Ba'athist Syria

Ba'athist Syria, officially theSyrian Arab Republic(SAR),was theSyrianstate between 1963 and 2024 under theone-party ruleof theSyrian regional branchof theArab Socialist Ba'ath Party. From 1971 until itscollapse, it was ruled by theAssad family, and was therefore commonly referred to as theAssad regime. It operated as atotalitariandictatorshipin practice.
The regime emerged in the wake of the1963 Syrian coup d'étatand was led byAlawiteneo-Ba'athistmilitary officers. In 1970, presidentNureddin al-Atassiand de facto leaderSalah Jadidwere overthrown byHafez al-Assadin theCorrective Revolution. The next year, Assad became president aftersham elections. AnIslamist uprisingagainst Assad's rule resulted in the regime committing the1981and1982 Hama massacres. The regime was considered one of the most repressive regimes in modern times,ultimately reaching totalitarian levels. The regime consistently ranked as the 'worst of the worst' withinFreedom Houseindexes.
Hafez al-Assaddiedin 2000 and was succeeded by his sonBashar al-Assad, who maintained a similar grip.Major protestsagainst Ba'athist rule in 2011 during theArab Springled to theSyrian civil warbetweenopposition forces, government, and in following yearsislamistssuch asISISwhich weakened the Assad regime's territorial control. However, the Ba'athist government maintained presence and a hold over large areas, also being able to regain further ground in later years with the support ofRussia,IranandHezbollah. In December 2024,a series of surprise offensivesby various rebel factions culminated inthe regime's collapse.
After the1961 coupthat terminated thepolitical union between Egypt and Syria, the instability which followed eventually culminated in the8 March 1963 Ba'athist coup. The takeover was engineered by members of theArab Socialist Ba'ath Party, led byMichel AflaqandSalah al-Din al-Bitar. The new Syrian cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members.
After the 1963 seizure of power by itsMilitary Committee, theBa'ath partyruled Syria as atotalitarian state. Ba'athists took control over country's politics, education, culture, religion and surveilled all aspects of civil society through its powerfulMukhabarat(secret police).TheSyrian Arab Armed forcesand secret police were integrated with the Ba'ath party apparatus; after the purging of traditional civilian and military elites by the new regime.
The 1963 Ba'athist coup marked a "radical break" inmodern Syrian history, after whichBa'ath partymonopolised power in the country to establish aone-party stateand shaped a new socio-political order by enforcing itsstate ideology.Soon after seizing power, the neo-Ba'athist military officers began initiating purges across Syria as part of the imposition of their ideological programme. Politicians of theSecond Syrian Republicwho had supported the separation of Syria fromUnited Arab Republic(UAR) were purged and liquidated by the Ba'athists. This was in addition to purging of the Syrian military and its subordination to theArab Socialist Ba'ath party. Politicians, military officers and civilians who supported Syria's secession from UAR were also stripped of their social and legal rights by the Ba'athist-controlledNational Council for the Revolutionary Command(NCRC); thereby enabling the Ba'athist regime to dismantle the entire political class of the Second Syrian Republic and eliminate its institutions.
Following the seizure of power in 1963 by the neo-Ba'athist military committe, the Syrian regional branch of the Ba'ath party experienced severe factionalism and splintering, leading to a succession of governments and new constitutions.The neo-Ba'athist military officers, through their increased political and military influence, began initiating pruges across bureacratic structures of the Syrian state and rapidly monopolized control over various organs of the Syrian Ba'ath party. Military Ba'athists also took control of theNCRC, which exercised thede-factopower in the new Ba'athist regime. Civilian wing of the Ba'ath party, consisting of classical Ba'athists led byAflaqandBitar, had little influence over the ideological direction of the Syrian regional branch. During the sixth national congress of the Ba'ath party, officers of the Ba'athist military committe, in collaboration with radical leftists, formally gained ideological and political control of the Syrian regional branch of the Ba'ath party. The ideological programme and political platform adopted by the Syrian Ba'ath party during the 6th National Congress of the Ba'ath party in September 1963 became the official doctrine of the neo-Ba'ath and the state ideology of Ba'athist Syria. Subsequently, the Ba'athist regime began implementing its social, economic and political policies across Syria, which imposed the neo-Ba'athist agenda.
The far-leftneo-Ba'athisttendency gained control of the Syrian regional branch at the Ba'ath party's 6th National Congress of 1963, where hardliners from the dominant Syrian and Iraqi regional parties joined forces to impose a radical leftist line, which advocated the imposition of "socialist planning","collective farmsrun by peasants", "workers' democratic control of the means of production", a party based on workers and peasants, and other demands reflecting emulation ofSoviet-style socialism.In a coded attack onMichel Aflaq, the congress also condemned "ideological notability", criticizing his middle-class background, within the party.Aflaq, angry at this transformation of his party, retained a nominal leadership role, but theNational Commandas a whole came under the control of the radicals.
The pro-Marxistresolutions and declarations, such as the espousal of "class struggle" and "scientific socialism", adopted by the Ba'ath party during its 6th national congress set the ideological foundation of neo-Ba'athism. Between 1963 and 1966, neo-Ba'athists exercised thede-factopolitical power in Ba'athist Syria and were able to steer their ideological goals through the 1963 provisional Ba'athist constitution and its 1964 amendment. They also carried out purges within theSyrian Arab Armed Forces, as part of their efforts to subordinate the civilian old guard of theNational Command of the Ba'ath Partyand create an "ideological army" that was loyal to neo-Ba'athist officers. In foreign policy, neo-Ba'athists favoured theSocialist Blocand were proponents of establishing a close alliance with theSoviet Union. TheMaoistmilitary concept of "people's war of liberation" played a central role in neo-Ba'athist ideology, and this was reflected in Ba'athist Syria's endorsement of socialist and left-wingPalestinian fedayeengroups in their guerrilla war against Israelis. In the economic sphere, neo-Ba'athists favoured the establishment of a socialistcommand economic system; and advocated the nationalization of private industries and radical land confiscation policies.
Thefirst significant clashbetween the new Ba'athist regime and the outlawedMuslim Brotherhoodtook place in the city ofHamain April 1964. Insurgents affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood set up roadblocks, stockpiled food and weapons, and attacked wine shops. The rebels used the local Sultan Mosque as a headquarter and sanctuary, where the imam Shaykh Mahmud al-Hamid encouraged the rebellion. Ismaili militiaman affiliated with the regime, Munzir al-Shimali, was killed and mutilated, while "every vestige" of the Ba'ath Party in Hama was attacked. The government responded by sending tanks and reinforcements to attack the rebels, forcing them to withdraw into the Sultan Mosque after fighting for two days. The mosque was subsequently bombarded and the uprising was suppressed.
On 23 February 1966, theneo-Ba'athistMilitary Committee carried out anintra-party rebellionagainst the Ba'athist Old Guard (AflaqandBitar), imprisoned PresidentAmin al-Hafizand designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government on 1 March.AlthoughNureddin al-Atassibecame the formal head of state,Salah Jadidwas Syria's effective ruler from 1966 until November 1970,when he was deposed byHafez al-Assad, who at the time was Minister of Defense.
The coup led to the schism within the originalpan-Arab Ba'ath Party: oneIraqi-led ba'ath movement(ruled Iraq from 1968 to 2003) and oneSyrian-led ba'ath movementwas established. In the first half of 1967, a low-key state of war existed between Syria andIsrael. Conflict over Israeli cultivation of land in theDemilitarized Zoneled to7 April pre-war aerial clashesbetween Israel and Syria.When theSix-Day Warbroke out between Egypt and Israel, Syria joined the war and attacked Israel as well. In the final days of the war, Israel turned its attention to Syria, capturing two-thirds of theGolan Heightsin under 48 hours.The defeat caused a split between Jadid and Assad over what steps to take next.Disagreement developed between Jadid, who controlled the party apparatus, and Assad, who controlled the military. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid thePalestine Liberation Organization(PLO) led byYasser Arafatduring the "Black September" (also known as the Jordan Civil War of 1970) hostilities with Jordan reflected this disagreement.
On 20 September 1970, Syria under presidentNureddin al-Atassiand strongmanSalah Jadidinvaded Jordanin support ofPalestinian fedayeenforces of thePalestine Liberation Organization, as part ofBlack September. Syria committed 16,000 troops and more than 170T-55tanks to invade Jordan. By 22 September, however, the Syrian invasion attempt had been largely defeated. As Syrian forces attempted to advance towardIrbid, approximately 50 of 200 Syrian tanks became inoperable. Syrian forces withdrew from Jordan on 23 September after sustaining losses of 120 tanks and 1,500 casualties. Jordan only lost 16 tanks, an armored car, and had 112 casualties.
The power struggle culminated in the November 1970 SyrianCorrective movement, a bloodless military coup that removed Jadid and installedHafez al-Assadas the strongman of the government.General Hafez al-Assad transformed aneo-Ba'athistparty state into atotalitariandictatorship marked by his pervasive grip on the party,armed forces,secret police, media, education sector, religious and cultural spheres,urban planning, economic activity, and all aspects of civil society.Embedding a system based on sectarian patronage, Hafez assignedAlawiteloyalists to key posts in themilitary forces,bureaucracy,intelligenceand the ruling elite;establishing an Alawite minority rule to consolidate power within his family.Acult of personalityrevolving around Hafez and his family became a core tenet ofAssadist ideology,which espoused thatAssad dynastywas destined to rule perennially.
When Hafez al-Assad came to power in 1971 with theCorrective Movement, the army began to modernize and change. In the first 10 years of Assad's rule, the army increased by 162%, and by 264% by 2000. At one point, 70% of the country's GDP went only to the army. On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt initiated theYom Kippur Waragainst Israel. TheIsrael Defense Forcesreversed the initial Syrian gains and pushed deeper into Syrian territory.The village ofQuneitrawas largely destroyed by the Israeli army.  In the late 1970s, anIslamist uprisingby theMuslim Brotherhoodwas aimed against the government. Islamists attacked civilians and off-duty military personnel, leading security forces to also kill civilians in retaliatory strikes. The uprising had reached its climax in the 1982Hama massacre,when more than 40,000 people were killed bySyrian militarytroops and Ba'athist paramilitaries.It has been described as the "single deadliest act" of violence perpetrated by any state upon its own population inmodern Arab history.
Syria was invited into Lebanon by its president,Suleiman Frangieh, in 1976, to intervene on the side of the Lebanese government againstPalestine Liberation Organizationguerilla fighters and Lebanese Maronite forces amid theLebanese Civil War. TheArab Deterrent Forceoriginally consisted of a Syrian core, up to 25,000 troops, with participation by some otherArab Leaguestates totaling only around 5,000 troops.In late 1978, after the Arab League had extended the mandate of the Arab Deterrent Force, theSudanese, theSaudisand theUnited Arab Emiratesannounced intentions to withdraw troops from Lebanon, extending their stay into the early months of 1979 at the Lebanese government's request.The Libyan troops were essentially abandoned and had to find their own way home, and the ADF thereby became a purely Syrian force, although it did include thePalestine Liberation Army.A year afterIsraelinvaded and occupiedSouthern Lebanonduring the1982 Lebanon War, the Lebanese government failed to extend the ADF's mandate, thereby effectively ending its existence, although not the Syrian or Israeli military presence in Lebanon.Eventually the Syrian presence became known as theSyrian occupation of Lebanon.
Syrian forces lingered in Lebanon throughout the civil war in Lebanon, eventually bringing most of the nation under Syrian control as part of a power struggle with Israel, which hadoccupied areas of southern Lebanonin 1978. In 1985, Israel began to withdraw from Lebanon, as a result of domestic opposition in Israel and international pressure.In the aftermath of this withdrawal, theWar of the Campsbroke out, with Syria fighting their former Palestinian allies. TheSyrian occupation of Lebanoncontinued until 2005.
In a major shift in relations with both otherArab statesand the Western world, Syria participated in the United States-ledGulf WaragainstSaddam Hussein. The country participated in the multilateralMadrid Conference of 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in negotiations with Israel along withPalestineandJordan. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further direct Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafez al-Assad's meeting with then PresidentBill ClintoninGenevain 2000.
Hafez al-Assaddiedon 10 June 2000. His son,Bashar al-Assad, was elected president inan electionin which he ran unopposed.His election saw the birth of theDamascus Springand hopes of reform, but by autumn 2001, the authorities had suppressed the movement, imprisoning some of its leading intellectuals.Instead, reforms have been limited to some market reforms.On 5 October 2003, Israelbombed a site near Damascus, claiming it was a terrorist training facility for members ofIslamic Jihad.In March 2004,Syrian Kurdsand Arabsclashedin the northeastern city ofal-Qamishli. Signs of rioting were seen in the cities of Qamishli andHasakeh.In 2005, Syria ended its military presence in Lebanon.AssassinationofRafic Haririin 2005 led to international condemnation and triggered a popularIntifadainLebanon, known as "the Cedar Revolution" which forced the Assad regime to withdraw its 20,000 Syrian soldiers in Lebanon and end its 29-year-longmilitary occupation of Lebanon.On 6 September 2007, foreign jet fighters, suspected as Israeli, reportedly carried outOperation Orchardagainst a suspectednuclear reactorunder construction byNorth Koreantechnicians.
TheSyrian revolutionbegan in 2011 as a part of the widerArab Spring, a wave of upheaval throughout theArab World. Public demonstrations across Syria began on 26 January 2011 and developed into a nationwide uprising. Protesters demanded the resignation of PresidentBashar al-Assad, the overthrow of his government, and an end to nearly five decades ofBa’ath Party rule. Since spring 2011, theSyrian governmentdeployed theSyrian Armyto quell the uprising, and several cities were besieged,though the unrest continued. According to some witnesses, soldiers, who refused to open fire on civilians, were summarily executed by the Syrian Army.The Syrian government denied reports of defections, and blamed armed gangs for causing trouble.Since early autumn 2011, civilians and army defectors began forming fighting units, which began an insurgency campaign against the Syrian Army. The insurgents unified under the banner of theFree Syrian Armyand fought in an increasingly organized fashion; however, the civilian component of the armed opposition lacked an organized leadership.
The uprising has sectarian undertones, though neither faction in the conflict has described sectarianism as playing a major role. The opposition is dominated bySunniMuslims, whereas the leading government figures areAlawites,affiliated with Shia Islam. As a result, the opposition is winning support from the Sunni Muslim states, whereas the government is publicly supported by the Shia dominatedIranand the LebaneseHezbollah. According to various sources, including theUnited Nations, up to 13,470–19,220 people have been killed, of which about half were civilians, but also including 6,035–6,570 armed combatants from both sidesand up to 1,400 opposition protesters.Many more have been injured, and tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned. According to the Assad regime, between March 2011 and May 2012, 9,815–10,146 people, including 3,430 members of the security forces, 2,805–3,140 insurgents and up to 3,600 civilians, have been killed in fighting with what they characterize as "armed terrorist groups."To escape the violence, tens of thousands ofSyrian refugeeshave fled the country to neighboringJordan,IraqandLebanon, as well toTurkey.The total official UN numbers of Syrian refugees reached 42,000 at the time,while unofficial number stood at as many as 130,000.
UNICEF reported that over 500 children have been killed in the 11 months until February 2012,Another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons.Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners have died under torture.Human Rights Watchaccused the government and Shabiha of using civilians ashuman shieldswhen they advanced on opposition held-areas.Anti-government rebels have been accused of human rights abuses as well, including torture, kidnapping, unlawful detention and execution of civilians, Shabiha and soldiers.HRW also expressed concern at the kidnapping of Iranian nationals.The UN Commission of Inquiry has also documented abuses of this nature in its February 2012 report, which also includes documentation that indicates rebel forces have been responsible fordisplacementof civilians.
TheArab League, theUnited States, theEuropean Union states, theGulf Cooperation Council states, and several countries across the world condemned the Assad regime's perpetration of violence against the protesters.China and Russia avoided condemning the Assad regime or applying sanctions, asserting that such methods could escalate into foreign intervention. On the other hand, military intervention was ruled out by most countries that condemned the Assad regime.The Arab League suspended Syria's membership over the government's response to the crisis,but sent anobserver missionin December 2011, as part of itsproposal for peaceful resolutionof the crisis.The Arab League andUnited Nationsmade attempts to resolve the Syrian crisis and appointedKofi Annanas their special envoy to Syria.On 16 March, Kofi Annan submitted asix-point peace planto theUN Security Council.On 24 March 2012, Kofi Annan flew toMoscowin an effort to secure Russian support for his plan.
Thecivil warhas resulted in more than 600,000 deaths,with pro-Assad forces causing more than 90% of thetotal civilian casualties.The war led to amassive refugee crisis, with an estimated 7.6 millioninternally displaced people(July 2015UNHCRfigure) and over 5 millionrefugees(July 2017 registered byUNHCR).The war has also worsened economic conditions, with more than 90% of the population living inpovertyand 80% facingfood insecurity.
From 2020, the conflict settled into a frozen state.Although roughly 30% of the country was controlled by opposition forces, heavy fighting had largely ceased and there was a growing regional trend toward normalizing relations with the regime of Bashar al-Assad.
During this period, Ba'athist Syria continued to be one of the most dangerous places for journalists,and was ranked 8th last on the 2024Global Peace Indexand 4th worst in the 2024Fragile States Index.Freedom of press remained non-existent, and the Assad regime was ranked 2nd worst in the 2024World Press Freedom Index.Ranked second to last globally on the 2023Corruption Perceptions Index,Assad's regime was also the most corrupt in theMiddle East.Ba'athist Syria also became the epicentre of a state-sponsoredillicit drug cartel, the largest in the world, which incorporated a multi-billion dollarcaptagon industry.
On 27 November 2024, violence flared up once again. Rebel factions, led by the Islamist group HayatTahrir al-Sham(HTS) and the Turkish-backedSyrian National Army(SNA), hadtaken control of Aleppo, prompting a retaliatory airstrike campaign by Syrian PresidentBashar al-Assad, supported by Russia. The strikes, which targeted population centers and several hospitals inrebel-heldcity ofIdlib, resulted in at least 25 deaths, according to theWhite Helmetsrescue group. The NATO countries issued a joint statement calling for the protection of civilians and critical infrastructure to prevent further displacement and ensure humanitarian access. They stressed the urgent need for a Syrian-led political solution, in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 2254, which advocates for dialogue between the Syrian government and opposition forces. Therebel offensive, which had begun on 27 November 2024, continued itsadvance into Hama Provincefollowing their capture of Aleppo.
On 29 November, rebels affiliated to theSouthern Frontabandoned their reconciliation efforts with the Syrian government and launched anoffensive in the South, in the hope of implementing apincer movementagainst Damascus.
On 4 December 2024, fierce clashes erupted in Hama province as the Syrian army engaged Islamist-led insurgents in a bid to halt their advance on the key city of Hama. Government forces claimed to have launched a counteroffensive with air support, pushing back rebel factions, including Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), around six miles from the city. However, despite reinforcements, the rebels captured the city on 5 December.The fighting led to widespread displacement, with nearly 50,000 people fleeing the area and over 600 casualties reported, including 104 civilians.
In the evening of 6 December 2024,Southern Frontforces captured the regional capital ofSuwayda, in southern Syria, following the pro-government forces' withdrawal from the city.Concurrently, the Kurdish-ledSyrian Democratic Forcescapturedthe provincial capital ofDeir ez-Zorfrom pro-government forces, which also left the town ofPalmyrain central Homs Governorate.By midnight, opposition forces in the southernDaraa Governoratecaptured its capitalDaraa, as well as 90% of the province, as pro-government forces withdrew towards the capital Damascus.Meanwhile, theSyrian Free Army(SFA), a different rebel group backed by the United Statestook control of Palmyrain an offensive launched from theal-Tanf"deconfliction zone".
On 7 December 2024, pro-government forces withdrew from theQuneitra Governorate, which borders theIsraeli-occupiedGolan Heights.That day, the Israeli army helped theUNDOFrepel an attack.
On 7 December 2024, the Southern Front entered the suburbs of Damascus, which was simultaneously attacked from the North by the Syrian Free Army. As the rebels advanced, Assad fled Damascus toMoscow, where he was grantedpolitical asylumby Russian presidentVladimir Putin.The next day, the Syrian opposition forces captured the cities ofHomsandDamascus. After Damascus fell, Ba'athist Syria collapsed, and Prime MinisterMohammad Ghazi al-Jalalistayed in caretaker capacity with the rebels' permission until they established atransitional governmenttwo days after.
Since the1963 seizure of powerby itsneo-Ba'athistMilitary Committeeuntil the fall of the Assad regime in 2024, theArab Socialist Ba'ath Partygoverned Syria as atotalitarianpolice state.After a period of intra-party strife,Hafez al-Assadgained control of the party following the1970 coup d'étatand his family dominated the country's politics.
After Ba'athist Syria's adoption of a new constitution in 2012, its political system operated in the framework of apresidential statethat nominally permitted the candidacy of individuals who were not part of theBa'athist-controlledNational Progressive Frontfounded in 1972.In practice, Ba'athist Syria remained aone-party state, which banned any independent or opposition political activity.
There was no independent judiciary in the Syrian Arab Republic, since all judges and prosecutors were required to be Ba'athist appointees.Syria'sjudicial branchesincluded theSupreme Constitutional Court, theHigh Judicial Council, the Court of Cassation, and theState SecurityCourts. The Supreme State Security Court (SSSC) was abolished by President Bashar al-Assad by legislative decree No. 53 on 21 April 2011.Syria had three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highesttribunal. Religious courts handled questions of personal and family law.
Article 3(2) of the 1973constitutiondeclaredIslamicjurisprudence a main source of legislation. The judicial system had elements ofOttoman,French, andIslamiclaws. The Personal Status Law 59 of 1953 (amended by Law 34 of 1975) was essentially a codifiedsharia;the Code of Personal Status was applied to Muslims by sharia courts.
Elections were conducted through asham process; characterised by wide-scalerigging, repetitive voting and absence ofvoter registrationand verification systems.Parliamentary elections were held on 13 April 2016 in the government-controlled areas of Syria, for all 250 seats of Syria's unicameral legislature, the Majlis al-Sha'ab, or thePeople's Council of Syria.Even before results had been announced, several nations, including Germany, the United States and the United Kingdom, declared their refusal to accept the results, largely citing it "not representing the will of the Syrian people."However, representatives of the Russian Federation have voiced their support of this election's results. Various independent observers and international organizations denounced theAssad regime's electoral conduct as a scam; with the United Nations condemning it as illegitimate elections with "no mandate".Electoral Integrity Project's 2022 Global report designated Syrian elections as a "facade" with the worst electoral integrity in the world alongsideComorosandCentral African Republic.
Syria's state ideology under the Ba'ath Party wasNeo-Ba'athism, a distinct andfar-leftvariant of Ba'athism that emerged as a result of the1966 Syrian coup d'état, which turned theSyrian Ba'ath Partyinto a moremilitaristorganization independent of theNational Commandof the originalBa'ath Party. Neo-Ba'athism has been described as a divergence from Ba'athism proper that had gone beyond itspan-Arabistideological basis by espousingMarxismand purging the classical Ba'athist leadership of the old guard, includingMichel AflaqandSalah al-Din al-Bitar.As a result of these ideological differences, the Syrian Ba'ath Party came into conflict withArab nationalistssuch asNasseristsand theIraqi Ba'athists, particularlySaddamists, with whom theymaintained a bitter rivalry.Neo-Ba'athism has been criticized by the founder of Ba'athist ideology,Michel Aflaq, for diverging from the original principles of Ba'athism.State propaganda portrayed Assadism as a neo-Ba'athist current that evolved Ba'athist ideology with the needs of the modern era.
Following the 1963 Syrian coup, the ruling Syrian Ba'ath Party established close relations with theSoviet Union, increasing Soviet power and influence in Syria.The far-left neo-Ba'athist Syrian Ba'ath pursued a very close alliance withSoviet Union. Following the Sixth National Congress in 1963, the party publicly adopted the doctrine of ideological alliance with theEastern Bloc:
In 1971, Syrian president Hafez al-Assad signed an agreement with the Soviet Union, allowing it to open itsnaval military base in Tartusand gain a stable presence in theMiddle Eastamid theCold War.Thousands of Syrian military officers and educated professionals studied in Russia duringHafez al-Assad's rule.
Thousands of Soviet advisors and technicians assisted theSyrian Arab Armyduring the 1973Yom Kippur WarwithIsrael. 3,750 tonnes of aid was airlifted during the war to Syria. By the end of October 1973, the Soviet Union sent 63,000 tonnes of aid, mainly to Syria to replace its losses during the war. Soviet–Syrian relations became strained in 1976 due to Hafez al-Assad'sintervention in the Lebanese civil warand theSyrian occupation of Lebanon, as the Soviet Union did not want a confrontation between the Assad regime and thePalestine Liberation Organization, who were both Soviet allies. The Soviets froze weapons supplies to Syria, whereas Syria denied the Soviets access to its naval bases.It wasn't until April 1977 that the two states improved their relations. Syria refused to condemn the 1979Soviet invasion of Afghanistanand signed a twenty-yearTreaty of Friendship and Cooperationin October 1980.
FormerUSSRwas a main ally and the main supplier of weapons for Hafez Assad's regime.RussiastronglysupportedBashar al-Assad's regime throughout theSyrian civil war, which began in 2011. From 2012, Russia withChinarepeatedlyvetoedWestern-sponsored draft resolutions in theUN Security Councilthat condemned Bashar's government for attacking civilians and demanded Bashar's resignation, which would have opened the possibility ofUnited Nationssanctionsagainst his government.In September 2015, theFederation Councilauthorized Russian presidentVladimir Putinto usearmed forcesin Syria.Russian air and missile strikes began targeting theIslamic State, theArmy of Conquest,al-Nusra Front, and theFree Syrian Army.
Syria and Iran are historic and strategic allies, with Syria being regarded as Iran's "closest ally".The relationship between the Iranian and Syrian governments has sometimes been described as anAxis of Resistance.Historically, the two countries shared a common animosity towards theIraqi Ba'ath PartyandSaddam Hussein, with Syria providing military aid to Iran during theIran–Iraq War. After Hafez al-Assad's death in 2000, Bashar al-Assad continued the relationship by supporting Hezbollah and various Iranian proxies; with the alliance being described as "the central component of his security doctrine".
Following the outbreak ofSyrian revolutionin 2011, Iran began politically and militarily aiding the Assad government.The Guardianreported in May 2011 that the IranianIrgchad increased its "level of technical support and personnel support" to strengthenSyrian military's "ability to deal with protesters".Since the beginning of theinsurgency in Syria, Iran has provided training, technical support, and combat troops to the Assad government.Estimates of the number of Iranian personnel in Syria range from hundreds to tens of thousands.LebaneseHezbollahfighters, backed by Iran's government, have taken direct combat roles since 2012.From the summer of 2013, Iran and Hezbollah provided important battlefield support to Syria, allowing it to make advances againstSyrian rebels.As of 2023, Iran maintains 55 military bases in Syria and 515 other military points, the majority inAleppoandDeir Ezzor governoratesand the Damascus suburbs; these are 70% of the foreign military sites in the country.
Syria was a prominent adversary ofBa'athist Iraqduring theCold War. Syria supported Iran by weapons in theIran–Iraq Warand closed the Iraqi oil pipelines that pass through it, and joined the American-ledcoalitionagainst Iraq during theGulf War. During theIslamist uprising in Syria, the Iraqi government ofSaddam Husseinhad provided arms as well as logistical support to theMuslim Brotherhood, particularly during the1982 Hama massacre. However, by 1997, Syrian presidentHafez al-Assadbegan reestablishing relations with Iraqi presidentSaddam Hussein. The ascendance of Bashar in 2000 boosted this process, and Syria ignored thesanctions against Iraq, helping Iraq to illegally import oil.
Bashar al-Assad opposed theAmerican-led invasion of Iraqin 2003. He shelteredIraqi Ba'athistsand allowed volunteers through Syria to fight the Americans. Syrian pressure for reviewing thede-Ba'athificationpolicy and support forinsurgentswas despised by the new Iraqi government.As a result, theAmerican-installed governmentin Iraq suspended oil supplies to Syria. In 2004, The U.S. commander of thecoalition forcesin Iraq,George W. Casey Jr., accused Syria of hosting Iraqi insurgent leaders who were co-ordinating theanti-American insurgencyfrom their bases in Syria.
Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri, former Vice Chairman of theRevolutionary Command CouncilofBa'athist Iraq, had close relations with Ba'athist Syria. Despite the historical differences between the two Ba'ath factions, al-Douri had reportedly urged Saddam to open oil pipelines with Syria, building a financial relationship with theAssad family. After theAmerican invasion of Iraqin 2003, al-Douri reportedly fled toDamascus, from where he organizedanti-Americanmilitant groups and co-ordinated major combat operations during theIraqi insurgency.In 2009,General David Petraeus, who was at the time heading theU.S. Central Command, stated that al-Douri was residing in Syria.
In 2006, Syria recognized the post-invasion Iraqi government and resumed ties. However relations still remained poor until 2011, whenAmerican troops withdrew from Iraqand theSyrian revolutionerupted, during which hundreds of thousands of protestors took to the streets; demanding the overthrow of theAssad regime. Both governments alongside Iran formed a tripartite regional alliance as both Iran andMalikigovernment in Iraq were critical of the potential rise of Saudi influence in Syria, a Sunni-majority country. Unlike most of theArab Leaguecountries, Iraq rejected calls for al-Assad to step down.
Relations between Ba'athist Syria and theUnited Stateswere strained in 1967 following theSix-Day Warwhich resulted in theIsraeli occupation of the Golan Heights, but relations resumed in 1974 following theAgreement on Disengagement between Israel and Syria. Syria was added to theU.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorismon 29 December 1979, and remains the only state from the original 1979 list to remain on the list.
Relations between the United States and Syria deteriorated due to Syria's opposition to theIraq War. The Syrian government also refused to prevent foreign fighters from using Syrian borders to enter Iraq and deport officials from the formerSaddam Husseingovernment that supportIraqi insurgency. In May 2003, the U.S. Secretary of State,Colin Powell, visited Damascus to demand Syrian closure of the offices ofHamas,Islamic Jihadand thePopular Front for the Liberation of Palestine.
Since the beginning of the Syrian civil war, the United States repeatedly called on president Bashar al-Assad to resign and imposed sanctions on his government.
Syria under Ba'athist rule was characterized by amilitary dictatorshipand apolice state, where theSyrian Arab Armed Forcesbrought the Ba'ath Party to power. The regime's survival was largely enabled by the Ba'ath Party's "Ba'athization" of the army, and its heavy reliance on the army-security apparatus. From 1963, the top army command in theSyrian Armybecame increasingly Ba'athist, while Ba'athist officers becameprogressive. After Hafez al-Assad rose to power, he purgedSunnimiddle- and upper-class officers, replacing them with rural minoritarian ones, and consolidated his power with the establishment of anAlawite-recruited "praetorian guard" that helped ensure regime control over the military.The combined armed forces of Ba'athist Syria from 1963 to 2024 were officially known as theSyrian Arab Armed Forces.
Following the Syrian loss during theSix-Day WarwithIsrael, Hafez al-Assad initiated a huge expansion of the military to achieve military parity with Israel. Assad gave a high priority to building a strong military and preparing it for a confrontation with Israel, both for offensive and defensive purposes and to enable him to politically negotiate the return of theGolan Heightsfrom a position of military strength. He allocated up to 70 percent of the annual budget to the military build-up and received large quantities of modern arms from the Soviet Union.TheSyrian Arab Army, which was mainly a conscripted force, increased from 50,000 personnel in 1967 to 225,000 in 1973, and to over 350,000 by the 1990s.
The degree ofmilitarizationof Ba'athist Syria was indecently high. Syria'sair forceandtankfleets were not much smaller (if not larger) than those of large European countries. In 1979, Syria was one of the four largest arms importers in the world (between 1961 and 1979, it imported weapons worth $7.4 billion, one of the highest figures).In 1981, defense spending amounted to 13.1 percent ofGNP. In 1982, Syria spent $2.4 billion on defense and internal security, which was 30 percent of the total government budget for the year.In 1990, Syria was the fourth most militarized country in the world in proportion to population, with 35.9 soldiers for every 1,000 inhabitants, and the 12th highest per capita defense spender.With thecollapse of the Soviet Unionin 1991, Syria lost its main supplier of military equipment, contributing to the isolation of the Syrian Army. In 2005, 50% of Syria's national budget was contributed to military and intelligence spending, and Syria had a standing army of 215,000 soldiers, and over 400,000 upon mobilization, as well as 4,700 tanks, 4,500 personnel carriers, 850 surface-to-air missiles, 4,000 anti-aircraft guns, and 611 combat planes.Raymond Hinnebusch described this process as a "product of a nationalist party and an army radicalized by the conflict with Israel, developed under Hafez al-Assad into a huge national security apparatus designed to confront Israel."
Human rights in Ba'athist Syria were effectively non-existent. The government's human rights record was considered one of the worst in the world. As a result, Ba'athist Syria was globally condemned by prominent international organizations, including  theUnited Nations,Human Rights Watch,Amnesty International,and theEuropean Union.Civil liberties, political rights, freedom of speech and assembly were severely restricted under theBa'athist governmentofBashar al-Assad,  which was regarded as "one of the world's most repressive regimes".The 50th edition ofFreedom in the World, the annual report published byFreedom Housesince 1973, designates Syria as "Worst of the Worst" among the "Not Free" countries. The report lists Syria as one of the two countries to get the lowest possible score (1/100).