Yemen

Yemen,officially theRepublic of Yemen,is a country inWest Asia.Located insouthern Arabia, it bordersSaudi Arabiato the north,Omanto the northeast, theRed Seato the west, theGulf of Adento the south, and the southeasten part of theArabian seato the east, sharingmaritime borderswithEritrea,DjiboutiandSomaliaacross theHorn of Africa. Covering roughly 455,000 square kilometres (176,000 square miles),with a coastline of approximately 2,000 kilometres (1,200 miles), Yemen is the second largest country on the Arabian Peninsula.Sanaais its constitutional capital and largest city. Yemen's estimated population is 34.7 million, mostlyArabMuslims.It is a member of theArab League, theUnited Nations, theNon-Aligned Movementand theOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation.
Owing to its geographic location, Yemen has been at the crossroads of many civilisations for over 7,000 years. In 1200 BCE, theSabaeansformed a thriving commercial kingdom that included parts of modernEthiopiaand Eritrea.In 275 CE, it was succeeded by theHimyarite Kingdom, which spanned much of Yemen's present-day territory and was heavily influenced by Judaism.Christianityarrived in the fourth century, followed by the rapid spread ofIslamin the seventh century. Yemenite troops played a crucial role in early Islamic conquests.Various dynasties emerged between the 9th and 16th centuries.During the 19th century, the country was divided between theOttomanandBritishempires. AfterWorld War I, theKingdom of Yemenwas established, which in 1962 became theYemen Arab Republic(North Yemen) following a coup. In 1967, the BritishAden Protectoratebecame the independentPeople's Democratic Republic of Yemen(South Yemen), the first and only officially socialist state in the Arab world. In 1990, the two Yemeni states united to form the modern Republic of Yemen, withAli Abdullah Salehserving as the first president until his resignation in 2012 in the wake of theArab Spring.
Since 2011, Yemen has been enduringa political crisis, marked bystreet protestsagainst poverty, unemployment, corruption, and President Saleh's plan to amendYemen's constitutionand eliminate the presidential term limit.By 2015, the country became engulfed byan ongoing civil warwith multiple entities vying for governance, including thePresidential Leadership Councilof the internationally recognized government, and theHouthi movement'sSupreme Political Council. This conflict, which has escalated to involve various foreign powers, has led to asevere humanitarian crisis.
Yemen is one of theleast developed countries in the world,facing significant obstacles tosustainable development,and is one of the poorest countries in theMiddle East and North Africa.In 2019, the United Nations reported that Yemen had the highest number of people in need of humanitarian aid, amounting to about 24 million individuals, or nearly 75% of its population.As of 2020, Yemen ranked highest on theFragile States Indexand second-worst on theGlobal Hunger Index, surpassed only by theCentral African Republic.Additionally, it has the lowestHuman Development Indexout of all non-African countries.
The termYamnatwas first mentioned in theOld South Arabianinscriptions on the title of one of the kings of the secondHimyarite Kingdomknown asShammar Yahri'sh. The term probably referred to the southwestern coastline of theArabian Peninsulaand the southern coastline betweenAdenandHadhramaut.Historical Yemenincluded much greater territory than the current nation, stretching from northern'Asirin southwesternSaudi ArabiatoDhofarin southernOman.
One etymology derives Yemen fromymnt, meaning literally "South[of theArabian Peninsula]", and significantly plays on the notion of the land to the right (𐩺𐩣𐩬).Other sources claim that Yemen is related toyamnoryumn, meaning "felicity" or "blessed", as much of the country is fertile, in contrast to the barren land of most of Arabia.The Romans called itArabia Felix("happy" or "fortunate"Arabia"), as opposed toArabia Deserta("deserted Arabia").
Latin andGreekwriters referred to ancient Yemen as "India", which arose from the Persians calling theAbyssinianswhom they came into contact with in South Arabia by the name of the black-skinned people who lived next to them.
Yemen has existed at the crossroads of its civilisations for more than 7,000 years. The country was home to figures such as theQueen of Shebawho brought a caravan of gifts for KingSolomon. For centuries, it became a primary producer ofcoffeeexported in the port ofMocha. From its conversion toIslamin the 7th century, Yemen became a center of Islamic learning, and much of its architecture survived until modern times.
With its long sea border between eastern and western civilizations, Yemen has long existed at a crossroads of cultures with a strategic location in terms of trade on the west of the Arabian Peninsula. Large settlements for their era existed in the mountains of northern Yemen as early as 5000 BC.TheSabaean Kingdomcame into existence in at least the 12th century BC.The four major kingdoms or tribal confederations inSouth Arabiawere Saba,Hadhramaut,Qataban, andMa'in.
Sabaʾ(Arabic:سَـبَـأ)is thought to be biblical Sheba and was the most prominent federation.The Sabaean rulers adopted the titleMukarribgenerally thought to meanunifier,or apriest-king,or the head of the confederation of South Arabian kingdoms, the "king of the kings".The role of the Mukarrib was to bring the various tribes under the kingdom and preside over them all.The Sabaeans built theGreat Dam of Maribaround 940 BC.The dam was built to withstand the seasonal flash floods surging down the valley.
By the third century BC, Qataban, Hadhramaut, and Ma'in became independent from Saba and established themselves in the Yemeni arena. Minaean rule stretched as far asDedan,with their capital atBaraqish. The Sabaeans regained their control over Ma'in after the collapse of Qataban in 50 BC. By the time of the Roman expedition to Arabia Felix in 25 BC, the Sabaeans were once again the dominating power in Southern Arabia.Aelius Galluswas ordered to lead a military campaign to establish Roman dominance over the Sabaeans.
TheRomanshad a vague and contradictory geographical knowledge about Arabia Felix. A Roman army of 10,000 men was defeated before reachingMarib.Strabo's close relationship with Aelius Gallus led him to attempt to justify his friend's defeat in his writings. It took the Romans six months to reach Marib and 60 days to return toEgypt. The Romans blamed theirNabataeanguide and executed him for treachery.No direct mention in Sabaean inscriptions of the Roman expedition has yet been found.
After the Roman expedition (perhaps earlier) the country fell into chaos, and two clans, namelyHamdanandHimyar, claimed kingship, assuming the title King of Sheba andDhu Raydan.Dhu Raydan,i.e., Himyarites, allied themselves withAksumin Ethiopia against the Sabaeans.The chief ofBakiland king of Saba and Dhu Raydan,El Sharih Yahdhib, launched successful campaigns against the Himyarites and Habashat,i.e.,Aksum. El Sharih took pride in his campaigns and added the title Yahdhib to his name, which means "suppressor"; he used to kill his enemies by cutting them to pieces.Sana'a came into prominence during his reign, as he built theGhumdan Palaceas his place of residence.
The Himyarites annexed Sana'a from Hamdan around 100 AD.Hashditribesmen rebelled against them and regained Sana'a around 180.Shammar Yahri'shhad conquered Hadhramaut,Najran, andTihamahby 275, thus unifying Yemen and consolidating Himyarite rule.The Himyarites rejectedpolytheismand adhered to a consensual form ofmonotheismcalledRahmanism.
In 354, Roman EmperorConstantius IIsent an embassy headed byTheophilos the Indianto convert the Himyarites to Christianity.According toPhilostorgius, the mission was resisted by local Jews.Several inscriptions have been found inHebrewandSabaeanpraising the ruling house in Jewish terms for "...helping and empowering the People of Israel."
According to Islamic traditions, KingAs'ad the Perfectmounted a military expedition to support the Jews ofYathrib.Abu Kariba As'ad, as known from the inscriptions, led a military campaign to central Arabia orNajdto support the vassalKingdom of Kindaagainst theLakhmids.However, no direct reference to Judaism or Yathrib was discovered from his lengthy reign. Abu Kariba died in 445, having reigned for almost 50 years.By 515, Himyar became increasingly divided along religious lines and a bitter conflict between different factions paved the way for anAksumiteintervention. The last Himyarite king Ma'adikarib Ya'fur was supported by Aksum against his Jewish rivals. Ma'adikarib was Christian and launched a campaign against the Lakhmids in southernIraq, with the support of other Arab allies ofByzantium.The Lakhmids were a bulwark ofPersia, which was intolerant to a proselytizing religion like Christianity.
After the death of Ma'adikarib Ya'fur around 521, a Himyarite Jewish warlord calledDhu Nuwasrose to power. EmperorJustinian Isent an embassy to Yemen. He wanted the officially Christian Himyarites to use their influence on the tribes in inner Arabia to launch military operations against Persia. Justinian I bestowed the "dignity of king" upon the Arabsheikhsof Kindah andGhassanin central and northern Arabia.From early on, Roman and Byzantine policy was to develop close links with the powers of the coast of theRed Sea. They were successful in convertingAksum and influencing their culture. The results concerning to Yemen were rather disappointing.
A Kendite prince called Yazid bin Kabshat rebelled against Abraha and his Arab Christian allies. A truce was reached once the Great Dam of Marib had suffered a breach.Abraha died around 570. TheSasanid Empireannexed Aden around 570. Under their rule, most of Yemen enjoyed great autonomy except for Aden and Sana'a. This era marked the collapse of ancient South Arabian civilization, since the greater part of the country was under several independent clans until the arrival of Islam in 630.
Muhammadsent his cousinAlito Sana'a and its surroundings around 630. At the time, Yemen was the most advanced region in Arabia.TheBanu Hamdanconfederation was among the first to accept Islam. Muhammad sentMuadh ibn Jabal, as well to Al-Janad, in present-dayTaiz, and dispatched letters to various tribal leaders.Major tribes, including Himyar, sent delegations toMedinaduring the "year of delegations" around 630–631. Several Yemenis accepted Islam before 630, such asAmmar ibn Yasir,Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami,Miqdad ibn Aswad,Abu Musa Ashaari, andSharhabeel ibn Hasana. A man named'Abhala ibn Ka'ab Al-Ansiexpelled the remaining Persians and claimed he was a prophet ofRahman. He was assassinated by a Yemeni of Persian origin calledFayruz al-Daylami. Christians, who were mainly staying inNajranalong with Jews, agreed to payjizyah(Arabic:جِـزْيَـة), although some Jews converted to Islam, such asWahb ibn MunabbihandKa'ab al-Ahbar.
Yemen was stable during theRashidun Caliphate. Yemeni tribes played a pivotal role in the Islamic expansion into Egypt, Iraq, Persia, theLevant,Anatolia,North Africa,Sicily, andAndalusia.Yemeni tribes who settled inSyriacontributed significantly to the solidification ofUmayyadrule, especially during the reign ofMarwan I. Powerful Yemenite tribes such as Kinda were on his side during theBattle of Marj Rahit.
Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Ziyad founded the Ziyadid dynasty inTihamaharound 818. The state stretched fromHaly(in present-day Saudi Arabia) to Aden. They nominally recognized theAbbasid Caliphatebut ruled independently fromZabid.By virtue of its location, they developed a special relationship withAbyssinia. The chief of theDahlak islandsexported slaves, as well as amber and leopard hides, to the ruler of Yemen.They controlled only a small portion of the coastal strip in Tihamah along the Red Sea, and never exercised control over the highlands and Hadhramaut.A Himyarite clan called theYufiridsestablished their rule over the highlands fromSaadatoTaiz, while Hadhramaut was an Ibadi stronghold and rejected all allegiance to the Abbasids inBaghdad.
The firstZaidiimam,Yahya ibn al-Husayn, arrived in Yemen in 893. He was a religious cleric and judge who was invited to come to Saada from Medina to arbitrate tribal disputes.Yahya persuaded local tribesmen to follow his teachings. The sect slowly spread across the highlands, as the tribes ofHashidandBakil, later known as "the twin wings of the imamate", accepted his authority.He founded theZaidi imamatein 897. Yahya established his influence in Saada and Najran. He also tried to capture Sana'a from the Yufirids in 901 but failed miserably.
TheSulayhid dynastywas founded in the northern highlands around 1040; at the time, Yemen was ruled by different local dynasties. In 1060,Ali ibn Muhammad Al-Sulayhiconquered Zabid and killed its ruler Al-Najah, founder of the Najahid dynasty. His sons were forced to flee to Dahlak.Hadhramaut fell into Sulayhid hands after their capture of Aden in 1162.
By 1063, Ali had subjugatedGreater Yemen.He then marched towardHejazand occupiedMakkah.Ali was married toAsma bint Shihab, who governed Yemen with her husband.TheKhutbaduringFriday prayerswas proclaimed in both her husband's name and hers. No other Arab woman had this honor since the advent of Islam.
Ali al-Sulayhi was killed by Najah's sons on his way to Mecca in 1084. His son Ahmed Al-Mukarram led an army to Zabid and killed 8,000 of its inhabitants.He later installed the Zurayids to govern Aden. al-Mukarram, who had been afflicted with facial paralysis resulting from war injuries, retired in 1087 and handed over power to his wifeArwa al-Sulayhi.Queen Arwa moved the seat of the Sulayhid dynasty from Sana'a toJibla, a small town in central Yemen nearIbb. She sent Ismaili missionaries to India, where a significant Ismaili community was formed that exists to this day.
Queen Arwa continued to rule securely until her death in 1138.She is still remembered as a great and much-loved sovereign, as attested in Yemeni historiography, literature, and popular lore, where she is referred to asBalqis al-sughra("the junior queen of Sheba").Shortly after Arwa's death, the country was split between five competing petty dynasties along religious lines.TheAyyubid dynastyoverthrew theFatimid Caliphatein Egypt. A few years after their rise to power,Saladindispatched his brotherTuran Shahto conquer Yemen in 1174.
Turan Shahconquered Zabid from theMahdidsin 1174, then marched toward Aden in June and captured it from the Zurayids.TheHamdanid sultansof Sana'a resisted the Ayyubid in 1175, and the Ayyubids did not manage to secure Sana'a until 1189.The Ayyubid rule was stable in southern and central Yemen, where they succeeded in eliminating the ministates of that region, while Ismaili and Zaidi tribesmen continued to hold out in several fortresses.
The Ayyubids failed to capture the Zaydis stronghold in northern Yemen.In 1191, Zaydis ofShibam Kawkabanrebelled and killed 700 Ayyubid soldiers.ImamAbdullah bin Hamzaproclaimed the imamate in 1197 and fought al-Mu'izz Ismail, the Ayyubid Sultan of Yemen. Imam Abdullah was defeated at first but was able to conquer Sana'a andDhamarin 1198,and al-Mu'izz Ismail was assassinated in 1202.
Abdullah bin Hamzacarried on the struggle against the Ayyubid until his death in 1217. After his demise, the Zaidi community was split between two rival imams. The Zaydis were dispersed, and a truce was signed with the Ayyubid in 1219.The Ayyubid army was defeated inDhamarin 1226.Ayyubid Sultan Mas'ud Yusuf left for Mecca in 1228, never to return.Other sources suggest that he was forced to leave for Egypt instead in 1223.
TheRasulid dynastywas established in 1229 by Umar ibn Rasul, who was appointed deputy governor by the Ayyubids in 1223. When the last Ayyubid ruler left Yemen in 1229, Umar stayed in the country as caretaker. He subsequently declared himself an independent king by assuming the title "al-Malik Al-Mansur" (the king assisted byAllah).
Umar first established himself at Zabid, then moved into the mountainous interior, taking the important highland centre Sana'a. However, the Rasulid capitals were Zabid and Taiz. He was assassinated by his nephew in 1249.Omar's son Yousef defeated the faction led by his father's assassins and crushed several counterattacks by the Zaydi imams who still held on in the northern highland. Mainly because of the victories he scored over his rivals, he assumed the honorific title "al-Muzaffar" (the victorious).
After thefall of Baghdadto theMongolsin 1258, al-Muzaffar Yusuf I appropriated the title ofcaliph.He chose the city of Taiz to become the political capital of the kingdom because of its strategic location and proximity to Aden.The Rasulid sultans built numerousMadrasasto solidify theShafi'ischool of thought, which is still the dominant school ofjurisprudenceamongst Yemenis today.Under their rule, Taiz and Zabid became major international centres of Islamic learning.The kings were educated men in their own right, who not only had important libraries but also wrote treatises on a wide array of subjects, ranging from astrology and medicine to agriculture and genealogy.
They had a difficult relationship with theMamluks of Egyptbecause the latter considered them a vassal state.Their competition centred over the Hejaz and the right to providekiswaof theKa'abain Mecca.The dynasty became increasingly threatened by disgruntled family members over the problem of succession, combined with periodic tribal revolts, as they were locked in a war of attrition with the Zaydi imams in the northern highlands.During the last 12 years of Rasulid rule, the country was torn between several contenders for the kingdom. The weakening of the Rasulid provided an opportunity for theBanu Taherclan to take over and establish themselves as the new rulers of Yemen in 1454 AD.
TheTahiridswere a local clan based inRada'a. They built schools, mosques, and irrigation channels, as well as water cisterns and bridges in Zabid, Aden,Rada'a, and Juban. Their best-known monument is theAmiriya MadrasainRada' District, which was built in 1504.The Tahirids were too weak either to contain the Zaydi imams or to defend themselves against foreign attacks.
Realizing how rich the Tahirid realm was, the Mamluks decided to conquer it.The Mamluk army, with the support of forces loyal to Zaydi ImamAl-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din, conquered the entire Tahirid realm but failed to capture Aden in 1517. The Mamluk victory was short-lived. TheOttoman Empireconquered Egypt, hanging the last Mamluk Sultan inCairo.The Ottomans had not decided to conquer Yemen until 1538. The Zaydi highland tribes emerged as national heroesby offering stiff, vigorous resistance to the Turkish occupation.The Mamluks tried to attach Yemen to Egypt and the Portuguese led byAfonso de Albuquerque, occupied the island ofSocotraand made an unsuccessful attack on Aden in 1513.
Starting in the 15th century,Portugalintervened, dominating the port of Aden for about 20 years and maintaining a fortified enclave on the island of Socotra during this period. From the 16th century, the Portuguese posed an immediate threat to Indian Ocean trade. The Mamluks therefore sent an army under Hussein al-Kurdi to fight the intrudersThe Mamluk sultan went to Zabid in 1515 and entered into diplomatic talks with the Tahiri sultan 'Amir bin Abdulwahab for money that would be needed for the jihad against the Portuguese. Instead of confronting them, the Mamluks, who were running out of food and water, landed on the coast of Yemen and began harassing the villagers of Tihamah to obtain the supplies they needed.
The interest of Portugal on the Red Sea consisted on the one hand of guaranteeing contacts with a Christian ally in Ethiopia and on the other of being able to attack Mecca and the Arab territories from the rear, while still having absolute dominance over trade of spices, the main intention was to dominate the commerce of the cities on the coast of Africa and Arabia.To this end, Portugal sought to influence and dominate by force or persuasion all the ports and kingdoms that fought among themselves. It was common for Portugal to keep under its influence the Arab allies that were interested in maintaining independence from other Arab states in the region.
The Ottomans had two fundamental interests to safeguard in Yemen: The Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina, and the trade route with India in spices and textiles—both threatened, and the latter virtually eclipsed, by the arrival of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea in the early 16th century.Hadım Suleiman Pasha, the Ottoman governor ofEgypt, was ordered to command a fleet of 90 ships to conquer Yemen. The country was in a state of incessant anarchy and discord as Pasha described it by saying:
Imamal-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Dinruled over the northern highlands including Sana'a, while Aden was held by the last Tahiride Sultan 'Amir ibn Dauod. Pasha stormed Aden in 1538, killing its ruler, and extended Ottoman authority to include Zabid in 1539 and eventually Tihamah in its entirety.Zabid became the administrative headquarters ofYemen Eyalet.The Ottoman governors did not exercise much control over the highlands. They held sway mainly in the southern coastal region, particularly around Zabid, Mocha, and Aden.Of 80,000 soldiers sent to Yemen from Egypt between 1539 and 1547, only 7,000 survived.The Ottoman accountant-general in Egypt remarked:
The Ottomans sent yet another expeditionary force to Zabid in 1547, while Imamal-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Dinwas ruling the highlands independently. Yahya chose his son Ali to succeed him, a decision that infuriated his other sonal-Mutahharibn Yahya.Al-Mutahhar was lame, so he was not qualified for the imamate.He urged Oais Pasha, the Ottoman colonial governor inZabid, to attack his father.Indeed, Ottoman troops supported by tribal forces loyal to Imam al-Mutahhar stormed Taiz and marched north toward Sana'a in August 1547. The Turks officially made Imam al-Mutahhar aSanjak-beywith authority over'Amran. Imam al-Mutahhar assassinated the Ottoman colonial governor and recaptured Sana'a, but the Ottomans, led byÖzdemir Pasha, forced al-Mutahhar to retreat to his fortress inThula. Özdemir Pasha effectively put Yemen under Ottoman rule between 1552 and 1560. Özdemir died in Sana'a in 1561 and was succeeded byMahmud Pasha.
Mahmud Pasha was described by other Ottoman officials as a corrupt and unscrupulous governor, and he was displaced by Ridvan Pasha in 1564. By 1565, Yemen was split into two provinces, the highlands under the command of Ridvan Pasha and Tihamah under Murad Pasha. Imam al-Mutahhar launched a propaganda campaign in which he claimed that the prophet Mohammed came to him in a dream and advised him to wagejihadagainst the Ottomans.Al-Mutahhar led the tribes to capture Sana'a from Ridvan Pasha in 1567. When Murad tried to relieve Sana'a, highland tribesmen ambushed his unit and slaughtered all of them.Over 80 battles were fought. The last decisive encounter took place in Dhamar around 1568, in which Murad Pasha was beheaded and his head sent to al-Mutahhar in Sana'a.By 1568, only Zabid remained under the possession of the Turks.
In 1632, Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad sent an expeditionary force of 1,000 men to conquer Mecca.The army entered the city in triumph and killed its governor.The Ottomans sent an army from Egypt to fight the Yemenites.Seeing that the Turkish army was too numerous to overcome, the Yemeni army retreated to a valley outside Mecca.Ottoman troops attacked the Yemenis by hiding at the wells that supplied them with water. This plan proceeded successfully, causing the Yemenis over 200 casualties, most from thirst.The tribesmen eventually surrendered and returned to Yemen.Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad died in 1644. He was succeeded byAl-Mutawakkil Isma'il, another son of al-Mansur al-Qasim, who conquered Yemen in its entirety.
Yemen became the solecoffeeproducer in the world.The country established diplomatic relations with theSafavid dynastyof Persia, Ottomans of Hejaz,Mughal Empirein India, and Ethiopia, as well. In the first half of the 18th century, the Europeans broke Yemen's monopoly on coffee by smuggling coffee trees and cultivating them in their own colonies in the East Indies, East Africa, the West Indies, and Latin America.The imamate did not follow a cohesive mechanism for succession, and family quarrels and tribal insubordination led to the political decline of the Qasimi dynasty in the 18th century.
The British were looking for a coal depot to service their steamers en route to India. It took 700 tons of coal for a round-trip fromSueztoBombay.East India Companyofficials decided onAden. TheBritish Empiretried to reach an agreement with the Zaydi imam of Sana'a, permitting them a foothold in Mocha, and when unable to secure their position, they extracted a similar agreement from theSultan of Lahej, enabling them to consolidate a position in Aden.The British managed to occupy Aden and evicted the Sultan of Lahej from Aden and forced him to accept their "protection".In November 1839, 5,000 tribesmen tried to retake the town but were repulsed and 200 were killed.
With emigrants from India, East Africa, and Southeast Asia, Aden grew into a world city. In 1850, only 980 Arabs were registered as original inhabitants of the city.The English presence in Aden put them at odds with the Ottomans. The Turks asserted to the British that they held sovereignty over the whole of Arabia, including Yemen as the successor of Mohammed and the Chief of the Universal Caliphate.
The Ottomans were concerned about the British expansion from theBritish ruled subcontinentto the Red Sea and Arabia. They returned to the Tihamah in 1849 after an absence of two centuries.Rivalries and disturbances continued among the Zaydi imams, between them and their deputies, with theulema, with the heads of tribes, as well as with those who belonged to other sects. Some citizens of Sana'a were desperate to return law and order to Yemen and asked the Ottoman Pasha in Tihamah to pacify the country.The opening of theSuez Canalin 1869 strengthened the Ottoman decision to remain in Yemen.By 1873, the Ottomans succeeded in conquering the northern highlands. Sana'a became the administrative capital ofYemen Vilayet.
The Ottomans learned from their previous experience and worked on the disempowerment of local lords in the highland regions. They even attempted to secularize the Yemeni society, whileYemenite Jewscame to perceive themselves in Yemeni nationalist terms.The Ottomans appeased the tribes by forgiving their rebellious chiefs and appointing them to administrative posts. They introduced a series of reforms to enhance the country's economic welfare. However, corruption was widespread in the Ottoman administration in Yemen. This was because only the worst of the officials were appointed because those who could avoid serving in Yemen did so.The Ottomans had reasserted control over the highlands for a temporary duration.The so-calledTanzimatreforms were considered heretic by the Zaydi tribes. In 1876, the Hashid and Bakil tribes rebelled against the Ottomans; the Turks had to appease them with gifts to end the uprising.
The tribal chiefs were difficult to appease and an endless cycle of violence curbed Ottoman efforts to pacify the land.Ahmed Izzet Pashaproposed that the Ottoman army evacuate the highlands and confine itself to Tihamah, and not unnecessarily burden itself with continuing military operation against the Zaydi tribes.ImamYahya Hamidaddinled a rebellion against the Turks in 1904; the rebels disrupted the Ottoman ability to govern.The revolts between 1904 and 1911 were especially damaging to the Ottomans, costing them as many as 10,000 soldiers and as much as 500,000poundsper year.The Ottomans signed a treaty with imamYahya Hamidaddinin 1911. Under the treaty, Imam Yahya was recognized as an autonomous leader of the Zaydi northern highlands. The Ottomans continued to ruleShafi'iareas in the mid-south until their departure in 1918.
Imam Yahya hamid ed-Din al-Mutawakkil was ruling the northern highlands independently from 1911, from which he began a conquest of the Yemen lands. In 1925 Yahya captured al-Hudaydah from theIdrisids.In 1927, Yahya's forces were about 50 km (30 mi) away from Aden, Taiz, and Ibb, and were bombed by the British for five days; the imam had to pull back.SmallBedouinforces, mainly from theMadh'hijconfederation ofMarib, attackedShabwahbut were bombed by the British and had to retreat.
TheItalian Empirewas the first to recognize Yahya as the king of Yemen in 1926. This created a great deal of anxiety for the British, who interpreted it as recognition of Imam Yahya's claim to sovereignty over Greater Yemen, which included the Aden protectorate and Asir.The Idrisis turned toIbn Saudseeking his protection from Yahya. However, in 1932, the Idrisis broke their accord with Ibn Saud and went back to Yahya seeking help against Ibn Saud, who had begun liquidating their authority and expressed his desire to annex those territories into his own Saudi domain.Yahya demanded the return of all Idrisi dominion.
Negotiations between Yahya and Ibn Saud proved fruitless. After the 1934 Saudi-Yemeni war, Ibn Saud announced a ceasefire in May 1934.Imam Yahya agreed to release Saudi hostages and the surrender of the Idrisis to Saudi custody. Imam Yahya ceded the three provinces of Najran, Asir, andJazanfor 20 years.and signed another treaty with the British government in 1934. The imam recognized the British sovereignty over Aden protectorate for 40 years.Out of fear forHudaydah, Yahya did submit to these demands.
Starting in 1890, hundreds of Yemeni people from Hajz, Al-Baetha, and Taiz migrated to Aden to work at ports, and as labourers. This helped the population of Aden once again become predominantly Arab after, having been declared a free zone, it had become mostly foreigners. During World War II, Aden had increasing economic growth and became the second-busiest port in the world afterNew York City.After the rise of labour unions, a rift was apparent between the sectors of workers and the first signs of resistance to the occupation started in 1943.Muhammad Ali Luqmanfounded the first Arabic club and school in Aden, and was the first to start working towards a union.
TheColony of Adenwas divided into an eastern colony and a western colony. Those were further divided into 23 sultanates and emirates, and several independent tribes that had no relationships with the sultanates. The deal between the sultanates and Britain detailed protection and complete control of foreign relations by the British. The Sultanate of Lahej was the only one in which the sultan was referred to asHis Highness.TheFederation of South Arabiawas created by the British to counterArab nationalismby giving more freedom to the rulers of the nations.
TheNorth Yemen Civil Warinspired many in the south to rise against the British rule. TheNational Liberation Front(NLF) of Yemen was formed with the leadership ofQahtan Muhammad Al-Shaabi. The NLF hoped to destroy all the sultanates and eventually unite with theYemen Arab Republic. Most of the support for the NLF came fromRadfanand Yafa, so the British launched Operation Nutcracker, which completely burned Radfan in January 1964.
Arab nationalism had an influence in some circles who opposed the lack of modernization efforts in the Mutawakkilite monarchy. This became apparent when ImamAhmad bin Yahyadied in 1962. He was succeeded by his son, but army officers attempted to seize power, sparking theNorth Yemen Civil War.The Hamidaddin royalists were supported by Saudi Arabia, Britain, and Jordan (mostly with weapons and financial aid, but also with small military forces), whilst the military rebels were backed by Egypt. Egypt provided the rebels with weapons and financial assistance, but also sent a large military force to participate in the fighting. Israel covertly supplied weapons to the royalists to keep the Egyptian military busy in Yemen and make Nasser less likely to initiate a conflict in the Sinai.
After six years of civil war, the military rebels formed theYemen Arab Republic.
The revolution in the north coincided with theAden Emergency, which hastened the end of British rule in the south. On 30 November 1967, the state of South Yemen was formed, comprising Aden and the former Protectorate of South Arabia. This socialist state was later officially known as thePeople's Democratic Republic of Yemenand a programme of nationalisation was begun.
Relations between the two Yemeni states fluctuated between peaceful and hostile. The South was supported by the Eastern bloc. The North, however, was not able to get the same connections. In 1972, the two states fought a war. The war was resolved with a ceasefire and negotiations brokered by theArab League, where it was declared that unification would eventually occur. In 1978,Ali Abdullah Salehwas named as president of the Yemen Arab Republic.After the war, the North complained about the South's help from foreign countries. This included Saudi Arabia.
In 1979, fresh fighting between the two states resumed and efforts were renewed to bring about unification.Thousands were killed in 1986 in theSouth Yemen Civil War. PresidentAli Nasser Muhammadfled to the north and was later sentenced to death for treason. A new government formed.
In 1990, the two governments reached a full agreement on the joint governing of Yemen, and the countries were merged on 22 May 1990, with Saleh as president.The president of South Yemen,Ali Salim al-Beidh, became vice president.A unifiedparliamentwas formed and a unity constitution was agreed upon.In the1993 parliamentary election, the first held after unification, theGeneral People's Congresswon 122 of 301 seats.
After theinvasion of Kuwaitcrisis in 1990, Yemen's president opposed military intervention from non-Arab states.As a member of theUnited Nations Security Councilfor 1990 and 1991, Yemen abstained on a number ofUNSCresolutions concerning Iraq and Kuwaitand voted against the "...use of force resolution." The vote outraged the U.S.,and Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991 to punish Yemen for its opposition to the intervention.
In the absence of strong state institutions,elite politicsin Yemen constituted ade factoform ofcollaborative governance, where competing tribal, regional, religious, and political interests agreed to hold themselves in check through tacit acceptance of the balance it produced.The informal political settlement was held together by a power-sharing deal among three men: President Saleh, who controlled the state; major generalAli Mohsen al-Ahmar, who controlled the largest share of theYemeni Armed Forces; andAbdullah ibn Husayn al-Ahmar, figurehead of the Islamistal-Islah partyand Saudi Arabia's chosen broker of transnationalpatronage paymentsto various political players,including tribalsheikhs.The Saudi payments have been intended to facilitate the tribes' autonomy from the Yemeni government and to give the Saudi government a mechanism with which to weigh in on Yemen's political decision-making.
Following food riots in major towns in 1992, a new coalition government made up of the ruling parties from both the former Yemeni states was formed in 1993. However, Vice President al-Beidh withdrew to Aden in August 1993 and said he would not return to the government until his grievances were addressed. These included northern violence against hisYemeni Socialist Party, as well as the economic marginalization of the south.Negotiations to end the political deadlock dragged on into 1994. The government of Prime MinisterHaydar Abu Bakr Al-Attasbecame ineffective due to political infighting.
An accord between northern and southern leaders was signed inAmman,Jordanon 20 February 1994, but this could not stop the civil war.During these tensions, both the northern and southern armies (which had never integrated) gathered on their respective frontiers.
Ali Abdullah Salehbecame Yemen's first directly elected president inthe 1999 presidential election, winning 96% of the vote.The only other candidate,Najeeb Qahtan Al-Sha'abi, was the son of Qahtan Muhammad al-Sha'abi, a former president of South Yemen. Though a member of Saleh'sGeneral People's Congress(GPC) party, Najeeb ran as an independent.
In October 2000, 17 U.S. personnel died after an al-Qaedasuicide attack on the U.S. naval vessel USSColeinAden. After theSeptember 11 attackson the United States, President Saleh assured U.S. PresidentGeorge W. Bushthat Yemen was a partner in hisWar on Terror. In 2001, violence surroundeda referendum, which apparently supported extending Saleh's rule and powers.
TheHouthi insurgency in Yemenbegan in June 2004 when dissident clericHussein Badreddin al-Houthi, head of the Zaidi Shia sect, launched an uprising against the Yemeni government. The Yemeni government alleged that theHouthiswere seeking to overthrow it and to implementShī'itereligious law. The rebels countered that they were "defending their community against discrimination" and government aggression.In 2005, at least 36 people were killed in clashes across the country between police and protesters over rising fuel prices. In the2006 presidential election, Saleh won with 77% of the vote. His main rival,Faisal bin Shamlan, received 22%.Saleh was sworn in for another term on 27 September.
A suicide bomber killed eight Spanish tourists and two Yemenis in theMarib Governoratein July 2007. A series of bomb attacks occurred on police, official, diplomatic, foreign business, and tourism targets in 2008. Car bombings outside the U.S. embassy in Sana'a killed 18 people, including six of the assailants in September 2008. In 2008, an opposition rally in Sana'a demanding electoral reform was met with police gunfire.
There is a system of social stratification in Yemen that was officially abolished at the creation of the Yemen Arab Republic in 1962, but in practice this system has not disappeared and Yemeni society is still organized around hierarchical ranks. The difference between ranks is manifested by descent and occupation and is consolidated by marriages between people of the same ranks.
There are five status groups. At the top of hierarchy, there are the religious elites, also calledsada. These are then followed by the strata of judges (quad). The third hierarchical status is theqaba’il, who are the peasants who belong to tribes and who live mainly from agriculture and trading. The fourth group is called themazayanah. This group is composed of people who had no land and provide different kinds of services such as butchers and craftsmen. Finally, at the bottom of the hierarchy are the slaves (a’bid) and even further below themAl-Akhdam, which means servants.
The 2011Yemeni revolutionfollowed otherArab Springmass protests in early 2011. The uprising was initially against unemployment, economic conditions, and corruption, as well as against the government's proposals to modify theconstitution of Yemenso that Saleh's son could inherit the presidency.
In March 2011, police snipers opened fire on a pro-democracy camp in Sana'a, killing more than 50 people. In May, dozens were killed in clashes between troops and tribal fighters in Sana'a. By this point, Saleh began to lose international support. In October 2011, Yemeni human rights activistTawakul Karmanwon theNobel Peace Prize, and theUN Security Councilcondemned the violence and called for a transfer of power. On 23 November 2011, Saleh flew toRiyadh, in neighbouring Saudi Arabia, to sign theGulf Co-operation Councilplan for political transition, which he had previously spurned. Upon signing the document, he agreed to legally transfer the office and powers of the presidency to his deputy, Vice PresidentAbdrabbuh Mansur Hadi.
Hadi took office for a two-year term upon winning the uncontested presidential elections in February 2012.A unity government—including a prime minister from the opposition—was formed. Al-Hadi would oversee the drafting of a new constitution, followed by parliamentary and presidential elections in 2014. Saleh returned in February 2012. In the face of objections from thousands of street protesters, parliament granted him full immunity from prosecution. Saleh's son, GeneralAhmed Ali Abdullah Saleh, continues to exercise a strong hold on sections of the military and security forces.
AQAPclaimed responsibility for a February 2012 suicide attack on the presidential palace that killed 26 Republican Guards on the day that President Hadi was sworn in. AQAP was also behind a suicide bombing that killed 96 soldiers in Sana'a three months later. In September 2012, a car bomb attack in Sana'a killed 11 people, a day after a local al-Qaeda leaderSaid al-Shihriwas reported killed in the south.
By 2012, there was a "small contingent of U.S. special-operations troops"—in addition to CIA and "unofficially acknowledged" U.S. military presence—in response to increasing terror attacks by AQAP on Yemeni citizens.Many analysts have pointed out the former Yemeni government role in cultivating terrorist activity in the country.Following the election of PresidentAbdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, the Yemeni military was able to pushAnsar al-Shariaback and recapture theShabwah Governorate.
The central government in Sana'a remained weak, staving off challenges fromsouthern separatistsand Houthis as well as AQAP. TheHouthi insurgencyintensified after Hadi took power, escalating in September 2014 as anti-government forces led byAbdul-Malik al-Houthiswept into the capitaland forced Hadi to agree to a "unity" government.The Houthis then refused to participate in the government,although they continued to apply pressure on Hadi and his ministers, even shelling the president's private residence and placing him under house arrest,until the government's mass resignation in January 2015.The following month, the Houthis dissolved parliament anddeclaredthat aRevolutionary CommitteeunderMohammed Ali al-Houthiwas the interim authority in Yemen. Abdul-Malik al-Houthi, a cousin of the acting president, called the takeover a "glorious revolution". However, the "constitutional declaration" of 6 February 2015 was widely rejected by opposition politicians and foreign governments, including theUnited Nations.
Hadi managed to flee from Sana'a to Aden, his hometown and stronghold in the south, on 21 February 2015. He promptly gave a televised speech rescinding his resignation, condemning the coup, and calling for recognition as the constitutional president of Yemen.The following month, Hadi declared Aden Yemen's "temporary" capital.The Houthis, however, rebuffed an initiative by theGulf Cooperation Counciland continued to move south toward Aden. All U.S. personnel were evacuated, and President Hadi was forced to flee the country to Saudi Arabia. On 26 March 2015, Saudi Arabia announcedOperation Decisive Stormand began airstrikes and announced its intentions to lead a military coalition against the Houthis, who they claimed were being aided by Iran and began a force buildup along the Yemeni border. The coalition included theUnited Arab Emirates,Kuwait,Qatar,Bahrain,Jordan,Morocco,Sudan,Egypt, andPakistan. The United States announced that it was assisting with intelligence, targeting, and logistics. After Hadi troops took control of Aden from Houthis, jihadist groups became active in the city, and some terrorist incidents were linked to them such asMissionaries of Charity attack in Adenon 4 March 2016. In February 2018, Aden wasseizedby the UAE-backed separatistSouthern Transitional Council.
Yemen has been suffering from afamine since 2016as a result of the civil war. More than 50,000 children in Yemen died from starvation in 2017.Numerous commentators have condemned the Saudi-led coalition's military campaign, including itsblockade of Yemen, asgenocide.The famine is being compounded by an outbreak ofcholerathat has affected more than one million people.The Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen and blockade of Yemen have contributed to the famine and cholera epidemic.The UN estimated that by the end of 2021, the war in Yemen would have caused over 377,000 deaths, and roughly 70% of deaths were children under age 5.
On 4 December 2017, deposed strongman and former presidentAli Abdullah Saleh, accused of treason, was assassinated by Houthis whilst attempting to flee clashes near rebel-held Sana'a between Houthi and pro-Saleh forces.After losing the support of the Saudi-led coalition, Yemen's President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi resigned, and the Presidential Leadership Council took power in April 2022.
Following the outbreak of the2023 Israel–Hamas war, the Houthis began tofire missiles at Israelandattack shipsoff Yemen's coast in the Red Sea, which they say is in solidarity with the Palestinians and aiming to facilitate entry of humanitarian aid into theGaza Strip.
In June 2024, the UAE-backed STC were putting pressure to lease theAden International PorttoAbu Dhabi Ports. The move was opposed by the Parliament and the public. A joint statement by 24 members of Shura Council expressed categorical rejection of the lease agreement. Economists said the Emirates was attempting to control the Aden Port and limit its activities, in order to keep its own ports active. Governor of Aden, Tariq Salam also said the lease attempt aims to devalue the Aden Port and take its international maritime status.Aden International Port had ended its agreement to manage two container terminals with Dubai Ports World in 2012, due to economic decline and failure to fulfill commitments.
Yemen covers 455,000 km(175,676 sq mi)and is located at the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula.It is bordered bySaudi Arabiatothe north, theRed Seato the west, theGulf of AdenandGuardafui Channelto the south, andOmantothe east.
Several Red Sea islands, including theHanish Islands,Kamaran, andPerim, as well asSocotrain theArabian Sea, belong to Yemen; the largest of these is Socotra. Many of the islands are volcanic;Jabal al-Tair Islandhad volcanic eruptions in 1883 and 2007. Although mainland Yemen is in the southern Arabian Peninsula and thus part of Asia, and its Hanish Islands and Perim in the Red Sea are associated with Asia, thearchipelagoof Socotra, which lies east of the horn ofSomaliaand is much closer to Africa than to Asia, is geographically and biogeographically associated with Africa.
Yemen can be divided geographically into four main regions: the coastal plains in the west, the western highlands, the eastern highlands, and theRub' al Khaliin the east. TheTihamah("hot lands" or "hot earth") form a very arid and flat coastal plain along Yemen's entire Red Sea coastline. Despite the aridity, the presence of many lagoons makes this region very marshy and a suitable breeding ground formalaria-borne mosquitos. Extensive crescent-shaped sand dunes are present. The evaporation in the Tihamah is so great that streams from the highlands never reach the sea, but they do contribute to extensivegroundwaterreserves. Today, these are heavily exploited for agricultural use.
Near the village ofMadarabout 50 km (30 mi) north of Sana'a, dinosaur footprints were found, indicating that the area was once a muddy flat. The Tihamah ends abruptly at theescarpmentof the western highlands. This area, now heavilyterracedto meet the demand for food, receives the highest rainfall in Arabia, rapidly increasing from 100 mm (3.9 in) per year to about 760 mm (29.9 in) in Taiz and over 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in Ibb. Temperatures are warm in the day but fall dramatically at night.
The central highlands are an extensive high plateau over 2,000 m (6,562 ft) in elevation. This area is drier than the western highlands because of rain-shadow influences, but still receives sufficient rain in wet years for extensive cropping. Water storage allows forirrigationand the growing ofwheatandbarley. Sana'a is in this region. The highest point in Yemen and Arabia isJabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb, at about 3,666 m (12,028 ft).
Yemen's portion of the Rub al Khali desert in the east is much lower, generally below 1,000 m (3,281 ft), and receives almost no rain. It is populated only byBedouinherders ofcamels.
Yemen contains six terrestrial ecoregions:Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert,Socotra Island xeric shrublands,Southwestern Arabian foothills savanna,Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands,Arabian Desert, andRed Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert.The flora is a mixture of the tropical African, Sudanian plant geographical region and the Saharo-Arabian region. The Sudanian element—characterized by relatively high rainfall—dominates the western mountains and parts of the highland plains. The Saharo-Arabian element dominates in the coastal plains, eastern mountain, and the eastern and northern desert plains.
A high percentage of Yemen plants belong to tropical African plants of Sudanian regions. Among the Sudanian element species, the following may be mentioned:Ficusspp.,Acacia mellifera,Grewia villosa,Commiphoraspp.,Rosaabyssinica,Cadabafarinosaand others.Among the Saharo-Arabian species, these may be mentioned:Panicum turgidum,Aerva javanica,Zygophyllumsimplex,Fagoniaindica,Salsolaspp.,Acacia tortilis, A. hamulos,A. ehrenbergiana,Phoenix dactylifera,Hyphaene thebaica,Capparis decidua,Salvadora persica,Balanites aegyptiaca, and many others. Many of the Saharo-Arabian species are endemic to the extensive sandy coastal plain (the Tihamah).
Among the fauna, theArabian leopard, which would inhabit the mountains, is considered rare here.
Yemen is a republic with abicamerallegislature. Under the 1991 constitution, an elected president, an elected 301-seatAssembly of Representatives, and an appointed 111-memberShuraCouncil share power. Thepresidentis thehead of state, and theprime ministeris thehead of government. In Sana'a, aSupreme Political Council(not recognized internationally) forms the government.
The 1991 constitution provides that the president be elected by popular vote from at least two candidates endorsed by at least 15 members of the Parliament. The prime minister, in turn, is appointed by the president and must be approved by two-thirds of the Parliament. The presidential term of office is seven years, and the parliamentary term of elected office is six years.Suffrageis universal for people aged 18 and older, but only Muslims may hold elected office.
PresidentAli Abdullah Salehbecame the first elected president in reunified Yemen in 1999 (though he had been president of unified Yemen since 1990 and president of North Yemen since 1978). He was re-elected to office in September 2006. Saleh's victory was marked by an election that international observers judged was "partly free", though the election was accompanied by violence, violations of press freedoms, and allegations of fraud.Parliamentary elections were held in April 2003, and theGeneral People's Congressmaintained an absolute majority. Saleh remained almost uncontested in his seat of power until 2011, when local frustration at his refusal to hold another round of elections, as combined with the consequences of the 2011 Arab Spring, resulted in mass protests.In 2012, he was forced to resign from power, though he remained an important factor in Yemeni politics, allying with the Houthis during their takeover in the mid-2010s.
The constitution calls for an independent judiciary. The former northern and southern legal codes have been unified. The legal system includes separate commercial courts and a Supreme Court based in Sana'a.Shariais the main source of laws, with many court cases being debated according to the religious basis of law and many judges being religious scholars as well as legal authorities. The Prison Authority Organization Act, Republican decree no. 48 (1981), and Prison Act regulations, provide the legal framework for management of the country's prison system.
Yemen is a member of the United Nations, theArab League, and theOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation, and also participates in thenonaligned movement. Yemen has acceded to theTreaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.
Since the end of the 1994 civil war, tangible progress has been made on the diplomatic front in restoring normal relations with Yemen's neighbors. In the summer of 2000, Yemen and Saudi Arabia signed an International Border Treaty settling a 50-year-old dispute over the location of the border between the two countries.Yemen's northern border had been undefined; theArabian Desertprevented any human habitation there. TheSaudi – Yemen barrierwas constructed by Saudi Arabia against an influx ofillegal immigrantsand against the smuggling of drugs and weapons.The Independentheaded an article with "Saudi Arabia, one of the most vocal critics in the Arab world of Israel's "security fence" in theWest Bank, is quietly emulating the Israeli example by erecting a barrier along its porous border with Yemen."
In March 2020, theTrump administrationand key U.S. allies, including Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, cut off tens of millions of dollars for health care programs and other aid to the United Nations' appeal for Yemen. As a result of funding cuts, theUnited Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairsstated that the UN agencies were forced to either close or reduce more than 75 per cent of its programs that year alone, affecting more than 8 million people. Saudi Arabia had been leading a Western-backed military coalition, including the United Arab Emirates as a key member, which intervened in Yemen in 2015, in a bid to restore the government ousted from power by the Houthi movement. The United Nations described the situation in Yemen, where the war killed tens of thousands of people and left millions on the brink of famine, as the world's worst humanitarian crisis.
In January 2024, President Joe Biden announced that the United States, Britain and allies Australia, Bahrain, Canada and the Netherlands had launched a military assault on Houthi militant targets in Yemen.
Thearmed forces of Yemeninclude theYemen Army(includesRepublican Guard), Navy (includes Marines),Yemeni Air Force(Al Quwwat al Jawwiya al Yamaniya; includes Air Defense Force). A major reorganization of the armed forces continues. The unified air forces and air defenses are now under one command. The navy has concentration in Aden. Total armed forces manning numbers about 401,000 active personnel, including moreover especially conscripts.
The number of military personnel is relatively high; in sum, Yemen has the second largest military force on the Arabian Peninsula after Saudi Arabia. In 2012, total active troops were estimated as follows: army, 390,000; navy, 7,000; and air force, 5,000. In September 2007, the government announced the reinstatement of compulsory military service. Yemen's defense budget, which in 2006 represented approximately 40 percent of the total government budget, is expected to remain high for the near term, as the military draft takes effect and internal security threats continue to escalate. By 2012, Yemen had 401,000 active personnel.
Corruption in Yemenis such that it ranked 176 out of 180 countries in the 2022Corruption Perceptions Index.The government and its security forces have been responsible for torture, inhumane treatment, and extrajudicial executions. There are arbitrary arrests of citizens, especially in the south, as well as arbitrary searches of homes. Prolonged pretrial detention is a serious problem, and judicial corruption, inefficiency, and executive interference undermine due process. Freedom of speech, the press, and religion are all restricted.Journalists critical of the government are often harassed and threatened by the police.Homosexualityis illegal, punishable by death.
Yemen is ranked last of 135 countries in the 2012Global Gender Gap Report.Human Rights Watchreported on discrimination andviolence against womenas well as on the abolition of the minimum marriage age of 15 for women. The onset ofpuberty(interpreted by some to be as low as the age of nine) was set as a requirement for marriage instead.Publicity about the case of ten-year-old Yemeni divorceeNujood Alibrought the child marriage issue to the forefront worldwide.
In 2017, theUN Human Rights Councilvoted to create a team of experts to investigate suspected breaches of humanitarian law and human rights in Yemen.In December 2021,The Guardianrevealed, Saudi Arabia used "incentives and threats" as part of a pressure campaign to end a UN inquiry into human rights infringements in Yemen.In June 2020, a human rights group revealed the scale of torture and deaths in Yemen's unofficial detention centres. UAE and Saudi forces were responsible for some of the most shocking treatment of prisoners, including being hung upside down for hours and sexual torture such as the burning of genitals.
According to 2020 United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) estimates, 6.1 million girls and women were in need of gender-based violence services. The UNFPA also reported a rise in gender-based violence cases amid COVID-19 pandemic, increase in rate of child marriages, most acutely among internally displaced persons (IDPs). One in five girls aged 10 to 19 were married in IDP camps, compared to 1 in 8 in host communities.
TheUnited States Department of State2013Trafficking in Personsreport classified Yemen as a Tier 3 country,meaning that its government does not fully comply with the minimum standards againsthuman traffickingand is not making significant efforts to do so.Yemen officially abolishedslavery in Yemenin 1962,but it is still being practiced.On 22 June 2020,Human Rights Watchwrote an open letter to theUN Secretary-Generalon "Children and Armed Conflict" report to improve the protection of children in Yemen and inMyanmar.Amnestysaid,United Nations Security Councilmust urgently fix its monitoring and reporting mechanism for children affected by armed conflict.On 14 September 2020, Human Rights Watch demanded an end to the interference caused by Houthi rebels and other authorities in Yemen aid operations, as millions of lives dependent on the aid operations were being put at risk.
Yemen is divided into twenty-one governorates (muhafazat) plus one municipality called "Amanat Al-Asemah" (the latter containing the constitutional capital, Sana'a).An additional governorate (Soqatra Governorate) was created in December 2013 comprising Socotra Island, previously part of Hadramaut Governorate.The governorates are subdivided into 333districts(muderiah), which are subdivided into 2,210 sub-districts, and then into 38,284 villages (as of 2001).
In 2014, a constitutional panel decided to divide the country into six regions—four in the north, two in the south, and capital Sana'a outside of any region—creating a federalist model of governance.This federal proposal was a contributing factor toward the Houthis' subsequent coup d'état against the government.
Since its unification in 1990, Yemen has been one of the poorest countries in the Middle East.As of 2013Yemen had a GDP (PPP) of US$61.63 billion, with an income per capita of $2,500. Services are the largest economic sector (61.4% of GDP), followed by the industrial sector (30.9%), and agriculture (7.7%). Of these, petroleum production represents around 25% of GDP and 63% of the government's revenue.After the start of the civil war in 2014, its GDP dropped rapidly by over 50%,thanks to the blockade led by Saudi Arabia and an effective embargo on oil exports imposed by the Houthis.
Principal agricultural commodities produced include grain, vegetables, fruits,pulses,qat,coffee, cotton, dairy products, fish, livestock (sheep, goats, cattle, camels), and poultry.Most Yemenis are employed in agriculture. However, the role ofagricultural sectoris limited by the relatively low share of the sector in GDP and the large share of net food-buying households (97%).Sorghumis the most common crop. Cotton and many fruit trees are also grown, withmangoesbeing the most valuable.
A big problem in Yemen is the cultivation ofKhat(or qat), a psychoactive plant that releases astimulantwhen chewed, and accounts for up to 40 percent of the water drawn from the Sana'a Basin each year, and that figure is rising. Some agricultural practices are drying the Sana'a Basin and displaced vital crops, which has resulted in increasingfood prices. Rising food prices, in turn, pushed an additional six percent of the country into poverty in 2008 alone,and led to food riots starting in 2008 in poorer cities.Efforts are being made by the government andDawoodi Bohracommunity at northern governorates to replace qat with coffee plantations.
The industrial sector is centred on crude oil production and petroleum refining, food processing, handicrafts, small-scale production of cotton textiles and leather goods, aluminum products, commercial ship repair, cement, and natural gas production. In 2013, Yemen had an industrial production growth rate of 4.8%.It also has large proven reserves of natural gas.Yemen'sfirst liquified natural gas plantbegan production in October 2009.
In 2013, exports totaled $6.694 billion. The main export commodities are crude oil, coffee, dried and salted fish, liquefied natural gas. These products were mainly sent to China (41%), Thailand (19.2%), India (11.4%), and South Korea (4.4%). Imports totaled $10.97 billion. The main imported commodities are machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, livestock, and chemicals. These products were mainly imported from the EU (48.8%), UAE (9.8%), Switzerland (8.8%), China (7.4%), and India (5.8%).
As of 2013, the government's budget consisted of $7.769 billion in revenues and $12.31 billion in expenditures. Taxes and other revenues constituted roughly 17.7% of the GDP, with a budget deficit of 10.3%. The public debt was 47.1% of GDP. Yemen had reserves of foreign exchange and gold of around $5.538 billion in 2013. Its inflation rate over the same period based on consumer prices was 11.8%. The external debt totaled $7.806 billion.Yemen is missing some international support because, as of 2024, it is one of three countries which have not ratified theParis Agreementto limitclimate change.
A key challenge is severewater scarcity, especially in the Highlands, promptingThe Times, in 2009, to write "Yemen could become first nation to run out of water."A second key challenge is a high level of poverty, making it difficult to recover the costs of service provision. Access to water supply sanitation is low. Yemen is both the poorest country and the most water-scarce country in theArab world. Third, the capacity of sector institutions to plan, build, operate and maintain infrastructure remains limited. Last but not least the security situation makes it even more difficult to improve or even maintain existing levels of service.
The average Yemeni has access to only 140 cubic meters of water per year (101 gallons per day) for all uses, while the Middle Eastern average is 1,000 m/yr, and the internationally defined threshold for water stress is 1,700 cubic meters per year.Groundwater is the main source of water in the country, but the water tables have dropped severely leaving Yemen without a viable source of water. For example, in Sana'a, the water table was 30 metres (98 feet) below surface in the 1970s but had dropped to 1,200 metres (3,900 feet) below the surface by 2012. The groundwater has not been regulated by Yemen's governments.
Even before the revolution, Yemen's water situation had been described as increasingly dire by experts who worried that Yemen would be the first country to run out of water.In part due to the 2015 Yemeni civil war, the infrastructure required to build betteraccess to waterhas been delayed in construction. It is estimated that as many as 80% of the population struggles to access water to drink and bathe. Bombing has forced many Yemenis to leave their homes for other areas, leaving wells in the new areas under increasing demands.
Together with partners,UNICEFhas advanced its efforts and provided access to safe and sustained drinking water to 8.8 million people (5.3 million children). It scaled up its emergencyWASHassistance in Yemen to ensure sustainable WASH services through capacity building of local WASH authorities, solarisation of water systems and rainwater harvesting.
Yemen's population is 33 million by 2021 estimates,with 46% of the population being under 15 years old and 2.7% above 65 years. In 1950, it was 4.3 million.By 2050, the population is estimated to increase to about 60 million.Yemen has a hightotal fertility rate, at 4.45 children per woman.Sana'a's population has increased rapidly, from roughly 55,000 in 1978to nearly 1 million in the early 21st century.
When the states of North and South Yemen were established, most resident minority groups departed.Yemen is a largelytribalsociety.There are also hereditary caste groups in urban areas such asAl-Akhdam.There are also Yemenis ofPersian origin. According toMuqaddasi, Persians formed the majority of Aden's population in the 10th century.
Yemenite Jewsonce formed a sizable minority with a distinct culture from other Jewish communities in the world.Most emigrated to Israel in the mid-20th century, following theJewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countriesandOperation Magic Carpet. An estimated 100,000 people of Indian origin are concentrated in the southern part of the country, around Aden, Mukalla, Shihr, Lahaj, Mokha and Hodeidah.
Most of the prominentIndonesians,Malaysians, andSingaporeansofArabdescent areHadhrami peoplewith origins in southern Yemen in theHadhramautcoastal region.Today there are almost 10,000 Hadramis in Singapore.The Hadramis migrated to Southeast Asia, East Africa and theIndian subcontinent.
TheMaqilwere a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes of Yemeni origin who migrated westwards via Egypt. Several groups of Yemeni Arabs turned south toMauritania, and by the end of the 17th century, they dominated the entire country. They can also be found throughout Morocco and in Algeria as well as in other North African countries.
Yemen is the birthplace of the Arabs and thelanguage;QahtaniteArabs —the original Arabs — originated in Yemen. According to Arab tradition,Ishmaelson ofAbrahammarried a woman from theJurhumtribe.
Yemen is the only country in the Arabian Peninsula that is signatory to two international accords dating back to 1951 and 1967 governing the protection of refugees.Yemen hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 124,600 in 2007. Refugees and asylum seekers were predominantly fromSomalia(110,600),Iraq(11,000),Ethiopia(2,000),andSyria.Additionally, more than 334,000 Yemenis have been internally displaced by conflict.TheYemeni diasporais largely concentrated in neighbouring Saudi Arabia, where between 800,000 and 1 million Yemenis reside,and the United Kingdom, home to between70,000 and 80,000Yemenis.
Modern Standard Arabicis the official language, whileYemeni Arabicis used as the vernacular. Inal Mahrah Governoratein the far east and the island ofSocotra,several non-Arabic languagesare spoken.Yemeni Sign Languageis used by the deaf community.
Yemen is part of the homeland of theSouth Semitic languages.Mehriis the largest South Semitic language spoken in the nation, with more than 70,000 speakers. The ethnic group is called Mahra.Soqotriis another South Semitic language, with speakers on the island of Socotra isolated from the pressures of Arabic on the Yemeni mainland. According to the 1990 census, the number of speakers was 57,000.Yemen was home of theOld South Arabianlanguages. TheRazihi languageappears to be the only remaining Old South Arabian language.
English is the most important foreign language, being widely taught and spoken mostly in the south, a former British protectorate.
Islam is thestate religion.Religion in Yemenconsists primarily of two Islamic religious groups. According to a UNHCR report, theShia"Zaydis make up about 45 percent of the population, Sunnis 53 percent and there are also tiny minorities of other Shia groups—the Ismaili and Twelver communities."Sunnis are primarilyShafi'ibut also include significant groups ofMalikisandHanbalis. Shias are primarilyZaydiand also have significant minorities ofIsmailiandTwelverShias.
The Sunnis are predominantly in the south and southeast which traditionally have less population. The Zaidis/Shias are predominantly in the north and northwest where the vast majority of the Yemeni population traditionally lives whilst the Ismailis are in the main centres such as Sana'a and Ma'rib. There are mixed communities in the larger cities.According to WIN/Gallup International polls, Yemen has the highest share of the population identifying as religious among Arab countries, and one of the highest in the world.
About .05 percent of Yemenis are non-Muslim—adhering to Christianity,Judaism, orHinduismor having no religious affiliation. Yemen is number five on Open Doors' 2022 World Watch List, an annual ranking of the 50 countries where Christians face the most extreme persecution.Estimates of the number ofChristians in Yemenrange from 25,000to 41,000.A 2015 study estimates 400 Christians from a Muslim background reside in the country.There are approximately 50 or fewerJews left in Yemen. Some 200 Yemeni Jews were brought to Israel by theJewish Agencyc.2016.According to a 2020 estimate, as few as 26 Jews remain in Yemen.However, in 2022 it was estimated that only one Yemeni Jew remained according to a United Nations report about the treatment of religious minorities in conflict zones; however, there are reportedly a handful of "hidden Jews" who have converted to Islam but secretly continue to practice Judaism.
The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 64%.The government has committed to reduce illiteracy to less than 10% by 2025.Although the government provides for universal, compulsory, free education for children ages six through 15, the U.S. Department of State reports that compulsory attendance is not enforced. The government developed the National Basic Education Development Strategy in 2003 that aimed at providing education to 95% of children between the ages of six and 14 years and also at decreasing the gap between males and females in urban and rural areas.
A seven-year project to improve gender equity and the quality and efficiency of secondary education, focusing on girls in rural areas, was approved by the World Bank in March 2008. Following this, Yemen has increased its education spending from 5% of GDP in 1995 to 10% in 2005.
According to theWebometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are theYemeni University of Science & Technology(6532nd worldwide), Al Ahgaff University (8930th) andSanaa University(11043rd).Yemen was ranked 131st in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2021, down from 129th in 2019.
Despite the significant progress the government has made to expand and improve its health care system over the past decade, the system remains severely underdeveloped. Total expenditures on health care in 2002 constituted 3.7 percent of GDP.In that same year, the per capita expenditure for health care was very low, as compared with otherMiddle Easterncountries—US$58 according to United Nations statistics and US$23 according to theWorld Health Organization.
According to theWorld Bank, the number of doctors rose by an average of more than 7 percent between 1995 and 2000, but as of 2004, there were still only three doctors per 10,000 persons. In 2003, Yemen had only 0.6 hospital beds available per 1,000 persons.Health care services are particularly scarce in rural areas. Only 25 percent of rural areas are covered by health services, as compared with 80 percent of urban areas.Emergency services, such asambulanceservice andblood banks, are non-existent.
Radio broadcasting in Yemenbegan in the 1940s.After unification in 1990, the government reformed its corporations and founded some additional radio stations that broadcast locally. However, it drew back after 1994, due to destroyed infrastructure resulting from the 1994 civil war.
Televisionis the most significant media platform. Given the low literacy rate in the country, television is the main source of news. There are six free-to-air channels currently headquartered in Yemen, of which four are state-owned.TheYemeni film industryis in its early stages; only eight Yemeni films have been released as of 2023.
Yemeni theatredates to the early 20th century. Both amateur and professional (government-sponsored) theatre troupes perform in the country's major urban centres. Many significant poets and authors, like Ali Ahmed Ba Kathir, Muhammad al-Sharafi, andWajdi al-Ahdal, have written dramatic works; poems, novels, and short stories by Yemeni authors likeMohammad Abdul-WaliandAbdulaziz Al-Maqalehhave also been adapted for the stage.
There have been Yemeni productions of plays by Arab authors such asTawfiq al-HakimandSaadallah Wannousand by Western authors, includingShakespeare,Pirandello,Brecht, andTennessee Williams. Historically speaking, Aden is the cradle of Yemeni theatre; in recent decades Sana'a has hosted numerous theatre festivals, often in conjunction withWorld Theatre Day.
Footballis the most popular sport. TheYemen Football Associationis a member ofFIFAandAFC. TheYemeni national football teamparticipates internationally. The country also hosts many football clubs. They compete in the national and international leagues.
Yemen's mountains provide many opportunities for outdoor sports, such asbiking,rock climbing,trekking,hiking, and other more challenging sports, includingmountain climbing. Mountain climbing and hiking tours to theSarawat Mountains, including peaks of 3,000 m (9,800 ft) and above, particularly that of An-Nabi Shu'ayb,are seasonally organized by local and international alpine agencies. The coastal areas and Socotra provide many opportunities for water sports, such assurfing,bodyboarding,sailing,swimming, andscuba diving. Socotra is home to some of the best surfing destinations in the world.
Camel jumping is a traditional sport that is becoming increasingly popular among the Zaraniq tribe on the west coast. Camels are placed side to side and victory goes to the competitor who leaps, from a running start, over the most camels. Tribesmen (women may not compete) tuck their robes around their waists for freedom of movement while running and leaping.
Yemen's biggest sports event was hosting the20th Arabian Gulf Cupin Aden and Abyan in 2010. Yemen was defeated in the first three matches of the tournament.
Among its natural and cultural attractions are fourWorld Heritagesites.The Old Walled City ofShibamin Wadi Hadhramaut, inscribed byUNESCOin 1982, two years after Yemen joined the World Heritage Committee, is nicknamed "Manhattan of the Desert" because of its skyscrapers. Surrounded by a fortified wall made of mud and straw, the 16th-century city is one of the oldest examples of urban planning based on the principle of vertical construction.
The Old City of Sana'a, at an altitude of more than 2,100 metres (7,000 ft), has been inhabited for over two and a half millennia, and was inscribed in 1986. Sana'a became a major Islamic centre in the seventh century, and the 103 mosques, 14hammams(traditional bathhouses), and more than 6,000 houses that survive all date from before the 11th century.
Close to the Red Sea coast, the historic town ofZabid, inscribed in 1993, was Yemen's capital from the 13th to the 15th century, and is an archaeological and historical site. It played an important role for many centuries because of its university, which was a centre of learning for the whole Arab and Islamic world.
The latest addition to Yemen's list of World Heritage Sites is the Socotra Archipelago. Mentioned byMarco Poloin the 13th century, this remote and isolated archipelago consists of four islands and two rocky islets delineating the southern limit of the Gulf of Aden. The site has a rich biodiversity. Nowhere else in the world do 37% of Socotra's 825 plants, 90% of its reptiles and 95% of its snails occur. It is home to 192 bird species, 253 species of coral, 730 species of coastal fish, and 300 species of crab and lobster,as well as the Dragon's Blood Tree (Dracaena cinnabari).The cultural heritage of Socotra includes the uniqueSoqotri language.
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