Ashkenazi Jews

Ashkenazi Jews(/ˌɑːʃkəˈnɑːzi,ˌæʃ-/A(H)SH-kə-NAH-zee;also known asAshkenazic JewsorAshkenazim) constitute aJewish diasporapopulation thatemergedin theHoly Roman Empirearound the end of the first millenniumCE.They traditionally speakYiddish,a language that originated in the 9th century,and largely migrated towardsnorthernandeastern Europeduring the lateMiddle Agesdue topersecution.Hebrew was primarily used as aliteraryandsacred languageuntil its 20th-centuryrevival as a common languagein Israel.
Ashkenazim adapted their traditions to Europe and underwent a transformation in their interpretation of Judaism.In the late 18th and 19th centuries, Jews who remained in or returned to historical German lands experienced a cultural reorientation. Under the influence of theHaskalahand the struggle for emancipation, as well as the intellectual and cultural ferment in urban centres, some gradually abandoned Yiddish in favor of German and developed new forms ofJewish religious lifeandcultural identity.
Throughout the centuries, Ashkenazim made significant contributions toEurope's philosophy, scholarship,literature,art,music, andscience.
As a proportion of theworld Jewish population, Ashkenazim were estimated to be 3% in the 11th century, rising to 92% in 1930 near the population's peak.The Ashkenazi population was significantly diminished bythe Holocaustcarried out byNazi GermanyduringWorld War II, which killed some six million Jews, affecting practically every European Jewish family.In 1933, prior to World War II, the estimated worldwide Jewish population was 15.3 million.Israelidemographer and statisticianSergio D. Pergolaimplied that Ashkenazim comprised 65–70% of Jews worldwide in 2000,while other estimates suggest more than 75%.As of 2013, the population was estimated to be between 10 millionand 11.2 million.
Genetic studiesindicate that Ashkenazim have bothLevantineandEuropean(mainlysouthernandeastern European) ancestry. These studies draw diverging conclusions about the degree and sources of Europeanadmixture, with some focusing on the European genetic origin in Ashkenazi maternal lineages, contrasting with the predominantlyMiddle Easterngenetic origin in paternal lineages.
The nameAshkenaziderives from the biblical figure ofAshkenaz, the first son ofGomer, son ofJaphet, son ofNoah, and aJapheticpatriarchin theTable of Nations(Genesis 10). The name of Gomer has often been linked to theCimmerians.
The BiblicalAshkenazis usually derived fromAssyrianAškūza(cuneiformAškuzai/Iškuzai), a people who expelled the Cimmerians from the Armenian area of the UpperEuphrates;the nameAškūzais identified with theScythians.The intrusivenin the Biblical name is likely due to a scribal error confusing avavו‎with anunנ‎.
InJeremiah51:27, Ashkenaz figures as one of three kingdoms in the far north, the others beingMinniand Ararat (corresponding toUrartu), called on by God to resist Babylon.InTalmud(b. Yoma 10a; y. Megillah 71b) the name Gomer is rendered asGermania, which elsewhere in rabbinical literature was identified withGermanikiain northwestern Syria, but later became associated withGermania. InGenesis Rabbah, Rabbi Berechiah mentions Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah as German tribes or as German lands. Ashkenaz is linked toScandza/Scanzia, viewed as the cradle of Germanic tribes, as early as a 6th-century gloss to theHistoria EcclesiasticaofEusebius.
In the 10th-centuryHistory of ArmeniaofYovhannes Drasxanakertc'i(1.15), Ashkenaz was associated with Armenia,as it was occasionally in Jewish usage, where its denotation extended at times toAdiabene,Khazaria,Crimeaand areas to the east.His contemporarySaadia Gaonidentified Ashkenaz with theSaqulibaorSlavic territories,and such usage covered also the lands of tribes neighboring the Slavs, and Eastern and Central Europe.In modern times,Samuel Kraussidentified the Biblical "Ashkenaz" withKhazaria.
Sometime in theEarly Medievalperiod, the Jews of central and eastern Europe came to be called by this term.Conforming to the custom of designating areas of Jewish settlement with biblical names, Spain was denominatedSefarad(Obadiah20), France was calledTsarefat(1 Kings 17:9), andBohemiawas called theLand of Canaan.By the start of thehigh medievalperiod,Hai Gaonrefers to questions that had been addressed to him from Ashkenaz, by which he undoubtedly means Germany, and Talmudic commentators likeRashibegan to useAshkenaz/Eretz Ashkenazto designateGermany, earlier known asLoter,where, especially in theRhinelandcommunities ofSpeyer,WormsandMainz, the most important Jewish communities arose.Rashi usesleshon Ashkenaz(Ashkenazi language) to describe Yiddish, and Byzantium and Syrian Jewish letters referred to theCrusadersas Ashkenazim.During the 12th century, the word appears quite frequently. In theMahzor Vitry, the kingdom of Ashkenaz is referred to chiefly in regard to the ritual of the synagogue there, but occasionally also with regard to certain other observances.In the literature of the 13th century, references to the land and the language of Ashkenaz often occur. Examples includeSolomon ben Aderet's Responsa (vol. i., No. 395); the Responsa ofAsher ben Jehiel(pp. 4, 6); hisHalakot(Berakot i. 12, ed. Wilna, p. 10); the work of his sonJacob ben Asher,Tur Orach Chayim(chapter 59); the Responsa of Isaac ben Sheshet (numbers 193, 268, 270). Given the close links between the Jewish communities of France and Germany following theCarolingian unification, the term Ashkenazi came to refer to the Jews of both medieval Germany and France.
In later times, the word Ashkenaz is used to designate southern and western Germany, the ritual of which sections differs somewhat from that of eastern Germany and Poland. Thus the prayer-book ofIsaiah Horowitz, and many others, give thepiyyutimaccording to theMinhagof Ashkenaz and Poland.
Like otherJewish ethnic groups, the Ashkenazi originate from theIsraelitesandHebrewsof historicalIsrael and Judah. Ashkenazi Jews share a significant amount of ancestry with other Jewish populations and derive their ancestry mostly from populations in the Middle East, Southern Europe and Eastern Europe.Other than their origins in ancient Israel, the question of how Ashkenazi Jews came to exist as a distinct community is unknown, and has given rise to several theories.
Beginning in the fourth century BCE, Jewish colonies sprang up in southern Europe, including the Aegean Islands, Greece, and Italy.Jews left ancient Israel for a number of causes, including a number ofpushandpull factors. More Jews moved into these communities as a result of wars, persecution, unrest, and for opportunities in trade and commerce.
Jews migrated to southern Europe from the Middle East voluntarily for opportunities in trade and commerce. FollowingAlexander the Great's conquests, Jews migrated to Greek settlements in the Eastern Mediterranean, spurred on by economic opportunities. Jewish economic migration to southern Europe is also believed to have occurred during the Roman period.
In 63 BCE, theSiege of Jerusalemsaw theRoman Republicconquer Judea, and thousands of Jewish prisoners of war were brought to Rome as slaves. After gaining their freedom, they settled permanently in Rome as traders.It is likely that there was an additional influx of Jewish slaves taken to southern Europe by Roman forces after thecapture of Jerusalemby the forces ofHerod the Greatwith assistance from Roman forces in 37 BCE. It is known that Jewish war captives were sold into slavery after the suppression of a minor Jewish revolt in 53 BCE, and some were probably taken to southern Europe.
Regarding Jewish settlements founded in southern Europe during the Roman era,E. Mary Smallwoodwrote that "no date or origin can be assigned to the numerous settlements eventually known in the west, and some may have been founded as a result of the dispersal of Palestinian Jews after the revolts of AD 66–70 and 132–135, but it is reasonable to conjecture that many, such as the settlement inPuteoliattested in 4 BC, went back to the late republic or early empire and originated in voluntary emigration and the lure of trade and commerce."
The first and second centuries CE saw a series of unsuccessful large-scaleJewish revolts against Rome. The Roman suppression of these revolts led to wide-scale destruction, a very high toll of life and enslavement. TheFirst Jewish-Roman War(66–73 CE) resulted in thedestruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple. Two generations later, theBar Kokhba Revolt(132–136 CE) erupted. Judea's countryside was devastated, and many were killed, displaced or sold into slavery.Jerusalem was rebuilt as aRoman colonyunder the name ofAelia Capitolina, and the province of Judea was renamedSyria Palaestina.Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death. Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt.
With their national aspirations crushed and widespread devastation in Judea, despondent Jews migrated out of Judea in the aftermath of both revolts, and many settled in southern Europe. In contrast to the earlier Assyrian and Babylonian captivities, the movement was by no means a singular, centralized event, and a Jewish diaspora had already been established before.
During both of these rebellions, many Jews were captured and sold into slavery by the Romans. According to the Jewish historianJosephus, 97,000 Jews were sold as slaves in the aftermath of the first revolt.In one occasion,Vespasianreportedly ordered 6,000 Jewish prisoners of war fromGalileeto work on theIsthmus of Corinthin Greece.Jewish slaves and their children eventually gained their freedom and joined local free Jewish communities.
Many Jews were denied fullRoman citizenshipuntil EmperorCaracallagrantedall free peoples this privilege in 212 CE. Jews were required to pay apoll taxuntil the reign of EmperorJulianin 363 CE. In the late Roman Empire, Jews were free to form networks of cultural and religious ties and enter into various local occupations. However, after Christianity became the official religion ofRomeandConstantinoplein 380 CE, Jews were increasingly marginalized.
TheSynagogue in the Agora of Athensis dated to the period between 267 and 396 CE. The Stobi Synagogue inMacedoniawas built on the ruins of a more ancient synagogue in the 4th century, while later in the 5th century, the synagogue was transformed into a Christian basilica.Hellenistic Judaismthrived inAntiochandAlexandria, and many of theseGreek-speakingJews would convert to Christianity.
Sporadicepigraphic evidencein gravesite excavations, particularly in Brigetio (Szőny), Aquincum (Óbuda), Intercisa (Dunaújváros), Triccinae (Sárvár), Savaria (Szombathely), Sopianae (Pécs) in Hungary, and Mursa (Osijek) in Croatia, attest to the presence of Jews after the 2nd and 3rd centuries where Roman garrisons were established.There was a sufficient number of Jews inPannoniato form communities and build a synagogue. Jewish troops were among the Syrian soldiers transferred there, and replenished from the Middle East. After 175 CE Jews and especially Syrians came fromAntioch,Tarsus, andCappadocia. Others came from Italy and the Hellenized parts of the Roman Empire. The excavations suggest they first lived in isolated enclaves attached to Roman legion camps and intermarried with other similar oriental families within the military orders of the region.
Raphael Pataistates that later Roman writers remarked that they differed little in either customs, manner of writing, or names from the people among whom they dwelt; and it was especially difficult to differentiate Jews from the Syrians.After Pannonia was ceded to theHunsin 433, the garrison populations were withdrawn to Italy, and only a few, enigmatic traces remain of a possible Jewish presence in the area some centuries later.No evidence has yet been found of a Jewish presence in antiquity in Germany beyond its Roman border, nor in Eastern Europe. In Gaul and Germany itself, with the possible exception ofTrierandCologne, the archeological evidence suggests at most a fleeting presence of very few Jews, primarily itinerant traders or artisans.
Estimating the number of Jews in antiquity is a task fraught with peril due to the nature of and lack of accurate documentation. The number of Jews in the Roman Empire for a long time was based on the accounts of Syrian Orthodox bishopBar Hebraeuswho lived between 1226 and 1286 CE, who stated by the time of the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, as many as six million Jews were already living in the Roman Empire, a conclusion which has been contested as highly exaggerated. The 13th-century author Bar Hebraeus gave a figure of 6,944,000 Jews in the Roman world.Salo Wittmayer Baronconsidered the figure convincing.The figure of seven million within and one million outside the Roman world in the mid-first century became widely accepted, including byLouis Feldman. However, contemporary scholars now accept that Bar Hebraeus based his figure on a census of total Roman citizens and thus included non-Jews, the figure of 6,944,000 being recorded inEusebius'Chronicon.Louis Feldman, previously an active supporter of the figure, now states that he and Baron were mistaken.Philogives a figure of one million Jews living in Egypt.Brian McGingrejects Baron's figures entirely, arguing that we have no clue as to the size of the Jewish demographic in the ancient world.Sometimes the scholars who accepted the high number of Jews in Rome had explained it by Jews having been active inproselytising.The idea of ancient Jews trying to convert Gentiles to Judaism is nowadays rejected by several scholars.The Romans did not distinguish between Jews inside and outside of the land of Israel/Judaea. They collected an annualtemple taxfrom Jews both in and outside of Israel. The revolts in and suppression of diaspora communities in Egypt, Libya and Crete during theKitos Warof 115–117 CE had a severe impact on the Jewish diaspora.
A substantial Jewish population emerged in northern Gaul by the Middle Ages,but Jewish communities existed in 465 CE inBrittany, in 524 CE inValence, and in 533 CE inOrléans.Throughout this period and into the early Middle Ages, some Jews assimilated into the dominant Greek and Latin cultures, mostly through conversion to Christianity.KingDagobert Iof theFranksexpelled the Jews from hisMerovingiankingdom in 629. Jews in former Roman territories faced new challenges as harsher anti-Jewish Church rulings were enforced.
Charlemagne's expansion of the Frankish empire around 800, including northern Italy and Rome, brought on a brief period of stability and unity inFrancia. This created opportunities for Jewish merchants to settle again north of the Alps. Charlemagne granted the Jews freedoms similar to those once enjoyed under theRoman Empire. In addition, Jews from southern Italy, fleeing religious persecution, began to move into Central Europe.Returning to Frankish lands, many Jewish merchants took up occupations in finance and commerce, including money lending, orusury. (Church legislation banned Christians from lending money in exchange for interest.) From Charlemagne's time to the present, Jewish life in northern Europe is well documented. By the 11th century, whenRashiofTroyeswrote his commentaries, Jews in what came to be known as "Ashkenaz" were known for theirhalakhic learning, andTalmudic studies. They were criticized bySephardimand other Jewish scholars in Islamic lands for their lack of expertise in Jewish jurisprudence and general ignorance of Hebrew linguistics and literature.Yiddishemerged as a result ofJudeo-Latinlanguage contact with variousHigh Germanvernacularsin the medieval period.It is a Germanic language written in Hebrew letters, and heavily influenced byHebrewandAramaic, with some elements ofRomanceand laterSlavic languages.
Historical records show evidence of Jewish communities north of theAlpsandPyreneesas early as the 8th and 9th centuries. By the 11th century, Jewish settlers moving from southern European and Middle Eastern centers (such asBabylonian JewsandPersian Jews) andMaghrebi Jewishtraders from North Africa who had contacts with their Ashkenazi brethren and had visited each other from time to time in each's domainappear to have begun to settle in the north, especially along the Rhine, often in response to new economic opportunities and at the invitation of local Christian rulers. ThusBaldwin V, Count of Flanders, invited Jacob ben Yekutiel and his fellow Jews to settle in his lands; and soon after theNorman conquest of England,William the Conquerorlikewise extended a welcome to continental Jews to take up residence there. BishopRüdiger Huzmanncalled on the Jews ofMainzto relocate toSpeyer. In all of these decisions, the idea that Jews had the know-how and capacity to jump-start the economy, improve revenues, and enlarge trade seems to have played a prominent role.Typically, Jews relocated close to the markets and churches in town centres, where, though they came under the authority of both royal and ecclesiastical powers, they were accorded administrative autonomy.
According to 16th-century mysticRabbi Elijah of Chelm, Ashkenazi Jews lived inJerusalemduring the 11th century. The story is told that a German-speaking Jew saved the life of a young German man surnamed Dolberger. So when the knights of theFirst Crusadecame to siege Jerusalem, one of Dolberger's family members who was among them rescued Jews in Palestine and carried them back toWormsto repay the favor.Further evidence of German communities in the holy city comes in the form ofhalakhicquestions sent from Germany to Jerusalem during the second half of the 11th century.
In the 11th century, the "Rabbinicmode of thought and life" and the culture of theBabylonian Talmudthat underlies it became established in southern Italy and then spread north to Ashkenaz.However, many traditions and customs from theJerusalem Talmudand otherLand of Israelrabbinic sources were known and practiced in Ashkenaz long before the 11th century - so long before that the sources of these practices were forgotten by 11th century Ashkenazi writers, and the practices regarded simply as "minhag".
Numerous massacres of Jews occurred throughout Europe during the ChristianCrusades. Inspired by the preaching of a First Crusade, crusader mobs in France and Germany perpetrated theRhineland massacresof 1096, devastating Jewish communities along the Rhine River, including theSHuM citiesof Speyer, Worms, and Mainz. The cluster of cities contain the earliest Jewish settlements north of the Alps, and played a major role in the formation of Ashkenazi Jewish religious tradition,along with Troyes and Sens in France. Nonetheless, Jewish life in Germany persisted, while some Ashkenazi Jews joined Sephardic Jewry in Spain.Expulsions from England (1290), France (1394), and parts of Germany (15th century), gradually pushed Ashkenazi Jewry eastward, toPoland(10th century),Lithuania(10th century), and Russia (12th century). Over this period of several hundred years, some have suggested, Jewish economic activity was focused on trade, business management, and financial services, due to several presumed factors:ChristianEuropean prohibitions restricting certain activities by Jews, preventing certain financial activities (such as "usurious" loans)between Christians, high rates of literacy, near-universal male education, and ability of merchants to rely upon and trust family members living in different regions and countries.
In Poland, Jews were granted special protection by theStatute of Kaliszof 1264. By the 15th century, the Ashkenazi Jewish communities in Poland were the largest Jewish communities of the Diaspora.This area, which eventually fell under the domination of Russia,Austria, andPrussia(Germany) following thePartitions of Poland, and was later largely regained by reborn Poland in theinterbellum, would remain the main center of Ashkenazi Jewry until theHolocaust.
The answer to why there was so little assimilation of Jews in central and eastern Europe for so long would seem to lie in part in the probability that the alien surroundings in central and eastern Europe were not conducive, though there was some assimilation. Furthermore, Jews lived almost exclusively inshtetls, maintained a strong system of education for males, heeded rabbinic leadership, and had a very different lifestyle to that of their neighbours; all of these tendencies increased with every outbreak ofantisemitism.
In parts of Eastern Europe, before the arrival of the Ashkenazi Jews from Central Europe, some non-Ashkenazi Jews were present who spokeLeshon Knaanand held various other Non-Ashkenazi traditions and customs.In 1966, the historianCecil Rothquestioned the inclusion of all Yiddish speaking Jews as Ashkenazim in descent, suggesting that upon the arrival of Ashkenazi Jews from central Europe to Eastern Europe, from the Middle Ages to the 16th century, there were a substantial number of non-Ashkenazim Jews already there who later abandoned their original Eastern European Jewish culture in favor of the Ashkenazi one.However, according to more recent research, mass migrations of Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazi Jews occurred to Eastern Europe, from Central Europe in the west, who due to high birth rates absorbed and largely replaced the preceding non-Ashkenazi Jewish groups of Eastern Europe (whose numbers the demographerSergio Della Pergolaconsiders to have been small).Genetic evidence also indicates that Yiddish-speaking Eastern European Jews largely descend from Ashkenazi Jews who migrated from central to eastern Europe and subsequently experienced high birthrates and genetic isolation.
Some Jewish immigration from southern Europe to Eastern Europe continued into the early modern period. During the 16th century, as conditions for Italian Jews worsened, many Jews from Venice and the surrounding area migrated to Poland and Lithuania. During the 16th and 17th centuries, someSephardi JewsandRomaniote Jewsfrom throughout theOttoman Empiremigrated to Eastern Europe, as did Arabic-speakingMizrahi JewsandPersian Jews.
Material relating to the history of German Jews has been preserved in the communal accounts of certain communities on the Rhine, aMemorbuch, and aLiebesbrief, documents that are now part of theSassoonCollection.Heinrich Graetzalso added to the history of German Jewry in modern times in the abstract of his seminal work,History of the Jews, which he entitled "Volksthümliche Geschichte der Juden".
In an essay on Sephardi Jewry,Daniel Elazarat theJerusalem Center for Public Affairssummarized the demographic history of Ashkenazi Jews in the last thousand years. He noted that at the end of the 11th century, 97% of world Jewry was Sephardic and 3% Ashkenazi; in the mid-17th century, "Sephardim still outnumbered Ashkenazim three to two"; by the end of the 18th century, "Ashkenazim outnumbered Sephardim three to two, the result of improved living conditions in Christian Europe versus the Ottoman Muslim world."By 1930,Arthur Ruppinestimated that Ashkenazi Jews accounted for nearly 92% of world Jewry.These factors are sheer demography showing the migration patterns of Jews from Southern and Western Europe to Central and Eastern Europe.
In 1740, a family from Lithuania became the first Ashkenazi Jews to settle in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem.
In the generations after emigration from the west, Jewish communities in places like Poland, Russia, and Belarus enjoyed a comparatively stable socio-political environment. A thriving publishing industry and the printing of hundreds of biblical commentaries precipitated the development of theHasidicmovement as well as major Jewish academic centers.After two centuries of comparative tolerance in the new nations, massive westward emigration occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries in response topogromsin the east and the economic opportunities offered in other parts of the world. Ashkenazi Jews have made up the majority of theAmerican Jewishcommunity since 1750.
In the context of the EuropeanEnlightenment, Jewish emancipation began in 18th century France and spread throughout Western and Central Europe.Disabilitiesthat had limited the rights of Jews since the Middle Ages were abolished, including the requirements to wear distinctive clothing, pay special taxes, and live inghettosisolated from non-Jewish communities and the prohibitions on certain professions. Laws were passed to integrate Jews into their host countries, forcing Ashkenazi Jews to adopt family names (they had formerly usedpatronymics). Newfound inclusion into public life led to cultural growth in theHaskalah, or Jewish Enlightenment, with its goal of integrating modern European values into Jewish life.As a reaction to increasing antisemitism and assimilation following the emancipation,Zionismdeveloped in central Europe.Other Jews, particularly those in thePale of Settlement, turned tosocialism. These tendencies would be united inLabor Zionism, the founding ideology of the State of Israel.
Of the estimated 8.8 million Jews living in Europe at the beginning ofWorld War II, the majority of whom were Ashkenazi, about 6 million – more than two-thirds – were systematically murdered in the Holocaust. These included 3 million of 3.3 millionPolish Jews(91%); 900,000 of 1.5 million in Ukraine (60%); and 50–90% of the Jews of other Slavic nations, Germany, Hungary, and the Baltic states, and over 25% of the Jews in France. Sephardi communities suffered similar devastation in a few countries, including Greece, the Netherlands and the former Yugoslavia.As the large majority of the victims were Ashkenazi Jews, their percentage dropped from an estimate of 92% of world Jewry in 1930to nearly 80% of world Jewry today. The Holocaust also effectively put an end to the dynamic development of the Yiddish language in theprevious decades, as the vast majority of the Jewish victims of the Holocaust, around 5 million, were Yiddish speakers.Many of the surviving Ashkenazi Jews emigrated to countries such as Israel, Canada, Argentina,Australia, and the United States after the war.
Following the Holocaust, some sources place Ashkenazim today as making up approximately 83%–85% of Jews worldwide,whileSergio DellaPergolain a rough calculation ofSephardicandMizrahi Jews, implies that Ashkenazi make up a notably lower figure, less than 74%.Other estimates place Ashkenazi Jews as making up about 75% of Jews worldwide.
From the 1880s onwards, Ashkenazi Jews from Russia, Poland and Germany immigrated to the Land of Israel in large numbers. By 1948, they comprised 80% of the Jewish population of Israel, shortly before theJewish exodus from the Muslim worldchanged the demographic composition of Israeli society.Currently, Jews of mixed background are increasingly common, partly because of intermarriage between Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi, and partly because many do not see such historic markers as relevant to their life experiences as Jews.
Ashkenazi Jews have played a prominent role in the economy, media, and politicsof Israel since its founding. During the first decades of Israel as a state, strong cultural conflict occurred between Sephardic and Ashkenazi Jews (mainly east European Ashkenazim). The roots of this conflict, which still exists to a much smaller extent in present-day Israeli society, are chiefly attributed to the concept of the "melting pot".That is to say, all Jewish immigrants who arrived in Israel were strongly encouraged to "meltdown" their own particular exilic identitieswithin the general social "pot" in order to become Israeli.
Religious Ashkenazi Jews living in Israel are obliged to follow the authority of the chief Ashkenazi rabbi inhalakhicmatters. In this respect, a religiously Ashkenazi Jew is an Israeli who is more likely to support certain religious interests in Israel, including certain political parties. These political parties result from the fact that a portion of the Israeli electorate votes for Jewish religious parties; although the electoral map changes from one election to another, there are generally several small parties associated with the interests of religious Ashkenazi Jews. The role of religious parties, including small religious parties that play important roles as coalition members, results in turn from Israel's composition as a complex society in which competing social, economic, and religious interests stand for election to theKnesset, aunicamerallegislature with 120 seats.
As of 2020, 66% of American Jews identify as Ashkenazic, compared to 4% who identify as Sephardic or Mizrahi, and 6% who claim mixed heritage. A disproportionate number of Ashkenazi Americans are religious compared to American Jews of other racial groups.They live in large populations in the states of New York, California, Florida, and New Jersey.The majority of American Ashkenazi Jewish voters vote for theDemocratic Party; Orthodox Ashkenazim tend to support theRepublican Party, while Conservative, Reform, and non denominational Ashkenazim tend to support the Democratic Party.
Religious Jews haveminhagim, customs, in addition tohalakha, or religious law, and different interpretations of the law. Different groups of religious Jews in different geographic areas historically adopted different customs and interpretations. On certain issues, Orthodox Jews are required to follow the customs of their ancestors and do not believe they have the option of picking and choosing. For this reason, observant Jews at times find it important for religious reasons to ascertain who their household's religious ancestors are in order to know what customs their household should follow. These times include, for example, when two Jews of different ethnic background marry, when a non-Jew converts to Judaism and determines what customs to follow for the first time, or when a lapsed or less observant Jew returns to traditional Judaism and must determine what was done in his or her family's past. In this sense, "Ashkenazic" refers both to a family ancestry and to a body of customs binding on Jews of that ancestry.Reform Judaism, which does not necessarily follow those minhagim, did nonetheless originate among Ashkenazi Jews.
In a religious sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is any Jew whose family tradition and ritual follow Ashkenazi practice. Until the Ashkenazi community first began to develop in theEarly Middle Ages, the centers of Jewish religious authority were in the Islamic world, atBaghdadand inIslamic Spain. Ashkenaz (Germany) was so distant geographically that it developed aminhagof its own. Ashkenazi Hebrew came to be pronounced in ways distinct from other forms of Hebrew.
In this respect, the counterpart of Ashkenazi isSephardic, since most non-Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews follow Sephardic rabbinical authorities, whether or not they are ethnically Sephardic. By tradition, a Sephardic orMizrahiwoman who marries into anOrthodoxorHarediAshkenazi Jewish family raises her children to be Ashkenazi Jews; conversely an Ashkenazi woman who marries aSephardior Mizrahi man is expected to take on Sephardic practice and the children inherit a Sephardic identity, though in practice many families compromise. Aconvertgenerally follows the practice of thebeth dinthat converted him or her. With the integration of Jews from around the world in Israel, North America, and other places, the religious definition of an Ashkenazi Jew is blurring, especially outsideOrthodox Judaism.
New developments in Judaism often transcend differences in religious practice between Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews. In North American cities, social trends such as thechavurah movement, and the emergence of "post-denominational Judaism"often bring together younger Jews of diverse ethnic backgrounds. In recent years, there has been increased interest inKabbalah, which many Ashkenazi Jews study outside of theYeshivaframework. Another trend is the new popularity ofecstaticworship in theJewish Renewalmovement and theCarlebachstyleminyan, both of which are nominally of Ashkenazi origin.Outside ofHaredicommunities, the traditionalAshkenazi pronunciation of Hebrewhas also drastically declined in favor of theSephardi-based pronunciation ofModern Hebrew.
Culturally, an Ashkenazi Jew can be identified by the concept ofYiddishkeit, which means "Jewishness" in theYiddish language.Yiddishkeitis specifically the Jewishness of Ashkenazi Jews.Before theHaskalahand theemancipation of Jewsin Europe, this meant the study ofTorahandTalmudfor men, and a family and communal life governed by the observance of Jewish Law for men and women. From theRhinelandtoRigato Romania, most Jews prayed in liturgical Ashkenazi Hebrew, and spoke Yiddish in their secular lives. But with modernization,Yiddishkeitnow encompasses not just Orthodoxy andHasidism, but a broad range of movements, ideologies, practices, and traditions in which Ashkenazi Jews have participated and somehow retained a sense of Jewishness. Although a far smaller number of Jews still speak Yiddish,Yiddishkeitcan be identified in manners of speech, in styles of humor, in patterns of association. Broadly speaking, a Jew is one who associates culturally with Jews, supports Jewish institutions, reads Jewish books and periodicals, attends Jewish movies and theater, travels to Israel, visits historical synagogues, and so forth. It is a definition that applies to Jewish culture in general, and to Ashkenazi Yiddishkeit in particular.
As Ashkenazi Jews moved away from Europe, mostly in the form ofaliyahto Israel, or immigration to North America, and other English-speaking areas such as South Africa; and Europe (particularly France) and Latin America, the geographic isolation that gave rise to Ashkenazim have given way to mixing with other cultures, and with non-Ashkenazi Jews who, similarly, are no longer isolated in distinct geographic locales.Hebrewhas replaced Yiddish as the primaryJewish languagefor many Ashkenazi Jews, although manyHasidicandHareidigroups continue to use Yiddish in daily life. (There are numerous Ashkenazi Jewish anglophones and Russian-speakers as well, although English and Russian are not originally Jewish languages.)
France's blended Jewish community is typical of the cultural recombination that is going on among Jews throughout the world. Although France expelled its original Jewish population in theMiddle Ages, by the time of theFrench Revolution, there were two distinct Jewish populations. One consisted of Sephardic Jews, originally refugees from theInquisitionand concentrated in the southwest, while the other community was Ashkenazi, concentrated in formerly GermanAlsace, and mainly speaking a German dialect similar to Yiddish. (The third community of Provençal Jews living inComtat Venaissinwere technically outside France, and were later absorbed into the Sephardim.) The two communities were so separate and different that theNational Assemblyemancipated them separately in 1790 and 1791.
But after emancipation, a sense of a unified French Jewry emerged, especially when France was wracked by theDreyfus affairin the 1890s. In the 1920s and 1930s, Ashkenazi Jews from Europe arrived in large numbers as refugees fromantisemitism, theRussian revolution, and the economic turmoil of theGreat Depression. By the 1930s, Paris had a vibrant Yiddish culture, and many Jews were involved in diverse political movements. After theVichyyears and theHolocaust, the French Jewish population was augmented once again, first by Ashkenazi refugees from Central Europe, and later by Sephardi immigrants and refugees from North Africa, many of themfrancophone.
Ashkenazi Jews did not record their traditions or achievements by text, instead these traditions were passed down orally from one generation to the next.The desire to maintain pre-Holocausttraditions relating to Ashkenazi culture has often been met with criticism by Jews in Eastern Europe.Reasoning for this could be related to the development of a new style of Jewish arts and culture developed by theJews of Palestineduring the 1930s and 1940s, which in conjunction with the decimation of European Ashkenazi Jews and their culture by theNaziregime made it easier to assimilate to the new style of ritual rather than try to repair the older traditions.This new style of tradition was referred to as theMediterranean Style, and was noted for its simplicity and metaphorical rejuvenation of Jews abroad.This was intended to replace theGaluttraditions, which were more sorrowful in practice.
Then, in the 1990s, yet another Ashkenazi Jewish wave began to arrive from countries of the formerSoviet Unionand Central Europe. The result is a pluralistic Jewish community that still has some distinct elements of both Ashkenazi and Sephardic culture. But in France, it is becoming much more difficult to sort out the two, and a distinctly French Jewishness has emerged.
In an ethnic sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is one whose ancestry can be traced to the Jews who settled in Central Europe. For roughly a thousand years, the Ashkenazim were a reproductively isolated population in Europe, despite living in many countries, with little inflow or outflow from migration, conversion, or intermarriage with other groups, including other Jews. Human geneticists have argued that genetic variations have been identified that show high frequencies among Ashkenazi Jews, but not in the general European population, be they for patrilineal markers (Y-chromosomehaplotypes) and for matrilineal markers (mitotypes).Since the middle of the 20th century, many Ashkenazi Jews have intermarried, both with members of other Jewish communities and non-Jews.
TheHalakhicpractices of (Orthodox) Ashkenazi Jews may differ from those ofSephardi Jews, particularly in matters of custom. Differences are noted in theShulkhan Arukhitself, in the gloss ofMoses Isserles. Well known differences in practice include:
The term Ashkenazi also refers to theNusach Ashkenaz, the liturgical tradition used by Ashkenazi Jews in theirsiddur(prayer book). A nusach is defined by a liturgical tradition's choice of prayers, the order of prayers, the text of prayers, and melodies used in the singing of prayers.Two other major forms of nusach among Ashkenazic Jews areNusach Sefard(not to be confused withthe Sephardic ritual), which is the general Polish Hasidic nusach, andNusach Ari, used by those inChabad.
Relations between Ashkenazim and Sephardim have at times been tense and clouded by arrogance, snobbery and claims of racial superiority with both sides claiming the inferiority of the other, based upon such features as physical traits and culture.
North African Sephardim and Berber Jews were often looked down upon by Ashkenazim as second-class citizens during the first decade after the creation of Israel. This has led to protest movements such as the IsraeliBlack Panthersled bySaadia Marciano, aMoroccan Jew. Research in 2010 revealed a genetic common ancestry of all Jewish populations.In some instances, Ashkenazi communities have accepted significant numbers of Sephardi newcomers, sometimes resulting in intermarriage and the possible merging between the two communities.
Though Ashkenazi Jews have never exceeded 3% of the American population, Jews account for 37% of the winners of the U.S. National Medal of Science, 25% of the American Nobel Prize winners in literature, and 40% of the American Nobel Prize winners in science and economics.
Efforts to identify the origins of Ashkenazi Jews through DNA analysis began in the 1990s. There are three types of genetic origin testing, autosomal DNA (atDNA),mitochondrial DNA(mtDNA), and Y-chromosomal DNA (Y-DNA). Autosomal DNA is a mixture from an individual's entire ancestry. Y-DNA shows a male's lineage along his paternal line. mtDNA shows any person's lineage only along their maternal line.Genome-wide association studieshave also been used for genetic origin testing.
Like most DNA studies of human migration patterns, the earliest studies on Ashkenazi Jews focused on the Y-DNA and mtDNA segments of the human genome. Both segments are unaffected byrecombination(except for the ends of the Y chromosome – thepseudoautosomal regionsknown as PAR1 and PAR2), thus allowing tracing of direct maternal and paternal lineages.
These studies revealed that Ashkenazi Jews originate from an ancient (2000–700 BCE) population of the Middle East who spread to Europe.Ashkenazic Jews display the homogeneity of agenetic bottleneck, meaning they descend from a larger population whose numbers were greatly reduced but recovered through a few founding individuals. Although the Jewish people, in general, were present across a wide geographical area as described, genetic research by Gil Atzmon of the Longevity Genes Project atAlbert Einstein College of Medicinesuggests "that Ashkenazim branched off from other Jews around the time of the destruction of the First Temple, 2,500 years ago ... flourished during the Roman Empire but then went through a 'severe bottleneck' as they dispersed, reducing a population of several million to just 400 families who left Northern Italy around the year 1000 for Central and eventually Eastern Europe."
Various studies have drawn diverging conclusions about the degree and sources of the non-Levantineadmixturein Ashkenazim,particularly the extent of the non-Levantine origin in maternal lineages, which is in contrast to the predominant Levantine genetic origin in paternal lineages. But all studies agree that both lineages have genetic overlap with theFertile Crescent, albeit at differing rates. Collectively, Ashkenazi Jews are less genetically diverse than otherJewish ethnic divisions, due to their genetic bottleneck.
Most genetic studies of Ashkenazi Jews conclude that the male lines were from the Middle East.
A 2000 study by Hammeret al.found that theY-chromosomeof Ashkenazi andSephardic Jewscontained mutations that are also common among Middle Eastern peoples, but uncommon among indigenous Europeans. This suggests that Ashkenazim male ancestors are mostly from the Middle East. Ashkenazim had less than 0.5% malegenetic admixtureper generation over an estimated 80 generations, with "relatively minor contribution of European Y chromosomes to the Ashkenazim," and the total admixture estimate "very similar to Motulsky's average estimate of 12.5%". This supported the finding that "Diaspora Jews from Europe, Northwest Africa, and theNear Eastresemble each other more closely than they resemble their non-Jewish neighbors." "Past research found that 50%–80% of DNA from the Ashkenazi Y chromosome, which is used to trace the male lineage, originated in the Near East," Richards said. The population has subsequently spread out.
A 2001 study by Nebelet al.showed that Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews share overall Near Eastern paternal ancestries. In comparison with data available from other relevant populations in the region, Jews were found to be more closely related to groups in the north of the Fertile Crescent. The study also found Eu 19 (R1a) chromosomes had elevated frequency among Ashkenazi Jews (13%), and they are very frequent in Central and Eastern Europeans (54–60%). They hypothesized that the differences among Ashkenazim could reflect low-levelgene flowfrom surrounding European populations orgenetic driftduring isolation.A 2005 study by Nebelet al., found a similar level of 11.5% of male Ashkenazim belonging toR1a1a (M17+), the dominant Y-chromosome haplogroup in Central and Eastern Europeans.However, a 2017 study, of AshkenaziLeviteswhere the proportion reaches 50%, found a "rich variation of haplogroup R1a outside of Europe which is phylogenetically separate from the typically European R1a branches", and concludes that the particular R1a-Y2619 sub-clade is evidence for a local origin, and that this validates the "Middle Eastern origin of the Ashkenazi Levite lineage" which had previously been concluded based on a few samples.
A 2006 study by Beharet al.,of 1,000 units ofhaplogroup K(mtDNA), suggested that about 40% of today's Ashkenazim descend from just four women who were "likely from aHebrew/LevantinemtDNA pool" originating in the Middle East in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. The rest of Ashkenazi mtDNA reportedly originated from about 150 women, most of whom were also likely of Middle Eastern origin.Specifically, although haplogroup K is common throughout western Eurasia, its global distribution makes it very unlikely that "the four aforementioned founder lineages entered the Ashkenazi mtDNA pool via gene flow from a European host population".
A 2013 study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA by a team led by Martin B. Richards tested all 16,600 DNA units of mtDNA, and found that the four main female Ashkenazi founders had descent lines that were established in Europe 10,000 to 20,000 years in the pastwhile most of the remaining minor founders also have a deep European ancestry. The study argued that the great majority of Ashkenazi maternal lineages were not brought from the Near East or the Caucasus, but instead assimilated within Europe, primarily of Italian and Old French origins.The study estimated that more than 80% of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women indigenous to (mainly prehistoric Western) Europe, and only 8% from the Near East, while the origin of the remainder is undetermined.According to the study this "point to a significant role for the conversion of women in the formation of Ashkenazi communities."Karl Skoreckicriticized the study, arguing that while it "re-opened the question of the maternal origins of Ashkenazi Jewry, the phylogenetic analysis in the manuscript does not 'settle' the question."
A 2014 study by Fernándezet al.found that Ashkenazi Jews display a frequency of haplogroup K in their maternal DNA, suggesting an ancient Near Eastern matrilineal origin, similar to the results of the Behar study in 2006. Fernández noted that this observation clearly contradicts the results of the 2013 study led by Richards that suggested a European source for 3 exclusively Ashkenazi K lineages.
Ingenetic epidemiology, agenome-wide association study(GWA study, or GWAS) is an examination of all or most of the genes (the genome) of different individuals of a particular species to  see how much the genes vary from individual to individual. These  techniques were originally designed for epidemiological uses, to identify genetic associations with observable traits.
A 2006 study by Seldinet al.used over 5,000 autosomal SNPs to demonstrate European genetic substructure. The results showed "a consistent and reproducible distinction between 'northern' and 'southern' European population groups". Most northern, central, and eastern Europeans (Finns, Swedes, English, Irish, Germans, and Ukrainians) showed >90%, while most southern Europeans (Italians, Greeks, Portuguese, Spaniards) showed >85%. Both Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews showed >85% membership in the "southern" group. Referring to the Jews clustering with southern Europeans, the authors state the results were "consistent with a later Mediterranean origin of these ethnic groups".
A 2007 study by Bauchetet al.found that Ashkenazim were most closely clustered with Arabic North African populations than with the global population, and in the European structure analysis, they share similarities only with Greeks and Southern Italians, reflecting their east Mediterranean origins.
A 2010 study of Jewish ancestry by Atzmon-Ostreret al.identified two major groups: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews, by using "principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent (IBD) analysis". "The IBD segment sharing and the proximity of European Jews to each other and to southern European populations suggested similar origins for European Jewry and refuted large-scale genetic contributions of Central and Eastern European and Slavic populations to the formation of Ashkenazi Jewry", as the two groups share ancestors in the Middle East about 2500 years ago. The study examines genetic markers spread across the entire genome and finds that the Jewish groups (Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi) share large swaths of DNA, indicating close relationships, and that each studied Jewish group (Iranian, Iraqi, Syrian, Italian, Turkish, Greek and Ashkenazi) has its own genetic signature but is more closely related to the other Jewish groups than to their fellow non-Jewish countrymen.Atzmon's team found that the SNP markers in genetic segments of 3 million DNA letters or longer were 10 times more likely to be identical among Jews than non-Jews. Results of the analysis also tally with biblical accounts of the fate of the Jews. The study also found that with respect to non-Jewish European groups, the population most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews are modern-day Italians. The study speculated that this similarity may be due to inter-marriage and conversions during the Roman Empire. It was also found that any two Ashkenazi Jewish participants shared about as much DNA as fourth or fifth cousins.
A 2010 study by Brayet al., usingSNPmicroarraytechniques andlinkage analysis, found that when assumingDruzeandPalestinian Arabpopulations to represent the reference to world Jewry ancestor genome, 35% to 55% of the modern Ashkenazi genome may be of European origin, and that European "admixture is considerably higher than previous estimates by studies that used the Y chromosome" with this reference point.The authors interpreted this linkage disequilibrium in the Ashkenazi Jewish population as matching signs "of interbreeding or 'admixture' between Middle Eastern and European populations".On the Brayet al.tree, Ashkenazi Jews were found to be a genetically more divergent population thanRussians,Orcadians, French,Basques,Sardinians, Italians andTuscans. The study also observed that Ashkenazim are more diverse than their Middle Eastern relatives, which was counterintuitive because Ashkenazim are supposed to be a subset, not a superset, of their assumed geographical source population. Brayet al.therefore suggest that these results reflect a history of mixing between genetically distinct populations in Europe. However, it is possible that Ashkenazim's high heterozygocity was due to a relaxation of marriage prescription in their ancestors, while the low heterozygocity in te Middle East is due to maintenance ofFBD marriagethere. Therefore, Ashkenazim distinctiveness as found in the Brayet al.study may come from their ethnic endogamy (ethnic inbreeding), which allowed them to "mine" their ancestral gene pool in the context of relative reproductive isolation from European neighbors, and not from clan endogamy (clan inbreeding). Consequently, their higher diversity compared to Middle Easterners stems from the latter's marriage practices, not necessarily from the former's admixture with Europeans.
A 2010 genome-wide genetic study by Beharet al.examined the genetic relationships among all major Jewish groups, including Ashkenazim, and their genetic relationship with non-Jewish ethnic populations. It found that today's Jews (except Indian and Ethiopian Jews) are closely related to people from theLevant. The authors explained that "the most parsimonious explanation for these observations is a common genetic origin, which is consistent with an historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancientHebrewandIsraeliteresidents of the Levant".
A 2013 study by Beharet al.found evidence among Ashkenazim of mixed European and Levantine origins. The authors found Ashkenazi had the greatest affinity and shared ancestry firstly with other Jewish groups from southern Europe, Syria, and North Africa, and secondly with both southern Europeans (such as Italians) and modern Levantines (such as theDruze, Cypriots, Lebanese andSamaritans). The study found no affinity of Ashkenazim to northern Caucasus populations, and no more affinity to modern south Caucasus and eastern Anatolian populations (such asArmenians,Azerbaijanis,Georgians, and Turks) than found in other Jews or non-Jewish Middle Easterners (such as theKurds, Iranians, Druze and Lebanese).
A 2017 autosomal study by Xue, Shai Carmiet al.found an admixture of Middle-Eastern and European ancestry in Ashkenazi Jews: with the European component comprising ≈50%–70% (estimated at "possibly 60%") and largely being of a southern European source and a minority eastern European, and the remainder (estimated at possibly ≈40%) being Middle Eastern ancestry showing the strongest affinity to Levantine populations such as the Druze and Lebanese.
A 2018 study, referencing the popular theory of Ashkenazi Jewish (AJ) origins in "an initial settlement in Western Europe (Northern France and Germany), followed by migration to Poland and an expansion there and in the rest of Eastern Europe", tested "whether Ashkenazi Jews with recent origins in Eastern Europe are genetically distinct from Western European Ashkenazi". The study concluded that "Western AJ consist of two slightly distinct groups: one that descends from a subset of the original founders [who remained in Western Europe], and another that migrated there back from Eastern Europe, possibly after absorbing a limited degree of gene flow".
A 2022 study of genome data from the medieval Jewish cemetery ofErfurtfound at least two related but genetically distinct Jewish groups: one closely related to Middle Eastern populations and especially similar to modern Ashkenazi Jews from France and Germany and modern Sephardic Jews from Turkey; the other group had a substantial contribution from Eastern European populations. But today Ashkenazi Jews from eastern Europe no longer exhibit this genetic variability, and instead, their genomes resemble a nearly even mixture of the two Erfurt groups (with about 60% from the first group and 40% from the second).
In the late 19th century, it was proposed that the core of Ashkenazi Jews were genetically descended from ahypothetical Khazarian Jewish diasporawho had migrated westward from modern Russia and Ukraine into  modern France and Germany (as opposed to the currently held theory that Jews migrated from France and Germany into Eastern Europe). The hypothesis is not corroborated by historical sources,and is unsubstantiated by genetics,but it is still occasionally supported by scholars who have had some success in keeping the theory in the academic consciousness.
The theory has sometimes been used by Jewish authors such asArthur Koestleras part of an argument against traditional forms of antisemitism (for example the claim that "the Jews killed Christ"), just as similar arguments have been advanced on behalf of theCrimean Karaites. Today, however, the theory is more often associated withantisemitismandanti-Zionism.
A 2013 trans-genome study carried out by 30 geneticists, from 13 universities and academies, from nine countries, assembling the largest data set available to date, for assessment of Ashkenazi Jewish genetic origins found no evidence of Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews. The authors concluded:
The authors found no affinity in Ashkenazim with north Caucasus populations, as well as no greater affinity in Ashkenazim to south Caucasus or Anatolian populations than that found in non-Ashkenazi Jews and non-Jewish Middle Easterners (such as the Kurds, Iranians, Druze and Lebanese). The greatest affinity and shared ancestry of Ashkenazi Jews were found to be (after those with other Jewish groups from southern Europe, Syria, and North Africa) with both southern Europeans and Levantines such as Druze, Cypriot, Lebanese and Samaritan groups.
In addition to the genetic contributions from neighboring Europeans, Near Easterners and North Africans, Ashkenazi Jews share some East Eurasian haplogroups, such as N9a, A, and M33c, with Chinese populations. This originates from their economic and cultural exchanges along theSilk Road.
There are many references to Ashkenazi Jews in the literature of medical and population genetics. Indeed, much awareness of "Ashkenazi Jews" as an ethnic group or category stems from the large number of genetic studies of disease, including many that are well reported in the media, that have been conducted among Jews. Jewish populations have been studied more thoroughly than most other human populations, for a variety of reasons:
The result is a form ofascertainment bias. This has sometimes created an impression that Jews are more susceptible to genetic disease than other populations.Healthcare professionals are often taught to consider those of Ashkenazi descent to be at increased risk forcolon cancer.People of Ashkenazi descent are at much higher risk of being a carrier forTay–Sachs disease, which is fatal in its homozygous form.
Genetic counselingandgenetic testingare often undertaken by couples where both partners are of Ashkenazi ancestry. Some organizations, most notablyDor Yeshorim, organize screening programs to preventhomozygosityfor thegenesthat cause related diseases.