Roll-on/roll-off

Roll-on/roll-off(ROROorro-ro)shipsarecargo shipsdesigned to carry wheeledcargo, such ascars,motorcycles,trucks,semi-trailer trucks,buses,trailers, andrailroad cars, that are driven on and off the ship on their own wheels or using a platform vehicle, such as aself-propelled modular transporter. This is in contrast tolift-on/lift-off(LoLo) vessels, which use acraneto load and unload cargo.
RORO vessels have either built-in or shore-basedrampsorferry slipsthat allow the cargo to be efficiently rolled on and off the vessel when in port. While smaller ferries that operate acrossriversand other short distances often have built-in ramps, the term RORO is generally reserved for large seagoing vessels. The ramps and doors may be located in thestern,bow, or sides, or any combination thereof.
Types of RORO vessels includeferries,cruiseferries,cargo ships,barges, and RoRo service for air/ railway deliveries. New automobiles that are transported by ship are often moved on a large type of RORO called a pure car carrier (PCC) or pure car/truck carrier (PCTC).
Elsewhere in the shipping industry, cargo is normally measured bytonnageor by thetonne, but RORO cargo is typically measured inlanes in metres(LIMs). This is calculated by multiplying the cargo length in metres by the number of decks and by its width in lanes (lane width differs from vessel to vessel, and there are several industry standards). On PCCs, cargo capacity is often measured in RT or RT43 units (based on a1966 Toyota Corona, the first mass-produced car to be shipped in specialised car-carriers and used as the basis of RORO vessel size. 1 RT is approximately 4m of lane space required to store a 1.5m wide Toyota Corona) or in car-equivalent units (CEU).
The largest RORO passenger ferry isMSColor Magic, a 75,100GTcruise ferry that entered service in September 2007 forColor Line. Built inFinlandbyAker Finnyards, it is 223.70 m (733 ft 11 in) long and 35 m (114 ft 10 in) wide, and can carry 550 cars, or 1,270 lane meters of cargo.
The RORO passenger ferry with the greatest car-carrying capacity isUlysses(named aftera novel byJames Joyce), owned byIrish Ferries.Ulyssesentered service on 25 March 2001 and operates betweenDublinandHolyhead. The 50,938 GT ship is 209.02 m (685 ft 9 in) long and 31.84 m (104 ft 6 in) wide, and can carry 1,342 cars/4,101 lane meters of cargo.
The first cargo ships specially fitted for the transport of large quantities of cars came into service in the early 1960s. These ships still had their own loading gear and so-called hanging decks inside. They were, for example, chartered by the GermanVolkswagen AGto transport vehicles to the U.S. and Canada. During the 1970s, the market for exporting and importing cars increased dramatically and correspondingly also did the number and type of ROROs .
In 1970 Japan'sK Linebuilt theToyota Maru No. 10, Japan's first pure car carrier, and in 1973 built theEuropean Highway, the largest pure car carrier (PCC) at that time, which carried 4,200 automobiles. Today's pure car carriers and their close cousins, the pure car/truck carrier (PCTC), are distinctive ships with a box-like superstructure running the entire length and breadth of the hull, fully enclosing the cargo. They typically have a stern ramp and a side ramp for dual loading of thousands of vehicles (such as cars, trucks, heavy machineries, tracked units,Mafi roll trailers, and loose statics), and extensive automatic fire control systems.
The PCTC has liftable decks to increase vertical clearance, as well as heavier decks for "high-and-heavy" cargo. A 6,500-unit car ship, with 12 decks, can have three decks which can take cargo up to 150short tons(136t; 134long tons)  with liftable panels to increase clearance from 1.7 to 6.7 m (5 ft 7 in to 22 ft 0 in) on some decks. Lifting decks to accommodate higher cargo reduces the total capacity.
These vessels can achieve a cruising speed of 16 knots (18 mph; 30 km/h) at eco-speed, while at full speed can achieve more than 19 knots (22 mph; 35 km/h).
As of 7 August 2024, the largest LCTC was theHöegh Aurora, the inaugural vessel of a planned class of twelve, each with a capacity of 9,100 CEU.Meanwhile, theMarine Design & Research Institute of China(MARIC) is developing a new vessel class with a capacity of 12,800 CEU. The design has received Approval in Principle (AiP) fromLloyd's Register, which was granted in June 2024.
The car carrierAuriga Leader, belonging toNippon YusenKaisha, built in 2008 with a capacity of 6,200 cars, is the world's first partially solar powered ship.
The seagoing RORO car ferry, with large external doors close to the waterline and open vehicle decks with few internalbulkheads, has a reputation for being a high-risk design, to the point where the acronym is sometimes derisively expanded to "roll on/roll over".An improperly secured loading door can cause a ship to take on water and sink, as happened in 1987 withMSHerald of Free Enterprise. Water sloshing on the vehicle deck can set up afree surface effect, making the ship unstable and causing it tocapsize. Free surface water on the vehicle deck was determined by the court of inquiry to be the immediate cause of the 1968 capsize of theTEVWahinein New Zealand.It also contributed to the wreck ofMSEstonia.
Despite these inherent risks, the very highfreeboardraises the seaworthiness of these vessels. For example, the car carrierMVCougar Acelisted 60 degrees to its port side in 2006, but did not sink, since its high enclosed sides prevented water from entering.
In late January 2016MVModern Expresswas listing offFranceafter cargo shifted on the ship. Salvage crews secured the vessel and it was hauled into the port of Bilbao, Spain.
At first, wheeled vehicles carried as cargo on oceangoing ships were treated like any other cargo. Automobiles had their fuel tanks emptied and their batteries disconnected before being hoisted into the ship's hold, where they were chocked and secured. This process was tedious and difficult, and vehicles were subject to damage and could not be used for routine travel.
An early roll-on/roll-off service was atrain ferry, started in 1833 by theMonkland and Kirkintilloch Railway, which operated a wagon ferry on theForth and Clyde CanalinScotland.
The first modern train ferry wasLeviathan, built in 1849. TheEdinburgh, Leith and Newhaven Railwaywas formed in 1842 and the company wished to extend theEast Coast Main Linefurther north toDundeeandAberdeen. As bridge technology was not yet capable enough to provide adequate support for the crossing over theFirth of Forth, which was roughly five miles across, a different solution had to be found, primarily for the transport of goods, where efficiency was key.
The company hired the up-and-coming civil engineerThomas Bouchwho argued for a train ferry with a roll-on/roll-off mechanism to maximise the efficiency of the system. Ferries were to be custom-built, with railway lines and matching harbour facilities at both ends to allow the rolling stock to easily drive on and off.To compensate for the changingtides, adjustable ramps were positioned at the harbours and the gantry structure height was varied by moving it along the slipway. The wagons were loaded on and off with the use ofstationary steam engines.
Although others had had similar ideas, Bouch was the first to put them into effect, and did so with an attention to detail (such as design of theferry slip) which led a subsequent President of theInstitution of Civil Engineersto settle any dispute over priority of invention with the observation that "there was little merit in a simple conception of this kind, compared with a work practically carried out in all its details, and brought to perfection."
The company was persuaded to install this train ferry service for the transportation of goods wagons across theFirth of ForthfromBurntislandinFifetoGranton.The ferry itself was built byThomas Grainger, a partner of the firm Grainger and Miller.
The service commenced on 3 February 1850.It was called "The Floating Railway"and intended as a temporary measure until the railway could build a bridge, but this wasnot opened until 1890, its construction delayed in part by repercussions from the catastrophic failure of Thomas Bouch'sTay Rail Bridge.
Train-ferry services were used extensively duringWorld War I. From 10 February 1918, high volumes of railway rolling stock, artillery and supplies for the Front were shipped to France from the "secret port" ofRichborough, near Sandwich on the South Coast of England.
This involved three train-ferries to be built, each with four sets of railway line on the main deck to allow for up to 54 railway wagons to be shunted directly on and off the ferry. These train-ferries could also be used to transport motor vehicles along with railway rolling stock. Later that month a second train-ferry was established from thePort of Southamptonon the South East Coast. In the first month of operations at Richborough, 5,000 tons were transported across the Channel, by the end of 1918 it was nearly 261,000 tons.
There were many advantages of the use of train-ferries over conventional shipping in World War I. It was much easier to move the large, heavy artillery and tanks that this kind of modern warfare required using train-ferries as opposed to repeated loading and unloading of cargo. By manufacturers loading tanks, guns and other heavy items for shipping to the front directly on to railway wagons, which could be shunted on to a train-ferry in England and then shunted directly on to the French Railway Network, with direct connections to the Front Lines, many man hours of unnecessary labour were avoided.
An analysis done at the time found that to transport 1,000 tons of war material from the point of manufacture to the front by conventional means involved the use of 1,500 labourers, whereas when using train-ferries that number decreased to around 100 labourers. This was of utmost importance, as by 1918, theBritish Railway companieswere experiencing a severe shortage of labour with hundreds of thousands of skilled and unskilled labourers away fighting at the front.  The increase of heavy traffic because of the war effort meant that economies and efficiency in transport had to be made wherever possible.
After the signing of the Armistice on 11 November 1918, train ferries were used extensively for the return of material from the Front.  Indeed, according to war office statistics, a greater tonnage of material was transported by train ferry from Richborough in 1919 than in 1918. As the train ferries had space for motor transport as well as railway rolling stock, thousands of lorries, motor cars and "B Type" buses used these ferries to return to England.
DuringWorld War II,landing ships(LST,"Landing Ship, Tank") were the first purpose-built seagoing ships enabling road vehicles to roll directly on and off. The Britishevacuation from Dunkirkin 1940 demonstrated to theAdmiraltythat the Allies needed relatively large, seagoing ships capable of shore-to-shore delivery oftanksand other vehicles inamphibious assaultsupon the continent of Europe. As an interim measure, three 4000 to 4800 GRT tankers, built to pass over the restrictive bars ofLake Maracaibo,Venezuela, were selected for conversion because of their shallow draft. Bow doors and ramps were added to these ships, which became the first tank landing ships.
The first purpose-built LST design wasHMSBoxer. It was a scaled down design from ideas penned by Churchill. To carry 13Churchillinfantry tanks, 27 vehicles and nearly 200 men (in addition to the crew) at a speed of 18 knots, it could not have the shallow draught that would have made for easy unloading. As a result, each of the three (Boxer,Bruiser, andThruster) ordered in March 1941 had a very long ramp stowed behind the bow doors.
In November 1941, a small delegation from the British Admiralty arrived in the United States to pool ideas with theUnited States Navy'sBureau of Shipswith regard to development of ships and also including the possibility of building furtherBoxers in the US.During this meeting, it was decided that the Bureau of Ships would design these vessels. As with the standing agreement these would be built by the US so British shipyards could concentrate on building vessels for theRoyal Navy. The specification called for vessels capable of crossing the Atlantic and the original title given to them was "Atlantic Tank Landing Craft" (Atlantic (T.L.C.)). Calling a vessel 300 ft (91 m) long a "craft" was considered a misnomer and the type was re-christened "Landing Ship, Tank (2)", or "LST (2)".
The LST(2) design incorporated elements of the first British LCTs from their designer, Sir Rowland Baker, who was part of the British delegation. This included sufficient buoyancy in the ships' sidewalls that they would float even with the tank deck flooded.The LST(2) gave up the speed of HMSBoxerat only 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) but had a similar load while drawing only 3 ft (0.91 m) forward when beaching. In three separate acts dated 6 February 1942, 26 May 1943, and 17 December 1943, Congress provided the authority for the construction of LSTs along with a host of other auxiliaries,destroyer escorts, and assortedlanding craft. The enormous building program quickly gathered momentum. Such a high priority was assigned to the construction of LSTs that the previously laid keel of anaircraft carrierwas hastily removed to make room for several LSTs to be built in her place. The keel of the first LST was laid down on 10 June 1942 atNewport News, Virginia, and the first standardized LSTs were floated out of their building dock in October. Twenty-three were in commission by the end of 1942.
At the end of the first world war vehicles were brought back from France toRichborough Portdrive-on-drive-off using the train ferry. During the war British servicemen recognised the great potential of landing ships and craft. The idea was simple; if you could drive tanks, guns and lorries directly onto a ship and then drive them off at the other end directly onto a beach, then theoretically you could use the same landing craft to carry out the same operation in the civilian commercial market, providing there were reasonable port facilities. From this idea grew the worldwide roll-on/roll-offferryindustry of today. In the period between the wars Lt. ColonelFrank Bustardformed theAtlantic Steam Navigation Company, with a view to cheap transatlantic travel; this never materialised, but during the war he observed trials onBrighton Sandsof an LST in 1943 when its peacetime capabilities were obvious.
In the spring of 1946 the company approached the Admiralty with a request to purchase three of these vessels. The Admiralty were unwilling to sell, but after negotiations agreed to let the ASN have the use of three vessels onbareboat charterat a rate of £13 6s 8d per day. These vessels were LSTs3519,3534, and3512.  They were renamedEmpire Baltic,Empire Cedric, andEmpire Celtic, perpetuating the name ofWhite Star Lineships in combination with the"Empire" shipnaming of vessels in government service during the war.
On the morning of 11 September 1946 the first voyage of the Atlantic Steam Navigation Company took place whenEmpire Balticsailed fromTilburytoRotterdamwith a full load of 64 vehicles for the Dutch Government. The original three LSTs were joined in 1948 by another vessel,LST 3041, renamedEmpire Doric, after the ASN were able to convince commercial operators to support the new route betweenPrestonand the Northern Ireland port ofLarne. The first sailing of this new route was on 21 May 1948 byEmpire Cedric. After the inaugural sailingEmpire Cedriccontinued on the Northern Ireland service, offering initially a twice-weekly service.Empire Cedricwas the first vessel of the ASN fleet to hold a passenger certificate, and was allowed to carry fifty passengers. ThusEmpire Cedricbecame the first vessel in the world to operate as a commercial/passenger roll-on/roll-off ferry, and the ASN became the first commercial company to offer this type of service.
The first RORO service crossing theEnglish Channelbegan fromDoverin 1953.In 1954, theBritish Transport Commission(BTC) took over the ASN under the Labour Governmentsnationalizationpolicy. In 1955 another two LSTs where chartered into the existing fleet,Empire CymricandEmpire Nordic, bringing the fleet strength to seven. The Hamburg service was terminated in 1955, and a new service was opened between Antwerp and Tilbury. The fleet of seven ships was to be split up with the usual three ships based at Tilbury and the others maintaining the Preston to Northern Ireland service.
During late 1956, the entire fleet of ASN were taken over for use in the Mediterranean during theSuez Crisis, and the drive-on/drive-off services were not re-established until January 1957. At this point ASN were made responsible for the management of twelve Admiralty LST(3)s brought out of reserve as a result of theSuez Crisistoo late to see service.
The first roll-on/roll-off vessel that was purpose-built to transport loaded semi trucks wasSearoad of Hyannis, which began operation in 1956. While modest in capacity, it could transport three semi trailers between Hyannis in Massachusetts and Nantucket Island, even in ice conditions.
In 1957, the US military issued a contract to theSun Shipbuilding and Dry Dock CompanyinChester, Pennsylvania, for the construction of a new type of motorized vehicle carrier. The ship,USNSComet, had a stern ramp as well as interior ramps, which allowed cars to drive directly from the dock, onto the ship, and into place. Loading and unloading was sped up dramatically.Cometalso had an adjustable chocking system for locking cars onto the decks and a ventilation system to remove exhaust gases that accumulate during vehicle loading.
During the 1982Falklands War,SSAtlantic Conveyorwas requisitioned as an emergency aircraft and helicopter transport for BritishHawker Siddeley HarrierSTOVLfighter planes; one Harrier was kept fueled, armed, and ready to VTOL launch for emergency air protection against long range Argentine aircraft.Atlantic Conveyorwas sunk by ArgentineExocetmissiles after offloading the Harriers to proper aircraft carriers, but the vehicles and helicopters still aboard were lost.
After the war, a concept called the shipborne containerized air-defense system (SCADS) proposed a modular system to quickly convert a large RORO into an emergency aircraft carrier with ski jump, fueling systems, radar, defensive missiles, munitions, crew quarters, and work spaces. The entire system could be installed in about 48 hours on a container ship or RORO, when needed for operations up to a month unsupplied. The system could quickly be removed and stored again when the conflict was over.The Soviets flyingYakovlev Yak-38fighters also tested operations using the civilian RORO shipsAgostinio NetoandNikolai Cherkasov.