Egypt

Egypt(Arabic:مصرMiṣr[mesˁr],Egyptian Arabic pronunciation:[mɑsˤr]), officially theArab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning thenortheast corner of Africaandsouthwest corner of Asiavia theSinai Peninsula. It is bordered by theMediterranean Seatothe north, theGaza StripofPalestineandIsraeltothe northeast, theRed Seato the east,Sudantothe south, andLibyatothe west; theGulf of Aqabain the northeast separates Egypt fromJordanandSaudi Arabia.Cairois the capital,largest city, and leading cultural center, whileAlexandriais the second-largest city and an important hub of industry and tourism.At approximately 107 million inhabitants, Egypt is thethird-most populouscountry in Africa and14th-most populated in the world.
Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country, tracing its heritage along theNile Deltaback to the 6th–4th millennia BCE. Considered acradle of civilisation,Ancient Egyptsaw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government.Egypt was an early and importantcentre of Christianity, lateradopting Islamfrom the seventh century onwards. Cairo became the capital of theFatimid Caliphatein the tenth century and of the subsequentMamluk Sultanatein the 13th century. Egypt then became part of theOttoman Empirein 1517, until its local rulerMuhammad Aliestablished modern Egypt as an autonomousKhedivatein 1867. The country was thenoccupiedby theBritish Empirealong withSudanand gained independence in 1922 asa monarchy.
Following the1952 revolution, Egypt declared itself arepublic. For a brief period between 1958 and 1961 Egypt merged withSyriato form theUnited Arab Republic. Egypt foughtseveral armed conflictswith Israel in1948,1956,1967and1973, andoccupiedtheGaza Stripintermittently until 1967. In 1978, Egypt signed theCamp David Accords, whichrecognised Israelin exchange for its withdrawal from the occupied Sinai. After theArab Spring, which led to the2011 Egyptian revolutionand overthrow ofHosni Mubarak, the country faced aprotracted period of political unrest; its firstdemocratic election in 2012resulted in the short-lived,Muslim Brotherhood-aligned government ofMohamed Morsi, which wasoverthrownby the military aftermass protests in 2013. The current government is asemi-presidential republicled byAbdel Fattah el-Sisi, who waselected in 2014but is widely regarded asauthoritarian.
Egypt is adeveloping countrywith thesecond-largest economy in Africa. It is considered to be aregional powerin the Middle East, North Africa and theMuslim world, and amiddle powerworldwide.Islamis theofficial religionandArabicis official language. Egypt is a founding member of the United Nations, theNon-Aligned Movement, theArab League, theAfrican Union,Organisation of Islamic Cooperation,World Youth Forum, and a member ofBRICS.
The English name "Egypt" is derived from theAncient Greek"Aígyptos" ("Αἴγυπτος"), viaMiddle French"Egypte" andLatin"Aegyptus". It is reflected in early GreekLinear Btablets as "a-ku-pi-ti-yo".The adjective "aigýpti-"/"aigýptios" was borrowed into Coptic as "gyptios", and from there intoArabicas "qubṭī", back formed into "قبط" (qubṭ), whence English "Copt". ProminentAncient Greekhistorian andGeographer,Strabo, provided afolk etymologystating that "Αἴγυπτος" (Aigýptios) had originally evolved as acompoundfrom "Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως" (Aegaeou huptiōs), meaning "Below the Aegean".
"Miṣr" (Arabic pronunciation:[misˤɾ]; "مِصر") is theClassical Quranic Arabicand modern official name of Egypt, while "Maṣr" (Egyptian Arabic pronunciation:[mɑsˤɾ];مَصر) is the local pronunciation inEgyptian Arabic.The current name of Egypt, Misr/Misir/Misru, stems from theAncientSemiticname for it. The term originally connoted "Civilisation" or "Metropolis".Classical ArabicMiṣr(Egyptian ArabicMaṣr) is directly cognate with theBiblical HebrewMiṣráyīm(מִצְרַיִם / מִצְרָיִם), meaning "the two straits", a reference to the predynastic separation ofUpper and Lower Egypt. Also mentioned in several Semitic languages asMesru,MisirandMasar.The oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is theAkkadian"mi-iṣ-ru" ("miṣru")related tomiṣru/miṣirru/miṣaru, meaning "border" or "frontier".TheNeo-Assyrian Empireused the derived term,Mu-ṣur.
There is evidence ofrock carvingsalong theNileterraces and in desert oases. In the10th millennium BCE, a culture ofhunter-gatherersandfisherswas replaced by agrain-grinding culture. Climate changes orovergrazingaround 8000BCEbegan to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming theSahara. Earlytribal peoplesmigrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agriculturaleconomyand more centralised society.
By about 6000 BCE, aNeolithicculture took root in the Nile Valley.During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently inUpper and Lower Egypt. TheBadarianculture and the successorNaqadaseries are generally regarded as precursors todynastic Egypt. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence ofEgyptian hieroglyphicinscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BCE.
A unified kingdom was foundedc.3150BCE by KingMenes, leading to aseries of dynastiesthat ruled Egypt for the next three millennia.Egyptian cultureflourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in itsreligion,arts,languageand customs. Thefirst two ruling dynastiesof a unified Egypt set the stage for theOld Kingdomperiod,c.2700–2200BCE, which constructed manypyramids, most notably theThird Dynastypyramid of Djoserand theFourth DynastyGiza pyramids.
TheFirst Intermediate Periodushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years.Stronger Nile floods and stabilisation of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in theMiddle Kingdomc.2040BCE, reaching a peak during the reign of PharaohAmenemhat III. Asecond period of disunityheralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the SemiticHyksos. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BCE and founded a new capital atAvaris. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led byAhmose I, who founded theEighteenth Dynastyand relocated the capital fromMemphistoThebes.
TheNew Kingdomc.1550–1070BCE began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as aninternational powerthat expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south asTombosinNubia, and included parts of theLevantin the east. This period is noted for some of the most well knownPharaohs, includingHatshepsut,Thutmose III,Akhenatenand his wifeNefertiti,TutankhamunandRamesses II. The first historically attested expression ofmonotheismcame during this period asAtenism. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded and conquered byLibyans,NubiansandAssyrians, but native Egyptians eventually drove them out and regained control of their country.
In 525 BCE, theAchaemenid Empire, led byCambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaohPsamtik IIIat the battle ofPelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title ofpharaoh, but ruled Egypt from his home ofSusain Persia (modern Iran), leaving Egypt under the control of asatrapy. The entireTwenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt, from 525 to 402 BCE, save forPetubastis III, was an entirely Achaemenid-ruled period, with the Achaemenid emperors all being granted the title of pharaoh. A few temporarily successful revolts against the Achaemenids marked the fifth century BCE, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Achaemenids.
TheThirtieth Dynastywas the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. Itfell to the Achaemenids againin 343 BCE after the last native Pharaoh, KingNectanebo II, was defeated in battle. ThisThirty-first Dynasty of Egypt, however, did not last long, as the Achaemenids were toppled several decades later byAlexander the Great. The Macedonian Greek general of Alexander,Ptolemy I Soter, founded thePtolemaic dynasty.
ThePtolemaic Kingdomwas a powerfulHellenisticstate, extending from southern Syria in the east, toCyreneto the west, and south to the frontier with Nubia.Alexandriabecame the capital city and a centre ofGreekculture and trade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves as the successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.
The last ruler from thePtolemaicline wasCleopatra VII, who committed suicide following the burial of her loverMark Antony, afterOctavianhad captured Alexandria and her mercenary forces had fled.
The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome.
Christianity was brought to Egypt bySaint Mark the Evangelistin the 1st century.Diocletian's reign (284–305 CE) marked the transition from theRomanto theByzantineera in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. TheNew Testamenthad by then been translated into Egyptian. After theCouncil of Chalcedonin CE 451, a distinctEgyptian Coptic Churchwas firmly established.
The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a briefSasanid Persianinvasion early in the 7th century amidst theByzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628during which they established a new short-lived province for ten years known asSasanian Egypt, until 639–42, when Egypt was invaded andconquered by the Islamic caliphateby theMuslimArabs. When they defeated the Byzantine armies in Egypt, theArabsbroughtIslamto the country. Some time during this period, Egyptians began to blend in their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices, leading to variousSufiorders that have flourished to this day.These earlier rites had survived the period ofCoptic Christianity.
In 639 an army was sent in Egypt by the secondcaliph,Umar, under the command ofAmr ibn al-As. They defeated a Roman army at the battle of Heliopolis. Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. Alexandria was regained for the Byzantine Empire in 645 but was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent byConstans IIwas repulsed.
The Arabs founded the capital of Egypt calledFustat, which was later burned down during the Crusades. Cairo was later built in the year 986 to grow to become the largest and richest city in theArab caliphate, second only toBaghdad.
TheAbbasidperiod was marked by new taxations, and the Copts revolted again in the fourth year of Abbasid rule. At the beginning of the 9th century the practice of ruling Egypt through a governor was resumed underAbdallah ibn Tahir, who decided to reside atBaghdad, sending a deputy to Egypt to govern for him. In 828 another Egyptian revolt broke out, and in 831 the Copts joined with native Muslims against the government. Eventually the power loss of the Abbasids in Baghdad led for general upon general to take over rule of Egypt, yet being under Abbasid allegiance, theTulunid dynasty(868–905) andIkhshidid dynasty(935–969) were among the most successful to defy the Abbasid Caliph.
Muslim rulers remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, withCairoas the seat of theFatimid Caliphate. With the end of theAyyubid dynasty, theMamluks, aTurco-Circassianmilitary caste, took control about 1250. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked the Red Sea, India, Malaya, and East Indies.The mid-14th-centuryBlack Deathkilled about 40% of the country's population.
Egypt was conquered by theOttoman Turksin 1517, after which it became a province of theOttoman Empire. The defensive militarisation damaged its civil society and economic institutions.The weakening of the economic system combined with the effects of plague left Egypt vulnerable to foreign invasion. Portuguese traders took over their trade.Between 1687 and 1731, Egypt experienced six famines.The 1784faminecost it roughly one-sixth of its population.Egypt was always a difficult province for the OttomanSultansto control, due in part to the continuing power and influence of theMamluks, the Egyptian military caste who had ruled the country for centuries. Egypt remained semi-autonomous under theMamluksuntil it wasinvadedby theFrenchforces ofNapoleonBonaparte in 1798. After the French were defeated by the British, a three-way power struggle ensued between theOttoman Turks, EgyptianMamlukswho had ruled Egypt for centuries, andAlbanian mercenariesin the service of the Ottomans.
After the French were expelled,power was seizedin 1805 byMuhammad Ali Pasha, anAlbanianmilitary commander of the Ottoman army in Egypt. Muhammad Alimassacredthe Mamluks and established adynastythat was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952. The introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton transformed its agriculture into a cash-cropmonoculturebefore the end of the century, concentrating land ownership and shifting production towards international markets.Muhammad Ali annexedNorthern Sudan(1820–1824), Syria (1833), and parts ofArabiaandAnatolia; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple the Ottoman Empire itself, forced him to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans. His military ambition required him to modernise the country: he built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the civil service.He constructed a military state with around four percent of the populace serving the army to raise Egypt to a powerful positioning in the Ottoman Empire in a way showing various similarities to the Soviet strategies (without communism) conducted in the 20th century.
Muhammad Ali Pasha evolved the military from one that convened under the tradition of thecorvéeto a great modernised army. He introduced conscription of the male peasantry in 19th century Egypt, and took a novel approach to create his great army, strengthening it with numbers and in skill. Education and training of the new soldiers became mandatory; the new concepts were furthermore enforced by isolation. The men were held in barracks to avoid distraction of their growth as a military unit to be reckoned with. The resentment for the military way of life eventually faded from the men and a new ideology took hold, one of nationalism and pride. It was with the help of this newly reborn martial unit that Muhammad Ali imposed his rule over Egypt.The policy that Mohammad Ali Pasha followed during his reign explains partly why the numeracy in Egypt compared to other North-African and Middle-Eastern countries increased only at a remarkably small rate, as investment in further education only took place in the military and industrial sector.Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his sonIbrahim(in September 1848), then by a grandsonAbbas I(in November 1848), then bySaid(in 1854), andIsma'il(in 1863) who encouraged science and agriculture and banned slavery in Egypt.
Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynastyremained nominally an Ottoman province. It was granted the status of anautonomous vassal stateorKhedivate(1867–1914) in 1867. TheSuez Canal, built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. Its construction was financed by European banks. Large sums also went to patronage and corruption. New taxes caused popular discontent. In 1875 Isma'il avoided bankruptcy by selling all Egypt's shares in the canal to the British government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and Frenchcontrollerswho sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government",Other circumstances like epidemic diseases (cattle disease in the 1880s), floods and wars drove the economic downturn and increased Egypt's dependency on foreign debt even further.
Local dissatisfaction with the Khedive and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, withAhmed ʻUrabia prominent figure. After increasing tensions and nationalist revolts, the United Kingdom invaded Egypt in 1882, crushing the Egyptian army at theBattle of Tell El Kebirand militarily occupying the country.Following this, the Khedivate became ade factoBritish protectorate under nominal Ottoman sovereignty.In 1899 the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement was signed: the Agreement stated that Sudan would be jointly governed by the Khedivate of Egypt and the United Kingdom. However, actual control of Sudan was in British hands only. In 1906, theDenshawai incidentprompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement.
In 1914 theOttoman Empireentered World War I in alliance with the Central Empires; KhediveAbbas II(who had grown increasingly hostile to the British in preceding years) decided to support the motherland in war. Following such decision, the British forcibly removed him from power and replaced him with his brotherHussein Kamel.Hussein Kamel declared Egypt's independence from the Ottoman Empire, assuming the title ofSultan of Egypt. Shortly following independence, Egypt was declared a protectorate of the United Kingdom.
AfterWorld War I,Saad Zaghluland theWafd Partyled the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on 8 March 1919, the country arose in itsfirst modern revolution. The revolt led theUK governmentto issue aunilateral declaration of Egypt's independenceon 22 February 1922.Following independence from the United Kingdom, SultanFuad Iassumed the title ofKing of Egypt; despite being nominally independent, the Kingdom was still under British military occupation and the UK still had great influence over the state. Thenew governmentdrafted and implemented aconstitutionin 1923 based on aparliamentarysystem. The nationalist Wafd Party won a landslide victory in the1923–1924 electionandSaad Zaghloulwas appointed as the new prime minister. In 1936, theAnglo-Egyptian Treatywas concluded and British troops withdrew from Egypt, except for the Suez Canal. The treaty did not resolve the question ofSudan, which, under the terms of the existing Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899, stated that Sudan should be jointly governed by Egypt and Britain, but with real power remaining in British hands.
Britain used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the region, especially the battles in North Africa against Italy and Germany. Its highest priorities were control of the Eastern Mediterranean, and especially keeping the Suez Canal open for merchant ships and for military connections with India and Australia. When the war began in September 1939, Egypt declared martial law and broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. It broke diplomatic relations with Italy in 1940, but never declared war, even when the Italian army invaded Egypt. The Egyptian army did no fighting. In June 1940 the King dismissed Prime Minister Aly Maher, who got on poorly with the British. A new coalition Government was formed with the Independent Hassan Pasha Sabri as prime minister.
Following a ministerial crisis in February 1942, the ambassador SirMiles Lampson, pressed Farouk to have aWafdor Wafd-coalition government replaceHussein Sirri Pasha's government. On the night of 4 February 1942,British troops and tanks surrounded Abdeen Palace in Cairo and Lampson presented Farouk with an ultimatum. Farouk capitulated, and Nahhas formed a government shortly thereafter.
Most British troops were withdrawn to the Suez Canal area in 1947 (although the British army maintained a military base in the area), but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the War. Anti-monarchy sentiments further increased following the disastrous performance of the Kingdom in theFirst Arab-Israeli War. The 1950 election saw a landslide victory of the nationalistWafd Partyand the King was forced to appointMostafa El-Nahasas new prime minister. In 1951 Egypt unilaterally withdrew from theAnglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936and ordered all remaining British troops to leave the Suez Canal.
As the British refused to leave their base around the Suez Canal, the Egyptian government cut off the water and refused to allow food into the Suez Canal base, announced a boycott of British goods, forbade Egyptian workers from entering the base and sponsored guerrilla attacks. On 24 January 1952, Egyptian guerrillas staged a fierce attack on the British forces around the Suez Canal, during which the Egyptian Auxiliary Police were observed helping the guerrillas. In response, on 25 January, GeneralGeorge Erskinesent out British tanks and infantry to surround the auxiliary police station in Ismailia. The police commander called the Interior Minister,Fouad Serageddin, Nahas's right-hand man, to ask if he should surrender or fight. Serageddin ordered the police to fight "to the last man and the last bullet". The resulting battle saw the police station levelled and 43 Egyptian policemen killed together with 3 British soldiers. The Ismailia incident outraged Egypt. The next day, 26 January 1952 was"Black Saturday", as the anti-British riot was known, that saw much of downtown Cairo which the Khedive Ismail the Magnificent had rebuilt in the style of Paris, burned down. Farouk blamed the Wafd for the Black Saturday riot, and dismissed Nahas as prime minister the next day. He was replaced byAly Maher Pasha.
On 22–23 July 1952, theFree Officers Movement, led byMuhammad NaguibandGamal Abdel Nasser, launched a coup d'état (Egyptian Revolution of 1952) against the king. Farouk I abdicated the throne to his sonFouad II, who was, at the time, a seven-month-old baby. The Royal Family left Egypt some days later and the Council of Regency, led byPrince Muhammad Abdel Moneimwas formed. The council, however, held only nominal authority and the real power was actually in the hands of theRevolutionary Command Council, led by Naguib and Nasser. Popular expectations for immediate reforms led to the workers' riots inKafr Dawaron 12 August 1952. Following a brief experiment with civilian rule, the Free Officers abrogated the monarchy and the 1923 constitution and declared Egypt a republic on 18 June 1953. Naguib was proclaimed as president, while Nasser was appointed as the new prime minister.
Following the1952 Revolutionby theFree Officers Movement, the rule of Egypt passed to military hands and all political parties were banned. On 18 June 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared, with GeneralMuhammad Naguibas the first President of the Republic, serving in that capacity for a little under one and a half years. Republic of Egypt (1953–1958) was declared.
Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 byGamal Abdel Nasser– aPan-Arabistand the real architect of the 1952 movement – and was later put underhouse arrest. After Naguib's resignation, the position of president was vacant until the election of Nasser in 1956.In October 1954, Egypt and the United Kingdom agreed to abolish theAnglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreementof 1899 and grant Sudan independence; the agreement came into force on 1 January 1956. Nasser assumedpoweras president in June 1956 and begandominating the history of modern Egypt. British forces completed their withdrawal from the occupied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. Henationalisedthe Suez Canal on 26 July 1956; his hostile approach towards Israel and economic nationalism prompted the beginning of theSecond Arab-Israeli War(Suez Crisis), in which Israel (with support from France and the United Kingdom) occupied the Sinai peninsula and the Canal. The war came to an end because of US and USSR diplomatic intervention and thestatus quowas restored.
In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed a sovereign union known as theUnited Arab Republic. The union was short-lived, ending in 1961 when Syria seceded. During most of its existence, the United Arab Republic was also in a looseconfederationwithNorth Yemen(or the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen), known as theUnited Arab States. In the early 1960s, Egypt became fully involved in theNorth Yemen Civil War. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate.In mid May 1967, the Soviet Union issued warnings toNasserof an impending Israeli attack on Syria. Although the chief of staffMohamed Fawziverified them as "baseless",Nasser took three successive steps that made the war virtually inevitable: on 14 May he deployed his troops in Sinai near the border with Israel, on 19 May he expelled the UN peacekeepers stationed in the Sinai Peninsula border with Israel, and on 23 May he closed theStraits of Tiranto Israeli shipping.On 26 MayNasserdeclared, "The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel".
This prompted the beginning of theThird Arab Israeli War(Six-Day War) in which Israel attacked Egypt, and occupiedSinai Peninsulaand theGaza Strip, which Egypt hadoccupiedsince the1948 Arab–Israeli War. During the 1967 war, anEmergency Lawwas enacted, and remained in effect until 2012, with the exception of an 18-month break in 1980/81.Under this law, police powers were extended, constitutional rights suspended and censorship legalised.At the time of the fall of the Egyptian monarchy in the early 1950s, less than half a million Egyptians were considered upper class and rich, four million middle class and 17 million lower class and poor.Fewer than half of all primary-school-age children attended school, most of them being boys. Nasser's policies changed this. Land reform and distribution, the dramatic growth in university education, and government support to national industries greatly improved social mobility and flattened the social curve. From academic year 1953–54 through 1965–66, overall public school enrolments more than doubled. Millions of previously poor Egyptians, through education and jobs in the public sector, joined the middle class. Doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, journalists, constituted the bulk of the swelling middle class in Egypt under Nasser.During the 1960s, the Egyptian economy went from sluggish to the verge of collapse, the society became less free, and Nasser's appeal waned considerably.
In 1970, President Nasser died and was succeeded byAnwar Sadat. Duringhis period, Sadat switched Egypt'sCold Warallegiance from theSoviet Unionto the United States, expelling the Soviet advisors in 1972. Egypt was renamed as Arab Republic of Egypt in 1971. Sadat launched theInfitaheconomic reform policy, while clamping down on religious and secular opposition. In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched theFourth Arab-Israeli War(Yom Kippur War), a surprise attack to regain part of the Sinai territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. In 1975, Sadat shifted Nasser's economic policies and sought to use his popularity to reduce government regulations and encourage foreign investment through his programme of Infitah. Through this policy, incentives such as reduced taxes and import tariffs attracted some investors, but investments were mainly directed at low risk and profitable ventures like tourism and construction, abandoning Egypt's infant industries.Because of the elimination of subsidies on basic foodstuffs, it led to the1977 Egyptian Bread Riots. Sadat made ahistoric visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979Egypt-Israel peace treatyin exchange for Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. In return, Egypt recognised Israel as a legitimate sovereign state. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in theArab worldand led to Egypt's expulsion from theArab League, but it was supported by most Egyptians.Sadat was assassinatedby an Islamic extremist in October 1981.
Hosni Mubarakcame to power after the assassination of Sadat in a referendum in which he was the only candidate.He became another leader todominate the Egyptian history. Hosni Mubarak reaffirmed Egypt's relationship with Israel yet eased the tensions with Egypt's Arab neighbours. Domestically, Mubarak faced serious problems. Mass poverty and unemployment led rural families to stream into cities like Cairo where they ended up in crowded slums, barely managing to survive. On25 February 1986, the Security Police started rioting, protesting against reports that their term of duty was to be extended from 3 to 4 years. Hotels, nightclubs, restaurants and casinos were attacked in Cairo and there were riots in other cities. A day time curfew was imposed. It took the army 3 days to restore order. 107 people were killed.
In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became numerous and severe, and began to target ChristianCopts, foreign tourists and government officials.In the 1990s anIslamistgroup,Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, engaged in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economy—tourism—and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depended for support.During Mubarak's reign, the political scene was dominated by theNational Democratic Party, which was created by Sadat in 1978. It passed the 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 Nongovernmental Associations Law which hampered freedoms of association and expression by imposing new regulations and draconian penalties on violations.As a result, by the late 1990s parliamentary politics had become virtually irrelevant and alternative avenues for political expression were curtailed as well.Cairogrew into ametropolitan areawith a population of over 20 million.
On 17 November 1997,62 people, mostly tourists, were massacrednearLuxor. In late February 2005, Mubarak announced a reform of the presidential election law, paving the way formulti-candidate polls for the first timesince the1952 movement.However, the new law placed restrictions on the candidates, and led to Mubarak's easy re-election victory.Voter turnout was less than 25%.Election observers also alleged government interference in the election process.After the election, Mubarak imprisonedAyman Nour, the runner-up.
Human Rights Watch's 2006 report on Egypt detailed serious human rights violations under Mubarak's rule, including routinetorture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.In 2007,Amnesty Internationalreleased a report alleging that Egypt had become an international centre for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of theWar on Terror.Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report.Constitutional changes voted on 19 March 2007 prohibited parties from using religion as a basis for political activity, allowed the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law, authorised broad police powers of arrest and surveillance, and gave the president power to dissolve parliament and end judicial election monitoring.In 2009, Dr. Ali El Deen Hilal Dessouki, Media Secretary of the National Democratic Party (NDP), described Egypt as a "pharaonic" political system, and democracy as a "long-term goal". Dessouki also stated that "the real centre of power in Egypt is the military".
On 25 January 2011,widespread protestsbegan against Mubarak's government. On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo. Jubilant celebrations broke out in Cairo'sTahrir Squareat the news.TheEgyptian militarythen assumed the power to govern.Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, chairman of theSupreme Council of the Armed Forces, became thede factointerimhead of state.On 13 February 2011, the military dissolved the parliament and suspended the constitution.
Aconstitutional referendumwas held on 19 March 2011.On 28 November 2011, Egypt held itsfirst parliamentary electionsince the previous regime had been in power. Turnout was high and there were no reports of major irregularities or violence.
Mohamed Morsi, who was affiliated with theMuslim Brotherhood, waselected presidenton 24 June 2012.On 30 June 2012, Mohamed Morsi was sworn in as Egypt's president.On 2 August 2012, Egypt's prime ministerHisham Qandilannounced his 35-member cabinet comprising 28 newcomers, including four from the Muslim Brotherhood.Liberal and secular groups walked out of theconstituent assemblybecause they believed that it would impose strict Islamic practices, while Muslim Brotherhood backers threw their support behind Morsi.On 22 November 2012, President Morsi issued a temporary declaration immunising his decrees from challenge and seeking to protect the work of the constituent assembly.
The move led to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt.On 5 December 2012, tens of thousands of supporters and opponents of President Morsi clashed, in what was described as the largest violent battle between Islamists and their foes since the country's revolution.Mohamed Morsi offered a "national dialogue" with opposition leaders but refused to cancel theDecember 2012 constitutional referendum.On 3 July 2013,after a wave of public discontentwith autocratic excesses of Morsi'sMuslim Brotherhoodgovernment,the militaryremovedMorsi from office, dissolved the Shura Council and installed a temporary interim government.
On 4 July 2013, 68-year-old Chief Justice of theSupreme Constitutional Court of EgyptAdly Mansourwas sworn in as acting president over the new government following the removal of Morsi.The new Egyptian authorities cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood and its supporters, jailing thousands and forcefully dispersing pro-Morsi and pro-Brotherhood protests.Many of the Muslim Brotherhood leaders and activists have either been sentenced to death or life imprisonment in a series of mass trials.On 18 January 2014, the interim government instituted anew constitutionfollowing a referendum approved by an overwhelming majority of voters (98.1%). 38.6% of registered voters participated in the referenduma higher number than the 33% who voted in a referendum during Morsi's tenure.
In theelectionsof June 2014,Abdel Fattah el-Sisiwon with a percentage of 96.1%.On 8 June 2014, Abdel Fatah el-Sisi was officially sworn in as Egypt's new president.Under President el-Sisi, Egypt has implemented a rigorous policy of controlling the border to the Gaza Strip, including the dismantling of tunnels between the Gaza strip and Sinai.In April 2018, El-Sisi was re-elected by a landslide inelectionwith no real opposition.In April 2019, Egypt's parliament extended presidential terms from four to six years. President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi was also allowed to run for a third term in the next election in 2024.
Under El-Sisi Egypt is said to have returned to authoritarianism. New constitutional reforms have been implemented, meaning strengthening the role of military and limiting the political opposition.The constitutional changes were accepted in areferendumin April 2019.In December 2020, final results of the parliamentaryelectionconfirmed a clear majority of the seats for Egypt's Mostaqbal Watan (Nation's Future) Party, which strongly supports president El-Sisi. The party even increased its majority, partly because of new electoral rules.
Egypt lies primarily between latitudes22°and32°N, and longitudes25°and35°E. At 1,001,450 square kilometres (386,660 sq mi), it is the world's 30th-largest country.Due to the extreme aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that about 99% of the population uses about 5.5% of the total land area.98% of Egyptians live on 3% of the territory.
Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, the Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. Atranscontinental nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, traversed by a navigable waterway (theSuez Canal) thatconnects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Oceanby way of the Red Sea.
Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is desert, with a fewoasesscattered about. Winds create prolificsand dunesthat peak at more than 30 metres (100 ft) high. Egypt includes parts of theSaharadesert and of theLibyan Desert.
Sinai peninsula hosts the highest mountain in Egypt,Mount Catherineat 2,642 metres. TheRed Sea Riviera, on the east of the peninsula, is renowned for its wealth of coral reefs and marine life.
Towns and cities includeAlexandria, the second largest city;Aswan;Asyut;Cairo, the modern Egyptian capital and largest city;El Mahalla El Kubra;Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu;Hurghada;Luxor;Kom Ombo;Port Safaga;Port Said;Sharm El Sheikh;Suez, where the south end of the Suez Canal is located;Zagazig; andMinya.OasesincludeBahariya,Dakhla,Farafra,KhargaandSiwa.Protectoratesinclude Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa.
On 13 March 2015, plans for aproposed new capital of Egyptwere announced.
Most of Egypt's rain falls in the winter months.South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 410 mm (16.1 in),mostly between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such asDamietta,BaltimandSidi Barrani, and rarely in Alexandria. A very small amount of snow fell on Cairo on 13 December 2013, the first time in many decades.Frostis also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt.
Egypt has an unusually hot, sunny and dry climate. Average high temperatures are high in the north but very to extremely high in the rest of the country during summer. The cooler Mediterranean winds consistently blow over the northern sea coast, which helps to get more moderated temperatures, especially at the height of the summertime. TheKhamaseenis a hot, dry wind that originates from the vast deserts in the south and blows in the spring or in the early summer. It brings scorching sand and dust particles, and usually brings daytime temperatures over 40 °C (104 °F) and sometimes over 50 °C (122 °F) in the interior, while the relative humidity can drop to 5% or even less.
Prior to the construction of theAswan Dam, the Nile flooded annually, replenishing Egypt's soil. This gave Egypt a consistent harvest throughout the years.
Egypt signed the RioConvention on Biological Diversityon 9 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 2 June 1994.It has subsequently produced aNational Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 31 July 1998.Where manyCBDNational Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plansneglect biological kingdoms apart from animals and plants,
The plan stated that the following numbers of species of different groups had been recorded from Egypt: algae (1483 species), animals (about 15,000 species of which more than 10,000 were insects), fungi (more than 627 species), monera (319 species), plants (2426 species), protozoans (371 species). For some major groups, for example lichen-forming fungi and nematode worms, the number was not known. Apart from small and well-studied groups like amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles, the many of those numbers are likely to increase as further species are recorded from Egypt. For the fungi, including lichen-forming species, for example, subsequent work has shown that over 2200 species have been recorded from Egypt, and the final figure of all fungi actually occurring in the country is expected to be much higher.For the grasses, 284 native and naturalised species have been identified and recorded in Egypt.
TheHouse of Representatives, whose members are elected to serve five-year terms, specialises in legislation.Electionswere held betweenNovember 2011 and January 2012, which were later dissolved.
After a wave of public discontent with the autocratic excessesof theMuslim Brotherhoodgovernment of PresidentMohamed Morsi,on 3 July 2013 then-GeneralAbdel Fattah el-Sisiannounced the removal of Morsi from office and the suspension of theconstitution. A 50-member constitution committee was formed for modifyingthe constitution, which was later published forpublic votingand was adopted on 18 January 2014.
The next parliamentary electionwas announced to be held within 6 months of the constitution's ratification on 18 January 2014, and were held in two phases, from 17 October to 2 December 2015.Originally, the parliament was to be formed before the president was elected, but interim presidentAdly Mansourpushed the date.The2014 Egyptian presidential electiontook place on 26–28 May. Official figures showed a turnout of 25,578,233 or 47.5%, withAbdel Fattah el-Sisiwinning with 23.78 million votes, or 96.9% compared to 757,511 (3.1%) forHamdeen Sabahi.
In 2024, as part of itsFreedom in the Worldreport,Freedom Houseratedpolitical rightsin Egypt at 6 (with 40 representing the most free and 0 the least), andcivil libertiesat 12 (with 60 being the highest score and 0 the lowest), which gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free".According to the 2023V-Dem Democracy indicesEgypt is the eighth leastdemocratic country in Africa.The 2023 edition ofThe Economist Democracy Indexcategorises Egypt as an "authoritarian regime", with a score of 2.93.
Egyptian nationalismpredates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the 19th century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists and intellectuals until the early 20th century.The ideology espoused byIslamistssuch as theMuslim Brotherhoodis mostly supported by the lower-middle strata of Egyptian society.
Egypt has the oldest continuous parliamentary tradition in the Arab world.The first popular assembly was established in 1866. It was disbanded as a result of the British occupation of 1882, and the British allowed only a consultative body to sit. In 1923, however, after the country's independence was declared, a new constitution provided for a parliamentary monarchy.
The military is influential in the political and economic life of Egypt and exempts itself from laws that apply to other sectors. It enjoys considerable power, prestige and independence within the state and has been widely considered part of the Egyptian "deep state".
Egypt is speculated by Israel to be the second country in the region with aspy satellite,EgyptSat 1in addition toEgyptSat 2launched on 16 April 2014.
TheUnited Statesprovides Egypt with annualmilitary assistance, which in 2015 amounted to US$1.3 billion.In 1989, Egypt was designated as amajor non-NATO allyof the United States.Nevertheless, ties between the two countries have partially soured since theJuly 2013 overthrowof Islamist presidentMohamed Morsi,with theObama administrationdenouncing Egypt over its crackdown on the Muslim Brotherhood, and cancelling future military exercises involving the two countries.There have been recent attempts, however, to normalise relations between the two, with both governments frequently calling for mutual support in thefight against regional and international terrorism.However, followingthe electionofRepublicanDonald Trumpas the President of the United States, the two countries were looking to improve theEgyptian-American relations. On 3 April 2017 al-Sisi met with Trump at the White House, marking the first visit of an Egyptian president to Washington in 8 years. Trump praised al-Sisi in what was reported as a public relations victory for the Egyptian president, and signaled it was time for a normalisation of the relations between Egypt and the US.
Relations withRussiahave improved significantly following Mohamed Morsi's removaland both countries have worked since then to strengthen militaryand trade tiesamong other aspects of bilateral co-operation.Relations with Chinahave also improved considerably. In 2014, Egypt and China established a bilateral "comprehensive strategic partnership".
The permanentheadquartersof theArab Leagueare located in Cairo and the body's secretary general has traditionally been Egyptian. This position is currently held by former foreign ministerAhmed Aboul Gheit. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt toTunisin 1978 to protest theEgypt–Israel peace treaty, but it later returned to Cairo in 1989. Gulf monarchies, including theUnited Arab EmiratesandSaudi Arabia,have pledged billions of dollars to help Egypt overcome its economic difficulties since the overthrow of Morsi.
Following the1973 warand the subsequent peace treaty, Egypt became the first Arab nation to establishdiplomatic relationswith Israel. Despite that, Israel is still widely considered as a hostile state by the majority of Egyptians.Egypt has played a historical role as a mediator in resolving various disputes in the Middle East, most notably its handling of theIsraeli–Palestinian conflictand thepeace process.Egypt's ceasefire and truce brokering efforts inGazahave hardly been challenged following Israel's evacuation of its settlements from the strip in 2005, despite increasing animosity towards theHamas government in Gazafollowing the ouster of Mohamed Morsi,and despite recent attempts by countries like Turkey and Qatar to take over this role.
Ties between Egypt and other non-Arab Middle Eastern nations, includingIranandTurkey, have often been strained. Tensions with Iran are mostly due to Egypt's peace treaty with Israel and Iran's rivalry with traditional Egyptian allies in the Gulf.Turkey's recent support for the now-banned Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and its alleged involvement inLibyaalso made both countries bitter regional rivals.
Egypt is a founding member of theNon-Aligned Movementand the United Nations. It is also a member of theOrganisation internationale de la francophonie, since 1983. Former EgyptianDeputy Prime MinisterBoutros Boutros-Ghaliserved asSecretary-General of the United Nationsfrom 1991 to 1996.
In 2008, Egypt was estimated to have two million African refugees, including over 20,000 Sudanese nationals registered with UNHCR as refugees fleeing armed conflict or asylum seekers. Egypt adopted "harsh, sometimes lethal" methods of border control.
The legal system is based onIslamicand civil law (particularlyNapoleonic codes); and judicial review by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsoryInternational Court of Justicejurisdiction only with reservations.
Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation. Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by theMinistry of Justice.The personal status law that regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody is governed by Sharia. In a family court, a woman's testimony is worth half of a man's testimony.
On 26 December 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to institutionalise a controversial new constitution. It was approved by the public in areferendumheld 15–22 December 2012 with 64% support, but with only 33% electorate participation.It replaced the2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt, adopted following the revolution.
The Penal code was unique as it contains a "Blasphemy Law".The present court system allows a death penalty including against an absent individualtriedin absentia. Several Americans and Canadians were sentenced to death in 2012.
On 18 January 2014, the interim government successfully institutionalised a moresecular constitution.The president is elected to a four-year term and may serve 2 terms.The parliament may impeach the president.Under the constitution, there is a guarantee of gender equality and absolutefreedom of thought.The military retains the ability to appoint the national Minister of Defence for the next two full presidential terms since the constitution took effect.Under the constitution, political parties may not be based on "religion, race, gender or geography".
In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights.Shortly after its foundation, the council came under heavy criticism by local activists, who contend it was a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its own violationsand to give legitimacy to repressive laws such as the Emergency Law.
ThePew Forum on Religion & Public Liferanks Egypt as the fifth worst country in the world for religious freedom.TheUnited States Commission on International Religious Freedom, a bipartisan independent agency of the US government, has placed Egypt on its watch list of countries that require close monitoring due to the nature and extent of violations of religious freedom engaged in or tolerated by the government.According to a 2010PewGlobal Attitudes survey, 84% of Egyptians polled supported the death penalty for those wholeave Islam; 77% supported whippings and cutting off of hands for theft and robbery; and 82% support stoning a person who commits adultery.
Coptic Christiansface discrimination at multiple levels of the government, ranging from underrepresentation in government ministries to laws that limit their ability to build or repair churches.Intolerance towards followers of theBaháʼí Faith, and those of the non-orthodox Muslim sects, such asSufis,Shi'aandAhmadis, also remains a problem.When the government moved to computerise identification cards, members of religious minorities, such as Baháʼís, could not obtainidentification documents.An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths may obtain identity cards without listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognised.
Clashes continued between police and supporters of former president Mohamed Morsi. During violent clashes that ensued as part of theAugust 2013 sit-in dispersal, 595 protesters were killedwith 14 August 2013 becoming the single deadliest day in Egypt's modern history.
Egypt actively practices capital punishment. Egypt's authorities do not release figures on death sentences and executions, despite repeated requests over the years by human rights organisations.The United Nations human rights officeand various NGOsexpressed "deep alarm" after an Egyptian Minya Criminal Court sentenced 529 people to death in a single hearing on 25 March 2014. Sentenced supporters of former presidentMohamed Morsiwere to be executed for their alleged role in violence following hisremovalin July 2013. The judgement was condemned as a violation ofinternational law.By May 2014, approximately 16,000 people (and as high as more than 40,000 by one independent count, according toThe Economist),mostly Brotherhood members or supporters, have been imprisoned after Morsi's removalafter theMuslim Brotherhoodwas labelled asterrorist organisationby the post-Morsi interim Egyptian government.According to human rights groups there are some 60,000 political prisoners in Egypt.
Homosexualityis illegal in Egypt.According to a 2013 survey by thePew Research Centre, 95% of Egyptians believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.
In 2017, Cairo was voted the most dangerous megacity for women with more than 10 million inhabitants in a poll byThomson Reuters Foundation. Sexual harassment was described as occurring on a daily basis.
Reporters Without Bordersranked Egypt in their 2017World Press Freedom IndexatNo.160 out of 180 nations. At least 18 journalists were imprisoned in Egypt, as of August 2015. A new anti-terror law was enacted in August 2015 that threatens members of the media with fines ranging from about US$25,000 to $60,000 for the distribution of wrong information on acts of terror inside the country "that differ from official declarations of the Egyptian Department of Defence".
Some critics of the government have beenarrestedfor allegedly spreadingfalse informationabout theCOVID-19 pandemic in Egypt.
Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions contain towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate.
Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, natural gas, and tourism. There are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Libya, Saudi Arabia, thePersian Gulfand Europe. The completion of theAswan High Damin 1970 and the resultantLake Nasserhave altered the time-honoured place of theNile Riverin the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population, limitedarable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy. A diversified economy, which is thesecond largest in Africa, the42nd-largest economy by nominal GDPand132nd by nominal GDPper capita.
The government has invested in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has receivedUnited States foreign aidsince 1979 (an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Egypt's economy mainly relies on these sources of income: tourism, remittances from Egyptians working abroad and revenues from the Suez Canal.
In recent years, theEgyptian army has expanded its economic influence, dominating sectors such as petrol stations, fish-farming, car manufacturing, media, infrastructure including roads and bridges, and cement production. This hold on various industries has resulted in a suppression of competition, deterring private investment, and leading to adverse effects for ordinary Egyptians, including slower growth, higher prices, and limited opportunities.The military-ownedNational Service Products Organisation(NSPO) continues its expansion by establishing new factories dedicated to producing fertilisers, irrigation equipment, and veterinary vaccines. Businesses operated by the military, such as Wataniya and Safi, which manage petrol stations and bottled water, respectively, remain under government ownership.In 2022, the Egyptian economy entered an ongoing crisis, the Egyptian pound was one of the worst performing currencies,inflation. reached 32.6% andcore inflationreached nearly 40% in March.
Economic conditions have started to improve considerably, after a period of stagnation, due to the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government as well as increased revenues from tourism and a boomingstock market. In its annual report, theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.Some major economic reforms undertaken by the government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A newtaxation lawimplemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase intax revenueby 2006.
Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the limited trickle down of wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticise their government for higher prices of basic goods while theirstandards of livingor purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Corruption is often cited by Egyptians as the main impediment to further economic growth.The government promised major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure, using money paid for the newly acquired third mobile license ($3 billion) byEtisalatin 2006.In theCorruption Perceptions Index2013, Egypt was ranked 114 out of 177.
An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians abroad contribute actively to the development of their country throughremittances(US$7.8 billion in 2009), as well as circulation of human and social capital and investment.Remittances, money earned by Egyptians living abroad and sent home, reached a record US$21 billion in 2012, according to the World Bank.
Egyptian society is moderately unequal in terms of income distribution, with an estimated 35–40% of Egypt's population earning less than the equivalent of $2 a day, while only around 2–3% may be considered wealthy.
Tourism is one of the most important sectors in Egypt's economy. More than 12.8 million tourists visited Egypt in 2008, providing revenues of nearly $11 billion. The tourism sector employs about 12% of Egypt's workforce.Tourism Minister Hisham Zaazou told industry professionals and reporters that tourism generated some $9.4 billion in 2012, a slight increase over the $9 billion seen in 2011.
TheGiza Necropolisis one of Egypt's best-known tourist attractions; it is the only one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient Worldstill in existence.
Egypt's beaches on the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, which extend to over 3,000 kilometres (1,900 miles), are also popular tourist destinations; theGulf of Aqababeaches,Safaga,Sharm el-Sheikh,Hurghada,Luxor,Dahab,Ras SidrandMarsa Alamare popular sites.
Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, andhydro power. Substantial coal deposits in the northeast Sinai are mined at the rate of about 600,000 tonnes (590,000 long tons; 660,000 short tons) per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, theGulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at 2,180 cubic kilometres (520 cu mi),andLNGup to 2012 exported to many countries. In 2013, the Egyptian General Petroleum Co (EGPC) said the country will cut exports of natural gas and tell major industries to slow output this summer to avoid an energy crisis and stave off political unrest, Reuters has reported. Egypt is counting on top liquid natural gas (LNG) exporter Qatar to obtain additional gas volumes in summer, while encouraging factories to plan their annual maintenance for those months of peak demand, said EGPC chairman, Tarek El Barkatawy. Egypt produces its own energy, but has been a net oil importer since 2008 and is rapidly becoming a net importer of natural gas.
Egypt produced 691,000bbl/dof oil and 2,141.05 Tcf of natural gas in 2013, making the country the largest non-OPECproducer of oil and the second-largest dry natural gas producer in Africa. In 2013, Egypt was the largest consumer of oil and natural gas in Africa, as more than 20% of total oil consumption and more than 40% of total dry natural gas consumption in Africa. Also, Egypt possesses the largest oil refinery capacity in Africa 726,000 bbl/d (in 2012).
Egypt is currently building its firstnuclear power plant in El Dabaa, in the northern part of the country, with $25 billion in Russian financing.
Transport in Egypt is centred around Cairo and largely follows the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The main line of the nation's 40,800-kilometre (25,400 mi) railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan and is operated byEgyptian National Railways. The vehicle road network has expanded rapidly to over 34,000 km (21,000 mi), consisting of 28 lines, 796 stations, 1800 trains covering the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, the Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases.
TheCairo Metroconsists of three operational lines with a fourth line expected in the future.EgyptAir, which is now the country'sflag carrierand largest airline, was founded in 1932 by Egyptian industrialistTalaat Harb, today owned by the Egyptian government. The airline is based atCairo International Airport, its main hub, operating scheduled passenger and freight services to more than 75 destinations in the Middle East, Europe, Africa, Asia, andthe Americas. The CurrentEgyptAirfleet includes 80 aeroplanes.
TheSuez Canalis an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows ship transport between Europe and Asia without navigation around Africa. The northern terminus is Port Said and the southern terminus is Port Tawfiq at the city of Suez. Ismailia lies on its west bank,3 kilometres (1+7⁄8miles) from the half-way point.
The canal is193.30 km (120+1⁄8mi) long, 24 metres (79 feet) deep and 205 m (673 ft) wide as of 2010. It consists of the northern access channel of 22 km (14 mi), the canal itself of162.25 km (100+7⁄8mi) and the southern access channel of9 km (5+1⁄2mi). The canal is a single lane with passing places in the Ballah By-Pass and the Great Bitter Lake. It contains no locks; seawater flows freely through the canal. On 26 August 2014 a proposal was made for opening aNew Suez Canal. Work on the New Suez Canal was completed in July 2015.The channel was officially inaugurated with a ceremony attended by foreign leaders and featuring military flyovers on 6 August 2015, in accordance with the budgets laid out for the project.
The pipedwater supplyin Egypt increased between 1990 and 2010 from 89% to 100% in urban areas and from 39% to 93% in rural areas despite rapid population growth. Over that period, Egypt achieved the elimination ofopen defecationin rural areas and invested in infrastructure. Access to animproved water sourcein Egypt is now practically universal with a rate of 99%. About one half of the population is connected tosanitary sewers.
Partly because of low sanitation coverage about 17,000 children die each year because ofdiarrhoea.Another challenge is low cost recovery due to water tariffs that are among the lowest in the world. This in turn requires government subsidies even for operating costs, a situation that has been aggravated by salary increases without tariff increases after theArab Spring. Poor operation of facilities, such as water and wastewater treatment plants, as well as limited government accountability and transparency, are also issues.
Due to the absence of appreciable rainfall, Egypt's agriculture depends entirely on irrigation. The main source of irrigation water is the river Nile of which the flow is controlled by the high dam at Aswan. It releases, on average, 55 cubic kilometres (45,000,000 acre·ft) water per year, of which some 46 cubic kilometres (37,000,000 acre·ft) are diverted into the irrigation canals.
In the Nile valley and delta, almost 33,600 square kilometres (13,000 sq mi) of land benefit from these irrigation waters producing on average 1.8 crops per year.
Egypt is the most populated country in the Arab world and the third most populous on theAfrican continent, with about 95 million inhabitants as of 2017.Its population grew rapidly from 1970 to 2010 due tomedical advancesand increases in agricultural productivityenabled by theGreen Revolution.Egypt's population was estimated at 3 million whenNapoleoninvaded the country in 1798.The great majority of its people live near the banks of theNileRiver, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi), where the onlyarable landis found. The large regions of theSaharadesert, which constitute most of Egypt's territory, are sparsely inhabited. About 43% of Egypt's residents live across the country's urban areas,with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.
Egypt's people are highly urbanised, being concentrated along the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Egyptians are divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centres and thefellahin, or farmers, that reside in rural villages. The total inhabited area constitutesonly 77,041 km², putting thephysiological densityat over 1,200 people per km, similar to Bangladesh.
While emigration was restricted under Nasser, thousands of Egyptian professionals were dispatched abroad in the context of theArab Cold War.Egyptian emigration was liberalised in 1971, under President Sadat, reaching record numbers after the 1973 oil crisis.An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850 in Jordan, 190,550 in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30% reside mostly in Europe and North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy).The process of emigrating to non-Arab states has been ongoing since the 1950s.
EthnicEgyptiansare by far the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting 99.7% of the total population.Ethnic minorities include theAbazas,Turks,Greeks,BedouinArab tribes living in the eastern deserts and theSinai Peninsula, theBerber-speakingSiwis(Amazigh) of theSiwa Oasis, and theNubiancommunities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribalBejacommunities concentrated in the southeasternmost corner of the country, and a number ofDomclans mostly in the Nile Delta andFaiyumwho are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanisation increases.
Some 5 million immigrants live in Egypt, mostly Sudanese, "some of whom have lived in Egypt for generations".Smaller numbers of immigrants come from Iraq, Ethiopia, Somalia, South Sudan, and Eritrea.
TheOffice of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugeesestimated that the total number of "people of concern" (refugees, asylum seekers, andstateless people) was about 250,000. In 2015, the number of registeredSyrian refugees in Egyptwas 117,000, a decrease from the previous year.Egyptian government claims that a half-million Syrian refugees live in Egypt are thought to be exaggerated.There are 28,000 registeredSudanese refugees in Egypt.
Jewish communities in Egypthave almostdisappeared. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities.
Theofficial languageof Egypt isLiterary Arabic.Thespoken languagesare:Egyptian Arabic(68%),Sa'idi Arabic(29%),Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic(1.6%),Sudanese Arabic(0.6%),Domari(0.3%),Nobiin(0.3%),Beja(0.1%),Siwiand others.Additionally, Greek,Armenianand Italian, and more recently, African languages likeAmharicandTigrignaare the main languages of immigrants.
The main foreign languages taught in schools, by order of popularity, are English, French, German and Italian.
HistoricallyEgyptianwas spoken, the latest stage of which isCoptic Egyptian. Spoken Coptic was mostly extinct by the 17th century but may have survived in isolated pockets inUpper Egyptas late as the 19th century. It remains in use as the liturgical language of theCoptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.It forms a separate branch among the family ofAfroasiatic languages.
Islam is thestate religionof Egypt, and the country has the largest Muslim population in theArab worldand the world'ssixth largest Muslim population, accounting for five percent of all Muslims worldwide.Egypt also has thelargest Christian populationin theMiddle East and North Africa.Official data about religion is lacking due to social and political sensitivities.An estimated 85–90% are identified as Muslim, 10–15% asCoptic Christians, and 1% as other Christian denominations; other estimates place the Christian population as high as 15–20%.
Egypt was an early and leading centre of Christianity intolate antiquity; theCoptic Orthodox Church of Alexandriawas founded in the first century and remains the largest church in the country. With the arrival of Islam in the seventh century, the country was gradually Islamised into a majority-Muslim country.It is unknown when Muslims reached a majority, variously estimated fromc.1000 CEto as late as the 14th century. Egypt emerged as a centre of politics and culture in theMuslim world. UnderAnwar Sadat, Islam became the officialstate religionandShariathe main source of law.
The majority of Egyptian Muslims adhere to theSunni branch of Islam.Nondenominational Muslimsform roughly 12% of the population.There is also aShi'aminority. TheJerusalem Centre for Public Affairsestimates the Shia population at 1 to 2.2 millionand could measure as much as 3 million.TheAhmadiyyapopulation is estimated at less than 50,000,whereas theSalafi(ultra-conservative Sunni) population is estimated at five to six million.Cairois famous for its numerous mosqueminaretsand has been dubbed "The City of 1,000 Minarets".The city also hostsAl-Azhar University, which is considered the preeminent institution of Islamic higher learning and jurisprudence;founded in the late tenth century, it is by some measures the second oldest continuously operating university in the world.It is estimated that 15 million Egyptians follow native Sufiorders,withSufileadership asserting that the numbers are much greater, as many Egyptian Sufis are not officially registered with a Sufi order.At least 305 people were killed during aNovember 2017 attackon a Sufi mosque in Sinai.
Of theChristian population in Egyptover 90% belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, anOriental OrthodoxChristian Church.Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of theCoptic Catholic Church, theEvangelical Church of Egyptand various otherProtestantdenominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria, such as theSyro-Lebanese, who belong toGreek Catholic,Greek Orthodox, andMaronite Catholicdenominations.
The Egyptian government recognises only three religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Other faiths and minority Muslim sects, such as the smallBaháʼí FaithandAhmadiyyacommunities, are not recognised by the state and face persecution by the government, which labels these groups a threat to Egypt's national security.Individuals, particularly Baháʼís and atheists, wishing to include their religion (or lack thereof) on their mandatory state issued identification cardsare denied this ability, and were put in the position of either not obtaining required identification or lying about their faith. A 2008 court ruling allowed members of unrecognised faiths to obtain identification and leave the religion field blank.
In 2022, Egypt's adult literacy rate was 74.5%, compared to 71.1% in 2017.Literacy is lowest among those over 60 years of age, at 35.1%, and highest among youth between 15 and 24 years of age, at 92.2%.
A European-style education system was first introduced in Egypt by the Ottomans in the early 19th century to nurture a class of loyal bureaucrats and army officers.Under British occupation, investment in education was curbed drastically, and secular public schools, which had previously been free, began to charge fees.
In the 1950s, President Nasser phased in free education for all Egyptians.The Egyptian curriculum influenced other Arab education systems, which often employed Egyptian-trained teachers.Demand soon outstripped the level of available state resources, causing the quality of public education to deteriorate.Today this trend has culminated in poor teacher–student ratios (often around one to fifty) and persistent gender inequality.
Basic education, which includes six years of primary and three years of preparatory school, is a right for Egyptian children from the age of six.After grade 9, students are tracked into one of two strands of secondary education: general or technical schools. General secondary education prepares students for further education, and graduates of this track normally join higher education institutes based on the results of theThanaweya Amma, the leaving exam.
Technical secondary education has two strands, one lasting three years and a more advanced education lasting five. Graduates of these schools may have access to higher education based on their results on the final exam, but this is generally uncommon.
Cairo Universityis Egypt's premierpublic university. The country is currently opening new research institutes with the aim of modernising scientific research and development; the most recent example isZewail City of Science and Technology. Egypt was ranked 86th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024.
Egyptian life expectancy at birth was 73.20 years in 2011, or 71.30 years for males and 75.20 years for females. Egypt spends 3.7 percent of its gross domestic product on health including treatment costs 22 percent incurred by citizens and the rest by the state.In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 4.66% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 16.04 physicians and 33.80 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.
As a result of modernisation efforts over the years, Egypt's healthcare system has made great strides forward. Access to healthcare in both urban and rural areas greatly improved and immunisation programmes are now able to cover 98% of the population. Life expectancy increased from 44.8 years during the 1960s to 72.12 years in 2009. There was a noticeable decline of the infant mortality rate (during the 1970s to the 1980s the infant mortality rate was 101–132/1000 live births, in 2000 the rate was 50–60/1000, and in 2008 it was 28–30/1000).
According to theWorld Health Organisationin 2008, an estimated 91.1% of Egypt's girls and women aged 15 to 49 have been subjected togenital mutilation,despite being illegal in the country. In 2016 the law was amended to impose tougher penalties on those convicted of performing the procedure, pegging the highest jail term at 15 years. Those who escort victims to the procedure can also face jail terms up to 3 years.
The total number of Egyptians withhealth insurancereached 37 million in 2009, of which 11 million are minors, providing an insurance coverage of approximately 52 percent of Egypt's population.
Egypt is a recognised cultural trendsetter of the Arabic-speaking world. Contemporary Arabic and Middle-Eastern culture is heavily influenced by Egyptian literature, music, film and television. Egypt gained a regional leadership role during the 1950s and 1960s, giving a further enduring boost to the standing of Egyptian culture in the Arabic-speaking world.
Egyptian identity evolved in the span of a long period of occupation to accommodateIslam, Christianity and Judaism; and a new language, Arabic, and its spoken descendant,Egyptian Arabicwhich is also based on many Ancient Egyptian words.
The work of early 19th century scholarRifa'a al-Tahtawirenewed interest inEgyptian antiquityand exposed Egyptian society toEnlightenmentprinciples. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformerAli Mubaraka nativeEgyptologyschool that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such asSuyutiandMaqrizi, who themselves studied thehistory,languageandantiquitiesof Egypt.
Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people likeMuhammad Abduh,Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed,Muhammad Loutfi Goumah,Tawfiq el-Hakim,Louis Awad,Qasim Amin,Salama Moussa,Taha HusseinandMahmoud Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to personal freedom,secularismand faith in science to bring progress.
The Egyptians were one of the first major civilisations to codify design elements in art andarchitecture.Egyptian blue, also known as calcium copper silicate, is a pigment used by Egyptians for thousands of years. It is considered to be the first synthetic pigment. The wall paintings done in the service of thePharaohsfollowed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilisation is renowned for its colossalpyramids,templesand monumental tombs.
Well-known examples are thePyramid of Djoserdesigned by ancient architect and engineerImhotep, theSphinx, and the temple ofAbu Simbel. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture ofHassan FathyandRamses Wissa Wassef, toMahmoud Mokhtar's sculptures, to the distinctiveCoptic iconographyofIsaac Fanous. TheCairo Opera Houseserves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital.
Egyptian literature traces its beginnings toancient Egyptand is some of the earliest known literature. Indeed, the Egyptians were the first culture to develop literature as we know it today, that is, the book.It is an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles ofArabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Arab world.The first modern Egyptian novelZaynabbyMuhammad Husayn Haykalwas published in 1913 in theEgyptian vernacular.Egyptian novelistNaguib Mahfouzwas the first Arabic-language writer to win theNobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers includeNawal El Saadawi, well known for herfeministactivism, andAlifa Rifaatwho also writes about women and tradition.
Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popularliterary genreamong Egyptians, represented by the works ofAhmed Fouad Negm(Fagumi),Salah JaheenandAbdel Rahman el-Abnudi.
Egyptian mediaare highly influential throughout theArab World, attributed to large audiences and increasing freedom from government control.Freedom of the media is guaranteed in the constitution; however, many laws still restrict this right.
Egyptian cinemabecame a regional force with the coming of sound. In 1936,Studio Misr, financed by industrialistTalaat Harb, emerged as the leading Egyptian studio, a role the company retained for three decades.For over 100 years, more than 4000 films have been produced in Egypt, three quarters of the total Arab production.Egypt is considered the leading country in the field of cinema in theArab world.Actors from all over the Arab world seek to appear in the Egyptian cinema for the sake of fame. TheCairo International Film Festivalhas been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers' Associations.
The number of cinemas increased with the emergence of talking films, and reached 395 in 1958. This number began to decline after the establishment of television in 1960 and the establishment of the public sector in cinemas in 1962, and reached 297 in 1965, then to 141 in 1995 due to the circulation of films through video equipment though the boom of the film industry in this period. Due to laws and procedures that encouraged investment in the establishment of private cinemas, they increased again, especially in commercial centres, until their number reached 200 in 2001 and 400 in 2009. Over a period of more than a hundred years, Egyptian cinema has presented more than four thousand films.
Egyptian musicis a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. It has been an integral part ofEgyptian culturesince antiquity. The ancientEgyptianscredited one of their godsHathorwith the invention of music, whichOsirisin turn used as part of his effort to civilise the world. Egyptians used music instruments since then.
Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such asAbdu al-Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmoud Osman, who influenced the later work ofSayed Darwish,Umm Kulthum,Mohammed Abdel WahabandAbdel Halim Hafez. Prominent contemporary Egyptian pop singers includeAmr DiabandMohamed Mounir.
Today, Egypt is often considered the home ofbelly dance. Egyptianbelly dancehas two main styles –raqs baladiandraqs sharqi. There are also numerous folkloric and character dances that may be part of an Egyptian-style belly dancer's repertoire, as well as the modern shaabi street dance which shares some elements withraqs baladi.
Egypt has one of the oldest civilisations in the world. It has been in contact with many other civilisations and nations and has been through so many eras, starting from prehistoric age to the modern age, passing through so many ages such as Pharonic, Roman, Greek, Islamic and many other ages. At least 60 museums may be found in Egypt.
The three main museums in Egypt areThe Egyptian Museumwhich has more than 120,000 items, theEgyptian National Military Museumand the6th of October Panorama.
TheGrand Egyptian Museum(GEM), also known as the Giza Museum, is an under construction museum that will house the largest collection of ancient Egyptian artifacts in the world, it has been described as the world's largest archaeological museum.The museum was scheduled to open in 2015 and will be sited on 50 hectares (120 acres) of land approximately two kilometres (1.2 miles) from the Giza Necropolis and is part of a new master plan for the plateau. The Minister of Antiquities Mamdouh al-Damaty announced in May 2015 that the museum will be partially opened in May 2018.
Egypt celebrates many festivals and religious carnivals, also known asmulid. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion.
The ancient spring festival ofSham en Nisim(Coptic:Ϭⲱⲙ‘ⲛⲛⲓⲥⲓⲙshom en nisim) has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between theEgyptian monthsofParemoude(April) andPashons(May), following Easter Sunday.
Egyptian cuisine relies heavily on legume and vegetable dishes. Although food in Alexandria and the coast of Egypt tends to use a great deal of fish and other seafood, for the most part Egyptian cuisine is based on foods that grow out of the ground. Meat has been very expensive for most Egyptians throughout history, so a great number of vegetarian dishes have been developed.
Some considerkushari(a mixture of rice, lentils, and macaroni) to be thenational dish. In addition,ful medames(mashed fava beans) is one of the most popular dishes. Fava bean is also used in makingfalafel(also known as "ta'miya"), which may have originated in Egypt and spread to other parts of the Middle East. Garlic fried with coriander is added tomolokhiya, a popular green soup made from finely chopped jute leaves, sometimes with chicken or rabbit.
Footballis the most popularnational sportof Egypt. TheCairo Derbyis one of the fiercest derbies in Africa, and the BBC picked it as one of the 7 toughest derbies in the world.Al Ahlyis the most successful club of the 20th century in the African continent according to CAF, closely followed by their rivalsZamalek SC. They are known as the "African Club of the Century". With twenty titles, Al Ahly is currently the world's most successful club in terms of international trophies, surpassing Italy'sA.C. Milanand Argentina'sBoca Juniors, both having eighteen.
TheEgyptian national football team, known as the Pharaohs, won theAfrican Cup of Nationsseven times, including three times in a row in 2006, 2008, and 2010. Considered the most successful African national team and one which has reached the top 10 of the FIFA world rankings, Egypt has qualified for theFIFA World Cupthree times. Two goals from star playerMohamed Salahin their last qualifying game took Egypt through to the2018 FIFA World Cup.The Egyptian Youth National team Young Pharaohs won the Bronze Medal of the2001 FIFA youth world cupin Argentina. Egypt was 4th place in the football tournament in the1928and the1964Olympics.
Squashand tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been competitive in international championships since the 1930s.Amr Shabana,Ali FaragandRamy Ashourare Egypt's best players and all were ranked the world's number one squash player. Egypt has won the Squash World Championships five times, with the last title being in2019.
In 1999, EgypthostedtheIHF World Men's Handball Championship, and hosted it again in2021. In 2001, thenational handball teamachieved its best result in the tournament by reaching fourth place. Egypt has won in theAfrican Men's Handball Championshipfive times, being the best team in Africa. In addition to that, it also championed theMediterranean Gamesin2013, theBeach Handball World Championshipsin2004and theSummer Youth Olympicsin2010.
Among all African nations, theEgypt national basketball teamholds the record for best performance at theBasketball World Cupand at theSummer Olympics.Further, the team has won a record number of 16 medals at theAfrican Championship.
Egypt has taken partin theSummer Olympic Gamessince 1912 and has hostedseveral other international competitionsincludingthe first Mediterranean Gamesin 1951, the1991 All-Africa Games, the2009 FIFA U-20 World Cupand the1953,1965and2007editions of thePan Arab Games.
Egypt featured a national team in beach volleyball that competed at the2018–2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cupin both the women's and the men's section.
26°N30°E﻿ / ﻿26°N 30°E﻿ /26; 30