Slovakia

Slovakia,officially theSlovak Republic,is alandlocked countryinCentral Europe. It is bordered byPolandto the north,Ukraineto the east,Hungaryto the south,Austriato the west, and theCzech Republicto the northwest. Slovakia's mostly mountainous territory spans about 49,000 km(19,000 sq mi), hosting a population exceeding 5.4 million. The capital and largest city isBratislava, while the second largest city isKošice.
TheSlavsarrived in the territory of the present-day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries. From the late 6th century, parts of modern Slovakia were incorporated into theAvar Khaghanate. In the 7th century, the Slavs played a significant role in the creation ofSamo's Empire. When the Avar Khaghanate dissolved in the 9th century, the Slavs established thePrincipality of Nitrabefore it was annexed by thePrincipality of Moravia, which later becameGreat Moravia. When Great Moravia fell in the 10th century, the territory was integrated into thePrincipality of Hungaryat the end of the 9th century, which later became theKingdom of Hungaryin 1000.In 1241 and 1242, after theMongol invasion of Europe, much of the territory was destroyed, but was recovered largely thanks to Hungarian kingBéla IV. During the 16th and 17th centuries, southern portions of present-day Slovakia were incorporated into provinces of theOttoman Empire.The Ottoman-controlled areas were ceded to the Habsburgs by the turn of the 18th century. The Hungarian declaration ofindependencein 1848 was followed in the same year by theSlovak Uprisingthrough the establishment of theSlovak National Council.While the uprising didn't achieve its aim, it played an important role in cementing a Slovak national identity. The Hungarian wars of independence eventually resulted in a compromise that established theAustro-Hungarian Empire.
DuringWorld War I, theCzechoslovak National Councilsuccessfully fought forindependenceamidst the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the state ofCzechoslovakiawas proclaimed in 1918. The borders were set by theTreaty of Saint Germainin 1919 and by theTreaty of Trianonin 1920 Czechoslovakia incorporated the territory of present-day Slovakia which was entirely part of theKingdom of Hungary. In the lead up toWorld War II, local fascist parties gradually came to power in the Slovak lands, and the firstSlovak Republicwas established in 1939 as aone-partyclerical fascistclient stateunder the control ofNazi Germany. In 1940, the country joined theAxiswhen its leaders signed theTripartite Pact.Czechoslovakiawas re-established after the country'sliberationat the end of the war in 1945. Following theSoviet-backed coup of 1948, Czechoslovakia became acommunist statewithin theEastern Bloc, asatellite stateof theSoviet Unionbehind theIron Curtainand member of theWarsaw Pact. Attempts toliberalise communismculminated in thePrague Spring, which was suppressed by theWarsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakiain August 1968. In 1989, theVelvet Revolutionpeacefully ended Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Slovakia became an independentdemocraticstate on 1 January 1993 after the peaceful dissolution ofCzechoslovakia, sometimes referred to as theVelvet Divorce.
Slovakia is adeveloped countrywith an advancedhigh-income economy. The country maintains a combination of amarket economywith a comprehensivesocial securitysystem, providing citizens withuniversal health care,free education, one of thelowest retirement agein Europe and one of the longest paidparental leavesin theOECD.Slovakia is a member of theEuropean Union, theEurozone, theSchengen Area, theUnited Nations,NATO,CERN, the OECD, theWTO, theCouncil of Europe, theVisegrád Group, and theOSCE. Slovakia is also home toeightUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites. The world's largest per-capita car producer, Slovakia manufactured a total of 1.1 million cars in 2019, representing 43% of its total industrial output.
Slovakia's name means the "Land of theSlavs" (SlovenskoinSlovakstemming from the older formSloven/Slovienin). As such, it is a cognate of the wordsSloveniaandSlavonia. In medieval Latin, German, and even some Slavic sources, the same name has often been used for Slovaks, Slovenes, Slavonians, and Slavs in general. According to one of the theories, a new form of national name formed for the ancestors of the Slovaks between the 13th and 14th century, possibly due to foreign influence; theCzechwordSlovák(in medieval sources from 1291 onward).This form slowly replaced the name for the male members of the community, but the female name (Slovenka), reference to the lands inhabited (Slovensko) and the name of the language (slovenčina) all remained the same, with their base in the older form (compare to Slovenian counterparts). Most foreign translations tend to stem from this newer form (Slovakiain English,Slowakeiin German,Slovaquiein French, etc.).
In medieval Latin sources, terms:Slavus,Slavonia, orSlavorum(and more variants, from as early as 1029)have been used. In German sources, names for the Slovak lands wereWindenlandorWindische Lande(early 15th century),with the formsSlovakiaandSchlowakeistarting to appear in the 16th century.The present Slovak formSlovenskois first attested in the year 1675.
The oldest surviving human artefacts from Slovakia are found nearNové Mesto nad Váhomand are dated at 270,000 BCE, in theEarly Paleolithicera. These ancient tools, made by theClactoniantechnique, bear witness to the ancient habitation of Slovakia.
Otherstone toolsfrom theMiddle Paleolithicera (200,000–80,000 BCE) come from the Prévôt (Prepoštská) cave inBojniceand from other nearby sites.The most important discovery from that era is aNeanderthalcranium(c. 200,000 BCE), discovered nearGánovce, a village in northern Slovakia.
Archaeologists have found prehistoric human skeletons in the region, as well as numerous objects and vestiges of theGravettianculture, principally in the river valleys ofNitra,Hron,Ipeľ,Váhand as far as the city ofŽilina, and near the foot of theVihorlat, Inovec, andTribečmountains, as well as in theMyjavaMountains. The most well-known finds include the oldest female statue made ofmammothbone (22,800 BCE), the famousVenus of Moravany. The statue was found in the 1940s inMoravany nad VáhomnearPiešťany. Numerous necklaces made of shells from Cypraca thermophilegastropodsof theTertiaryperiod have come from the sites of Zákovská, Podkovice, Hubina, and Radošina. These findings provide the most ancient evidence of commercial exchanges carried out between theMediterraneanandCentral Europe.
During theBronze Age, the geographical territory of modern-day Slovakia went through three stages of development, stretching from 2000 to 800 BCE.  Major cultural, economic, and political development can be attributed to the significant growth in production of copper, especially in central Slovakia (for example inŠpania Dolina) and northwest Slovakia.Copperbecame a stable source of prosperity for the local population.
After the disappearance of theČakanyandVelaticecultures, theLusatianpeople expanded building of strong and complex fortifications, with the large permanent buildings and administrative centres. Excavations of Lusatianhill fortsdocument the substantial development of trade and agriculture at that period. The richness and diversity of tombs increased considerably. The inhabitants of the area manufactured arms, shields, jewellery, dishes, and statues.
The arrival of tribes fromThracedisrupted the people of the Kalenderberg culture, who lived in the hamlets located on the plain (Sereď) and in the hill forts like Molpír, nearSmolenice, in theLittle Carpathians. During Hallstatt times, monumental burial mounds were erected in western Slovakia, with princely equipment consisting of richly decorated vessels, ornaments and decorations. The burial rites consisted entirely of cremation. Common people were buried in flat urnfield cemeteries.
A special role was given to weaving and the production of textiles. The local power of the "Princes" of theHallstatt perioddisappeared in Slovakia during the century before the middle of first millennium BCE, after strife between theScytho-Thracian people and locals, resulting in abandonment of the old hill-forts. Relatively depopulated areas soon caught the interest of emergingCeltictribes, who advanced from the south towards the north, following the Slovak rivers, peacefully integrating into the remnants of the local population.
From around 500 BCE, the territory of modern-day Slovakia was settled byCelts, who built powerfuloppidaon the sites of modern-dayBratislavaandDevín.Biatecs,silver coinswith inscriptions in the Latin alphabet, represent the first known use of writing in Slovakia. At the northern regions, remnants of the local population of Lusatian origin, together with Celtic and later Dacian influence, gave rise to the uniquePúchov culture, with advanced crafts and iron-working, many hill-forts and fortified settlements of central type with the coinage of the "Velkobysterecky" type (no inscriptions, with a horse on one side and a head on the other). This culture is often connected with the Celtic tribe mentioned in Roman sources asCotini.
From 2CE, the expandingRoman Empireestablished and maintained a series of outposts around and just south of theDanube, the largest of which were known asCarnuntum(whose remains are on the main road halfway betweenViennaandBratislava) andBrigetio(present-daySzőnyat the Slovak-Hungarian border). Such Roman border settlements were built on the present area ofRusovce, currently a suburb ofBratislava. The military fort was surrounded by a civilianvicusand several farms of thevilla rusticatype. The name of this settlement wasGerulata. The military fort had an auxiliary cavalry unit, approximately 300 horses strong, modelled after theCananefates. The remains of Roman buildings have also survived inStupava,Devín Castle, Bratislava Castle Hill, and the Bratislava-Dúbravkasuburb.
Near the northernmost line of the Roman hinterlands, theLimes Romanus, there existed the winter camp ofLaugaricio(modern-dayTrenčín) where the Auxiliary of Legion II fought and prevailed in a decisive battle over the GermanicQuaditribe in 179 CE during theMarcomannic Wars. The Kingdom ofVannius, a kingdom founded by theGermanicSuebitribes ofQuadiandMarcomanni, as well as several small Germanic andCeltic tribes, including the Osi andCotini, existed in western and central Slovakia from 8–6 BCE to 179 CE.
In the second and third centuries CE, theHunsbegan to leave theCentral Asian steppes. They crossed the Danube in 377 CE and occupiedPannonia, which they used for 75 years as their base for launching looting-raids into Western Europe. However,Attila's death in 453 brought about the disappearance of theHunnic empire. In 568, a Turko-Mongol tribal confederacy, theAvars, conducted its invasion into the Middle Danube region. The Avars occupied the lowlands of thePannonian Plainand established an empire dominating theCarpathian Basin.
In623, theSlavic populationliving in the western parts of Pannonia seceded from their empire after a revolution led bySamo, a Frankish merchant.After 626, the Avar power started a gradual declinebut its reign lasted to 804.
TheSlavictribes settled in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the fifth century. Western Slovakia was the centre ofSamo's empire in the seventh century. A Slavic state known as thePrincipality of Nitraarose in the eighth century and its rulerPribinahad the first known Christian church of the territory of present-day Slovakia consecrated by 828. Together with neighbouringMoravia, the principality formed the core of theGreat MoravianEmpire from 833. The high point of this Slavonic empire came with the arrival ofSaints Cyril and Methodiusin 863, during the reign ofDukeRastislav, and the territorial expansion underKingSvätopluk I.
Great Moravia arose around 830 whenMojmír Iunified theSlavictribes settled north of theDanubeand extended the Moravian supremacy over them.When Mojmír I endeavoured to secede from the supremacy of the king ofEast Franciain 846, KingLouis the Germandeposed him and assisted Mojmír's nephewRastislav(846–870) in acquiring the throne.The new monarch pursued an independent policy: after stopping a Frankish attack in 855, he also sought to weaken the influence of Frankish priests preaching in his realm.Duke Rastislavasked theByzantine EmperorMichael IIIto send teachers who would interpret Christianity in the Slavic vernacular.
On Rastislav's request, two brothers, Byzantine officials and missionariesSaints Cyril and Methodiuscame in 863. Cyril developed thefirst Slavic alphabetand translated the Gospel into theOld Church Slavoniclanguage. Rastislav was also preoccupied with the security and administration of his state. Numerous fortified castles built throughout the country are dated to his reign and some of them (e.g.,Dowina, sometimes identified withDevín Castle)are also mentioned in connection with Rastislav by Frankish chronicles.
During Rastislav's reign, thePrincipality of Nitrawas given to his nephewSvätoplukas anappanage.The rebellious prince allied himself with the Franks and overthrew his uncle in 870. Similarly to his predecessor, Svätopluk I (871–894) assumed the title of the king (rex). During his reign, the Great Moravian Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, when not only present-dayMoraviaand Slovakia but also present-day northern andcentral Hungary,Lower Austria,Bohemia,Silesia,Lusatia, southern Poland andnorthern Serbiabelonged to the empire, but the exact borders of his domains are still disputed by modern authors.Svatopluk also withstood attacks of theMagyartribes and theBulgarian Empire, although sometimes it was he who hired the Magyars when waging war againstEast Francia.
In 880,Pope John VIIIset up an independentecclesiastical provincein Great Moravia with ArchbishopMethodiusas its head. He also named the German clericWichingthe Bishop ofNitra.
After the death of Prince Svatopluk in 894, his sonsMojmír II(894–906?) andSvatopluk IIsucceeded him as the Prince of Great Moravia and the Prince of Nitra respectively.However, they started to quarrel for domination of the whole empire. Weakened by an internal conflict as well as by constant warfare withEastern Francia, Great Moravia lost most of its peripheral territories.
In the meantime, the semi-nomadic Magyar tribes, possibly having suffered defeat from the similarly nomadicPechenegs, left their territories east of theCarpathian Mountains,invaded theCarpathian Basinand started to occupy the territory gradually around 896.Their armies' advance may have been promoted by continuous wars among the countries of the region whose rulers still hired them occasionally to intervene in their struggles.
It is not known what happened with both Mojmír II and Svatopluk II because they are not mentioned in written sources after 906. Inthree battles(4–5 July and 9 August 907) nearBratislava, the Magyars routedBavarianarmies. Some historians put this year as the date of the break-up of the Great Moravian Empire, due to the Hungarian conquest; other historians take the date a little bit earlier (to 902).
Great Moravia left behind a lasting legacy in Central and Eastern Europe. TheGlagolitic scriptand its successorCyrillicwere disseminated to other Slavic countries, charting a new path in theirsociocultural development.
Following the disintegration of theGreat Moravian Empireat the turn of the tenth century, theHungariansannexed the territory comprising modern Slovakia. After their defeat on theriver Lech, the Hungarians abandoned their nomadic ways and settled in the centre of the Carpathian valley, slowly adopting Christianity and began to build a new state—theHungarian kingdom.
In the years 1001–1002 and 1018–1029, Slovakia was part of theKingdom of Poland, having been conquered byBoleslaus I the Brave.After the territory of Slovakia was returned to Hungary, a semi-autonomous polity continued to exist (or was created in 1048 by kingAndrew I) calledDuchy of Nitra. Comprising roughly the territory ofPrincipality of NitraandBihar principality, they formed what was called atercia pars regni, third of a kingdom.
This polity existed up until 1108/1110, after which it was not restored. After this, up until the collapse ofAustria-Hungaryin 1918, the territory of Slovakia was an integral part of the Hungarian state.The ethnic composition of Slovakia became more diverse with the arrival of theCarpathian Germansin the 13th century and theJewsin the 14th century.
A significant decline in the population resulted from theinvasion of the Mongolsin 1241 and the subsequent famine. After the invasion, much of the territory was destroyed, but was recovered largely thanks to Hungarian kingBéla IV. However, in medieval times the area of Slovakia was characterised by German andJewishimmigration, burgeoning towns, construction of numerous stone castles, and the cultivation of the arts.The arrival of German element sometimes proved a problem for the autochthonous Slovaks (and even Hungarians in the broader Hungary), since they often quickly gained most power in medieval towns, only to later refuse to share it. Breaking of old customs by Germans often resulted in national quarrels. One of which had to be sorted out by the kingLouis I.with the proclamationPrivilegium pro Slavis(Privilege for Slovaks) in the year 1381. According to this privilege, Slovaks andGermanswere to occupy each half of the seats in the city council ofŽilinaand the mayor should be elected each year, alternating between those nationalities. This would not be the last such case.
In 1465, KingMatthias Corvinusfounded the Hungarian Kingdom's third university, in Pressburg (Bratislava), but it was closed in 1490 after his death.Hussitesalso settled in the region after theHussite Wars.
Owing to theOttoman Empire's expansion into Hungarian territory,Bratislavawas designated the new capital of Hungary in 1536, ahead of the fall of the old Hungarian capital ofBudain 1541. It became part of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy, marking the beginning of a new era. The territory comprising modern Slovakia, then known asUpper Hungary, became the place of settlement for nearly two-thirds of theMagyarnobility fleeing the Turks and became far more linguistically and culturally Hungarian than it was before.Partly thanks to oldHussitefamilies and Slovaks studying underMartin Luther, the region then experienced a growth inProtestantism.For a short period in the 17th century, most Slovaks wereLutherans.They defied the Catholic Habsburgs and sought protection from neighbouringTransylvania, a rival continuation of theMagyarstate that practised religious tolerance and normally had Ottoman backing. Upper Hungary, modern Slovakia, became the site of frequent wars between Catholics in the west territory and Protestants in the east, as well as against Turks; the frontier was on a constant state of military alert and heavily fortified by castles and citadels often manned by Catholic German and Slovak troops on the Habsburg side. By 1648, Slovakia was not spared theCounter-Reformation, which brought the majority of its population from Lutheranism back toRoman Catholicism. In 1655, the printing press at theTrnavauniversity produced the Jesuit Benedikt Szöllősi's Cantus Catholici, a Catholic hymnal in Slovak that reaffirmed links to the earlier works of Cyril and Methodius.
TheOttoman wars, the rivalry between Austria andTransylvania, and the frequent insurrections against theHabsburg monarchyinflicted a great deal of devastation, especially in the rural areas.In theAustro-Turkish War (1663–1664)a Turkish army led by theGrand Vizierdecimated Slovakia.In 1682, thePrincipality of Upper Hungary, a short-lived Ottoman vassal state, was established in the territory of modern Slovakia. Prior to this, regions on its southern rim were already encompassed in theEgri,BudinandUyvareyalets.Thököly'skurucrebels from the Principality of Upper Hungary fought alongside the Turks against the Austrians and Poles at theBattle of Viennaof 1683 led byJohn III Sobieski. As theTurks withdrewfrom Hungary in the late 17th century, the importance of the territory composing modern Slovakia decreased, althoughPressburgretained its status as the capital of Hungary until 1848 when it was transferred back to Buda.
During therevolution of 1848–49, the Slovaks supported theAustrian Emperor, hoping for independence from the Hungarian part of theDual Monarchy, they failed to achieve their aim, but the conflict resulted in Slovak rights for language.
Thereafter, relations between the nationalities deteriorated (seeMagyarisation), culminating in the secession of Slovakia from Hungary after World War I.
On 18 October 1918,Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk,Milan Rastislav ŠtefánikandEdvard Benešdeclared inWashington, D.C.theindependencefor the territories ofBohemia,Moravia,Silesia,Upper HungaryandCarpathian Rutheniafrom theAustro-Hungarian Empireand proclaimed a common state,Czechoslovakia.
During the chaos following the break-up of Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia was formed with numerousCzechs,Germans,Slovaks,HungariansandRuthenians. The borders were set by theTreaty of Saint Germainin 1919 andTreaty of Trianonin 1920. By the treaties following the World War I, Czechoslovakia emerged as a sovereign European state.
During theInterwar period, democratic Czechoslovakia was allied with France, and also withRomaniaandYugoslavia(Little Entente); however, theLocarno Treatiesof 1925 left East European security open. Both Czechs and Slovaks enjoyed a period of relative prosperity. There was progress in not only the development of the country's economy but also culture and educational opportunities. Yet theGreat Depressioncaused a sharp economic downturn, followed by political disruption and insecurity in Europe.
In the 1930s, Czechoslovakia came under continuous pressure from therevanchistgovernments of Germany, Hungary and Poland who used the aggrieved minorities in the country as a useful vehicle. Revision of the borders was called for, as Czechs constituted only 43% of the population. Eventually, this pressure led to theMunich Agreementof September 1938, which allowed the majority ethnic Germans in theSudetenland, borderlands of Czechoslovakia, to join with Germany. The remaining minorities stepped up their pressures for autonomy and the State became federalised, with Diets in Slovakia and Ruthenia. The remainder of Czechoslovakia was renamed Czecho-Slovakia and promised a greater degree of Slovak political autonomy. This, however, failed to materialise.Parts of southern and eastern Slovakia were also reclaimed by Hungary at theFirst Vienna Awardof November 1938.
After theMunich Agreementand itsVienna Award,Nazi Germanythreatened to annex part of Slovakia and allow the remaining regions to be partitioned by Hungary or Poland unless independence was declared. Thus, Slovakia seceded fromCzecho-Slovakiain March 1939 and allied itself, as demanded by Germany, withHitler's coalition.Secession had created the first Slovak state in history.
Aone-partyclerical fascistSlovak Republicgoverned by the far-rightHlinka's Slovak People's Partywas led by PresidentJozef Tisoand Prime MinisterVojtech Tuka. The (First) Slovak Republic is primarily known for itscollaborationwith Nazi Germany, which included sending troops to theinvasion of PolandinSeptember 1939and theSoviet Unionin 1941. On 24 November 1940, Slovakia joined theAxiswhen its leaders signed theTripartite Pact. The country was strongly influenced by Germany and gradually became apuppet regimein many respects.
Meanwhile, theCzechoslovak government-in-exilesought to reverse theMunich Agreementand the subsequentGerman occupation of Czechoslovakiaand to return the Republic to its 1937 boundaries. The government operated fromLondonand it was ultimately considered, by those countries that recognised it, the legitimate government forCzechoslovakiathroughout the Second World War.
Thelocal Jewish populationwas heavily persecuted.As part of theHolocaust in Slovakia, 75,000 Jews out of 80,000 who remained on Slovak territory after Hungary had seized southern regions were deported and taken to Germandeath camps.Thousands of Jews, Gypsies and other politically undesirable people remained in Slovak forced labour camps inSereď, Vyhne, and Nováky.Tiso, through the granting of presidential exceptions, allowed between 1,000 and 4,000 people crucial to the war economy to avoid deportations.Under Tiso's government and Hungarian occupation, the vast majority of Slovakia's pre-war Jewish population (between 75,000 and 105,000 individuals including those who perished from the occupied territory) were murdered.The Slovak state paid Germany 500RMper every deported Jew for "retraining and accommodation" (a similar but smaller payment of 30 RM was paid byCroatia).
After it became clear that the SovietRed Armywas going to push the Nazis out of eastern and central Europe, an anti-Naziresistance movementlaunched. Internal opposition to the fascist government's policies culminated in theSlovak National Uprising, near the end of summer 1944. A bloody German occupation and a guerilla war followed. Germans and theirlocal collaboratorscompletely destroyed 93 villages and massacred thousands of civilians, often hundreds at a time.Although the uprising was eventually suppressed,partisan resistancecontinued. The territory of Slovakia was liberated by Soviet and Romanian forces by the end of April 1945.
As a result of theYalta Conferencein February 1945, Czechoslovakia came under the influence of theSoviet Union.
After World War II, Czechoslovakia was reconstituted andJozef Tisowas executed in 1947 for collaboration with the Nazis. More than80,000 Hungariansand 32,000 Germanswere forced to leave Slovakia, in a series ofpopulation transfersinitiated by the Allies at thePotsdam Conference.Out of about 130,000Carpathian Germansin Slovakia in 1938, by 1947 only some 20,000 remained.
In February 1948, theCommunist Party of Czechoslovakia, with Soviet backing, assumed undisputed control over the government ofCzechoslovakiathrough acoup d'étatand Czechoslovakia came under direct occupation of the Soviet Union and itsWarsaw Pact. It became apuppet stateof the Soviet Union, but it was never part of the Soviet Union and remained independent to a certain degree.
Borders with the West were protected by theIron Curtain. About 600 people, men, women, and children, were killed on the Czechoslovak border with Austria andWest Germanybetween 1948 and 1989.8,240 people went to forced labour camps in 1948–1953.
On 11 July 1960, theConstitution of Czechoslovakiawas promulgated, changing the name of the country from the "Czechoslovak Republic" to the "Czechoslovak Socialist Republic".
In 1968, following thePrague Spring, the country wasinvadedby the Warsaw Pact forces (People's Republic of Bulgaria,People's Republic of Hungary,People's Republic of Poland, andSoviet Union, with the exception ofSocialist Republic of RomaniaandPeople's Socialist Republic of Albania), ending aperiod of liberalisationunder the leadership ofAlexander Dubček. 137 Czechoslovak civilians were killed and 500 seriously wounded during the invasion.
In 1969, Czechoslovakia became afederationof theCzech Socialist Republicand theSlovak Socialist Republicwithin theCzechoslovak Socialist Republic.
Czechoslovakia was allied with communist regimes worldwide. As one of the first countries in the world acknowledgedKim Il-sung'sDemocratic People's Republic of Korea. After the beginning of theKorean War, Czechoslovakia protested against measures taken by the Security Council. Czechoslovak communist leaders considered the intervention against North Korean aggression illegal. During summer 1950, many resolutions against "American imperialism" were sent to the United Nations from Czechoslovakia. During the Korean War in 1952, Czechoslovakia sent a military hospital with two hospital teams consisting of 58 people to North Korea.
WhenFidel Castrotook power after theCuban Revolutionin 1959, Czechoslovakia open embassy in Cuba and developed mutual relations. In August 1968, Castro denounced thePrague Springas led by a "fascist reactionary rabble" and praised the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia.During theVietnam War, Czechoslovakia sentsignificant aidtoNorth Vietnam.The Czechoslovakian government created committees which sought to not only promote and establish peace, but also to promote victory forViet CongandVietnam People's Armyforces.Czech-made equipment and military aid would increase significantly following the Prague Spring.Czechoslovakia continued to send tens of thousands of Czech-made rifles as well as mortar and artillery throughout the war.
The end of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia in 1989, during the peacefulVelvet Revolution, was followed once again by the country's dissolution, this time into twosuccessor states.Czechoslovak Socialist Republicrenamed asCzech and Slovak Federative Republic, the word "socialist" was dropped in the names of the two republics within the federation, the Slovak Socialist Republic renamed asSlovak Republic.
On 17 July 1992, Slovakia, led by Prime MinisterVladimír Mečiar, declared itself a sovereign state, meaning that its laws took precedence over those of the federal government. Throughout the autumn of 1992, Vladimír Mečiar andCzech Prime MinisterVáclav Klausnegotiated the details for disbanding the federation. In November, the federal parliament voted to dissolve the country officially on 31 December 1992.
The Slovak Republic and theCzech Republicwent their separate ways on 1 January 1993, an event sometimes called theVelvet Divorce, after 74 years of joint existence disrupted only by World War II.Slovakia has, nevertheless, remained a close partner with the Czech Republic; the two countries are close European allies and both co-operate with Hungary and Poland in theVisegrád Group.The first President of the Slovak Republic becameMichal Kováč, elected by theNational Council of Slovakiain February 1993.Slovakia became a member of theUnited Nationson 19 January 1993, on 31 March 1993 ratified theUNESCO World Heritage Convention, making its historical sites eligible for inclusion on theUNESCOlist and on 15 April 1993 joinedGATT(currentWorld Trade Organization).
After the fall of communism and the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the country was unprepared for organised crime.Crime rates in Slovakiasoared in the 1990s, the first post-communist gangsters emerged andmafiabecame the major problem in the country.Most of the law enforcement officers, prosecutors, and judges had no experience of investigating, trying, or sentencing criminals. Many officials lacked even basic knowledge of the leading criminal operators in their communities.Between the years 1994–1998, during the government ofPrime MinisterVladimír Mečiar, organised crime became well established and it penetrated the highest political positions.One of the major crime events was kidnapping of Slovak president's son Michal Kováč Jr. in 1995, organised bySlovak intelligence serviceand the government of Vladimír Mečiar.Processes ofprivatization in Slovakiabegan, often criticized for lack of transparency and corruption. Hundreds of state assets came into private hands to only a selected group of businessmen.In the 1990s, Slovakia had central Europe's worst-performing economy, marked by high unemployment rates and inflation with least democratic government.Madeleine Albright, theU.S. secretary of state, referred to it as"a black hole in the heart of Europe".This time period in Slovakia is also known as“Wild 90s”.Since March 1998, the country was 14 months without a head of state, when the National Council of Slovakiamultiple times failedto elect the new president, which led to the introduction of adirect presidential electionin 1999.
After the1998 parliamentary election,Mikuláš Dzurindawent on to replace Vladimír Mečiar as Prime Minister, and during two successive governments between the years 1998–2006, relaunched the transformation processes that had stalled under Mečiar.The country embarked on a reformist course that saw the introduction of a flat tax, liberalisation of the labour market, deregulation of business, and partial privatization of social security. Government of Mikuláš Dzurinda led Slovakia into OECD, NATO and the European Union.In 1999, the second President of Slovakia becameRudolf Schuster, first directly-elected president.
Slovakia became a member ofOECDon 14 December 2000,NATOon 29 March 2004 and of theEuropean Unionon 1 May 2004.The country used to be dubbed the"Tatra Tiger"in the 2000s as achieved, on average, roughly 6% per capita GDP growth each year from 2000 to 2008.Ivan Gašparovičbecame the third president of Slovakia in 2004 and in 2009 became the first and the only Slovak re-elected president.
In 2006,Robert Ficobecame Prime Minister, during his first government, Slovakia joined theSchengen areaon 21 December 2007, allowing visa free travel and on 1 January 2009 adopted theEuroas its national currency at 30.1260korunasto the euro.The Slovak economy was involved in a major slowdown during theglobal financial crisisin 2008 and 2009, experiencing  the deepesteconomic declinein history.At the beginning of 2009, Slovakia faced energy crisis and  declared astate of emergency, after Russia cut gas supplies to Europe via Ukrainian pipelines as part of aprice dispute with Ukraine.
Between the years 2010–2012, Slovak government was led by first female Prime MinisterIveta Radičová.Her government lasted only two years, Radičová combined the vote on the strengthening of theEuropean Financial Stability Facility– a key anti-crisis mechanism in theEurozone– with a vote of confidence for her cabinet. Slovak parliament rejected the EFSF, which led to the collapse of the government.
In 2012, Robert Fico became second time Prime Minister when his political partyDirection – Social Democracywonelectionand collected 83 of 150 seats inNational Council, becoming the first single party to win aclear majorityin the Slovak parliament since the fall of communism.In 2014,Andrej Kiskabecame the fourth President of Slovakia. For the first time was elected as President entrepreneur and first-time politician.International crisis impacted Slovak politics and quickly started dominating the country's political life and media coverage, such asAnnexation of Crimea by the Russian Federationin neighbouring Ukraine in 2014 orEuropean migrant crisisin 2015.
After theparliamentary electionin 2016, Robert Fico became third time Prime Minister, making him longest-serving prime minister in Slovak history, if the years are counted cumulatively.Third term of Fico's government was characterised by social and political turmoil. On February 21, 2018, young Slovak investigative journalist Ján Kuciak and his fiancée,were killedin their home inVeľká Mača.Thousands of people protested in streets across Slovakia for independent investigation of journalist's murder and a ‘trustworthy’ government in largest demonstrations in the country since the Velvet Revolution.Due to protests, Robert Fico resignate and the government continued under a new Prime MinisterPeter Pellegrini.In 2019,Zuzana Čaputovábecame the fifth President of Slovakia, first female president.
After theparliamentary electionin 2020,Igor Matovičbecame the new Prime Minister of Slovakia.Matovič and his government, with little to no previous government experience, was dealing with theCOVID-19 pandemicandCOVID-19 recession, during which more than21,000 peopledied in Slovakia between the years 2020–2023, the worst death toll in the country since the end of World War II.Due to the pandemic in 2020, the Slovak economy faced the worst economic crisis since the global financial crisis and fell into recession.At the beginning of 2021, Matovič signed an agreement to acquire 2 million doses of Russia'sSputnik V COVID-19 vaccine, which has not been cleared byEuropean Unionregulators.Matovič orchestrated the deal despite disagreement among his coalition partners, which led to a government crisis and his resignation.The government continued under a new Prime MinisterEduard Heger.Heger and his government faced many challenges, such as the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic,Russian invasionin neighbouring Ukraine,Ukrainian refugee crisis,Global energy crisisandInflation surge. After a strong economic recovery in 2021, growth slowed down markedly in 2022 and 2023 as a result of the consequences of the Russian invasion of Ukraine, notably the subsequentEU sanctions on Russiaand Global energy crisis.Slovakia became one of Ukraine's largestdonors of military aidduring Heger's government in 2022 and 2023.Government crisis in Slovakia continued with various disputes in the coalition. At the end of 2022, Heger's government collapsed, after a lost no-confidence vote in parliament.In 2023, in the interim before the next election, President Zuzana Čaputová appointed the firsttechnocrat governmentin Slovak history andĽudovít Ódorbecame the new Prime Minister for only six months, the third Prime Minister of Slovakia in three years.
After theparliamentary electionin 2023, Robert Fico became for the fourth time Prime Minister.The new government halted military aid to Ukraine, while still providing humanitarian aid and electricity supplies.On May 15, 2024, Prime Minister Robert Fico was shot several times and wounded in anassassination attempt.The suspect stated during interrogation that he acted primarily because of the Fico government's opposition to military assistance to Ukraine.In 2024,Peter Pellegrinibecame the sixth President of Slovakia.Pellegrini is the first Slovak politician to have held all three highest constitutional posts (President, Prime Minister and Speaker of Parliament) in the country.
Slovakia lies between latitudes47°and50° N, and longitudes16°and23° E. The Slovak landscape is noted primarily for its mountainous nature, with theCarpathian Mountainsextending across most of the northern half of the country. Among thesemountain rangesare the high peaks of theFatra-Tatra Area(includingTatra Mountains,Greater FatraandLesser Fatra),Slovak Ore Mountains,Slovak Central MountainsorBeskids. The largest lowland is the fertileDanubian Lowlandin the southwest, followed by theEastern Slovak Lowlandin the southeast.Forests cover 41% of Slovak land surface.
The Tatra Mountains, with 29 peaks higher than 2,500 metres (8,202 feet)AMSL, are the highest mountain range in the Carpathian Mountains. The Tatras occupy an area of 750 square kilometres (290 sq mi), of which the greater part 600 square kilometres (232 sq mi) lies in Slovakia. They are divided into several parts.
To the north, close to the Polish border, are theHigh Tatraswhich are a popularhikingandskiingdestination and home to many scenic lakes and valleys as well as the highest point in Slovakia, theGerlachovský štítat 2,655 metres (8,711 ft) and the country's highly symbolic mountainKriváň. To the west are theWestern Tatraswith their highest peak ofBystráat 2,248 metres (7,375 ft) and to the east are theBelianske Tatras, smallest by area.
Separated from the Tatras proper by the valley of theVáhriver are theLow Tatras, with their highest peak ofĎumbierat 2,043 metres (6,703 ft).
The Tatra mountain range is represented as one of the three hills on thecoat of arms of Slovakia.
There are nine national parks in Slovakia, covering 6.5% of the Slovak land surface. These parks are:Tatra National Park,Low Tatras National Park,Veľká Fatra National Park,Slovak Karst National Park,Poloniny National Park,Malá Fatra National Park,Muránska planina National Park,Slovak Paradise National ParkandPieniny National Park.
Slovakia has hundreds of caves and caverns under its mountains, of which 30 are open to the public.Most of the caves havestalagmitesrising from the ground andstalactiteshanging from above.
There are currently five Slovak caves underUNESCO's World Heritage Site status:Dobšiná Ice Cave,Domica,Gombasek Cave,Jasovská CaveandOchtinská Aragonite Cave. Other caves open to the public includeBelianska Cave,Demänovská Cave of Liberty,Demänovská Ice CaveorBystrianska Cave.
Most of the rivers arise in the Slovak mountains. Some only pass through Slovakia, while others make a natural border with surrounding countries (more than 620 kilometres [390 mi]). For example, theDunajec(17 kilometres [11 mi]) to the north, theDanube(172 kilometres [107 mi]) to the south or theMorava(119 kilometres [74 mi]) to the West. The total length of the rivers on Slovak territory is 49,774 kilometres (30,928 mi).
The longest river in Slovakia is theVáh(403 kilometres [250 mi]), the shortest is the Čierna voda. Other important and large rivers are theMyjava, theNitra(197 kilometres [122 mi]), theOrava, theHron(298 kilometres [185 mi]), theHornád(193 kilometres [120 mi]), theSlaná(110 kilometres [68 mi]), theIpeľ(232 kilometres [144 mi], forming the border with Hungary), theBodrog, theLaborec, theLatoricaand theOndava.
The biggest volume of discharge in Slovak rivers is duringspring, when the snow melts from the mountains. The only exception is the Danube, whose discharge is the greatest during summer when the snow melts in theAlps. The Danube is the largest river that flows through Slovakia.
The Slovak climate lies between the temperate andcontinental climatezones with relatively warmsummersand cold, cloudy and humidwinters. Temperature extremes are between −41 and 40.3 °C (−41.8 and 104.5 °F) although temperatures below −30 °C (−22 °F) are rare. The weather differs from the mountainous north to the plains in the south.
The warmest region isBratislavaand Southern Slovakia where the temperatures may reach 30 °C (86 °F) in summer, occasionally to 39 °C (102 °F) inHurbanovo. During night, the temperatures drop to 20 °C (68 °F). The daily temperatures in winter average in the range of −5 °C (23 °F) to 10 °C (50 °F). During night it may be freezing, but usually not below −10 °C (14 °F).
In Slovakia, there are fourseasons, each season (spring, summer,autumnandwinter) lasts three months. The dry continental air brings in the summer heat and winter frosts. In contrast, oceanic air brings rainfalls and reduces summer temperatures. In the lowlands and valleys, there is often fog, especially in winter.
Spring starts with 21 March and is characterised by colder weather with an average daily temperature of 9 °C (48 °F) in the first weeks and about 14 °C (57 °F) in May and 17 °C (63 °F) in June. In Slovakia, the weather and climate in the spring are very unstable.
Summer starts on 22 June and is usually characterised by hot weather with daily temperatures exceeding 30 °C (86 °F). July is the warmest month with temperatures up to about 37 to 40 °C (99 to 104 °F), especially in regions of southern Slovakia - in the urban area of Komárno, Hurbanovo or Štúrovo. Showers or thunderstorms may occur because of the summer monsoon called Medardova kvapka (Medard drop - 40 days of rain). Summer in Northern Slovakia is usually mild with temperatures around 25 °C (77 °F) (less in the mountains).
Autumn in Slovakia starts on 23 September and is mostly characterised by wet weather and wind, although the first weeks can be very warm and sunny. The average temperature in September is around 14 °C (57 °F), in November to 3 °C (37 °F). Late September and early October is a dry and sunny time of year (so-calledIndian summer).
Winter starts on 21 December with temperatures around −5 to −10 °C (23 to 14 °F). In December and January, it is usually snowing, these are the coldest months of the year. At lower altitudes, snow does not stay the whole winter, it changes into the thaw and frost. Winters are colder in the mountains, where the snow usually lasts until March or April and the night temperatures fall to −20 °C (−4 °F) and colder.
Slovakia signed the RioConvention on Biological Diversityon 19 May 1993, and became a party to the convention on 25 August 1994.It has subsequently produced aNational Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 2 November 1998.
The biodiversity of Slovakia comprisesanimals(such as annelids, arthropods, molluscs, nematodes and vertebrates),fungi(Ascomycota,Basidiomycota,Chytridiomycota,GlomeromycotaandZygomycota), micro-organisms (includingMycetozoa), andplants. The geographical position of Slovakia determines the richness of the diversity of fauna and flora. More than 11,000 plant species have been described throughout its territory, nearly 29,000 animal species and over 1,000 species of protozoa.Endemicbiodiversity is also common.
Slovakia is located in the biome oftemperate broadleaf and mixed forestsand terrestrial ecoregions ofPannonian mixed forestsandCarpathian montane conifer forests.As the altitude changes, the vegetation associations and animal communities are forming height levels (oak,beech,spruce,scrub pine,alpine meadowsandsubsoil). Forests cover 44% of the territory of Slovakia.The country had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 4.34/10, ranking it 129th globally out of 172 countries.In terms of forest stands, 60% arebroadleaf treesand 40% areconiferous trees. The occurrence of animal species is strongly connected to the appropriate types of plant associations and biotopes.
Over 4,000 species of fungi have been recorded from Slovakia.Of these, nearly 1,500 arelichen-forming species.Some of these fungi are undoubtedly endemic, but not enough is known to say how many. Of the lichen-forming species, about 40% have been classified as threatened in some way. About 7% are apparently extinct, 9% endangered, 17% vulnerable, and 7% rare. The conservation status of non-lichen-forming fungi in Slovakia is not well documented, but there is a red list for its larger fungi.
The entire population of Slovakia has access to a safe-drinking water source.The country has one of the best quality tap water in the world, it is the second country in Europe (afterAustria) with the largest reserves of drinking water. Groundwater is the drinking water source of the highest quality protected byConstitution of Slovakia. Since 2014, it is banned the export ofdrinkingandmineral watersin pipelines and water tanks. The ban excludes bottled water and water for personal use. Both, groundwater (82.2 %) as well as surface water (17.8 %) are exploited as drinking water sources.Žitný ostrovis the biggest natural groundwater source in Slovakia and as well in Central Europe.
About 1300 mineral sources are registered, providing curative water and high qualitymineral waterfor drinking. There are 21 thermalspa townsbuilt on these mineral springs. The most visited arePiešťany,Trenčianske Teplice,BardejovandDudince.
Slovakia is aparliamentary democraticrepublic with amulti-party system. The lastparliamentary electionswere held on 30 September 2023 and two rounds ofpresidential electionstook place on 23 March and 6 April 2024.
The Slovakhead of stateand the formal head of the executive is the president (currentlyPeter Pellegrini), though with very limited powers. The president is elected by direct, popular vote under thetwo-round systemfor a five-year term. Mostexecutivepower lies with thehead of government, the prime minister (currentlyRobert Fico), who is usually the leader of the winning party and who needs to form a majority coalition in the parliament. The prime minister is appointed by the president. The remainder of the cabinet is appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister.
Slovakia's highestlegislativebody is the 150-seatunicameralNational Council of the Slovak Republic(Národná rada Slovenskej republiky). Delegates are elected for a four-year term on the basis ofproportional representation.
Slovakia's highestjudicial bodyis theConstitutional Court of Slovakia(Ústavný súd), which rules on constitutional issues. The 13 members of this court are appointed by the president from a slate of candidates nominated by parliament.
TheConstitution of the Slovak Republicwas ratified 1 September 1992, and became effective 1 January 1993. It was amended in September 1998 to allowdirect electionof the president and again in February 2001 due to EU admission requirements. Thecivil law systemis based on Austro-Hungarian codes. Thelegal codewas modified to comply with the obligations ofOrganisation on Security and Cooperation in Europe(OSCE) and to expunge theMarxist–Leninistlegal theory. Slovakia accepts the compulsoryInternational Court of Justicejurisdiction with reservations.
TheMinistry of Foreign and European Affairs(Slovak:Ministerstvo zahraničných vecí a európskych záležitostí) is responsible for maintaining the Slovak Republic'sexternal relationsand the management of itsinternational diplomatic missions. The ministry'sdirectorisJuraj Blanár. The ministry oversees Slovakia's affairs with foreign entities, including bilateral relations with individual nations and its representation in international organisations.
Slovakia joined theEuropean UnionandNATOin 2004, theSchengen Areain 2007 and theEurozonein 2009.
Slovakia is a member of theUnited Nations(since 1993) and participates in its specialised agencies. The country was, on 10 October 2005, elected to a two-year term on theUN Security Councilfrom 2006 to 2007. It is also a member of theCouncil of Europe(CoE), theOrganisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe(OSCE), theWorld Trade Organisation(WTO), theWorld Health Organization(WHO), theOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD), theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF), theUnion for the Mediterranean(UfM), theInternational Criminal Police Organisation(INTERPOL), theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation(UNESCO), theEuropean Organisation for Nuclear Research(CERN), theBucharest Nine(B9) and part of theVisegrád Group(V4: Slovakia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland).
In 2024, Slovak citizens had visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 184 countries and territories, putting theSlovak passportat the 10th rank of travel freedom (tied with Latvia and Iceland) on theHenley Passport Index.
Slovakia maintainsdiplomatic relationswith 134 countries, primarily through itsMinistry of Foreign Affairs. Slovakia maintained 90 missions abroad, including 64 embassies, seven missions to multilateral organisations, nine consulates-general, one consular office, one Slovak Economic and Cultural Office and eight Slovak Institutes.Bratislava hosts 41 foreignembassiesand 22consulates.
Largest trading partners are countries of the European Union. In 2024, more than 80% of Slovak exports went to theEuropean Union, and more than 65% of Slovak imports came from other European Union member states.
Slovakia and theUnited Statesretain strong diplomatic ties and cooperate in themilitaryandlaw enforcementareas. U.S. Department of Defence programmes has contributed significantly to Slovak military reforms. The two countries have a long history tracing back to theAmerican Revolutionary War, when a Slovak Major, Ján Ladislav Polerecký, fought alongsideGeorge WashingtoninYorktowneto win the colonies' independence.PresidentWoodrow Wilsonand the United States played a major role in the establishment of the originalCzechoslovakstate on 28 October 1918. Around one million Americans have their roots in Slovakia, and many retain strong cultural and familial ties to the Slovak Republic. American steel producerU. S. Steelis the largest employer in Eastern Slovakia inKošicewith 12,000 employees.
The president is formally thecommander-in-chiefof the Slovak armed forces.
Slovakia joinedNATOin March 2004.From 2006, the army transformed into a fully professional organisation and compulsory military service was abolished. Slovak armed forces numbered 19,500 uniformed personnel and 4,208 civilians in 2022.
The country has been an active participant in US- and NATO-led military actions and involved in manyUnited Nations peacekeeping military missions:UNPROFORin the Yugoslavia (1992–1995),UNOMURin Uganda and Rwanda (1993–1994),UNAMIRin Rwanda (1993-1996),UNTAESin Croatia (1996-1998),UNOMILin Liberia (1993-1997),MONUAin Angola (1997-1999),SFORin Bosnia and Herzegovina (1999-2003),OSCEmission in Moldova (1998-2002),OSCEmission in Albania (1999),KFORin Kosovo (1999-2002),UNGCIin Iraq (2000-2003),UNMEEin Ethiopia and Eritrea (2000-2004),UNMISETin East Timor (2001),EUFORConcordia in Macedonia (2003),UNAMSILin Sierra Leone (1999-2005),EU supporting action to African Unionin Darfur (2006),Operation Enduring Freedomin Afghanistan (2002-2005),Operation Iraqi Freedomin Iraq (2003-2007) andUNDOFat the borders of Israel and Syria (1998-2008).
As of 2025, Slovakia has 240 military personnel deployed inCyprusforUNFICYPUnited Nationsledpeace support operations, 50 troops deployed inBosnia and HerzegovinaforEUFOR Altheaand 135 troops deployed inLatviaforNATO Enhanced Forward Presence.
The SlovakGround Forcesare made up of two activemechanised infantrybrigades. TheAir and Air Defence Forcescomprise onewingoffighters, one wing of utilityhelicopters, and one SAM brigade. Training and support forces comprise a National Support Element (Multifunctional Battalion, Transport Battalion, Repair Battalion), a garrison force of the capital city Bratislava, as well as a training battalion, and various logistics, communication, and information bases. Miscellaneous forces under the direct command of theGeneral Staffinclude the5th Special Forces Regiment.
Human rights in Slovakia are guaranteed by theConstitution of Slovakiafrom the year 1992 and by multiple international laws signed in Slovakia between 1948 and 2006.Slovakia performs favourably in measurements ofcivil liberties,press freedom,internet freedom,democratic governance, andpeacefulness.
The US State Departmentin 2021 reported:
According to theEuropean Roma Rights Centre(ERRC),Romani people in Slovakia"endure racism in the job market, housing and education fields and are often subjected to forced evictions, vigilante intimidation, disproportionate levels of police brutality and more subtle forms of discrimination."
Slovakia is divided into 8kraje(singular—kraj, usually translated as "region"), each of which is named after its principal city. Regions have enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy since 2002. Theirself-governingbodies are referred to as Self-governing (or autonomous) Regions (sg.samosprávny kraj, pl.samosprávne kraje) or Upper-Tier Territorial Units (sg.vyšší územný celok, pl.vyššie územné celky, abbr. VÚC).
Thekrajeare subdivided intookresy(sg.okres, usually translated as districts). Slovakia currently has 79 districts.
Theokresyare further divided intoobce(sg.obec, usually translated as "municipality"). There are currently 2,890 municipalities.
In terms of economics andunemploymentrate, the western regions are richer than eastern regions. Bratislava is the 19th-richest region of theEuropean Unionby GDP (PPP) per capita;GDP at purchasing power parity is about three times higher than in other Slovak regions.
Slovakia has ahigh-incomedeveloped economy. In 2024, with a population of only 5 million, it ranked as the46th richest countrywith aper capita gross domestic productbased onpurchasing power parityof $44,081,and the61st largest economy in the Worldwith a GDP of $140,808 billion.Its GDP per capita equalling 74% of the average of the European Union in 2023.Majorprivatisationsare completed, the banking sector is almost completely in private hands, and foreign investment has risen.
In 2024, more than 80% of Slovak exports went to theEuropean Union, and more than 65% of Slovak imports came from other European Union member states.Main export partners are Germany (23% of total exports), Czech Republic (12.4%), Poland (8.3%) and Austria (5.7%).
The country has difficulties addressing regional imbalances in wealth and employment.GDP per capita ranges from 188% of EU average in Bratislava to 54% in Eastern Slovakia.Bratislava is the19th-richest region of theEuropean Unionby GDP (PPP) per capita.Although regional income inequality is high,90% of citizens own their homes.
The country used to be dubbed the"Tatra Tiger"in the 2000s as it successfully transformed from a centrallyplanned economyto a market-driven economy and achieved, on average, roughly 6% per capita GDP growth each year from 2000 to 2008.In 2017, the Slovak economy was one of the fastest-growing economies in Europe and3rd-fastestineurozone.
TheOECDin 2017 reported:
The ratio of government debt to GDP in Slovakia reached 60.5% in 2024.
Unemployment, peaking at 19% at the end of 1999, decreased to 4.9% in 2019, lowest recorded rate in Slovak history.Unemployment rate in 2024 was 5.4%.
A high dependence on global supply chains and energy imports makes the Slovak economy vulnerable to external shocks. As a consequence, the economy was hit hard by the globalCOVID-19 pandemiccrisis (-3.3% decline in 2020), despite sizeable economic policy support. And after a strong recovery in 2021 (+4.8% growth), growth slowed down markedly in 2022 (+1.9%) and 2023 (+1.6%) as a result of the consequences of theRussian invasion of Ukraine, notably the subsequentEU sanctions on Russiaand soaring energy prices.
The Slovak government encourages foreign investment since it is one of the driving forces of the economy. Slovakia is an attractive country forforeign investorsmainly because of its low wages, low tax rates, well educatedlabour force, favourable geographic location in the heart of Central Europe, strong political stability and good international relations reinforced by the country's accession to the European Union. Some regions, mostly at the east of Slovakia have failed to attract major investment, which has aggravated regional disparities in many economic and social areas.
Slovakia adopted theeurocurrency on 1 January 2009 as the 16th member of the Eurozone. The euro in Slovakia was approved bythe European commissionon 7 May 2008. TheSlovak korunawas revalued on 28 May 2008 to 30.126 for 1 euro, which was also the exchange rate for the euro.
Slovakia ranks 45th out of 190 economies in terms of ease of doing business, according to the2020 World Bank Doing Business Reportand 49th out of the 63 countries and territories in terms of competitive economy, according to the2022 World Competitiveness Yearbook Report.
Although Slovakia's GDP comes mainly from the tertiary (services) sector, the industrial sector also plays an important role within its economy. The main industry sectors arecar manufacturingandelectrical engineering. Since 2007, Slovakia has been the world's largest producer of cars per capita,with a total of 1,090,000 cars manufactured in the country in 2018 alone.275,000 people are employed directly and indirectly
by the automotive industry.There are currently four automobile assembly plants, with a fifth under construction:Volkswagen's inBratislava(models:Volkswagen Up,Volkswagen Touareg,Audi Q7,Audi Q8,Porsche Cayenne,Lamborghini Urus),PSA Peugeot Citroën's inTrnava(models:Peugeot 208,Citroën C3 Picasso),Kia Motors'Žilina Plant(models:Kia Cee'd,Kia Sportage,Kia Venga) andJaguar Land Rover's inNitra(model:Land Rover Defender,Land Rover Discovery).Volvowill make electric cars at a new plant at the east of Slovakia, construction began in 2023 inKošice, with series production starting in 2026.Hyundai MobisinŽilinais the largest suppliers for the automotive industry in Slovakia.
The electronics manufacturing industry also thrives.Foxconnhas a factory atNitraforLCD TVmanufacturing,SamsungatGalantaforcomputer monitorsand television sets manufacturing. Steel producerU. S. SteelinKošiceis the largest employer in the east of Slovakia with 12,000 employees.
ESETis an IT security company from Bratislava with more than 1,000employees worldwide at present. Their branch offices are in the United States, Ireland, United Kingdom, Argentina, theCzech Republic,Singaporeand Poland.In recent years,serviceandhigh-tech-oriented businesses have prospered in Bratislava. Many global companies, includingIBM,Dell,Lenovo,AT&T,SAP, andAccenture, have builtoutsourcingand service centres here.Reasons for the influx ofmulti-national corporationsinclude proximity to Western Europe, skilled labour force and the high density of universities and research facilities.Other large companies and employers with headquarters in Bratislava includeAmazon,Slovak Telekom,Orange Slovensko,Slovenská sporiteľňa,Tatra banka,Doprastav,Hewlett-PackardSlovakia,HenkelSlovensko,Slovenský plynárenský priemysel,MicrosoftSlovakia,Mondelez Slovakia,Whirlpool SlovakiaandZurich Insurance GroupSlovakia.
Bratislava's geographical position in Central Europe has long made Bratislava a crossroads forinternational tradetraffic.Various ancienttrade routes, such as theAmber Roadand theDanubewaterway, have crossed territory of present-day Bratislava. Today, Bratislava is a road, railway, waterway and airway hub.
Slovakia is self-sufficient in electricity production following the launch of the third unit of the Mochovce nuclear power plant in 2023.
In 2020, Slovakia produced a total of 29,322GWhofelectricity.Nuclear energyaccounted for 54% (15 400 GWh) of total electricity production, followed by 16% byhydro powerenergy, 16% natural gas, 8% coal, biofuel 3% and 3% bysolar energy,
The two nuclear power-plants in Slovakia are inJaslovské BohuniceandMochovce. Jaslovské Bohunice containing two operating reactors. Mochovce containing three operating reactors, unit Mochovce-3 came on-line in January 2023 and unit Mochovce-4 will be completed at the end of 2025.The additional reactors in Mochovce returned Slovakia to being a net exporter of electricity.
In 2024, Slovak government approved a plan to build another new nuclear reactor inJaslovské Bohunice.
Slovenský plynárenský priemysel(Slovak Gas Industry) is the biggest natural gas seller in Slovakia. In 2024, domestic gas production covers roughly 2% of Slovak consumption.An average of around 65 million m³ of natural gas is produced, while 4,2 billion m³ of natural gas is imported.As of 2025, most of gas imports to Slovakia is from Russia viaTurkStreampipeline. TurkStream connects Russia and Turkey, with gas flowing through the Balkans and Hungary before reaching Slovakia.
The oil production in Slovakia is even lower than the gas production. In 2021 it reached a volume of 4,500 tons per year with a total oil consumption of around 6 million tons per year.Among European Union countries, Slovakia is the most dependent on Russian oil and petroleum products.In 2020, Russia was the origin country for 78 percent of the country's total oil imports.Slovnaft, with 4,000 employees, is the largest oil refining company in Slovakia, located in Bratislava. The company refines 5.5 to 6 million tonnes of crude oil per annum and produces a broad range of motor fuels, fuel oils and petrochemical products.
There are four main motorway D1 to D4 and eight expressways R1 to R8. Many of them are still under construction.
The major motorway in Slovakia isD1, the motorway connects major cities across Slovakia from west to east, from Bratislava toTrnava,Nitra,Trenčín,Žilinaand beyond. As of 2025, some sections of D1 are still under construction. TheD2 motorwayconnects it toPrague,BrnoandBudapestin the north–south direction. A large part ofD4 motorway(an outer bypass), which ease the pressure on Bratislava's highway system, opened in 2021.TheA6 motorwaytoViennaconnects Slovakia directly to the Austrian motorway system and was opened on 19 November 2007.
Slovakia has three international airports.Bratislava Airportis the main and largestinternational airport. It is located 9 km northeast of the city centre. It serves civil and governmental, scheduled and unscheduled domestic and international flights. The current runways support the landing of all common types of aircraft currently used. The airport has enjoyed rapidly growing passenger traffic in recent years; it served 279,028 passengers in 2000 and 2,292,712 in 2018.Košice International Airportis an airport servingKošice. It is the second-largestinternational airportin Slovakia. ThePoprad–Tatry Airportis the third busiest airport, the airport is located 5 km west-northwest ofPoprad. It is an airport with one of the highest elevations in Central Europe, at 718 m, which is 150 m higher thanInnsbruck Airportin Austria.
Železnice Slovenskej Republiky(Railways of Slovak Republic) provides railway transport services on national and international lines.
ThePort of Bratislavais one of the two internationalriver portsin Slovakia. The port connects Bratislava to international boat traffic, especially the interconnection from theNorth Seato theBlack Seavia theRhine-Main-Danube Canal.
Additionally, tourist boats operate from Bratislava's passenger port, including routes toDevín,Viennaand elsewhere. ThePort of Komárnois the second largest port in Slovakia with an area of over 20 hectares and is located approximately 100 km east of Bratislava. It lies at the confluence of two rivers -the DanubeandVáh.
Slovakia features natural landscapes, mountains,caves, medievalcastlesand towns, folk architecture, spas andski resorts. More than 5,4 million tourists visited Slovakia in 2017. The most attractive destinations are the capital ofBratislavaand theHigh Tatras.Most visitors come from theCzech Republic(about 26%), Poland (15%) and Germany (11%).
Slovakia contains many castles, most of which are in ruins. The best known castles includeBojnice Castle(often used as a filming location),Spiš Castle, (on the UNESCO list),Orava Castle,Bratislava Castle, and the ruins ofDevín Castle.Čachtice Castlewas once the home of the world's most prolific female serial killer, the 'Bloody Lady',Elizabeth Báthory.
Slovakia's position in Europe and the country's past (part of theKingdom of Hungary, theHabsburgmonarchy andCzechoslovakia) made many cities and towns similar to the cities in theCzech Republic(such asPrague), Austria (such asSalzburg) or Hungary (such asBudapest). A historical centre with at least one square has been preserved in many towns. Large historical centres can be found inBratislava,Trenčín,Košice,Banská Štiavnica,Levoča, andTrnava. Historical centres have been going through a restoration in recent years.
Historical churches can be found in virtually every village and town in Slovakia. Most of them are built in theBaroquestyle, but there are also many examples ofRomanesqueandGothic architecture, for exampleBanská Bystrica, Bardejov andSpišská Kapitula. TheBasilica of St. Jamesin Levoča with the tallest wood-carved altar in the world and the Church of the Holy Spirit inŽehrawith medievalfrescosare UNESCOWorld Heritage Sites. TheSt. Martin's ConcathedralinBratislavaserved as thecoronationchurch for the Kingdom of Hungary. The oldest sacral buildings in Slovakia stem from theGreat Moravianperiod in the ninth century.
Very precious structures are the complete wooden churches of northern and northern-eastern Slovakia. Most were built from the 15th century onwards byCatholics,Lutheransand members ofeastern-ritechurches.
Tourism is one of the main sectors of the Slovakia's economy, although still underserved. It is based on domestic tourism, as most of the tourists are the Slovak nationals and residents travelling for leisure within the country.Bratislavaand theHighandLow Tatrasare the busiest tourist stops. Other popular tourist destinations are the cities and towns ofKošice,Banská Štiavnica, orBardejov, and numerous national parks, such asPieniny National Park,Malá Fatra National Park,Veľká Fatra National Park,Poloniny National Park, orSlovak Paradise National Park, among others.
There are many castles located throughout the country. Among the tourists, some of the most popular areBojnice Castle,Spiš Castle, Stará Ľubovňa Castle,Krásna Hôrka Castle,Orava Castle(where many scenes ofNosferatuwere filmed),Trenčín Castle, andBratislava Castle, and also castles in ruins, such asBeckov Castle,Devín Castle,Šariš Castle,Považie Castle, andStrečno Castle(whereDragonheartwas filmed).
Caves open to the public are mainly located in Northern Slovakia.Drinyis the only cave located in Western Slovakia that is open to the public.Dobšiná Ice Cave,Demänovská Ice Cave,Demänovská Cave of Liberty,Belianska Cave, orDomica Caveare among the most popular tourist stops.Ochtinská Aragonite Cave, located in Central Slovakia, is one of only three aragonite caves in the world. There are thousands of caves located in Slovakia, thirteen of which are open to the public.
Slovakia is also known for its numerous spas.Piešťanyis the biggest and busiest spa town in the country, attracting many visitors from theGulf countries, mostly theUnited Arab Emirates,Qatar,Kuwait, andBahrain.Bardejov,Trenčianske Teplice,Turčianske Teplice, andRajecké Tepliceare other major spa towns. Some well-known minor spa towns and villages areŠtós,Číž,Dudince,Kováčová,Nimnica,Smrdáky,Lúčky, andVyšné Ružbachy, among others.
Typical souvenirs from Slovakia are dolls dressed in folk costumes, ceramic objects, crystal glass, carved wooden figures, črpáks (wooden pitchers),fujaras(afolk instrumenton the UNESCO list) andvalaškas(a decorated folk hatchet) and above all products made fromcorn husksand wire, notably human figures. Souvenirs can be bought in the shops run by the state organisation ÚĽUV (Ústredie ľudovej umeleckej výroby—Centre ofFolk ArtProduction).Dieloshop chain sells works of Slovak artists and craftsmen. These shops are mostly found in towns and cities.
Prices of imported products are generally the same as in the neighbouring countries, whereas prices of local products and services, especially food, are usually lower.
TheSlovak Academy of Scienceshas been the most important scientific and research institution in the country since 1953. Slovaks have made notable scientific and technical contributions during history.In 1999, astronautIvan Bella, became the first and only Slovak citizen to fly in space.
Observer status toEuropean Space Agency(ESA) was granted in 2010, when Slovakia signed the General Agreement on Cooperation in which information about ongoing education programmes was shared and Slovakia was invited to various negotiations of the ESA.In 2015, Slovakia signed the European Cooperating State Agreement based on which Slovakia committed to the finance entrance programme named PECS (Plan for the European Cooperating States) which serves as preparation for full membership. Slovak research and development organisations can apply for funding of projects regarding space technologies advancement. Slovakia became European Space Agency associate member state in 2022.In 2024, the country signed theArtemis AccordswithNASA.
Slovakia was ranked 46th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024.
The population is over 5.4 million and consists mostly ofSlovaks. The average population density is 110 inhabitants per km.According to the 2021 census, the majority of the inhabitants of Slovakia areSlovaks(83.82%).Hungariansare the largestethnic minority(7.75%). Otherethnic groupsincludeRoma(1.23%),Czechs(0.53%),Rusyns(0.44%) and others or unspecified (6.1%).
In 2018, themedian ageof the Slovak population was 41 years.
The largest waves of Slovak emigration occurred in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the 1990 US census, 1.8 million people self-identified as having Slovak ancestry.
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index, Slovakia is one of 22 countries with a GHI score of less than 5.
Theofficial languageisSlovak, a member of theSlavic language family.Hungarianis widely spoken in the southern regions, andRusynis used in some parts of the Northeast.Minority languageshold co-official status in the municipalities in which the size of the minority population meets the legal threshold of 15% in two consecutive censuses.
Slovakia is ranked among the top EU countries regarding the knowledge of foreign languages. In 2007, 68% of the population aged from 25 to 64 years claimed to speak two or more foreign languages, finishing second highest in the European Union. The best known foreign language in Slovakia isCzech.Eurostatreport also shows that 98.3% of Slovak students in the upper secondary education take on two foreign languages, ranking highly over the average 60.1% in the European Union.According to aEurobarometersurvey from 2012, 26% of the population have knowledge of English at a conversational level, followed by German (22%) and Russian (17%).
The deaf community uses theSlovak Sign Language. Even though spoken Czech and Slovak are similar, the Slovak Sign language is not particularly close toCzech Sign Language.
TheSlovak constitutionguaranteesfreedom of religion. In 2021, 55.8% of population identified themselves asRoman Catholics, 5.3% asLutherans, 1.6% asCalvinists, 4% asGreek Catholics, 0.9% asOrthodox, 23.8% identified themselves asatheistsor non-religious, and 6.5% did not answer the question about their belief.In 2004, about one third of the church members regularly attended church services.TheSlovak Greek Catholic Churchis an Eastern ritesui iurisCatholic Church. Before World War II, an estimated 90,000 Jews lived in Slovakia (1.6% of the population), but most were murdered during theHolocaust. After further reductions due to postwaremigrationand assimilation, only about 2,300 Jews remain today (0.04% of the population).
There are 18 state-registered religions in Slovakia, of which 16 are Christian, one is Jewish, and one is theBaháʼí Faith.In 2016, a two-thirds majority of the Slovak parliament passed a new bill that would obstructIslamand other religious organisations from becoming state-recognised religions by doubling the minimum followers threshold from 25,000 to 50,000; however, Slovakia's then-presidentAndrej Kiskavetoed the bill.In 2010, there were an estimated 5,000Muslimsin Slovakia representing less than 0.1% of the country's population.Slovakia is the only member state of the European Union to not have anymosques.
TheProgramme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by theOECD, currently ranksSlovak secondary educationthe 30th in the world (placing it just below the United States and just above Spain).Education in Slovakia is compulsory from age 6 to 16. The education system consists of elementary school which is divided into two parts, the first grade (age 6–10) and the second grade (age 10–15) which is finished by taking nationwide testing called Monitor, in Slovak and math. Parents may apply for social assistance for a child that is studying on an elementary school or a high-school. If approved, the state provides basic study necessities for the child. Schools provide books to all their students with usual exceptions of books for studying a foreign language and books which require taking notes in them, which are mostly present in the first grade of elementary school.
After finishing elementary school, students are obliged to take one year in high school.
After finishing high school, students can go to university and are highly encouraged to do so. Slovakia has a wide range of universities. The biggest university isComenius University, established in 1919. Although it is not the first university ever established on Slovak territory, it is the oldest university that is still running. Most universities in Slovakia are public funded, where anyone can apply. Every citizen has a right to free education in public schools.
Slovakia has several privately funded universities, however public universities consistently score better in the ranking than their private counterparts. Universities have different criteria for accepting students. Anyone can apply to any number of universities.
Folk traditionhas rooted strongly in Slovakia and is reflected in literature, music, dance and architecture. The prime example is the Slovak national anthem,"Nad Tatrou sa blýska", which is based on a melody from the"Kopala studienku"folk song.
The manifestation of Slovak folklore culture is the "Východná" Folklore Festival. It is the oldest and largest nationwide festival with international participation,which takes place inVýchodnáannually. Slovakia is usually represented by many groups but mainly by SĽUK (Slovenský ľudový umelecký kolektív—Slovak folk art collective). SĽUK is the largest Slovak folk art group, trying to preserve the folklore tradition.
An example of wooden folk architecture in Slovakia can be seen in the well-preserved village ofVlkolínecwhich has been theUNESCO World Heritage Sitesince 1993.ThePrešov Regionpreserves the world's most remarkable folk wooden churches. Most of them are protected by Slovak law ascultural heritage, but some of them are on theUNESCOlist too, in Bodružal, Hervartov, Ladomirová and Ruská Bystrá.
The best known Slovak hero, found in many folkmythologies, isJuraj Jánošík(1688–1713) (the Slovak equivalent ofRobin Hood). The legend says he was taking from the rich and giving to the poor. Jánošík's life was depicted in a list of literary works and many movies throughout the 20th century. One of the most popular is a filmJánošíkdirected byMartin Fričin 1935.He is commemorated mainly inTerchová, his family's place of living.
Visual artin Slovakia is represented throughpainting,drawing,printmaking,illustration,arts and crafts,sculpture,photographyorconceptual art. TheSlovak National Galleryfounded in 1948, is the biggest network of galleries in Slovakia. Two displays in Bratislava are situated inEsterházy Palace(Esterházyho palác) and the Water Barracks (Vodné kasárne), adjacent one to another. They are located on the Danube riverfront in the Old Town.
TheBratislava City Gallery, founded in 1961 is the second biggest Slovak gallery of its kind. It stores about 35,000 pieces of Slovak international art and offers permanent displays inPálffy PalaceandMirbach Palace, located in the Old Town. Danubiana Art Museum, one of the youngest art museums in Europe, is situated nearČunovowaterworks (part ofGabčíkovo Waterworks). Other major galleries include:Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art(Warhol's parents were fromMiková),East Slovak Gallery,Ernest Zmeták Art Gallery,Zvolen Castle.
Christian topics include poemProglasas a foreword to the fourGospels, partial translations of the Bible intoOld Church Slavonic,Zakon sudnyj ljudem.
Medieval literature, in the period from the 11th to the 15th centuries, was written inLatin, Czech and Slovakised Czech. Lyric (prayers, songs and formulas) was still controlled by the Church, while epic was concentrated on legends. Authors from this period includeJohannes de Thurocz, author of theChronica Hungarorumand Maurus, both of them Hungarians.The worldly literature also emerged and chronicles were written in this period.
Two leading persons codified Slovak. The first wasAnton Bernolák, whose concept was based on the western Slovakdialectin 1787. It was the codification of the first-ever literary language of Slovaks. The second wasĽudovít Štúr, whose formation of the Slovak took principles from the central Slovak dialect in 1843.
Slovakia is also known for its polyhistors, of whom includePavol Jozef Šafárik,Matej Bel,Ján Kollár, and its political revolutionaries and reformists, suchMilan Rastislav ŠtefánikandAlexander Dubček.
Traditional Slovak cuisine is based mainly onpork,poultry(chickenis the most widely eaten, followed byduck,goose, andturkey),flour,potatoes,cabbage, andmilk products. It is relatively closely related toHungarian,Czech,PolishandAustrian cuisine. On the east it is also influenced byUkrainian, includingLemkoandRusyn. In comparison with other European countries,"game meat"is more accessible in Slovakia due to vast resources of forest and because hunting is relatively popular.Boar,rabbit, andvenisonare generally available throughout the year.Lambandgoatare eaten but are not widely popular.
The traditional Slovak meals arebryndzové halušky, bryndzové pirohy and other meals with potato dough andbryndza. Bryndza is a salty cheese made of sheep milk, characterised by a strong taste and aroma. Bryndzové halušky especially is considered a national dish, and is very commonly found on the menu of traditional Slovak restaurants.
A typical soup is asauerkrautsoup ("kapustnica"). Ablood sausagecalled "krvavnica", made from any parts of a butchered pig, is also a specific Slovak meal.
Wine is enjoyed throughout Slovakia.Slovak winecomes predominantly from the southern areas along the Danube and its tributaries; the northern half of the country is too cold and mountainous to grow grapevines. Traditionally, white wine was more popular than red or rosé (except in some regions), andsweet winemore popular than dry; however, in recent years tastes seem to be changing.Beer (mainly of thepilsenerstyle, thoughdark lagersare also consumed) is also popular.
Sporting activities are practised widely in Slovakia, many of them on a professional level.Ice hockeyandfootballhave traditionally been regarded as the most popular sports in Slovakia, thoughtennis,handball,basketball,volleyball,whitewater slalom,cycling,alpine skiing,biathlonandathleticsare also popular.
One of the most popular team sports in Slovakia isice hockey. Slovakia became a member of theIIHFon 2 February 1993.Since then, the team has won four medals inIce Hockey World Championships, consisting of one gold, two silver and a bronze. The most recent success was a silver medal at the2012 IIHF World ChampionshipinHelsinki. The Slovak national hockey team made eight appearances in theOlympic games, finishing fourth in the2010 Winter OlympicsinVancouverand third with bronze medal at the2022 Winter OlympicsinBeijing. The country has 8,280 registered players and is ranked seventh in theIIHF World Rankingat present. The Slovak hockey teamsHC Slovan BratislavaandHC Lev Popradparticipated in theKontinental Hockey League.
Slovakia hosted the2011 IIHF World Championship, whereFinlandwon the gold medal and2019 IIHF World Championship, whereFinlandalso won the gold medal. Both competitions took place inBratislavaandKošice.
Football is the most popular sport in Slovakia, with over 400,000 registered players. Since 1993, theSlovak national football teamhas qualified for theFIFA World Cuponce, in2010. They progressed to the last 16, where they were defeated by theNetherlands. The most notable result was the 3–2 victory overItaly. In 2016, theSlovak national football teamqualified for theUEFA Euro 2016tournament, under head coachJán Kozák. This helped the team reach its best-ever position of 14th in theFIFA World Rankings.
In club competitions, only three teams have qualified for theUEFA Champions LeagueGroup Stage, namelyMFK Košicein1997–98,FC Artmedia Bratislavain2005–06 season, andMŠK Žilinain2010–11. FC Artmedia Bratislava has been the most successful team, finishing third at the Group Stage of theUEFA Cup, therefore qualifying for the knockout stage. They remain the only Slovak club that has won a match at the group stage.
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