Eurasian lynx

TheEurasian lynx(Lynx lynx) is one of the fourextantspecies within the medium-sized wildcatgenusLynx. It is widely distributed fromNorthern,CentralandEastern EuropetoCentral AsiaandSiberia, theTibetan Plateauand theHimalayas. It inhabitstemperateandboreal forestsup to an elevation of 5,500 m (18,000 ft). Despite its wide distribution, it is threatened byhabitat lossandfragmentation,poachingand depletion ofprey.
Felis lynxwas thescientific nameused in 1758 byCarl Linnaeusin his workSystema Naturae.In the 19th and 20th centuries, the following Eurasian lynxsubspecieswere proposed:
The following were also proposed, but are not consideredvalidtaxa:
The Eurasian lynx has a relatively short, reddish or brown coat that is marked with black spots; their number and pattern are highly variable. The underparts, neck and chin are whitish. The fur is more brightly coloured with more numerous spots in animals living at the southern end of its range. In winter, it is much thicker and varies from silver-grey to greyish brown. Some animals have dark brown stripes on the forehead and back. It has powerful, relatively long legs, with large webbed and furred paws that act like snowshoes. It also has a short "bobbed" tail with an all-black tip, black tufts of hair on its ears, and a long grey-and-white ruff.
It is the largest of the fourlynxspecies, ranging in body length from 76–106 cm (30–42 in) in males; 73–99 cm (29–39 in) in females; and standing 55–75 cm (22–30 in) at the shoulder. The tail is 11–24.5 cm (4.3–9.6 in) long, constituting a total length of up to 130 cm (51 in) in the largest males.Weights of both sexes in Russia range from 12 to 32 kg (26 to 71 lb), but more than 30 kg (66 lb) is attained very rarely and is possibly exaggerated.A Eurasian lynx from theAltai Mountainsweighed 35 kg (77 lb).Those inhabitingFennoscandiaand westwards are considerably smaller, with a range of just 7–26 kg (15–57 lb), though individuals in theCarpathian Mountainsmay rival those in the Altai in size.
The Eurasian lynx inhabits rugged country providing plenty of hideouts and stalking opportunities. Depending on the locality, this may include rocky-steppe, mixed forest-steppe,boreal forest, andmontane forestecosystems. In the more mountainous parts of its range, Eurasian lynx descends to the lowlands in winter, following prey species and avoiding deep snow. Despite its adaptations for moving in snow, it finds loose, deep snow difficult to deal with and cannot survive in areas with snow depths exceeding 100 cm (39 in).It tends to be less common where thegrey wolf(Canis lupus) is abundant, and wolves have been reported to attack and even eat lynx.
The Eurasian lynx was once widespread throughout most of continental Europe. By the early 19th century, it was persecuted tolocal extinctionin western and southern European lowlands, but survived only in mountainous areas andScandinavianforests. By the 1950s, it had become extinct in most ofWesternandCentral Europe, where only scattered and isolated populations exist today.
The Eurasian lynx was close to extinction in Scandinavia in the 1930s. Since the 1950s, the population slowly recovered and forms three subpopulations in northern, central and southern Scandinavia.InNorway, the Eurasian lynx was subjected to an officialbountybetween 1846 and 1980 and could be hunted without license. In 1994, a compensation scheme for livestock killed by lynx was introduced. By 1996, the lynx population was estimated to comprise 410 individuals, decreased to fewer than 260 individuals in 2004 and increased since 2005 to about 452 mature individuals by 2008.
InSweden, the lynx population was estimated at 1,400 individuals in 2006 and 1,250 in 2011. Hunting is controlled by government agencies.InFinland, about 2,200–2,300 individuals were present according to a 2009 estimate.The lynx population in Finland has been increasing every year since 1991, and is estimated to be nowadays larger than ever before. Limited hunting is permitted. In 2009 theFinnish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestrygave a permit for hunting of 340 lynx individuals.
InGreat Britain,subfossilremains of Eurasian lynx have been dated to theearly Middle Ages,and the 7th or 8th century Welsh poemDinogad's Smocklikely makes reference to the presence of lynx inCumbria.It is possible that other Medieval andModern erareferences to "wild cats" and "cats of the mountain", as late as the 18th century, actually refer to Eurasian lynx and not theScottish wildcatas is commonly assumed.It has been proposed toreintroduce the lynxto theScottish HighlandsandKielder ForestinNorthumberland.In January 2025, several lynxes were illegally released nearKingussiein theCairngorms National Park; they were captured by theRoyal Zoological Society of Scotlandand taken to theHighland Wildlife Parkand subsequently toEdinburgh Zoo.
A large lynx that hunted deer and livestock, sometimes called "tiger" and "deer's wolf" (llobu/lobo cerval), was also reported inGreen Spainuntil the 19th century.These accounts were traditionally regarded as references toIberian lynx(Lynx pardinus), a smallerendemic speciesof theIberian Peninsula. However,genetic testingof remains showed that the Eurasian and Iberian lynx coexisted into recent times in the Iberian Peninsula withlittle overlap, the Eurasian lynx being present intemperate broadleaf and mixed forestsand the Iberian lynx inMediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub.The Eurasian lynx of Spain was a unique, extinct lineage more related to the Carpathian and Baltic subspecies. It wasgenetically impoverishedalready in pre-Roman times, possibly because offounder effect, which made it even more vulnerable to human persecution.The government ofAsturiasstudied the feasibility of Eurasian lynx reintroduction in 2019.In theCatalonianPyrenees, the last Eurasian lynx was killed in the 1930s, though unconfirmed sightings continued until the 1990s. TheSíndic d'Aranplanned a reintroduction in 2016 but canceled it due to the opposition of hunters and livestock farmers.
InGermany, the Eurasian lynx was exterminated in 1850. It was reintroduced to theBavarian Forestand theHarzin the 1990s; other areas were populated by lynxes migrating fromFranceand theCzech Republic. In 2002, the first birth of wild lynx on German territory was announced, following a litter from a pair of lynx in theHarz National Park. Small populations exist also inSaxon Switzerland,Palatinate Forest, andFichtel Mountains. Eurasian lynx also migrated toAustria, where they had also been exterminated. An episode of the PBS television seriesNaturefeatured the return of the lynx to Austria'sKalkalpen National Parkafter a 150-year absence.A higher proportion is killed by humans than by infectious diseases.
InSwitzerland, the Eurasian lynx was exterminated in the early 20th century, with the last confirmed sighting around Simplon pass in 1904. From 1971 on, Carpathian lynx were reintroduced in theAlpsand theJura Mountains.Since then, the population has grown slowly but steadily. In 2019, around 250 lynx were reportedly living in Switzerland, roughly a third of them in the Jura Mountains, and the rest in the Alps and Pre-Alps.
The Eurasian lynx was exterminated in theFrench Alpsin the early 20th century. Followingreintroductionof lynx in the Swiss Jura Mountains in the 1970s, lynxes were recorded again in the French Alps andJurafrom the late 1970s onwards.
InItaly, it recolonised theItalian Alpssince the 1980s, also from reintroduced populations in Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia.By 2010, theAlpinelynx population comprised about 120–150 individuals ranging over 27,800 km(10,700 sq mi) in six sub-areas.
In theNetherlands, lynxes have been sighted sporadically since 1985 in the country's southern part.Since 2020, the presence of lynxes has been confirmed bycamera trappingin theArdennesregion in southernBelgium, proving the presence of the species following more than 25 years of unconfirmed sightings in the region.
In theAnatolianpart ofTurkey, the Eurasian lynx is present in theLesser Caucasus,Kaçkar MountainsandArtvin Province.InCiglikara Nature Reservelocated in theTaurus Mountains, 15 individuals were identified.More than 50 individuals were identified and monitored at a forest-steppe mixed ecosystem in northwestern Anatolia by camera traps, genetic material andradiotelemetrybetween 2009 and 2019.InKars Province, a breeding population occurs inSarıkamış-Allahuekber Mountains National Park.The Eurasian lynx and grey wolf can occursympatrically, as they occupy different trophic niches.
InCentral Asia, it is native toKazakhstan,Uzbekistan,Turkmenistan,Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan,Afghanistanand theChineseprovinces ofXinjiang,Gansu,Qinghai,Sichuan,Shaanxi, and to the northern slopes ofIran'sAlborz MountainsandMongolia.
In northernPakistan, the Eurasian lynx was recorded at elevations of 1,067–5,000 m (3,501–16,404 ft) inChitral District.InIndia:Ladakh,Himachal Pradeshand most other Himalayan states.
InNepal, a Eurasian lynx was sighted in the westernDhaulagirimassif in 1975.It is also present above elevations of 3,800 m (12,500 ft) inHumla,MustangandDolpa Districts.
Fossilsof the Eurasian or a closely relatedLynxspecies from the LatePleistoceneera and onward were excavated at various locations in theJapanese archipelago. Since no archaeological evidence dated after theYayoi periodhas been found, it was probablyextirpatedfrom the Japanese archipelago during theJōmon period.
Although they may hunt during the day when food is scarce, the Eurasian lynx is mainlynocturnalorcrepuscular, and spends the day sleeping in dense thickets or other places of concealment. It livessolitarilyas an adult. The hunting area of Eurasian lynx can be anything from 20 to 450 km(7.7 to 173.7 sq mi), depending on the local availability of prey. Males tend to hunt over much larger areas than females, which tend to occupy exclusive, rather than overlapping, hunting ranges. The Eurasian lynx can travel up to 20 km (12 mi) during one night, although about half this distance is more typical. They patrol regularly throughout all parts of their hunting range, usingscent marksto indicate their presence to other individuals. As with other cats, its scent marks may consist offaeces,urine, or scrape marks,with the former often being left in prominent locations along the boundary of the hunting territory. Eurasian lynx makes a range of vocalizations, but is generally silent outside of the breeding season. They have been observed to mew, hiss, growl, and purr, and, likedomestic cats, will "chatter" atpreythat is just out of reach.Mating callsare much louder, consisting of deep growls in the male, and loud "meow-like" sounds in the female. Eurasian lynx are secretive, and because the sounds they make are very quiet and seldom heard, their presence in an area may go unnoticed for years. Remnants of prey or tracks on snow are usually observed long before the animal is seen.
The Eurasian lynx is an ambush predator but also hunts by stalking, sneaking and jumping on prey using both vision and hearing. When snow conditions make this harder, it may be forced to switch to larger prey. It often climbs onto high rocks or fallen trees to scan the surrounding area. It is a powerful predator that has killed adult deer weighing at least 150 kg (330 lb).
Eurasian lynx in Europe prey largely on small to fairly large sized mammals and birds. Among the recorded prey items for the species arehares,rabbits,marmots,squirrels,dormice,muskrats,martens,grouse,red foxes,wild boar,chamois, youngmoose, Europeanroe deer,red deer,reindeerand other ungulates. In keeping with its larger size, the Eurasian lynx is the only lynx species to preferentially take ungulates. Although taking on larger prey presents a risk to the Eurasian lynx, the bounty provided by killing them can outweigh the risks. The Eurasian lynx thus prefers fairly largeungulateprey, especially during winter, when small prey is less abundant. Where common, roe deer appear to be the preferred prey species for the Eurasian lynx.
In Estonia, a typical adult lynx kills about 60 roe deer a year; in the years when the roe deer population plummets, the lynx switch to beavers, hares, foxes, raccoon dogs, and birds.Even where roe deer are quite uncommon, the deer are still quantitatively the favored prey species, though in summer smaller prey and occasionaldomestic sheepare eaten more regularly.In parts ofFinland, introducedwhite-tailed deerare eaten regularly. In some areas inPolandandAustria, red deer is the preferred prey, and inSwitzerland,chamoisis locally favored.Eurasian lynx also feeds oncarrionwhen available. Adult lynx require 1.1 to 2 kg (2.4 to 4.4 lb) of meat per day, and may take several days to fully consume some of their larger prey.
In the Mediterranean mixed forest-steppe and subalpine ecosystems ofAnatoliathe main and most preferred prey of the Eurasian lynx isEuropean hare, forming 79% to 99% of prey biomass eaten. Although the lynx is insympatrywith wild ungulates, such as wild goat, chamois, red deer and wild boar in these ecosystems, ungulate biomass in lynx diet does not exceed 10%.In ten other study sites in theBlack Searegion of northern Anatolia where roe deer can occur in high densities, lynx occurrence is positively correlated with European hare occurrence rather than roe deer.Lynx in Anatolia also has physiological requirements and morphological adjustments similar to other lagomorph specialists, with a daily prey intake of about 900 g (32 oz).It is therefore classified aslagomorphspecialist. Diet studies in central AsiaandYakutiaalso indicate a diet mainly composed of lagomorphs and ungulate prey contributes in low amounts to lynx diet.Eurasian lynx scat found inDolpa Districtin the Nepal Himalayas contained remains ofwoolly hare(Lepus oiostolus),pika(Ochotonasp.), mountain voles (Alticolasp.),Himalayan marmot(Marmota himalayana) anddomestic goat(Capra hircus).
The mating season of the Eurasian lynx lasts from January to April. The female typically comes intooestrusonly once during this period, lasting from four to seven days. If the first litter is lost, a second period of oestrus is common. It does not appear to be able to control its reproductive behaviour based on prey availability.Gestationlasts from 67 to 74 days. Pregnant females construct dens in secluded locations, often protected by overhanging branches or tree roots. The den is lined with feathers, deer hair, and dry grass to provide bedding for the young. At birth, Eurasian lynx kittens weigh 240 to 430 g (8.5 to 15.2 oz) and open their eyes after ten to twelve days. They initially have plain, greyish-brown fur, attaining the full adult colouration around eleven weeks of age. They begin to take solid food at six to seven weeks, when they begin to leave the den, but are not fullyweanedfor five or six months. The den is abandoned two to three months after the kittens are born, but the young typically remain with their mother until they are around ten months of age. Eurasian lynx reach sexual maturity at two or three years, and have lived for twenty one years in captivity.
Females usually have two kittens; litters with more than three kittens are rare.
The primary predators of the lynx are thegray wolfand, in the northern part of itsrange, thewolverine. InRussianforests, gray wolves kill and eat lynx that fail to escape into trees, as evidenced by examination of wolf and lynx trackways in theCentral Forest Nature Reserve, and of lynx hair and bones found in wolf stomach contents in theBelovezh Forest. The lynx saves itself from its enemies by quickly climbing a tree or down the edge of a cliff or ravine; it usually lives near a 'stronghold' place and eats its food in a high tree or on an inaccessible ledge. Lynx populations decrease when wolves appear in an area, such as observed in thePritelskregion of theAltai Mountains, and lynx are likely to take smaller prey where wolves are active.In easternSlovakia, after an increase of wolves after World War II, lynx  were observed to move out.
However, there is also a reported instance of a male lynx having expelled an adult and apparently healthy male wolf inBelarusin a fight. After the incident, the wolf vanished from the record, suggesting that it might have succumbed to the wounds sustained during the fight. Moreover, recent population dynamics and a high mortality rate among wolf cubs in theNaliboki forestmight be connected to an increasing lynx population. All in all, this suggests that, at least locally, lynx may dominate wolves, since no signs for predation of wolves on lynx was found.In thePechora-Ilych Nature ReserveinRussia, wolverine predation and consumption of lynx has been documented, and in theAltai Mountains, the lynx actively avoids wolverines.
The gray wolf, wolverine, as well as thered foxand theeagle owl, are also competitors with the Eurasian lynx for prey, notably in thetaigaregions ofRussia. In years of lowharepopulations, the competition becomes especially fierce; the lynx is at a disadvantage as its competitors are able to capture additional, larger prey animals, and more efficiently. This competition may be especially severe in the northern parts of the lynx's range, where lynx populations are vastly outnumbered by red fox and even by wolverine. The presence of other large carnivores is one factor limiting their population.
In two ecosystems of Anatolia,cannibalismwas common, and fellow lynx were found to form 5% to 8% of prey biomass in their diets.Clawsand bones analysed showed that sub-adult lynx were the victims of cannibalism during the mating and spring seasons.Lynx were not found in the sympatrically occurring wolves' diets.On the contrary, lynx themselves were the predators of red fox,pine marten, domestic and feral cats and dogs, andgolden jackalremains have also been found in lynx fecal samples, possibly the result of carrion consumption.Occasionally, in areas such asManchuriaand theAmur River, it may be possible theAmur leopardtargets lynx;in the same geographic region,Siberian tigershave also preyed on lynxes, as evidenced by examination of tiger stomach contents.InSweden, out of 33 deaths of lynx of a population being observed, one was probably killed by a wolverine.Lynx compete for food with the predators described above, and also with thered fox,eagle owls,golden eagles,wild boar(which scavenge from lynx kills), and in the southern part of its range, thesnow leopardandleopardas well.Brown bears, although not (so far as is known) a predator of Eurasian lynx, are in some areas a semi-habitualusurpersof ungulate kills by lynxes, not infrequently before the cat has had a chance to consume its kill itself.
The Eurasian lynx is included onCITES Appendix IIand listed as a protected species in theBerne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, Appendix III. Hunting lynx is illegal in many range countries, with the exception of Estonia, Latvia, Russia, Armenia and Iraq.Since 2005, the Norwegian government sets national population goals, while a committee of representatives from county assemblies decide on hunting quotas.