Algeria

Algeria,officially thePeople's Democratic Republic of Algeria,is a country in theMaghrebregion ofNorth Africa. It is bordered tothe northeastbyTunisia; tothe eastbyLibya; tothe southeastbyNiger; tothe southwestbyMali,Mauritania, andWestern Sahara; tothe westbyMorocco; and to the north by theMediterranean Sea. The capital andlargest cityisAlgiers, located in the far north on the Mediterranean coast.
Inhabited sinceprehistory, Algeria has been at the crossroads of numerous cultures and civilisations, including thePhoenicians,Numidians,Romans,Vandals, andByzantine Greeks. Its modern identity is rooted in centuries ofArab Muslim migration wavessincethe seventh centuryand the subsequentArabisationof the indigenous populations. Following a succession ofIslamic Arab and Berber dynastiesbetween the eighth and 15th centuries, theRegency of Algierswas established in 1516 as a largely independenttributary stateof theOttoman Empire. After nearly three centuries as a major power in the Mediterranean, the country wasinvaded by Francein 1830 andformally annexedin 1848, though it was not fullyconqueredandpacifieduntil 1903. French rule broughtmass European settlementthat displaced the local population, which was reduced by up to one-third due to warfare, disease, and starvation.TheSétif and Guelma massacrein 1945 catalysed local resistance that culminated in the outbreak of theAlgerian Warin 1954. Algeriagained its independencein 1962. The country descended into abloody civil warfrom 1992 to 2002.
Spanning 2,381,741 square kilometres (919,595 sq mi), Algeria is the world'stenth-largest nation by area, and thelargest nation in Africa.It has a semi-arid climate, with theSaharadesert dominating most of the territory except for itsfertileand mountainous north, where most of the population is concentrated.  With a population of 44 million, Algeria is thetenth-most populous countryin Africa, and the33rd-most populous countryin the world.  Algeria's official languages areArabicandTamazight;Frenchis used in media, education, and certain administrative matters, but it has no official status. The vast majority of the population speak theAlgerian dialect of Arabic. Most Algerians areArabs, withBerbersforming a sizeable minority.Sunni Islamis the official religion and practised by 99 percent of the population.
Algeria is asemi-presidential republiccomposed of58 provinces(wilayas) and1,541 communes. It is aregional powerin North Africa and amiddle powerin global affairs. The country has the second-highestHuman Development Indexin continental Africa and one of thelargest economies in Africa, due mostly to its large petroleum and natural gas reserves, which are thesixteenthandninth-largestin the world, respectively.Sonatrach, the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa and a major supplier of natural gas to Europe. TheAlgerian militaryis one of the largest in Africa, with thehighest defence budgeton the continent and among the highest in the world (ranks 22nd globally).Algeria is a member of theAfrican Union, theArab League, theOIC,OPEC, the United Nations, and theArab Maghreb Union, of which it is a founding member.
Different forms of the name Algeria include:Arabic:الجزائر,romanized:al-Jazāʾir,Algerian Arabic:دزاير,romanized:dzāyer,French:l'Algérie. The country's full name is officially thePeople's Democratic Republic of Algeria(Arabic:الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية,romanized:al-Jumhūriyah al-Jazāʾiriyah ad-Dīmuqrāṭiyah ash‑Shaʿbiyah; French:République algérienne démocratique et populaire,abbr.RADP;BerberTifinagh:ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵢⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴻⵔⴼⴰⵏⵜ,Berber Latin alphabet:Tagduda tazzayrit tamagdayt taɣerfant).
Algeria's name derives from the city ofAlgiers, which in turn derives from the Arabical-Jazāʾir(الجزائر, "the islands"), referring to four small islands off its coast,a truncated form of the olderJazāʾir Banī Mazghanna(جزائر بني مزغنة, "islands of Bani Mazghanna").The name was given byBuluggin ibn Ziriafter he established the city on the ruins of thePhoeniciancity ofIcosiumin 950.It was employed by medieval geographers such asMuhammad al-IdrisiandYaqut al-Hamawi.
Algeria took its name from the Regency of Algeriaor Regency of Algiers,when Ottoman rule was established in the centralMaghrebin early 16th century. This period saw the installation of a political and administrative organisation which participated in the establishment of theWatan el djazâïr(وطن الجزائر, country of Algiers) and the definition of its borders with its neighboring entities on the east and west.TheOttoman Turkswho settled in Algeria referred both to themselvesand the peoples as "Algerians".Acting as a centralmilitaryandpolitical authorityin the regency, the Ottoman Turks shaped the modernpolitical identityof Algeria as a state possessing all the attributes ofsovereignindependence, despite still being nominally subject to theOttoman sultan.Algerian nationalist, historian and statesmanAhmed Tewfik El Madaniregarded the regency as the "first Algerian state" and the "Algerian Ottoman republic".
Around ~1.8-million-year-old stone artifacts from Ain Hanech (Algeria) were considered to represent the oldest archaeological materials in North Africa.Stone artifacts and cut-marked bones that were excavated from two nearby deposits at Ain Boucherit are estimated to be ~1.9 million years old, and even older stone artifacts to be as old as ~2.4 million years.Hence, the Ain Boucherit evidence shows that ancestral hominins inhabited the Mediterranean fringe in northern Africa much earlier than previously thought. The evidence strongly argues for early dispersal of stone tool manufacture and use from East Africa, or a possible multiple-origin scenario of stone technology in both East and North Africa.
Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in theLevalloisianandMousterianstyles (43,000 BC) similar to those in theLevant.Algeria was the site of the highest state of development ofMiddle PaleolithicFlake tooltechniques.Tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are calledAterian(after the archaeological site ofBir el Ater, south ofTebessa).
The earliest blade industries in North Africa are calledIberomaurusian(located mainly in theOranregion). This industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of theMaghrebbetween 15,000 and 10,000 BC.Neolithic civilisation(animal domestication and agriculture) developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BCor as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC. This life, richly depicted in theTassili n'Ajjerpaintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The mixture of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population that came to be calledBerbers, who are the indigenous peoples of northern Africa.
From their principal center of power atCarthage, theCarthaginiansexpanded and established small settlements along the North African coast; by 600 BC, aPhoenicianpresence existed atTipasa, east ofCherchell,Hippo Regius(modernAnnaba) andRusicade(modernSkikda). These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages.
As Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilisation was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organisation supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others.
By the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In theRevolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in theFirst Punic War.They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in thePunic Wars.
In 146 BC the city ofCarthagewas destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew. By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged. Two of them were established inNumidia, behind the coastal areas controlled by Carthage. West of Numidia layMauretania, which extended across theMoulouya Riverin modern-dayMoroccoto the Atlantic Ocean. The high point of Berber civilisation, unequalled until the coming of theAlmohadsandAlmoravidsmore than a millennium later, was reached during the reign ofMasinissain the 2nd century BC.
After Masinissa's death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times. Masinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to theRoman Empire.
For several centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the region. Algeria is home to the second-largest number of Roman sites and remains after Italy. Rome, after getting rid of its powerful rival Carthage in the year 146 BC, decided a century later to include Numidia to become the new master of North Africa. They built more than 500 cities.Like the rest of North Africa, Algeria was one of the breadbaskets of the empire, exporting cereals and other agricultural products.Saint Augustinewas the bishop ofHippo Regius(modern-day Annaba, Algeria), located in the Roman province ofAfrica. The GermanicVandalsofGeisericmoved into North Africa in 429, and by 435 controlled coastal Numidia.They did not make any significant settlement on the land, as they were harassed by local tribes.In fact, by the time the Byzantines arrivedLeptis Magnawas abandoned and the Msellata region was occupied by the indigenousLaguatanwho had been busy facilitating anAmazighpolitical, military and cultural revival.Furthermore, during the rule of the Romans, Byzantines, Vandals, Carthaginians, and Ottomans the Berber people were the only or one of the few in North Africa who remained independent.The Berber people were so resistant that even during the Muslim conquest of North Africa they still had control and possession over their mountains.
The collapse of theWestern Roman Empireled to the establishment of a native Kingdom based inAltava(modern-day Algeria) known as theMauro-Roman Kingdom. It was succeeded by another Kingdom based in Altava, theKingdom of Altava. During the reign ofKusailaits territory extended from the region of modern-dayFezin the west to the westernAurèsand laterKairaouanand the interior of Ifriqiya in the east.
After negligible resistance from the locals,MuslimArabsof theUmayyad Caliphateconquered Algeria in the early 8th century.
Large numbers of the indigenous Berber people converted to Islam. Christians, Berber and Latin speakers remained in the great majority in Tunisia until the end of the 9th century and Muslims only became a vast majority some time in the 10th.After the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate, numerous local dynasties emerged, including theRustamids,Aghlabids,Fatimids,Zirids,Hammadids,Almoravids,Almohadsand theZayyanids. The Christians left in three waves: after the initial conquest, in the 10th century and the 11th. The last were evacuated toSicilyby theNormansand the few remaining died out in the 14th century.
During theMiddle Ages, North Africa was home to many great scholars, saints and sovereigns includingJudah Ibn Quraysh, the first grammarian to mention Semitic and Berber languages, the greatSufimastersSidi Boumediene (Abu Madyan)andSidi El Houari, and the EmirsAbd Al Mu'minandYāghmūrasen. It was during this time that theFatimidsor children ofFatima, daughter ofMuhammad, came to theMaghreb. These "Fatimids" went on to found a long lasting dynasty stretching across the Maghreb,Hejazand theLevant, boasting a secular inner government, as well as a powerful army and navy, made up primarily ofArabsandLevantinesextending from Algeria to their capital state ofCairo. TheFatimid caliphatebegan to collapse when its governors theZiridsseceded. To punish them the Fatimids sent the ArabBanu HilalandBanu Sulaymagainst them. The resultant war is recounted in the epicTāghribāt. In Al-Tāghrībāt the Amazigh Zirid HeroKhālīfā Al-Zānatīasks daily, for duels, to defeat the Hilalan heroĀbu Zayd al-Hilalīand many other Arab knights in a string of victories. TheZirids, however, were ultimately defeated ushering in an adoption of Arab customs and culture. The indigenousAmazightribes, however, remained largely independent, and depending on tribe, location and time controlled varying parts of the Maghreb, at times unifying it (as under the Fatimids). The Fatimid Islamic state, also known asFatimid Caliphatemade an Islamic empire that included North Africa, Sicily,Palestine,Jordan,Lebanon,Syria,Egypt, theRed Seacoast of Africa, Tihamah,HejazandYemen.Caliphates from Northern Africa traded with the other empires of their time, as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other Islamic states during the Islamic Era.
TheBerber peoplehistorically consisted of several tribes. The two main branches were the Botr and Barnès tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub-tribes. Each region of the Maghreb contained several tribes (for example,Sanhadja,Houara,Zenata,Masmouda,Kutama, Awarba, andBerghwata). All these tribes made independent territorial decisions.
SeveralAmazighdynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb and other nearby lands.Ibn Khaldunprovides a table summarising the Amazigh dynasties of the Maghreb region, theZirid,Ifranid,Maghrawa,Almoravid,Hammadid,Almohad,Merinid,Abdalwadid,Wattasid,MeknassaandHafsiddynasties.Both of theHammadidandZiridempires as well as theFatimidsestablished their rule in all of the Maghreb countries. TheZiridsruled land in what is now Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Libya, Spain, Malta and Italy. TheHammadidscaptured and held important regions such as Ouargla, Constantine, Sfax, Susa, Algiers, Tripoli and Fez establishing their rule in every country in the Maghreb region.TheFatimidswhich was created and established by the Kutama Berbersconquered all of North Africa as well as Sicily and parts of the Middle East.
Following the Berber revolt numerous independent states emerged across the Maghreb. In Algeria theRustamid Kingdomwas established. The Rustamid realm stretched from Tafilalt in Morocco to the Nafusa mountains in Libya including south, central and western Tunisia therefore including territory in all of the modern day Maghreb countries, in the south the Rustamid realm expanded to the modern borders ofMaliand included territory inMauritania.
Once extending their control over all of the Maghreb, part of Spainand briefly over Sicily,originating from modern Algeria, theZiridsonly controlled modernIfriqiyaby the 11th century. The Zirids recognised nominal suzerainty of the Fatimid caliphs of Cairo.El Mu'izzthe Zirid ruler decided to end this recognition and declared his independence.The Zirids also fought against other Zenata Kingdoms, for example theMaghrawa, a Berber dynasty originating from Algeria and which at one point was a dominant power in the Maghreb ruling over much of Morocco and western Algeria including Fez,Sijilmasa,Aghmat,Oujda, most of the Sous and Draa and reaching as far as M'sila and the Zab in Algeria.
As the Fatimid state was at the time too weak to attempt a direct invasion, they found another means of revenge. Between theNileand theRed Seawere livingBedouinnomad tribes expelled fromArabiafor their disruption and turbulency. TheBanu Hilaland theBanu Sulaymfor example, who regularly disrupted farmers in theNile Valleysince the nomads would often loot their farms. The thenFatimidvizier decided to destroy what he could not control, and broke a deal with the chiefs of these Bedouin tribes.The Fatimids even gave them money to leave.
Whole tribes set off with women, children, elders, animals and camping equipment. Some stopped on the way, especially inCyrenaica, where they are still one of the essential elements of the settlement but most arrived inIfriqiyaby theGabesregion, arriving 1051.TheZiridruler tried to stop this rising tide, but with each encounter, the last under the walls ofKairouan, his troops were defeated and the Arabs remained masters of the battlefield. The Arabs usually did not take control over the cities, instead looting them and destroying them.
The invasion kept going, and in 1057 the Arabs spread on the high plains ofConstantinewhere they encircled theQalaa of Banu Hammad(capital of theHammadid Emirate), as they had done in Kairouan a few decades ago. From there they gradually gained the upperAlgiersandOranplains. Some of these territories were forcibly taken back by theAlmohadsin the second half of the 12th century. The influx ofBedouintribes was a major factor in the linguistic, culturalArabisationof the Maghreb and in the spread ofnomadismin areas where agriculture had previously been dominant.Ibn Khaldunnoted that the lands ravaged by theBanu Hilaltribes had become completely arid desert.
TheAlmohadsoriginating from modern day Morocco, although founded by a man originating from modern day Algeriaknown asAbd al-Mu'minwould soon take control over the Maghreb. During the time of the Almohad DynastyAbd al-Mu'min's tribe, the Koumïa, were the main supporters of the throne and the most important body of the empire.Defeating the weakeningAlmoravid Empireand taking control over Morocco in 1147,they pushed into Algeria in 1152, taking control over Tlemcen, Oran, and Algiers,wrestling control from the Hilian Arabs, and by the same year they defeated Hammadids who controlled Eastern Algeria.
Following their decisive defeat in theBattle of Las Navas de Tolosain 1212 the Almohads began collapsing, and in 1235 the governor of modern-day Western Algeria,Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyandeclared his independence and established theKingdom of Tlemcenand theZayyanid dynasty. Warring with the Almohad forces attempting to restore control over Algeria for 13 years, they defeated the Almohads in 1248 after killing their Caliph in a successful ambush near Oujda.
The Zayyanids retained their control over Algeria for 3 centuries. Much of the eastern territories of Algeria were under the authority of theHafsid dynasty,although theEmirate of Bejaiaencompassing the Algerian territories of the Hafsids would occasionally be independent from central Tunisian control. At their peak the Zayyanid kingdom included all of Morocco as its vassal to the west and in the east reached as far asTuniswhich they captured during the reign of Abu Tashfin.
After several conflicts with localBarbary piratessponsored by the Zayyanid sultans,Spain decided to invade Algeria and defeat the native Kingdom of Tlemcen. In 1505, theyinvaded and captured Mers el Kébir,and in 1509 after a bloody siege, theyconquered Oran.Following their decisive victories over the Algerians in the western-coastal areas of Algeria, the Spanish decided to get bolder, and invaded more Algerian cities. In 1510, they led a series of sieges and attacks, taking over Bejaiain a large siege,and leading asemi-successful siege against Algiers. They also besieged Tlemcen. In 1511, they took control overCherchellandJijel, and attackedMostaganemwhere although they were not able to conquer the city, they were able to force a tribute on them.
In 1516, the Turkish privateer brothersArujandHayreddin Barbarossa, who operated successfully under theHafsids, moved their base of operations to Algiers. They succeeded in conquering Jijel and Algiers from theSpaniardswith help from the locals who saw them as liberators from the Christians, but the brothers eventually assassinated the local noble Salim al-Tumi and took control over the city and the surrounding regions. Their state is known as theRegency of Algiers. When Aruj was killed in 1518 during hisinvasion of Tlemcen,Hayreddinsucceeded him as military commander of Algiers. TheOttomansultangave him the title ofbeylerbeyand a contingent of some 2,000janissaries. With the aid of this force and native Algerians, Hayreddin conquered the whole area between Constantine and Oran (although the city of Oran remained in Spanish hands until 1792).
The next beylerbey was Hayreddin's sonHasan, who assumed the position in 1544. He was aKouloughlior of mixed origins, as his mother was an Algerian Mooresse.Until 1587 Beylerbeylik of Algiers was governed by Beylerbeys who served terms with no fixed limits. Subsequently, with the institution of a regular administration, governors with the title of pasha ruled for three-year terms. The pasha was assisted by an autonomous janissary unit, known in Algeria as theOjaqwho were led by anagha. Discontent among the ojaq rose in the mid-1600s because they were not paid regularly, and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha. As a result, the agha charged the pasha with corruption and incompetence and seized power in 1659.
Plaguehad repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost between 30,000 and 50,000 inhabitants to the plague in 1620–21, and had high fatalities in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42.
TheBarbary piratespreyed on Christian and other non-Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea.The pirates often took the passengers and crew on the ships and sold them or used them asslaves.They also did a brisk business in ransoming some of the captives. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.They often made raids on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell atslave marketsin North Africa and other parts of theOttoman Empire.In 1544, for example,Hayreddin Barbarossacaptured the island ofIschia, taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants ofLipari, almost the entire population.In 1551, the Ottoman governor of Algiers,Turgut Reis, enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island ofGozo. Barbary pirates often attacked theBalearic Islands. The threat was so severe that residents abandoned the island ofFormentera.The introduction of broad-sail ships from the beginning of the 17th century allowed them to branch out into the Atlantic.
In July 1627 two pirate ships from Algiers under the command ofDutchpirateJan Janszoonsailed as far asIceland,raiding and capturing slaves.Two weeks earlier another pirate ship fromSaléinMoroccohad also raided in Iceland. Some of the slaves brought to Algiers were later ransomed back to Iceland, but some chose to stay in Algeria. In 1629, pirate ships from Algeria raided theFaroe Islands.
In 1659, the Janissaries stationed in Algiers, also known commonly as theOdjakof Algiers; and the Reis or the company of corsair captains rebelled, they removed the Ottomanviceroyfrom power, and placed one of its own in power. The new leader received the title of "Agha" then "Dey" in 1671, and the right to select passed to thedivan, a council of some sixty military senior officers. Thus Algiers became a sovereign military republic. It was at first dominated by the odjak; but by the 18th century, it had become the dey's instrument. Although Algiers remained nominally part of the Ottoman Empire,in reality they acted independently from the rest of the Empire,and often had wars with other Ottoman subjects and territories such as theBeylik of Tunis.
Thedeywas in effect a constitutional autocrat. The dey was elected for a life term, but in the 159 years (1671–1830) that the system was in place, fourteen of the twenty-nine deys were assassinated. Despite usurpation, military coups and occasional mob rule, the day-to-day operation of the Deylikal government was remarkably orderly. Although the regency patronised the tribal chieftains, it never had the unanimous allegiance of the countryside, where heavy taxation frequently provoked unrest. Autonomous tribal states were tolerated, and the regency's authority was seldom applied in theKabylia,although in 1730 the Regency was able to take control over theKingdom of Kukuin western Kabylia.Many cities in the northern parts of the Algerian desert paid taxes to Algiers or one of its Beys.
Barbary raids in the Mediterranean continued to attack Spanish merchant shipping, and as a result, theSpanish Empirelaunched aninvasion in 1775, then theSpanish Navybombarded Algiers in1783and1784.For the attack in 1784, the Spanish fleet was to be joined by ships from such traditional enemies of Algiers asNaples,Portugaland theKnights of Malta. Over 20,000 cannonballs were fired, but all these military campaigns were doomed and Spain had to ask for peace in 1786 and paid 1 million pesos to the Dey.
In 1792, Algiers took back Oran and Mers el Kébir, the two last Spanish strongholds in Algeria.In the same year, they conquered the MoroccanRifandOujda, which they then abandoned in 1795.
In the 19th century, Algerian pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a "license tax" in exchange for safe harbor of their vessels.
Attacks by Algerian pirates on American merchantmen resulted in theFirstandSecond Barbary Wars, which ended the attacks on U.S. ships in 1815. A year later, a combinedAnglo-Dutchfleet, under the command ofLord Exmouthbombarded Algiersto stop similar attacks on European fishermen. These efforts proved successful, although Algerian piracy would continue until theFrench conquestin 1830.
Under the pretext of a slight to their consul, theFrenchinvaded andcaptured Algiersin 1830.According to several historians, the methods used by the French to establish control over Algeria reachedgenocidalproportions.HistorianBen Kiernanwrote on the French conquest of Algeria: "By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830".French losses from 1831 to 1851 were 92,329 dead in the hospital and only 3,336 killed in action.In 1872, The Algerian population stood at about 2.9 million.French policy was predicated on "civilising" the country.The slave trade and piracy in Algeria ceased following the French conquest.Theconquest of Algeriaby the French took some time and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused theindigenousAlgerian population to decline by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872.On 17 September 1860,Napoleon IIIdeclared "Our first duty is to take care of the happiness of the three million Arabs, whom the fate of arms has brought under our domination."During this time, only Kabylia resisted, the Kabylians were not colonised until after theMokrani Revoltin 1871.
Alexis de Tocquevillewrote and never completed an unpublished essay outlining his ideas for how to transform Algeria from an occupied tributary state to a colonial regime, wherein he advocated for a mixed system of "total domination and total colonisation" whereby French military would wage total war against civilian populations while a colonial administration would provide rule of law and property rights to settlers within French occupied cities.
From 1848 until independence, France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as an integral part anddépartementof the nation. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands ofEuropeanimmigrants, who became known ascolonsand later, asPied-Noirs.Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people emigrated to Algeria.These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land.Many Europeans settled inOranandAlgiers, and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both cities.
During the late 19th and early 20th century, theEuropean sharewas almost a fifth of the population. The French government aimed at making Algeria an assimilated part of France, and this included substantial educational investments especially after 1900. The indigenous cultural and religious resistance heavily opposed this tendency, but in contrast to the other colonised countries' path in central Asia andCaucasus, Algeria kept its individual skills and a relatively human-capital intensive agriculture.
During theSecond World War, Algeria came underVichy controlbefore being liberated by theAlliesinOperation Torch, which saw the first large-scale deployment ofAmerican troopsin theNorth African campaign.
Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status under the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy and eventually independence fromFrance. In May 1945, the uprising against the occupying French forces was suppressed through what is now known as theSétif and Guelma massacre. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called theAlgerian Warbegan after the publication of theDeclaration of 1 November 1954. Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000Harkisand their dependents were killed by theNational Liberation Front(FLN) or bylynchmobs in Algeria.The FLN used hit and run attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the French conductedsevere reprisals. In addition, the French destroyed over 8,000 villagesand relocated over 2 million Algerians toconcentration camps.
The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands of injuries. Historians, likeAlistair HorneandRaymond Aron, state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war dead was far greater than the original FLN and official French estimates but was less than the 1 million deaths claimed by the Algerian government after independence. Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 700,000.The war uprooted more than 2 million Algerians.
The war against French rule concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962Evian agreementsand the July 1962self-determination referendum.
The number of EuropeanPied-Noirswho fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000 between 1962 and 1964.The exodus to mainland France accelerated after theOran massacre of 1962, in which hundreds of militants entered European sections of the city and began attacking civilians.
Algeria's first president was the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) leaderAhmed Ben Bella. Morocco's claim toportions of western Algerialed to theSand Warin 1963. Ben Bella wasoverthrown in 1965byHouari Boumédiène, his former ally and defence minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had become increasinglysocialistand authoritarian; Boumédienne continued this trend. However, he relied much more on the army for his support, and reduced the sole legal party to a symbolic role. Hecollectivisedagriculture and launched a massive industrialisation drive.Oil extractionfacilities were nationalised. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the international1973 oil crisis.
Boumédienne's successor,Chadli Bendjedid, introduced some liberal economic reforms. He promoted a policy ofArabisationin Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from other Muslim countries, spread conventional Islamic thought in schools and sowed the seeds of a return to Orthodox Islam.
The Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, leading to hardship when the price collapsed during the1980s oil glut.Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during the 1980s; by the end of the decade, Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system. Political parties developed, such as theIslamic Salvation Front(FIS), a broad coalition of Muslim groups.
In December 1991 theIslamic Salvation Frontdominated the first of two rounds oflegislative elections. Fearing the election of an Islamist government, the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancelling the elections. Bendjedid resigned and aHigh Council of Statewas installed to act as the Presidency. It banned the FIS, triggering a civilinsurgencybetween the Front's armed wing, theArmed Islamic Group, and the national armed forces, in which more than 100,000 people are thought to have died. The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign ofcivilian massacres.At several points in the conflict, the situation in Algeria became a point of international concern, most notably during the crisis surroundingAir France Flight 8969, a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a ceasefire in October 1997.
Algeria heldelections in 1999, considered biased by international observers and most opposition groupswhich were won by PresidentAbdelaziz Bouteflika. He worked to restore political stability to the country and announced a "Civil Concord" initiative, approved in areferendum, under which many political prisoners were pardoned, and several thousand members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution under a limited amnesty, in force until 13 January 2000. The AIS disbanded and levels of insurgent violence fell rapidly. TheGroupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat(GSPC), a splinter group of the Armed Islamic Group, continued a terrorist campaign against the Government.
Bouteflika was re-elected in theApril 2004 presidential electionafter campaigning on a programme of national reconciliation. The programme comprised economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise the country, raise living standards, and tackle the causes of alienation. It also included a second amnesty initiative, theCharter for Peace and National Reconciliation, which was approved in areferendum in September 2005. It offered amnesty to most guerrillas and Government security forces.
In November 2008, theAlgerian Constitutionwas amended following a vote in Parliament, removing the two-term limit on Presidential incumbents. This change enabled Bouteflika to stand for re-election in the2009 presidential elections, and he was re-elected in April 2009. During his election campaign and following his re-election, Bouteflika promised to extend the programme of national reconciliation and a $150-billion spending programme to create three million new jobs, the construction of one million new housing units, and to continue public sector and infrastructure modernisation programmes.
A continuing series of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by similarprotests across the Middle East and North Africa. On 24 February 2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-oldstate of emergency.The government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral code, and the representation of women in elected bodies.In April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform.However, elections are routinely criticised by opposition groups as unfair and international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue.
On 2 April 2019, Bouteflika resigned from the presidency aftermass protestsagainst his candidacy for a fifth term in office.
In December 2019,Abdelmadjid Tebbounebecame Algeria's president, after winning the first round of thepresidential electionwith a record abstention rate – the highest of all presidential elections since Algeria's democracy in 1989. Tebboune is accused of being close to the military and being loyal to the deposed president. Tebboune rejects these accusations, claiming to be the victim of a witch hunt. He also reminds his detractors that he was expelled from the Government in August 2017 at the instigation of oligarchs languishing in prison.In September 2024, President Tebbounewona second term with a landslide 84.3 percent of the vote, although his opponents called the results fraud.
Since the 2011 breakup of Sudan, and the creation of South Sudan, Algeria has been the largest country in Africa, and theMediterranean Basin. Its southern part includes a significant portion of theSahara. To the north, theTell Atlasforms with theSaharan Atlas, further south, two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound, and between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. Both Atlas tend to merge in eastern Algeria. The vast mountain ranges ofAuresandNememchaoccupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The highest point isMount Tahat(3,003 metres or 9,852 feet).
Algeria lies mostly between latitudes19°and37°N(a small area is north of 37°N and south of 19°N), and longitudes9°Wand12°E. Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few naturalharbours. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is asteppelandscape ending with theSaharan Atlas; farther south, there is the Sahara desert.
TheHoggar Mountains(Arabic:جبال هقار), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located about 1,500 km (932 mi) south of the capital, Algiers, and just east ofTamanghasset. Algiers,Oran,Constantine, andAnnabaare Algeria's main cities.
In this region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded.
Rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from 400 to 670 mm (15.7 to 26.4 in) annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east.Precipitationis heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in some years.
Farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Algeria also hasergs, or sand dunes, between mountains. Among these, in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can go up to 43.3 °C (110 °F).
The varied vegetation of Algeria includescoastal,mountainousand grassydesert-like regions which all support a wide range of wildlife.
In Algeriaforest coveris around 1% of the total land area, equivalent to 1,949,000 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 1,667,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 1,439,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 510,000 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to beprimary forest(consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 6% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 80% of the forest area was reported to be underpublic ownership, 18%private ownershipand 2% with ownership listed as other or unknown.
Many of the creatures constituting the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilisation. The most commonly seen animals include the wildboars,jackals, andgazelles, although it is not uncommon to spotfennecs(foxes), andjerboas. Algeria also has a smallAfrican leopardandSaharan cheetahpopulation, but these are seldom seen. A species of deer, theBarbary stag, inhabits the dense humid forests in the north-eastern areas. Thefennec foxis thenational animalof Algeria.
A variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackals.Barbary macaquesare the sole native monkey. Snakes,monitor lizards, and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array ofrodentsthroughout thesemi aridregions of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct, including theBarbary lions,Atlas bearsandcrocodiles.
In the north, some of the native flora includesMacchiascrub,olive trees,oaks,cedarsand otherconifers. The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens (Aleppo pine,juniper, andevergreen oak) and some deciduous trees.Fig,eucalyptus,agave, and variouspalm treesgrow in the warmer areas. Thegrape vineis indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm trees.Acaciaswith wildolivesare the predominant flora in the remainder of theSahara. Algeria had a 2018Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 5.22/10, ranking it 106th globally out of 172 countries.
Camels are used extensively; the desert also abounds with venomous and nonvenomous snakes,scorpions, and numerous insects.
Algeria's government has been described as authoritarian,and elected politicians have relatively little sway over affairs in the country. Instead, a group of unelected civilian and military "décideurs" ("deciders"), known as "le pouvoir" ("the power"), de facto rule the country, even deciding who should be president.The most powerful man might have beenMohamed Mediène, the head of military intelligence, before he was brought down during the2019 protests.In recent years, many of these generals have died, retired, or been imprisoned. After the death of GeneralLarbi Belkheir, previous presidentBouteflikaput loyalists in key posts, notably atSonatrach, and secured constitutional amendments that made him re-electable indefinitely, until he was brought down in 2019 duringprotests.
The head of state is thePresident of Algeria, who is elected for a five-year term. The president is limited to two five-year terms. Themost recent presidential electionwas planned to be in April 2019, butwidespread protestserupted on 22 February against the president's decision to participate in the election, which resulted in President Bouteflika announcing his resignation on 3 April.Abdelmadjid Tebboune, an independent candidate, was elected as president after the election eventually took place on 12 December 2019. Protestors refused to recognise Tebboune as president, citing demands for comprehensive reform of the political system.Algeria has universalsuffrageat 18 years of age.The President is the head of thearmy, theCouncil of Ministersand theHigh Security Council. He appoints thePrime Ministerwho is also the head of government.
The Algerian parliament isbicameral; the lower house, thePeople's National Assembly, has 462 members who are directly elected for five-year terms, while the upper house, theCouncil of the Nation, has 144 members serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president.According to theconstitution, no political association may be formed if it is "based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, profession, or region". In addition, political campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects.
Parliamentary elections were last held inJune 2021. In the elections, theFLNlost 66 of its seats, but remained the largest party with 98 seats. Other parties included theMovement of the Society for Peacewhich won 65 seats, theNational Rally for Democracywhich won 58 seats, theFuture Frontwhich won 48 seats, and theNational Construction Movementwhich won 39 seats.
Algeria is included in theEuropean Union'sEuropean Neighbourhood Policy(ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.
Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI) that came into force in 2014. It has a budget of €15.4 billion and provides the bulk of funding through a number of programmes.
In 2009, the French government agreed to compensate victims of nuclear tests in Algeria. Defence Minister Hervé Morin stated that "It's time for our country to be at peace with itself, at peace thanks to a system of compensation and reparations", when presenting the draft law on the payouts. Algerian officials and activists believe that this is a good first step and hope that this move would encourage broader reparation.
Tensions between Algeria and Moroccoin relation to theWestern Saharahave been an obstacle to tightening theArab Maghreb Union, nominally established in 1989, but which has carried little practical weight.On 24 August 2021, Algeria announced the break of diplomatic relations with Morocco.
The military of Algeria consists of thePeople's National Army(ANP), theAlgerian National Navy(MRA), and theAlgerian Air Force(QJJ), plus theTerritorial Air Defence Forces.It is the direct successor of theNational Liberation Army(Armée de Libération Nationale or ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front which fought French colonialoccupationduring the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62).
Total military personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff (2008 estimate).Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 12 months.The military expenditure was 4.3% of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012.Algeria has thesecond-largest militaryin North Africa with the largest defence budget in Africa ($10 billion).Most of Algeria's weapons are imported from Russia, with whom theyare a close ally.
In 2007, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49MiG-29SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated cost of $1.9 billion. Russia is also building two636-typedieselsubmarinesfor Algeria.
Algeria is the 90th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.
Algeria has been categorised by the US government fundedFreedom Houseas "not free" since it began publishing such ratings in 1972, with the exception of 1989, 1990, and 1991, when the country was labelled "partly free".In December 2016, theEuro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitorissued a report regarding violation ofmedia freedomin Algeria. It clarified that the Algerian government imposed restrictions onfreedom of the press; expression; and right to peaceful demonstration, protest and assembly as well as intensified censorship of the media and websites. Due to the fact that the journalists and activists criticise the ruling government, some media organisations' licenses are cancelled.
Independent and autonomous trade unions face routine harassment from the government, with many leaders imprisoned and protests suppressed. In 2016, a number of unions, many of which were involved in the 2010–2012 Algerian Protests, have been deregistered by the government.
Homosexualityis illegal in Algeria.Public homosexual behavior is punishable by up to two years in prison.Despite this, about 26% of Algerians think that homosexuality should be accepted, according to the survey conducted by theBBC News Arabic-Arab Barometer in 2019. Algeria showed the highest LGBT acceptance compared to other Arab countries where the survey was conducted.
Human Rights Watchhas accused the Algerian authorities of using theCOVID-19 pandemicas an excuse to prevent pro-democracy movements and protests in the country, leading to the arrest of youths as part ofsocial distancing.
Algeria is divided into 58provinces(wilayas), 553districts(daïras)and 1,541municipalities(baladiyahs). Each province, district, and municipality is named after itsseat, which is usually the largest city.
The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are:
Algeria's currency is thedinar(DZD). The economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model. In June 2024 The World Bank's 2024 report marks a turning point for Algeria, which joins the select club of upper-middle-income countries. This economic rise, the result of an ambitious development strategy, places the country in the same category as emerging powers such as China, Brazil and TurkeyIn recent years, the Algerian government has halted the privatisation of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy.These restrictions are just starting to be lifted off recently although questions about Algeria's slowly-diversifying economy remain.
Algeria has struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages.The country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term problems, including the need to diversify the economy, strengthen political, economic and financial reforms, improve the business climate and reduce inequalities among regions.
A wave of economic protests in February and March 2011 prompted the Algerian government to offer more than $23 billion in public grants and retroactive salary and benefit increases. Public spending has increased by 27% annually during the past five years. The 2010–14 public-investment programme will cost US$286 billion, 40% of which will go to human development.
Thanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues, Algeria has a cushion of $173 billion inforeign currency reservesand a large hydrocarbon stabilisation fund. In addition, Algeria'sexternal debtis extremely low at about 2% of GDP.The economy remains very dependent on hydrocarbon wealth, and, despite high foreign exchange reserves (US$178 billion, equivalent to three years of imports), current expenditure growth makes Algeria's budget more vulnerable to the risk of prolonged lower hydrocarbon revenues.
Algeria has not joined theWTO, despite several years of negotiations but is a member of theGreater Arab Free Trade Area,theAfrican Continental Free Trade Area,and has an association agreement with the European Union.
Turkish direct investments have accelerated in Algeria, with total value reaching $5 billion. As of 2022, the number of Turkish companies present in Algeria has reached 1,400. In 2020, despite the pandemic, more than 130 Turkish companies were created in Algeria.
Algeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been anOPECmember since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels/day, but it is also a major gas producer and exporter, with important links to Europe.Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and 87.7%of export earnings. Algeria has the10th-largest reserves of natural gasin the world and is thesixth-largest gas exporter. The U.S.Energy Information Administrationreported that in 2005, Algeria had 4.5 trillion cubic metres (160×10^cu ft) of provennatural gas reserves.It also ranks16th in oil reserves.
Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position.
Income from oil and gas rose in 2011 as a result of continuing high oil prices, though the trend in production volume is downward.Production from the oil and gas sector in terms of volume continues to decline, dropping from 43.2 million tonnes to 32 million tonnes between 2007 and 2011. Nevertheless, the sector accounted for 98% of the total volume of exports in 2011, against 48% in 1962,and 70% of budgetary receipts, or US$71.4 billion.
The Algerian national oil company isSonatrach, which plays a key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in Algeria. All foreign operators must work in partnership with Sonatrach, which usually has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements.
Access tobiocapacityin Algeria is lower than world average. In 2016, Algeria had 0.53 global hectaresof biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.In 2016, Algeria used 2.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person – theirecological footprintof consumption. This means they use just under 4.5 times as much biocapacity as Algeria contains. As a result, Algeria is running a biocapacity deficit.In April 2022, diplomats from Italy and Spain held talks after Rome's move to secure large volume of Algerian gas stoked concerns in Madrid.Under the deal between Algeria's Sonatrach and Italy's Eni, Algeria will send an additional 9 billion cubic metres of gas to Italy by next year and in 2024.
Algeria has invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards developing research facilities and paying researchers. This development programme is meant to advance alternative energy production, especially solar and wind power.Algeria is estimated to have the largest solar energy potential in the Mediterranean, so the government has funded the creation of a solar science park in Hassi R'Mel. Currently, Algeria has 20,000 research professors at various universities and over 780 research labs, with state-set goals to expand to 1,000. Besides solar energy, areas of research in Algeria include space and satellite telecommunications, nuclear power and medical research.
The overall rate of unemployment was 11.8% in 2023.The government strengthened in 2011 the job programmes introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the programme to aid those seeking work (Dispositif d'Aide à l'Insertion Professionnelle).
Despite a decline in total unemployment, youth and women unemployment is high.
The development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built.
There are severalUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitesin Algeriawhich includesAl Qal'a of Beni Hammad, the first capital of theHammadidempire;Tipasa, a Phoenician and later Roman town;DjémilaandTimgad, bothRomanruins;M'Zab Valley, a limestone valley containing a large urbanisedoasis; and theCasbahof Algiers, an important citadel. The only naturalWorld Heritage Sitein Algeria is theTassili n'Ajjer, a mountain range.
Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Algeria:
The Algerian road network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at 180,000 km (110,000 mi) of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by theEast-West Highway, a major infrastructure project currently under construction. It is a three-way, 1,216-kilometre-long (756 mi) highway, linkingAnnabain the extreme east to theTlemcenin the far west. Algeria is also crossed by theTrans-Sahara Highway, which is now completely paved. This road is supported by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria,Mali,Niger,Nigeria,Chad, andTunisia.
Algeria has a population of an estimated 45.6 million,of which the majority, 75%to 85% are ethnicallyArab.At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately 4 million.About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated inoases, although some 1.5 million remainnomadicor partly nomadic. 28.1% of Algerians are under the age of 15.
Between 90,000 and 165,000SahrawisfromWestern Saharalive in theSahrawi refugee camps,in the western Algerian Sahara desert.There are also more than 4,000Palestinian refugees, who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).In 2009, 35,000Chinesemigrant workers lived in Algeria.
The largest concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has reportedly over 1.7 millionAlgeriansof up to the second generation.
Arabsand indigenousBerbersas well asPhoenicians,Romans,Vandals,Byzantine Greeks,Turks, variousSub-Saharan Africans, and French have contributed to the history and culture of Algeria.Descendants ofAndalusirefugees are also present in the population of Algiers and other cities.Moreover, Spanish was spoken by theseAragoneseandCastillianMoriscodescendants deep into the 18th century, and evenCatalanwas spoken at the same time byCatalanMoriscodescendants in the small town of Grish El-Oued.
Centuries ofArab migrations to the Maghrebsince the seventh century shifted the demographic scope in Algeria. Estimates vary based on different sources. The majority of the population of Algeria is ethnicallyArab, constituting between 75%and 80%to 85%of the population.Berberswho make up between 15%and 20%to 24%of the population are divided into many groups with varying languages. The largest of these are theKabyles, who live in theKabylieregion east of Algiers, theChaouiof Northeast Algeria, theTuaregsin the southern desert and theShenwa peopleof North Algeria.During the colonial period, there was a large (10% in 1960)Europeanpopulation who became known asPied-Noirs. They were primarily of French, Spanish andItalian origin. Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or immediately after its end.
Modern Standard ArabicandBerberare the official languages.Algerian Arabic(Darja) is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian Arabic has some Berber loanwords which represent 8% to 9% of its vocabulary.
Berberhas been recognised as a "national language" by the constitutional amendment of 8 May 2002.Kabyle, the predominant Berber language, is taught and is partially co-official (with a few restrictions) in parts ofKabylie. Kabyle has a significantArabic,French,Latin,Greek,PhoenicianandPunicsubstratum, and Arabic loanwords represent 35% of the total Kabyle vocabulary.In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that made Berber an official language alongside Arabic. Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after 1962.ColloquialAlgerian Arabicis spoken by about 83% of the population and Berber by 27%.
Although French has no official status in Algeria, it has one of the largest Francophone populations in the world,and French is widely used in government, media (newspapers, radio, local television), and both the education system (from primary school onwards) and academia due toAlgeria's colonial history. It can be regarded as alingua francaof Algeria. In 2008, 11.2 million Algerians could read and write in French.In 2013, it was estimated that 60% of the population could speak or understand French.In 2022, it was estimated that 33% of the population was Francophone.
The use ofEnglish in Algeria, though limited in comparison to the previously mentioned languages, has increased due to globalisation.In 2022 it was announced that English would be taught in elementary schools.
Islamis the predominant religion in Algeria, with its adherents, mostly Sunnis, accounting for 99% of the population according to a 2021 CIAWorld Factbookestimate,and 97.9% according to Pew Research in 2020.There are about 290,000Ibadisin the M'zab Valley in the region ofGhardaia.
Prior to independence, Algeria was home to more than 1.3 million Christians (mostly ofEuropean ancestry).Most of the Christian settlers left to France after the country's independence.Today, estimates of theChristian populationrange from 100,000 to 200,000.Algerian citizens who are Christians predominantly belong toProtestantdenominations, which have seen increased pressure from the government in recent years including many forced closures.
According to theArab Barometerin 2018–2019, the vast majority of Algerians (99.1%) continue to identify as Muslim.The June 2019Arab Barometer-BBC Newsreport found that the percentage of Algerians identifying as non-religious has grown from around 8% in 2013 to around 15% in 2018.The Arab Barometer December 2019, found that the growth in the percentage of Algerians identifying as non-religious is largely driven by young Algerians, with roughly 25% describing themselves as non-religious.However, the 2021 Arab Barometer report found that those who said they were not religious among Algerians has decreased, with just 2.6% identifying as non-religious. In that same report, 69.5% of Algerians identified as religious and another 27.8% identifying as somewhat religious.
Algeria has given theMuslim worlda number of prominent thinkers, includingEmir Abdelkader,Abdelhamid Ben Badis,Mouloud Kacem Naît Belkacem,Malek BennabiandMohamed Arkoun.
In 2018, Algeria had the highest numbers of physicians in the Maghreb region (1.72 per 1,000 people), nurses (2.23 per 1,000 people), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 people). Access to "improved water sources" was around 97.4% of the population in urban areas and 98.7% of the population in the rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban areas, and around 93.4% of those living in rural areas, had access to "improved sanitation". According to the World Bank, Algeria is making progress towards its goal of "reducing by half the number of people without sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015". Given Algeria's young population, policy favours preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunisation programme. However, poor sanitation and unclean water still causetuberculosis,hepatitis,measles,typhoid fever,choleraanddysentery. The poor generally receive healthcare free of charge.
Health records have been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the south to their vital record database in 1905 during French rule.
Since the 1970s, in a centralised system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence, now the literacy rate is around 92.6%.Since 1972, Arabic is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of schooling. From the third year, French is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English, Italian, Spanish and German. In 2008, new programmes at the elementary appeared, therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the age of five.Apart from the 122 private schools, the Universities of the State are free of charge. After nine years of primary school, students can go to a high school or to an educational institution. The school offers two programmes: general or technical. At the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the baccalaureate, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes.
Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008, the illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22.3%, 15.6% for men and 29.0% for women. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy wasAlgiers Provinceat 11.6%, while the province with the highest rate wasDjelfa Provinceat 35.5%.
Algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. TheUniversity of Algiers, founded in 1879, is the oldest, it offers education in various disciplines (law, medicine, science and letters). Twenty-five of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher education were founded after the independence of the country.
Even if some of them offer instruction inArabiclike areas of law and the economy, most of the other sectors such as science and medicine continue to be provided in French and English. Among the most important universities, there are theUniversity of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene, theUniversity of MentouriConstantine, andUniversity of OranEs-Senia. TheUniversity of Abou Bekr Belkaïdin Tlemcen andUniversity of BatnaHadj Lakhdar occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa.Algeria was ranked 115th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024.
Modern Algerian literature, split betweenArabic,Tamazightand French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history.Famous novelistsof the 20th century includeMohammed Dib,Albert Camus,Kateb YacineandAhlam MosteghanemiwhileAssia Djebaris widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s wereRachid Mimouni, later vice-president ofAmnesty International, andTahar Djaout, murdered by anIslamistgroup in 1993 for his secularist views.
Malek BennabiandFrantz Fanonare noted for their thoughts ondecolonisation;Augustine of Hippowas born inTagaste(modern-daySouk Ahras); andIbn Khaldun, though born inTunis, wrote theMuqaddimawhile staying in Algeria. The works of theSanusifamily in pre-colonial times, and ofEmir Abdelkaderand SheikhBen Badisin colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin authorApuleiuswas born inMadaurus(Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria.
ContemporaryAlgerian cinemais varied in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians.
Algerian painters, likeMohammed RacimandBaya, attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonisation, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line,Mohamed Temam,Abdelkhader Houamelhave also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country, the habits and customs of the past and the country life. Other new artistic currents including the one ofM'hamed Issiakhem,Mohammed KhaddaandBachir Yelles, appeared on the scene of Algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways, to adapt Algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and its aspirations.Mohammed KhaddaandM'hamed Issiakhemhave been notable in recent years.
The historic roots of Algerian literature go back to theNumidianandRoman Africanera, whenApuleiuswroteThe Golden Ass, the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also knownAugustine of Hippo,Nonius MarcellusandMartianus Capella, among many others. The Middle Ages have known many Arabic writers who revolutionised the Arab world literature, with authors likeAhmad al-Buni,Ibn ManzurandIbn Khaldoun, who wrote theMuqaddimahwhile staying in Algeria, and many others.
Albert Camuswas an Algerian-born French Pied-Noir author. In 1957, he was awarded theNobel Prize in Literature.
Today Algeria contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the Algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and French.
As a first step, Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as theAlgerian trilogyofMohammed Dib, or evenNedjmaofKateb Yacinenovel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom includeMouloud Feraoun,Malek Bennabi,Malek Haddad,Moufdi Zakaria, Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mohamed Laïd Al-Khalifa,Mouloud Mammeri,Frantz Fanon, andAssia Djebar.
In the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there areRachid Boudjedra,Rachid Mimouni,Leila Sebbar,Tahar DjaoutandTahir Wattar.
Currently, a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer,the swallows of Kabulandthe attackofYasmina Khadra,the oath of barbariansofBoualem Sansal,memory of the fleshofAhlam Mosteghanemiand the last novel by Assia Djebarnowhere in my father's House.
The Algerian state's interest in film-industry activities can be seen in the annual budget of DZD 200 million (EUR 1.3 million) allocated to production, specific measures and an ambitious programme plan implemented by the Ministry of Culture to promote national production, renovate the cinema stock and remedy the weak links in distribution and exploitation.
The financial support provided by the state, through the Fund for the Development of the Arts, Techniques and the Film Industry (FDATIC) and the Algerian Agency for Cultural Influence (AARC), plays a key role in the promotion of national production. Between 2007 and 2013, FDATIC subsidised 98 films (feature films, documentaries and short films). In mid-2013, AARC had already supported a total of 78 films, including 42 feature films, 6 short films and 30 documentaries.
According to the European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database, 41 Algerian films were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013; 21 films in this repertoire were Algerian-French co-productions.Days of Glory(2006)andOutside the Law(2010)recorded the highest number of admissions in the European Union, 3,172,612 and 474,722, respectively.
Algeria won thePalme d'OrforChronicle of the Years of Fire(1975), two Oscars forZ(1969), and other awards for the Italian-Algerian movieThe Battle of Algiers.
Algerian cuisine is rich and diverse as a result of interactions and exchanges with other cultures and nations over the centuries.It is based on both land and sea products. Conquests or demographic movement towards the Algerian territory were two of the main factors of exchanges between the different peoples and cultures. The Algerian cuisine is a mix ofArab,Berber,TurkishandFrenchroots.
Algerian cuisine offers a variety of dishes depending on the region and the season, but vegetables andcerealsremain at its core. Most of the Algerian dishes are centered around bread, meats (lamb, beef or poultry), olive oil, vegetables, and fresh herbs. Vegetables are often used for salads, soups,tajines,couscous, and sauce-based dishes. Of all the Algerian traditional dishes available, the most famous one iscouscous, recognized as a national dish.
Various games have existed in Algeria since antiquity. In theAures, people played several games such as El Kherba or El khergueba (chessvariant). Playing cards,checkersand chess games are part of Algerian culture. Racing (fantasia) andrifle shootingare part of cultural recreation of the Algerians.
Footballis the most popular sport in the country. TheAlgerian national football team, known as the Desert Foxes, has a strong fan base and has achieved success both domestically and internationally.
Algeria has a long history in other sports such asathletics,boxing,volleyball,handballand the study ofmartial arts.Algerian athletes havecompeted in the Olympic Gamesand have won medals in various events.Many sports clubs and organisations exist in Algeria to promote and develop sports among young people.TheMinistry of Youth and Sportsin Algeria manages sport-related activities.
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