Al-Shabaab (militant group)

Harakat al-Shabaab al-Mujahideen,commonly known asal-Shabaab,is a transnationalSalafi Jihadistmilitary and political organization based inSomaliaand active elsewhere inEast Africa. It is actively involved in the ongoingSomali Civil Waras anIslamistgroup, regularly invokingtakfirto rationalize itsterrorist attackson Somali civilians and government forces.Allied to themilitantpan-Islamistorganizational-Qaedasince 2012, it has also forged ties withal-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, andal-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula.
Formed in the mid-2000s as a youth militia within the wider military wing of theIslamic Courts Union, al-Shabaab came to prominence during the 2006–2009Ethiopian invasion and occupation of Somalia, during which it presented itself as a vehicle for the waging of armed resistance against the occupying Ethiopian army. In subsequent years, it gained popular support fromSomalisand became a dominant force in south and central Somalia, defending large swathes of territory by fighting against theAfrican Union Mission to Somaliaand theFederal Government of Somalia, as well as the latter'stransitional predecessor. Al-Shabaab gained international prominence due to its recruitment of foreign fighters, including fighters who are fromWestern countries. Countries including theUnited States, theUnited Kingdom, and theUnited Arab Emirateshave designated it as aterrorist organization, and the United States hasmilitarily intervenedin order to fight against the group.
Between 2011 and 2013, a coalition ofAfrican Unionforces, led by the Somali government, wrested a significant amount of territory from al-Shabaab, including the capital city,Mogadishu. During the same period, the group was plagued by internal conflicts over its leadership and ideological direction, which intensified when, in February 2012, al-Shabaab's leadershippledged allegianceto al-Qaeda. It suffered further military losses in 2014, as a result ofOperation Indian Ocean, and the killing of itsemir,Ahmed Abdi Godane. Several years thereafter, al-Shabaab retreated from the major cities, but it remained influential in many rural areas, and it prioritizedguerrillaandterrorattacks over territorial acquisitions. It is responsible for many high-fatality attacks, including the2013 Westgate attack,October 2017 Mogadishu bombingsand the2022 Somali Ministry of Education bombings. Apart from its activities in Somalia, the group also operates in neighboring countries, extending its insurgency to Kenya's border regions with itsJaysh Aymanwingand carrying out amajor incursion into Ethiopiain 2022. Attendant to its recent resurgence, it was estimated to have increased its combat strength to between 7,000 and 18,000 fighters during 2022.
Al-Shabaab is also known asAsh-Shabaab,Hizb al-Shabaab("Party of the Youth"),Al Osra Army in Somalia (Arabic:جيش العسرة في الصومال).The termal-Shabaabmeans "the youth" in Arabic. It also refers to itself as theIslamic Emirate of Somaliasince 2011.
Although it is unclear when al-Shabaab was formed, it is understood to have originated as a youth militia within the military wing of theIslamic Courts Union, an umbrella group which providedde factogovernance in much of Somalia until thecountry was invaded by Ethiopiain December 2006.In 2007–08, al-Shabaab established itself as an independent actor, gaining prominence as a vehicle of armed resistance against the Ethiopianmilitary occupation.Many of its early leaders and members previously belonged not only to the Islamic Courts Union but also to the olderal-Ittihad al-Islamiya, a group founded on the tenets ofSalafismand opposition toclannism.Many early al-Shabaab leaders had also been trained asmujahideeninAfghanistanandSyria.
According to theInternational Crisis Group, Salafism has been a core unifying principle of al-Shabaab, although this principle is not interpreted uniformly by the group's members and leaders.In particular, al-Shabaab officially and generally advocates a form ofSalafi jihadismwith transnational aims, linkingSomali nationalistand local grievances to the plight ofMuslimsworldwide.Academics have also noted the influence of non-Salafi Islamic movements in Somalia on al-Shabaab.
Following its pan-Islamist political outlook, incursions into Somalia by Ethiopia – and later by Kenya, the United States, and others – are viewed by al-Shabaab as part of a wider American-sponsoredwar against Islam.For instance, al-Shabaab denounced the2006 Ethiopian invasion of Somaliaas a "Zionist-Crusader aggression",in which the United States "unleashed its ‘hunting dogs’ in Ethiopia and Kenya" by deploying "the world's crusader forces" to counter the rise of theIslamic Courts Union.However, this globalist framework is not universal within the group,an ideological fault-line which has sometimes fosteredfactionalismand internal conflict. Much of al-Shabaab's Somali support base is fiercely nationalist, and sees as its primary goal the establishment of a stable Islamic state inside Somalia,or, more ambitiously, inside so-calledGreater Somalia, uniting the ethnic Somali populations of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti.Other domestic supporters are concerned primarily with clan-related and local objectives, and are therefore prone to infighting and shifting alliances.
However, these ideological differences can accommodate broad opposition within the group to common adversaries – notably opposition to external intervention in Somalia, often publicly expressed in quasi-Qutbistterms;and opposition to the internationally recognisedSomali government, which, lacking a basis in religious (Sharia) law, is seen to lack legitimacy.Al-Shabaab hardliners broadly adhere to aTakfiriinterpretation of the principle ofal-wala' wal-bara'(lit.'loyalty and disavowal'),insofar as it prescribes dissociation from non-Muslims and those perceived asapostates.
A major component of Al-Shabaab's ideology isSomalireligious nationalismwhich is incorporated into itsPan-Islamistcause.Patrioticthemes warning Somalis of the plots from internationalNGOs, "Christian Crusaders" (United States,Ethiopia,AMISOM) and their collaborators are a regular feature of the movement's propaganda. During theEthiopian invasion of Somalia, Al-Shabaab positioned itself as a staunch nationalist militia under the IslamicMuqawwama(resistance coalition) of theIslamic Courts Union, taking the most hardline stance against the invading "Christian crusaders". After the collapse of the ICU in 2007, Al-Shabaab launched its own independent insurgency, gaining popular support from Somalis for defending the country fromAmerican imperialismand foreign occupation.Al-Qaedabegan enhancing its co-operation and support to Al-Shabaab during this period, which enabled the movement to establish itself as the strongest military power in Southern Somalia. Al-Shabaab regards Somalia'sFederal Governmentas an illegitimate "apostate" entity backed by foreign invaders.
The group has persecuted those individuals belonging to Somalia's smallChristian minority; whom it accused of aiding the agenda of foreign "Crusaders" to "convert Somalis to Christianity".In 2009, Al-Shabaab destroyed aSufishrine and its associated graves; asserting that over-embellishing burial sites into shrines is incompatible withSharia.Al-Shabaab has clashed with the pro-AMISOMSufi militias of "Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a".In addition, its statements have expressedanti-Zionistsentiments,and the group claimed that its2019 DusitD2 complex attackwas retaliation against the declaration ofJerusalemas the capital of Israel.
In 2017, observers estimated that al-Shabaab comprised between 7,000 and 9,000 fighters.In 2018, theCouncil of Foreign RelationsandUnited States militaryrevised this figure downwards, estimating 3,000 to 6,000 and 4,000 to 6,000 respectively.Reflecting an apparent al-Shabaab resurgence, theUnited States Africa Commandestimated 5,000 to 10,000 fighters two years later, in 2020.Most recently, an expert report submitted to theUnited Nations(UN)Security Councilin early February 2022 estimated that al-Shabaab's fighting force had grown to between 7,000 and 12,000 fighters.In late 2022, President of SomaliaHassan Sheikh Mohammedstated the faction had around 15,000 to 18,000 fighters.The group is led an executive tanfid council of 7 to 14 members - a configuration also seen in equivalent organisations such as al-Qaeda, supported by a consultative shura. It operates several internal departments known as “Makhtab”, including Jabhat (military), Sanaaca (explosives), Da’wa (preaching), Zakat (taxation), Wilayah (local administration), Garsoor (Islamic courts) anintelligenceagency known as the Amniyat, and a police force, Jaysh Al-Hisbah.
Especially in its early years, al-Shabaab was sometimes characterised by Somali opponents as dominated by theHawiyeclan, which is one of the largestclans in Somalia.Hawiye remain influential in the group,and, according to a 2018 analysis by the Somali Hiraal Institute, five of the ten members of the executive shura council were Hawiye, as were about 94 of the top 220 officials.However, al-Shabaab is attached to an ethos of anti-clannism, and has therefore tried to appeal to minority groups and to ensure ethnic and clan diversity among its leadership.It incorporates a relatively large contingent offoreign fighters(see§ Foreign recruitment). Rank-and-file members, though sometimes recruited by force,are also attracted by the regular pay that al-Shabaab offers and by its politicalpropaganda.In the past, many young al-Shabaab recruits were drawn from marginalised southern clans, such as theJareer.Many arechildren.
In February 2012,Fu'ad Qalaf Shongole, an al-Shabaab officer with responsibility for "awareness raising", encouraged a Somali gathering to send their unmarried daughters to fightjihadwith al-Shabaab, which until then had used only male fighters.However, according to International Crisis Group, women rarely participate directly in military decision-making or operations, though they do play important roles in recruitment, intelligence, and explosivessmuggling.
Al-Shabaab was founded inLas Anodin 2003.During that same year, the AmericanCentral Intelligence Agencybegan covert operations targeting theIslamic Courts Union(ICU) by backing anti-ICU Somali warlordswith the aim of preventing the formation of a 'Talibanlike' state in Somalia that could provide haven toAl-Qaeda.In 2005 Mogadishu was hit by a significant wave of unexplainedassassinationsand disappearances. The Islamic Courts claimed that covert US government operations and warlords were targeting high ranking ICU officials. According to C. Barnes & H. Hassan, "It was in this context that a military force known as Al-Shabaab (‘the Youth’) emerged, related to but seemingly autonomous of the broad based Courts movement."Contrary to many reports, Al-Shabaab was neither the armed wing of the Islamic Courts Union nor its most important military component. Al-Shabaab fighters operated as the youth wing of the Courts' militia and gained a fierce reputation during the war against the CIA-backedSomali warlord alliancein Mogadishu in early to mid-2006, distinguishing themselves within the ICU's military wing.
Al-Shabaab rose to prominence and radicalized following the full scale Ethiopian invasion of Somalia during December 2006.At the time Al-Shabaab was about six hundred fighters strong.The invasion resulted in the deaths of many Islamic Courts Union affiliates, leaving a vacuum for the small group of several hundred youth that served as the ICU's Shabaab militia to gain prominence.During themilitary occupationthe group garnered popular support from across many segments of Somali society, as al-Shabaab was widely viewed as a genuine resistance movement against the Ethiopian military occupation; despite its inclinations towards hardline interpretations of Islam. Though the invasion had fractured theIslamic Courts Union, it galvanizednationalismon which al-Shabaab capitalized, especially for recruitment purposes, with thousands of new recruits drawn to the group.
During 2008, al-Shabaab began rapidly expanding and governing territory for the first time.According to Cocodia, "Al-Shabaab from an objective standpoint is the response of an unlawfully deposed regime employing all means possible to reclaim the authority that was wrenched from it." In the initial years, many Somalis perceived Al-Shabaab as disciplined, orderly, and fair, which earned the group significant legitimacy. However, this perception was later lost due to their arbitrary rulings.Heavy handed tactics by the Ethiopian military rallied many Somalis to support the organization, and over the following two years al-Shabaab became battle hardened as it participated in the insurgency. In this period, the group laid the foundation for an enduring insurgency in Somalia, establishing networks and territorial bases concentrated in the rural south-central regions.The African Union reported Al-Shabaab was about 2,000 fighters strong during 2008.
A critical juncture in transformation of Al-Shabaab was the assassination of the groups military leaderAden Hashi Ayroin an American airstrike during May 2008. It resulted in several significant developments for Al-Shabaab, most prominently the accession ofAhmed Godaneto leadership of the organization. Godane moved Al-Shabaab in a far more violent direction, alienating many fighters and civilian supporters. The assassination of Ayro did nothing to prevent the groups expansion.The withdrawal of Ethiopian troops in January 2009 significantly diminished the public support that al-Shabaab had previously enjoyed as a resistance faction.However, this move came too late to have a substantial impact on the group's transformation into a formidable oppositional force.
Having made important territorial gains from mid-2008, al-Shabaab increasingly focused its attention on opposition to the SomaliTransitional Federal Government, as the Ethiopian-led war segued into the next phase of the protractedSomali Civil War.By 2009–10, al-Shabaab controlled most of central and southern Somalia (south of the semi-autonomous region ofPuntland), and it had formed administrative structures to govern territories under its control.It had particular success building relationships with local leaders in order to build cross-clan coalitions, combining its principled anti-clannism with a "pragmatic clannism": a willingness to manipulate clan networks and exploit inter-clan politics.
By 2009, al-Shabaab started drastically altering its choice of targets and frequency of attacks. The use ofkidnappingsand bombings in urban areas significantly grew in use.The groups significant support from theSomali diasporadwindled in response to the usage of terror tactics.
In subsequent years, however, al-Shabaab's strong position was significantly weakened, as – in the context of afaminein the region and, simultaneously, a military offensive against the group – the group experienced territorial and strategic setbacks in the military arena; an internal struggle over the group's direction and leadership; and, in response to both, a wave of high-profiledefections.
The group's military fortunes turned with the failure of the August 2010Ramadanoffensive – the inauguration of theBattle of Mogadishu– which resulted in heavy al-Shabaab losses.By August 2011, al-Shabaab had announced a "strategic withdrawal" fromMogadishu, although, from outlying districts, it continued to exert influence in the city and to launch deadlyguerrillaattacks against AMISOM and the TFG.In October and November 2011, Kenya and Ethiopia – partnering with local militias – launched offensives against al-Shabaab strongholds: Kenya'sOperation Linda Nchion the southern front, while Ethiopia approached from the west. The group lost territory to both armies, notably losingBaidoato Ethiopia in February 2012 andlosingthe port city (and revenue hub) ofKismayoto Kenya in October 2012.Military pressures on the group were sustained into 2013.
Some al-Shabaab members viewed the 2010 Ramadan offensive as disastrously ill-conceived, and subsequent territorial losses galvanised internal opposition to the leadership ofAhmed Abdi Godane, who was publicly named the group's emir in December 2007.Asa severe droughtafflicted the region, critics, generally associated with the leadership ofHassan Dahir AweysandMukhtar Robow,opposed al-Shabaab's response to the resulting famine, particularly its obstruction of foreignhumanitarian aidto populations in its territories (seebelow).More broadly, they argued that the group's authoritarian style of governance, and use of violence, were causing the group to lose public support. Some suggested that these leadership missteps were the result of Godane's lack of clan roots, which they said led him to undervalue the lives both of civilians and of al-Shabaab fighters.
These criticisms became intertwined with a broader and pre-existing dispute over the increasingly globalist flavour of al-Shabaab's ideology – Godane was among the faction which viewed Somalia as only one battleground of global jihad.Godane's announcement in February 2012 of a merger withal-Qaeda(see§ Al-Qaeda) thus also met opposition.Other senior al-Shabaab members met at a conference in Baidabo,and outlined a policy programme which diverged from Godane's: they rejected Godane's proposal to change the group's name to al-Qaeda in East Africa, and resolved to focus on domestic issues rather than global jihad. They also resolved to establish a national shura of Islamic clerics, independent of al-Qaeda control.Godane's rival Aweys declared publicly that "Al-Shabaab and al-Qaeda are merely a small part of the larger Islamic group and al-Qaeda's ideology should not be viewed as the sole, righteous path for Islam."
In 2013, these internal rifts led to internecine violence as Godane effected what was virtually apurgeof his critics.Among those killed wereIbrahim al-Afghaniand three other senior commanders, executed in June;andOmar Shafik Hammami, killed in September.JournalistSimon Tisdallviewed the September 2013Westgate shopping mall shootinginNairobi, Kenya as a reflection of the internal power struggle, with Godane's hardline globalist faction seeking to exert its authority.
From mid-to-late 2011, and into 2012, al-Shabaab faced an increasing number of defections.It was not the first such wave of defections: in particular, in late 2009, after the Ethiopian departure from Somalia, several leaders had defected to the Somali government, citing complaints about al-Shabaab's use ofsuicide attacksand executions;its "false interpretations of Islam";and its use ofextortionand attitude towards foreign humanitarian aid.Such defections were viewed as strategically important to al-Shabaab's adversaries, not only for their propaganda use but because former militants could provide intelligence about al-Shabaab's combat strategy.However, according to AMISOM and the Somali government, the volume of defections in the period around 2012 was unprecedented, and indicated that al-Shabaab's cohesion and authority were deteriorating: in June 2012, the government said that around 500 al-Shabaab militants had already defected to it, and that more were doing so every day.Al-Shabaab brutalities, which alienated local populations, were again cited as central in motivating defections.On September 5 and September 22, 2012, two large contingents of al-Shabaab fighters – around 200 each time – surrendered to the government coalition in Afmadow and Garsale respectively.Another wave of defections and desertions followed Godane's 2013 purges – Aweys, for example, fled the group in mid-2013.
Following its territorial losses, al-Shabaab reverted to the tactics ofasymmetric warfare, launching guerrilla attacks on AMISOM and government positions and territories.Southern commander Aweys had announced this new strategy in a media interview shortly after the withdrawal from Mogadishu in August 2011.Al-Shabaab increasingly avoided direct military combat and large battles, in favour of "dictat[ing] the conflict's pace by undertaking smaller ambushes at locations of its own choosing".The group undertook high-profile attacks outside Somalia such as theWestgate shopping mall attackby four militants left 67 dead - the deadliest attack in Kenya since the1998 US embassy bombings in Nairobi.  That death-toll was exceeded two years later in the Garissa University College attack in which 148 people were killed in an attack targeting Christian students. Furthermore, two sophisticated attempts to target airliners were observed in 2016. In February a device in a laptop bag that had passed screening was detonated mid-flight, killing only the bomber, and in March another laptop bomb exploded during screening. Reacting to apparent advances in the group’s bomb-making capabilities, the UN Security Council later prohibited the transfer of bomb components to Somalia. The group has also developed a strategy of maintaining a "semi-territorial presence" in key regions and parts of key cities: while it no longer had exclusive and military authority over substantial territory, it retained a sporadic presence, and therefore significant influence, in many places.
Nonetheless, by 2016, al-Shabaab was viewed as significantly weakened by the military campaign against it, with earlier losses compounded in 2014–15 byOperation Indian Ocean, a joint endeavour by AMISOM, the Somali government, and the United States.The Somali government claimed in October 2014 that over 700 al-Shabaab militants had surrendered since September, when it had extended anamnestyoffer to them.Reports of further senior defections continued into 2015.Moreover, anAmerican drone strikekilled Godane on September 1, 2014;he was succeeded as al-Shabaab leader byAhmad Umar Abu Ubaidah, who took office the same week.Other senior members were killed in armed clashes or by American drone strikes in 2014 and 2015.According to some reports, since Godane's death, the group has placed less weight on global jihad than on local grievances.
In October 2017, more than 500 people were killed bya suicide truck bombingin Mogadishu , including many children, provoking domestic and international outrage. Al-Shabaab did not claim responsibility for the attack but was suspected of involvement.In December 2019,another suicide truck bombmarked the beginning of a series of al-Shabaab attacks on the capital city, which continued into 2022.Al-Shabaab also targeted American military personnel inan attack on a Kenyan basein January 2020,and in July 2022 launched an unusually bold, though short-lived,incursion into Ethiopian territory.By 2020, the group's strategy of semi-territorialism allowed it operate freely in much of rural Somalia, with its primary base in theJubba RiverValley,although air strikes against its leaders continued;and it has recently won military successes against the government.It had also expanded its operations in Puntland,prompting a military offensive by Puntland forces in 2021.As of July 2022, al-Shabaab is generally considered to be "resurgent",a situation partly enabled by a reduction in the number of American air strikes,and possibly motivated by competition withIslamic State in Somalia, which has been conducting its own expansionary campaign.
On 20 July 2022,al-Shabaab launched an invasioninto Ethiopia'sSomali Region.Taking advantage of the ongoingTigray War, the goal of the operation was to establish a presence for the group within southernEthiopia. The incursion began with over a thousand Al-Shabaab fighters staging diversionary attacks on fourEthiopian-Somali bordertowns in order to allow a force of 500 to 800 fighters to penetrate the Ethiopian security zone and advance into the region, who then advanced 150 km into the region.After two weeks of intense clashes and airstrikes, the ENDF and Somali Region security forces began to reassert control.Abattalionof around 500 al-Shabaab fighters succeeded in evading the Ethiopian army and reached its main target, theBale Mountains.
In August 2022, Somali President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud declared "total war" against Al Shabaab during a televised address after the group carried out a deadlyhotel attack in Mogadishuand also announced that the Somalia military had regained territory from al Shabaab in the central Galmudug state and Southwest state.By September 2022 Somali andATMISoffensive operations against al-Shabaab, with U.S. support, would escalate to the highest point in five years.The operation, which is considered a combined Somali-ATMIS offensive,began in August 2022 and, with assistance from U.S. airstrikes, has been focused on disrupting al-Shabaab activity in Somalia's centralHiraanregion.Other Al Shabaab-controlled areas in southern Somalia have been targeted by the Somalia military as well.On 20 September 2022, as the military operation progressed, a statement was released by the Somali Ministry of Information which revealed that President Sheikh would not offer any other option than surrender for al-Shabaab members.
On 29 October, 2022, al-Shabaab took responsibility fora twin car bombingthat occurred in Mogadishu targeting theMinistry of Education. The attacks killed 121 people and injured 333, making it the deadliest at the time since 2017.
On 26 May, 2023, Al-Shabaab claimed responsibility foran attackthat reportedly killed 137 soldiers in theBuulo Mareerbase, just 75 mi (121 km) south-west of the capital Mogadishu. Meanwhile, Ugandan PresidentYoweri Musevenistated that the number is closer to 54 African Union peacekeepers stationed in Somalia.
Al-Shabaab launchedan attack on El Dher districton 8 June, 2024. Militants attacked two military bases using car bombs and then overran at least one of them. The army then launched a counterattack with coordinated airstrikes, as well as an ambush on the militants from a neighbouring town, forcing them to retreat. The Somali government stated that they killed at least 47 militants and suffered 5 casualties, including two colonels, though al-Shabaab claimed to have killed 59 soldiers.
On 2 August, 2024,an attackcarried out by al-Shabaab at a beach restaurant in Mogadishu killed at least 37 civilians and injured 212, with 11 in critical condition. Police spokesperson Abdifatah Aden reported that one soldier died in the assault, one attacker blew himself up, three were killed by security forces, and one was captured.Later that August, more than 20 people were killed ina bombingin a Mogadishu tea shop.
In December 2024, the UN Security Council approved a resolution to establish theAfrican Union Support and Stabilization Mission in Somalia(Aussom), a streamlined successor to theAfrican Union Transition Mission in Somalia(Atmis), which ends in 2024. Aussom will deploy up to 12,626 personnel to support Somalia’s fight against the al-Shabaab insurgency.
On 26 December 2024, the militant group of Al-Shabaab confirmed the death of Mohamed Mire Jama,a senior leader of the group, who had been designated as a terrorist by theUnited States,in an Americandrone strikenearKunyo Barrowof theLower Shabelleregion in theSouth West State of Somalia.
Although al-Shabaab has disseminated its propaganda by various media, the bulk of its engagement with Somalis in rural areas is either face-to-face or by radio broadcast.Face-to-face, the group holds seminars onIslamic jurisprudenceand community meetings on such matters such as grain and livestock distribution.It operates its own radio station, Radio Andalus, mainly operated usingrelay stationsand other equipment seized from private radio stations, including theBBC.Presenters broadcast in Somali, Arabic,Swahiliand English.In April 2010, al-Shabaab banned BBC andVoice of Americabroadcasts on Somali radio, objecting to what they alleged was Christian propaganda.Also in 2010, and prior to its expulsion from Mogadishu the following year, al-Shabaab launched a television news channel,al-KataibNews.The group has also been known to conductmilitary paradesin its territories, as a show of force.
Al-Shabaab began creatingpropaganda filmsearly in its campaign against Ethiopian forces,produced by its dedicated media wing,al-Kataib Media Foundation.
Since 2009, al-Shabaab's films have become noticeably more "professional", both in their production quality and in their messaging, reportedly with direct support from al-Qaeda's as-Sahab Media Foundation.The early films were distributed primarily, and widely, online, and were primarily used as tools for recruitment, particularly among foreign jihadists.More recent films show al-Shabaab distributing humanitarian aid and participating in other community or religious activities – though others are much more gruesome, displaying the corpses of beheaded members alleged to have been spies.Propaganda films are also occasionally used to attempt to mobilise jihadi activity abroad: in October 2013, one film encouraged British jihadists to follow the example set byLee Rigby's killers,while a February 2015 film called (without effect) for attacks on shopping malls in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, including theWest Edmonton MallinAlberta, Canada, and theMall of AmericainBloomington, Minnesota.
Al-Shabaab was an early adopter among African insurgents of theInternet, which it uses to distribute its propaganda videos and for various other propaganda functions.Especially in its early years, it used online chatrooms and discussion forums, encouraging foreign fighters and even military commanders to post updates and field public questions about the state of the jihad.Particularly prominent was American-born Omar Shafik Hammami, also known asAbu Mansoor Al-Amriki, who for many years kept avideo blogabout his life in al-Shabaab and who, from 2009, also created and postedrapsabout jihad.Al-Shabaab also had an official website, which carried official statements and news – including sundry edicts and threats – and religious guidance. Since the site was closed in 2009, it has distributed its press releases and videos using other sympathetic websites, or, more commonly, usingsocial medianetworks.
Indeed, although al-Shabaab spokesmen occasionally grant interviews to "carefully selected" local and foreign journalists,social media networks have provided an important channel for interaction with the press, as well as for disseminating information and building support. Al-Shabaab has usedFacebook, particularly to communicate with theSomali diaspora;and it has made prolific and innovative use ofTwittersince late 2011,although its first accounts were active as early as 2009.Online engagement with al-Shabaab surged during Operation Linda Nchi, the Kenyan offensive of 2011–12, when al-Shabaab used Twitter, under the handle @HSMPress, to urge Somalis to take up arms against the Kenyan forcesand to portray its own military losses as tactical retreats.In an extreme example of the latter in late 2011, al-Shabaab photos purportedly showed several dozen AMISOM casualties – but, according to anAfrican Unionspokesperson, in fact showed al-Shabaab's own casualties dressed in their adversaries' uniforms.What received most attention, however, were tweets al-Shabaab posted mocking theKenya Defence Forces(KDF) and sparring with Major Emmanuel Chirchir, then the KDF's official spokesman.Responding to Chirchir's claim that Kismayo had been captured by the KDF, al-Shabaab tweeted that the KDF "boys are a grotesque parody of an army! [Al-Shabaab] can outpace urworld-class runnersby far. Indeed, they 'Run like a Kenyan'".Showing uncharacteristic levity, al-Shabaab also suggested by Tweet that it meet a UN official for "acaramel macchiato".
Most of al-Shabaab's Tweets are in English, suggesting that they are intended for a foreign audience.In 2011, officials in the United States, where Twitter is based, said they were considering having the account closed, but had legal andfree speechconcerns.Chirchir himself tweeted that such a move would be counterproductive, as "al-Shabaab needs to be engaged positively, and Twitter is the only avenue."Nonetheless, in January 2013, Twitter suspended al-Shabaab's English-language account. Observers guessed that the suspension was a response to the account having issueddeath threatsagainst Kenyanhostagesand against French spyDenis Allex, followed in the latter case by confirmation that the execution had taken place.A new English-language account, opened in February 2013,was closed in September. This suspension also followed an apparent violation of Twitter's rules: al-Shabaab had recently used the account to claim responsibility for an unsuccessfulambushof a convoy carrying Somali PresidentHassan Sheikh Mohamud, and to warn that, "next time, you won't be as lucky".
Al-Shabaab relaunched its English-language Twitter account once again on September 11, 2013.Two weeks later, the group gained notoriety forlive-tweetingthe 2013 Westgate shopping mall attack, "justifying the attack, creating fictional threats, providing news on hostages and mocking the police and military response".The account, which then had 15,000 or morefollowers, wasretweetedseveral million times before it was shut down by Twitter.And after @HSMPress was deleted, the live updates continued from other, new accounts: over the course of the attack, which lasted several days, at least eight different al-Shabaab-affiliated Twitter accounts were active.Al-Shabaab had opened a new Twitter account by December that year, with an official tellingAl Jazeerathat, "The aim is to vigorously challengedefamatoryreports in the media by presenting an accurate portrayal of the current state of Jihad in Somalia and countering Western, state-sponsored propaganda machines".It has since tweeted, from various accounts, during other attacks;Facebook, too, has had difficulty expeditiously removing graphic al-Shabaab content when it appears on newly created accounts.The group is adept in using intricately-structured networks of amplifier accounts, leveraging algorithms and emerging technologies, to disseminate its messages.
In territories it holds, al-Shabaab typically maintains "limited but effective" administrative control over resident populations,providing services – such asdispute resolutionthrough Sharia-based courts – which are sometimes compared favourably to those offered in government-held territories.Somalis have been observed to travel out of government-controlled areas into Al-Shabaab territory to settle disputes, particularly involving clan dynamics, lacking trust in official institutions.Al-Shabaab claimed some credit for Somalia's excellentcrop yieldin early 2010, saying thatSomali grain productionhad flourished due to al-Shabaab's reduction of food imports, and that the policy hadredistributed incometo poor, rural Somali farmers.However, the group has also allegedly committed widespreadhuman rightsabuses against populations in its territories, including through a brutal interpretation and application of Islamic jurisprudence onhudud.
Despite routinely expelling, attacking, and harassing aid workers, al-Shabaab permits some agencies to work in areas under its control. At the height of its territorial control it implemented a system of aid agency regulation, taxation and surveillance. Where agencies are allowed to operate, this is often due to the desire of al-Shabaab to coopt and materially and politically benefit from the provision of aid and services.Senior aid agency representatives often strongly rejected claims that they talked with al-Shabaab, while aid workers working in al-Shabaab-controlled areas often reported they directly negotiated with the group out of necessity.Complaints made against the group include its attacks on aid workers. According to journalistJon Lee Anderson:
In 2009, Godane imposed an al-Shabaab ban on the UNWorld Food Programmeand Western agencies in Somalia. The ban was opposed by other senior members, including Robow and Aweys, but Godane overruled them.
In response to the2011 Eastern Africa drought, which lasted until early 2012,al-Shabaab announced in July 2011 that it had withdrawn its restrictions on international humanitarian workers.The group also adapted its propaganda strategy to accommodate the changing circumstances. In some cases, group members employed humanitarian aid as a recruitment tool, using relief supplies as bribes and as an incentive to join the militants, whose numbers had decreased due to casualties and defections.Group members dismissed the UN declaration of famine in various regions as grossly exaggerated and banned various organizations from providing aid to those regions.In response, in August 2011, Somali Prime MinisterAbdiweli Mohamed Aliannounced the establishment of a new 300-man security force, which, assisted by AMISOM, was tasked with protecting aid convoys from al-Shabaab and with securingIDPcamps while relief was being distributed.Although fighting disrupted aid delivery in some areas, humanitarian access to al-Shabaab-controlled areas improved, and a scaling up of relief operations in mid-November prompted the UN to downgrade the humanitarian situation in several regions from famine to emergency levels.
In July 2018, al-Shabaab announced a complete ban onsingle-useplastic bagswithin its territory in a broadcast in which it stated that they "pose a serious threat to the well-being of humans and animals alike", and in the same announcement, it also imposed a complete ban on the logging of several species of rare trees.Some have argued that, whilst these environmentally-conscious advances are welcome, they are overshadowed by the group's terrorist activities, whilst others have mocked the United States and other countries for taking less action on climate change than a terrorist group.
Al-Shabaab acknowledged the existence of theCOVID-19 pandemicand announced the formation of a coronavirus prevention and treatment committee.In mid-June 2020, the group announced that it had set up a coronavirus treatment centre inJilib, about 380 km (236 mi) south of the capital, Mogadishu.
Al-Shabaab is noteworthy in the region for its extensive recruitment of foreign fighters (seelist below).These foreign recruits include members of the Somali diaspora or ethnicSomalisoverseas; citizens of otherEast Africancountries; and citizens of countries further afield, including in theMiddle Eastand theWest.Non-Somali fighters have occasionally orchestrated high-profile al-Shabaab attacks, notably the2010 Kampala bombingsand 2019 DusitD2 complex attack inNairobi.However, of greater importance to al-Shabaab are the combat experience and specialised skills of some, usuallyArab, foreign fighters,which have been linked to al-Shabaab's increased sophistication in producing explosives,improvedsnipercapability,and increased propensity to use suicide attacks.Foreign fighters may also have access to networks which improve al-Shabaab's capacity to recruit and operate in the region, and have made useful contributions to al-Shabaab's propaganda campaign: early Western recruits helped produce al-Shabaab's first English-language propaganda, and, thanks to its East African membership, Swahili remains the second most common language in al-Shabaab publications.Foreign fighters also have symbolic importance for al-Shabaab propaganda: al-Shabaab has intentionally played up the diversity of its recruits as a paean to itspan-Islamism– that is, to demonstrate that it transcends clannism and nationalism, embodying a united transnationalummah.
Foreign recruitment peaked in the period between 2011 and 2013,which was also the period in which the phenomenon received the most attention. The 2006 Ethiopian invasion of Somalia attracted foreign volunteers to al-Shabaab's cause,and, as of 2010, al-Shabaab included an estimated 200–300 foreign fighters, not including a further 1,000 ethnic Somalis from the diaspora.In subsequent years, al-Shabaab recruitment became a concern for the governments of both the United Kingdom and the United States. At a security conference in London in 2010, the former head ofMI5,Jonathan Evans, said that "a significant number of U.K. residents" were training with al-Shabaab;the precise number of British recruits was estimated at between 50and 100persons. There was also evidence that the group had received funding from Somali residents in Britain.Between 2012 and 2013, several British citizens facedcontrol ordersor even criminal charges related to association with al-Shabaab.
Sweden, Denmark, Canada, and the United States similarly encountered evidence of citizens' affiliation with al-Shabaab.In the United States, theU.S. Senate Homeland Security Committeeheard as early as 2009 – fromMichael Leiter, director of theNational Counterterrorism Center– that American and other foreign fighters were being recruited and trained by al-Shabaab.In 2011, theHouse Committee on Homeland Securityreported that more than 40Muslim Americansand 20 Canadians had fought with al-Shabaab, and that at least 15 of those volunteers had been killed in Somalia.Later that year, a U.S. military official told theNew York Timesthat about 30 U.S. citizens were al-Shabaab fighters.This was a resumption of an earlier trend of al-Shabaab recruitment among Americans, which previously had peaked in 2007–08.Also in 2011, twoSomali Americansin Minnesota were convicted of illegally financing al-Shabaab.By mid-2013, observers believed that recruitment of U.S. citizens had subsided.
In general, foreign activity in al-Shabaab has decreased, first, and perhaps most importantly, because theSyrian civil warbecamethe focal pointfor foreign jihadist recruitment networks.Other factors, however, are more specific to al-Shabaab. One factor was the group's internal struggle of 2011–2013: as tensions between Somali and non-Somali members increased, Godane scapegoated the foreigners as the cause of the group's disunity and, during his 2013 purge, executed various foreign recruits(seeabove).In addition to serving as a disincentive to foreign fighters, this shift reduced the influence of the group's remaining foreign leaders.Moreover, whereas the ascendancy of Godane and his faction had partly internationalized al-Shabaab, in subsequent years, al-Shabaab became (re-)"domesticated": as it made territorial gains, its attention was increasingly consumed by local governance and the management of clan dynamics, activities in which foreign fighters – frequently mistrusted by local populations – lacked utility and influence.As the conflict, and al-Shabaab's priorities, became more localized and clan-based, they also held less appeal for foreign fighters themselves.Foreign fighters also attracted the counterterrorism efforts of foreign countries, and were sometimes suspected of disloyalty and spying by their Somali peers.
As of 2020, estimates of the number of foreign recruits still active in al-Shabaab ranged from 450 to 2,000.Most of those recruits are from East Africa – primarily Kenya,but also Tanzania and Uganda, all countries in which al-Shabaab recruitment networks are well entrenched.The flow of recruits fromArabcountries and the West has diminished substantially since 2014, except for in the case of Yemen.Moreover, few foreign fighters hold strategically important roles in the group. Many are among the rank-and-file of the military wing.Those in leadership positions tend to have prominent, but strategically marginal or mid-level, roles – for example, in managing the group's public relations or external relations, or in supervising and training other foreign recruits.(Godane's nationalist critics, however, argue that earlier, under his leadership, foreign fighters did in fact gain significant influence over the group.) Since 2013, al-Shabaab has also established two external military units, on Godane's initiative: one, in Ethiopia, has struggled, but the other, in theGreat Lakesregion, has carried out several attacks in Kenya.
Between 2010 and 2012,Hizbul Islam, a smaller group of Somali militants,was merged with al-Shabaab: after suffering military defeats against al-Shabaab in southern towns, Hizbul Islam was officially absorbed by its former rival in December 2010.However, on September 24, 2012, Hizbul Islam announced that it would split from al-Shabaab, claiming the union had only ever been nominal and that the factions' political philosophies had differed irreconcilably. Hizbul Islam said that it welcomed "negotiations with all groups for the interest of Somalia", and added that al-Shabaab had been considerably "weakened" in recent years.
Al-Shabaab has  Kenya-based affiliates, withAl-Hijraas its official Kenyan wing from 2012, then with a unit established in 2013 known asJaysh Ayman, based primarily in the Boni Forest. While the former group was used to carry out minor attacks within Kenya, the Al-Shabaab leadership later switched its focus to Jaysh Ayman which proved more effective. Jaysh Ayman comprises both Somali and Kenyan fighters as well as fighters from overseas.
Before 2012, al-Qaeda and al-Shabaab had what academicDaniel Bymancalls an "on-again, off-again" relationship, though both groups praised each other online in 2008.During this early period, al-Shabaab occasionally harboured al-Qaeda leaders in Somalia, in exchange for their technical assistance.In September 2009, in a video entitled "At Your Service Osama", al-Shabaab publicly declared allegiance to al-Qaeda leaderOsama bin Laden– but this reflected an "unrequited courtship", largely ignored by al-Qaeda.However, after bin Laden's death and replacement byAyman al-Zawahiri, al-Shabaab became an official al-Qaeda affiliate in February 2012. In a fifteen-minute video message released on February 9, al-Shabaab leader Godane pledged allegiance to al-Qaeda and al-Zawahiri on behalf of al-Shabaab.Al-Zawahiri confirmed the alliance,which he said would "please the believers and disturb the disbelievers" and "support the jihadi unity against theZio-Crusadercampaign and their assistants amongst the treacherous agent rulers."The announcement was met with internal opposition among some factions of al-Shabaab(see§ Drought, al-Qaeda, and internal struggle).
By late 2012, the groups cooperated closely in various arenas, especially indoctrination and training, both in basicinfantryskills and in advanced explosives and assassination – after the merger, a corps of al-Qaeda-trained militants moved to Somalia to train members of al-Shabaab.However, al-Shabaab remained "largely independent".Similarly, although al-Shabaab has publicly exploited the al-Qaeda "brand", echoing al-Qaeda ideology in its recruitment videos,it is unclear whether the alliance has affected al-Shabaab's behaviour and aims on the ground.A 2021 statistical analysis suggests that it has not significantly affected al-Shabaab's military strategy.While an al-Shabaab commander has claimed that the group will bring jihad first to East Africa "and afterward, with God's will, to America",an analyst at theCenter for Strategic and International Studiesargues that the group is far more interested in establishing Islamic State inside Somalia than in carrying out attacks in the West.
In June 2012, GeneralCarter Hamof theU.S. Armysaid that al-Shabaab,al-Qaeda in Islamic Maghreb(AQIM), and the Nigeria-basedBoko Haramwere attempting to coordinate their activities, including in funding, training, and explosives.In 2011, Boko Haram'sfirst suicide bomb attackhad been preceded by a public statement warning that "our jihadists have arrived in Nigeria from Somalia where they received real training on warfare from our brethren who made that country ungovernable", which analysts understood as an allusion to cooperation with al-Shabaab.However, in the view of some observers, most consequential are al-Shabaab's links toal-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula(AQAP).AQAP is based in Yemen, which has longstanding ties to Somalia, and analyst Katherine Zimmerman told theU.S. Congressthat AQAP "almost certainly provided the equipment or the expertise" for al-Shabaab's2016 laptop bomb.
In early 2015, theIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant(ISIL) published online the first of a series of videos aimed at al-Shabaab, calling on the group to switch allegiances from al-Qaeda to ISIL and its leaderAbu Bakr al-Baghdadi.These public appeals had reportedly been preceded by informal ISIL attempts to establish a relationship with al-Shabaab.Yet al-Shabaab publicly ignored the overtures.By September 2015, it had issued an internal memo, directed at pro-ISIL elements in its ranks, reaffirming the group's allegiance to al-Qaeda and banning any discussion about ISIL. The group also detained several fighters who had voiced support for ISIL.
In October 2015, senior al-Shabaab commanderAbdul Qadir Muminand approximately 20 of his followers in Puntland pledged allegiance to ISIL,establishing what becameIslamic State in Somalia(ISIS).Further defections in al-Shabaab ranks occurred in the border region between Somalia and northern Kenya,leading the head of al-Shabaab in theLower Shabelleregion, Abu Abdalla, to announce that all pro-ISIL members should leave the group or be killed.The groups clashed violently on several occasions, most fiercely during 2015, and al-Shabaab's internal security service continued to arrest, and sometimes execute, suspected ISIS supporters within al-Shabaab's ranks.
Violent conflict between the groups was reinvigorated in 2018 by ISIS provocation, and, in December, al-Shabaab's spokesman announced an offensive –code-namedOperation Disease Eradication – against ISIS.The same week, al-Shabaab's general command released an 8-page treatise rebuking ISIS's ideology and listing crimes it had committed under theQuran.
In 2020, the Hiraal Institute estimated that al-Shabaab collected at least $15 million in revenue every month, implying revenue on a similar scale to the government's;and the UN estimates that the group's military budget was approximately $21 million in 2019.In the period after 2014, al-Shabaab established its own Ministry of Finance,and it has cultivated various revenue streams, among which it switches as its military position or political circumstances change.
During its early years, al-Shabaab received substantial external support in donations from the Somali diaspora or interested international jihadists,enabled by the weakness of the Somalian government'sfinancial regulationframework and the ubiquitous use of thehawalasystem for receipt ofremittances.Although al-Shabaab initially appeared a promising alternative to the Islamic Courts Union, its popularity with diaspora donors declined after the Ethiopian withdrawal and as the group gained a reputation for brutality.Concurrently, however, al-Shabaab increased its ties to other jihadist groups, especially al-Qaeda, which have extensive capacity to generate income in theArabian PeninsulaandHorn of Africa.For example, years before al-Shabaab became an official al-Qaeda affiliate, bin Laden publicly called on Muslims to send money to al-Shabaab.However, over the past decade, the counterterrorism efforts of foreign governments have obstructed international funding sources.
According to authorities, the Somali state of Puntland is a key transit point for weapons shipments into Somalia from foreign countries – particularly frequent shipments ofsmall armsand ammunition from Yemen, typically transported across theGulf of Adeninskiffs, and occasionally larger shipments from theMakrancoast of Iran.Puntland authorities have also seized Yemeni explosives shipments, which they suspect are the result of cooperation between al-Shabaab and Yemen-based AQAP.
In December 2009, adoptingResolution 1907, the UN Security Council imposed sanctions onEritrea, accusing the country of arming and financing militia groups, including al-Shabaab, in southern Somalia's conflict zones.Reports in 2010 and 2011 by a UN International Monitoring Group alleged continuing Eritrean support to Somali rebels – including, in the latter year, about $80,000 in monthly financial support and two air deliveries of weapons – but the Eritrean government emphatically denied the accusations, describing them as "concocted, baseless and unfounded".The International Crisis Group added some credence to Eritrea's denials, suggesting that historical Eritrean support to Somali militants had been aimed at undermining Ethiopia during its 2006–9 invasion, and that Hizbul Islam was more likely a recipient than al-Shabaab.
On July 5, 2012, the U.S. government imposed sanctions on Eritrea's intelligence chief and a high-ranking military officer, who allegedly facilitated support to al-Shabaab.However, later that year, the UN Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea reported that it had found no evidence of direct Eritrean support to al-Shabaab in the preceding year.Between then and 2017, successive annual reports of the Monitoring Group found no evidence for Eritrean involvement, while noting that Eritrea had not provided full access to investigators;nonetheless, the UN Security Council did not enact the group's recommendation to lift its sanctions on Eritrea until November 2018.
As al-Shabaab expanded its territorial control, it was able to augment its internal funding through illicit markets and local populations. The smuggling ofcharcoalhas been an important source of income for the group since it first gained control of Somali port cities, especially Kismayo.Calculating that al-Shabaab was earning between $15 million and $50 million annually from illegal trade, the UN banned Somali charcoal imports.The group also profits from involvement in – or taxation of – the smuggling and sale ofivory, sugar, and, reportedly,heroin;and it has been implicated inillegal miningand minerals exports in East Africa.There is some evidence that al-Shabaab has profited frompiracy. In 2011, the head of the UN's counter-piracy division, Colonel John Steed, warned that there was circumstantial evidence that al-Shabaab increasingly sought to cooperate withpirate gangsand other criminal organizations.Further reports suggested that Al-Shabaab members had extorted pirates, demandingprotection moneyequivalent to 20% of the pirates'ransomproceeds, but did not provide evidence that al-Shabaab was itself involved in piracy.
Also in the 2008–2011 period, al-Shabaab established a sophisticated taxation system, framed as a form ofzakat, in line with sharia, but often resembling extortion. Al-Shabaab taxes may apply to clans, traders, corporations, farmers, orlivestockherders – in fact, livestock are sometimes stolen outright by al-Shabaab militants, with the theft framed as a kind of pre-emptivein-kindtaxation.Humanitarian aid agencies are also taxed or extorted, in exchange for permission to operate inside certain territories (see§ Humanitarian access);and al-Shabaab has been known to executekidnappingsfor ransom.In recent years, facing territorial losses in urban areas, al-Shabaab has had less recourse to previous revenue streams – notably the charcoal trade, through Kismayo, and the remittance economy – and therefore has relied more heavily on extracting zakat.The development of its security and intelligence services has allowed it to expand its tax base by imposing taxes even in areas outside its territorial control:according to the Hiraal Institute, more than half of al-Shabaab's revenue in 2019–20 came from Mogadishu, whose major companies are taxed at 2.5% of their annual profits.Indeed, a commander in the Somali army confessed to paying tax to al-Shabaab despite being at war with it.The group has been known to punish non-payment severely, including byblockadingvillages under threat of starvation.
Either directly or indirectly through black markets, al-Shabaab has access to arms intended for the Somali government. In 2018 and 2019, expert reports to the UN Security Council found that government military equipment enters theblack market, where some of it is sold to al-Shabaab militants. In some cases, senior government officials orchestrate large-scale diversions of government arms and ammunition; in others, low-ranking members of the security forces sell their weapons for subsistence.An earlier report in 2014 had alleged that government officials were actively involved in the direct supply of governments arms to al-Shabaab.The group has also been known to infiltrate government institutions, as became clear when regional government employees carried out al-Shabaab's24 July 2019 Mogadishu bombing, which killed Mogadishu MayorAbdirahmean Omar Osman.
The following countries have officially listed al-Shabaab as aterrorist organization:
In 2012, with the support of the Somali government,the United States began issuingbountiesfor al-Shabaab members under itsRewards for Justice Program. On June 7, theU.S. Department of Stateoffered a total of $33 million in bounties for information leading to the capture of any of seven senior commanders, including $7 million for Godane, then the group's emir, and $5 million for Robow, then his deputy.In response, al-Shabaab's Fu'ad Qalaf issued a mock bounty of his own, promising ten camels to anyone possessing information on U.S. PresidentBarack Obama, and a further, less valuable, reward of ten cocks and ten hens for information onHillary Clinton, theU.S. Secretary of State.On an official state visit to Mogadishu, top U.S. envoyJohnnie Carsondismissed the counter-offer as "absurd". He also announced that the U.S. would impose sanctions, including visa and travel bans andasset freezes, on anyone attempting to thwart the ongoingpolitical transitionin Somalia.
On March 21, 2013, the U.S. Department of State offered $5 million apiece for information on two American senior al-Shabaab commanders, Omar Shafik Hammami andJehad Serwan Mostafa.On March 15, 2014, it issued three further bounties, including one onAbdukadir Mohamed Abdukadir, who it said coordinated al-Shabaab's recruitment activities in Kenya.On September 27, 2014, after Godane's death, the SomaliNational Intelligence and Security Agencyannounced its own bounty, offering $2 million for information leading to the arrest of the new emir, Umar, and a separate $1 million reward for information leading to his killing.Several further Somali bounties were issued on April 10, 2015, with rewards ranging between $100,000 and $250,000.In a separate programme, on April 3, 2015, the Kenyan government offeredKSh.20 million ($215,000) for information leading to the arrest of Mohamed Mohamud, a commander of al-Shabaab's operations in Kenya.
Former leading members of al-Shabaab include:
Prominent foreign al-Shabaab members have included:
]