Capsicum

Capsicum(/ˈkæpsɪkəm/) is agenusofflowering plantsin thenightshadefamilySolanaceae, native to theAmericas, cultivated worldwide for their edible fruit, which are generally known as "peppers" or "capsicum".Chili peppersgrow on five species ofCapsicum.Sweet or bell peppersand some chili peppers areCapsicum annuum, making it the most cultivated species in the genus.
Capsicumis native toSouth AmericaandCentral America.These plants have been evolving for 17 million years.It was domesticated andcultivatedat least since 3000 BC, as evidenced by remains of chili peppers found in pottery fromPueblaandOaxaca.
The generic name may come fromLatincapsa, meaning 'box', presumably alluding to the pods;or possibly from theGreekwordκάπτω,kapto, 'to gulp'.The namepeppercomes from the similarity ofpiquance(spiciness or "heat") of the flavor to that ofblack pepper,Pipernigrum, although there is no botanical relationship with it or withSichuan pepper. The original termchillicame from theNahuatlwordchīlli, denoting a largerCapsicumvarietycultivatedat least since 3000 BC.Different varieties were cultivated in South America, where they are known asajíes(singularají), from theQuechuaterm forCapsicum.
The fruit (botanically aberry) ofCapsicumplants has a variety of names depending on place and type. The more piquant varieties are calledchili peppers, or simplychilis. The large, mild form is calledbell pepper, or is named by color (green pepper,green bell pepper,red bell pepper, etc.) in North America andSouth Africa,sweet pepper. The name is simplypepperin theUnited KingdomandIreland.The namecapsicumis used inAustralia,India,Malaysia,New Zealand.
Capsicums are solanaceous plants within the tribeCapsiceae, and are closely related toLycianthes.
A 2020 study using ribosomal DNA provided the following phylogenetic tree. It can be seen that in two of the clades, the speciesC. frutescensis intermingled withC. eximiumin one subclade andC. chinensein another subclade; and thatC. chacoenseis intermingled withC. baccatum.
Ideal growing conditions for peppers include a sunny position with warm,loamysoil, ideally 21 to 29 °C (70 to 84 °F), that is moist but not waterlogged.Extremely moist soils can cause seedlings to"damp-off"and reduce germination.
The plants will tolerate (but do not like) temperatures down to 12 °C (54 °F) and they are sensitive to cold.For flowering,Capsicumis a non-photoperiod-sensitive crop.The flowers canself-pollinate. However, at extremely high temperature, 30 to 38 °C (86 to 100 °F), pollen loses viability, and flowers are much less likely to result in fruit.
Capsicumconsists of 20–27 species,five of which are widely cultivated:C. annuum,C. baccatum,C. chinense,C. frutescens, andC. pubescens.Phylogenetic relationships between species have been investigated usingbiogeographical,morphological,chemosystematic,hybridization,and geneticdata.  Fruits ofCapsicumcan vary tremendously in color, shape, and size both between and within species, which has led to confusion over the relationships among taxa.Chemosystematic studies helped distinguish the difference between varieties and species. For example,C. baccatumvar.baccatumhad the same flavonoids asC. baccatumvar.pendulum, which led researchers to believe the two groups belonged to the same species.
Many varieties of the same species can be used in many different ways; for example,C. annuumincludes the "bell pepper" variety, which is sold in both its immature green state and in its red, yellow, or orange ripe state. This same species has other varieties, as well, such as theAnaheimchiles often used for stuffing, the driedancho(before being dried it is called apoblano) chile used to makechili powder, the mild-to-hot, ripejalapenoused to make smoked jalapeno, known aschipotle.
Peruis thought to be the country with the highestcultivatedCapsicumdiversity since varieties of all five domesticates are commonly sold in markets in contrast to other countries.Boliviais considered to be the country where the largestdiversityof wildCapsicumpeppers are consumed. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ulupicas, species with small round fruits includingC. eximium,C. cardenasii,C. eshbaughii, andC. caballeroilandraces; and arivivis, with small elongated fruits includingC. baccatumvar.baccatumandC. chacoensevarieties.
The amount ofcapsaicinis measured inScoville heat units(SHU) and this value varies significantly among Capsicum varieties. For example, a typicalBell pepperhas a value of zero SHU and aJalapeñohas a value of 4000–8000 SHU. In 2017, the Guinness Book of World Records listed the Carolina Reaper as the world's hottest pepper at 1,641,183 SHU, according to tests conducted by Winthrop University in South Carolina, United States.In 2023, theGuinness Book of RecordsrecognizedPepper Xas the world's hottest pepper.
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According to Adepoju et al. (2021), the most commonly occurring Capsicum cultivars in Nigeria (and West Africa) are: C. fructescens var. fructescens L.; C. fructescens var. baccatum (L.) Irish; C. annuum var annuum L; C. annuum var. grossum (L.) Sendtn. and C. chinense Jacq.
MostCapsicumspecies are 2n=2x=24. A few of the non-domesticated species are 2n=2x=26.All arediploid. TheCapsicum annuumandCapsicum chinensegenomes were completed in 2014. TheCapsicum annuumgenome is approximately 3.48 Gb, making it larger than the human genome. Over 75% of the pepper genome is composed oftransposable elements, mostlyGypsyelements, distributed widely throughout the genome. The distribution of transposable elements is inversely correlated with gene density. Pepper is predicted to have 34,903 genes, approximately the same number as bothtomatoandpotato, two related species within the familySolanaceae.
Many types of peppers have been bred for heat, size, and yield. Along with selection of specific fruit traits such as flavor and color, specific pest, disease andabiotic stressresistances are continually being selected. Breeding occurs in several environments dependent on the use of the final variety including but not limited to: conventional,organic,hydroponic,green houseand shade house production environments.
Several breeding programs are being conducted by corporations and universities. In theUnited States,New Mexico State Universityhas released several varieties in the last few years.Cornell Universityhas worked to develop regionally adapted varieties that work better in cooler, damper climates. Other universities such asUC Davis,University of Wisconsin-Madison, andOregon State Universityhave smaller breeding programs. Many vegetable seed companies breed different types of peppers as well.
The fruit of most species ofCapsicumcontainscapsaicin(methyl-n-vanillyl nonenamide), alipophilicchemical that can produce a burning sensation (pungencyorspiciness) in the mouth of the eater. Mostmammalsfind this unpleasant, whereas birds are unaffected.The secretion of capsaicin protects the fruit from consumption byinsects.
Capsaicin is present in large quantities in the placental tissue (which holds theseeds), the internal membranes, and to a lesser extent, the other fleshy parts of the fruits of plants in this genus. The seeds themselves do not produce any capsaicin, although the highest concentration of capsaicin can be found in the whitepitharound the seeds.Most of thecapsaicinin a pungent (hot) pepper is concentrated in blisters on the epidermis of the interior ribs (septa) that divide the chambers, orlocules, of the fruit to which the seeds are attached.
A study on capsaicin production in fruits ofC. chinenseshowed thatcapsaicinoidsare produced only in the epidermal cells of the interlocular septa of pungent fruits, that blister formation only occurs as a result of capsaicinoid accumulation, and that pungency and blister formation are controlled by a single locus,Pun1, for which there exist at least two recessive alleles that result in non-pungency ofC. chinensefruits.
The amount of capsaicin per fruit is highly variable, depending ongeneticsand the environment. The most recognizedCapsicumwithout capsaicin is thebell pepper,acultivarofCapsicum annuum, which has a zero rating on theScoville scale. The lack of capsaicin in bell peppers is due to arecessivegenethat eliminates capsaicin and, consequently, the hot taste usually associated with the rest of the genusCapsicum.There are also other peppers without capsaicin, mostly within theCapsicum annuumspecies, such as the cultivars Giant Marconi,Yummy Sweets,Jimmy Nardello,and Italian Frying peppers (Cubanelles).
Chili peppers are important in the medicine ofIndigenous peoples, and capsaicin is used in modern medicine mainly intopicalmedications as acirculatorystimulantandanalgesic. In more recent times, anaerosolextract of capsaicin, known as capsicum orpepper spray, has become used by law enforcement as anonlethalmeans of incapacitating a person, and in a more widely dispersed form forriot control, or by individuals for personal defense. Capsaicin in vegetable oils or horticultural products can be used in gardening as a naturalinsecticide.
Capsicumfruits can be eaten raw or cooked. Those used in cooking are generally varieties of theC. annuumandC. frutescensspecies, though a few others are used, as well. They are suitable for stuffing with fillings such as cheese, meat, or rice.
They are frequently used both chopped and raw in salads, or cooked in stir-fries or other mixed dishes. They can be sliced into strips and fried, roasted whole or in pieces, or chopped and incorporated into salsas or other sauces, of which they are often a main ingredient.
They can be preserved in the form of ajam,or by drying, pickling, or freezing. Dried Capsicum may be reconstituted whole, or processed into flakes or powders. Pickled or marinated Capsicum are frequently added to sandwiches or salads. Frozen Capsicum are used in stews, soups, and salsas. Extracts can be made and incorporated into hot sauces.
The Spanishconquistadoressoon became aware of their culinary properties, and brought them back to Europe, together with cocoa, potatoes, sweet potatoes, tobacco, maize, beans, and turkeys. They also brought it to the Spanish Philippines colonies, whence it spread to Asia. The Portuguese brought them to their African and Asiatic possessions such as India. All varieties were appreciated but the hot ones were particularly appreciated, because they could enliven an otherwise monotonous diet during times of dietary restriction, such as during religious observances.
Spanish cuisine soon benefited from the discovery of chiles in the New World, and it would become very difficult to untangle Spanish cooking from chiles. Ground chiles, or paprika, hot or otherwise, are a key ingredient inchorizo, which is then called picante (if hot chile is added) or dulce (if otherwise). Paprika is an important ingredient in rice dishes, and plays a definitive role in squid Galician style (polbo á feira). Chopped chiles are used in fish or lamb dishes such asajoarrieroorchilindrón.Pistois a vegetarian stew with chilies and zucchini as main ingredients. They can also be added, finely chopped, togazpachoas a garnish. In some regions, bacon is salted and dusted in paprika for preservation. Cheese can also be rubbed with paprika to lend it flavour and colour. Dried round chiles calledñorasare used forarroz a banda.
After being introduced by the Portuguese, chile peppers saw widespread adoption throughout South, Southeast, and East Asia, especially in India, Thailand, Vietnam, China, and Korea. Several newcultivarswere developed in these countries, and their use in combination with (or as a substitute for) existing 'hot' culinary spices such asblack pepperandSichuan pepperspread rapidly, giving rise to the modern forms a number of staple dishes such asChanna masala,Tom yum,Laziji, andKimchi. This in turn influencedAnglo-IndianandAmerican Chinese cuisine, most notably with the development of British and American forms ofcurry powder(based on Indian spice preparations such asgaram masala), and dishes such asGeneral Tso's chickenandchicken tikka masala.
According toRichard Pankhurst,C. frutescens(known asbarbaré) was so important to thenational cuisine of Ethiopia, at least as early as the 19th century, "that it was cultivated extensively in the warmer areas wherever the soil was suitable." Although it was grown in every province,barbaréwas especially extensive inYejju, "which supplied much ofShowa, as well as other neighbouring provinces." He mentions the upperGolima Rivervalley as being almost entirely devoted to the cultivation of this plant, where it was harvested year-round.
In 2005, a poll of 2,000 people revealed the capsicum to be Britain's fourth-favourite culinary vegetable.
InHungary, sweet yellow capsicum – along with tomatoes – is the main ingredient oflecsó.
InBulgaria, SouthSerbia, andNorth Macedonia, capsicum are very popular, too. They can be eaten in salads, likeshopska salata; fried and then covered with a dip of tomato paste, onions, garlic, and parsley; or stuffed with a variety of products, such as minced meat and rice, beans, or cottage cheese and eggs. Capsicum are the main ingredient in the traditional tomato and capsicum diplyutenitsaandajvar. They are in the base of different kinds of pickled vegetables dishes,turshiya.
Capsicum is also used widely inItalian cuisine, and the hot species are used all around the southern part of Italy as a common spice (sometimes served witholive oil). Capsicums are used in many dishes; they can be cooked by themselves in a variety of ways (roasted, fried, deep-fried) and are a fundamental ingredient for somedelicatessenspecialities, such asnduja.
Capsicums are also used extensively inSri Lankacuisine as side dishes.
TheMayaandAztecpeople ofMesoamericausedCapsicumfruit in cocoa drinks as a flavouring.
InNew Mexico, there is acapsicum annuumcultivar groupcalled theNew Mexico chilewhich is a mainstay of the state'sNew Mexican cuisine.
OnlyCapsicum frutescensL. andCapsicum annuumL. areGenerally recognized as safe.
The name given to theCapsicumfruits varies between English-speaking countries.
In Australia, New Zealand andIndian English, heatless varieties are called "capsicums", while hot ones are called "chilli"/"chillies" (double L). The term "bell peppers" is never used, although in AustraliaC. annuumand other varieties which have a bell shape and are fairly hot, are often called "bell chillies".
InCanada, Ireland, South Africa and the United Kingdom, the heatless varieties are known simply as "peppers" (or more specifically "green peppers", "red peppers", etc.), while the hot ones are "chilli"/"chillies" (double L) or "chilli peppers".
In the United States, the common heatless varieties are referred to as "bell peppers", "sweet peppers", "red/green/etc. peppers", or simply "peppers", while the hot varieties are collectively called "chile"/"chiles", "chili"/"chilies", or "chili"/"chile peppers" (one L only), "hot peppers", or named as a specific variety (e.g.,banana pepper).
The ground spice made from hot capsicums is calledpaprikain bothU.S. EnglishandCommonwealth English. The name derives from Central Europe; inPolishand inHungarian, the termpaprykaandpaprika(respectively) is used for all kinds of capsicums and the spice made from them.