Afro–Puerto Ricans

Afro–Puerto Ricans(Spanish:Afropuertorriqueños), most commonly known asAfroboricuas, but also occasionally referred to asAfroborinqueños,Afroborincanos,orAfropuertorros,arePuerto Ricansof full or partialsub-Saharan Africanorigin, who are predominately the descendants ofslaves,freedmen, andfree Blacksoriginal toWestandCentral Africa.The termAfro-Puerto Ricanis also used to refer to historical or cultural elements inPuerto Ricansociety associated with this community, includingmusic,language,cuisine,art, andreligion.
The history of Afro-Puerto Ricans traces its origins to the arrival of freeWest AfricanBlack men, orlibertos(freedmen), who accompaniedSpanishConquistadorJuan Ponce de Leónat the start of thecolonizationof theislandofPuerto Rico.Upon landing and settling, theSpaniardsenslaved and exploited theindigenousTaíno nativesto work in the extraction ofgold. When theTaínoforced laborers were exterminated primarily due toOld Worldinfectious diseases, theSpanish Crownbegan to rely onsub-Saharan Africanslaveryemanating from differentethnic groupswithinWestandCentral Africato staff theirmining,plantations, andconstructions.
Recent DNA analysis has revealed that nearly 70% of the Puerto Rican population has Taino ancestry. This finding contradicts the narrative of the extermination of the Taino people and presents a different perspective of the cultural mixture between the Spanish and the Taino.
While there was slavery in Puerto Rico, the island received lesssub-Saharan enslaved laborersthan otherSpanishand non-Hispaniccolonies in theCaribbeanand theAmericas. The need for direct enslaved labor brought through theAtlantic slave tradewas greatly reduced by the depletion of gold inPuerto Ricoin the 16th century, and the island began to serve primarily as astrategic and military outpostto support, protect, and defend trade routes ofSpanishships traveling betweenSpainand territories within thecontinental Americas. However, theSpanish, hoping to destabilize the neighboring colonies of competingworld powers, encouraged enslaved fugitives andfree people of colorfrom the non-Hispanic Caribbean to emigrate to Puerto Rico. As a result, Puerto Rico indirectly received large numbers ofsub-Saharan Africansfrom neighboringBritish,Danish,Dutch, andFrenchcolonies seeking freedom and refuge from slavery.
In the 19th century, slavery inPuerto Ricowas increased, as theSpanish, facing economic decline with the loss of all of itscolonial territories in the Americasaside fromCubaandPuerto Rico, established and expandedsugar caneproduction in the island.  Since 1789, slaves in Puerto Rico were allowed to earn or buy their freedom. Throughout the years, there were severalslave revoltsin the island. Promised their freedom, slaves participated in the 1868Grito de Laresrevolt againstSpanish rule. On March 22, 1873, slavery was officially abolished inPuerto Rico.
The contributions ofPuerto Ricansof full or mostlysub-Saharan African descentto music, art, language, and heritage have been instrumental in shaping theculture of Puerto Rico.
They are called Puerto Rican.
When Ponce de León and the Spaniards arrived on the island ofBorinquen(Puerto Rico), they were greeted by theCaciqueAgüeybaná, the supreme leader of the peaceful Taíno tribes on the island. Agüeybaná helped to maintain the peace between theTaínoand the Spaniards. According to historianRicardo Alegria, in 1509Juan Garridowas the first free African man to set foot on the island; he was aconquistadorwho was part ofJuan Ponce de León's entourage. Garrido was born on the West African coast, the son of an African king. In 1508, he joined Juan Ponce de León to explore Puerto Rico and prospect for gold. In 1511, he fought under Ponce de León to repress the Carib and the Taíno, who had joined forces in Puerto Rico in a great revolt against the Spaniards.Garrido next joinedHernán Cortésin the Spanish conquest of Mexico.Another free African man who accompanied de León was Pedro Mejías. Mejías married aTaínowoman chief (a cacica), by the name of Yuisa. Yuisa was baptized as Catholic so that she could marry Mejías.She was given the Christian name of Luisa (the townLoíza, Puerto Ricowas named for her).
SpanishFriarBartolomé de las Casas, who had accompanied Ponce de León, was outraged at the treatment of the Taíno. In 1512 he protested at the council of Burgos at the Spanish Court. He fought for the freedom of the natives and was able to secure their rights. The Spanish colonists, fearing the loss of their labor force, also protested before the courts. They complained that they needed manpower to work in the mines, build forts, and supply labor for the thriving sugar cane plantations. As an alternative, Las Casas suggested the importation and use of African slaves. In 1517, the Spanish Crown permitted its subjects to import twelve slaves each, thereby beginning the Africanslave tradein their colonies.
In 1527, the first major slave rebellion occurred in Puerto Rico, as dozen of slaves fought against the colonists in a brief revolt.The few slaves who escaped retreated to the forests and mountains, where they resided asmaroonswith surviving Taínos. During the following centuries, by 1873 slaves had carried out more than twenty revolts. Some were of great political importance, such as the Ponce and Vega Baja conspiracies.
By 1570, the colonists found that thegoldmines were depleted. After gold mining ended on the island, the Spanish Crown bypassed Puerto Rico by moving the western shipping routes to the north. The island became primarily a garrison for those ships that would pass on their way to or from richer colonies. The cultivation of crops such as tobacco, cotton, cocoa, and ginger became the cornerstone of the economy. With the scale of Puerto Rico's economy reduced, colonial families tended to farm these crops themselves, and the demand for slaves was reduced.
With rising demand for sugar on the international market, major planters increased their cultivation and processing of sugar cane, which was labor-intensive. Sugarplantationssupplanted mining as Puerto Rico's main industry and kept demand high for African slavery. Spain promoted sugar cane development by granting loans and tax exemptions to the owners of the plantations. They were also given permits to participate in the African slave trade.
Provided ways by which slaves could obtain freedom:
The native-born Puerto Ricans (criollos) who wanted to serve in the regular Spanish army petitioned the Spanish Crown for that right. In 1741, the Spanish government established the Regimiento Fijo de Puerto Rico. Many of the former slaves, now freedmen, joined either the Fijo or the local civil militia. Puerto Ricans of African ancestry played an instrumental role in the defeat of SirRalph Abercrombyin theBritishinvasion of Puerto Rico in 1797.
TheRoyal Decree of Graces of 1815was intended to encourageSpaniardsand later other Europeans to settle and populate the colonies ofCubaandPuerto Rico. The decree encouraged the use of slave labor to revive agriculture and attract new settlers. The new agricultural class immigrating from other countries of Europe used slave labor in large numbers, and harsh treatment was frequent. The slaves resisted -from the early 1820s until 1868, a series of slave uprisings occurred on the island; the last was known as theGrito de Lares.
In July 1821, for instance, the slaveMarcos Xiorroplanned and conspired to lead a slave revolt against the sugar plantation owners and the Spanish Colonial government. Although the conspiracy was suppressed, Xiorro achieved legendary status among the slaves, and is part of Puerto Rico's heroic folklore.
The 1834 Royal Census of Puerto Rico established that 11% of the population were slaves, 35% were colored freemen (also known asfree people of colorin French colonies, meaning freemixed-race/black people), and 54% were white.In the following decade, the number of the slave population increased more than tenfold to 258,000, the result mostly of increased importation to meet the demand for labor on sugar plantations.
In 1836, the names and descriptions of slaves who had escaped, and details of their ownership were reported in theGaceta de Puerto Rico. If an African presumed to be a slave was captured and arrested, the information was published.
Planters became nervous because of the large number of slaves; they ordered restrictions, particularly on their movements outside a plantation. Rose Clemente, a 21st-century black Puerto Rican columnist, wrote: "Until 1846, Blacks on the island had to carry a notebook (Libreta system) to move around the island, like the passbook system inapartheidSouth Africa."
After the successful slave rebellion against the French in Saint-Domingue (Haiti) in 1803, establishing a new republic, the Spanish Crown became fearful that the "Criollos" (native born) of Puerto Rico andCuba, her last two remaining possessions, might follow suit. The Spanish government issued theRoyal Decree of Graces of 1815to attract European immigrants from non-Spanish countries to populate the island, believing that these new immigrants would be more loyal to Spain than the mixed-race Criollos. However, they did not expect the new immigrants to racially intermarry, as they did, and to identify completely with their new homeland.By 1850, most of the former Spanish possessions in the Americans had achieved independence.
On May 31, 1848, the Governor of Puerto Rico Juan Prim, in fear of an independence or slavery revolt, imposed draconian laws,"El Bando contra La Raza Africana",to control the behavior of all Black Puerto Ricans, free or slave.
On September 23, 1868, slaves, who had been promised freedom, participated in the short failed revolt against Spain which became known as "El Grito de Lares" or "The Cry of Lares". Many of the participants were imprisoned or executed.
During this period, Puerto Rico provided a means for people to leave some of the racial restrictions behind: under such laws asRegla del SacarorGracias al Sacar,a person of African ancestry could be considered legally white if able to prove they also had ancestors with at least one person per generation in the last four generations who had been legally white. Therefore, people of black ancestry with known white lineage became classified as white. This was the opposite of the later "one-drop rule" ofhypodescentin the United States, whereby persons of any known African ancestry were classified as black.
During the mid-19th century, a committee ofabolitionistswas formed in Puerto Rico that included many prominent Puerto Ricans. Dr.Ramón Emeterio Betances(1827–1898), whose mixed-race parents were wealthy landowners, believed in abolitionism, and together with fellow Puerto Rican abolitionistSegundo Ruiz Belvis(1829–1867), founded a clandestine organization called "The Secret Abolitionist Society". The objective of the society was to free slave children by paying for freedom when they were baptized. The event, which was also known as"aguas de libertad"(waters of liberty), was carried out at theNuestra Señora de la Candelaria CathedralinMayagüez. When the child was baptized, Betances would give money to the parents, which they used to buy the child's freedom from the master.
José Julián Acosta(1827–1891) was a member of a Puerto Rican commission, which included Ramón Emeterio Betances, Segundo Ruiz Belvis, andFrancisco Mariano Quiñones(1830–1908). The commission participated in the "Overseas Information Committee" which met inMadrid, Spain. There, Acosta presented the argument for the abolition ofslavery in Puerto Rico.On November 19, 1872,Román Baldorioty de Castro(1822–1889) together withLuis Padial(1832–1879),Julio Vizcarrondo(1830–1889) and the Spanish Minister of Overseas Affairs, Segismundo Moret (1833–1913), presented a proposal for the abolition of slavery.
On March 22, 1873, the Spanish government approved what became known as theMoret Law, which provided for gradual abolition.This edict granted freedom to slaves over 60 years of age, those belonging to the state, and children born to slaves after September 17, 1868.
The Moret Law established the Central Slave Registrar. In 1872 it began gathering the following data on the island's slave population: name, country of origin, present residence, names of parents, sex, marital status, trade, age, physical description, and master's name. This has been an invaluable resource for historians and genealogists.
On March 22, 1873, slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico, but with one significant caveat. The slaves were not emancipated; they had to buy their own freedom, at whatever price was set by their last masters. The law required that the former slaves work for another three years for their former masters, other people interested in their services, or for the state in order to pay some compensation.
The former slaves earned money in a variety of ways: some by trades, for instance as shoemakers, or laundering clothes, or by selling the produce they were allowed to grow, in the small patches of land allotted to them by their former masters. In a sense, they resembled the blacksharecroppersof the southern United States after theAmerican Civil War, but the latter did not own their land. They simply farmed another's land, for a share of the crops raised.The government created the Protector's Office which was in charge of overseeing the transition. The Protector's Office was to pay any difference owed to the former master once the initial contract expired.
The majority of the freed slaves continued to work for their former masters, but as free people, receiving wages for their labor.If the former slave decided not to work for his former master, the Protectors Office would pay the former master 23% of the former slave's estimated value, as a form of compensation.
The freed slaves became integrated into Puerto Rico's society.Racism has existed in Puerto Rico, but it is not considered to be as severe as other places in the New World, possibly because of the following factors:
Two Puerto Rican writers have written about racism;Abelardo Díaz Alfaro(1916–1999) andLuis Palés Matos(1898–1959), who was credited with creating the poetry genre known as Afro-Antillano.
TheTreaty of Parisof 1898 settled theSpanish–American War, which ended the centuries-long Spanish control over Puerto Rico. Like with other former Spanish territories, it now belonged to the United States.With the United States control over the island's institutions also came a reduction of the natives' political participation. In effect, the U.S. military government defeated the success of decades of negotiations for political autonomy between Puerto Rico's political class and Madrid's colonial administration.Puerto Ricans of African descent, aware of the opportunities and difficulties for blacks in the United States, responded in various ways. The racial bigotry of theJim Crow Lawsstood in contrast to the African-American expansion of mobility that theHarlem Renaissanceillustrated.
One Puerto Rican politician of African descent who distinguished himself during this period was the physician and politicianJosé Celso Barbosa(1857–1921). On July 4, 1899, he founded the pro-statehood Puerto Rican Republican Party and became known as the "Father of the Statehood for Puerto Rico" movement. Another distinguished Puerto Rican of African descent, who advocated Puerto Rico's independence, wasArturo Alfonso Schomburg(1874–1938). After emigrating to New York City in the United States, he amassed an extensive collection in preserving manuscripts and other materials of black Americans and the African diaspora. He is considered by some to be the "Father of Black History" in the United States, and a major study center and collection of the New York Public Library is named for him, theSchomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. He coined the termAfroborincano,meaning African-Puerto Rican.
After theUnited States Congressapproved theJones Actof 1917, Puerto Ricans were granted UScitizenship. As citizens Puerto Ricans were eligible for the military draft, and many were drafted into the armed forces of the United States during World War I. The armed forces were segregated until after World War II. Puerto Ricans of African descent were subject to the discrimination which was rampant in the military and the U.S.
Black Puerto Ricans residing in the mainland United States were assigned to all-black units.Rafael Hernández(1892–1965) and his brother Jesus, along with 16 more Puerto Ricans, were recruited byJazzbandleaderJames Reese Europeto join theUnited States Army's Orchestra Europe. They were assigned to the 369th Infantry Regiment, an African-American regiment; it gained fame during World War I and was nicknamed "The Harlem Hell Fighters" by theGermans.
The United States also segregated military units in Puerto Rico.Pedro Albizu Campos(1891–1965), who later became the leader of thePuerto Rican Nationalist Party, held the rank of lieutenant. He founded the "Home Guard" unit of Ponce and was later assigned to the 375th Infantry Regiment, an all-black Puerto Ricanregiment, which was stationed in Puerto Rico and never saw combat. Albizu Campos later said that the discrimination which he witnessed in the Armed Forces, influenced the development of his political beliefs.
Puerto Ricans of African descent were discriminated against in sports. Puerto Ricans who were dark-skinned and wanted to playMajor League Baseballin the United States, were not allowed to do so. In 1892 organized baseball had codified a color line, barringAfrican-Americanplayers, and any player who was dark-skinned, from any country.Ethnic African-Puerto Ricans continued to play baseball. In 1928,Emilio "Millito" Navarrotraveled to New York City and became the first Puerto Rican to play baseball in theNegro leagueswhen he joined theCuban Stars.He was later followed by others such asFrancisco Coimbre, who also played for the Cuban Stars.
The persistence of these men paved the way for the likes ofBaseball Hall of FamersRoberto ClementeandOrlando Cepeda, who played in the Major Leagues after the colorline was broken byJackie Robinsonof theBrooklyn Dodgersin 1947; they were inducted into theBaseball Hall of Famefor their achievements. Cepeda's fatherPedro Cepeda, was denied a shot at the major leagues because of his color. Pedro Cepeda was one of the greatest players of his generation, the dominant hitter in theProfessional Baseball League of Puerto Ricoafter its founding in 1938. He refused to play in theNegro leaguesdue to his abhorrence of the racism endemic to the segregated United States.
Black Puerto Ricans also participated in other sports as international contestants. In 1917,Nero Chenbecame the first Puerto Rican boxer to gain international recognition when he fought against (Panama) Joe Gan at the "Palace Casino" in New York.In the 1948 Summer Olympics (the XIV Olympics), celebrated in London, boxerJuan Evangelista Venegasmade sports history by becoming Puerto Rico's first Olympic medal winner when he beat Belgium's representative, Callenboat, on points for a unanimous decision. He won the bronze medal in boxing in theBantamweightdivision.The event was also historic because it was the first time that Puerto Rico had participated as a nation in an international sporting event. It was common for impoverished Puerto Ricans to use boxing as a way to earn an income.
On March 30, 1965,José "Chegui" TorresdefeatedWillie Pastranoby technical knockout and won theWorld Boxing CouncilandWorld Boxing Associationlight heavyweight championships. He became the third Puerto Rican and the first one of African descent to win a professional world championship.
Among those who exposed the racism and discrimination in the US which Puerto Ricans, especially Black Puerto Ricans, were subject to, wasJesús Colón. Colón is considered by many as the "Father of theNuyoricanmovement". He recounted his experiences in New York as a Black Puerto Rican in his bookLo que el pueblo me dice--: crónicas de la colonia puertorriqueña en Nueva York(What the people tell me---: Chronicles of the Puerto Rican colony in New York).
Critics of discrimination say that a majority of Puerto Ricans are racially mixed, but that they do not feel the need to identify as such. They argue that Puerto Ricans tend to assume that they are of Black African, American Indian, and European ancestry and only identify themselves as "mixed" only if they have parents who appear to be of distinctly different "races". Puerto Rico underwent a "whitening" process while under U.S. rule. There was a dramatic change in the numbers of people who were classified as "black" and "white" Puerto Ricans in the 1920 census, as compared to that in 1910. The numbers classified as "Black" declined sharply from one census to another (within 10 years' time). Historians suggest that more Puerto Ricans classified others as white because it was advantageous to do so at that time. In those years, census takers were generally the ones to enter the racial classification. Due to the power of Southern white Democrats, the US Census dropped the category of mulatto or mixed race in the 1930 census, enforcing the artificial binary classification of black and white. Census respondents were not allowed to choose their own classifications until the late 20th and early 21st centuries. It may have been that it was popularly thought it would be easier to advance economically and socially with the US if one were "white".
The descendants of the former slaves became instrumental in the development of Puerto Rico's political, economic and cultural structure. They overcame many obstacles and have contributed to the island's entertainment, sports, literature and scientific institutions. Their contributions and heritage can still be felt today in Puerto Rico's art, music, cuisine, and religious beliefs in everyday life.In Puerto Rico, March 22 is known as "Abolition Day" and it is a holiday celebrated by those who live in the island.The Spanish's limited focus on assimilating the black population, and maroon communities established from slave plantations, contributed to the majority African influence in black Puerto Rican culture.High amounts of interracial marriage and reproducing, since the 1500s, is the reason why the majority of Puerto Ricans are mixed-race European, African, Taino, but only a small number are of predominant or full African ancestry.
The first black people in the island came alongside Europeancolonistsas workers from Spain and Portugal known asLadinos.During the 1500s, the slaves that Spain imported to Puerto Rico and most of its other colonies, were mainly from theUpper Guinearegion.However, in the 1600s and 1700s, Spain imported large numbers of slaves fromLower Guineaand theCongo.According to various DNA studies, majority of the African ancestry among black and mixed-race Puerto Ricans comes from a few tribes such as theWolof,Mandinka,Dahomey,Fang,Bubi,Yoruba,Igbo, andCongolese, correlating to the modern-day countries ofSenegal,Mali,Benin,Equatorial Guinea,Nigeria, andAngola.Slaves came from all parts of the western coast of Africa, from Senegal to Angola. The Yoruba and Congolese made the most notable impacts to Puerto Rican culture.There's been evidence of intercolonial migration between Puerto Rico and its neighbors during the 1700s and 1800s, which consisted of migration of free blacks and purchases of slaves from neighboring islands.
Many African slaves imported to Cuba, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico spoke"Bozal" Spanish, aCreole languagethat was Spanish-based, with Congolese and Portuguese influence.Although Bozal Spanish became extinct in the nineteenth century, the African influence in the Spanish spoken in the island is still evident in the manyKongowords that have become a permanent part ofPuerto Rican Spanish.
Puerto Rican musical instruments such as barriles, drums with stretched animal skin, and Puerto Rican music-dance forms such asBombaorPlenaare likewise rooted in Africa. Bomba represents the strong African influence in Puerto Rico. Bomba is a music, rhythm and dance that was brought by West African slaves to the island.
Plena is another form of folkloric music of African origin. Plena was brought toPonceby blacks who immigrated north from the English-speaking islands south of Puerto Rico. Plena is a rhythm that is clearly African and very similar to Calypso, Soca and Dance hall music fromTrinidadandJamaica.
Bomba and Plena were played during the festival of Santiago (St. James), since slaves were not allowed to worship their own gods. Bomba and Plena evolved into countless styles based on the kind of dance intended to be used. These includedleró, yubá, cunyá, babúandbelén.The slaves celebrated baptisms, weddings, and births with the "bailes de bomba". Slaveowners, for fear of a rebellion, allowed the dances on Sundays. The women dancers would mimic and poke fun at the slave owners. Masks were and still are worn to ward off evil spirits and pirates. One of the most popular masked characters is theVejigante(vey-hee-GANT-eh). TheVejiganteis a mischievous character and the main character in the Carnivals of Puerto Rico.
Until 1953, Bomba and Plena were virtually unknown outside Puerto Rico. Island musiciansRafael Cortijo(1928–1982),Ismael Rivera(1931–1987) and the El Conjunto Monterrey orchestra introduced Bomba and Plena to the rest of the world. What Rafael Cortijo did with his orchestra was to modernize the Puerto Rican folkloric rhythms with the use of piano, bass, saxophones, trumpets, and other percussion instruments such as timbales, bongos, and replace the typical barriles (skin covered barrels) with congas.
Nydia Rios de Colon, a contributor to theSmithsonian Folklife Cookbook,also offers culinary seminars through the Puerto Rican Cultural Institute. She writes of the cuisine:
Similarly, Johnny Irizarry and Maria Mills have written:
In 1478, theCatholic Monarchsof Spain,Ferdinand II of AragonandIsabella I of Castile, established an ecclesiastical tribunal known as theSpanish Inquisition. It was intended to maintainCatholicorthodoxy in their kingdoms.
The Inquisition maintained no rota or religious court in Puerto Rico. However, heretics were written up and if necessary remanded to regional Inquisitional tribunals in Spain or elsewhere in the western hemisphere. Africans were not allowed to practice non-Christian, native religious beliefs. No single organized ethnic African religion survived intact from the times of slavery to the present in Puerto Rico. But, many elements of African spiritual beliefs have been incorporated intosyncreticideas and practices.Santería, aYoruba-Catholic syncretic mix, andPalo Mayombe,Kongolese traditions, are also practiced in Puerto Rico, the latter having arrived there at a much earlier time. A smaller number of people practiceVudú, which is derived fromDahomeymythology.
Palo Mayombe,or Congolese traditions, existed for several centuries before Santería developed during the 19th century.Guayamabecame nicknamed "the city of witches", because the religion was widely practiced in this town.Santeriais believed to have been organized in Cuba among its slaves. The Yoruba were brought to many places in the Caribbean and Latin America. They carried their traditions with them, and in some places, they held onto more of them. In Puerto Rico and Trinidad Christianity was dominant. Although converted to Christianity, the captured Africans did not abandon their traditional religious practices altogether.Santeríais a syncretic religion created between the diverse images drawn from the Catholic Church and the representational deities of the African Yoruba ethnic group ofNigeria. Santería is widely practiced in the town of Loíza.Sister traditions emerged in their own particular ways on many of the smaller islands. Similarly, throughout Europe, early Christianity absorbed influences from differing practices among the peoples, which varied considerably according to region, language and ethnicity.
Santería has many deities said to be the "top" or "head" God. These deities, which are said to have descended from heaven to help and console their followers, are known as "Orishas". According to Santería, the Orishas are the ones who choose the person each will watch over.
Unlike other religions where a worshiper is closely identified with a sect (such asChristianity), the worshiper is not always a "Santero". Santeros are the priests and the only official practitioners. (These "Santeros" are not to be confused with the Puerto Rico's craftsmen who carve and create religious statues from wood, which are also called Santeros). A person becomes a Santero if he passes certain tests and has been chosen by the Orishas.
Considering the 2020 Census is the first to allow respondents to apply multiple races in their responses, there is considerable overlap that while appearing contradictory is in reality reflective of Puerto Rico's mixed history and population. As of the 2020 Census, 17.1% of Puerto Ricans identify as white, 17.5% identify as black or black in combination with another race, 2.3% as Amerindian, 0.3% as Asian, and 74% as "Some Other Race Alone or in Combination."Although estimates vary, most sources estimate that about 60% of Puerto Ricans have significant African ancestry.The vast majority of black people in Puerto Rico are Afro–Puerto Rican, meaning they have been in Puerto Rico for generations, usually since the slave trade, forming an important part of Puerto Rican culture and society.Recent black immigrants have come to Puerto Rico, mainly from theDominican Republic,Haiti, and other Latin American and Caribbean countries, and to a lesser extent directly fromAfricaas well. Many black migrants from the United States and theVirgin Islandshave moved and settled in Puerto Rico.Also, many Afro–Puerto Ricans have migrated out of Puerto Rico, namely to the United States. There and in the US Virgin Islands, they make up the bulk of theU.S. Afro-Latinopopulation.
Under Spanish and American rule, Puerto Rico underwent a whitening process. Puerto Rico went from around 50% of its population classified as black and mulatto in the first quarter of the 19th century, to nearly 80% classified white by the middle of the 20th century.Under Spanish rule, Puerto Rico had laws such asRegla del SacarorGracias al Sacar, which classified persons of mixed African-European ancestry as white, which was the opposite of "one-drop rule" in US society after the American Civil War.Additionally, the Spanish government'sRoyal Decree of Graces of 1815encouraged immigration from other European countries. Heavy European immigration swelled Puerto Rico's population to about one million by the end of the 19th century, decreasing the proportion Africans made of Puerto Rico. In the early decades under US rule, census takers began to shift from classifying people as black to "white" and the society underwent what was called a "whitening" process from the 1910 to the 1920 census, in particular. During the mid 20th century, the US government forcefully sterilized Puerto Rican women, especially non-white Puerto Rican women.
Afro–Puerto Rican youth are learning more of their peoples' history from textbooks that encompass more Afro–Puerto Rican history.The 2010 US census recorded the first drop of the percentage white people made up of Puerto Rico, and the first rise in the black percentage, in over a century.Many of the  factors that may possibly perpetuate this trend include: more Puerto Ricans may start to identify as black, due to increasing black pride and African cultural awareness throughout the island, as well as an increasing number of black immigrants, especially from the Dominican Republic and Haiti, many of whom are illegal immigrants,and increasing emigration of white Puerto Ricans to the mainland US.
The following lists only include only the number of people who identify as black and do not attempt to estimate everyone with African ancestry. As noted in the earlier discussion, several of these cities were places where freedmen gathered after gaining freedom, establishing communities.
Themunicipalitieswith the highest percentages of residents who identify as black, as of 2020, were:
Loiza: 64.7%Canóvanas: 33.4%Maunabo: 32.7%Rio Grande: 32%Culebra: 27.7%Carolina: 27.3%Vieques: 26%Arroyo: 25.8%Luquillo: 25.7%Patillas: 24.1%Ceiba: 23.8%Juncos: 22.9%San Juan: 22.2%Toa Baja: 22.1%Salinas: 22.1%Cataño: 21.8%
A landmark study published in 2023 and focused exclusively on studying the genome of self-identified Afro-Puerto Ricans discovered that, as indicated by mitochondrial haplogroups, their average matrilineal lineage is 66% African, 29% Indigenous American and 5% European. Along the Y chromosome, 52% had African, 28% had Western European, 16% had Eurasian, and, notably, 4% had Indigenous American patrilines, which until that point had been believed to be extinct in the modern population of Puerto Rico.