Eucharist

TheEucharist(/ˈjuːkərɪst/YOO-kər-ist; fromKoinē Greek:εὐχαριστία,romanized:evcharistía,lit.'thanksgiving'), also calledHoly Communion, theBlessed Sacramentor theLord's Supper, is aChristianrite, considered asacramentin most churches and anordinancein others. Christians believe that the rite was instituted byJesusat theLast Supper, the night beforehis crucifixion, giving hisdisciplesbread and wine. Passages in theNew Testamentstate that he commanded them to "do this in memory of me" while referring to the bread as "my body" and the cup of wine as "the blood of my covenant, which is poured out for many".According to thesynoptic Gospels, this was at aPassovermeal.
The elements of the Eucharist,bread, eitherleavenedorunleavened, andwine(non-alcoholic grape juice in someProtestanttraditions, such asMethodism), are consecrated on analtaror acommunion tableand consumed thereafter. The consecrated elements are the end product of theEucharistic Prayer.Christians generally recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present.
TheCatholic Churchstates that the Eucharist is the body and blood of Christ under thespeciesof bread and wine. It maintains that by the consecration, thesubstancesof the bread and wine actually become the substances of the body and blood of Jesus Christ (transubstantiation) while the form and appearances of the bread and wine remain unaltered (e.g. colour, taste, feel, and smell). TheEastern OrthodoxandOriental Orthodoxchurches agree that an objective change occurs of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ.Lutheransbelieve the true body and blood of Christ are really present "in, with, and under" the forms of the bread and wine, known as thesacramental union.Reformed Christiansbelieve in areal spiritual presenceof Christ in the Eucharist.Anglicaneucharistic theologiesuniversally affirm thereal presence of Christ in the Eucharist, thoughEvangelical Anglicansbelieve that this is a spiritual presence, whileAnglo-Catholicshold to acorporealpresence.Others, such as thePlymouth Brethren, hold the Lord's Supper to be purely amemorial.As a result of these different understandings, "the Eucharist has been a central issue in the discussions and deliberations of theecumenicalmovement."
TheNew Testamentwas originally written in theGreeklanguage and the Greek nounεὐχαριστία(eucharistia), meaning "thanksgiving", appears a few times in it,while the related Greek verbεὐχαριστήσαςis found several times in New Testament accounts of the Last Supper,including the earliest such account:
The termeucharistia(thanksgiving) is that by which the rite is referred toin theDidache(a late 1st or early 2nd century document),byIgnatius of Antioch(who died between 98 and 117)and byJustin Martyr(First Apologywritten between 155 and 157).Today, "the Eucharist" is the name still used byEastern Orthodox,Oriental Orthodox,Catholics,Anglicans,Presbyterians, andLutherans. OtherProtestantdenominations rarely use this term, preferring "Communion", "the Lord's Supper", "Remembrance", or "the Breaking of Bread".Latter-day Saintscall it "the Sacrament".
In theFirst Epistle to the CorinthiansPaul uses the term "Lord's Supper", in GreekΚυριακὸν δεῖπνον(Kyriakon deipnon), in the early 50s of the 1st century:
So Paul's use of the term "Lord's Supper" in reference to the Corinthian banquet is powerful and interesting; but to be an actual name for the Christian meal, rather than a meaningful phrase connected with an ephemeral rhetorical contrast, it would have to have some history, previous or subsequent.Nevertheless, given its existence in the biblical text, "Lord's Supper" came into use after the Protestant Reformation and remains the predominant term amongEvangelicals, such asBaptistsandPentecostals.They also refer to the observance as anordinancerather than a sacrament.
Use of the termCommunion(orHoly Communion) to refer to the Eucharistic rite began by some groups originating in theProtestant Reformation. Others, such as the Catholic Church, do not formally use this term for the rite, but instead mean by it the act of partaking of the consecrated elements;they speak of receiving Holy Communion at Mass or outside of it, they also use the termFirst Communionwhen one receives the Eucharist for the first time. The termCommunionis derived fromLatincommunio("sharing in common"), translated from the Greekκοινωνία(koinōnía) in 1 Corinthians 10:16:
The phraseκλάσις τοῦ ἄρτου(klasis tou artou, 'breaking of the bread'; in later liturgical Greek alsoἀρτοκλασίαartoklasia) appears in various related forms five times in the New Testamentin contexts which, according to some, may refer to the celebration of the Eucharist, in either closer or symbolically more distant reference to the Last Supper.This term is used by thePlymouth Brethren.
The "Blessed Sacrament", the "Sacrament of the Altar", and other variations, are common terms used by Catholics,Lutheransand some Anglicans (Anglo-Catholics)for the consecrated elements, particularly whenreservedin atabernacle. Inthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saintsthe term "The Sacrament" is used of the rite.
The term "Mass" is used in theCatholic Church, theLutheranchurches (especially theChurches of Sweden,NorwayandFinland), and by some Anglicans. It derives from the Latin wordmissa, a dismissal:"Ite missa est",or "go, it is sent", the very last phrase of the service.That Latin word has come to imply "mission" as well because the congregation is sent out to serve Christ.
At least in the Catholic Church, the Mass is a long rite in two parts: theLiturgy of the Wordand theLiturgy of the Eucharist. The former consists ofreadingsfrom the Bible and ahomily, or sermon, given by a priest or deacon. The latter, which follows seamlessly, includes the "Offering" of the bread and wine at the altar, their consecration by the priest through prayer, and their reception by the congregation in Holy Communion.Among the many other terms used in the Catholic Church are "Holy Mass", "the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord", the "Holy Sacrifice of the Mass", and the "Holy Mysteries".
The termDivine Liturgy(Ancient Greek:Θεία Λειτουργία) is used inByzantine Ritetraditions, whether in theEastern Orthodox Churchor among theEastern Catholic Churches. These also speak of "the Divine Mysteries", especially in reference to the consecrated elements, which they also call "the Holy Gifts".
The termDivine Service(German:Gottesdienst) has often been used to refer to Christian worship more generally and is still used inLutheran churches, in addition to the terms "Eucharist", "Mass" and "Holy Communion".Historically this refers (like the term "worship" itself) to service of God, although more recently it has been associated with the idea that God is serving the congregants in the liturgy.
Some Eastern rites have yet more names for the Eucharist.Holy Qurbanais common inSyriac ChristianityandBadarakin theArmenian Rite; in theAlexandrian Rite, the termprosphora(from the Greekπροσφορά) is common inCoptic ChristianityandKeddaseinEthiopianandEritrean Christianity.
TheLast Supperappears in all threesynoptic Gospels:Matthew,Mark, andLuke. It also is found in theFirst Epistle to the Corinthians,which suggests how early Christians celebrated whatPaul the Apostlecalled the Lord's Supper. Although theGospel of Johndoes not reference the Last Supper explicitly, some argue that it contains theological allusions to the early Christian celebration of the Eucharist, especially in the chapter 6Bread of Life Discoursebut also in other passages.
The synoptic Gospels, Mark 14:22–25,Matthew 26:26–29and Luke 22:13–20depict Jesus as presiding over the Last Supper prior to his crucifixion. The versions in Matthew and Mark are almost identical,but the Gospel of Luke presents a textual difference, in that a few manuscripts omit the second half of verse 19 and all of verse 20 ("given for you […] poured out for you"), which are found in the vast majority of ancient witnesses to the text.If the shorter text is the original one, then Luke's account is independent of both that of Paul and that of Matthew/Mark. If the majority longer text comes from the author of the third gospel, then this version is very similar to that of Paul in 1 Corinthians, being somewhat fuller in its description of the early part of the Supper,particularly in making specific mention of a cup being blessed before the bread was broken.
In the one prayer given to posterity by Jesus, theLord's Prayer, the wordepiousion—which is otherwise unknown in Classical Greek literature—was interpreted by some early Christian writers as meaning "super-substantial", and hence a possible reference to the Eucharist as theBread of Life.
In the Gospel of John, however, the account of the Last Supper does not mention Jesus taking bread and "the cup" and speaking of them as his body and blood; instead, it recounts other events: his humble act of washing the disciples' feet, the prophecy of the betrayal, which set in motion the events that would lead to the cross, and his long discourse in response to some questions posed by his followers, in which he went on to speak of the importance of the unity of the disciples with him, with each other, and with God.Some would find in this unity and in the washing of the feet the deeper meaning of the Communion bread in the other three Gospels.In John 6:26–65,a long discourse is attributed to Jesus that deals with the subject of the living bread; John 6:51–59also contains echoes of Eucharistic language.
1 Corinthians 11:23–25gives the earliest recorded description of Jesus' Last Supper: "The Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it and said, 'This is my body, which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.'" The Greek word used in the passage for 'remembrance' isἀνάμνησιν(anamnesis), which itself has a much richer theological history than the English word "remember".
The expression "The Lord's Supper", derived fromPaul's usage in 1 Corinthians 11:17–34,may have originally referred to theAgape feast(or love feast), the sharedcommunal mealwith which the Eucharist was originally associated.The Agape feast is mentioned in Jude 12but "The Lord's Supper" is now commonly used in reference to a celebration involving no food other than the sacramental bread and wine.
TheDidache(Greek:Διδαχή, "teaching") is anEarly Churchtreatise that includes instructions forbaptismand the Eucharist. Most scholars date it to the late 1st century,and distinguish in it two separate Eucharistic traditions, the earlier tradition in chapter 10 and the later one preceding it in chapter 9.The Eucharist is mentioned again in chapter 14.
Ignatius of Antioch(bornc.35 or 50, died between 98 and 117), one of the Apostolic Fathers,mentions the Eucharist as "the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ":
Justin Martyr(bornc.100, diedc.165) mentions in this regard:
Paschasius Radbertus(785–865) was a Carolingian theologian, and the abbot ofCorbie, whose best-known and influential work is an exposition on the nature of the Eucharist written around 831, entitledDe Corpore et Sanguine Domini. In it, Paschasius agrees withSt Ambrosein affirming that the Eucharist contains the true, historical body of Jesus Christ. According to Paschasius, God is truth itself, and therefore, his words and actions must be true. Christ's proclamation at theLast Supperthat the bread and wine were his body and blood must be taken literally, since God is truth.He thus believes that thetransubstantiationof the bread and wine offered in the Eucharist really occurs. Only if the Eucharist is the actual body and blood of Christ can a Christian know it is salvific.
The concept of the Jews both destroying and partaking in some perverted version of the Eucharist has been a vessel to promoteanti-Judaismand anti-Jewish ideology and violence. In medieval times, Jews were often depicted stabbing or in some other way physically harming communion wafers.These characterizations drew parallels to the idea that the Jews killed Christ; murdering this transubstantiation or "host" was thought of as a repetition of the event. Jewish people's eagerness to destroy hosts were also a variation ofblood libelcharges, with Jews being accused of murdering bodies of Christ, whether they be communion wafers or Christian children. The blood libel charges and the concept of Eucharist are also related in the belief that blood is efficacious, meaning it has some sort of divine power.
Most Christians, even those who deny that there is any real change in the elements used, recognize a special presence ofChristin this rite. However, Christians differ about exactly how, where and how long Christ is present in it.Catholicism,Eastern Orthodoxy,Oriental Orthodoxy, and theChurch of the Eastteach that the reality (the "substance") of the elements of bread and wine is wholly changed into the body and blood of Jesus Christ, while the appearances (the "species") remain.Transubstantiation("change of the substance") is the term used by Catholics to denotewhatis changed, not to explainhowthe change occurs, since the Catholic Church teaches that "the signs of bread and wine become,in a way surpassing understanding, the Body and Blood of Christ".The Orthodox use various terms such as transelementation, but no explanation is official as they prefer to leave it a mystery.
Lutheransbelieve Christ to be "truly and substantially present" with the bread and wine that are seen in the Eucharist,in a manner referred to as thesacramental union. They attribute the real presence of Jesus' living body to his word spoken in the Eucharist, and not to the faith of those receiving it. They also believe that "forgiveness of sins, life, and salvation" are given through the words of Christ in the Eucharist to those who believe his words ("given and shed for you").
Reformed Christiansalso believe Christ to be present in the Eucharist, but describe this presence as aspiritual presence, not a physical one.Anglicans adhere toa range of viewsdepending onchurchmanshipalthough the teaching in the AnglicanThirty-Nine Articlesalso holds that the body of Christ is received by the faithful only in a heavenly and spiritual manner, a doctrine also taught in the MethodistArticles of Religion.
Christians adhering to the theology ofMemorialism, such as theAnabaptist Churches, do not believe in the concept of the real presence, believing that the Eucharist is only a ceremonial remembrance ormemorialof the death of Christ.
TheBaptism, Eucharist and Ministrydocument of theWorld Council of Churches,attempting to present the common understanding of the Eucharist on the part of the generality of Christians, describes it as "essentially the sacrament of the gift which God makes to us in Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit", "Thanksgiving to the Father", "Anamnesis or Memorial of Christ", "the sacrament of the unique sacrifice of Christ, who ever lives to make intercession for us", "the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, the sacrament of hisreal presence", "Invocation of the Spirit", "Communion of the Faithful", and "Meal of the Kingdom".
Many Christian denominations classify the Eucharist as asacrament.SomeProtestants(though not all) prefer to instead call it anordinance, viewing it not as a specific channel ofdivine gracebut as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ.
In the Catholic Church the Eucharist is considered as asacrament, according to the church the Eucharist is "the source and summit of the Christian life"."The other sacraments, and indeed all ecclesiastical ministries and works of the apostolate, are bound up with the Eucharist and are oriented toward it. For in the blessed Eucharist is contained the whole spiritual good of the Church, namely Christ himself, our Pasch."("Pasch" is a word that sometimes means Easter, sometimes Passover.)
In the Eucharist the same sacrifice that Jesus made only once on the cross is believed to be made present at every Mass. According toCompendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Eucharist is the very sacrifice of the Body and Blood of the Lord Jesus which he instituted to perpetuate the sacrifice of the cross throughout the ages until his return in glory."
"When the Church celebrates the Eucharist, she commemorates Christ's Passover, and it is made present the sacrifice Christ offered once for all on the cross remains ever present. [...] The Eucharist is thus a sacrifice because it re-presents (makes present) the same and only sacrifice offered once for all on the cross"
The sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of the Eucharist are considered as one single sacrifice: "The victim is one and the same: the same now offers through the ministry of priests, who then offered himself on the cross; only the manner of offering is different."In the holy sacrifice of the Mass, "it is Christ himself, the eternal high priest of the New Covenant who, acting through the ministry of the priests, offers the Eucharistic sacrifice. And it is the same Christ, really present under the species of bread and wine, who is the offering of the Eucharistic sacrifice."
According to theCatholic ChurchJesus Christ is present in the Eucharist in a true, real and substantial way, with his body, blood, soul and divinity.By theconsecration, thesubstancesof the bread and wine actually become the substances of the body and blood of Christ (transubstantiation) while the appearances or "species" of the bread and wine remain unaltered (e.g. colour, taste, feel, and smell). This change is brought about in the eucharistic prayer through the efficacy of the word of Christ and by the action of the Holy Spirit.The Eucharistic presence of Christ begins at the moment of the consecration and endures as long as the Eucharistic species subsist,that is, until the Eucharist is digested, physically destroyed, or decays by some natural process(at which point, theologianThomas Aquinasargued, the substance of the bread and wine cannot return).
TheFourth Council of the Lateranin 1215 spoke of the bread and wine as "transubstantiated" into the body and blood of Christ: "His body and blood are truly contained in the sacrament of the altar under the forms of bread and wine, the bread and wine having been transubstantiated, by God's power, into his body and blood".In 1551, theCouncil of Trentdefinitively declared: "Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread,it has always been the conviction of the Church of God, and this holy Council now declares again that by the consecration of the bread and wine there takes place a change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood. This change the holy Catholic Church has fittingly and properly calledtransubstantiation."
The church holds that the body and blood of Jesus can no longer be truly separated. Where one is, the other must be. Therefore, although the priest (orextraordinary minister of Holy Communion) says "The Body of Christ" when administering the Host and "The Blood of Christ" when presenting the chalice, the communicant who receives either one receives Christ, whole and entire. "Christ is present whole and entire in each of the species and whole and entire in each of their parts, in such a way that the breaking of the bread does not divide Christ."
The Catholic Church sees as the main basis for this belief the words of Jesus himself at his Last Supper: the synoptic Gospelsand Paul's recount that Jesus at the time of taking the bread and the cup said: "This is my body […] this is my blood."The Catholic understanding of these words, from thePatristicauthors onward, has emphasized their roots in the covenantal history of the Old Testament. The interpretation of Christ's words against this Old Testament background coheres with and supports belief in theReal presence of Christ in the Eucharist.
According to the Catholic Church doctrine receiving the Eucharist in a state ofmortal sinis asacrilegeand only those who are in a state of grace, that is, without any mortal sin, can receive it.Based on 1 Corinthians 11:27–29, it affirms the following: "Anyone who is aware of having committed a mortal sin must not receive Holy Communion, even if he experiences deep contrition, without having first receivedsacramental absolution, unless he has a grave reason for receiving Communion and there is no possibility of going to confession."
Since the Eucharist is the body and blood of Christ, "the worship due to the sacrament of the Eucharist, whether during the celebration of the Mass or outside it, is the worship oflatria, that is, the adoration given to God alone.""The Blessed Sacrament can be exposed (displayed) on analtarin amonstrance. Rites involving the exposure of the Blessed Sacrament includeBenedictionandeucharistic adoration. According toCatholic theology, the host, after the Rite of Consecration, is no longer bread, but is the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ. Catholics believe that Jesus is the sacrificialLamb of Godprefigured in theOld TestamentPassover. The flesh of that Passover sacrificial lamb was to be consumed by the family members. Any left overs were to be burned before daybreak so that none of the Passover Lamb's flesh remained. Only by marking the doorposts and lintel of one's home with the Blood of the Lamb were the members of the household saved from death. The consumption of the Lamb was not to save them but rather to give them energy for the journey of escape (Exodus = escape from slavery in Egypt) as was also true for the unleavened bread (Exodus 12:3–13) As the Passover was theOld Covenant, so the Eucharist became theNew Covenant. (Matthew 26:26–28,Mark 14:22–24,Luke 22: 19–20, andJohn 6:48–58)
WithinEastern Christianity, the Eucharistic service is called the "Divine Liturgy" (Byzantine Rite) or similar names in other rites. It comprises two main divisions: the first is the "Liturgy of the Catechumens" which consists of introductory litanies, antiphons and scripture readings, culminating in a reading from one of theGospelsand, often, ahomily; the second is the "Liturgy of the Faithful" in which the Eucharist is offered, consecrated, and received as Holy Communion. Within the latter, the actual Eucharistic prayer is called theanaphora, (literally "offering" or "carrying up", from the Greekἀνα- + φέρω). In theRite of Constantinople, two different anaphoras are currently used: one is attributed toJohn Chrysostom, the other toBasil the Great. In theOriental Orthodox Church, a variety of anaphoras are used, but all are similar in structure to those of the Constantinopolitan Rite, in which the Anaphora of Saint John Chrysostom is used most days of the year; Saint Basil's is offered on the Sundays ofGreat Lent, the eves ofChristmasandTheophany,Holy Thursday,Holy Saturday, and upon his feast day (1 January). At the conclusion of the Anaphora the bread and wine are held to be the body and blood of Christ. Unlike the Latin Church, theByzantine Riteuses leavened bread, with the leaven symbolizing the presence of the Holy Spirit.TheGreek Orthodox Churchutilizes leavened bread in their celebration.
In Eastern theology, one idea of consecration as a process has been suggested. This understands the change in the elements to be accomplished at theepiclesis("invocation") by which theHoly Spiritis invoked and theconsecrationof the bread and wine as the genuine body and blood of Christ is specifically requested, but since the anaphora as a whole is considered a unitary (albeit lengthy) prayer, no one moment within it can readily be singled out.
Anabaptist denominations, such as theMennonitesand German Baptist Brethren Churches like theChurch of the Brethrenchurches and congregations have theAgape feast,footwashing, as well as the serving of the bread and wine in the celebration of theLovefeast. In the more modern groups, Communion is only the serving of the Lord's Supper. In the communion meal, the members of the Mennonite churches renew their covenant with God and with each other.
TheMoravian Churchadheres to a view known as the "sacramental presence",teaching that in thesacramentofHoly Communion:
Nicolaus Zinzendorf, abishopof the Moravian Church, stated that Holy Communion is the "most intimate of all connection with the person of the Saviour."The Order of Service for the observance of the Lord's Supper includes a salutation, hymns, theright hand of fellowship, prayer, consecration of the elements, distribution of the elements, partaking of the elements, and a benediction.Moravian Christians traditionally practice footwashing before partaking in the Lord's Supper, although in certain Moravian congregations, this rite is observed chiefly onMaundy Thursday.
Anglican theology on the matter of the Eucharist is nuanced. The Eucharist is neither wholly a matter of transubstantiation nor simply devotional andmemorialistin orientation. The Anglican churches do not adhere to the belief that the Lord's Supper is merely a devotional reflection on Christ's death. For some Anglicans, Christ is spiritually present in the fullness of his person in the Eucharist.
TheChurch of Englanditself has repeatedly refused to make official any definition of "the presence of Christ". Church authorities prefer to leave it a mystery while proclaiming the consecrated bread and wine to be "spiritual food" of "Christ's Most Precious Body and Blood"; the bread and wine are an "outward sign of an inner grace".The words of administration at communion allow for real presence or for a real but spiritual presence (Calvinist receptionism and virtualism). This concept was congenial to most Anglicans well into the 19th century.From the 1840s, the Tractarians reintroduced the idea of "the real presence" to suggest a corporeal presence, which could be done since the language of the BCP rite referred to the body and blood of Christ without details as well as referring to these as spiritual food at other places in the text. Both are found in the Latin and other rites, but in the former, a definite interpretation as corporeal is applied.
Both receptionism and virtualism assert the real presence. The former places emphasis on the recipient and the latter states "the presence" is confected by the power of the Holy Spirit but not in Christ's natural body. His presence is objective and does not depend on its existence from the faith of the recipient. The liturgy petitions that elements "be" rather than "become" the body and blood of Christ leaving aside any theory of a change in the natural elements: bread and wine are the outer reality and "the presence" is the inner invisible except as perceived in faith.
In 1789, theEpiscopal Churchin the United States restored explicit language that the Eucharist is anoblation(sacrifice) to God. Subsequent revisions of theBook of Common Prayerby member churches of theAnglican Communionhave done likewise (the Church of England did so in theproposed 1928 prayer book).
The so-called "Black Rubric" in the1552 prayer book, which allowed kneeling when receiving Holy Communion was omitted in the1559 editionat QueenElizabeth I's insistence. It was reinstated in the1662 prayer book, modified to deny any corporal presence of Christ's natural flesh and blood, which are in Heaven and not here.
The bread and "fruit of the vine" indicated in Matthew, Mark and Luke as the elements of the Lord's Supperare interpreted by manyBaptistsas unleavened bread (although leavened bread is often used) and, in line with the historical stance of some Baptist groups (since the mid-19th century) against partaking of alcoholic beverages,grape juice, which they commonly refer to simply as "the Cup".The unleavened bread also underscores the symbolic belief attributed to Christ's breaking the bread and saying that it was his body. Asoda crackeris often used.
Some Baptists consider the Communion to be primarily an act of remembrance of Christ's atonement, and a time of renewal of personal commitment (memorialism) such asFree Will Baptists, while others, such asParticular Baptistsaffirm the Reformed doctrine of apneumatic presence,which is expressed in theSecond London Baptist Confession, specifically in Chapter 30, Articles 3 and 7. This view is prevalent amongSouthern Baptists, those in theFounders movement(a Calvinistic movement among someIndependent Baptists),and several individuals in other Baptist associations.
Communion practices and frequency vary among congregations. A typical practice is to have small cups of juice and plates of broken bread distributed to the seated congregation. In other congregations, communicants may proceed to the altar to receive the elements, then return to their seats. A widely accepted practice is for all to receive and hold the elements until everyone is served, then consume the bread and cup in unison. Usually, music is performed and Scripture such as the precise verses of Jesus speaking at the Last Supper is read during the receiving of the elements.
Some Baptist churches are closed-Communionists (even requiring full membership in the local church congregation before partaking), with others being partially or fully open-Communionists. It is rare to find a Baptist church where the Lord's Supper is observed every Sunday; most observe monthly or quarterly, with some holding Communion only during a designated Communion service or following a worship service. Adults and children in attendance who have not made a profession of faith in Christ are expected to not participate.
Lutheransbelieve that the body and blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present in, with, and under the forms" of the consecrated bread and wine (the elements), so that communicants eat and drink the body and blood of Christ himself as well as the bread and wine in the Eucharisticsacrament.The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is more accurately and formally known as the "sacramental union".Others have erroneously called thisconsubstantiation, aLollardistdoctrine, though this term is specifically rejected by Lutheran churches and theologians since it creates confusion about the actual doctrine and subjects the doctrine to the control of a non-biblical philosophical concept in the same manner as, in their view, does the term "transubstantiation".
While an official movement exists in Lutheran congregations to celebrate Eucharist weekly, using formal rites very similar to the Catholic and "high" Anglican services, it was historically common for congregations to celebrate monthly or even quarterly.Even in congregations where Eucharist is offered weekly, there is not a requirement that every church service be a Eucharistic service, nor that all members of a congregation must receive it weekly.
AmongOpenassemblies, also termedPlymouth Brethren, the Eucharist is more commonly called the Breaking of Bread or the Lord's Supper. They believe it is only a symbolic reenactment of the Last Supper and a memorial "to remind believers of his body given and his blood shed for their salvation".and is central to the worship of both individual and assembly.In principle, the service is open to allbaptizedChristians, but an individual's eligibility to participate depends on the views of each particular assembly. The service takes the form of non-liturgical, open worship with all male participants allowed to pray audibly and select hymns or readings. The breaking of bread itself typically consists of one leavened loaf, which is prayed over and broken by a participant in the meetingand then shared around. The wine is poured from a single container into one or several vessels, and these are again shared around.
TheExclusive Brethrenfollow a similar practice to theOpen Brethren. They also call the Eucharist the Breaking of Bread or the Lord's Supper.
In theReformed tradition(which includes theContinental Reformed Churches, thePresbyterian Churches, and theCongregationalist Churches), the Eucharist is variously administered. The Calvinist view of the Sacrament sees a real presence of Christ in the supper which differs both from the objective ontological presence of the Catholic view, and from the real absence of Christ and the mental recollection of the memorialism of the Zwingliansand their successors.
The bread and wine become the means by which the believer has real communion with Christ in his death and Christ's body and blood are present to the faith of the believer as really as the bread and wine are present to their senses but this presence is "spiritual", that is the work of the Holy Spirit.There is no standard frequency; John Calvin desired weekly communion, but the city council only approved monthly, and monthly celebration has become the most common practice in Reformed churches today.
Many, on the other hand, followJohn Knoxin celebration of the Lord's supper on a quarterly basis, to give proper time for reflection and inward consideration of one's own state and sin. Recently, Presbyterian and Reformed Churches have been considering whether to restore more frequent communion, including weekly communion in more churches, considering that infrequent communion was derived from a memorialist view of the Lord's Supper, rather than Calvin's view of the sacrament as a means of grace.Some churches use bread without anyraising agent(whetheryeastor anotherleaven.) in view of the use ofunleavened breadatJewish Passover meals, while others use any bread available.
ThePresbyterian Church (USA), for instance, prescribes "bread common to the culture". Harking back to theregulative principle of worship, the Reformed tradition had long eschewed coming forward to receive communion, preferring to have the elements distributed throughout the congregation by the presbyters (elders) more in the style of a shared meal. Over the last half a century it is much more common in Presbyterian churches to have Holy Communion monthly or on a weekly basis. It is also becoming common to receive the elements by intinction (receiving a piece of consecrated bread or wafer, dipping it in the blessed wine, and consuming it). Wine and grape juice are both used, depending on the congregation.Most Reformed churches practice "open communion", i.e., all believers who are united to a church of like faith and practice, and who are not living in sin, would be allowed to join in the Sacrament.
The BritishCatechism for the use of the people called Methodistsstates that, "[in the Eucharist] Jesus Christ ispresentwith his worshipping people and gives himself to them as their Lord and Saviour".Methodist theology of this sacrament is reflected in one of the fathers of the movement,Charles Wesley, who wrote a Eucharistic hymn with the following stanza:
ReflectingWesleyan covenant theology, Methodists also believe that the Lord's Supper is a sign and seal of thecovenant of grace.
In manyMethodist denominations, non-alcoholic wine (grape juice) is used, so as to include those who do not take alcohol for any reason, as well as a commitment to the Church's historical support oftemperance.Variations of theEucharistic Prayerare provided for various occasions, including communion of the sick and brief forms for occasions that call for greater brevity. Though the ritual is standardized, there is great variation amongst Methodist churches, from typically high-church to low-church, in the enactment and style of celebration. Methodist clergy are not required to be vested when celebrating the Eucharist.
John Wesley, a founder of Methodism, said that it was the duty of Christians to receive the sacrament as often as possible. Methodists in the United States are encouraged to celebrate the Eucharist every Sunday, though it is typically celebrated on the first Sunday of each month, while a few go as long as celebrating quarterly (a tradition dating back to the days ofcircuit ridersthat served multiple churches). Communicants may receive standing, kneeling, or while seated. Gaining more wide acceptance is the practice of receiving by intinction (receiving a piece of consecrated bread or wafer, dipping it in the blessed wine, and consuming it). The most common alternative to intinction is for the communicants to receive the consecrated juice using small, individual, specially made glass or plastic cups known ascommunion cups.TheUnited Methodist Churchpractices open communion (which it describes as an "open table"), inviting "all who intend a Christian life, together with their children" to receive the eucharistic elements.The Doctrines and Discipline of the Methodist Churchspecifies, on days during which Holy Communion is celebrated, that "Upon entering the church let the communicants bow in prayer and in the spirit of prayer and meditation approach the Blessed Sacrament."
Many non-denominational Christians, including theChurches of Christ, receive communion every Sunday. Others, includingEvangelicalchurches such as theChurch of GodandCalvary Chapel, typically receive communion on a monthly or periodic basis. Many non-denominational Christians hold to the Biblicalautonomyof local churches and have no universal requirement among congregations.
SomeChurches of Christ, among others, usegrape juiceand unleavened wafers or unleavened bread and practice open communion.
Holy QurbanaorQurbana Qaddisha, the "Holy Offering" or "Holy Sacrifice", refers to the Eucharist as celebrated according to theEast Syriac Christianity. The mainAnaphoraof the East Syrian tradition is theHoly Qurbana of Addai and Mari.
Holy QuroboorQurobo Qadishorefers to the Eucharist as celebrated in theWest Syrian traditionsofSyriac Christianity, while that of the West Syrian tradition is theLiturgy of Saint James.
Both are extremely old, going back at least to the third century, and are the oldest extant liturgies continually in use.
In theIrvingian Churches, Holy Communion, along with Holy Baptism and Holy Sealing, is one of the threesacraments.It is the focus of the Divine Service in the liturgies of Irvingism.
Edward Irving, who founded the Irvingian Churches, such as theNew Apostolic Church, taught thereal presence of Christ in the Eucharist, emphasizing "thehumiliatedhumanity of Christ in the Lord's Supper."Additionally, the Irvingian Churches affirm the "real presence of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ in Holy Communion":
In the Irvingian tradition of Restorationist Christianity,consubstantiationis taught as the explanation of how the real presence is effected in the liturgy.
In theSeventh-day Adventist Churchthe Holy Communion service customarily is celebrated once per quarter. The service includes the ordinance offootwashingand the Lord's Supper. Unleavened bread and unfermented (non-alcoholic) grape juice is used.Open communionis practised: all who have committed their lives to the Saviour may participate. The communion service must be conducted by an ordained pastor, minister or church elder.
Jehovah's Witnessescommemorate Jesus' death annually on the evening that corresponds to the Passover,Nisan 14, according to the ancientJewish calendar.They generally refer to the observance as "the Lord's Evening Meal" or the "Memorial of Christ's Death". They believe the event is the only annual religious observance commanded for Christians in the Bible.
Of those who attend the Memorial, a small minority worldwide partake of the wine and unleavened bread. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that only144,000people will go to heaven, to serve as under-priests and co-rulers withChrist the KinginGod's Kingdom. They are referred to as the "anointed" class. They believe that the baptized "other sheep" also benefit from the ransom sacrifice, and are respectful observers and viewers of the Lord's Supper, but they hope to obtain everlasting life in Paradise restored on earth.
The Memorial, held after sundown, includes a sermon on the meaning and importance of the celebration and gathering, and includes the circulation of unadulterated red wine and unleavened bread (matzo). Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the bread represents Jesus' perfect body which he gave on behalf of mankind, and that the wine represents his perfect blood which he shed to redeem fallen man from inherited sin and death. The wine and the bread (sometimes referred to as "emblems") are viewed as symbolic and commemorative; the Witnesses do not believe intransubstantiationorconsubstantiation.
Inthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the "Holy Sacrament of the Lord's Supper",more simply referred to as the Sacrament, is administered every Sunday (except General Conference or other special Sunday meeting) in eachLatter-Day Saint Wardor branch worldwide at the beginning ofSacrament meeting. The Sacrament, which consists of both ordinary bread and water (rather than wine or grape juice), is prepared bypriesthoodholders prior to the beginning of the meeting. At the beginning of the Sacrament,priestssay specific prayers to bless the bread and water.The Sacrament is passed row-by-row to the congregation by priesthood holders (typicallydeacons).
The prayer recited for the bread and the water is found in theBook of Mormonand Doctrine and Covenants. The prayer contains the above essentials given by Jesus: "Always remember him, and keep his commandments […] that they may always have his Spirit to be with them." (Moroni, 4:3.)
While theSalvation Armydoes not reject the Eucharistic practices of other churches or deny that their members truly receive grace through this sacrament, it does not practice the sacraments of Communion orBaptism. This is because they believe that these are unnecessary for the living of a Christian life, and because in the opinion of Salvation Army founders William and Catherine Booth, the sacrament placed too much stress on outward ritual and too little on inward spiritual conversion.
Emphasizing the inward spiritual experience of their adherents over any outward ritual,Quakers(members of the Religious Society of Friends) generally do not baptize or observe Communion.
Although the earlyChurch of Christ, Scientistobserved Communion, founderMary Baker Eddyeventually discouraged the physical ritual as she believed it distracted from the true spiritual nature of the sacrament. As such,Christian Scientistsdo not observe physical communion with bread and wine, but spiritual communion at two special Sunday services each year by "uniting together with Christ in silent prayer and on bended knee".
The United Society of Believers (commonly known asShakers) do not take communion, instead viewing every meal as a Eucharistic feast.
Christiandenominations differ in their understanding of whether they may celebrate the Eucharist with those with whom they are not infull communion. The apologistJustin Martyr(c.150) wrote of the Eucharist "of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined."This was continued in the practice of dismissing thecatechumens(those still undergoing instruction and not yet baptized) before the sacramental part of the liturgy, a custom which has left traces in the expression "Mass of the Catechumens" and in theByzantine Riteexclamation by the deacon or priest, "The doors! The doors!", just before recitation of the Creed.
Churches such as theCatholicand theEastern OrthodoxChurches practiceclosed communionunder normal circumstances. However, the Catholic Church allows administration of the Eucharist, at their spontaneous request, to properly disposed members of the eastern churches (Eastern Orthodox,Oriental OrthodoxandChurch of the East) not in full communion with it and of other churches that theHoly Seejudges to be sacramentally in the same position as these churches; and in grave and pressing need, such as danger of death, it allows the Eucharist to be administered also to individuals who do not belong to these churches but who share the Catholic Church's faith in the reality of the Eucharist and have no access to a minister of their own community.SomeProtestantcommunities exclude non-members from Communion.
TheEvangelical Lutheran Church in America(ELCA) practices open communion, provided those who receive are baptized,but theLutheran Church–Missouri Synodand theWisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod(WELS) practice closed communion, excluding non-members and requiring communicants to have been givencatecheticalinstruction.TheEvangelical Lutheran Church in Canada, theEvangelical Church in Germany, theChurch of Sweden, and many other Lutheran churches outside of the U.S. also practice open communion.
Some use the term "close communion" for restriction to members of the same denomination, and "closed communion" for restriction to members of the local congregation alone.
MostProtestantcommunities includingCongregational churches, theChurch of the Nazarene, theAssemblies of God,Methodists, mostPresbyteriansandBaptists,Anglicans, andChurches of Christand othernon-denominational churchespractice various forms ofopen communion. Some churches do not limit it to only members of the congregation, but to any people in attendance (regardless of Christian affiliation) who consider themselves to be Christian. Others require that the communicant be a baptized person, or a member of a church of that denomination or a denomination of "like faith and practice". Some Progressive Christian congregations offer communion to any individual who wishes to commemorate the life and teachings of Christ, regardless of religious affiliation.
Most Latter-Day Saint churches practice closed communion; one notable exception is theCommunity of Christ, the second-largest denomination in this movement.While The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the largest of the LDS denominations) technically practice a closed communion, their official direction to local Church leaders (in Handbook 2, section 20.4.1, last paragraph) is as follows: "Although the sacrament is for Church members, the bishopric should not announce that it will be passed to members only, and nothing should be done to prevent nonmembers from partaking of it."
In theMalankara Orthodox Syrian Churchthe Eucharist is only given to those who have come prepared to receive the life-giving body and blood. Therefore, in a manner to worthily receive, believers fast the night before the liturgy, from around 6pm or the conclusion of evening prayer, and remain fasting until they receive Holy Qurbana the next morning. Additionally, members who plan to receive the holy communion have to follow a strict guide of prescribed prayers from theShehimo, or the book of common prayers, for the week.
The Catholic Church requires its members to receive thesacramentofPenance or Reconciliationbefore taking Communion if they are aware of having committed amortal sinand to prepare by fasting, prayer, and other works of piety.
Traditionally, the Eastern Orthodox church has required its members to have observed all church-appointed fasts (most weeks, this will be at least Wednesday and Friday) for the week prior to partaking of communion, and to fast from all food and water from midnight the night before. In addition, Orthodox Christians are to have made a recent confession to their priest (the frequency varying with one's particular priest),and they must be at peace with all others, meaning that they hold no grudges or anger against anyone.In addition, one is expected to attendVespersor theAll-Night Vigil, if offered, on the night before receiving communion.Furthermore, various pre-communion prayers have been composed, which many (but not all) Orthodox churches require or at least strongly encourage members to say privately before coming to the Eucharist.However, all this will typically vary from priest to priest and jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but abstaining from food and water for several hours beforehand is a fairly universal rule.
Many Protestant congregations generally reserve a period of time for self-examination and private, silent confession just before partaking in the Lord's Supper.
Eucharistic adoration is a practice in theLatin Church, Anglo-Catholic and some Lutheran traditions, in which theBlessed Sacramentis exposed to and adored by the faithful. When this exposure and adoration is constant (twenty-four hours a day), it is called "Perpetual Adoration". In a parish, this is usually done by volunteer parishioners; in amonasteryor convent, it is done by the residentmonksornuns. In theExposition of the Blessed Sacrament, the Eucharist is displayed in amonstrance, typically placed on an altar, at times with a light focused on it, or with candles flanking it.
Theglutenin wheat bread is dangerous to people withceliac diseaseand othergluten-related disorders, such asnon-celiac gluten sensitivityandwheat allergy.For the Catholic Church, this issue was addressed in the 24 July 2003 letterof theCongregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, which summarized and clarified earlier declarations. The Catholic Church believes that the matter for the Eucharist must be wheaten bread and fermented wine from grapes: it holds that, if the gluten has been entirely removed, the result is not true wheaten bread.For celiacs, but not generally, it allows low-gluten bread. It also permits Holy Communion to be received under the form of either bread or wine alone, except by a priest who is celebrating Mass without other priests or as principal celebrant.Many Protestant churches offer communicants gluten-free alternatives to wheaten bread, usually in the form of a rice-based or other gluten-free wafer.
The Catholic Church believes that grape juice that has not begun even minimally to ferment cannot be accepted as wine, which it sees as essential for celebration of the Eucharist. For non-alcoholics, but not generally, it allows the use ofmustum(grape juice in which fermentation has begun but has been suspended without altering the nature of the juice), and it holds that "since Christ is sacramentally present under each of the species, communion under the species of bread alone makes it possible to receive all the fruit of Eucharistic grace. For pastoral reasons, this manner of receiving communion has been legitimately established as the most common form in the Latin rite."
As already indicated, the one exception is in the case of a priest celebrating Mass without other priests or as principal celebrant. The water that in theRoman Riteis prescribed to be mixed with the wine must be only a relatively small quantity.The practice of theCoptic Churchis that the mixture should be two parts wine to one part water.
Some Protestant churches allow communion in a non-alcoholic form, either normatively or as a pastoral exception. Since the invention of the necessary technology, grape juice which has beenpasteurizedto stop the fermentation process the juice naturally undergoes and de-alcoholized wine from which most of the alcohol has been removed (between 0.5% and 2% remains) are commonly used, and more rarely water may be offered.Exclusive use of unfermented grape juice is common inBaptistchurches, theUnited Methodist Church,Seventh-day Adventists,Christian Churches/Churches of Christ,Churches of Christ,Church of God (Anderson, Indiana), someLutherans,Assemblies of God,Pentecostals,Evangelicals, theChristian Missionary Alliance, and other AmericanindependentProtestant churches.
For members of theChurch of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, water is exclusively used in place of wine. From the church’s General Handbook, section18.9, ”During this ordinance, they partake of the bread and water to remember the Savior’s sacrifice of His flesh and blood and to renew their sacred covenants…”
Risk of infectious disease transmission related to use of a common communion cup exists but it is low. No case of transmission of an infectious disease related to a common communion cup has ever been documented. Experimental studies have demonstrated that infectious diseases can be transmitted. The most likely diseases to be transmitted would be common viral illnesses such as thecommon cold. A study of 681 individuals found that taking communion up to daily from a common cup did not increase the risk of infection beyond that of those who did not attend services at all.
In influenza epidemics, some churches suspend the giving wine at communion, for fear of spreading the disease. This is in full accord with Catholic Church belief that communion under the form of bread alone makes it possible to receive all the fruit of Eucharistic grace. However, the same measure has also been taken by churches that normally insist on the importance of receiving communion under both forms. This was done in 2009 by theChurch of England.
Some fear contagion through the handling involved in distributing the hosts to the communicants, even if they are placed on the hand rather than on the tongue. Accordingly, some churches use mechanical wafer dispensers or "pillow packs" (communion wafers with wine inside them). While these methods of distributing communion are not generally accepted in Catholic parishes, one parish provides a mechanical dispenser to allow those intending to commune to place in a bowl, without touching them by hand, the hosts for use in the celebration.