Tamils

TheTamils(/ˈtæmɪlz,ˈtɑː-/TAM-ilz,TAHM-), also known as theTamilar,are aDravidianethnolinguistic groupwho natively speak theTamil languageand trace their ancestry mainly to the southern part of theIndian subcontinent. The Tamil language is one of the longest-survivingclassical languages, with over two thousand years ofwritten history, dating back to theSangam period(between 300 BCE and 300 CE). Tamils constitute about 5.7% of the Indian population and form the majority in theSouth Indianstate ofTamil Naduand theunion territoryofPuducherry. They also form significant proportion of the population inSri Lanka(15.3%),Malaysia(7%) andSingapore(5%). Tamils have migrated world-wide since the 19th century CE and a significant population exists inSouth Africa,Mauritius,Fiji, as well as other regions such as theSoutheast Asia,Middle East,Caribbeanand parts of theWestern World.
Archaeological evidencefrom Tamil Nadu indicates a continuous history of human occupation for more than 3,800 years. In the Sangam period,Tamilakamwas ruled by theThree Crowned Kingsof theCheras,CholasandPandyas. SmallerVelirkings and chieftains ruled certain territories and maintained relationship with the larger kingdoms. Urbanisation and mercantile activity developed along the coasts during the later Sangam period with the Tamilsinfluencingthe regional trade in the Indian Ocean region. Artifacts obtained from excavations indicate the presence of earlytrade relations with the Romans. The major kingdoms to rule the region later were thePallavas(3rd–9th century CE), and theVijayanagara Empire(14th–17th century CE).
The island of Sri Lanka often saw attacks from the Indian mainland with the Cholas establishing their influence across the island and across several areas in Southeast Asia in the 10th century CE. This led to the spread of Tamil influence and contributed to thecultural Indianisationof the region. Scripts brought by Tamil traders like theGranthaandPallava scripts, induced the development of many Southeast Asian scripts. TheJaffna Kingdomlater controlled the Tamil territory in the north of the Sri Lanka from 13th to 17th century CE. European colonization began in the 17th century CE, and continued for two centuries until the middle of the 20th century.
Due to its long history, the Tamil culture has seen multiple influences over the years and have developed diversely. The Tamil visual art consists of a distinctstyle of architecture, scultpure and other art forms. Tamil sculpture ranges from stone sculptures in temples, to detailedbronze icons. The ancient Tamil country had its own system of music calledTamil Pannisai. Tamil performing arts include the theatre formKoothu,puppetryBommalattam,classical danceBharatanatyam, and variousother traditional dance forms.Hindusimis the major religion followed by the Tamils and the religious practices include the veneration of variousvillage deitiesandancient Tamil gods. A smaller number are alsoChristiansandMuslims, and a small percentage followJainismandBuddhism.Tamil cuisineconsist of variousvegetarianandmeatitems, usually spiced withlocally available spices. HistorianMichael Woodcalled the Tamils the last surviving classical civilization on Earth, because the Tamils have preserved substantial elements of their past regarding belief, culture, music, and literature despite the influence ofglobalization.
Tamilis derived from the name of thelanguage.The people are referred to asTamiḻarin Tamil language, which is etymologically linked to the name of the language.Theoriginand precise etymology of the word Tamil is unclear with multiple theories attested to it.Kamil Zvelebilsuggests that the termtamizmight have been derived fromtammeaning "self" and "-iz" having the connotation of "unfolding sound". Alternatively, he suggests a derivation oftamiz<tam-iz<*tav-iz<*tak-iz, meaning "the proper process (of speaking)".Franklin Southworthsuggests that the name comes fromtam-miz>tam-izmeaning "self-speak", or "our own speech".
It is unknown whether the termTamilaand its equivalents inPrakritsuch asDamela,Damila, orTamirawas first used as a self designation or a by outsiders. TheHathigumpha inscriptionfromUdayagiriinEastern Indiadated to the second century BCE,describes aT[r]amira samghata(Confederacy of Tamil rulers), which was in existence for the previous 113 years.Epigraphical evidence from the second century BCE mentioningDamelaorDamedafromancient Sri Lankahave been found.In theBuddhistJatakatexts, there is a mention of aDamila-rattha(Tamil dynasty).GreekhistorianStrabo(first century BCE) mentions that theRoman EmperorAugustusreceived an ambassador fromPandyan of Dramira.An inscription fromAmaravatidated to third century CE refers to aDhamila-vaniya(Tamil trader).
Archaeological evidencepoints to the region being first inhabited by hominids more than 400 millennia ago.Artifacts recovered inAdichanallurby theArchaeological Survey of India(ASI) indicatemegalithicurn burials, dating from back to 1500 BCE.,which are also described in early Tamil literature.Neolithicceltswith theIndus scriptdated between 15th and 20th century BCE indicate the use of earlyHarappan language.Excavations atKeezhadihave revealed a large urban settlement, with the earliest artefact dated to 580 BCE, during the time of urbanization in theIndo-Gangetic plain.Further epigraphical inscriptions found at Adichanallur useTamil Brahmi, a rudimentary script dated to 5th century BCE.Potsherds uncovered from Keeladi indicate a script which might be a transition between the Indus Valley script and Tamil Brahmi script used later.
TheSangam periodlasted from 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE with the main source of history during the period coming from the variousSangam literature.AncientTamilakamwas ruled by atriumvirateof monarchical states,Cheras,CholasandPandyas.These kings are referred to asVāṉpukaḻ Mūvar(Three glorified by heaven) in the Sangam literature.The Cheras controlled the western part of Tamilkam, the Pandyas controlled the south, and the Cholas had their base in theKaveridelta.They are mentioned in the inscriptions from theMauryan Empiredated to third century BCE.Kalingainscriptions from the second century BCE refers to a confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms.The three kings calledVendharruled over several hill tribes headed by theVelirchiefs and settlements headed by clan chiefs calledKizhar.The rulers of smaller territories were referred to asKurunilamannar, withPurananurumentioning the names of many such chieftains.
The Sangam period rulers patronized multiple religions includingvedic religion,BuddhismandJainismand sponsored some of the earliest Tamil literature with the oldest surviving work beingTolkāppiyam, a book of Tamil grammar.Purananurudescribes the public life and various unique cultural practices that existed during the period. The text talks about theVedic Sacrificesperformed by the kings as described in theVedasand the rituals performed for the dead.
Agriculture was an important occupation during the period, and there is evidence that networks ofirrigationchannels were built as early as the 3rd century BCE. The Sangam literature describe fertile lands and people organised into various occupational groups. The governance of the land was through hereditary monarchies, although the sphere of the state's activities and the extent of the ruler's powers were limited through the adherence to an established order.
The kingdoms had significant diplomatic and trade contacts with other kingdoms to the north and with theRomans.Roman coinsand other epigraphical evidence from South India andpotsherdswith Tamil writing found in excavations along theRed Seaindicate the presence ofRoman commercewith the ancient Tamilakam.Much of the commerce from the Romans andHan Chinawere facilitated via seaports includingMuzirisandKorkaiwithspicesbeing the most prized goods along withpearlsandsilk.There is evidence of emissaries sent to the Roman Emperor Augustus by the Pandya kings.An anonymous Greek traveler's account from first century CE,Periplus Maris Erytraei, describes the ports of the Pandya and Chera kingdoms inDamiricaand their commercial activity in detail. It also describes that the chief exports of the ancient Tamils werepepper,malabathrum,pearls,ivory, silk,spikenard,diamonds,sapphires, andtortoiseshell.
From the fourth century CE, the region was ruled by theKalabhras, warriors belonging to theVellalarcommunity, who were once feudatories of the three ancient Tamil kingdoms.The Kalabhra era is referred to as the "dark period" of Tamil history, and information about it is generally inferred from any mentions in the literature and inscriptions that are dated many centuries after their era ended.Around the seventh century CE, the Kalabhras were overthrown by the Pandyas and Cholas.Though they existed previously, the period saw the rise of thePallavasin the sixth century CE underMahendravarman I, who ruled parts ofSouth IndiawithKanchipuramas their capital.The Pallavas were noted for their patronage of architecture.Throughout their reign, the Pallavas remained in constant conflict with the Cholas, the Pandyas and other kingdoms ofChalukyas of Badamiand theRashtrakutas.The Pandyas were revived byKadungontowards the end of the sixth century CE and with the Cholas in obscurity inUraiyur, the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas and the Pandyas.The area west of theWestern Ghatsbecame increasingly distinct from the eastern parts.A new languageMalayalamevolved from Tamil in the region and the socio-cultural transformation was altered further by the migration ofSanskrit-speakingIndo-Aryansfrom Northern India in the eighth century CE.
The Cholas were revived in the ninth century CE byVijayalaya Cholaand the last Pallavas rulerAparajitavarmanwas defeated by the Chola princeAditya I.After the defeat of the Pallavas, the Cholas became the dominant kingdom with the capital atThanjavur. The Chola influence expanded subsequently withRajaraja Iconquering the entire Southern India and parts of present-daySri LankaandMaldives, and increased Chola influence across theIndian Oceanin the eleventh century CE.Rajaraja brought in administrative reforms including the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual administrative units.Under his sonRajendra Chola I, the Chola empire reached its zenith and stretched as far asBengalin the north and across the Indian Ocean.He defeated theEastern Chalukyasand theChola navyinvadedtheSrivijaya Empirein South East Asia.The Cholas had trade links with the ChineseSong Dynastyand across Southeast Asia.The Cholas built many temples with the most notable being theBrihadisvara Templeat Thanjavur.The latter half of the eleventh century saw the union of Chola andVengikingdoms underKulottunga I.The Cholas repulsed attacks from theWestern Chalukyasand maintained its influence over the various kingdoms of Southeast Asia.According to historianNilakanta Sastri, Kulottunga avoided unnecessary wars and had a long and prosperous reign characterized by unparalleled success that laid the foundations of the empire for the next 150 years.
The eventual decline of Chola power began towards the end ofKulottunga III's reign in the thirteenth century CE.The Pandyas again reigned supreme underMaravarman Sundara Iand defeated the Cholas underRajaraja III.Though the Cholas were revived briefly with the aid ofHoysalas, civil war between Rajaraja andRajendra IIIweakened them further.With the Hoysalas later siding with the Pandyas, the Pandyas consolidated control over the region.The Pandya empire reached its zenith in the thirteenth century CE underJatavarman Sundara Pandyan Iafter he defeated the Hoysalas, theKakatiyasand captured parts of Sri Lanka. The Pandyas ruled from their capital ofMaduraiand expanded trade links with other maritime empires.VenetianexplorerMarco Polomentioned the Pandyas as the richest empire in existence.The Pandyas also built a number of temples including theMeenakshi Amman Templeat Madurai.In the fourteenth century CE, the Pandyan empire was engulfed in a civil war and also faced repeated invasions by theDelhi Sultanate.In 1335, the Pandyan capital was conquered byJalaluddin Ahsan Khanand the short-livedMadurai Sultanatewas established.
TheVijayanagara kingdomwas founded in 1336CE.The Vijayanagara empire eventually conquered the entire Tamil country byc.1370and ruled for almost two centuries.In the sixteenth century, Vijaynagara kingKrishnadeva Rayawas forced to intervene in the conflict between their vassals, the Cholas and the Pandyas.TheNayakgovernor under Raya briefly took control of Madurai before it was restored to the empire.The Vijayanagara empire was defeated in theBattle of Talikotain 1565 by a confederacy ofDeccan sultanates.The Nayaks, who were the military governors in the Vijaynagara empire, took control of the region amongst whom theNayaks of MaduraiandNayaks of Thanjavurwere the most prominent.They introduced thepalayakkarararsystem and re-constructed some of the temples in Tamil Nadu including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai.
In the 18th century, theMughal empireadministered the region through theNawab of the Carnaticwith his seat atArcot, who defeated the Madurai Nayaks.TheMarathasattackedseveral times and defeated the Nawab after theSiege of Trichinopoly (1751-1752).This led to a short-livedThanjavur Maratha kingdom.Europeans started to establish trade centres from the 16th century along the eastern coast. ThePortuguesearrived in 1522 followed by theDutchand theDanes.In 1639, theBritish East India Companyobtained a grant for land from the Vijayanager emperor and theFrenchestablished trading posts atPondichéryin 1693.After several conflicts between the British and the French, the British established themselves as the major power in the eighteenth century CE.The British regained control of Madras in 1749 through theTreaty of Aix-la-Chapelleand resisted aFrench siege attemptin 1759.
The British East India Company demanded tax collection rights, which led to constant conflicts with the local Palaiyakkarars and resulted in thePolygar Wars.Puli Thevarwas one of the earliest opponents, joined later byRani Velu NachiyarandKattabommanin the first series of Polygar wars.TheMaruthu brothersalong withOomaithurai, formed a coalition withDheeran Chinnamalaiand Kerala VarmaPazhassi Raja, which fought the British in the Second Polygar War.In the later 18th century, theMysore kingdomcaptured parts of the region and engaged in constant fighting with the British which culminated in the fourAnglo-Mysore Wars.By the late eighteenth century CE, the British had conquered most of the region and established theMadras Presidencywith Madras as the capital.On 10 July 1806, theVellore mutiny, which was the first instance of a large-scale mutiny by Indian sepoys against the British East India Company, took place inVellore Fort.After theIndian Rebellion of 1857, theBritish Parliamentpassed theGovernment of India Act 1858, which transferred the governance of India from the East India Company to the British crown, forming theBritish Raj.
Failure of the summer monsoons and administrative shortcomings of theRyotwarisystem resulted in two severe famines in the Madras Presidency, theGreat Famine of 1876–78and theIndian famine of 1896–97which killed millions and the migration of many Tamils as bonded laborers to other British countries eventually forming the presentTamil diaspora.TheIndian Independence movementgathered momentum in the early 20th century with the formation of theIndian National Congress, which was based on an idea propagated by the members of theTheosophical Societymovement after a Theosophical convention held in Madras in December 1884.Various Tamils were contributors to the Independence movement includingV. O. Chidambaram Pillai,Subramaniya SivaandBharatiyar.The Tamils formed a significant percentage of the members of theIndian National Army(INA), founded bySubhas Chandra Bose.
After theIndependence of Indiain 1947, the Madras Presidency becameMadras state, comprising present-day Tamil Nadu and parts ofAndhra Pradesh,KarnatakaandKerala. The state was further re-organised as a state for Tamils when the boundaries were redrawn linguistically in1956into the current shape.On 14 January 1969, Madras state was renamed Tamil Nadu, meaning "Tamil country".In 1965, Tamilsagitatedagainst theimposition of Hindiand in support of continuing English as a medium of communication which eventually led to English being retained as an official language of India alongside Hindi.After experiencing fluctuations in the decades immediately after Indian independence, theHuman Development Indexof the Tamils have consistently improved due toreform-orientedeconomic policies and in the 2000s, the region has become one of the most urbanized states in the country.
There are various theories from scholars over the presence of Tamil people in Sri Lanka. HistorianK. Indrapalastates that Tamil replaced a previous language of an indigenous mesolithic population, who later became the Eelam Tamils and the cultural diffusion happened well before the arrival ofSinhalese peoplein Sri Lanka.Eelam Tamils consider themselves lineal descendants of the aboriginalNagaandYakshapeople of Sri Lanka. Acobratotem known asNakamin the Tamil language is still part of the Tamil tradition in Sri Lanka.Remains of settlements and megalithic burial sites of people culturally similar to those of present-day Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu in modern India have been excavated at Pomparippu on the west coast and inKathiravelion the east coast of the island. These epigraphical evidence have been dated to a period between fifth century BCE and second century CE.Cultural similarities in burial practices in South India and Sri Lanka were dated by archeologists to the beginning of theIron Agein the region around twelfth century BCE. There were specific migration routes that extended from South India to the island. These people moved further to the South of the island, and intermingled with the existent people.
Black and red warepotsherds found in Sri Lanka from the early reign ofAnuradhapura kingdom, indicate a similar cultural connection with the people of South India.TheTamil Brahmiinscriptions on them indicate Tamil clan names such asParumakal,Ay,Vel,Utiyan,Ticaiyan,CudaandNaka, which points to the presence of Tamils in the region.Excavations inPoonakariin the north of the island have yielded several inscriptions including the mention ofvela, a name related tovelirsof the ancient Tamil country.Epigraphical evidence of people identified as Damelas (the Prakrit word for Tamil people) from the second century CE have been found inAnuradhapura, the capital city of the northernRajarataregion.
Historical records mention that the three Tamil kingdoms were involved in the island's affairs from second century BCE.Chola kingEllalancaptured the Anuradhapura Kingdom from 205 BCE to 161 BCE.Tamil soldiers from Tamilakam came to Anuradhapura in large numbers in the seventh century CE with the local chiefs and kings relying on them.In the eighth century CE, various Tamil villages collectively known asDemel-kaballa(Tamil allotment),Demelat-valademin(Tamil villages), andDemel-gam-bim(Tamil villages and lands) were established.In the ninth and tenth centuries CE, Pandya and Chola incursions started in the island which culminated with the Chola annexation of the island.
The Chola influence lasted until the latter half of the eleventh century CE and the Chola decline was followed by the restoration of thePolonnaruwa monarchy.In 1215, following Pandya invasions, the Tamil-dominantAryacakravarti dynastyestablished theJaffna Kingdomon theJaffnapeninsula and in parts of northern Sri Lanka.In the fourteenth century CE, the Aryacakaravarthi expansion into the south of the island was halted byAlagakkonara, who belonged to a feudal family from Kanchipuram that migrated to Sri Lanka in the previous century and converted to Buddhism.He served as the chief minister of the Sinhalese kingParakramabahu V(1344–59 CE) and his descendant Vira Alakeshwara briefly became the king later before theMingadmiralZheng Heoverthrew him in 1409 CE after which the influence of his family declined.Thecaste structureof the Sinhalese also accommodated Hindu immigrants from South India, which led to the emergence of new Sinhalese caste groups such as theRadala, theSalagama, theDuravaand theKarava.
The Aryachakaravarthi dynasty continued to rule over large parts of northeast Sri Lanka until arrival of the Europeans on the island in the sixteenth century CE. Portuguese traders reached Sri Lanka by 1505 CE and the Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese due to its presence as a logistical and strategic base for accessing the interior ruled by theKandyan kingdom.KingCankili Iresisted contacts with the Portuguese and repelledParavaCatholicswho were brought from India to theMannar Islandto take over the lucrative pearl fisheries from the Jaffna kings.The wrested Mannar during thefirst invasionin 1560 and killed kingPuvirasa Pandaramduring thesecond expeditionin 1591.After the conflicts, the Portuguesesecuredthe kingdom in 1619 from the unpopularCankili II, who was helped by the Thanjavur Nayaks.English sailorRobert Knoxarrived in the island in 1669 and described the Tamil settlements in theAn Historical Relation of the Island Ceylonpublished in 1681.
TheDutchcaptured the island later and ruled for more than a century. Following the1795 invasion of the Britishand theKandyan Wars, the island came to the control of the British in the early nineteenth century CE.Upon arrival in June 1799,Hugh Cleghorn, the island's first British colonial secretary, wrote to the British government: "Two different nations from a very ancient period have divided between them the possession of the island. First the Sinhalese, inhabiting the interior in its Southern and Western parts, and secondly the Tamils who possess the Northern and Eastern districts. These two nations differ entirely in their religion, language, and manners."Irrespective of the ethnic differences, the British imposed a unitary state structure inBritish Ceylonfor better administration.During the British colonial rule, Tamils held higher positions in the government and were favoured by the British for their qualification in English education. In the northern highlands, the lands of the Sinhalese were seized by the British andIndian Tamilswere settled there as plantation workers.Tamils who migrated in the nineteenth century CE to work on tea plantations were later termed as theIndian Tamils.
Sri Lanka gained independence in 1948 and after the colonial rule ended, ethnic tension rose between the Sinhalese, who constituted a majority, and the Tamils.In 1956, theSinhala Only ActdesignatedSinhalaas the only official language of Sri Lanka, which forced many Tamils to resign as civil servants because they were not fluent in the language. The Tamils saw the act as linguistic, cultural and economic discrimination against them.Anti-Tamilpogromsin1956and1958resulted in deaths of many Tamils and further escalated the conflict.More than a million Indian Tamil plantation workers were made stateless after Sri Lanka refused citizenship to them. In 1964, theSri LankanandIndian governmentsentered into an agreement, based on which, about 300,000 would be granted Sri Lankan citizenship and about 975,000 Tamils would berepatriatedto India over a period of fifteen years.
A newConstitutionenacted in the 1970s further discriminated against the Tamils and various state-sponsored schemes led Sinhalese settlers into Tamil populated areas. The1977 anti-Tamil pogromwas followed by a crackdown against the Tamils, which curtailed their rights. Following the declaration of state of emergency in 1981, state-backed Sinhalese mobs turned on Tamils, which led many Tamils to leave the country as refugees resulting in an exodus more than half a million to India and other countries.By the 1970s, initial non-violent political struggle for anindependent Tamil statein thenorthandeastof Sri Lanka, developed into a violent secessionist insurgency.This led to the bloodySri Lankan Civil Warfor more than three decades.The conflict resulted in the deaths of at least 100,000 Tamils in the island and led to the flight of over 800,000 refugees.The war ended after theSri Lankan military offensivein 2009.Since the end of the civil war, the Sri Lankan state has been subject to much global criticism for violatinghuman rightsas a result of committingwar crimesthrough bombing civilian targets, usage of heavy weaponry, theabductionandmassacres of Sri Lankan Tamilsandsexual violence.
As per the2011 Census, there were 69 million Tamil speakers, constituting about 5.7% of the Indian population. Tamils formed the majority in theSouth Indianstate ofTamil Nadu(63.8 million) and theunion territoryofPuducherry(1.1 million).There were also significant Tamil population in other states of India such asKarnataka(2.1 million),Andhra PradeshandTelangana(0.7 million),Maharashtra(0.5 million), andKerala(0.5 million).
Tamils in Sri Lanka are classified into two ethnicities by theSri Lankan government, namelySri Lankan Tamils, andIndian Origin Tamilswho accounted for 11.2%, and 4.1% respectively of the country's population in 2011.The Sri Lankan Tamils (or Ceylon Tamils) are the descendants of the Tamils of the old Jaffna Kingdom and east coast chieftainships calledVannimais. The Indian Tamils (or Hill Country Tamils) are descendants of laborers who migrated from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in the 19th century to work on tea plantations.Most Sri Lankan Tamils live in the Northern and Eastern provinces and aroundColombo, whereas most Indian Tamils live in the central highlands.Historically, both the Tamil ethnic groups have identified themselves as separate communities, although there has been a greater sense of unity since the 1980s.
There also exists a significantTamil Muslimpopulation in Sri Lanka. However, they are listed as a separate entity under theMoorsby the government.However, genealogical evidence suggests that most of the Sri Lankan Moor community are of Tamil ethnicity, and that the majority of their ancestors were also Tamils who had lived in the country for generations, and had converted to Islam from other faiths.
Significant emigration from Indian subcontinent began in the late 18th century, when the Tamils went asindentured labourersand established businesses in other territories under the control of the British empire such asMalaya,Burma,South Africa,Fiji,Mauritius, and theCaribbean.The descendants of these Tamils continued to live in these countries, and practice their original culture, tradition and language. They form significant proportion of the population inMalaysia(7%) andSingapore(5%).A significant population also exists in South Africa, Mauritius, Fiji, as well as other regions such as the Southeast Asia and the Caribbean.However,subsequent generationsmight not speak the language as amother tongue, but instead as asecondorthird language.
There is a smallTamil community in Pakistan, notably settled since thepartitionin 1947.Since the 20th century, Tamils have migrated to other regions such asMiddle Eastand theWestern Worldfor employment.A large emigration of Sri Lankan Tamils began in the 1980s, as they sought to escape the ethnic conflict there.The largest concentration of Eelam Tamils outside Sri Lanka is found inCanada.
Tamil people speakTamil, which belongs to theDravidian languagesand is one of the oldestclassical languages.According to epigraphistIravatham Mahadevan, the rudimentaryTamil Brahmiscript originated in South India in the 3rd century BCE.Though the old Tamil preserved features ofProto-Dravidianlanguage,modern-day spoken Tamil usesloanwordsfrom other languages such asEnglish.The existent Tamil grammar is largely based on the grammar bookNaṉṉūlwhich incorporates facets from the old Tamil literary workTolkāppiyam.Since the later part of the 19th century, Tamils made the language as a key part of the Tamil identity and the language is personified in the form ofTamil̲taay("Tamil mother").Variousvarietiesof Tamil is spoken by the Tamils across regions such asMadras Bashai,Kongu Tamil,Madurai Tamil,Nellai Tamil, Kumari Tamil and variousSri Lankan Tamil dialectssuch as Batticaloa Tamil, Jaffna Tamil and Negombo Tamil in Sri Lanka.
Tamil literatureis of considerable antiquity compared to the contemporary literature from other Indian languages and represents one of the oldest bodies of literature in South Asia.The earliest epigraphic records have been dated to around the 3rd century BCE.Early Tamil literature was composed in three successive poetic assemblies known asTamil Sangams, the earliest of which destroyed by floods.The Sangam literature was broadly classified into three divisions:iyal(poetry),isai(music) andnadagam(drama).The early Tamil literature was compiled and classified into two categories:Patinenmelkanakku("Eighteen Greater Texts") consisting of theEttuttokai("Eight Anthologies") and thePattuppattu("Ten Idylls"), and thePatinenkilkanakku("Eighteen Lesser Texts").
The Tamil literature that followed in the next 300 years after the Sangam period is generally called the "post-Sangam" literature which included theFive Great Epics.Another book of the post Sangam era is theTirukkural, a book on ethics, byThiruvalluvar.In the beginning of themiddle age,VaishnavaandSaivaliterature became prominent following theBhakti movementin 7th century CE with hymns composed byAlwarsandNayanmars.Notable work from the post-Bhakti period includedRamavatarambyKambarin 12th century CE andTiruppugalbyArunagirinatharin 15th century CE.In 1578, the Portuguese published a Tamil book in old Tamil script namedThambiraan Vanakkam, thus making Tamil the first Indian language to be printed and published.Tamil Lexicon, published by theUniversity of Madrasbetween 1924 and 1939, was amongst the first comprehensivedictionariespublished in the language.The 19th century gave rise toTamil Renaissanceand writings and poems by authors such asMeenakshi Sundaram Pillai,U.V.Swaminatha Iyer,Damodaram Pillai,V. Kanakasabhaiand others.During theIndian Independence Movement, many Tamil poets and writers sought to provoke national spirit, notablyBharathiarandBharathidasan.
According to Tamil literature, there are 64 art forms calledaayakalaigal.The art is classified into two broad categories:kavin kalaigal(beautiful art forms) which include architecture, sculpture, painting and poetry andnun kalaigal(fine art forms) which include dance, music and drama.
Dravidian architectureis the distinct style of architecture of the Tamils. The largegopurams, which are monumental ornate towers at the entrance of the temples form a prominent feature ofHindu templesof the Dravidian style.They are topped bykalasams(finials) and function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex.There are a number of earlyrock-cutcave-temples established by the various Tamil kingdoms.TheGroup of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, built by thePallavasin the 7th and 8th centuries has more than forty rock-cut temples, monoliths androck reliefs.The Pallavas, who built the group of monuments inMahabalipuramandKanchipuram, were one of the earliest patronisers of the Dravidian architectural style.These gateways became regular features in theCholasand thePandya architecture, was later expanded by the Vijayanagara and theNayaksand spread to other parts such as Sri Lanka.There are more than 34,000 temples in Tamil Nadu built across various periods some of which are several centuries old.The influence of Tamil culture had led to the construction of various temples outside India by the Tamil dispora.TheMugalinfluence in medieval times and theBritishinfluence later gave rise to a blend ofHindu,IslamicandGothic revivalstyles, resulting in the distinctIndo-Saracenicarchitecture with several institutions during the British era following the style.By the early 20th century, theart decomade its entry upon in the urban landscape.In the later part of the century, the architecture witnessed a rise in themodernconcretebuildings.
Tamil sculpture ranges from stone sculptures in temples, to detailedbronzeicons.The bronze statues of the Cholas are considered to be one of the greatest contributions of Tamil art.Models made of a special mixture ofbeeswaxandsal treeresinwere encased in clay and fired to melt the wax leaving a hollow mould, which would then be filled with molten metal and cooled to produce bronze statues.Tamil paintings are usually centered around natural, religious or aesthetic themes.Sittanavasalis a rock-cutmonasteryand temple attributed to Pandyas and Pallavas which consist offrescoesandmuralsfrom the 7th century CE, painted with vegetable and mineral dyes in over a thin wet surface of lime plaster.Similar murals are found in temple walls, the most notable examples are the murals on theRanganathaswamy Temple at Srirangamand the Brihadeeswarar temple at Thanjavur.One of the major forms of Tamil painting isThanjavur painting, which originated in the 16th century CE where a base made of cloth and coated withzinc oxideis painted using dyes and then decorated with semi-precious stones, as well as silver or gold threads.
The ancient Tamil country had its ownsystem of musiccalledTamil Pannisai.Sangam literature such as theSilappatikaramfrom 2nd century CE describes music notes and instruments.A Pallava inscription dated to the 7th century CE has one of the earliest surviving examples of Indian music in notation.The Pallava inscriptions from the period describe the playing ofstring instrumentveenaas a form of exercise for the fingers and the practice of singing musical hymns (Thirupadigam) in temples. From the 9th century CE, Shaivite hymnsThevaramand Vaishnavite hymns (Tiruvaymoli) were sung along with playing of musical instruments.Carnatic musicoriginated later which included rhythmic and structured music by composers suchThyagaraja,Muthuswami Dikshitar, andShyama Shastri.Villu Paatuis an ancient form of musical story-telling method where narration is interspersed with music played from a string bow and accompanying instruments.Gaana, a combination of various folk musics is sung mainly in Chennai.
There are many traditional instruments from the region dating back to the Sangam period such asparai,tharai,yazh,andmurasu.Nadaswaram, areed instrumentthat is often accompanied by thethavil, a type ofdrum instrumentare the major musical instruments used in temples and weddings.Melamis from a group ofpercussion instrumentsfrom the ancient Tamilakam which are played during events and functions.
Bharatanatyamis a major genre ofIndian classical dancethat originated from the Tamils.It is one of the oldest classical dance forms of India.There are manyfolk danceforms that originated and are practiced in the region. Major folk dance forms includeKarakattamandKavadiattamwhich involve dancers balancing decorated pot(s) on their heads and arch shaped wooden sticks on their shoulders respectively while making dance movements with the body.KolattamandKummiare usually performed by women while singing songs.In dances likeMayilattam,Puravaiattam, andPuliyattam, dancers dress likepeacocks,horsesandtigersrespectively and headdresses perform movements imitating the animals.Other traditional dance forms include the war danceOyilattamandParaiattam.
Koothuis a form of street theater that consists of a play performance which consists of dance along with music, narration and singing.Bommalattamis a type ofpuppetrythat uses variousdoll marionettesmanipulated by rods and strings attached to them.
Silambattamis amartial danceusing asilambam, a long staff of about 168 cm (66 in) in length, often made of wood such as bamboo.It was used for self-defense and to ward off animals and later evolved into a martial art and dance form.Adimurai(or Kuttu varisai) is a martial art specializing in empty-hand techniques and application on vital points of the body.Varma kalaiis a Tamil traditional art of vital points which combines alternative medicine and martial arts, attributed to sageAgastiyarand might form part of the training of other martial arts such as silambattam, adimurai orkalari.Malyuthamis the traditional form of combat-wrestling.
Tamil martial arts uses various types of weapons such asvalari(iron sickle),maduvu(deer horns),vaal(sword) andkedayam(shield),surul vaal(curling blade),ittiorvel(spear),savuku(whip),kattari(fist blade),aruval(mchete), silambam (bamboo staff),kuttu katai(spiked knuckleduster),kathi(dagger),vil ambu(bow and arrow),tantayutam(mace),soolam(trident),valari(boomerang),chakaram(discus) and theepandam (flaming baton).Wootz steelused to make weapons, originated in the mid-1st millennium BCE in South India.Locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Cheras and the later trade introduced it to other parts of the world.Since the early Sangam age, war was regarded as an honourable sacrifice and fallen heroes and kings were worshipped withhero stonesand heroicmartyrdomwas glorified in ancient Tamil literature.Defeated kings committedVatakkiruttal, a form of ritual suicide.
The Tamil film industry nicknamed asKollywoodand is one of the largest industries of film production in India.Independent Tamil film production have also originated outside India in Sri Lanka, Singapore, Canada, and western Europe.The concept of "Tent Cinema" was introduced in the early 1900s, in which a tent was erected on a stretch of open land close to a town or village to screen the films.The first silent film in South India was produced in Tamil in 1916 and the first Tamil talkie film wasKalidas, which released on 31 October 1931, barely seven months after the release of India's first talking pictureAlam Ara.
Ancient literature and epigraphical records describe the various types of dresses worn by Tamil people.Tamil women traditionally wear asari, a garment that consists of a drape varying from 4.6 m (15 ft) to 8.2 m (27 ft) in length and 0.61 m (2 ft) to 1.2 m (4 ft) in breadth that is typically wrapped around the waist, with one end draped over the shoulder, baring the midriff.Women wear colourfulsilk sareeson traditional occasions.Young girls wear a long skirt calledpavaadaialong with a shorter length sari calleddhavani.The men wear adhoti, a 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) long, white rectangular piece of non-stitched cloth often bordered in brightly coloured stripes which is usually wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist.A colourfullungiwith typicalbatikpatterns is the most common form of male attire in the countryside.People in urban areas generally wear tailored clothing, and western dress is popular. Western-style school uniforms are worn by both boys and girls in schools, even in rural areas.
The Tamil calendar is asiderealsolar calendar.TheTamilPanchangamis based on the same and is generally used in contemporary times to check auspicious times for cultural and religious events.The calendar follows a 60-year cycle.There are 12 months in a year starting withChithiraiwhen theSunenters the firstRāśiand the number of days in a month varies between 29 and 32.The new year starts following theMarch equinoxin the middle of April.The days of week (kiḻamai) in the Tamil calendar relate to the celestial bodies in the solar system:Sun,Moon,Mars,Mercury,Jupiter,Venus, andSaturn, in that order.
Hospitalityis a major feature of Tamil culture.It was considered as a social obligation and offering food to guests was regarded as one of the highest virtues.Riceis the diet staple and is served withsambar,rasam, andporiyalas a part of a Tamil meal.Bananasfind mention in the Sangam literature and the traditional way of eating a meal involves having the food served on abanana leaf, which is discarded after the meal. Eating on banana leaves imparts a unique flavor to the food, and is considered healthy.Food is usually eaten seated on the floor and the finger tips of the right hand is used to take the food to the mouth.
There are regional sub-varieties namely Chettinadu, Kongunadu, Nanjilnadu, Pandiyanadu and Sri Lankan Tamil cuisines.There are both vegetarian and meat dishes withfishtraditionally consumed across the coast and other meat preferred in the interiors. The Chettinadu cuisine is popular for its meat based dishes and generous usage ofspices.The Kongunadu cuisine uses less spices and are generally cooked fresh. It usescoconut,sesame seeds,groundnut, andturmericto go with various cereals and pulses grown in the region.Nanjilnadu cuisine is milder and is usually based on fish and vegetables.Sri Lankan Tamil cuisine usesgingelly oilandjaggeryalong with coconut and spices, which differentiates it from the other culinary traditions in the island.Biryaniis a popular dish with several different versions prepared across various regions.Idli, anddosaare popular breakfast dishes and other dishes cooked by to the Tamil people includeupma,idiappam,pongal,paniyaram,andparotta.
Siddha medicineis a form oftraditional medicineoriginating from the Tamils and is one of the oldest systems of medicine in India.The word literally means perfection in Tamil and the system focuses on wholesome treatment based on various factors. As per Tamil tradition, the knowledge of Siddha medicine came fromShiva, which was passed on to 18 holy men known asSiddharled byAgastya. The knowledge was then passed on orally and through palm leaf manuscripts to the later generations.Siddha practitioners believe that all objects including the human body is composed of five basic elements – earth, water, fire, air, sky which are present in food and other compounds, which is used as the basis for the drugs and other therapies.
Pongalis a major and multi-dayharvest festivalcelebrated by Tamils in the month ofThaiaccording to theTamil solar calendar(usually falls on 14 or 15 January).Puthanduis known as Tamil New Year which marks the first day of year on theTamil calendarand falls on in April every year on theGregorian calendar.Other major festivals includeKarthikai Deepam,Thaipusam,Panguni Uthiram,andVaikasi Visakam.Aadi Perukkuis a Tamil cultural festival celebrated in the Tamil month ofAdiand the worship ofAmmanandAyyanardeities are organized during the month in temples across Tamil Nadu with much fanfare.Other festivals celebrated includeGanesh Chaturthi,Navarathri,Deepavali,Eid al-FitrandChristmas.
Jallikattuis a traditional event held during the period attracting huge crowds in which a bull is released into a crowd of people, and multiple human participants attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's back with both arms and hang on to it while the bull attempts to escape.It has been practised since Sangam period with the aim of keeping people fit. Proficiency in the sport was considered a virtue while untamable bulls were held as a pride of the owner.Kabaddiis a traditional conatct sport that originated from the Tamils.Chessis a popularboard gamewhich originated asSathurangamin the 7th century CE.Traditional gameslikePallanguzhi,Uriyadi,Gillidanda,Dhaayamare played across the region.In modern times,Cricketis the most popular sport.
As per the Sangam literature, theSangam landscapewas classified into five categories known asthinais, which were associated with aHindudeity:Muruganinkurinji(hills),Thirumalinmullai(forests),Indiraninmarutham(plains),Varunanin theneithal(coasts) andKotravaiinpalai(desert).Thirumal is indicated as a deity during the Sangam era, who was regarded asParamporul("the suprement one") and is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in various Sangam literature.WhileShivaworship existed in the Shaivite culture as a part of the Tamil pantheon,Muruganbecame regarded as theTamil kadavul("God of the Tamils").In Tamil tradition, Murugan is the youngest son of Shiva andParvatiandPillayaris regarded as the eldest son, who is venerated as theMudanmudar kadavul("foremost god").
The cult of themother goddessis treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. The worship ofAmman, also calledMariamman, is thought to have been derived from an ancientmother goddess, and is also very common.Kannagi, the heroine of theCilappatikaramis worshipped as agoddessby many Tamils, particularly in Sri Lanka.In the Sangam literature, there is a description of the rites performed by the priestesses in temples.Among the ancient Tamils, the practice of erecting memorial stones (natukal) was prevalent and it continued till theMiddle ages.It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship thesehero stonesto bless them with victory.In rural areas, local deities calledAiyyan̲ār(also known as Karuppan, Karrupasami,Muniandi), are worshipped who are thought to protect the villages from harm.Their worship probably emanated from the hero stone worship and appears to be the surviving remnants of an ancient Tamil tradition.Idol worshipforms a part of the Tamil Hindu culture similar to the Hindu traditions.
During the Sangam period,Ashivakam,JainismandBuddhismalso had a significant following.Jainismexisted from the Sangam period with inscriptions and drip-ledges from 1st century BCE to 6th century CE describing the same.TheKalabhra dynasty, who were patrons of Jainism, ruled over theancient Tamil countryin the 3rd–7th century CE.Buddhismhad an influence in Tamil Nadu before the later Middle Ages with ancient texts referring to aVihārainNākappaṭṭinamfrom the time ofAshokain 3rd century BCE and Buddhist relics from 4th century CE found inKaveripattinam.Around the 7th century CE, thePandyasandPallavas, who patronized Buddhism and Jainism, became patrons of Hinduism following the revival ofSaivismandVaishnavismduring theBhakti movementled by Alwars and Nayanmars.
The Christian apostle,St. Thomas, is believed to have preachedChristianityto the Tamils between 52 and 70 CE.Rowtherswere Tamils who were converted toIslamby the Turkish preacherNathar Shahin the tenth century CE and follow theHanafi school.Other Muslim clans such asMarakkayar,Labbai, andKayalaroriginated as a result of the trade with theArab world.Majority of theTamil Muslimsspeak Tamil rather thanUrdu, which is spoken by Muslims in other parts of the Indian subcontinent.Mercantile groups introducedCholapauttam, a syncretic form of Buddhism and Shaivism in northern Sri Lanka and Southern India. The religion lost its importance in the 14th century when conditions changed for the benefit ofSinhalaandPalitraditions.
As of the 21st century, majority of the Tamils are adherents of Hinduism.The migation of Tamils to other countries resulted in new Hindu temples being constructed in places with significant population of Tamil people and people of Tamil origin, and countries with significant Tamil migrants.Sri Lankan Tamils predominantly worship Murugan with numerous temples existing throughout the island.There are also followers ofAyyavazhiin Tamil Nadu, mainly in the southern districts.Atheist,rationalist, andhumanistphilosophies are also adhered by sizeable minorities, as a result of Tamil cultural revivalism in the 20th century, and its antipathy to what it saw as Brahminical Hinduism.