History of Madagascar

TheHistory of Madagascarstarted from the ancientsupercontinentofPangaea, containing amongst others theAfrican continentand theIndian subcontinent, and by the island's late colonization by human settlers from theSunda Islands(Malay Archipelago) and from East Africa.These two factors facilitated the evolution and survival of thousands ofendemic plant and animal species, some of which have gone extinct or are currently threatened with extinction.
Trade in the Indian Ocean at the time of first colonization of Madagascar was dominated by Indonesian ships, probably ofBorobudur shipandK'un-lun potypes.
Over two thousand years, the island has received waves of settlers of diverse origins, primarilyAustronesianandBantu.Centuries of intermarriages between both groups created theMalagasy people, who are roughly an equal mixture of both groups. They speak theMalagasy, anAustronesian languagewith Bantu, French and Arabic influences.
By theMiddle Ages, over a dozen distinct ethnic identities had emerged on the island, typified by rule under a local chieftain. Some communities, such as theSakalava,MerinaandBetsimisaraka, were unified by leaders who established kingdoms, which gained wealth and power through commerce with Europeans and Arabs. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, pirate activity in the coastal areas ofMadagascarwas common. The Sakalava and Merina kingdoms in particular exploited European trade to strengthen the power of their kingdoms, trading Malagasy slaves for European firearms and other goods.  Beginning in the early 19th century, theBritishandFrenchcompeted for influence in Madagascar.
By the turn of the 19th century, KingAndrianampoinimerinahad reunited the highly populousKingdom of Imerinain the central highlands, with its capital atAntananarivo. His sonRadama I the Greatexpanded its authority to the island's other polities and was the first Malagasy sovereign to be recognized by foreign states as the ruler of the greaterMerina Kingdom. During the rule ofQueen Ranavalona I(r. 1828–1861), the kingdom was further expanded to encompass most of the island. Madagascar's population is estimated to have declined by half from 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839 from war, disease, slavery and other and violence. She also attempted to eradicate European and Christian influence in the country.
Christianitywas made the state religion under QueenRanavalona II(r. 1868–1883). In the 1880s, Britain recognised France's authority on the island. This led in 1890 to theMalagasy Protectorate, which was however rejected by the Kingdom of Madagascar, which led to the twoFranco-Hova Warswhich ended with France capturing the capital in September 1895. Conflict continued in theMenalamba rebellionagainst French rule that was defeated in 1897. The monarchy was dissolved, and the queen was exiled. Following conquest, the French abolishedslaveryin 1896, freeing approximately 500,000 slaves.
DuringFrench rule, Malagasy people were required to fulfillcorvéelabor on French-run plantations while access to education or skilled positions were limited, although basic services like schools and clinics were extended across the island. Several militant nationalist secret societies emerged in opposition to French rule, of which the most prominent wasVy Vato Sakelikaformed in 1913. Many Malagasy were conscripted to fight for France during theFirst(1914–1918) andSecond World Wars(1939–1945), and during the latter Madagascar came underVichy Frenchcontrol before being captured by the British in theBattle of Madagascarand returned toFree Frenchcontrol in 1942. In 1944, Madagascar became an overseas territory with representatives in the FrenchNational Assembly. Militant nationalists launched a largeuprisingin 1947 that was brutally suppressed by 1949.
The country gained full independence from France in 1960. Madagascar'sFirst Republic(1960–1972) was established as a democratic system modeled on that of France and led by PresidentPhilibert Tsiranana. Popular unrest led to the socialistDemocratic Republic of Madagascarunder AdmiralDidier Ratsiraka(1975–1992) distinguished byeconomic isolationismandpolitical allianceswith pro-Soviet states. By 1992, free and fair multiparty elections were held, ushering in the democraticThird Republic(1992–2009). Under the new constitution, the Malagasy public elected successive presidentsAlbert Zafy,Didier Ratsiraka, andMarc Ravalomanana. This latter was ousted in the2009 Malagasy political crisisby a popular movement under the leadership ofAndry Rajoelina.Elections were heldon December 20, 2013, to elect a new president and return the country to constitutional governance.
The earliest unambiguous evidence of continuous human presence in Madagascar was found at Andavakoera and dates to 490 CE,and there is no archaeological evidence for human occupation in the highlands until around 1200. However, there is scattered evidence for much earlier human visits.
In 2009, archaeological excavations at Christmas River (south-central Madagascar) by Pat Wright and James Hansford located a purported elephant bird kill site, with bones showing human cut marks. These were dated to 8,500 BCE, but as yet there is no indication as to the identity of the hunters.Archaeologicalfinds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE.
There is potential evidence in the form of a cutmarked subfossillemurbone from a palaeontological site, Taolambiby, in the southwest. One date was obtained, calibrated 530 to 300 BC (Godfrey & Jungers 2003). The cutmarking looks plausible, but there is a potential problem of old carbon from the limestone landscape compromising the date, and there are no associated artifacts or archaeological sites in the vicinity. Nearly contemporaneous potential evidence comes fromcannabisorhumuluspollen which occurs in a pollen column from the central highlands at an interpolated date of c. 2200Before Present(BP).There is a hypothesis that cannabis may have reached Africa 3000 years ago.
Necho II's Phoenician expedition c. 595 BCE circumnavigated Africa but did not see Madagascar when passing through theMozambique Channel, as it stayed within sight of the African mainland. The island was likely uninhabited.
Finally, a cutmarked pygmy hippo bone from Ambolisatra has been dated and calibrated to between 60 BC and 130 AD (2 SDs), but it is from a coastal swamp without indications of settlement in a heavily karstic region. Moreover, a similar bone from the same collection from a nearby site gave two widely divergent dates of 2020 and 3495 BC (MacPhee & Burney 1991). Transient visits to Madagascar that did not result in enduring settlement cannot be ruled out, and may have left some traces.
Factual information about the peopling of Madagascar remains incomplete, but much recent multidisciplinary research and work inarchaeology,genetics,linguistics,and historyconfirms that the Malagasy people were originally and overwhelminglyAustronesian peoplesnative to theSunda Islands. They probably arrived on the west coast of Madagascar withoutrigger canoes(waka) at the beginning of our era or as much as 300 years sooner according to archaeologists,and perhaps even earlier under certain geneticists' assumptions.On the basis of plant cultigens, Blench proposed the migrations occurred "at the earliest century BCE".Archaeological work of Ardika and Bellwood suggests migration between 500 and 200 BCE.
The Borobudur Ship Expedition in 2003–2004 affirmed scholars' ideas that ships from ancient Indonesia could have reached Madagascar and the west African coast for trade from the 8th century and after.A traditional Borobudur shipwith outriggers was reconstructed and sailed in this expedition fromJakartato Madagascar andGhana.As for the ancient route, one possibility is that Indonesian Austronesians came directly across the Indian Ocean fromJavato Madagascar. It is likely that they went through theMaldiveswhere evidence of old Indonesian boat design and fishing technology persists until the present.TheMalagasy languageoriginated from the SoutheastBarito language, andMa'anyan languageis its closest relative, with numerous Malay and Javanese loanwords.It is known thatMa'anyan peoplewere brought as laborers and slaves byMalayandJavanese peoplein their trading fleets, which reached Madagascar by ca. 50–500 AD.These pioneers are known in the Malagasy oral tradition as theNtaolo, fromProto-Malayo-Polynesian*tau-ulu, literally 'first men', from*tau, 'man', and*ulu, 'head; first; origin, beginning.It is likely that those ancient people called themselves *va-waka, "the canoe people" from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian*va, 'people', and*waka'canoe'. Today the termvahoakameans 'people' in Malagasy.
The Southeast Asian origin of the first Malagasy people explains certain features common among the Malagasy, for instance, theepicanthic foldcommon among all Malagasy whether coastal or highlands, whether pale, dark or copper skinned. This original population (vahoaka ntaolo) can be called the "Proto-Malagasy". They are the source of:
As for the cause of the coming of these Austronesians, the history of the Indian Ocean from the early first millennium CE is still poorly understood. Madagascar may have played an important role in the trade of spices (especiallycinnamon) and timber between Southeast Asia and the Middle East, directly or through the African coast and Madagascar.
The first known concentrated population of human settlers emerged along the southeastern coast of the island, although the first landfall may have been made on the northern coast.Upon arrival, early settlers practicedtavy(slash-and-burnagriculture) to clear the virgin coastalrainforestsfor the cultivation of their crops.The first settlers encountered Madagascar's wealth of megafauna, includinggiant lemurs,elephant birds,giant fossaand theMalagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct due to hunting andhabitat destruction.
By 600, groups of these early settlers had moved inland and began clearing the forests of the central highlands (Imerina), where they particularly plantedtaro(saonjo) and probably rice (vary). TheseVahoaka Ntaolo, hunters-gatherers and farmers, who decided to settle "in the forest", especially in the forests of the central highlands are known by the traditionas theVazimba(from*ba/va-yimba-'those of the forest', from*yimba-'forest' in Proto–Southeast Barito, todaybarimbaororang rimbain Malay). Rafandrana, an ancestor of theMerinaroyal dynasty, for example, is known to have been a Vazimba.RafohyandRangita, the two founding queens of the Merina royalty, were also called Vazimbas.
On the other side, the fishermen who, from the beginning, remained on the southwestern coast (probably the coasts of the first landing) were, according to the linguists, probably originally called theVezo(from*ba/va/be/ve-jau– "those of the coast", borrowed from Proto-Malayo-Javanese, todayvejuin Bugis,bejauin Malay, andbajoin Javanese), which today is still the name of a Southwestern tribe.
After the arrival of the newcomers (see below), as growing population density necessitated higher crop yields, irrigated rice paddies emerged inBetsileocountry by 1600 and were complemented with terraced paddies throughout the central highlands a century later.Zebuwere introduced around 1000 byBantu-speakingmigrants from theAfrican Great Lakesregion (see below), who maintained large herds. The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage in the central highlands had largely transformed the region from a forest ecosystem to barren grassland by the 17th century.
By the mid-first millennium (ca 700) until about 1500, the inner Vazimbas as much as the coastal Vezos clans welcomed new visitors or immigrants. These goods and/or slave traders came from the Middle East (Shirazi Persians, Omani Arabs, Arab Jews), Africa (Swahilis), and from Asia (Gujaratis, Malays, Javanese, Bugis). They were sometimes integrated within the coastal Vezos and the inner Vazimbas clans.
The written history of Madagascar begins in the 7th century whenOmanisestablished trading posts along the northwest coast and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as thesorabe alphabet), Arab astrology and other cultural elements.During this early period, Madagascar served as an important transoceanic trading port for the East African coast that gave Africa a trade route to theSilk Roadand served simultaneously as a port for incoming ships. There is evidence thatBantuorSwahilisailors or traders may have begun sailing to the western shores of Madagascar as early as around the 6th and 7th century.
According to the traditions of some Malagasy peoples, the first Bantus and Arabs to settle in Madagascar came asrefugeesfrom thecivil warsthat followed the death ofMuhammadin 632.Beginning in the 10th or 11th century,ArabicandZanzibarislaversworked their way down theSwahili coastin theirdhowsand established settlements on the west coast of Madagascar. Notably they included theZafiraminia, traditional ancestors of theAntemoro,Antanosyand other east coast ethnicities. The last wave of Arab immigrants, the Antalaotra, immigrated from Swahili colonies. They settled the northwest of the island (theMahajangaarea) and introduced, for the first time,Islam to Madagascar.
Arab immigrants, though few in number compared to the native Austronesians and Bantus, nevertheless left a lasting impression. The Malagasy names for seasons, months, days, and coins in certain regions come from Arabic origins,as do cultural features such as the practice ofcircumcision, the communal grain-pool, and different forms of salutation (such assalama).
According to oral tradition,new Austronesian clans (Malays,Javanese,Bugis, andOrang Laut),historically referred to in general, regardless of their native island, as the "Hova"(from Old Bugisuwa, "commoner") landed in the north-west and east coast of the island. Adelaar's observations of Old Malay (Sanskritised), Old Javanese (Sanskritised) and Old Bugis borrowings in the initial Proto-Southeast-Barito language indicate that the first Hova waves came probably in the 7th century at the earliest.Marre and Dahl pointed out that the number of Sanskrit words in Malagasy is very limited compared with the large number now found in Indonesian languages, which means that the Indonesian settlers must have come at an early stage of Hindu influence, that is ca. 400 AD.
The Hova were probably derived from Indonesianthalassocracies. Their leaders were known as thedianain the Southeast andandrianaorraondrianain the Center and the West(from(ra)-hadi-an, "lord" or "master" in Old Javanese,modern Javaneseraden, also found in the Bugis noble titleandiand theTagalogword for "king"hari). They for the most part allied with Vazimba clans:
With the arrival of Islam, Persian and Arab traders soon supplanted the Indonesians on the coast of Africa and eventually extended their control over theComoro Islandsand parts of the coast of Madagascar. Meanwhile, with competition in the new joint naval powers ofSong ChinaandChola South India, the thalassocracies of Indonesia were in rapid decline, though the Portuguese still encountered Javanese sailors in Madagascar in the sixteenth century.
There is archaeological evidence thatBantu peoples, agro-pastoralists from East Africa, may have begun migrating to the island as early as the 6th and 7th century.Other historical and archaeological records suggest that some of the Bantus were descendants ofSwahilisailors and merchants who useddhowsto traverse the seas to the western shores of Madagascar.Finally some sources theorize that during the Middle Ages, Arab, Persian and Neo-Austronesian slave-tradersbrought Bantu people to Madagascar transported by Swahili merchants to feed foreign demand for slaves.Years of intermarriages created theMalagasy people, who primarily speakMalagasy, an Austronesian language withBantuinfluences.There are consequently many (Proto-)Swahiliborrowings in the initial Proto-SEB Malagasy language.Thissubstratumis especially significantly present in the domestic and agricultural vocabulary (e.g.ombyoraombe, "beef", from Swahiling'ombe;tongolo"onion" from Swahilikitunguu; Malagasynongo"pot" fromnungguin Swahili).
Europe knew of Madagascar through Arab sources; thusThe Travels of Marco Poloclaimed that "the inhabitants are Saracens, or followers of the law of Mohammed", without mentioning other inhabitants. Other than its size and location, everything about the island in the book describes southeastern Africa, not Madagascar. European contact began on 10 August 1500, when thePortuguesesea captainDiogo Diassighted the island after his ship separated from a fleet going to India.The Portuguese traded with the islanders and named the islandSão Lourenço(Saint Lawrence). In 1666,François Caron, the director general of the newly formedFrench East India Company, sailed to Madagascar.The company failed to establish a colony on Madagascar but established ports on the nearby islands of Bourbon (nowRéunion) andIsle de France(nowMauritius). In the late 17th century, the French established trading posts along the east coast. OnÎle Sainte-Marie, a small island off the northeastern coast of Madagascar, Captain Misson and his pirate crew allegedly founded the famouspirate utopiaofLibertatiain the late 17th century. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar was a favourite haunt for pirates.  Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among themRobert Drury, whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century.Sailors sometimes called Madagascar "Island of the Moon".
By the 15th century, Europeans had wrested control of thespice tradefrom the Muslims. They did this by bypassing the Middle East and sending their cargo-ships around theCape of Good Hopeto India. The Portuguese marinerDiogo Diasbecame the first European to set foot on Madagascar when his ship, bound for India, blew off course in 1500. In the ensuing 200 years, the English and French tried (and failed) to establish settlements on the island.
Fever, dysentery, hostile Malagasy, and the trying arid climate of southern Madagascar soon terminated the English settlement nearToliarain 1646. Another English settlement in the north in Île Sainte-Marie came to an end in 1649. The French colony atTôlanaro(Fort Dauphin) fared a little better: it lasted thirty years. On Christmas night 1672, local Antanosy tribesmen, perhaps angry because fourteen French soldiers in the fort had recently divorced their Malagasy wives to marry fourteen French orphan-women sent out to the colony, massacred the fourteen grooms and thirteen of the fourteen brides. The Antanosy then besieged the stockade at Tôlanaro for eighteen months. A ship of the French East India Company rescued the surviving thirty men and one widow in 1674.
In 1665,François Caron, the Director General of the newly formedFrench East India Company, sailed to Madagascar. The Company failed to found a colony on Madagascar but established ports on the nearby islands of Bourbon and Île-de-France (today'sRéunionandMauritiusrespectively). In the late 17th century, the French established trading-posts along the east coast.
Between 1680 and 1725, Madagascar became apiratestronghold. Many unfortunate sailors became shipwrecked and stranded on the island. Those who survived settled down with the natives, or more often, found French or English colonies on the island or even pirate havens and thus became pirates themselves. One such case, that of Robert Drury,resulted in a journal giving one of the few written depictions of southern Madagascar in the 18th century.
Notable pirates includingWilliam Kidd,Henry Every,John Bowen, andThomas Tewmade Antongil Bay and Île Sainte-Marie (a small island 12 miles off the northeast coast of Madagascar) their bases of operations. The pirates plundered merchant ships in the Indian Ocean, theRed Sea, and thePersian Gulf. They deprived Europe-bound ships of their silks, cloth, spices, and jewels. Vessels captured going in the opposite direction (to India) lost their coin, gold, and silver. The pirates robbed the Indian cargo ships that traded between ports in the Indian Ocean as well as ships commissioned by theEast India Companiesof France, England, and the Netherlands. The pilgrim fleet sailing between Surat in India and Mocha on the tip of the Arabian Peninsula were a favorite target, because the wealthy Muslim pilgrims often carried jewels and other finery with them to Mecca. Merchants in India, various ports of Africa, and Réunion showed willingness tofencethe pirates' stolen goods. The low-paid seamen who manned merchant ships in the Indian Ocean hardly put up a fight, seeing as they had little reason or motivation to risk their lives. The pirates often recruited crewmen from the ships they plundered.
With regard to piracy in Malagasy waters, note the (semi-)legendary accounts of the alleged pirate-state of Libertalia.
Prior to the arrival of the Europeans, certain Malagasy tribes occasionally waged wars to capture and enslave prisoners. They either sold the slaves to Arab traders or kept them on-hand as laborers. Following the arrival of European slavers, human slaves became more valuable, and the coastal tribes of Madagascar took to warring with each other to obtain prisoners for the lucrative slave-trade. Instead of spears and cutlasses, the tribesmen fought with muskets, musket-balls, and gunpowder that they obtained from the Europeans, conducting fierce and brutal wars. On account of their relationship to the pirates, theBetsimisarakain eastern Madagascar had more firearms than anyone else. They overpowered their neighbors, theAntankaranaandTsimihety, and even raided theComoro Islands. As the tribe on the west coast with the most connections to the slave trade, theSakalava peoplealso had access to guns and powder.
Today, the people of Madagascar can be considered as the product of mixing between the first occupants, thevahoaka ntaoloAustronesians (VazimbaandVezo) and those arrived later (Hovaneo-Austronesians, Persians, Arabs, Africans and Europeans).
Genotypically, the original Austronesian heritage is more or less evenly distributed throughout the island. Researchers have noticed the "Polynesian motif" everywhere:an old marker of Austronesian populations from before the great immigration to the islands of Polynesia and Melanesia. This fact would require a starting common home among the Proto-Malagasyvahoaka ntaolo(gone west to Madagascar) and the ancestors of the current Polynesians (left for the Pacific Islands in the East) between 500 BCE – 1 CE.
Those new immigrants of the Middle Ages were a minority in numbers, yet their cultural contributions, political and technological to the neo-Vazimba and neo-Vezo world substantially altered their society and is the cause of the major upheavals of the sixteenth century that led to the Malagasy feudal era.
On the coasts, the integration of the East Asians, Middle Easterns, Bantus and Portuguese led to the establishment of the kingdoms of theAntakarana,Boina,MenabeandVezoon the west coast, theMahafalyandAntandroyin the south, and theAntesaka,Antambahoaka,Antemoro,AntanalaandBetsimisarakaon the east coast.
In the interior, the struggle for hegemony between the different Neo-Vazimba clans of central highlands, called theHovaby the coastal Neo-Vezo clans, led to the creation of theMerina,Betsileo,Bezanozano,Sihanaka,TsimihetyandBarakingdoms.
The birth of these kingdoms/tribes essentially altered the political structure of the ancient world of the Vahoaka Ntaolo, but for the most part the common language, customs, traditions, religion and economy was preserved.
Among the Central Kingdoms, the most important were theBetsileokingdoms (Fandriana, Fisakana, Manandriana, Isandra) to the south, and theMerinakingdoms to the north. These were definitively unified in the early 19th century byAndrianampoinimerina. His son and successorRadama I(reigning 1810–1828) opened his country to foreign influence. With the support of the British, he extended its authority over much of the island. From 1817, the central Merina kingdoms, Betsileo, Bezanozano, and Sihanaka, unified by Radama I were known to the outside world as theKingdom of Madagascar.
The island's West clan chiefs began to extend their power through trade with their Indian Ocean neighbors, first with Arab,PersianandSomalitraders who connected Madagascar with East Africa, the Middle East and India, and later with European slave traders.The wealth created in Madagascar through trade created a state system ruled by powerful regional monarchs known as the Maroserana. These monarchs adopted the cultural traditions of subjects in their territories and expanded their kingdoms. They took on divine status, and new nobility and artisan classes were created.Madagascar functioned as a contact port for the other Swahili seaport city-states such asSofala,Kilwa,MombasaandZanzibar. By the Middle Ages, largechiefdomsbegan to dominate considerable areas of the island. Among these were theBetsimisarakaalliance of the eastern coast and theSakalavachiefdoms of theMenabe(centered in what is now the town ofMorondava) and ofBoina(centered in what is now the provincial capital ofMahajanga). The influence of the Sakalava extended across what are now the provinces ofAntsiranana,MahajangaandToliara.
The island's chiefs began to extend their power through trade with their Indian Ocean neighbours, notably East Africa, the Middle East andIndia. Large chiefdoms began to dominate considerable areas of the island. Among these were theSakalavachiefdoms of theMenabe, centred in what is now the town ofMorondava, and ofBoina, centered in what is now the provincial capital ofMahajanga(Majunga). The influence of the Sakalava extended across what are now the provinces ofAntsiranana, Mahajanga and Toliara.
According to local tradition, the founders of the Sakalava kingdom were Maroseraña (or Maroseranana, "those who owned many ports") princes, from the Fiherenana (nowToliara). They quickly subdued the neighbouring princes, starting with the southern ones, in the Mahafaly area. The true founder of Sakalava dominance wasAndriamisara; his sonAndriandahifotsy(c. 1610–1658) then extended his authority northwards, past theMangoky River. His two sons, Andriamanetiarivo and Andriamandisoarivo, extended gains further up to the Tsongay region (now Mahajanga). At about that time, the empire's unity starts to split, resulting in a southern kingdom (Menabe) and a northern kingdom (Boina). Further splits resulted, despite continued extension of the Boina princes' reach into the extreme north, in Antankarana country.
The Sakalava rulers of this period are known through the memoirs of Europeans such asRobert Drury,James Cook, Barnvelt (1719), Valentyn (1726).
KingAndrianampoinimerina(1785–1810) and his son,Radama I(1810–1828) succeeded in uniting nearly all of Madagascar underMerinarule.  These kings and their successors descended from a line ofancient Merina royaltywho ruled the lands ofImerinain the central Highlands of Madagascar since at least the 16th century. Even prior to their eventual domination and unification of the entire island, the political and cultural activities of Merina royalty were to leave an indelible mark on contemporary Malagasy identity.
With the establishment of dominion over the greater part of the Highlands, Andrianampoinimerina became the firstMerina monarchto be considered a king of Madagascar.  The island continued to be ruled by a succession of Merina monarchs until the last of them,Ranavalona III, was deposed and exiled to Algeria by French forces who conquered and colonized the island in 1895.
Andrianampoinimerina, grandson of KingAndriambelomasinaand successor to his uncle KingAndrianjafy, successfully reunited the fragmented Merina kingdom through a combination of diplomacy, strategic political marriages and successful military campaigns against rival princes.  Andrianampoinimerina distinguished himself from other kings by codifying laws and supervising the building of dikes and trenches to increase the amount of arable land around his capital at Antananarivo in a successful bid to end the famines that had wracked Imerina for decades. The king ambitiously proclaimed:Ny ranomasina no valapariako(“the sea is the boundary of my rice-field”), and by the time of his death in 1810 he had conquered the Bara and Betsileo highland tribes, laying the groundwork for expansion of his kingdom to the shores of the island.
Andrianampoinimerina's sonRadama I(Radama the Great) assumed the throne during a turning-point in European history that had repercussions for Madagascar. With the defeat ofNapoléonin 1814/1815, the balance of power in Europe and overseas shifted inBritain's favor. The British, eager to exert control over the trade routes of the Indian Ocean, had captured the islands ofRéunionandMauritiusfrom the French in 1810. Although they returned Réunion to France, they kept Mauritius as a naval base which would maintain trade links throughout theBritish Empire. Mauritius's governor, in a bid to woo Madagascar from French control, recognized Radama I as King of Madagascar, a diplomatic maneuver meant to underscore the idea of the sovereignty of the island and thus to preclude claims by any European powers.
Radama I signed treaties with the United Kingdom outlawing the slave trade and admitting Protestant missionaries into Madagascar. As a result of these treaties Protestant missionaries from Britain would spread British influence in Madagascar; while outlawing theslave tradewould weaken Réunion's economy by depriving the island of slave laborers for France'ssugarplantations. In return for outlawing the slave trade, Madagascar received what the treaty called "The Equivalent": an annual sum of a thousand dollars in gold, another thousand in silver, stated amounts of gunpowder, flints, and muskets, plus 400 surplusBritish Armyuniforms. The governor of Mauritius also sent military advisers who accompanied and sometimes led Merina soldiers in their battles against the Sakalava and Betsimisaraka. In 1824, having defeated the Betsimisaraka, Radama I declared, "Today, the whole island is mine! Madagascar has but one master." The king died in 1828 while leading his army on a punitive expedition against the Betsimisaraka.
The 33-year reign of QueenRanavalona I, the widow of Radama I, was characterized by an increase in the size of the Kingdom of Madagascar as it conquered neighboring states as well as an effort to maintain the cultural and political sovereignty of Madagascar in the face of increasing foreign influence. The queen repudiated the treaties that Radama I had signed with Britain and, in 1835 after issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar, she expelled British missionaries from the island and began persecuting Christian converts who would not renounce their religion. Malagasy Christians would remember this period asny tany maizina, or "the time when the land was dark".
During her reign, constant warfare, disease, slave labor, and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among the Malagasy population; the population of the island is estimated to have declined by half from 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839.
Unbeknownst to the queen, her son and heir, the crown-prince (the futureRadama II), attended Roman Catholic masses in secret.The young man grew up under the influence of French nationals in Antananarivo. In 1854, he wrote a letter toNapoléon IIIinviting France to invade and uplift Madagascar.On 28 June 1855 he signed theLambert Charter. This document gave Joseph-François Lambert, an enterprising French businessman who had arrived in Madagascar only three weeks before, the exclusive right to develop all minerals, forests, and unoccupied land in Madagascar in exchange for a 10-percent royalty payable to the Merina monarchy. In years to come, the French would show the Lambert Charter and the prince's letter to Napoléon III to explain the Franco-Hova Wars and the annexation of Madagascar as a colony. In 1857, the queen uncovered a plot by her son (the future Radama II) and French nationals in the capital to remove her from power. She immediately expelled all foreigners from Madagascar, sparing her son. Ranavalona died in 1861.
In his brief two years on the throne, KingRadama IIre-opened trade with Mauritius and Réunion, invited Christian missionariesand foreigners to return to Madagascar, and re-instated most of Radama I's reforms. His liberal policies angered the aristocracy, however, andRainivoninahitriniony, the prime minister, engineered a coup d'état in which Radama II was strangled to death.
A council of princes headed byRainilaiarivonyapproached Rabodo, the widow ofRadama II, the day after the death of her husband.  They gave her the conditions under which she could succeed to the throne.  These conditions included the suppression oftrial by ordealas well as the monarchy's defense offreedom of religion. Rabodo, crowned queen on 13 May 1863 under the throne name ofRasoherina, reigned until her death on 1 April 1868.
The Malagasy people remember Queen Rasoherina for sending ambassadors to London and Paris and for prohibitingSunday markets. On 30 June 1865, she signed a treaty with the United Kingdom giving British citizens the right to rent land and property on the island and to have a resident ambassador. With the United States of America she signed a trade agreement that also limited the importation of weapons and the export of cattle.  Finally, with France the queen signed a peace between her descendants and the descendants of theEmperor of France.Rasoherina married her prime minister,Rainivoninahitriniony, but public outcry against his involvement in the murder ofRadama IIsoon forced his resignation and exile toBetsileocountry south ofImerina.  She then married his brother,Rainilaiarivony, head of the army at the time of Radama II's murder who was promoted to the post of Prime Minister upon the resignation and exile of his older brother.  Rainilaiarivony would rule Madagascar from behind the scenes for the remaining 32 years of the Merina monarchy, marrying each of the final three queens of Madagascar in succession.
In 1869, QueenRanavalona II, previously educated by theLondon Missionary Society, underwent baptism into theChurch of Englandand subsequently made theAnglicanfaith the officialstate religionof Madagascar.The queen had all thesampy(traditional royal idols) burned in a public display. Catholic and Protestantmissionariesarrived in numbers to build churches and schools. The reign of Queen Ranavalona II proved the high water mark of British influence in Madagascar.  British goods and weapons arrived on the island by way ofSouth Africa.
Her public coronation as queen took place on 22 November 1883 and she took the nameRanavalona III.  As her first order of business she confirmed the nomination ofRainilaiarivonyand his entourage in their positions.  She also promised to do away with the French threat.
Angry at the cancellation of theLambert Charterand seeking to restore property seized from French citizens, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the firstFranco-Hova War(Hovaas a name referring to the Merina aristocrats). At the war's end, Madagascar cededAntsiranana(Diégo Suarez) on the northern coast to France and paid 560,000gold francsto the heirs of Joseph-François Lambert. In Europe, meanwhile, European diplomats had worked out an agreement whereby Britain, in order to establish control over theSultanate of Zanzibar, ceded its rights over the island ofHeligolandtoGermanyand renounced all claims of influence in Madagascar in favor of France. The agreement spelled the end of the Madagascan political independence.Rainilaiarivonyhad succeeded in playing the various European powers against one another, but now France could act without fear of British support towards the Madagascans.
In 1895, a Frenchflying columnlanded inMahajanga(Majunga) and marched by way of theBetsiboka Riverto the capital,Antananarivo, taking the city's defenders by surprise (they had expected an attack from the much closer east coast). Twenty French soldiers died fighting and 6,000 died ofmalariaand other diseases before the second Franco-Hova War ended. In 1896 theFrench Parliamentvoted toannexMadagascar. The 103-year-old Merina monarchy ended with the royal family sent into exile inAlgeria.
The kingdom of Madagascar continued its transformation throughout the 19th century from a locally grown monarchy into a modernstate.
Before Radama I the Malagasy language was written in a script known assorabe. In 1820 under the direction ofDavid Jones, a Welsh missionary of the London Missionary Society, Radama I codified the new MalagasyLatin alphabetof 21 letters which replaced the old sorabe alphabet.By 1830 the Bible was the first book written in this new Malagasy Latin alphabet. It is the oldest complete translation of the bible into a sub-Saharan African language.
The United States and the Kingdom of Madagascar concluded a commercial convention in 1867 after which Queen Rasoherina and Prime Minister Rainilaiarivoy exchanged gifts with presidentAndrew Johnson.A treaty of peace, friendship, and commerce was then signed in 1881.
During the reign of Ranavalona I, early attempts at industrialization took place from 1835 under the direction of the FrenchJean Laborde(a survivor of a shipwreck off the east coast), producing soap,porcelain, metal tools and firearms (rifles, cannons, etc.)..
In 1864Antananarivoopened the first hospital and a modern medical school. Two years later appeared the first newspaper. A scientific journal in English (Antananarivo Annual) was released from 1875. In 1894, on the eve of the establishment of colonial rule, the schools of the kingdom, mainly led by theProtestantmissions, were attended by over 200,000 students.
In 1750, the ruler of the Kingdom of Betsimisaraka,Bety of Betsimisaraka, ceded the islandNosy Boraha (Île Sainte-Marie)to theKingdom of France. However, in 1752 the French Colonists were massacred when the local population rebelled. France left the settlement abandoned for roughly half a century until returning in 1818.
In 1840Tsiomeko, the ruler ofNosy Beisland, accepted French protection in 1840. The French took possession of the island in 1841, and in 1849 an unsuccessful attempt was made to expel them.
In theBerlin Treaty, the British accepted the claims of France to exert its influence on Madagascar, and afterthe first Franco-Hova Waratreaty of alliance between France andMadagascarwas signed on 17 December 1885 by QueenRanavalona III, granting France a protectorate over theDiego-Suarez bay and surrounding territory, as well as the islands of Nosy-Be and Île Sainte-Marie.
Disagreements on the implementation of this treaty served as a pretext for the French invasion of 1895, which first met little resistance. The authority of the prime ministerRainilaiarivony, in power since 1864, had become very unpopular with the public.
The British accepted the imposition of a Frenchprotectorateover Madagascar in 1890 in return for recognition of British sovereignty overZanzibar(subsequently part ofTanzania) and as part of an overall definition of spheres of influence in the area.The intention of the French was initially to maintain the protectorate in order to control the economy and foreign relations of the island. But later, the outbreak of theMenalamba rebellionand the arrival of GeneralGallieni(responsible for "pacifying" the country) in 1896 led to thecolonization of the islandand the exile of the queen toAlgeria.
In 1904–1905 Madagascar was the scene of alarge-scale uprising by various tribes and tribal leaders, among whom Kotavy, a former French corporal who defected to the rebels, filled a preponderant role.
Malagasy troops fought in France,Morocco, andSyriaduringWorld War II. Prior to the implementation of theFinal Solution,Nazi Germanyhad considered theMadagascar Plan, which would have relocatedEuropean Jewsto Madagascar. After France fell to the Germans in 1940, theVichygovernment administered Madagascar until 1942, when British andCommonwealthtroops occupied the strategic island in theBattle of Madagascar. The United Kingdom handed over control of the island toFree French Forcesin 1943.
In 1948, with French prestige at a low ebb, the French government, headed by Prime MinisterPaul Ramadierof theFrench Section of the Workers' International(SFIO) party, suppressed theMadagascar revolt, a nationalist uprising.
The French subsequently established reformed institutions in 1956 under theLoi Cadre(Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully toward independence. TheMalagasy Republic, proclaimed on 14 October 1958, became an autonomous state within theFrench Community. On 26 March 1960 France agreed to Madagascar becoming fully independent.On 26 June 1960 Madagascar became an independent country andPhilibert Tsirananabecame its first president.
Tsiranana's rule represented continuation, with French settlers (orcolons) still in positions of power.  Unlike many of France's former colonies, the Malagasy Republic strongly resisted movements towardscommunism.
In 1972, protests against these policies came to a head and Tsiranana had to step down. He handed power to GeneralGabriel Ramanantsoaof the army and his provisional government. This régime reversed previous policy in favour of closer ties with theSoviet Union.
On 5 February 1975, ColonelRichard Ratsimandravabecame the President of Madagascar. After six days as head of the country, he died in an assassination while driving from the presidential palace to his home. Political power passed toGilles Andriamahazo.
On 15 June 1975, Lieutenant-CommanderDidier Ratsiraka(who had previously served as foreign minister) came to power in a coup.  Elected president for a seven-year term, Ratsiraka moved further towards socialism, nationalising much of the economy and cutting all ties with France.These policies hastened the decline in the Madagascan economy that had begun after independence as French immigrants left the country, leaving a shortage of skills and technology behind. Ratsiraka's original seven-year term as president continued after his party (Avant-garde de la Révolution Malgache or AREMA) became the only legal party in the 1977 elections.
In the 1980s, Madagascar moved back towards France, abandoning many of its communist-inspired policies in favour of amarket economy, though Ratsiraka still kept hold of power.
Eventually, opposition, both within and without, forced Ratsiraka to consider his position and in 1992 the country adopted a new and democratic constitution.
The first multi-party elections came in 1993, withAlbert Zafydefeating Ratsiraka.Despite being a strong proponent of a liberal, free-market economy, Zafy ran on a ticket critical of theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) and theWorld Bank. During his presidency the country struggled to implement IMF and World Bank guidelines that were, on the short term, suicidal politically.
As president Zafy was frustrated by the restraints placed upon the powers of his office by the new constitution. His quest for increased executive power put him on a collision course with the parliament led by then prime ministerFrancisque Ravony.Zafy eventually won the power he sought after but sufferedimpeachmentat the hands of the disenfranchised parliament in 1996 for violating the constitution by refusing to promulgate specific laws.
The ensuing elections saw a turnout of less than 50% and unexpectedly resulted in the re-election of Didier Ratsiraka.He moved further towards capitalism. The influence of the IMF and the World Bank led to widespreadprivatisation.
Opposition to Ratsiraka began to grow again. Opposition parties boycotted provincial elections in 2000, and the2001 presidential electionproduced more controversy. The opposition candidateMarc Ravalomananaclaimed victory after the first round (in December) but the incumbent rejected this position. In early 2002 supporters of the two sides took to the streets and violent clashes took place. Ravalomanana claimed that fraud had occurred in the polls. After an April recount the High Constitutional Court declared Ravalomanana president. Ratsiraka continued to dispute the result but his opponent gained international recognition, and Ratsiraka had to go into exile in France, though forces loyal to him continued activities in Madagascar.
Ravalomanana'sTiako I Madagasikaraparty achieved overwhelming electoral success in December 2001 and he survived an attempted coup in January 2003. He used his mandate to work closely with the IMF and the World Bank to reform the economy, to end corruption and to realise the country's potential.Ratsiraka went on trial (in absentia) forembezzlement(the authorities charged him with taking $8m of public money with him into exile) and the court sentenced him to ten years'hard labour.
Ravalomanana is credited with improving the country's infrastructure, such as roads, along with making improvements in education and health, but has faced criticism for his lack of progress against poverty;purchasing poweris said to have declined during his time in office.On 18 November 2006, his plane was forced to divert from Madagascar's capital during a return trip from Europe following reports ofa coupunderway in Antananarivo and shooting near the airport;however, this alleged coup attempt was unsuccessful.
Ravalomanana ran for a second term in thepresidential electionheld on December 3, 2006.According to official results, he won the election with 54.79% of the vote in the first round; his best results were inAntananarivo Province, where he received the support of 75.39% of voters.He was sworn in for his second term on January 19, 2007.
Ravalomanana dissolved the National Assembly in July 2007, prior to the end of its term, following aconstitutional referendumearlier in the year. Ravalomanana said thata new electionneeded to be held so that the National Assembly would reflect the changes made in this referendum.
He became involved in a political standoff after he closed the TV station belonging toAntananarivomayorAndry Rajoelina. In January 2009,protests which then turned violentwere organized and spearheaded byAndry Rajoelina, the mayor of the capital city ofAntananarivoand a prominent opponent of President Ravalomanana.
The situation fundamentally changed on 10 March 2009 when army leaders forced the recently appointed defense secretary to resign (the previous one had decided to resign after the killings by the presidential guard on 7 February 2009). They also announced that they gave the opponents 72 hours to dialogue and find a solution to the crisis before they would take further action. This move came after the leaders of the main military camp had announced a day earlier that they would not execute orders coming from the presidency any more since their duty was to protect the people, and not to oppress them, as groups of the military had done over the last few days.
On 16 March 2009, the army seized the presidential palace in the centre of Antananarivo. Ravalomanana was not in the palace at the time.He handed his resignation to the army, which then decided to hand over power to his fierce political rival,Andry Rajoelina. The second round of the postponedpresidential electionswas held in December 2013 and the results were announced in January 2014. The winner and the next president wasHery Rajaonarimampianina. He was backed by Rajoelina who led the 2009 coup and still was very influential political figure.
In 2018 the first round of thepresidential electionwas held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Former president Andry Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. He was previously president from 2009 to 2014. Former president Marc Ravalomanana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Ravalomanana was president from 2002 to 2009. The most recent president Hery Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in the first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president.
In 2019, anepidemic of measleskilled 1,200 people.
In 2021, Madagascar'sworst drought in 40 yearsleft more than a million people in southern Madagascar food insecure. This forced thousands of people to leave their homes to search for food.
In November 2023,Andry Rajoelinawas re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of theelection. Turnout was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history.