, followed byokraandkola nuts. Since most of the plants grew in the forest, the Niger–Congo speakers invented polished stone axes for clearing forest.
Around 4,000BC, the Saharan climate started to become drier at an exceedingly fast pace.This climate change caused lakes and rivers to shrink significantly and caused increasingdesertification. This, in turn, decreased the amount of land conducive to settlements and encouraged migrations of farming communities to the more tropical climate of West Africa.During the first millennium BC, a reduction in wild grain populations related to changing climate conditions facilitated the expansion of farming communities and the rapid adoption of rice cultivation around the Niger River.
By the first millennium BC,ironworkinghad been introduced in Northern Africa. Around that time it also became established in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, either through independent invention there or diffusion from the northand vanished under unknown circumstances around 500AD, having lasted approximately 2,000 years,and by 500BC, metalworking began to become commonplace in West Africa.Ironworkingwas fully established by roughly 500BC in many areas of East and West Africa, although other regions did not begin ironworking until the early centuries AD. Copper objects fromEgypt, North Africa, Nubia, and Ethiopia dating from around 500BC have been excavated in West Africa, suggesting thatTrans-Saharan tradenetworks had been established by this date.
From 3500BC,nomes(ruled bynomarchs) coalesced to form the kingdoms ofLower EgyptandUpper Egyptinnortheast Africa. Around 3100BCUpper EgyptconqueredLower Egyptto unifyEgyptunder the1st dynasty, with the process of consolidation and assimilation completed by the time of the3rd dynastywho formed theOld Kingdom of Egyptin 2686BC.TheKingdom of Kermaemerged around this time to become the dominant force inNubia, controlling territory as large as Egypt between the 1st and 4thcataracts of the Nile.
The4th dynastyoversaw the height of theOld Kingdom, and constructed manygreat pyramids. Under the6th dynastypower gradually decentralised to the nomarchs, culminating in the disintegration of the kingdom, exacerbated by drought and famine, thus commencing theFirst Intermediate Periodin 2200BC. This shattered state would last until 2055BC when the11th dynasty, based inThebes, conquered the others to form theMiddle Kingdom of Egypt, with the12th dynastyexpanding intoLower Nubiaat the expense ofKerma.In 1700BC, theMiddle Kingdomfractured in two, ushering in theSecond Intermediate Period. TheHyksos, a militaristic people fromPalestine, invaded and conquered Lower Egypt, whileKermacoordinated invasions deep into Egypt to reach its greatest extent.
In 1550BC, the18th dynastyexpelled theHyksos, and established theNew Kingdom of Egypt. Using the advanced military technology theHyksoshad brought, theNew Kingdomconquered theLevantfrom theCanaanites,Mittani,Amorites, andHittites, and extinguishedKerma, incorporatingNubiainto the empire, and sending theEgyptian empireinto its golden age.Internal struggles, drought, famine, and invasions by aconfederation of seafaring peoplescontributed to theNew Kingdom's collapse in 1069BC, commencing theThird Intermediate Period.
Egypt's collapse liberated the more EgyptianisedKingdom of Kushin Nubia, who manoeuvred into power in Upper Egypt and conquered Lower Egypt in 754BC to form theKushite Empire. The Kushites ruled for a century and oversaw arevival in pyramid building, until they weredriven out of Egypt by the Assyriansin 663BC in reprisal for their expansion towards theAssyrian Empire.The Assyrians installed apuppet dynastythat later gained independence and once moreunified Egypt, until they were conquered by theAchaemenid Empirein 525BC.Egypt regained independence under the28th dynastyin 404BC but they were reconquered by theAchaemenidsin 343BC. The conquest ofAchaemenid EgyptbyAlexander the Greatin 332BC marked the beginning ofHellenistic ruleand the installation of theMacedonianPtolemaic dynastyin Egypt.
ThePtolemaicslost their holdings outside of Africa to theSeleucidsin theSyrian Wars, expanded intoCyrenaicaand subjugatedKushin the 3rd century BC. In the 1st century BC,Ptolemaic Egyptbecame entangled in aRoman civil war, leading to its conquest by theRomansin 30BC. TheCrisis of the Third Centuryin theRoman Empirefreed the Levantine city state ofPalmyra, whichconquered Egypt; their brief rule ended when they were reconquered by theRomans. In the midst of this,Kushregained independence from Egypt, and they would persist as a major regional power until, having been weakened from internal rebellion amid worsening climatic conditions, invasions byAksumand theNobacaused their disintegration intoMakuria,Alodia, andNobatiain the 5th centuryAD. The Romans managed to hold on to Egypt for the rest of the ancient period.
In theHorn of Africa, there was theLand of Punt, a kingdom on theRed Sea, likely located in modern-dayEritreaor northernSomaliland.The Ancient Egyptians initially traded via middle-men with Punt until in 2350BC when they established direct relations. They would become close trading partners for over a millennium. Towards the end of the ancient period, northernEthiopiaandEritreabore the Kingdom ofD'mtbeginning in 980BC. In modern-daySomaliaandDjiboutithere was theMacrobian Kingdom, with archaeological discoveries indicating the possibility of other unknown sophisticated civilisations at this time.After D'mt's fall in the 5th century BC theEthiopian Plateaucame to be ruled by numerous smaller unknown kingdoms who experienced strongsouth Arabian influence, until the growth and expansion ofAksumin the 1st century BC.Along the Horn's coast there were manyancient Somali city-statesthat thrived off of thewider Red Sea tradeand transported their cargo viabeden, exportingmyrrh,frankincense,spices,gum,incense, andivory, with freedom from Roman interference causing Indians to give the cities a lucrative monopoly oncinnamonfromancient India.
TheKingdom of Aksumgrew from aprincipalityinto a major power on thetrade route between Rome and Indiathrough conquering its unfortunately unknown neighbours, gaining a monopoly onIndian Ocean tradein the region. Aksum's rise had them rule over much of the regions fromLake Tanato the valley of theNile, and they further conquered parts of the ailingKingdom of Kush, led campaigns against theNobaandBejapeoples, andexpanded into South Arabia.This led the Persian prophetManito consider Aksum as one of the fourgreat powersof the 3rd century AD alongsidePersia,Rome, andChina.In the 4th century ADAksum's kingconverted to Christianity and Aksum's population, who had followedsyncretic mixes of local beliefs, slowly followed. The end of the 5th century saw Aksum allied with theByzantine Empire, who viewed themselves as defenders ofChristendom, balanced against theSassanid Empireand theHimyarite Kingdomin Arabia.
TheMaghrebandIfriqiyawere mostly cut off from thecradle of civilisationin Egypt by theLibyan desert, exacerbated byEgyptian boatsbeing tailored to theNileand not coping well in the openMediterranean Sea. This caused its societies to develop contiguous to those ofSouthern Europe, untilPhoenician settlementscame to dominate the most lucrative trading locations in theGulf of Tunis.Phoenician settlements subsequently grew intoAncient Carthageafter gaining independence fromPhoeniciain the 6th century BC, and they would build anextensive empireand a strictmercantilenetwork, all secured by one of the largest and most powerful navies in theancient Mediterranean.Carthage would meet its demise in thePunic Warsagainst the expansionaryRoman Republic, however momentum in these wars was not linear, with Carthage initially experiencing considerable success in theSecond Punic WarfollowingHannibal's infamouscrossing of the alpsinto northernItaly.Their defeat and subsequent collapse of their empire would produce two further polities in the Maghreb;Numidia, which had assisted the Romans in the Second Punic War,Mauretania, aMauritribal kingdomand home of the legendaryKing Atlas, and various tribes such asGaramantes,Musulamii, andBavares. TheThird Punic Warwould result in Carthage's total defeat in 146 BC and theRomansestablished the province ofAfrica, withNumidiaassuming control of many of Carthage's African ports. Towards the end of the 2nd century BCMauretaniafought alongside Numidia'sJugurthain theJugurthine Waragainst the Romans after he had usurped the Numidian throne from a Roman ally. Together they inflicted heavy casualties that quaked theRoman Senate, with the war only ending inconclusively when Mauretania'sBocchus Isold outJugurthato the Romans.
At the turn of the millennium, they both would face the same fate as Carthage and be conquered by the Romans who establishedMauretaniaandNumidiaas provinces of their empire, whileMusulamii, led byTacfarinas, andGaramanteswere eventually defeated in war in the 1st century AD however weren't conquered.In the 5th century AD theVandals conquered north Africaprecipitating thefall of Rome. Swathes ofindigenous peopleswould regain self-governance in theMauro-Roman Kingdomand its numerous successor polities in the Maghreb, namely the kingdoms ofOuarsenis,Aurès, andAltava. TheVandalsruledIfriqiyafor a century untilByzantine reconquestin the early 6th century AD. The Byzantines and the Berber kingdoms fought minor inconsequential conflicts, such as in the case ofGarmul, however largely coexisted.Further inland to the ByzantineExarchate of Africawere theSanhajain modern-dayAlgeria, a broad grouping of three groupings oftribal confederations, one of which is theMasmudagrouping in modern-dayMorocco, along with the nomadicZenata; their composite tribes would later go onto shape much ofNorth African history.
In the westernSahelthe rise of settled communities occurred largely as a result of the domestication ofmilletand ofsorghum. Archaeology points to sizable urban populations in West Africa beginning in the 4th millennium BC, which had crucially developediron metallurgyby 1200BC, in bothsmeltingandforgingfor tools and weapons.Extensive east-west belts ofdeserts,grasslands, andforestsfrom north to south were crucial for the moulding of their respective societies and meant that prior to the accession oftrans-Saharan trade routes, symbiotic trade relations developed in response to the opportunities afforded by north–south diversity in ecosystems.Various civilisations prospered in this period. From 4000BC, theTichitt culturein modern-dayMauritaniaandMaliwas the oldest knowncomplexly organised societyin West Africa, with a four tieredhierarchicalsocial structure.Other civilisations include theKintampo culturefrom 2500BC in modern-dayGhana,theNok culturefrom 1500 BC in modern-dayNigeria,theDaima culturearoundLake Chadfrom 550BC,Djenné-Djennofrom 250BC in modern-dayMali, and theSerer civilisationin modern-daySenegal, which built theSenegambian stone circlesfrom the 3rd century BC. There is also detailedrecordofIgodomigodo, a small kingdom founded presumably in 40BC, which would later go on to form theBenin Empire.
Towards the end of the 3rd century AD, awet periodin the Sahel created areas for human habitation and exploitation that had not been habitable for the best part of a millennium, with theKingdom of Wagadu, the local name of theGhana Empire, rising out of theTichitt culture, growing wealthy following the introduction of thecamelto the western Sahel, revolutionising thetrans-Saharan tradethat linked their capital andAoudaghostwithTahertandSijilmasain North Africa.Soninke traditions likely contain content from prehistory, mentioning four previous foundings ofWagadu, and holds that the final founding of Wagadu occurred after their first king did a deal withBida, a serpent deity who was guarding a well, to sacrifice one maiden a year in exchange for assurance regarding plenty of rainfall and gold supply.Wagadu's core traversed modern-day southernMauritaniaand westernMali, andSoninketraditionportrays early Ghana as warlike, with horse-mounted warriors key to increasing its territory and population, although details of their expansion are extremely scarce.Wagadu made its profits from maintaining a monopoly ongoldheading north andsaltheading south, despite not controlling the gold fields themselves, located in theforest regions.It is probable that Wagadu's dominance on trade allowed for the gradual consolidation of manypolitiesinto aconfederated state, whose composites stood in varying relations to the core, from fully administered to nominal tribute-paying parity.Based onlarge tumuliscattered across West Africa dating to this period, it has been stipulated that relative to Wagadu, there were further simultaneous and preceding kingdoms that have unfortunately been lost to time.
At the 4th millennium BC theCongo Basinwas inhabited by theBambenga,Bayaka,Bakoya, andBabongoin the west, theBambutiin theeast, and theBatwawho were widely scattered and also present in theGreat Lakes region; together they are grouped asPygmies.On the later-namedSwahili coastthere wereCushitic-speaking peoples, and theKhoisan(aneologismfor theKhoekhoeandSan) in the continent's south.
TheBantu expansionconstituted a major series of migrations ofBantu peoplesfrom central Africa to eastern and southern Africa and was substantial in the settling of the continent.Commencing in the 2nd millennium BC, the Bantu began to migrate fromCameroonto central, eastern, and southern Africa, laying the foundations for future states such as theKingdom of Kongoin theCongo Basin, theEmpire of Kitarain theAfrican Great Lakes, theLuba Empirein theUpemba Depression, theKilwa Sultanatein theSwahili coastby crowding outAzania, withRhaptabeing its last stronghold by the 1st century AD.These migrations also prefaced theKingdom of Mapungubwein theZambezi basin. After reaching theZambezi, the Bantu continued southward, with eastern groups continuing to modern-dayMozambiqueand reachingMaputoin the 2nd century AD. Further to the south, settlements of Bantu peoples who were iron-using agriculturists and herdsmen were well established south of theLimpopo Riverby the 4th century AD, displacing and absorbing theKhoisan.
By theChari Riversouth ofLake ChadtheSao civilisationflourished for over a millennium beginning in the 6th century BC, in territory that later became part of present-dayCameroonandChad. Sao artifacts show that they were skilled workers inbronze,copper, andiron,with finds including bronze sculptures, terracotta statues of human and animal figures, coins, funerary urns, household utensils, jewellery, highly decorated pottery, and spears.Nearby, aroundLake Ejaghamin south-westCameroon, theEkoi civilisationrose circa 2nd century AD, and are most notable for constructing theIkom monolithsand developing theNsibidi script.
Pre-colonial Africa possessed as many as 10,000 different states and polities.These included small family groups of hunter-gatherers such as theSan peopleof southern Africa; larger, more structured groups such as the family clan groupings of theBantu peoplesof central, southern, and eastern Africa; heavily structured clan groups in theHorn of Africa; the largeSahelian kingdoms; and autonomous city-states and kingdoms, such as those of theAkan;Edo,Yoruba, andIgbo peoplein West Africa; and theSwahilicoastal trading towns of Southeast Africa.
By the 9th century AD, a string of dynastic states, including the earliestHausastates, stretched across the sub-Saharan savannah from the western regions to central Sudan. The most powerful of these states wereGhana,Gao, and theKanem-Bornu Empire.Ghanadeclined in the eleventh century, but was succeeded by theMali Empire, which consolidated much of western Sudan in the thirteenth century. Kanem accepted Islam in the eleventh century.
In the forested regions of the West African coast, independent kingdoms grew with little influence from the Muslim north. TheKingdom of Nri, which was ruled by theEze Nri, was established around the ninth century, making it one of the oldest kingdoms in present-day Nigeri. The Nri kingdom is famous for its elaboratebronzes, found at the town ofIgbo-Ukwu.
TheKingdom of Ife, historically the first of these Yoruba city-states or kingdoms, established government under a priestlyoba('king' or 'ruler' in theYoruba language), called theOoni of Ife. Ife was noted as a major religious and cultural centre in West Africa and for its unique naturalistic tradition of bronze sculpture. The Ife model of government was adapted by theOyo Empire, whose obas, called theAlaafins of Oyo, controlled many other Yoruba and non-Yoruba city-states and kingdoms including theFonKingdom ofDahomey.
TheAlmoravidswere aBerberdynasty from the Sahara that spread over northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the eleventh century.TheBanu HilalandBanu Ma'qilwere a collection ofArabBedouintribes from theArabian Peninsulawho migrated westwards via Egypt between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. Theirmigrationresulted in the fusion of the Arabs and Berbers, where the locals wereArabized,andArabculture absorbed elements of the local culture, under the unifying framework of Islam.
Following the breakup of Mali, a local leader namedSonni Ali(1464–1492) founded theSonghai Empirein the region of middleNigerand the westernSudanand took control of the trans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali seizedTimbuktuin 1468 andJennein 1473, building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. His successorAskia Mohammad I(1493–1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought to Gao Muslim scholars, including al-Maghili (d.1504), the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship.By the eleventh century, someHausastates – such asKano,Jigawa,Katsina, andGobir– had developed into walled towns engaging in trade, servicingcaravans, and the manufacture of goods. Until the fifteenth century, these small states were on the periphery of the major Sudanic empires of the era, paying tribute to Songhai to the west and Kanem-Borno to the east.
Slaveryhad long been practiced in Africa.Between the 15th and the 19th centuries, the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7–12 million slaves to the New World.In addition, more than 1 million Europeans were captured byBarbary piratesand sold as slaves in North Africa between the 16th and 19th centuries.
In West Africa, the decline of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1820s caused dramatic economic shifts in local polities. The gradual decline of slave-trading, prompted by a lack of demand for slaves in theNew World, increasinganti-slaverylegislation in Europe and America, and theBritish Royal Navy's increasing presence off the West African coast, obliged African states to adopt new economies. Between 1808 and 1860, the BritishWest Africa Squadronseized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.
Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King ofLagos", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.The largest powers of West Africa (theAsante Confederacy, theKingdom of Dahomey, and theOyo Empire) adopted different ways of adapting to the shift. Asante and Dahomey concentrated on the development of "legitimate commerce" in the form ofpalm oil,cocoa, timber and gold, forming the bedrock of West Africa's modern export trade. The Oyo Empire, unable to adapt, collapsed into civil wars.
Imperial rule by Europeans continued until after the conclusion ofWorld War II, when almost all remaining colonial territories gradually obtained formal independence.Independence movements in Africagained momentum following World War II, which left the major European powers weakened. In 1951, Libya, a former Italian colony, gained independence. In 1956,TunisiaandMoroccowon their independence from France.Ghanafollowed suit the next year (March 1957),becoming the first of the sub-Saharan colonies to be granted independence. Over the next decade, waves ofdecolonizationtook place across the continent, culminating in the 1960Year of Africaand the establishment of theOrganisation of African Unityin 1963.
Portugal's overseas presence insub-Saharan Africa(most notably inAngola, Cape Verde,Mozambique,Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe) lasted from the 16th century to 1975, after theEstado Novoregime was overthrown ina military coup in Lisbon.Rhodesiaunilaterally declared independencefrom the United Kingdom in 1965, under thewhite minoritygovernment ofIan Smith, but was not internationally recognized as an independent state (asZimbabwe) until 1980, when black nationalists gained power after abitter guerrilla war. Although South Africa was one of the first African countries to gain independence, the state remained under the control of the country's white minority, initially through qualified voting rights and from 1956 by a system ofracial segregationknown asapartheid, until 1994.
Today, Africa contains 54 sovereign countries.Since independence, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and authoritarianism. The vast majority of African states are republics that operate under some form of thepresidential systemof rule. However, few of them have been able to sustain democratic governments on a permanent basis—per the criteria laid out by Lührmann et al. (2018), onlyBotswanaandMauritiushave been consistently democratic for the entirety of their post-colonial history. Most African countries have experienced severalcoupsor periods ofmilitary dictatorship. Between 1990 and 2018, though, the continent as a whole has trended towards more democratic governance.
Upon independence an overwhelming majority of Africans lived inextreme poverty. The continent suffered from the lack of infrastructural or industrial development undercolonialrule, along with political instability. With limited financial resources or access to global markets, relatively stable countries such asKenyastill experienced only very slow economic development. Only a handful of African countries succeeded in obtaining rapid economic growth prior to 1990. Exceptions include Libya and Equatorial Guinea, both of which possess large oil reserves.
Instability throughout the continent after decolonization resulted primarily frommarginalization of ethnic groups, andcorruption. In pursuit of personalpolitical gain, many leaders deliberately promoted ethnic conflicts, some of which had originated during the colonial period, such as from the grouping of multiple unrelated ethnic groups into a single colony, the splitting of a distinct ethnic group between multiple colonies, or existing conflicts being exacerbated by colonial rule (for instance, the preferential treatment given to ethnicHutusoverTutsisin Rwanda during German and Belgian rule).
Faced with increasingly frequent and severe violence, military rule was widely accepted by the population of many countries as means to maintain order, and during the 1970s and 1980s a majority of African countries were controlled bymilitary dictatorships. Territorial disputes between nations and rebellions by groups seeking independence were also common in independent African states. The most devastating of these was theNigerian Civil War, fought between government forces and anIgboseparatist republic, which resulted in a famine that killed 1–2 million people. Twocivil warsin Sudan,the firstlasting from 1955 to 1972 andthe secondfrom 1983 to 2005, collectively killed around 3 million. Both were fought primarily on ethnic and religious lines.
Cold Warconflicts between the United States and theSoviet Unionalso contributed to instability. Both the Soviet Union and the United States offered considerable incentives to African political and military leaders who aligned themselves with the superpowers' foreign policy. As an example, during theAngolan Civil War, the Soviet and Cuban alignedMPLAand the American alignedUNITAreceived the vast majority of their military and political support from these countries. Many African countries became highly dependent on foreign aid. The sudden loss of both Soviet and American aid at the end of the Cold War andfall of the USSRresulted in severe economic and political turmoil in the countries most dependent on foreign support.
There was amajor famine in Ethiopiabetween 1983 and 1985, killing up to 1.2 million people, which mosthistoriansattribute primarily to the forced relocation of farmworkers and seizure of grain by communistDerggovernment, further exacerbated by thecivil war.In 1994 agenocide in Rwandaresulted in up to 800,000 deaths, added toa severe refugee crisisand fueled the rise of militia groups in neighboring countries. This contributed to the outbreak of thefirstandsecondCongo Wars, which were the most devastating military conflicts in modern Africa, with up to 5.5 million deaths,making it by far the deadliest conflict in modern African history and one of thecostliest wars in human history.
Various conflicts between various insurgent groups and governments continue. Since 2003, there has been an ongoingconflict in Darfur(Sudan), which peaked in intensity from 2003 to 2005 with notable spikes in violence in 2007 and 2013–15, killing around 300,000 people total. TheBoko Haram Insurgencyprimarily within Nigeria (with considerable fighting in Niger, Chad, and Cameroon as well) has killed around 350,000 people since 2009. Most African conflicts have been reduced to low-intensity conflicts as of 2022. However, theTigray Warfrom 2020 to 2022 killed an estimated 300,000–500,000 people, primarily due tofamine.
Overall though, violence across Africa has greatly declined in the 21st century, with the end of civil wars in Angola,Sierra Leone, andAlgeriain 2002,Liberiain 2003, andSudanandBurundiin 2005. The Second Congo War, which involved 9 countries and several insurgent groups, ended in 2003. This decline in violence coincided with many countries abandoning communist-style command economies and opening up for market reforms, which over the course of the 1990s and 2000s promoted the establishment of permanent, peaceful trade between neighboring countries (seeCapitalist peace).
Improved stability and economic reforms have led to a great increase in foreign investment into many African nations, mainly from China,which further spurred economic growth. Between 2000 and 2014, annual GDP growth in sub-Saharan Africa averaged 5.02%, doubling its total GDP from $811 billion to $1.63 trillion (constant 2015USD).North Africa experienced comparable growth rates.A significant part of this growth can also be attributed to the facilitated diffusion of information technologies and specifically the mobile telephone.While several individual countries have maintained high growth rates, since 2014 overall growth has considerably slowed, primarily as a result of falling commodity prices, continued lack ofindustrialization, and epidemics ofEbolaandCOVID-19.
Africa is the largest of the three great southward projections from the largestlandmassof the Earth. Separated from Europe by theMediterranean Sea, it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by theIsthmus of Suez(transected by theSuez Canal), 163 km (101 mi) wide.Geopolitically, Egypt'sSinai Peninsulaeast of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa as well.
The coastline is 26,000 km (16,000 mi) long, and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is illustrated by the fact that Europe, which covers only 10,400,000 km(4,000,000 sq mi) – about a third of the surface of Africa – has a coastline of 32,000 km (20,000 mi).From the most northerly point,Ras ben Sakkain Tunisia (37°21' N), to the most southerly point,Cape Agulhasin South Africa (34°51'15" S), is a distance of approximately 8,000 km (5,000 mi).Cape Verde, 17°33'22" W, the westernmost point, is a distance of approximately 7,400 km (4,600 mi) toRas Hafun, 51°27'52" E, the most easterly projection that neighboursCape Guardafui, the tip of the Horn of Africa.
Africa's largest country is Algeria, and its smallest country isSeychelles, anarchipelagooff the east coast.The smallest nation on the continental mainland isThe Gambia.
The climate of Africa ranges fromtropicaltosubarcticon its highest peaks. Its northern half is primarilydesert, orarid, while its central and southern areas contain bothsavannaplains and densejungle(rainforest) regions. In between, there is a convergence, where vegetation patterns such assahelandsteppedominate. Africa is the hottest continent on Earth and 60% of the entire land surface consists of drylands and deserts.The record for the highest-ever recorded temperature, inLibyain 1922 (58 °C (136 °F)), was discredited in 2013.
Africa has over 3,000protected areas, with 198 marine protected areas, 50 biosphere reserves, and 80 wetlands reserves. Significant habitat destruction, increases in human population and poaching are reducing Africa's biological diversity andarable land. Human encroachment, civil unrest and the introduction of non-native species threaten biodiversity in Africa. This has been exacerbated by administrative problems, inadequate personnel and funding problems.
Deforestationis affecting Africa at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).According to the University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center, 31% of Africa's pasture lands and 19% of its forests and woodlands are classified as degraded, and Africa is losing over four million hectares of forest per year, which is twice the average deforestation rate for the rest of the world.Some sources claim that approximately 90% of the original, virgin forests in West Africa have been destroyed.Over 90% ofMadagascar's original forests have been destroyed since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago.About 65% of Africa's agricultural land suffers fromsoil degradation.
Africa boasts perhaps the world's largest combination of density and "range of freedom" ofwild animalpopulations and diversity, with wild populations of largecarnivores(such as lions,hyenas, and cheetahs) andherbivores(such asbuffalo, elephants, camels, and giraffes) ranging freely on primarily open non-private plains. It is also home to a variety of "jungle" animals including snakes andprimatesandaquatic lifesuch as crocodiles andamphibians. In addition, Africa has the largest number ofmegafaunaspecies, as it was least affected by theextinction of the Pleistocene megafauna.
Water development andmanagementare complex in Africa due to the multiplicity of trans-boundary water resources (rivers,lakesandaquifers).Around 75% of sub-Saharan Africa falls within 53 internationalriver basincatchments that traverse multiple borders.This particular constraint can also be converted into an opportunity if the potential for trans-boundary cooperation is harnessed in the development of the area's water resources.A multi-sectoral analysis of theZambezi River, for example, shows thatripariancooperation could lead to a 23% increase in firm energy production without any additional investments.A number of institutional and legal frameworks for transboundary cooperation exist, such as the Zambezi River Authority, theSouthern African Development Community(SADC) Protocol,Volta River Authorityand the Nile Basin Commission.However, additional efforts are required to further develop political will, as well as the financial capacities and institutional frameworks needed for win-win multilateral cooperative actions and optimal solutions for all riparians.
TheAfrican Union(AU) is acontinental unionconsisting of 55member states. The union was formed, withAddis Ababa, Ethiopia, as its headquarters, on 26 June 2001. The union was officially established on 9 July 2002as a successor to theOrganisation of African Unity(OAU). In July 2004, the African Union'sPan-African Parliament(PAP) was relocated toMidrand, in South Africa, but theAfrican Commission on Human and Peoples' Rightsremained in Addis Ababa.
The African Union, not to be confused with theAU Commission, is formed by theConstitutive Act of the African Union, which aims to transform theAfrican Economic Community, a federated commonwealth, into a state under established international conventions. The African Union has a parliamentary government, known as theAfrican Union Government, consisting of legislative, judicial and executive organs. It is led by the African Union President and Head of State, who is also the President of thePan-African Parliament. A person becomes AU President by being elected to the PAP, and subsequently gaining majority support in the PAP. The powers and authority of the President of the African Parliament derive from the Constitutive Act and theProtocol of the Pan-African Parliament, as well as the inheritance of presidential authority stipulated by African treaties and by international treaties, including those subordinating the Secretary General of theOAUSecretariat (AU Commission) to the PAP. The government of the AU consists of all-union, regional, state, and municipal authorities, as well as hundreds of institutions, that together manage the day-to-day affairs of the institution.
Extensivehuman rights abusesstill occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often as a side effect of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include theDemocratic Republic of the Congo,Sierra Leone,Liberia,Sudan,Zimbabwe, andIvory Coast.
Although it has abundantnatural resources, Africa remains the world's poorest andleast-developedcontinent (other thanAntarctica), the result of a variety of causes that may includecorrupt governmentsthat have often committed serioushuman rights violations, failedcentral planning, high levels ofilliteracy, low self-esteem, lack of access to foreign capital, legacies of colonialism, theslavetrade, and the Cold War, and frequent tribal and military conflict (ranging fromguerrilla warfaretogenocide).Its total nominal GDP remains behind that of the United States, China, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, India and France. According to the United Nations' Human Development Report in 2003, the bottom 24 ranked nations (151st to 175th) were all African.
Poverty, illiteracy,malnutrition, inadequatewater supply and sanitation, and poor health affect a large proportion of the people who reside on the African continent. In August 2008, theWorld Bankannounced revised global poverty estimates based on a new international poverty line of $1.25 per day (versus the previous measure of $1.00). Eighty-one percent of thesub-Saharan Africanpopulation was living on less than $2.50 (PPP) per day in 2005, compared with 86% for India.
Sub-Saharan Africa is the least successful region of the world in reducing poverty ($1.25 per day); some 50% ofthe population living in povertyin 1981 (200 million people), a figure that rose to 58% in 1996 before dropping to 50% in 2005 (380 million people). The average poor person in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to live on only 70 cents per day, and was poorer in 2003 than in 1973,indicating increasing poverty in some areas. Some of it is attributed to unsuccessful economic liberalization programmes spearheaded by foreign companies and governments, but other studies have cited bad domestic government policies more than external factors.
Africa is now at risk of being in debt once again, particularly in sub-Saharan African countries. The last debtcrisisin 2005 was resolved with help from the heavily indebted poor countries scheme (HIPC). The HIPC resulted in some positive and negative effects on the economy in Africa. About ten years after the 2005 debt crisis in sub-Saharan Africa was resolved, Zambia fell back into debt. A small reason was due to the fall in copper prices in 2011, but the bigger reason was that a large amount of the money Zambia borrowed was wasted or pocketed by the elite.
From 1995 to 2005, Africa's rate of economic growth increased, averaging 5% in 2005. Some countries experienced still higher growth rates, notablyAngola,SudanandEquatorial Guinea, all of which had recently begun extracting their petroleum reserves or had expanded theiroil extractioncapacity.
In a recently published analysis based onWorld Values Surveydata, the Austrian political scientist Arno Tausch maintained that several African countries, most notablyGhana, perform quite well on scales of mass support for democracy and themarket economy.The following table is projection(s) as of 2024 in terms of the peak level of GDP (nominal) and (Purchasing Power Parity) by theIMFand theWorld Bank.
Tausch's global value comparison based on theWorld Values Surveyderived the following factor analytical scales: 1. The non-violent and law-abiding society 2. Democracy movement 3. Climate of personal non-violence 4. Trust in institutions 5. Happiness, good health 6. No redistributive religious fundamentalism 7. Accepting the market 8. Feminism 9. Involvement in politics 10. Optimism and engagement 11. No welfare mentality, acceptancy of the Calvinist work ethics. The spread in the performance of African countries with complete data, Tausch concluded "is really amazing". While one should be especially hopeful about the development of future democracy and the market economy inGhana, the article suggests pessimistic tendencies forEgyptandAlgeria, and especially for Africa's leading economy, South Africa. High human inequality, as measured by theUNDP'sHuman Development Report'sIndex of Human Inequality, impairs the development ofhuman security. Tausch also maintains that the certain recent optimism, corresponding to economic and human rights data, emerging from Africa, is reflected in the development of acivil society.
The continent is believed to hold 90% of the world'scobalt, 90% of itsplatinum, 50% of its gold, 98% of itschromium, 70% of itstantalite,64% of itsmanganeseand one-third of itsuranium.TheDemocratic Republic of the Congo(DRC) has 70% of the world'scoltan, a mineral used in the production oftantalum capacitorsfor electronic devices such as cell phones. The DRC also has more than 30% of the world's diamond reserves.Guineais the world's largest exporter ofbauxite.As the growth in Africa has been driven mainly by services and not manufacturing or agriculture, it has been growth without jobs and without reduction in poverty levels. In fact, thefood security crisis of 2008, which took place on the heels of the global financial crisis, pushed 100 million people into food insecurity.
In recent years,Chinahas built increasingly stronger ties with African nations and is Africa's largest trading partner. In 2007, Chinese companies invested a total of US$1 billion in Africa.
AHarvard Universitystudy led by professorCalestous Jumashowed that Africa could feed itself by making the transition from importer to self-sufficiency. "African agriculture is at the crossroads; we have come to the end of a century of policies that favoured Africa's export of raw materials and importation of food. Africa is starting to focus on agricultural innovation as its new engine for regional trade and prosperity."
The main source ofelectricityishydropower, which contributes significantly to the current installed capacity for energy.TheKainji Damis a typical hydropower resource generating electricity for all the large cities inNigeriaas well as their neighbouring country,Niger.Hence, the continuous investment in the last decade, which has increased the amount of power generated.
Africa's population has rapidly increased over the last 40 years, and is consequently relatively young. In some African states, more than half the population is under 25 years of age.The total number of people in Africa increased from 229 million in 1950 to 630 million in 1990.As of 2021, the population of Africa is estimated at 1.4 billion.Africa's total population surpassing other continents is fairly recent; African population surpassed Europe in the 1990s, while the Americas was overtaken sometime around the year 2000.This increase in number of babies born in Africa compared to the rest of the world is expected to reach approximately 37% in the year 2050; while in 1990 sub-Saharan Africa accounted for only 16% of the world's births.
Thetotal fertility rate(children per woman) for Sub-Saharan Africa is 4.7 as of 2018, the highest in the world.All countries in sub-Saharan Africa hadTFRs(average number of children) above replacement level in 2019 and accounted for 27.1% ofgloballivebirths.In 2021, sub-Saharan Africa accounted for 29% of global births.
Speakers ofBantu languages(part of theNiger–Congofamily) are the majority in southern, central and southeast Africa. The Bantu-speaking peoples fromthe Sahelprogressively expanded over most of sub-Saharan Africa.But there are also severalNiloticgroups inSouth Sudanand East Africa, the mixedSwahili peopleon theSwahili Coast, and a few remainingindigenousKhoisan ("San"or "Bushmen") andPygmy peoplesin Southern and Central Africa, respectively. Bantu-speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon. In theKalahari Desertof Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from "Hottentots") have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa.Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa.
The peoples of West Africa primarily speakNiger–Congo languages, belonging mostly to its non-Bantu branches, though someNilo-Saharanand Afro-Asiatic speaking groups are also found. The Niger–Congo-speakingYoruba,Igbo,Fulani,Akan, andWolofethnic groups are the largest and most influential. In the central Sahara,MandinkaorMandegroups are most significant. Chadic-speaking groups, including theHausa, are found in more northerly parts of the region nearest to the Sahara, and Nilo-Saharan communities, such as theSonghai,KanuriandZarma, are found in the eastern parts of West Africa bordering Central Africa.
The peoples of North Africa consist of three main indigenous groups: Berbers in the northwest, Egyptians in the northeast, and Nilo-Saharan-speaking peoples in the east. The Arabs who arrived in the 7th century AD introduced the Arabic language and Islam to North Africa. The SemiticPhoenicians(who foundedCarthage) andHyksos, the Indo-IranianAlans, the Indo-EuropeanGreeks, Romans, andVandalssettled in North Africa as well. Significant Berber communities remain withinMoroccoandAlgeriain the 21st century, while, to a lesser extent, Berber speakers are also present in some regions of Tunisia and Libya.The Berber-speakingTuaregand other often-nomadicpeoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa. In Mauritania, there is a small but near-extinct Berber community in the north and Niger–Congo-speaking peoples in the south, though in both regions Arabic and Arab culture predominates. In Sudan, although Arabic and Arab culture predominate, it is mostly inhabited by groups that originally spoke Nilo-Saharan, such as the Nubians, Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa, who, over the centuries, have variously intermixed with migrants from the Arabian peninsula. Small communities of Afro-Asiatic-speaking Beja nomads can also be found in Egypt and Sudan.
In theHorn of Africa, some Ethiopian and Eritrean groups (like theAmharaandTigrayans, collectively known asHabesha) speak languages from theSemiticbranch of theAfro-Asiaticlanguage family, while theOromoandSomalispeak languages from theCushiticbranch of Afro-Asiatic.
Prior to thedecolonizationmovements of the post-World War II era,Europeanswere represented in every part of Africa.Decolonization during the 1960s and 1970s often resulted in the mass emigration of white settlers—especially from Algeria and Morocco (1.6 millionpieds-noirsin North Africa),Kenya, Congo,Rhodesia, Mozambique and Angola.Between 1975 and 1977, over a million colonials returned to Portugal alone.Nevertheless,white Africansremain an important minority in many African states, particularlyZimbabwe,Namibia,Réunion, andSouth Africa.The country with the largest white African population is South Africa.DutchandBritishdiasporasrepresent the largest communities of European ancestry on the continent today.
European colonization also broughtsizable groupsofAsians, particularlyfromtheIndian subcontinent, to British colonies. LargeIndian communitiesare found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and southeast African countries. The largeIndian community in Ugandawasexpelledby the dictatorIdi Aminin 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the Indian Ocean are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. TheMalagasy peopleof Madagascar are anAustronesian people, but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa asCape Coloureds(people with origins in two or more races and continents). During the 20th century, small but economically important communities ofLebanesehave also developed in the larger coastal cities ofWestand East Africa, respectively.
Source: Maddison and others. (University of Groningen).
Source: Maddison and others (University of Groningen).
While Africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, the majority of the people respect African religions or parts of them. However, in formal surveys or census, most people will identify with major religions that came from outside the continent, mainly through colonisation. There are several reasons for this, the main one being the colonial idea that African religious beliefs and practices are not good enough. Religious beliefs and statistics on religious affiliation are difficult to come by since they are often a sensitive topic for governments with mixed religious populations.According to theWorld Book Encyclopedia,IslamandChristianityare the two largest religions in Africa. Islam is most prevalent in Northern Africa, and is the state religion of many North African countries, such as Algeria, where 99% of the population practices Islam.The majority of people in most governments in Southern, Southeast, and Central Africa, as well as in a sizable portion of the Horn of Africa and West Africa, identify asChristians. TheCoptic Christiansconstitute a sizable minority inEgypt, and theEthiopian Orthodox Churchis the largest church in Ethiopia, with 36 million and 51 million adherents.According toEncyclopædia Britannica, 45% of the population are Christians, 40% are Muslims, and 10% followtraditional religions.A small number of Africans areHindu,Buddhist,Confucianist,Baháʼí, orJewish. There is also a minority of people in Africa who areirreligious.
By most estimates, well over a thousandlanguages(UNESCOhas estimated around two thousand) are spoken in Africa.Most are of African origin, though some are of European or Asian origin. Africa is the mostmultilingualcontinent in the world, and it is not rare for individuals to fluently speak not only multiple African languages, but one or more European ones as well.There are four major groups indigenous to Africa:
Following the end ofcolonialism, nearly all African countries adoptedofficial languagesthat originated outside the continent, although several countries also granted legal recognition to indigenous languages (such asSwahili,Yoruba,IgboandHausa). In numerous countries, English and French (seeAfrican French) are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. Arabic,Portuguese,Afrikaansand Spanish are examples of languages that trace their origin to outside of Africa, and that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres. Italian is spoken by some in formerItalian coloniesin Africa. German is spoken inNamibia, as it was a former German protectorate. In total, at least a fifth of Africans speak the former colonial languages.
More than 85% of individuals in Africa use traditional medicine as an alternative to often expensive allopathic medical health care and costly pharmaceutical products. TheOrganization of African Unity(OAU) Heads of State and Government declared the 2000s decade as the African Decade onAfrican traditional medicinein an effort to promote The WHO African Region's adopted resolution for institutionalizing traditional medicine in health care systems across the continent.Public policy makers in the region are challenged with consideration of the importance of traditional/indigenous health systems and whether their coexistence with the modern medical and health sub-sector would improve the equitability and accessibility of health care distribution, the health status of populations, and the social-economic development of nations within sub-Saharan Africa.
AIDS in post-colonial Africais a prevalent issue. Although the continent is home to about 15.2 percent of the world's population,more than two-thirds of the total infected worldwide—some 35 million people—were Africans, of whom 15 million have already died.Sub-Saharan Africaalone accounted for an estimated 69 percent of all people living with HIVand 70 percent of all AIDS deaths in 2011.In the countries of sub-Saharan Africa most affected, AIDS has raised death rates and lowered life expectancy among adults between the ages of 20 and 49 by about twenty years.Furthermore, the life expectancy in many parts of Africa has declined, largely as a result of the HIV/AIDS epidemic with life-expectancy in some countries reaching as low as thirty-four years.
Some aspects of traditional African cultures have become less practised in recent years as a result of neglect and suppression by colonial and post-colonial regimes. For example, African customs were discouraged, and African languages were prohibited in mission schools.Leopold II of Belgium attempted to "civilize" Africans by discouraging polygamy and witchcraft.
Obidoh Freeborn posits that colonialism is one element that has created the character of modern African art.According to authors Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole, "The precipitous alterations in the power structure wrought by colonialism were quickly followed by drastic iconographic changes in the art."Fraser and Cole assert that, in Igboland, some art objects "lack the vigor and careful craftsmanship of the earlier art objects that served traditional functions."Author Chika Okeke-Agulu states that "the racist infrastructure of British imperial enterprise forced upon the political and cultural guardians of empire a denial and suppression of an emergent sovereign Africa and modernist art."Editors F. Abiola Irele and Simon Gikandi comment that the current identity of African literature had its genesis in the "traumatic encounter between Africa and Europe."On the other hand, Mhoze Chikowero believes that Africans deployed music, dance, spirituality, and other performative cultures to (re)assert themselves as active agents and indigenous intellectuals, to unmake their colonial marginalization and reshape their own destinies.
There is now a resurgence in the attempts to rediscover and revalue African traditional cultures, under such movements as theAfrican Renaissance, led byThabo Mbeki,Afrocentrism, led by a group of scholars, includingMolefi Asante, as well as the increasing recognition of traditional spiritualism through decriminalization ofVodouand other forms of spirituality.
As of March 2023, 98 African properties are listed byUNESCOasWorld Heritage Sites. Among these proprieties, 54 are cultural sites, 39 are natural sites and 5 are mixed sites. TheList Of World Heritage in Dangerincludes 15 African sites.
Fifty-four African countries havefootballteams in theConfederation of African Football. Egypt has won the African Cup seven times, and a record-making three times in a row. Cameroon, Nigeria, Morocco, Senegal, Ghana, and Algeria have advanced to the knockout stage of recentFIFA World Cups. Morocco, at the2022 World Cup in Qatarwas the first African nation to reach the semi-finals of the FIFA Men's World Cup. South Africa hosted the2010 World Cup tournament, becoming the first African country to do so. The top clubs in each African football league play theCAF Champions League, while lower-ranked clubs compete inCAF Confederation Cup.
In recent years, the continent has progressed in terms of state-of-the-artbasketballfacilities, which have been built in cities such asCairo,Dakar,Johannesburg,Kigali,LuandaandRades.The number of African basketball players who drafted into the U.S.NBAhas experienced growth in the 2010s.
Cricketis popular in some African nations.South AfricaandZimbabwehaveTeststatus, whileKenyais the leading non-test team and previously hadOne-Day International cricket(ODI) status (from10 October 1997, until30 January 2014). The three countries jointly hosted the2003 Cricket World Cup.Namibiais the other African country to have played in a World Cup.Morocco, in northern Africa, hosted the2002 Morocco Cup, but the national team has never qualified for a major tournament.
Rugbyis popular in several southern African nations.NamibiaandZimbabwehave appeared on multiple occasions at theRugby World Cup, while South Africa is the most successful national team at the Rugby World Cup, having won the tournament on four occasions, in 1995, 2007, 2019, and 2023.
Traditional sportswere strictly marginalised during thecolonial era, and many are dying or have gone extinct under the pressure ofmodernisation, however lots remain popular despite not having formal governmental recognition or support.Some examples areSenegalese wrestling,Dambe,Nguni stick-fighting, andSavika.
The countries in this table are categorized according to thescheme for geographic subregionsused by the United Nations, and data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Where they differ, provisos are clearly indicated.
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