British Hong Kong

From 1841 to 1997, except for abrief periodof Japanese occupation duringWorld War IIbetween 1941 and 1945,Hong Kongwas aBritish crown colonyand, from 1981 until its handover, adependent territoryof theUnited Kingdom. The colonial period began with the British occupation ofHong Kong Islandunder theConvention of Chuenpiin 1841 of theVictorian eraand ended with thehandover of Hong Kongin July 1997.
In accordance with Art. III of theTreaty of Nankingof 1842, signed in the aftermath of theFirst Opium War, the island of Hong Kong was ceded in perpetuity to Great Britain. It was established as aCrown colonyin 1843.In 1860, the British expanded the colony with the addition of theKowloon Peninsulaand was further extended in 1898 when the British obtaineda 99-year leaseof theNew Territories. Although the Qing had to cede Hong Kong Island and Kowloon in perpetuity as per the treaty, the leased New Territories comprised 86.2% of the colony and more than half of the entire colony's population. With the lease nearing its end during the late 20th century, Britain did not see any viable way to administer the colony by dividing it, whilst thePeople's Republic of Chinawould not consider extending the lease or allow continued British administration thereafter.
With the signing of theSino-British Joint Declarationin 1984, which stated that the economic and social systems in Hong Kong would remain relatively unchanged for 50 years, the British government agreed totransfer the entire territoryto China upon the expiration of the New Territories lease in 1997 – with Hong Kong becoming aspecial administrative region(SAR) until at least 2047.
In 1836, the imperial government of theQing dynastyundertook a major policy review of the opium trade, which had been first introduced to the Chinese byPersianthenIslamictraders over many centuries.ViceroyLin Zexutook on the task of suppressing the opium trade. In March 1839, he became Special Imperial Commissioner inCanton, where he ordered the foreign traders to surrender their opium stock. He confined the British to theCanton Factoriesand cut off their supplies. Chief Superintendent of Trade,Charles Elliot, complied with Lin's demands to secure a safe exit for the British, with the costs involved to be resolved between the two governments. When Elliot promised that the British government would pay for their opium stock, the merchants surrendered their 20,283 chests of opium, which weredestroyed in public.
In September 1839, theBritish Cabinetdecided that the Chinese should be made to pay for the destruction of British property, either by the threat or use of force. An expeditionary force was placed under Elliot and his cousin, Rear-AdmiralGeorge Elliot, as jointplenipotentiariesin 1840. Foreign SecretaryLord Palmerstonstressed to the Chinese government that the British government did not question China's right to prohibit opium, but it objected to the way this was handled.He viewed the sudden strict enforcement as laying a trap for the foreign traders, and the confinement of the British with supplies cut off was tantamount to starving them into submission or death. He instructed the Elliot cousins to occupy one of theChusan Islandsin theHangzhou Baydelta across fromShanghai, then to present a letter from himself to a Chinese official for theEmperor of China, then to proceed to theGulf of Bohaifor a treaty, and if the Chinese resisted, then to blockade the key ports of theYangtzeandYellowrivers.Palmerston demanded a territorial base in the Chusan Islands for trade so that British merchants "may not be subject to the arbitrary caprice either of the Government of Peking, or its local Authorities at the Sea-Ports of the Empire".
In 1841, Elliot negotiated with Lin's successor,Qishan, in theConvention of Chuenpiduring theFirst Opium War. On 20 January, Elliot announced "the conclusion of preliminary arrangements", which included the cession of the barrenHong Kong Islandand its harbour to theBritish Crown.Elliot chose Hong Kong Island instead of Chusan because he believed a settlement nearer toShanghaiwould cause an "indefinite protraction of hostilities", whereas Hong Kong Island's harbour was a valuable base for the British trading community in Canton.British rule began with the occupation of the island on 26 January.CommodoreGordon Bremer, commander-in-chief of British forces in China, took formal possession of the island atPossession Point, where theUnion Jackwas raised under afire of joyfrom the marines and aroyal salutefrom the warships.Hong Kong Island was ceded in theTreaty of Nankingon 29 August 1842 and established as aCrown colonyafter the ratification exchanged between theDaoguang EmperorandQueen Victoriawas completed on 26 June 1843.
By 1842, Hong Kong had become the major arms supply port in the Asia-Pacific region.
The Treaty of Nanking failed to satisfy British expectations of a major expansion of trade and profit, which led to increasing pressure for a revision of the terms.In October 1856, Chinese authorities in Canton detained theArrow, a Chinese-owned ship registered in Hong Kong to enjoy the protection of the British flag. The Consul in Canton,Harry Parkes, claimed the hauling down of the flag and arrest of the crew were "an insult of very grave character". Parkes andSir John Bowring, the fourthGovernor of Hong Kong, seized the incident to pursue a forward policy. In March 1857, Palmerston appointedLord Elginas Plenipotentiary, with the aim of securing a new and satisfactory treaty. A French expeditionary force joined the British to avenge the execution ofa French missionaryin 1856.In 1860, thecapture of the Taku Fortsand occupation of Beijing led to theTreaty of TientsinandConvention of Peking. In the Treaty of Tientsin, the Chinese accepted British demands to open more ports, navigate the Yangtze River, legalise the opium trade and have diplomatic representation in Beijing. During the conflict, the British occupied theKowloon Peninsula, where the flat land was valuable training and resting ground. The area in what is now south ofBoundary StreetandStonecutters Islandwas ceded in the Convention of Peking.
In 1898, the British sought to extend Hong Kong for defence. After negotiations began in April 1898, with the British Minister in Beijing,Sir Claude MacDonald, representing Britain, and diplomatLi Hongzhangleading the Chinese, theSecond Convention of Pekingwas signed on 9 June. Since the foreign powers had agreed by the late 19th century that it was no longer permissible to acquire outright sovereignty over any parcel of Chinese territory, and in keeping with the other territorial cessions China made toRussia,GermanyandFrancethat same year, the extension of Hong Kong took the form of a 99-year lease. The lease consisted of the rest of Kowloon south of theSham Chun Riverand 230 islands, which became known as theNew Territories. The British formally took possession on 16 April 1899.
In 1941, during the Second World War, the British reached an agreement with the Chinese government under GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shekthat ifJapanattacked Hong Kong, theChinese National Armywould attack the Japanese from the rear to relieve pressure on the British garrison. On 8 December, theBattle of Hong Kongbegan when Japanese air bombers effectively destroyed British air power in one attack.Two days later, the Japanese breached theGin Drinkers Linein the New Territories. The British commander, Major-GeneralChristopher Maltby, concluded that the island could not be defended for long unless he withdrew his brigade from the mainland. On 18 December, the Japanese crossedVictoria Harbour.By 25 December, organised defence was reduced into pockets of resistance. Maltby recommended a surrender to GovernorSir Mark Young, who accepted his advice to reduce further losses. A day after the invasion, Chiang ordered three corps under GeneralYu Hanmouto march towards Hong Kong. The plan was to launch a New Year's Day attack on the Japanese in the Canton region, but before the Chinese infantry could attack, the Japanese had broken Hong Kong's defences. The British casualties were 2,232 killed or missing and 2,300 wounded. The Japanese reported 1,996 killed and 6,000 wounded.
The Japanese soldiers committed atrocities, including rape, on many locals.The population fell in half, from 1.6 million in 1941 to 750,000 at war's end because of fleeing refugees; they returned in 1945.
The Japanese imprisoned the ruling British colonial elite and sought to win over the local merchant gentry by appointments to advisory councils and neighbourhood watch groups. The policy worked well for Japan and produced extensive collaboration from both the elite and the middle class, with far less terror than in other Chinese cities. Hong Kong was transformed into a Japanese colony, with Japanese businesses replacing the British. However, the Japanese Empire had severe logistical difficulties and by 1943 the food supply for Hong Kong was problematic. The overlords became more brutal and corrupt, and the Chinese gentry became disenchanted. With the surrender of Japan, the transition back to British rule was smooth, for on the mainland theNationalistandCommunistforces were preparing for a civil war and ignored Hong Kong. In the long run the occupation strengthened the pre-war social and economic order among the Chinese business community by eliminating some conflicts of interests and reducing the prestige and power of the British.
On 14 August 1945, when Japan announced its unconditional surrender, the British formed a naval task group to sail towards Hong Kong.On 1 September, Rear-AdmiralCecil Harcourtproclaimed a military administration with himself as its head. He formally accepted the Japanese surrender on 16 September inGovernment House.Young, upon his return as governor in May 1946, pursued political reform known as the "Young Plan", believing that, to counter the Chinese government's determination to recover Hong Kong, it was necessary to give local inhabitants a greater stake in the territory by widening the political franchise to include them.Hong Kong remained a part of the UK and overseas colonies from 1949 until it transitioned its colony to a British dependent territory in 1983.
The economy was the main concern after theChinese Civil War. Hong Kong welcomed business from both the PRC andTaiwan. Investments from Taiwan were particularly lucrative, and Taiwanese interests were given preferential treatment in state compensation and justice. TheTriadswere strongly embedded in Taiwanese economic connections.Political activity, covert activity and low intensity violence - including assassinations - by Chinese and Taiwanese agents was tolerated so long as it did not disrupt public order or threaten British sovereignty.Hong Kong was a base for American-sponsored Taiwanese and anti-communist insurgents and terrorists operating in southern China in the 1950s and early 1960s.The British claimed that increasing policing to control movement from Hong Kong to China was impractical, and that the mutualopen borderpolicy was responsible.Hong Kong's value as a conduit forinternational tradeshielded it from most PRC pressure during the 1950s.
Hong Kong received Chineserefugees- "Rightists" - fleeing the Chinese Civil War and communist persecution. They became cheap labour.Some were recruited in Hong Kong as anti-communist militants.A major cause of the1956 Hong Kong riotsstarted by "Rightists" was poverty.The response to the riots favoured the Rightists; Rightist instigators were lightly prosecuted, compensation was denied to communists and bystanders, and the communists were officially blamed as coinstigators.The lax persecution of the riots Rightists instigators was used by the PRC to criticize the "airy use of the rule of law as a pragmatic stand-in forhuman rights" that characterized British colonialism.
In 1963, Hong Kong suppressed cells of Taiwanese militants in response to demands from the PRC; the PRC provided a list of Taiwanese agents.By this time, Britain no longer considered a Taiwanese conquest of China to be realistic;the evolving discourse on human rights also made it difficult to legitimize being a sponsor ofstate terrorism.
The Sino-British Joint Declaration was signed by both the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the Premier of the People's Republic of China on 19 December 1984 in Beijing. The Declaration entered into force with the exchange of instruments of ratification on 27 May 1985 and was registered by the People's Republic of China and United Kingdom governments at the United Nations on 12 June 1985. In the Joint Declaration, the People's Republic of China Government stated that it had decided to resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong (includingHong Kong Island, Kowloon, and the New Territories) with effect from 1 July 1997 and the United Kingdom Government declared that it would relinquish Hong Kong to the PRC with effect from 1 July 1997. In the document, the People's Republic of China Government also declared its basic policies regarding Hong Kong.
In accordance with theOne Country, Two Systemsprinciple agreed between the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China, the socialist system of People's Republic of China would not be practised in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR), and Hong Kong's previous capitalist system and its way of life would remain unchanged for a period of 50 years. The Joint Declaration provides that these basic policies shall be stipulated in theHong Kong Basic Law. The ceremony of the signing of the Sino-British Joint Declaration took place at 18:00, 19 December 1984 at the Western Main Chamber of theGreat Hall of the People. TheHong Kong and Macau Affairs Officeat first proposed a list of 60–80 Hong Kong people to attend the ceremony. The number was finally extended to 101. The list included Hong Kong government officials, members of the Legislative and Executive Councils, chairmen ofThe Hongkong and Shanghai Banking CorporationandStandard Chartered Bank, Hong Kong celebrities such asLi Ka-shing,Pao Yue-kongandFok Ying-tung, and alsoMartin Lee Chu-mingandSzeto Wah.
Thehandover ceremonywas held at the new wing of theHong Kong Convention and Exhibition CentreinWan Chaion the night of 30 June 1997. The principal British guest wasCharles, Prince of Wales(Charles III, King of the United Kingdom) who read a farewell speech on behalf of theQueen. The newly electedPrime Minister of the United Kingdom,Tony Blair; theForeign Secretary,Robin Cook; the departingGovernor of Hong Kong,Chris Patten; theChief of the Defence Staffof the United Kingdom, Field MarshalSir Charles Guthrie, also attended.
Representing China were theCCP General SecretaryandPresident of China,Jiang Zemin;Premier of China,Li Peng; andTung Chee-hwa, the firstChief Executive of Hong Kong. This event was broadcast on television and radio stations across the world.
Hong Kong was aCrown colonyof the United Kingdom and maintained an administration roughly modelled after theWestminster system. TheLetters Patentformed the constitutional basis of the colonial government and theRoyal Instructionsdetailed how the territory should be governed and organised.
TheGovernorwas the head of government and appointed by theBritish monarchto serve as the representative of the Crown in the colony. Executive power was highly concentrated with the Governor, who himself appointed almost all members of theLegislative CouncilandExecutive Counciland also served as President of both chambers.The British government provided oversight for the colonial government; theForeign Secretaryformally approved any additions to the Legislative and Executive Councilsand the Sovereign held sole authority to amend the Letters Patent and Royal Instructions.
The Executive Council determined administrative policy changes and considered primary legislation before passing it to the Legislative Council for approval. This advisory body also itself issued secondary legislation under a limited set of colonial ordinances. The Legislative Council debated proposed legislation and was responsible for the appropriation of public funds. This chamber was reformed in the last years of colonial rule to introduce more democratic representation.Indirectly electedfunctional constituency seats were introduced in 1985and popularly electedgeographical constituency seats in 1991.Further electoral reform in 1994effectively made the legislature broadly representative. The administrative Civil Service was led by theColonial Secretary(later Chief Secretary), who was deputy to the Governor.
The judicial system was based onEnglish law, withChinese customary lawtaking a secondary role in civil cases involving Chinese residents.TheSupreme Court of Hong Kongwas the highest court and ruled on all civil and criminal cases in the colony. During the early colonial period, extraterritorial appellate cases from other regions of China involving British subjects were also tried in this court. Further appeals from the Supreme Court were heard by theJudicial Committee of the Privy Council, which exercised final adjudication over the entire British Empire.
In March 1975 the Hong Kong government introduced a programme to measure public opinion of government efforts, known as Movement of Opinion Direction (MOOD).
In 1861, GovernorSir Hercules Robinsonintroduced the Hong Kong Cadetship, which recruited young graduates from Britain to learnCantoneseand written Chinese for two years, before deploying them on a fast track to theCivil Service. Cadet officers gradually formed the backbone of the civil administration. After the Second World War, ethnic Chinese were allowed into the service, followed by women. Cadets were renamed Administrative Officers in the 1950s, and they remained the elite of the Civil Service during British rule.
Prior to and during theSecond World War, the garrison was composed ofBritish Armybattalions and locally enlisted personnel (LEPs) who served as regular members in the Hong Kong Squadron of the Royal Navy or theHong Kong Military Service Corpsand their associate land units. TheHong Kong Brigadeserved as the main garrison formation. After the outbreak of the Second World War, the garrison was reinforced withBritish Indian ArmyandCanadian Armyunits. A second brigade, the Kowloon Infantry Brigade, was formed to assist in commanding the expanded force. The garrison was defeated during theBattle of Hong Kong, by theEmpire of Japan.
After the Second World War and the end of theJapanese occupation of Hong Kong, the British military reestablished a presence. As a result of theChinese Civil War, the British Army raised the40th Infantry Divisionand dispatched it to garrison Hong Kong. It later left for combat in theKorean War, and the defense of the territory was taken up by additional British forces who were rotated from Europe. The garrison was further supplemented by LEPs, andGurkhas. The latter came fromNepal, but formed part of the British Army. The size of the garrison during theCold Warfluctuated and ended up being based around one brigade.
TheRoyal Hong Kong Regiment, a military unit which was part of the Hong Kong Government, was trained and organised along the lines of a BritishTerritorial Armyunit. As such, it was supported by British Army regular personnel holding key positions. These British Army personnel, for their duration of service to the Royal Hong Kong Regiment, were seconded to the Hong Kong Government. In the post-WWII era, the majority of the regiment's members were local citizens ofChinesedescent.
The stability, security, and predictability ofBritish lawand government enabled Hong Kong to flourish as a centre for international trade.In the colony's first decade, the revenue from the opium trade was a key source of government funds. The importance of opium reduced over time, but the colonial government was dependent on its revenues until the Japanese occupation in 1941.Although the largest businesses in the early colony were operated by British, American, and other expatriates, Chinese workers provided the bulk of the manpower to build a new port city.
By the late 1980s, many ethnic Chinese people had become major business figures in Hong Kong. Amongst these billionaires was SirLi Ka-shing, who had become one of the colony's wealthiest people by this time.
British Hong Kong was characterised as a hybrid ofEastandWest. Traditional Chinese values emphasising family and education blended with Western ideals, including economic liberty and the rule of law.Although the vast majority of the population was ethnically Chinese, Hong Kong developed a distinct identity from the mainland through its long period of colonial administration and a different pace of economic, social, and cultural development, with mainstream culture was derived from immigrants originating from various parts of China. This was influenced by British-style education, a separate political system, and the territory's rapid development during the late 20th century.Most migrants of that era fled poverty and war, reflected in the prevailing attitude toward wealth; Hongkongers tended to link self-image and decision-making to material benefits.Residents' sense of local identity remained post-handover, with the majority of the population (52%) identifying as "Hongkongers", while 11% described themselves as "Chinese". The remaining population held mixed identities, 23% as "Hongkonger in China" and 12% as "Chinese in Hong Kong".
Traditional Chinese family values, includingfamily honour,filial piety, and apreference for sons, remained prevalent.Nuclear familieswere the most common households, although multi-generational and extended families were not unusual.In British-ruled Hong Kong, polygamy was legal until 1971 pursuant to the colonial practice of not interfering in local customs that British authorities viewed as relatively harmless to the public order.
Spiritual concepts such asfeng shuiwere observed; large-scale construction projects often hired consultants to ensure proper building positioning and layout. The degree of its adherence tofeng shuiwas believed to determine the success of a business.Baguamirrors were regularly used to deflect evil spirits,and buildings often lackfloor numbers with a 4;the number has a similar sound to the word for "die" in Cantonese.
A prominent example of cultural integration in everyday life in British Hong Kong, was the use ofBritish Englishas a commonsecond language, and also the soleofficial languageof the colony until 1974, when Chinese was accorded co-official status.In addition to British English being taught inprimaryandsecondary schools, there were also English-medium schools operated by theEnglish Schools Foundation, established in 1967.For the metro system, the metro lines were named after places instead of numbered, unlikeMainland China, where metro lines were numbered. Roads were named after British royals, governors, famous people, cities and towns across the UK and theCommonwealth, as well asChinese citiesand places. Aside fromChinese New Year,Christmaswas celebrated as the second-most important festival. Inliterature, someidiomsinCantonesewere directly translated from those in English. AMandarin Chinesespeaker might recognise the words but not understand the meaning.
Food in Hong Kong under British rule was primarily based onCantonese cuisine, despite the territory's exposure to foreign influences and its residents' varied origins. Rice was the staple food, and was usually served plain with other dishes.Freshness of ingredients was emphasised. Poultry and seafood were commonly sold live atwet markets, and ingredients were used as quickly as possible.There were five daily meals: breakfast, lunch, afternoon tea, dinner, andsiu yeh.Dim sum, as part ofyum cha(brunch), was a dining-out tradition with family and friends. Dishes includecongee,cha siu bao,siu yuk,egg tarts, andmango pudding. Local versions of Western food were served atcha chaan teng(Hong Kong-style cafes). Commoncha chaan tengmenu items include macaroni in soup, deep-fried French toast, andHong Kong-style milk tea.
Film making in Hong Kong began as early as 1909, but Hong Kong was not a film making hub until the late 1940s, when a wave of Shanghai filmmakers migrated to the territory; these movie veterans helped build the colony's entertainment industry over the next decade.By the 1960s, the city was well known to overseas audiences through films such asThe World of Suzie Wong.WhenBruce Lee'sThe Way of the Dragonwas released in 1972, local productions became popular outside Hong Kong. During the 1980s, films such asA Better Tomorrow,As Tears Go By, andZu Warriors from the Magic Mountainexpanded global interest beyondmartial arts films; locally made gangster films, romantic dramas, and supernatural fantasies became popular.Hong Kong cinema continued to be internationally successful over the following decade with critically acclaimed dramas such asFarewell My Concubine,To LiveandWong Kar Waimovies. The city's martial arts film roots were evident in the roles of the most prolific Hong Kong actors.Jackie Chan,Donnie Yen,Jet Li,Chow Yun-fat, andMichelle Yeohfrequently play action-oriented roles in foreign films. At the height of the local movie industry in the early 1990s, over 400 films were produced each year; since then, industry momentum shifted to mainland China. The number of films produced annually declined to about 60 in 2017.
Cantopopwas a genre of Cantonese popular music which emerged in Hong Kong during the 1970s. Evolving from Shanghai-styleshidaiqu, it was also influenced byCantonese operaand Western pop.Local media featured songs by artists such asSam Hui,Anita Mui,Leslie Cheung, andAlan Tam; during the 1980s, exported films and shows exposed Cantopop to a global audience.The genre's popularity peaked in the 1990s, when theFour Heavenly Kingsdominated Asian record charts.Despite a general decline since late in the decade,
Western classical music historically had a strong presence in Hong Kong and remained a large part of local musical education.The publicly fundedHong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra, the territory's oldest professional symphony orchestra, frequently hosted musicians and conductors from overseas. TheHong Kong Chinese Orchestra, composed ofclassical Chinese instruments, was the leading Chinese ensemble and played a significant role in promoting traditional music in the community.
Despite its small area, the territory regularly hosted theHong Kong Sevens,Hong Kong Marathon,Hong Kong Tennis ClassicandLunar New Year Cup, and hosted the inauguralAFC Asian Cupand the1995 Dynasty Cup.
Hong Kong was separately represented frommainland China, with its own sports teams in international competitions. The territory participated in almost every Summer Olympics since 1952 and earnedfour gold medals.Lee Lai-shanwon the territory's first Olympic gold medal at the1996 Atlanta Olympics,Between 1972 and 1996, Hong Kong athletes won60 medals at the Paralympic Games. As part of theCommonwealth, British Hong Kong participated in theCommonwealth Games, in which it won17 medals, the city's last appearance in the Games being in1994.
Dragon boatraces originated as a religious ceremony conducted during the annualTuen Ng Festival. The race was revived as a modern sport as part of theTourism Board's efforts to promote Hong Kong's image abroad. The first modern competition was organised in 1976, and overseas teams began competing in the first international race in 1993.
TheHong Kong Jockey Club, known between 1960 and 1996 as the Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club, became the territory's largest taxpayer.Three forms of gambling were legal in Hong Kong: lotteries, horse racing, and football.
During China's turbulent 20th century, Hong Kong served as a safe haven for dissidents, political refugees, and officials who lost power. British policy allowed dissidents to live in Hong Kong as long as they did not break local laws or harm British interests. The implementation of this policy varied according to what the senior officials thought constituted British interests and the state of relations with China.TheCanton–Hong Kong strike(1925–1926) was anti-imperialist in nature. The1966 riotsandMaoist-led1967 riots, essentially spillovers from theCultural Revolution, were large scale demonstrations fuelled by tensions surrounding labour disputes and dissatisfaction towards the government.Although the 1967 riots started as a labour dispute, the incident escalated quickly after the leftist camp and mainland officials stationed in Hong Kong seized the opportunity to mobilise their followers to protest against the colonial government.Chinese Communist Partysupporters organised theAnti-British Struggle Committeeduring the riots.
Steve Tsang, director of the China Institute of theSchool of Oriental and African Studiesat theUniversity of London, wrote that it was "ironic" that despite Hong Kong being a symbol of China's humiliation by Britain, there was not one major movement started by the Chinese residents of the colony for its retrocession to China, even though there had been several upsurges ofChinese nationalism.He explained:
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