Turkmens

Turkmens(Turkmen:Türkmenler,Түркменлер,توركمنلر‎,[tʏɾkmønˈløɾ];historically "the Turkmen") are aTurkic ethnic groupnative toCentral Asia, living mainly inTurkmenistan, northern and northeastern regions ofIranand north-westernAfghanistan. Sizeable groups of Turkmens are found also inUzbekistan,Kazakhstan, and theNorth Caucasus(Stavropol Krai). They speak theTurkmen language,which is classified as a part of theEastern Oghuzbranch of theTurkic languages.
In theearly Middle ages, Turkmens called themselvesOghuz; in theMiddle Ages, they took theethnonymTurkmen.These early Oghuz Turkmens moved westward from theAltai Mountainsthrough theSiberiansteppes, and settled in the region now known as Turkmenistan. Further westward migration of theTurkmen tribesfrom the territory of modern Turkmenistan and the rest of Central Asia started from the 11th century and continued until the 18th century. These Turkmen tribes played a significant role in the ethnic formation of such peoples asAnatolian Turks,Turkmens of Iraq, andSyria, as well as theTurkic population of IranandAzerbaijan.To preserve their independence, those tribes that remained in Turkmenistan were united in military alliances, although remnants of tribal relations remained until the 20th century. Their traditional occupations were farming, cattle breeding, and various crafts. Ancient samples ofapplied art(primarily carpets and jewelry) indicate a high level offolk artculture.
TheSeljuks,Khwarazmians,Qara Qoyunlu,Aq Qoyunlu,Ottomans, andAfsharidsare also believed to descend from the Turkmen tribes ofQiniq,Begdili,Yiwa,Bayandur,Kayi, andAfsharrespectively.
The termTurkmenis generally applied to the Turkic tribes that have been distributed across theNearandMiddle East, as well as Central Asia, from the 11th century to modern times.Originally, all Turkic tribes who belonged to the Turkic dynastic mythological system and/or converted toIslam(e.g.Karluks,Oghuz Turks,Khalajs,Kanglys,Kipchaks, etc.) were designated"Turkmens".Only later did this word come to refer to a specific ethnonym. The generally accepted view for the etymology of the name is that it comes fromTürkand the Turkic emphasizing suffix-men, meaning "'most Turkish of the Turks' or 'pure-blooded Turks.'"Afolk etymology, dating back to the Middle Ages and found in the works ofal-BiruniandMahmud al-Kashghari, instead derives the suffix-menfrom thePersiansuffix-mānand, with the resulting word meaning "like a Turk". While formerly the dominant etymology in modern scholarship, this mixed Turkic-Persian derivation is now typically viewed as incorrect.An alternative etymology was proposed by 16th-century Ottoman historianMehmed Neşri, who derived it from the Persian phraseTurk-iiman(ترک ایمان), meaning "Turk of the faith" (i.e.Islam).This theory was rejected as incorrect by turkologistÁrmin Vámbéry, who argued that it relied upon an incorrect understanding of Persian grammar:
Despite various criticisms, it remains a theory advocated by some today, such as linguist and ethnographerDávid Somfai.Former president of TurkmenistanSaparmurad Niyazovwas also among the advocates of this etymology, although he altered the meaning of the words, writing in hisRuhnamathat, rather than "Muslim Turk", it meant "made of light":
Today, the terms Turkmen and Turkoman are usually restricted to two Turkic groups: the Turkmen people ofTurkmenistanand adjacent parts ofCentral Asiaand Iran, and theTurkomans of IraqandSyria.
Türkmens were mentioned near the end of the 10th century A.D inIslamic literatureby the Arab geographeral-MuqaddasiinAhsan Al-Taqasim Fi Ma'rifat Al-Aqalim.In his work, which was completed in 987 A.D, al-Muqaddasi writes about Turkmens twice while depicting the region as the frontier of the Muslim possessions in Central Asia.
Earlier references to Türkmen might betrwkkmˀn(if nottrkwmˀn"translator"), mentioned in an 8th-century Sogdian letter and 特拘夢Tejumeng(<MCZS*dək̚-kɨo-mɨuŋ), another name ofSogdia, besidesSuyi粟弋 andSute粟特, according to the Chinese encyclopediaTongdian.However, even if 特拘夢 might have transcribedTürkmen, these "Türkmens" might beKarluksinstead of modern Türkmens' Oghuz-speaking ancestors;asTürkmenmight be the Karluks' equivalent of theGöktürks' political termKök Türk.Zuev(1960) links the tribal name 餘沒渾Yumeihun(< MC *iʷо-muət-хuən) inTang Huiyaoto the nameYomutof a modern Turkmen clan.
Towards the end of the 11th century, inDivânü Lügat'it-Türk(Compendium of the Turkic Dialects),Mahmud Kashgariuses "Türkmen" synonymously with "Oğuz".He describes Oghuz as aTurkic tribeand says that Oghuz and Karluks were both known as Turkmens.
The origins of the Turkic peoples has been a topic of much discussion, but evidence points either to a homeland inSouth Central Siberia, close to theAltai MountainsandLake Baikalor farther East inMongolia. Archaeogenetic, historical and linguistic evidence suggests that the earliest Turkic peoples were "within or close to the Northeast Asian genepool" but made up of multiple heterogeneous groups, with their exact location of their homeland remaining disputed.The genetic and historical evidence suggests that the early Turkic peoples, including the ancestors of the Turkmen people -Oghuz Turks,harbored bothWest-EurasianandNortheast Asianancestry and were located in and around theAltai regionand western Mongolia. LatermedievalTurkic groups exhibited a wide range of both West-Eurasian and East Asian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboringIranianandMongolic peoples.
Before the formation of the Turkmen ethnicity, the Oghuz Turks inhabited parts ofTransoxiana, the western portion ofTurkestan, a region that largely corresponds to much of Central Asia as far east asXinjiang. Famous historian andruler of Khwarazmof the XVII centuryAbu al-Ghazi Bahadurlinks the origin of all Turkmens to 24Oghuz tribesin his literary work "Genealogy of the Turkmens".InByzantine, then in the European sources and later in the American tradition, Turkmens were calledTurkomans,in the countries of theNearandMiddle East- Turkmens, as well asTorkaman,Terekeme; inKievan Rus- Torkmens;in the Duchy of Moscow - Taurmen;and in theTsarist Russia- Turkoman and Trukhmen.
In the 7th century AD, Oghuz tribes had moved westward from theAltai Mountainsthrough theSiberiansteppes, and settled in this region. They also penetrated as far west as theVolgabasin and theBalkans. These early Turkmens are believed to have mixed with nativeSogdianpeoples and lived as pastoral nomads until being conquered by the Russians in the 19th century.
Migration of theTurkmen tribesfrom the territory of Turkmenistan and the rest of Central Asia in the south-west direction began mainly from the 11th century and continued until the 18th century. These Turkmen tribes played a significant role in the ethnic formation of such peoples asAnatolian Turks,Turkmens of IraqandSyria, as well as theTurkic population of IranandAzerbaijan.To preserve their independence, those tribes that remained in Turkmenistan were united in military alliances, although remnants of tribal relations remained until the 20th century. Their traditional occupations were farming, cattle breeding, and various crafts. Ancient samples ofapplied art(primarily carpets and jewelry) indicate a high level offolk artculture.
Haplogroup Q-M242is commonly found in Siberia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia. This haplogroup forms a large percentage of the paternal lineages of Turkmens.
Grugniet al.(2012) found Q-M242 in 42.6% (29/68) of a sample of Turkmens fromGolestan, Iran.Di Cristofaroet al.(2013) found Q-M25 in 31.1% (23/74) and Q-M346 in 2.7% (2/74) for a total of 33.8% (25/74) Q-M242 in a sample of Turkmens fromJawzjan.Karafetet al.(2018) found Q-M25 in 50.0% (22/44) of another sample of Turkmens from Turkmenistan.Haplogroup Q has seen its highest frequencies in the Turkmens fromKarakalpakstan(mainlyYomut) at 73%.
A genetic study on maternalmitochondrial DNA(mtDNA) haplogroups of a Turkmen sample describes a mixture of mostly West Eurasian maternal lineages and a minority of East Eurasian lineages. Turkmens also have two unusual mtDNA markers with polymorphic characteristics, only found in Turkmens and southern Siberians.
Turkmens belong to theOghuz tribes, who originated on the periphery ofCentral Asiaand founded gigantic empires beginning from the 3rd millennium BC. Subsequently,Turkmen tribesfounded lasting dynasties in Central Asia,Middle East,PersiaandAnatoliathat had a profound influence on the course of history of those regions.The most prominent of those dynasties werethe Ghaznavids,Seljuks,Ottomans,AfsharidsandQajars. Representatives of the Turkmen tribes of Ive and Bayandur were also the founders of the short-lived, but formidable states ofKara KoyunluandAk KoyunluTurkmens respectively.
Turkmens that stayed in Central Asia largely survived unaffected by the Mongol period due to their semi-nomadic lifestyle and became traders along theCaspian, which led to contacts withEastern Europe. Following the decline of the Mongols,Tamerlaneconquered the area and hisTimurid Empirewould rule, until it too fractured, as theSafavids,Khanate of Bukhara, andKhanate of Khivaall contested the area. The expandingRussian Empiretook notice ofTurkmenistan's extensive cotton industry, during the reign ofPeter the Great, and invaded the area. Following the decisiveBattle of Geok Tepein January 1881, the bulk of Turkmen tribes found themselves under the rule of theRussian Emperor, which was formalized in theAkhal Treatybetween Russia and Persia. After theRussian Revolution,Sovietcontrol was established by 1921, and in 1924 Turkmenistan became theTurkmen Soviet Socialist Republic.Turkmenistangained independence in 1991.
The Turkmen ofTurkmenistan, like their kin inUzbekistan,Afghanistan, andIranare predominantlyMuslims. According the U.S. Department of State'sInternational Religious Freedom Reportfor 2019,
The Turkmen adopted Islam between the 12th and 14th centuries. Sufi orders like theYasawiyaandKubrawiyagreatly contributed to the conversion of the Turkmens to Islam.
The great majority ofTurkmenreadily identify themselves asMuslimsand acknowledgeIslamas an integral part of their cultural heritage.The country of Turkmenistan encourages the conceptualization of "Turkmen Islam", or worship that is often mixed with veneration of elders and saints, life-cycle rituals, and Sufi practices.
Since Turkmenistan's independence saw an increase in religious practices and the development of institutions like the Muftiate and the building of mosques, today it is often regulated.
The government leadership of Turkmenistan often uses Islam to legitimize its role in society by sponsoring holiday celebrations such as iftar dinners during Ramadan and presidential pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia. This sponsorship has validated the country's two presidents (NyýazowandBerdimuhamedow) as pious Turkmen, giving them an aura of cultural authority.
The Russian Academy of Sciences has identified many instances ofsyncreticinfluence of pre-IslamicTurkicbelief systems on practice of Islam among Turkmen, including placing offerings before trees.The Turkmen wordtaňry, meaning "God", derives from the TurkicTengri, the name of the supreme god in the pre-Islamic Turkic pantheon.The Turkmen language features a multitude of euphemisms for "wolf", because of a belief that speaking the actual word while tending a flock of sheep will invoke a wolf's appearance.In other examples of syncretism, some infertile Turkmen women, rather than praying, step or jump over a live wolf in order to assist them in getting pregnant, and children born subsequently are typically given names associated with wolves; alternatively the mother may visit shrines of Muslim saints.The future is divined by reading of dried camel dung by specialfortune tellers.
Turkmen (Turkmen:Türkmençe,Түркменче) is aTurkic languagespoken by the Turkmens ofCentral Asia, mainly ofTurkmenistan,Iran, andAfghanistan. It has an estimated five million native speakers in Turkmenistan, a further 719,000 speakers in NortheasternIranand 1.5 million people in NorthwesternAfghanistan.
The Turkmen language is closely related toAzerbaijani,Turkish,Gagauz,Qashqai, andCrimean Tatar, sharing common linguistic features with each of those languages. There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between these languages.However, the closest language of Turkmen is consideredKhorasani Turkic, spoken in northeastern regions of Iran and with which it shares the eastern subbranch of Oghuz languages, as well as Khorezm, the Oghuz dialect of Uzbek language spoken mainly along the Turkmenistan border.
Thestandardized formof Turkmen (spoken in Turkmenistan) is based on theTekedialect, while Iranian Turkmen uses mostly theYomuddialect, andAfghan Turkmenuse theErsarydialect.
In Iran, the Turkmen language comes second after the Azerbaijani language in terms of the number of speakers of Turkic languages of Iran.
Turkmen literature comprises oral compositions and written texts in oldOghuz TurkicandTurkmenlanguages. Turkmens have joint claims to a great number of literary works written in Old Oghuz Turkic andPersian(bySeljuksin 11-12th centuries) languages with other people of the Oghuz Turkic origin, mainly ofAzerbaijanandTurkey. This works include, but are not limited to theBook of Dede Korkut,Goroglyand others.The medieval Turkmen literature was heavily influenced byArabicand Persian, and used mostlyArabic alphabet.
There is general consensus, however, that distinctively Turkmen literature originated in 18th century with the poetry ofMagtymguly Pyragy, who is considered the father of the Turkmen literature.Other prominent Turkmen poets of that era areDöwletmämmet Azady(Magtymguly's father), Nurmuhammet Andalyp, Abdylla Şabende, Şeýdaýy, Mahmyt Gaýyby and Gurbanally Magrupy.
In the 20th century, Turkmenistan's most prominent Turkmen-language writer wasBerdi Kerbabayev, whose novelDecisive Step, later made into a motion picture directed byAlty Garlyyev, is considered the apotheosis of modern Turkmen fiction. It earned him the USSR State Prize for Literature in 1948.
The musical art of the Turkmens is an integral part of the musical art of theTurkic peoples. The music of the Turkmen people is closely related to theKyrgyzandKazakhfolk forms. Important musical traditions include traveling singers calledbakshy, who sing with instruments such as the two-stringedlutecalleddutar.
Other important musical instruments aregopuz,tüydük,dombura, and gyjak. The most famous Turkmen bakshys are those who lived in the 19th century: Amangeldi Gönübek, Gulgeldi ussa, Garadali Gokleng, Yegen Oraz bakshy, Hajygolak, Nobatnyyaz bakshy, Oglan bakshy, Durdy bakshy, Shukur bakshy, Chowdur bakshy and others. Usually they narrated the woeful and gloomy events of the Turkmen history through their music. The names and music of these bakshys have become legendary among the Turkmen people, and passed orally from generation to generation.
The Central Asian classical music traditionmuqamis also present in Turkmenistan.In the 20th century,Danatar Ovezovbegan composing classical music using Turkmen themes, and that classical expression of Turkmen motifs and melodies reached its apotheosis in the compositions ofNury Halmammedov.
Embroidery
Turkmen pictorialembroiderybecame widespread in theScythianperiod and reached great perfection in other periods. It is known that for a long time the Turkmens were engaged in the production ofsilkas the main material for embroidery, and Turkmen women and girls embroidered their dresses with colored silks. All these deeds are clearly expressed in the songs ofTurkmen womenand in the oralTurkmen literature.
The main materials for Turkmen embroidery are thread and fabric. There are several types of threads: natural threads such as silk andcottonthreads; synthetic and acrylic threads. As for the types of fabrics, silk andwoolenfabrics are usually used for embroidery.
It is customary for the Turkmens to embroider with colored silks girls' and men's skullcaps (tahya), collars and sleeves of women's dresses (and in more distant times, men's shirts), the lower part of pants protruding from under the dress, various small bags for storing small things.
Weaving
Weaving is one of the types of home craft that has its roots in the deep past. During excavations of many ancient and early medieval settlements on the territory of Turkmenistan, archaeologists discovered fragments of cotton and woolen fabrics, the analysis of which does not exclude local production: the warp and wefts (transverse threads) have the same thickness, the yarn is single, the weave is simple.
The techniques of weaving craft of Turkmen women are similar to homespun production of other peoples. First, there were three stages of preparation of different types of threads. To obtain cotton thread: 1) cleaning cotton from seeds using a small machine, loosening the resulting fiber with rods, rolling into small bunches; 2) spinning the fiber with a spinning wheel, twisting it into a thread and winding the threads into skeins; 3) winding the threads on the hook and bobbin. For woolen thread: 1) washing and drying wool, scuttling with twigs until a fluffy mass is obtained; 2) combing, loosening, yarn and twisting into a thread with a spindle, winding into skeins; 3) dyeing skeins. For silk thread: 1) cleaning and unwinding (sarmak) cocoons (goza) with a spinning wheel (parh), steaming in a boiler with boiling water; 2) fixing the threads on the spindle using a rotating spinning wheel, twisting the threads into one thread, rewinding them from the spindle into a ball, then into skeins; 3) dyeing skeins, drying in the sun.
Home weaving was extremely widespread throughout the territory of Turkmenistan. In almost every family, weaving skills were instilled in girls from an early age. They began to learn the art of making yarn, weaving and sewing from the age of 8–10. Fabrics, depending on the purpose, were divided into various types: for sewing women's and men's clothing, thin fabric for camel wool dressing gowns, for cotton tablecloths was highly valued. Bags for storing grain and flour were made of fabric of thick twisted yarn, narrow strong strips of fabric (5–12 cm) were used to fasten the poles to the yurt lattice. Using a simple technique of weaving, the craftswomen achieved a great effect in the manufacture of peculiar national fabrics, which cannot be reproduced in mechanical production: a loom consisting of 3-4 columns dug into the ground, a transverse roller, a heald. Tools made of wood in the form of asaberwere used to seal the weft threads.
Characteristics of traditional Turkmen cuisine are rooted in the largely nomadic nature of day-to-day life prior to the Soviet period coupled with a long local tradition, dating back millennia before the arrival of the Turkmen in the region, of white wheat production.  Baked goods, especially flat bread (Turkmen:çörek) typically baked in atandoor, make up a large proportion of the daily diet, along with cracked wheat porridge (Turkmen:ýarma), wheat puffs (Turkmen:pişme), and dumplings (Turkmen:börek).  Since sheep-, goat-, and camel husbandry are traditional mainstays of nomadic Turkmen, mutton, goat meat, and camel meat were most commonly eaten, variously ground and stuffed in dumplings, boiled in soup, or grilled on spits in chunks (Turkmen:şaşlyk) or as fingers of ground, spiced meat (Turkmen:kebap).  Rice forplovwas reserved for festive occasions.  Due to lack of refrigeration in nomad camps, dairy products from sheep-, goat-, and camel milk were fermented to keep them from spoiling quickly.  Fish consumption was largely limited to tribes inhabiting the Caspian Sea shoreline.  Fruits and vegetables were scarce, and in nomad camps limited mainly to carrots, squash, pumpkin, and onions.  Inhabitants of oases enjoyed more varied diets, with access to pomegranate-, fig-, and stone fruit orchards; vineyards; and of course melons. Areas with cotton production could use cottonseed oil and sheep herders used fat from the fat-tailed sheep.  The major traditional imported product was tea.
TheRoyal Geographical Societyreported in 1882,
In sharp contrast to other Central Asian and Turkic ethnic groups, Turkmen do not eat horse meat, and in fact eating of horse meat is prohibited by law in Turkmenistan.
Conquest by the Russian Empire in the 1880s introduced new foods, including such meats as beef, pork, and chicken, as well as potatoes, tomatoes, cabbage, and cucumbers, though they did not find widespread use in most Turkmen households until the Soviet period. While now consumed widely, they are, strictly speaking, not considered "traditional".
Before the establishment ofSoviet powerinCentral Asia, it was difficult to identify distinct ethnic groups in the region. Sub-ethnic andsupra-ethnicloyalties were more important to people than ethnicity. When asked to identify themselves, most Central Asians would name their kin group, neighborhood, village, religion or the state in which they lived; the idea that a state should exist to serve an ethnic group was unknown. That said, most Turkmen could identify the tribe to which they belonged, though they might not identify themselves as Turkmen.
Most Turkmen were nomads until the 19th century when they began to settle the area south of theAmu Darya. Many Turkmen became semi-nomadic, herding sheep and camels during spring, summer, and fall, but planting crops, wintering in oasis camps, and harvesting the crops in the summer and autumn.  As a rule they did not settle in cities and towns until the advent of the Soviet government. This mobile lifestyle precluded identification with anyone outside one's kin group and led to frequent conflicts between differentTurkmen tribes, particularly regarding access to water.
In collaboration with the local nationalists, the Soviet government sought to transform the Turkmen and other similar ethnic groups in the USSR into modern socialist nations that based their identity on a fixed territory and a common language.  Prior to theBattle of Geok Tepein January 1881 and subsequent conquest of Merv in 1884, the Turkmen "retained the condition of predatory, horse-riding nomads, who were greatly feared by their neighbours as 'man-stealing Turks.'  Until subjugated by the Russians, the Turkmens were a warlike people, who conquered their neighbours and regularly captured ethnic Persians for sale as slaves in Khiva.  It was their boast that not one Persian had crossed their frontier except with a rope round his neck."
The Soviet-led standardization of the Turkmen language, education, and projects to promote ethnic Turkmen in industry, government and higher education led growing numbers of Turkmen to identify with a larger national Turkmen culture rather than with sub-national, pre-modern forms of identity.After gaining independence from the Soviet Union, Turkmen historians went to great lengths to prove that the Turkmen had inhabited their current territory since time immemorial; some historians even tried to deny the nomadic heritage of the Turkmen.
Turkmen lifestyle was heavily invested in horsemanship and as a prominent horse culture, Turkmen horse-breeding was an ages old tradition. Before the Soviet era, a proverb stated that the Turkmen's home was where his horse happened to stand. In spite of changes prompted during the Soviet period, the Ahal Teke tribe in southern Turkmenistan has remained very well known for its horses, theAkhal-Tekedesert horse– and the horse breeding tradition has returned to its previous prominence in recent years.
Many tribal customs still survive among modern Turkmen. Unique to Turkmen culture iskalimwhich is agroom's "dowry", that can be quite expensive and often results in the widely practicedtradition ofbridal kidnapping.In something of a modern parallel, in 2001, President Saparmurat Niyazov had introduced a state enforced "kalim", which required all foreigners who wanted to marry a Turkmen woman to pay a sum of no less than $50,000.The law was repealed in March 2005.
Other customs include the consultation of tribal elders, whose advice is often eagerly sought and respected. Many Turkmen still live in extended families where various generations can be found under the same roof, especially in rural areas.
The music of the nomadic and rural Turkmen people reflects rich oral traditions, where epics such as Koroglu are usually sung by itinerant bards. These itinerant singers are calledbakshyand sing either a cappella or with instruments such as thedutar, a two-stringedlute.
Since Turkmenistan's independence in 1991, a cultural revival has taken place with the return of a moderate form ofIslamand celebration ofNovruz, the Persian New Year marking the onset of spring.
Turkmen can be divided into various social classes including the urban intelligentsia and workers whose role in society is different from that of the rural peasantry. Secularism andatheismremain prominent for many Turkmen intellectuals who favor moderate social changes and often view extreme religiosity and cultural revival with some measure of distrust.
The five traditional carpet rosettes, orgul, calledgölin Turkmen, that form motifs in the country'sstate emblemandflag, represent the five majorTurkmen tribes.
Sports have historically been an important part of Turkmen life. Such sports ashorseback ridingandGoreshhave been praised in Turkmen literature. During theSoviet era, Turkmen athletes competed in numerous competitions, includingOlympic gamesas part of theSoviet Union teamand, in 1992, as part of theUnified Team.After Turkmenistan gained her independence, new ways of establishing physical and sports movements in the country began to emerge. To implement a new sports policy, new multi-purpose stadiums, physical education and health complexes, sports schools and facilities were built in all regions of the country. Turkmenistan also has a modern Olympic village which hosted2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games, and is unparalleled in Central Asia.
Turkmenistan supports the country's sports movements and encourages sports on a state level. Whilefootballremains the most popular sport, such sports as Turkmen goresh, horseback riding and latelyice hockeyare also very popular among Turkmens.
In 1911, the population of Turkmens in the Russian Empire was estimated to be 290,170, and it was "conjectured that their total number [in all countries] does not exceed 350,000".In 1995, Turkmen academics estimated
Today the Turkmen people of Central Asia and near neighbors live in:
Iranian Turkmensare a branch of Turkmen people who live mainly in northern and northeastern regions of Iran. Their region is calledTurkmen Sahraand includes substantial parts ofGolestanprovince. Representatives of such contemporaryTurkmen tribesasYomut, Goklen, Īgdīr,Saryk,SalarandTekehave lived in Iran since the 16th century,though ethnic history of Turkmens in Iran starts with theSeljuk conquestof the region in the 11th century.
TheAfghan Turkmenpopulation in the 1990s was estimated at 200,000. The original Turkmen groups came from east of theCaspian Seainto northwestern Afghanistan at various periods, particularly after the end of the 19th century when the Russians moved into their territory. They established settlements fromBalkh ProvincetoHerat Province, where they are now concentrated; smaller groups settled inKunduz Province. Others came in considerable numbers as a result of the failure of theBasmachi revoltsagainst theBolsheviksin the 1920s.Turkmen tribes, of which there are twelve major groups in Afghanistan, base their structure on genealogies traced through the male line. Senior members wield considerable authority. Formerly a nomadic and warlike people feared for their lightning raids on caravans, Turkmen in Afghanistan are farmer-herdsmen and important contributors to the economy. They broughtkarakul sheepto Afghanistan and are also renowned makers of carpets, which, with karakul pelts, are major hard currency export commodities.Turkmen jewelryis also highly prized.
A long established Turkmen colony resides inStavropol Kraiof southernRussia. The local ethnicRussianpopulation often refers to them asTrukhmen, and these Turkmen sometimes use the self-designationTurkpen.According to the2010 Census of Russia, they numbered 15,048, and accounted for 0.5% of the total population of Stavropol Krai.
The Turkmens are said to have migrated into theCaucasusin the 17th century, mostly from theMangyshlakregion. These migrants belonged mainly to the Chowdur (in Russian "Chaudorov" or "Chavodur"), Sonchadj and Ikdir tribes. The early settlers were nomadic but over time became sedentary. In their cultural life the Trukhmens of today differ very little from their neighbours and are now settled farmers and stockbreeders.
Although the Turkmen language belongs to the Oghuz group of Turkic languages, in Stavropol it has been strongly influenced by theNogai language, which belongs to theKipchakgroup. The phonetic system, grammatical structure and to some extent also the vocabulary have been somewhat influenced.