Albanians

TheAlbaniansare anethnic groupnative to theBalkan Peninsulawho share a common Albanianancestry,culture,historyandlanguage.They are the main ethnic group ofAlbaniaandKosovo, and they also live in the neighboring countries ofNorth Macedonia,Montenegro,Greece, andSerbia, as well as inItaly,Croatia,Bulgaria, andTurkey. Albanians also constitute a largediasporawith several communities established across Europe and the other continents.
The language of the Albaniansis anIndo-Europeanlanguage and the only surviving representative of theAlbanoid branch, which belongs to thePaleo-Balkan group. Albanians have a western Paleo-Balkanic origin, and for obvious geographic and historical reasons most scholars maintain that they descended at least partially from theIllyrians,but besides the Illyrians which specific Paleo-Balkan group contributed to theethnogenesisof the Albanians is still a matter of academic debate.
The first mention of the ethnonymAlbanoioccurred in the 2nd century AD byPtolemydescribing anIllyrian tribewho lived around present-day central Albania.The first certain reference to Albanians as an ethnic group comes from 11th century chroniclerMichael Attaleiateswho describes them as living in thetheme of Dyrrhachium.
TheShkumbin Riverroughly demarcates theAlbanian languagebetweenGhegandToskdialects. Christianity in Albania was under the jurisdiction of theBishop of Romeuntil the 8th century AD. Then, dioceses in Albania were transferred to thepatriarchate of Constantinople. In 1054, after theGreat Schism, the north gradually became identified withRoman Catholicismand the south withEastern Orthodoxy. In 1190 Albanians established thePrincipality of Arbanonin central Albania with the capital inKrujë.
TheAlbanian diasporahas its roots in migration from theMiddle Agesinitially across Southern Europe and eventually across wider Europe and theNew World. Between the 13th and 18th centuries, sizeable numbers migrated to escape various social, economic or political difficulties.Albanian population groups settled inSouthern Greecebetween the 13th and 16th centuries and came to be known asArvanites. Other Albanian population groups settled acrossSouthern ItalyandSicilybetween the 11th and 16th centuries and came to be known asArbëreshë.Albanians have also migratedto Romaniasince the late 16th century. In the 18th century smaller Albanian population groups settled inSouthern Croatia(who came to be known asArbanasi), and pockets ofSouthern Ukraine.
By the 15th century, the expandingOttoman Empireoverpowered the Balkan Peninsula, but faced successful rebellion and resistance by theLeague of Lezhë, a union ofAlbanian principalitiesled byGjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg. By the 17th and 18th centuries, a substantial number of AlbaniansconvertedtoIslam, which offered them equal opportunities and advancementwithin the Ottoman Empire.Thereafter, Albanians attained significant positions and culturally contributed to the broaderMuslim world.Innumerable officials and soldiers of the Ottoman State were of Albanian origin, including more than40 Grand Viziers,and under theKöprülü, in particular, the Ottoman Empire reached its greatest territorial extension.Between the second half of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th centuryAlbanian Pashalikswere established byKara Mahmudpasha of Scutari,Alipasha of Yanina, andAhmet Kurtpasha of Berat, while the AlbanianwālīMuhammad Aliestablished adynastythat ruled overEgyptandSudanuntil the middle of the 20th century, a period in which Albanians formed a substantialcommunity in Egypt.
During the 19th century, cultural developments, widely attributed to Albanians having gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength, conclusively led to theAlbanian Renaissance. In 1912 during theBalkan Wars, Albanians declared theindependence of their country. The demarcation of the new Albanian state was established following theTreaty of Bucharestand left about half of the ethnic Albanian population outside of its borders,partitionedbetween Greece, Montenegro and Serbia.After theSecond World Warup until theRevolutions of 1991, Albania was governed by acommunist governmentunderEnver Hoxhawhere Albania became largely isolated from the rest of Europe. In neighbouringYugoslavia, Albanians underwent periods of discrimination and systematic oppression that concluded with theWar of Kosovoand eventually withKosovar independence.
The Albanians (Albanian:Shqiptarët) and their country Albania (Albanian:Shqipëria) have been identified by manyethnonyms. The most common nativeethnonymis "Shqiptar", plural "Shqiptarë"; the name "Albanians" (Byzantine Greek:Albanoi/Arbanitai/Arbanites;Latin:Albanenses/Arbanenses) was used in medieval documents and gradually enteredEuropean Languagesfrom which other similar derivative names emerged,many of which were or still are in use,such as English "Albanians"; Italian "Albanesi"; German "Albaner";Greek"Arvanites", "Alvanitis" (Αλβανίτης) plural: "Alvanites" (Αλβανίτες), "Alvanos" (Αλβανός) plural: "Alvanoi" (Αλβανοί);Turkish"Arnaut", "Arnavut";South Slavic languages"Arbanasi" (Арбанаси), "Albanci" (Албанци);Aromanian"Arbinesh" and so on.
The term "Albanoi" (Αλβανοί) is first encountered on the works of Ptolemy (2nd century CE)also is encountered twice in the works of Byzantine historianMichael Attaliates, and the term "Arvanitai" (Αρβανίται) is used once by the same author. He referred to the "Albanoi" as having taken part in a revolt against theByzantine Empirein 1043, and to the "Arbanitai" as subjects of the Duke of Dyrrachium (modernDurrës).These references have been disputed as to whether they refer to the people of Albania.Historian E. Vranoussi believes that these "Albanoi" were Normans from Sicily. She also notes that the same term (as "Albani") in medieval Latin meant "foreigners".
The reference to "Arvanitai" from Attaliates regarding the participation of Albanians in a rebellion around 1078 is undisputed.In later Byzantine usage, the terms "Arbanitai" and "Albanoi" with a range of variants were used interchangeably, while sometimes the same groups were also called by the classicising name Illyrians.The first reference to the Albanian language dates to the latter 13th century (around 1285).
The national ethnonymAlbanianand its variants are derived fromAlbanoi, first mentioned as anIllyriantribe in the 2nd century CE byPtolemywith their centre at the city ofAlbanopolis, located in modern-day central Albania, somewhere in the hinterland ofDurrës.Linguists believe that thealbpart in the root word originates from an Indo-European term for a type of mountainous topography, from which other words such asalpsare derived.Through the root wordalbanand its rhotacized equivalentsarban,albar, andarbar, the term in Albanian became rendered asArbëneshë/Arbëreshëfor the people andArbënia/Arbëriafor the country.The Albanian language was referred to asArbnishtandArbërisht.While theexonymAlbania for the general region inhabited by the Albanians does have connotations to Classical Antiquity, the Albanian language employs a different ethnonym, with modern Albanians referring to themselves asShqip(ë)tarëand to their country asShqipëria.Two etymologies have been proposed for this ethnonym: one, derived from the etymology from the Albanian word for eagle (shqipe, var., shqiponjë).In Albanianfolk etymology, this word denotes a birdtotem, dating from the times of Skanderbeg as displayed on theAlbanian flag.The other is within scholarship that connects it to the verb 'to speak' (me shqiptue) from the Latin "excipere".In this instance the Albanian endonym likeSlavand otherswould originally have been a term connoting "those who speak [intelligibly, the same language]".The wordsShqipëriandShqiptarare attested from 14th century onward,but it was only at the end of 17th and beginning of the early 18th centuries that the placenameShqipëriaand the ethnic demonymShqiptarëgradually replacedArbëriaandArbëreshëamongstAlbanianspeakers.That era brought about religious and other sociopolitical changes.As such a new and generalised response by Albanians based on ethnic and linguistic consciousness to this new and differentOttoman worldemerging around them was a change in ethnonym.
Little is known about the Albanian people prior to the 11th century, though a text compiled around the beginning of the 11th century in theBulgarian languagecontains a possible reference to them.It is preserved in amanuscriptwritten in theSerbo-Croatian Languagetraced back to the 17th century but published in the 20th century by Radoslav Grujic. It is a fragment of a once longer text that endeavours to explain the origins of peoples and languages in a question-and-answer form similar to acatechism.
The fragmented manuscript differentiated the world into 72 languages and three religious categories including Christians, half-believers and non-believers. Grujic dated it to the early 11th century and, if this and the identification of theArbanasias Albanians are correct, it would be the earliest written document referring to the Balkan Albanians as a people or language group.
Michael Attaleiates(1022–1080) mentions the termAlbanoitwice and the termArbanitaionce. The termAlbanoiis used first to describe the groups which rebelled in southern Italy and Sicily against the Byzantines in 1038–40. The second use of the termAlbanoiis related to groups which supported the revolt ofGeorge Maniakesin 1042 and marched with him throughout the Balkans against the Byzantine capital,Constantinople. The termArvanitaiis used to describe a revolt ofBulgarians(Boulgaroi) andArbanitaiin the theme ofDyrrhachiumin 1078–79. It is generally accepted thatArbanitairefers to the ethnonym of medieval Albanians. As such, it is considered to be the first attestation of Albanians as an ethnic group in Byzantine historiography.The use of the termAlbanoiin 1038–49 and 1042 as an ethnonym related to Albanians have been a subject of debate. In what has been termed the "Vranoussi-Ducellier debate", Alain Ducellier proposed that both uses of the term referred to medieval Albanians. Era Vranoussi counter-suggested that the first use referred toNormans, while the second didn't have an ethnic connotation necessarily and could be a reference to the Normans as "foreigners" (aubain) inEpiruswhich Maniakes and his army traversed.This debate has never been resolved.A newer synthesis about the second use of the termAlbanoiby Pëllumb Xhufi suggests that the termAlbanoimay have referred to Albanians of the specific district ofArbanon, whileArbanitaito Albanians in general regardless of the specific region they inhabited.
Albanians speak theAlbanian language, which is anIndo-Europeanlanguage and the only surviving representative of theAlbanoid branch, which belongs to thePaleo-Balkan group. It had its formative core in the Western Balkans after theIndo-European migrationsin the region from about 3000 to 2500 BCE.
The Albanian language is spoken today by approximately 5 million people throughout theBalkan Peninsulaas well as by a more substantial number bycommunitiesaround the Americas, Europe and Oceania. Numerous variants and dialects of Albanian are used as anofficial languagein Albania,KosovoandNorth Macedonia.The language is also spoken in other countries whence it is officially recognised as aminority languagein such countries asCroatia, Italy,Montenegro,RomaniaandSerbia.
There are two principaldialectsof the Albanian language traditionally represented byGhegandTosk.The ethnogeographical dividing line is traditionally considered to be theShkumbinriver, with Gheg spoken in the north of it and Tosk in the south. Dialects of linguistic minorities spoken inCroatia(ArbanasiandIstrian),Kosovo,Montenegroand northwesternNorth Macedoniaare classified as Gheg, while those spoken inGreece, southwesternNorth Macedoniaand Italy as Tosk.
TheArbëreshandArvanitikadialects of the Albanian language, are spoken by theArbëreshëandArvanitesinSouthern ItalyandSouthern Greece, respectively. They retain elements of medieval Albanian vocabulary and pronunciation that are no longer used in modern Albanian; however, both varieties are classified asendangered languagesin theUNESCORed Book of Endangered Languages.TheCham dialectis spoken by theCham Albanians, a community that originates fromChameriain what is currently north-western Greece and southern Albania; the use of the Cham dialect in Greece is declining rapidly, whileCham communitiesin Albania and the diaspora have preserved it.
Most of the Albanians in Albania and theFormer Yugoslaviaarepolyglotand have the ability to understand, speak, read, or write aforeign language. As defined by theInstitute of Statistics of Albania, 39.9% of the 25 to 64 years old Albanians in Albania are able to use at least one foreign language including English (40%), Italian (27.8%) andGreek(22.9%).
The origin of the Albanian language remains a contentious subject that has given rise to numeroushypotheses. The hypothesis of Albanian being one of the descendant of theIllyrian languages(Messapic language) is based ongeographywhere the languages were spoken however not enough archaeological evidence is left behind to come therefore to a definite conclusion. Another hypothesis associates the Albanian language with theThracian language. This theory takes exception to the territory, since the language was spoken in an area distinct from Albania, and no significant population movements have been recorded in the period when the shift from one language to the other is supposed to have occurred.
TheKomani-Kruja cultureis an archaeological culture attested from late antiquity to the Middle Ages in central and northern Albania, southern Montenegro and similar sites in the western parts ofNorth Macedonia. It consists of settlements usually built below hillforts along theLezhë(Praevalitana)-DardaniaandVia Egnatiaroad networks which connected the Adriatic coastline with the central Balkan Roman provinces. Itstype siteis Komani and its fort on the nearby Dalmace hill in the Drin river valley.Krujaand Lezha represent significant sites of the culture. The population of Komani-Kruja represents a local, western Balkan people which was linked to the Roman Justinianic military system of forts. The development of Komani-Kruja is significant for the study of the transition between theclassical antiquitypopulation of Albania to the medieval Albanians who were attested in historical records in the 11th century. Winnifrith (2020) recently described this population as the survival of a "Latin-Illyrian" culture which emerged later in historical records as Albanians andVlachs(Eastern Romance-speaking people). In Winnifrith's narrative, the geographical conditions of northern Albania favored the continuation of the Albanian language in hilly and mountainous areas as opposed to lowland valleys.
The Albanian people maintain a very chequered and tumultuous history behind them, a fact explained by their geographical position in theSoutheast of Europeat the cultural and political crossroad between the east and west, but they also have historically inhabited a hardly accessible mountainous region, which helped them preserve their peculiar culture and language. The issue surrounding theorigin of the Albanian peoplehas long been debated by historians andlinguistsfor centuries. They havePaleo-Balkanorigins, and for obvious geographic and historical reasons most scholars maintain that they descended at least partially from theIllyrians,but besides the Illyrians which specific Peleo-Balkan group contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Albanians is still a matter of academic debate.
The first certain attestation of medieval Albanians as an ethnic group is in Byzantine historiography in the work ofMichael Attaleiates(1022–1080).Attaleiates mentions the termAlbanoitwice and the termArbanitaionce. The termAlbanoiis used first to describe the groups which rebelled in southern Italy and Sicily against the Byzantines in 1038–40. The second use of the termAlbanoiis related to groups which supported the revolt ofGeorge Maniakesin 1042 and marched with him throughout the Balkans against the Byzantine capital,Constantinople. The termArvanitaiis used to describe a revolt ofBulgarians(Boulgaroi) andArbanitaiin the theme ofDyrrhachiumin 1078–79. It is generally accepted thatArbanitairefers to the ethnonym of medieval Albanians. The use of the termAlbanoiin 1038–49 and 1042 as an ethnonym related to Albanians have been a subject of debate. In what has been termed the "Ducellier-Vrannousi" debate, Alain Ducellier proposed that both uses of the term referred to medieval Albanians. Era Vrannousi counter-suggested that the first use referred toNormans, while the second didn't have an ethnic connotation necessarily and could be a reference to the Normans as "foreigners" (aubain) inEpiruswhich Maniakes and his army traversed.The debate has never been resolved.A newer synthesis about the second use of the termAlbanoiby Pëllumb Xhufi suggests that the termAlbanoimay have referred to Albanians of the specific district ofArbanon, whileArbanitaito Albanians in general regardless of the specific region they inhabited.The name reflects the Albanian endonym Arbër/n + esh which itself derives from the same root as the name of theAlbanoi
Historically known as theArbërorArbënby the 11th century and onwards, they traditionally inhabited the mountainous area to the west ofLake Ochridaand the upper valley of the Shkumbin river.Though it was in 1190 when they established their first independent entity, thePrincipality of Arbër(Arbanon), with its seat based inKrujë.Immediately after the decline of theProgon dynastyin 1216, the principality came underGregorios Kamonasand next his son-in-lawGolem. Finally, the Principality was dissolved in ca. 1255 by theEmpire of Niceafollowed by an unsuccessfulrebellion between 1257 and 1259supported by theDespotate of Epirus. In the meantimeManfred, King of Sicilyprofited from the situation and launched an invasion into Albania. His forces, led byPhilippe Chinard, capturedDurrës,Berat,Vlorë,Spinarizza, their surroundings and the southern coastline of Albania from Vlorë toButrint.In 1266 afterdefeating Manfred's forcesand killing him, theTreaty of Viterboof 1267 was signed, withCharles I, King of Sicilyacquiring rights on Manfred's dominions in Albania.Local noblemen such asAndrea Vranarefused to surrender Manfred's former domains, and in 1271 negotiations were initiated.
In 1272 theKingdom of Albaniawas created after a delegation of Albanian noblemen from Durrës signed a treaty declaring union with the Kingdom of Sicily under Charles.Charles soon imposed military rule, new taxes, took sons of Albanian noblemen hostage to ensure loyalty, and confiscated lands forAngevinnobles. This led to discontent among Albanian noblemen, several of whom turned to Byzantine EmperorMichael VIII. In late 1274, Byzantine forces helped by local Albanian noblemen capture Berat and Butrint.Charles' attempt to advance towards Constantinople failed at theSiege of Berat (1280–1281). A Byzantine counteroffensive ensued, which drove the Angevins out of the interior by 1281. TheSicilian Vespersrebellion further weakened the position of Charles, who died in 1285. By the end of the 13th century, most of Albania was under Byzantine EmperorAndronikos II Palaiologos. In 1296 Serbian kingStephen Milutincaptured Durrës. In 1299 Andronikos II married his daughter Simonis to Milutin and the lands he had conquered were considered asdowry. In 1302,Philip I, Prince of Taranto, grandson of Charles, claimed his rights on the Albanian kingdom and gained the support of local Albanian Catholics who preferred him over the Orthodox Serbs and Greeks, as well as the support ofPope Benedict XI. In the summer of 1304, the Serbs were expelled from the city of Durrës by the locals who submitted themselves to Angevin rule.
Prominent Albanian leaders during this time were theThopia family, ruling in an area between the Mat and Shkumbin rivers,and theMuzaka familyin the territory between the Shkumbin and Vlorë.In 1279, Gjon I Muzaka, who remained loyal to the Byzantines and resisted Angevin conquest of Albania, was captured by the forces of Charles but later released following pressure from Albanian nobles. The Muzaka family continued to remain loyal to the Byzantines and resisted the expansion of theSerbian Kingdom. In 1335 the head of the family, Andrea II Muzaka, gained the title ofDespotand other Muzakas pursued careers in the Byzantine government in Constantinople. Andrea II soon endorsed an anti-Byzantine revolt in his domains between 1335–1341 and formed an alliance withRobert, Prince of Tarantoin 1336.In 1336, Serbian kingStefan Dušancaptured Durrës, including the territory under the control of the Muzaka family. Although Angevins managed to recapture Durazzo, Dušan continued his expansion, and in the period of 1337–45 he had capturedKaninaandValonain southern Albania.Around 1340 forces of Andrea II defeated the Serbian army at thePelistermountain.After the death of Stefan Dušan in 1355 theSerbian Empiredisintegrated, andKarl Thopiacaptured Durrës while the Muzaka family of Berat regained control over parts of southeastern Albania and overKastoriathat Andrea II captured fromPrince Markoafter theBattle of Maricain 1371.
The kingdom reinforced the influence of Catholicism and the conversion to its rite, not only in the region of Durrës but in other parts of the country.A new wave of Catholic dioceses, churches and monasteries were founded, papal missionaries and a number of different religious orders began spreading into the country. Those who were not Catholic in central and northern Albania converted and a great number of Albanian clerics and monks were present in the Dalmatian Catholic institutions.
Around 1230 the two main centers of Albanian settlements were aroundDevoll riverin what is now central Albaniaand the other around the region known as Arbanon.Albanian presence in Croatia can be traced back to the beginning of theLate Middle Ages.In this period, there was a significant Albanian community inRagusawith a number of families of Albanian origin inclusively theSorgo familywho came from theCape of Rodonin central Albania, acrossKotorin eastern Montenegro, toDalmatia.By the 13th century, Albanian merchants were trading directly with the peoples of theRepublic of Ragusain Dalmatia which increased familiarity between Albanians and Ragusans.The upcoming invasion of Albania by theOttoman Empireand the death ofSkanderbegcaused many Christian Albanians to flee to Dalmatia and surrounding countries.
In the 14th century a number ofAlbanian principalitieswere created. These includedPrincipality of Kastrioti,Principality of Dukagjini,Princedom of Albania, andPrincipality of Gjirokastër. At the beginning of the 15th century these principalities became stronger, especially because of the fall of theSerbian Empire. Some of these principalities were united in 1444 under the anti-Ottoman military alliance calledLeague of Lezha.
Albanians were recruited all over Europe as a light cavalry known asstratioti. The stratioti were pioneers of light cavalry tactics during the 15th century. In the early 16th century heavy cavalry in the European armies was principally remodeled after Albanian stradioti of the Venetian army, Hungarianhussarsand German mercenary cavalry units (Schwarzreitern).
Prior to theOttoman conquest of Albania, the political situation of the Albanian people was characterised by a fragmented conglomeration of scatteredkingdomsandprincipalitiessuch as thePrincipalities of Arbanon,KastriotiandThopia. Before and after thefall of Constantinople, theOttoman Empirecontinued an extended period of conquest and expansion with its borders going deep into theSoutheast Europe. As a consequence thousands of Albanians fromAlbania,EpirusandPeloponneseescaped toCalabria,Naples,RagusaandSicily, whereby others sought protection at the often inaccessibleMountains of Albania.
Under the leadership ofGjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, a former governor of the OttomanSanjak of Dibra, a prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted with the formation of theLeague of Lezhëin 1444 up until theSiege of Shkodërending in 1479, multiple times defeating the mightiest power of the time led bySultansMurad IIandMehmed II. Skanderbeg managed to gather several of the Albanian principals, amongst them theArianitis,Dukagjinis,ZahariasandThopias, and establish a centralised authority over most of the non-conquered territories and proclaiming himself the Lord of Albania (Dominus Albaniaein Latin).Skanderbeg consistently pursued the aim relentlessly but rather unsuccessfully to create a European coalition against the Ottomans. His unequal fight against them won the esteem of Europe and financial and military aid from thePapacyandNaples,VeniceandRagusa.
The Albanians, then predominantly Christian, were initially considered as aninferior classof people and as such were subjected to heavytaxessuch as theDevshirmesystem that allowed the state to collect a requisite percentage of Christian adolescents from theBalkansand elsewhere to compose theJanissary.Since the Albanians were seen as strategically important, they made up a significant proportion of theOttoman militaryand bureaucracy. They were therefore to be found within the imperial services as vital military and administrative retainers fromEgypttoAlgeriaand the rest of theMaghreb.
In the late 18th century,Ali Pasha Tepelenacreated the autonomous region of thePashalik of Yaninawithin theOttoman Empirewhich was never recognised as such by theHigh Porte. The territory he properly governed incorporated most of southernAlbania,Epirus,Thessalyand southwesternMacedoniaregion. During his rule, the town ofJaninablossomed into a cultural, political and economic hub for both Albanians and Greeks.
The ultimate goal of Ali Pasha Tepelena seems to have been the establishment of an independent rule in Albania and Epirus.Thus, he obtained control ofArtaand took control over the ports ofButrint,PrevezaandVonitsa. He also gained control of thepashaliksofElbasan,Delvina,BeratandVlorë. His relations with the High Porte were always tense though he developed and maintained relations with theBritish,FrenchandRussiansand formed alliances with them at various times.
In the 19th century, the AlbanianwālīMuhammad Aliestablished adynastythat ruled overEgyptandSudanuntil the middle of the 20th century.After a briefFrench invasionled byNapoleon Bonaparteand the Ottomans andMamelukscompeting for power there, he managed collectively with his Albanian troops to become the Ottoman viceroy in Egypt.As he revolutionised the military and economic spheres of Egypt, his empire attracted Albanian people contributing to the emergence of theAlbanian diaspora in Egyptinitially formed by Albanian soldiers and mercenaries.
Islamarrived in the lands of the Albanian people gradually and grew widespread between at least the 17th and 18th centuries.The new religion brought many transformations into Albanian society and henceforth offered them equal opportunities and advancement within theOttoman Empire.
With the advent of increasing suppression onCatholicism, the Ottomans initially focused their conversions on the Catholic Albanians of the north in the 17th century and followed suit in the 18th century on the Orthodox Albanians of the south.At this point, the urban centers ofcentralandsouthern Albaniahad largely adopted the religion of the growing Muslim Albanian elite. Many mosques andtakyaswere constructed throughout those urban centers and cities such asBerat,Gjirokastër,KorçëandShkodërstarted to flourish.In the farnorth, the spread of Islam was slower due to Catholic Albanian resistance and the inaccessible and rather remote mountainous terrain.
The motives forconversionto Islam are subject to differing interpretations according to scholars depending on the context though the lack of sources does not help when investigating such issues.Reasons included the incentive to escape hightaxeslevied on non-Muslims subjects,ecclesiasticaldecay, coercion by Ottoman authorities in times of war, and the privileged legal and social position Muslims within the Ottoman administrative and political machinery had over that of non-Muslims.
As Muslims, the Albanians attained powerful positions in the Ottoman administration including over three dozenGrand Viziersof Albanian origin, among themZagan Pasha,Bayezid Pashaand members of theKöprülü family, and regional rulers such asMuhammad Ali of EgyptandAli Pasha of Tepelena. The Ottoman sultansBayezid IIandMehmed IIIwere both Albanian on theirmaternal side.
Areas such as Albania, western North Macedonia, southern Serbia, Kosovo, parts of northern Greece and southern Montenegro in Ottoman sources were referred to asArnavudlukor Albania.
TheAlbanian Renaissancecharacterised a period wherein the Albanian people gathered bothspiritualand intellectual strength to establish their rights for an independent political and social life, culture and education. By the late 18th century and the early 19th century, its foundation arose within theAlbanian communitiesinItalyandRomaniaand was frequently linked to the influences of theRomanticismandEnlightenmentprinciples.
Albania was under the rule of theOttoman Empirefor almost five centuries and the Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of unity or national conscience by the Albanian people. A number of thoroughly intellectual Albanians, among themNaum Veqilharxhi,Girolamo de Rada,Dora d'Istria,Thimi Mitko,NaimandSami Frashëri, made a conscious effort to awaken feelings of pride and unity among their people by working to developAlbanian literaturethat would call to mind the rich history and hopes for a more decent future.
The Albanians had poor or often no schools or other institutions in place to protect and preserve theircultural heritage. The need for schools was preached initially by the increasing number of Albanians educated abroad. The Albanian communities in Italy and elsewhere were particularly active in promoting the Albanian cause, especially in education which finally resulted with the foundation of theMësonjëtorjainKorçë, the first secular school in theAlbanian language.
TheTurkish yokehad become fixed in the nationalist mythologies and psyches of the people in theBalkans, and their march toward independence quickened. Due to the more substantial of Islamic influence, the Albanians internal social divisions, and the fear that they would lose their Albanian territories to the emerging neighbouring states,Serbia,Montenegro,BulgariaandGreece, were among the last peoples in the Balkans to desire division from the Ottoman Empire.
The national awakening as a coherent political movement emerged after theTreaty of San Stefano, according to which Albanian-inhabited territories were to be ceded to the neighbouring states, and focused on preventing that partition.It was the impetus for the nation-building movement, which was based more on fear of partition than national identity.Even after thedeclaration of independence, national identity was fragmented and possibly non-existent in much of the newly proposed country.The state of disunity and fragmentation would remain until the communist period followingSecond World War, when the communist nation-building project would achieve greater success in nation-building and reach more people than any previous regime, thus creating Albanian national communist identity.
Enver Hoxhaof the CommunistParty of Labourtook power inAlbaniain 1946. Albania established an alliance with theEastern Blocwhich provided Albania with many advantages in the form of economic assistance and military protection from theWestern Blocduring theCold War.
The Albanians experienced a period of several beneficial political and economic changes. Thegovernmentdefended the territorialintegrityandsovereigntyof Albania, diversified the economy through a programme of industrialisation which led to a higherstandard of livingand followed improvements in areas such as health, education and infrastructure.
It subsequently followed a period wherein the Albanians lived within an extreme isolation from the rest of the world for the next four decades. By 1967, the established government had officially proclaimed Albania to be the firstatheistic statein the world as they beforehand confiscatedchurches,monasteriesand mosques, and any religious expression instantly became grounds for imprisonment.
Protests coinciding with the emergingrevolutions of 1989began to break out in various cities throughout Albania includingShkodërandTiranawhich eventually lead to thefall of communism. Significant internal and external migration waves of Albanians to such countries asGreeceand Italy followed.
Bunkerisationis arguably the most visible and memorable legacy of communism in Albania. Nearly 175,000 reinforced concretebunkerswere built on strategic locations acrossAlbania's territoryincluding near borders, within towns, on the seashores or mountains.These bunkers were never used for their intended purpose or for sheltering the population from attacks or an invasion by a neighbor. However, they were abandoned after the breakup of communism and have been sometimes reused for a variety of purposes.
Kosovodeclaredindependencefrom Serbia on 17 February 2008, after years of strained relations between the Serb and predominantlyAlbanianpopulation of Kosovo. It has been officially recognised by Australia, Canada, the United States and majorEuropean Unioncountries, while Serbia refuse to recognise Kosovo's independence, claiming it asAutonomous Province of Kosovo and MetohijaunderUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1244.
The overwhelming majority of Kosovo's population is ethnically Albanian with nearly 1.7 million people.Their presence as well as in the adjacent regions ofToplicaandMoravais recorded since theMiddle Ages.As the Serbs expelled many Albanians from the wider Toplica and Morava regions in Southern Serbia, which the 1878Congress of Berlinhad given to thePrincipality of Serbia, many of them settled in Kosovo.
After being an integral section of theKingdom of Yugoslavia, Kosovo including its Albanian population went through a period of discrimination, economic and political persecution.Rights to use theAlbanian languagewere guaranteed by the constitution of the later formedSocialist Yugoslaviaand was widely used in Macedonia and Montenegro prior to thedissolution of Yugoslavia.In 1989, Kosovo lost its status as a federal entity of Yugoslavia with rights similar to those of the six other republics and eventually became part ofSerbia and Montenegro.
In 1998, tensions between theAlbanianandSerbpopulation of Kosovo culminated in theKosovo War, which led to the external and internal displacement of hundreds of thousands of Kosovo Albanians. Serbian paramilitary forces committed war crimes in Kosovo, although thegovernment of Serbiaclaims that the army was only going after suspected Albanian terrorists.NATOlaunched a78-day air campaignin 1999, which eventually led to an end to the war.
Approximately five million Albanians are geographically distributed across theBalkan Peninsulawith about half this number living inAlbania,Kosovo,North MacedoniaandMontenegroas well as to a more lesser extent inCroatiaandSerbia. There are also significant Albanian populations inGreece.
Approximately 1.8 million Albanians are concentrated in the partially recognisedRepublic of Kosovo. They are geographically distributed south of themunicipalityofNorth Mitrovicaand constitute the overall majority ethnic group of the territory.
InMontenegro, the Albanian population is currently estimated to be around 30,000 forming one of the constituent ethnicminority groupsof the country.They predominantly live in thecoastal regionof Montenegro around the municipalities ofUlcinjandBarbut also Tuz and aroundPlavin thenorthern regionas well as in the capital city ofPodgoricain thecentral region.
InNorth Macedonia, there are more than approximately 500,000 Albanians constituting the largest ethnic minority group in the country.The vast majority of the Albanians are chiefly concentrated around themunicipalitiesofTetovoandGostivarin thenorthwestern region,StrugaandDebarin thesouthwestern regionas well as around the capital ofSkopjein thecentral region.
InCroatia, the number of Albanians stands at approximately 17.500 mostly concentrated in thecountiesofIstria,Split-Dalmatiaand most notably in the capital city ofZagreb.TheArbanasi peoplewho historically migrated toBulgaria, Croatia andUkrainelive in scattered communities across Bulgaria, Croatia andSouthern Ukraine.
InSerbia, the Albanians are an officially recognised ethnic minority group with a population of around 70,000.They are significantly concentrated in themunicipalitiesofBujanovacandPreševoin thePčinja District. InRomania, the number of Albanians is unofficially estimated from 500 to 10,000 mainly distributed inBucharest. They are recognised as an ethnic minority group and are respectively represented inParliament of Romania.
TheItalian Peninsulaacross theAdriatic Seahas attracted Albanian people for more than half a millennium often due to its immediate proximity. Albanians in Italy later became important in establishing the fundamentals of theAlbanian Renaissanceand maintaining theAlbanian culture. TheArbëreshë peoplecame sporadically in several small and large cycles initially asStratiotimercenaries in service of the kingdoms ofNaplesandSicilyand theRepublic of Venice.Larger migration waves occurred after the death ofSkanderbegand the capture ofKrujëandShkodërby theOttomansto escape the forthcoming political and religious changes.
Today,Arbëreshëconstitute one of the largestethnolinguisticminority groups and their language is recognized and protected constitutionally under the provisions of theEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.The total number ofArbëreshësis approximately 260,000 scattered acrossSicily, Calabria andApulia.There are Italian Albanians in the Americas especially in such countries asArgentina, Chile,Uruguay, Canada and the United States.
After 1991, a mass migration of Albanians towards Italy occurred.Between 2015 and 2016, the number of Albanian migrants who held legal permits of residence in Italy was numbered to be around 480,000 and 500,000.Tuscany, Lombardy andEmilia-Romagnarepresent theregionswith the strongest presence of the modern Albanian population in Italy.As of 2022, 433,000 Albanian migrants who held legal permits of residence lived in Italy and were the second largest migrant community in Italy after Romanians.As of 2018, an additional ca. 200,000 Albanian migrants have obtained Italian citizenship (children born in Italy not included).
As of 2012, 41.5% of the Albanian in Italy population were counted asMuslim, 38.9% asChristianincluding 27.7% asRoman Catholicand 11% asEastern Orthodoxand 17.8% asIrreligious.
TheArvanitesandAlbanians of Western Thraceare a group descended fromToskswho migrated to southern and central Greece between the 13th and 16th centuries.They are Greek Orthodox Christians, and though they traditionally speak a dialect ofTosk Albanianknown asArvanitika, they have fully assimilated into the Greek nation and do not identify as Albanians.Arvanitika is in a state of attrition due to language shift towards Greek and large-scale internal migration to the cities and subsequent intermingling of the population during the 20th century.
TheCham Albanianswere a group that formerly inhabited a region ofEpirusknown asChameria, nowadaysThesprotiain northwestern Greece. Many Cham Albanians converted to Islam during the Ottoman era. Muslim Chams wereexpelledfrom Greece duringWorld War II, by ananti-communist resistance group(EDES). The causes of the expulsion were multifaceted and remain a matter of debate among historians. Different narratives in historiography argue that the causes involved pre-existing Greek policies which targeted the minority and sought its elimination, the Chamcollaborationwith the Axis forces and local property disputes which were instrumentalized after WWII.The estimated number of Cham Albanians expelled from Epirus to Albania andTurkeyvaries: figures include 14,000, 19,000, 20,000, 25,000 and 30,000.According to Cham reports this number should be raised to c. 35,000.
Large-scale migration from Albania to Greece occurred after 1991. During this period, at least 500,000 Albanians have migrated and relocated to Greece. Despite the lack of exact statistics, it is estimated that at least 700,000 Albanians have moved to Greece during the last 25 years. The Albanian government estimates 500,000 Albanians in Greece at the very least without accounting for their children.The 2011 Greece census indicated that Albanians consisted the biggest group of migrants in Greece, numbered roughly 480,000, but taking into consideration the current population of Greece (11 million) and the fact that the census failed to account for illegal foreigners, it was estimated that Albanians consist of 5% of the population (at least 550,000).By 2005, around 600,000 Albanians lived in Greece, forming the largest immigrant community in the country.They are economic migrants whose migration began in 1991, following the collapse of theSocialist People's Republic of Albania. As of 2022, in total, there might have been more than 500,000 Albanian-born migrants and their children who received Greek citizenship over the years.In recent years, many Albanian workers and their families have left Greece in search of better opportunities elsewhere in Europe.As of 2022, there c. 292,000 Albanian immigrants are holders of legal permits to live and work in Greece, down from c. 423,000 in 2021.
Albanians in Greece have a long history ofHellenisation, assimilation and integration.Many ethnic Albanians have been naturalised as Greek nationals, others have self-declared as Greek since arrival and a considerable number live and work across both countries seasonally hence the number of Albanians in the country has often fluctuated.
Diaspora based Albanians may self identify as Albanian, use hybrid identification or identify with their nationality, often creating an obstacle in establishing a total figure of the population.
During the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries, theconflicts in the Balkansand theKosovo Warset in motion large population movements of Albanians toCentral,Westernand Northern Europe.The gradualcollapse of communismin Albania triggered as well a new wave of migration and contributed to the emergence of a new diaspora, mainly in Southern Europe, in such countries asGreeceand Italy.
In Central Europe, there are approximately 200,000 Albanians inSwitzerlandwith the particular concentration in thecantonsofZürich,Basel,Lucerne,BernandSt. Gallen.The neighbouring Germany is home to around 250,000 to 300,000 Albanians while inAustriathere are around 40,000 to 80,000 Albanians concentrated in thestatesofVienna,Styria,Salzburg,LowerandUpper Austria.
InWestern Europe, the Albanian population of approximately 10,000 people living in theBenelux countriesis in comparison to other regions relatively limited. There are more than 6,000 Albanian people living inBelgiumand 2,800 in the nearbyNetherlands. The most lesser number of Albanian people in the Benelux region is to be found inLuxembourgwith a population of 2,100.
Within Northern Europe, Sweden possesses the most sizeable population of Albanians inScandinaviahowever there is no exact answer to their number in the country. The populations also tend to be lower inNorway,FinlandandDenmarkwith more than 18,000, 10,000 and 8,000 Albanians respectively.The population of Albanians in theUnited Kingdomis officially estimated to be around 39,000 whiles in Ireland there are less than 2,500 Albanians.
The Albanian diaspora in Africa and Asia, in such countries asEgypt,SyriaorTurkey, was predominantly formed during the Ottoman period through economicmigrationand early years of theRepublic of Turkeythrough migration due to sociopolitical discrimination and violence experienced by Albanians inBalkans.InTurkey, the exact numbers of the Albanian population of the country are difficult to correctly estimate. According to a 2008 report, there were approximately 1.300,000 people of Albanian descent living in Turkey.As of that report, more than 500,000 Albanian descendants still recognise theirancestryand or their language, culture and traditions.
There are also other estimates that range from being 3 to 4 million people up to a total of 5 million in number, although most of these are Turkish citizens of either full or partial Albanian ancestry being no longer fluent in Albanian, comparable to theGerman Americans.This was due to various degrees of either linguistic and orcultural assimilationoccurring amongst the Albanian diaspora in Turkey.Albanians are active in the civic life of Turkey.
InEgyptthere are 18,000 Albanians, mostlyToskspeakers.Many are descendants of theJanissariesofMuhammad Ali Pasha, an Albanian who becameWāli, and self-declaredKhediveof Egypt andSudan.In addition to thedynastythat he established, a large part of the former Egyptian and Sudanesearistocracywas of Albanian origin.Albanian Sunnis, Bektashis and Orthodox Christians were all represented in this diaspora, whose members at some point included majorRenaissancefigures (Rilindasit), including Thimi Mitko, Spiro Dine, Andon Zako Çajupi, Milo Duçi, Fan Noli and others who lived in Egypt for a time.With the ascension ofGamal Abdel Nasserin Egypt and rise ofArab nationalism, the last remnants of Albanian community there were forced to leave.Albanians have been present inArabcountries such as Syria, Lebanon,Iraq, Jordan, and for about five centuries as a legacy ofOttoman Turkishrule.
The first Albanian migration to North America began in the 19th and 20th centuries not long after gainingindependencefrom theOttoman Empire. However theArbëreshë peoplefromSouthern Italywere the first Albanian people to arrive in theNew World, many of them migrating after the wars that accompanied theRisorgimento.
Since then several Albanian migration waves have occurred throughout the 20th century as for instance after theSecond World Warwith Albanians mostly fromYugoslaviarather than fromCommunist Albania, then after theBreakup of Communist Albaniain 1990 and finally following theKosovo Warin 1998.
The most sizeable Albanian population in the Americas is predominantly to be found in the United States.New York metropolitan areain theState of New Yorkis home to the most sizeable Albanian population of the United States.As of 2017, there are approximately 205,000 Albanians in the country with the main concentration in thestatesof New York,Michigan,MassachusettsandIllinois.The number could be higher counting theArbëreshë peopleas well; they are often distinguishable from other Albanian Americans with regard to theirItalianizednames, nationality and a commonreligion.
In Canada, there are approximately 39,000 Albanians in the country, including 36,185 Albanians fromAlbaniaand 2,870 Albanians fromKosovo, predominantly distributed in a multitude ofprovincessuch asOntario, Quebec,AlbertaandBritish Columbia.Canada's largest cities such asToronto, Montreal andEdmontonwere besides the United States a major centre of Albanian migration to North America. Toronto is home to around 17,000 Albanians.
Albanian immigration to Australia began in the late 19th century and most took place during the 20th century.People who planned to immigrate chose Australia after the US introduced immigration quotas on southern Europeans.Most were from southern Albania, of Muslim and Orthodox backgrounds and tended to live inVictoriaandQueensland, with smaller numbers inWesternand Northern Australia.
Italy'sannexationof Albania marked a difficult time for Albanian Australians as many were thought by Australian authorities to pose a fascist threat.Post-war, the numbers of Albanian immigrants slowed due to immigration restrictions placed by thecommunist governmentin Albania.
Albanians from southwestern Yugoslavia (modern North Macedonia) arrived and settled in Melbourne in the 1960s-1970s.Other Albanian immigrants from Yugoslavia came fromMontenegroandSerbia. The immigrants were mostly Muslims, but also Catholics among them including the relatives of the Albanian nun and missionaryMother Teresa.Albanian refugees from Kosovo settled in Australia following the aftermath of the Kosovo conflict.
In the early twenty first century, Victoria has the highest concentration of Albanians and smaller Albanian communities exist in Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales and the Northern Territory.In 2016, approximately 4,041 persons resident in Australia identified themselves as having been born inAlbaniaandKosovo, while 15,901 persons identified themselves as having Albanian ancestry, either alone or in combination with another ancestry.
Albanian migration to New Zealand occurred mid twentieth century following theSecond World War.A small group of Albanian refugees originating mainly from Albania and the rest from Yugoslavian Kosovo and Macedonia settled in Auckland.During theKosovo crisis(1999), up to 400 Kosovo Albanian refugees settled in New Zealand.In the twenty first century, Albanian New Zealanders number 400-500 people and are mainly concentrated inAuckland.
TheAlbanian tribes(Albanian:fiset shqiptare) form a historical mode of social organization (farefisní) inAlbaniaand the southwesternBalkanscharacterized by a commonculture, often common patrilineal kinship ties tracing back to one progenitor and sharedsocial ties. Thefis(Albaniandefinite form:fisi; commonly translated as "tribe", also as "clan" or "kin" community) stands at the center of Albanian organization based onkinshiprelations, a concept which can be found among southern Albanians also with the termfarë(Albaniandefinite form:fara). Inherited from ancientIllyriansocial structures, Albanian tribal society emerged in the early Middle Ages as the dominant form of social organization among Albanians.It also remained in a less developed system insouthern Albaniawhere large feudal estates and later trade and urban centres began to develop at the expense of tribal organization. One of the most particular elements of the Albanian tribal structure is its dependence on theKanun, a code of Albanian oralcustomary laws.Most tribes engaged in warfare against external forces like the Ottoman Empire. Some also engaged in limited inter-tribal struggle for the control of resources.
Until the early years of the 20th century, the Albanian tribal society remained largely intact until the rise to power ofcommunist regimein 1944, and is considered as the only example of a tribal social system structured with tribal chiefs and councils,blood feudsandoral customary laws, surviving inEuropeuntil the middle of the 20th century.Members of the tribes of northern Albania believe their history is based on the notions of resistance and isolationism.Some scholars connect this belief with the concept of "negotiated peripherality". Throughout history the territory northern Albanian tribes occupy has been contested and peripheral so northern Albanian tribes often exploited their position and negotiated their peripherality in profitable ways. This peripheral position also affected their national program which significance and challenges are different from those in southern Albania.
TheKanunis a set of Albanian traditionalcustomary laws, which has directed all the aspects of theAlbanian tribal society.For at least the last five centuries and until today, Albanian customary laws have been kept alive only orally by the tribal elders. The success in preserving them exclusively throughoral systemshighlights their universal resilience and provides evidence of their likely ancient origins.Strong pre-Christian motifs mixed with motifs from the Christian era reflect the stratification of the Albanian customary law across various historical ages.Over time, Albanian customary laws have undergone their historical development, they have been changed and supplemented with newnorms, in accordance with certain requirements of socio-economic development.Besaandnderi(honour) are of major importance in Albanian customary law as the cornerstone of personal and social conduct.The Kanun is based on four pillars – Honour (Albanian:Nderi), Hospitality (Albanian:Mikpritja), Right Conduct (Albanian:Sjellja) and Kin Loyalty (Albanian:Fis).
Besa(pledge of honor)is an Albanian culturalprecept, usually translated as "faith" or "oath", that means "to keep the promise" and "word of honor".The concept is based upon faithfulness toward one's word in the form of loyalty or as an allegiance guarantee.Besa contains mores toward obligations to the family and a friend, the demand to have internal commitment, loyalty and solidarity when conducting oneself with others and secrecy in relation to outsiders.The besa is also the main element within the concept of the ancestor's will or pledge (amanet) where a demand for faithfulness to a cause is expected in situations that relate to unity, national liberation and independence that transcend a person and generations.
The concept of besa is included in theKanun, thecustomary lawof the Albanian people.The besa was an important institution within the tribal society of theAlbanian tribes,who swore oaths to jointly fight against invaders, and in this aspect the besa served to uphold tribal autonomy.The besa was used toward regulating tribal affairs between and within the Albanian tribes.
The traditionalcuisineof the Albanians is diverse and has been greatly influenced by traditions and their variedenvironmentin theBalkansand turbulent history throughout the course of the centuries.There is a considerable diversity between theMediterraneanandBalkan-influenced cuisines of Albanians in the Western Balkan nations and theItalianandGreek-influenced cuisines of theArbëreshësandChams. The enjoyment of food has a high priority in the lives of Albanian peoples especially when celebratingreligious festivalssuch asRamadan,Eid, Christmas, Easter,HanukkahorNovruz
Ingredients include many varieties of fruits such aslemons, oranges,figsandolives, herbs such asbasil,lavender,mint,oregano,rosemaryandthymeand vegetables such as garlic, onion,peppers, potatoes and tomatoes. Albanian peoples who live closer to theMediterranean Sea,Prespa LakeandOhrid Lakeare able to complement their diet with fish,shellfishand other seafood. Otherwise,lambis often considered the traditional meat for differentreligious festivals. Poultry, beef and pork are also in plentiful supply.
Tavë Kosiis a national dish in Albania consisting of garlic lamb and rice baked under a thick, tart veil ofyogurt.Fërgesëis another national dish and is made with peppers, tomatoes andcottage cheese. Pite is a baked pastry with a filling of a mixture ofspinachandgjizëormish. Desserts includeFlia, consisting of multiple crepe-like layers brushed with crea; petulla, a traditionally fried dough, and Krofne, similar toBerliner.
The earliest preserved relics of visual arts of the Albanian people aresacredin nature and represented by numerousfrescoes,muralsandiconswhich has been created with an admirable use of color and gold. They reveal a wealth of various influences and traditions that converged in the historical lands of the Albanian people throughout the course of the centuries.
The rise of theByzantinesandOttomansduring theMiddle Ageswas accompanied by a corresponding growth inChristianandIslamic artoften apparent in examples of architecture and mosaics throughout Albania.TheAlbanian Renaissanceproved crucial to the emancipation of the modern Albanian culture and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of literature and arts whereas artists sought to return to the ideals ofImpressionismandRomanticism.
Onufri, founder of the Berat School,Kolë Idromeno,David Selenica,Kostandin Shpatarakuand theZografi Brothersare the most eminent representatives of Albanian art. Albanians in Italy and Croatia have been also active among others theRenaissanceinfluenced artists such asMarco Basaiti,Viktor KarpaçiandAndrea Nikollë Aleksi. In Greece,Eleni Boukourasis noted as being the first great female painter of postindependence Greece.
In 1856,Pjetër Marubiarrived inShkodërand established the first photography museum in Albania and probably the entireBalkans, theMarubi Museum. The collection of 150,000 photographs, captured by the Albanian-Italian Marubi dynasty, offers an ensemble of photographs depicting social rituals, traditional costumes, portraits of Albanian history.
The Kulla, a traditional Albaniandwellingconstructed completely from natural materials, is a cultural relic from the medieval period particularly widespread in the southwestern region ofKosovoand northern region ofAlbania. The rectangular shape of a Kulla is produced with irregularstoneashlars, river pebbles andchestnutwoods, however, the size and number of floors depends on the size of the family and their financial resources.
The roots ofliterature of the Albanian peoplecan be traced to theMiddle Ageswith surviving works about history, theology and philosophy dating from theRenaissance.
The earliest known use of written Albanian is abaptismal formula(1462) written by the Archbishop of DurrësPaulus Angelus.In 1555, a Catholic clergymanGjon Buzukufrom the Shestan region published the earliest known book written in Albanian titledMeshari(The Missal) regarding Catholic prayers and rites containing archaic medieval language, lexemes and expressions obsolete in contemporary Albanian.Other Christian clergy such asLuca Matrangain the Arbëresh diaspora published (1592) in the Tosk dialect while other notable authors were from northern Albanian lands and includedPjetër Budi,Frang Bardhi, andPjetër Bogdani.
In the 17th century and onwards, important contributions were made by theArbëreshë peopleofSouthern Italywho played an influential role in encouraging theAlbanian Renaissance. Notable among them was figures such asDemetrio Camarda,Gabriele Dara,Girolamo de Rada,Giulio VaribobaandGiuseppe Serembewho produced inspiring nationalist literature and worked to systematise theAlbanian language.
TheBejtexhinjin the 18th century emerged as the result of the influences ofIslamand particularlySufismorders moving towardsOrientalism.Individuals such asNezim Frakulla,Hasan Zyko Kamberi,ShahinandDalip Frashëricompiled literature infused with expressions, language and themes on the circumstances of the time, the insecurities of the future and their discontent at the conditions of the feudal system.
The Albanian Renaissance in the 19th century is important both for its valuable poetic achievement and for its variety within the Albanian literature. It drew on the ideas ofRomanticismandEnlightenmentcharacterised by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as the interaction between nature and mankind.Dora d'Istria,Girolamo de Rada,Naim Frashëri,Naum Veqilharxhi,Sami FrashëriandPashko Vasamaintained this movement and are remembered today for composing series of prominent works.
The 20th century was centred on the principles ofModernismandRealismand characterised by the development to a more distinctive and expressive form of Albanian literature.Pioneers of the time includeAsdreni,Faik Konica,Fan Noli,Lasgush Poradeci,Migjeniwho chose to portray themes of contemporary life and most notablyGjergj Fishtawho created the epic masterpieceLahuta e Malcís.
After World War II, Albania emerged as a communist state and Socialist realism became part of the literary scene.Authors and poets emerged such asSejfulla Malëshova,Dritero AgolliandIsmail Kadarewho has become an internationally acclaimed novelist and others who challenged the regime through various sociopolitical and historic themes in their works.Martin Camajwrote in the diaspora while in neighbouring Yugoslavia, the emergence of Albanian cultural expression resulted in sociopolitical and poetic literature by notable authors likeAdem Demaçi,Rexhep Qosja,Jusuf Buxhovi.The literary scene of the 21st century remains vibrant producing new novelists, authors, poets and other writers.
The Albanian people have incorporated various natural materials from their local agriculture and livestock as a source ofattire, clothing and fabrics. Theirtraditional apparelwas primarily influenced bynature, thelifestyleand has continuously changed since ancient times.Different regions possesses their own exceptional clothing traditions and peculiarities varied occasionally in colour, material and shape.
Thetraditional costumeof Albanian men includes a whiteskirtcalledFustanella, a white shirt with widesleeves, and a thin black jacket or vest such as theXhamadanor Xhurdia. In winter, they add a warmwoolenorfurcoat known as Flokata or Dollama made fromsheepskinor goat fur. Another authentic piece is called Tirq which is a tight pair of felttrousersmostly white, sometimes dark brown or black.
The Albanian women's costumes are much more elaborate, colorful and richer in ornamentation. In all the Albanian regions the women's clothing often has been decorated withfiligreeironwork, colorful embroidery, a lot of symbols and vivid accessories. A unique and ancient dress is calledXhubleta, a bell shaped skirt reaching down to the calves and worn from the shoulders with two shoulder straps at the upper part.
Different traditional handmade shoes and socks were worn by the Albanian people.Opinga, leather shoes made from rough animal skin, were worn withÇorape, knitted woolen or cotton socks.Headdressesremain a contrasting and recognisable feature of Albanian traditional clothing. Albanian men wore hats of various designs, shape and size. A common headgear is aPlisand Qylafë, in contrast, Albanian women wore a Kapica adorned with jewels or embroidery on the forehead, and a Lëvere or Kryqe which usually covers the head, shoulders and neck. Wealthy Albanian women wore headdresses embellished with gems, gold or silver.
For the Albanian people,musicis a vital component to theircultureand characterised by its own peculiar features and diverse melodic pattern reflecting thehistory,languageandway of life.It rather varies from region to another with two essential stylistic differences between the music of theGhegsandTosks. Hence, their geographic position in Southeast Europe in combination with cultural, political and social issues is frequently expressed through music along with the accompanyinginstrumentsand dances.
Albanian folk music is contrasted by the heroic tone of the Ghegs and the relaxed sounds of the Tosks.Traditionaliso-polyphonyperhaps represents the most noble and essential genre of the Tosks which was proclaimed aMasterpiece of the Intangible Heritage of HumanitybyUNESCO.Ghegs in contrast have a reputation for a distinctive variety of sungepic poetryoften about the tumultuous history of the Albanian people.
There are a number of internationally acclaimed singers of ethnic Albanian origin such asAva Max,Bebe Rexha,Dua Lipa,Era Istrefi,Rita Ora, and rappers such asAction Bronson,Dardan,GashiandLoredana Zefi. Notable singers of Albanian origin from the formerYugoslaviaincludeSelma BajramiandZana Nimani.
In international competitions,Albaniaparticipated in theEurovision Song Contestfor the first time in 2004. Albanians have also represented other countries in the contest:Anna OxaforItalyin 1989,Adrian GaxhaforNorth Macedoniain 2008,Ermal MetaforItalyin 2018,Eleni FoureiraforCyprusin 2018, as well asGjon MuharremajforSwitzerlandin 2020 and 2021.Kosovohas never participated, but is currently applying to become a member of theEBUand therefore debut in the contest.
Many differentspiritualtraditions, religiousfaithsandbeliefsare practised by the Albanian people who historically have succeeded to coexist peacefully over the centuries in Southeast Europe.They are traditionally both Christians andMuslims—CatholicsandOrthodox,SunnisandBektashisand—but also to a lesser extentEvangelicals,ProtestantsandJews, constituting one of the most religiously diverse peoples of Europe.
Christianity in Albania was under the jurisdiction of theBishop of Romeuntil the 8th century. Then, dioceses in Albania were transferred to thepatriarchate of Constantinople. In 1054 after the schism, the north became identified with theRoman Catholic Church.Since that time all churches north of the Shkumbin river were Catholic and under the jurisdiction of the Pope.Various reasons have been put forward for the spread of Catholicism among northern Albanians. Traditional affiliation with theLatin Churchand Catholic missions in central Albania in the 12th century fortified the Catholic Church against Orthodoxy, while local leaders found an ally in Catholicism against Slavic Orthodox states.After theOttoman conquest of the Balkans, Christianity began to be overtaken by Islam, and Catholicism and Orthodoxy continued to be practiced with less frequency.
During themodern era, the monarchy andcommunismin Albania as well as thesocialismin Kosovo, historically part ofYugoslavia, followed a systematicsecularisationof its people. This policy was chiefly applied within the borders of both territories and produced a secular majority of its population.
All forms of Christianity,Islamand other religious practices were prohibited except for old non-institutionalpaganpractices in the rural areas, which were seen as identifying with the national culture. The current Albanian state has revived some pagan festivals, such as theSpringfestival (Albanian:Dita e Verës) held yearly on 14 March in the city ofElbasan. It is a national holiday.
The communist regime which ruled Albania after World War II persecuted and suppressed religious observance and institutions, and entirely banned religion to the point where Albania was officially declared to be the world's firstatheist state. Religious freedom returned to Albania following the regime's change in 1992. Albanian Sunni Muslims are found throughout the country,Albanian Orthodox Christiansas well asBektashisare concentrated in the south, while Roman Catholics are found primarily in the north of the country.
According to the 2011 Census, which has been recognised as unreliable by theCouncil of Europe,in Albania, 58.79% of the population adheres to Islam, making it the largest religion in the country. Christianity is practiced by 16.99% of the population, making it the second largest religion in the country. The remaining population is eitherirreligiousor belongs to other religious groups.Before World War II, there was given a distribution of 70% Muslims, 20% Eastern Orthodox, and 10% Roman Catholics.Today, Gallup Global Reports 2010 shows that religion plays a role in the lives of only 39% of Albanians, and ranks Albania the thirteenth least religious country in the world.
For part of its history,Albania has also had a Jewish community. Members of the Jewish community were saved by a group of Albanians during the Nazi occupation.Many left for Israelc.1990–1992 when the borders were opened after the fall of the communist regime, but about 200 Jews still live in Albania.