Eritrea

Eritrea(/ˌɛrɪˈtriːə/ERR-ih-TREE-əor/-ˈtreɪ-/-⁠TRAY-;,pronounced[ʔer(ɨ)trä]), officially theState of Eritrea, is a country in theHorn of Africaregion ofEastern Africa, with its capital and largest city beingAsmara. It is bordered byEthiopiain thesouth,Sudanin the west, andDjiboutiin the southeast. The northeastern and eastern parts of Eritrea have an extensive coastline along theRed Sea. The nation has a total area of approximately 117,600 km(45,406 sq mi),and includes theDahlak Archipelagoand several of theHanish Islands.
Human remains found in Eritrea have been dated to 1 million years old and anthropological research indicates that the area may contain significant records related to the evolution of humans. TheKingdom of Aksum, covering much of modern-day Eritrea andnorthern Ethiopia, was established during the first or second century AD.It adoptedChristianityaround the middle of the fourth century.Beginning in the 12th century, the EthiopianZagweandSolomoniddynasties held sway to a fluctuating extent over the entire plateau and the Red Sea coast. Eritrea's central highlands, known asMereb Melash("Beyond theMereb"), were the northern frontier region of the Ethiopian kingdoms and were ruled by a governor titled theBahr Negus("King of the Sea"). In the 16th century, theOttomansconquered the Eritrean coastline, then in May 1865 much of the coastal lowlands came under the rule of theKhedivate of Egypt, until it was transferred toItalyin February 1885. Beginning in 1885–1890, Italian troops systematically spread out fromMassawatoward the highlands, eventually resulting in the formation of the colony ofItalian Eritreain 1889, establishing the present-day boundaries of the country. Italian rule continued until 1942 when Eritrea was placed underBritish Military Administrationduring World War II; following a UN General Assembly decision in 1952,Eritrea would govern itselfwith a local Eritrean parliament, but for foreign affairs and defense, it would enter into a federal status with Ethiopia for ten years. However, in 1962, the government of Ethiopia annulled the Eritrean parliament andformally annexed Eritrea. The Eritrean secessionist movement organised theEritrean Liberation Frontin 1961 and fought theEritrean War of Independenceuntil Eritrea gainedde factoindependence in 1991. Eritrea gainedde jureindependence in 1993 afteran independence referendum.
Contemporary Eritrea is a multi-ethnic country with nine recognised ethnic groups, each of which has a distinct language. The most widely spoken languages areTigrinyaandArabic. The others areTigre,Saho,Kuinama,Nara,Afar,Beja,BilenandEnglish.Tigrinya,ArabicandEnglishserve as the three working languages.Most residents speak languages from theAfroasiaticfamily, either of theEthiopian Semitic languagesorCushiticbranches. Among these communities, theTigrinyasmake up about 50% of the population, with theTigre peopleconstituting around 30% of inhabitants. In addition, there are severalNilo-Saharan-speakingNiloticethnic groups. Most people in the country adhere toChristianityorIslam, with a small minority adhering totraditional faiths.
Eritrea is one of theleast developed countries. It is a unitaryone-party presidential republicin whichnational legislative and presidential electionshave never been held.Isaias Afwerkihas served as president since its official independence in 1993. According toHuman Rights Watch, theEritrean government's human rights recordis among the worst in the world.The Eritrean government has dismissed these allegations as politically motivated.Freedom of the pressin Eritrea is extremely limited; thePress Freedom Indexconsistently ranks it as one of the least free countries. As of 2022Reporters Without Bordersconsiders the country to be among those with the least press freedom.Eritrea is a member of theAfrican Union, theUnited Nations, and theIntergovernmental Authority on Development, and is anobserver statein theArab Leaguealongside Brazil andVenezuela.
The nameEritreais derived from the ancient (originally Greek) name for theRed Sea, the Erythraean Sea (Ἐρυθρὰ ΘάλασσαErythra Thalassa, based on the adjectiveἐρυθρόςerythros"red"). It was first formally adopted in 1890, with the formation ofItalian Eritrea(Colonia Eritrea).The name persisted throughout subsequentBritishandEthiopianoccupation, and was reaffirmed by the1993 independence referendumand1997 constitution.
Madam Buyais the name of a fossil found at an archaeological site in Eritrea by Italian anthropologists. She has been identified as among the oldesthominidfossils found to date that reveal significant stages in the evolution of humans and to represent a possible link between the earlierHomo erectusand an archaicHomo sapiens. Her remains have been dated to 1 million years old. She is the oldest skeletal find of her kind and provides a link between earlier hominids and the earliestanatomically modern humans.It is believed that the section of theDanakil Depressionin Eritrea was a major site in terms of human evolution and may contain other traces of evolution fromHomo erectushominids to anatomically modern humans.
During the last interglacial period, theRed Seacoast of Eritrea was occupied by early anatomically modern humans.It is believed that the area was on the route out of Africa that some scholars suggest was used by early humans to colonize the rest of the Old World.In 1999, the Eritrean Research Project Team composed of Eritrean, Canadian, American, Dutch, and French scientists discovered aPaleolithicsite with stone and obsidian tools dated to more than 125,000 years old near theGulf of Zulasouth ofMassawa, along the Red Sea littoral. The tools are believed to have been used by early humans to harvest marine resources such as clams and oysters.
Research shows tools found in theBarka Valleydating from 8,000 BC appear to offer the first concrete evidence of human settlement in the area.Research also shows that many of the ethnic groups of Eritrea were the first to inhabit these areas.
Excavations in and nearAgordatin central Eritrea yielded the remains of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization known as theGash Group.Ceramics were discovered that were dated back to between 2,500 and 1,500 BC.
Around 2,000 BC, parts of Eritrea were most likely part of theLand of Punt, a kingdom first mentioned in the twenty-fifth century BC.It was known for producing and exportinggold, aromaticresins,blackwood,ebony,ivory, and wild animals. The region is known from ancient Egyptian records of trade expeditions to it, especially a well-documented expedition to Punt in approximately 1,469 BC during the reestablishment of disrupted trade routes byHatshepsutshortly after the beginning of her rule as the king of ancient Egypt.
Excavations atSembelfound evidence of an ancient pre-Aksumitecivilization in greater Asmara. This Ona urban culture is believed to have been among the oldest pastoral and agricultural communities inEast Africa. Artifacts at the site have been dated to between 800 BC and 400 BC, contemporaneous with other pre-Aksumite settlements in the Eritrean and Ethiopian highlands during the mid-first millennium BC.
Dʿmtwas a kingdom that existed from the tenth to fifth centuries BC in what is now Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. Given the presence of a massive temple complex atYeha, this area was most likely the kingdom's capital.Qohaito, often identified as the town of Koloe in thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea,as well asMatarawere important ancient Dʿmt kingdom cities in southern Eritrea.
The realm developedirrigationschemes, usedplows, grewmillet, and madeirontools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the fifth century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. This lasted until the rise of one of these polities during the first century, theKingdom of Aksum, which was able to reunite the area.
TheKingdom of Aksum(or Axum) was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia.It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the proto-AksumiteIron Ageperiod around the fourth century BC to achieve prominence by the first century AD.
According to the medievalLiber Axumae(Book of Aksum), Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush.The capital was later moved toAxumin northern Ethiopia. The kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the fourth century.
The Aksumites erected a number of largestelae, which served a religious purpose in pre-Christiantimes. One of these granite columns, theObelisk of Aksum, is the largest such structure in the world, standing at 90 feet (27 metres).UnderEzana(fl.320–360), Aksum later adopted Christianity.
Christianity was the firstworld religionto be adopted in modern Eritrea and the oldest monastery in the country,Debre Sina, was built in the fourth century. It is one of the oldest monasteries in Africa and the world.Debre Libanos, the second oldest monastery, was said to have been founded in the late fifth or early sixth century. Originally located in the village of Ham, it was moved to an inaccessible location on the edge of a cliff below the Ham plateau. Its church contains the Golden Gospel, a metal-covered bible dating to the thirteenth century during which Debre Libanos was an important seat of religious power.
In the seventh century AD, earlyMuslimsfromMecca, at leastcompanionsof theIslamic prophetMuhammad, sought refuge fromQurayshipersecutionby travelling to the kingdom, a journey known inIslamic historyas theFirst Hijrah. They reportedly built thefirstAfricanmosque, that is theMosque of the Companionsin Massawa.
The kingdom is mentioned in thePeriplus of the Erythraean Seaas an important market place forivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world. At the time, Aksum was ruled byZoskales, who also governed the port ofAdulis.The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their ownAksumite currency.
Pre-colonial Eritrea had four distinct regions divided by geography that had limited contact with each other. TheAbyssinianTigrinya-speaking Christians controlled the highlands, the nomadicTigreandBeni Amerclans the western lowlands, the Arabic Muslims ofMassawaand Dahlak, and thepastoralistAfarstheDankaliaregion.
After the decline of Aksum, the Eritrean highlands fell under the domain of theChristianZagwe dynasty, and later under the sphere of influence of theEthiopian Empire.The area was first known asMa'ikele Bahri("between the seas/rivers", i.e. the land between theRed Seaand theMereb river), and later renamed the Medri Bahri ("Sea land" in Tigrinya).The region, ruled by a local governor called theBahr Negash, was first documented in an obscure land grant of the 11th-centuryZagwekingTatadim. He considered the unnamed Bahr Negash one of hisseyyumanor "appointed ones".Ethiopian EmperorZara Yaqobstrengthened imperial presence in the area by increasing the power of the Bahr Negash and placing him above other local chiefs, establishing a military colony of settlers fromShewa, and forcing the Muslims on the coast to pay tribute.
The first Westerner to document a visit to Eritrea was Portuguese explorerFrancisco Álvaresin 1520. He recounted his journey through the principality ruled by the Bahr Negus, highlighting three key cities, withDebarwaas the capital. He then detailed the border demarcation at theMereb Riverwith the province of Tigray and recounted the difficulties in transporting certain goods across the border. His books have the first description of the local powers ofTigrayand the Bahr Negus (lord of the lands by the sea)
The contemporary coast of Eritrea guaranteed the connection to the region of Tigray, where the Portuguese had a small colony, and to the interiorEthiopianallies of the Portuguese. Massawa was also the stage for the 1541 landing of troops byCristóvão da Gamain the military campaign that eventually defeated theAdal Sultanatein thebattle of Wayna Dagain 1543.
By 1557, theOttomanshad succeeded in occupying all of northeastern present-day Eritrea for the following two decades, an area that stretched from Massawa toSwakinin Sudan.The territory became an Ottoman governorate, known as theHabesh Eyalet, with a capital at Massawa. When the city became of secondary economic importance, the administrative capital moved across the Red Sea toJeddah.The Turks tried to occupy the highlands of Eritrea in 1559 but withdrew after they encountered Resistance, pushed back by the Bahri Negash and highland forces. In 1578 they tried to expand into the highlands with the help of Bahri Negash Yisehaq, who had switched alliances due to a power struggle. Ethiopian EmperorSarsa Dengelmade a punitive expedition against the Turks in 1588 in response to their raids in the northern provinces, and apparently by 1589 they were once again compelled to withdraw to the coast. The Ottomans were eventually driven out in the last quarter of the sixteenth century. However, they retained control over the seaboard until the establishment ofItalian Eritreain the late 1800s.
In 1734, theAfarleader Kedafu established theMudaito Dynastyin Ethiopia, which later also came to include the southern Denkel lowlands of Eritrea, thus incorporating the southern Denkel lowlands into theSultanate of Aussa.The northern coastline of Denkel was dominated by a number of smaller Afar sultanates, such as the Sultanate ofRahayta, the Sultanate ofBeyluland the Sultanate ofBidu.
The boundaries of present-day Eritrea were established during theScramble for Africa. On 15 November 1869, the ruling local chief sold lands surrounding the Bay ofAssabto the Italian missionaryGiuseppe Sapetoon behalf of theRubattino Shipping Company.The area served as acoaling stationalong theshipping lanesintroduced by the recently completedSuez Canal. In 1882, the Italian government formally took possession of theAssabcolony from its commercial owners and expanded their control to includeMassawaand most of the Eritrean coastal lowlands after the Egyptians withdrew from Eritrea in February 1885.
In the vacuum that followed the1889 deathofEmperorYohannes IV, Gen.Oreste Baratierioccupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment ofItalian Eritrea, a colony of theKingdom of Italy. In theTreaty of Wuchale(It.Uccialli) signed the same year,Menelik OIofShewa, a southern Ethiopian kingdom, recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals' lands ofBogos,Hamasien,Akkele Guzay, andSeraein exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition. His subsequent victory over rival kings and enthronement as EmperorMenelek II(r. 1889–1913) made the treaty formally binding upon the entire territory.
In 1888, the Italian administration launched its first development projects in the new colony. TheEritrean Railwaywas completed to Saati in 1888,and reachedAsmarain the highlands in 1911.TheAsmara–Massawa Cablewaywas the longest line in the world during its time but was later dismantled by the British in World War II. Besides major infrastructural projects, the colonial authorities invested significantly in the agricultural sector. They also oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa, and employed many Eritreans in public service, particularly in the police and public works departments.Thousands of Eritreans were concurrently enlisted in the army, serving during theItalo-Turkish Warin Libya as well as theFirstandSecondItalo-Abyssinian Wars.
Additionally, the Italian Eritrea administration opened many new factories that produced buttons, cooking oil, pasta, construction materials, packing meat, tobacco, hide, and other household commodities. In 1939, there were approximately 2,198 factories and most of the employees were Eritrean citizens. The establishment of industries also increased the number of Italians and Eritreans residing in the cities. The number of Italians in the territory increased from 4,600 to 75,000 in five years; and with the involvement of Eritreans in the industry, trade and fruit plantations were expanded across the nation, and some of the plantations were owned by Eritreans.
In 1922,Benito Mussolini's rise to power in Italy brought profound changes to the colonial government in Italian Eritrea. Afteril Ducedeclared the birth of theItalian Empirein May 1936, Italian Eritrea (enlarged with northern Ethiopia's regions) andItalian Somalilandwere merged with the just-conquered Ethiopia into the newItalian East Africa(Africa Orientale Italiana). ThisFascistperiod was characterized by imperial expansion in the name of a "new Roman Empire". Eritrea was chosen by the Italian government to be the industrial center of Italian East Africa.
After 1935,art decoarchitecture was widely employed in Asmara. The Italians designed more than 400 buildings in a construction boom that only halted with Italy's involvement inWorld War II. These included theFiat Tagliero BuildingandCinema Impero.In 2017, the city was declared aWorld Heritage Site, described byUNESCOas featuringeclectic and rationalist built forms, well-defined open spaces, and public and private buildings, including cinemas, shops, banks, religious structures, public and private offices, industrial facilities, and residences.)
Through the 1941Battle of Keren, the British expelled the Italians and took over the administration of the country.Economically, the decade of British administration saw a significant restructuring of the Eritrean economy. Until 1945, the British and Americans relied on Italian equipment and skilled labor for wartime needs and to support the Allies in the Middle East. This economic boom, fueled by substantial Italian involvement, lasted until the end of the war. However, shortly after the conflict concluded, the Eritrean economy faced a combination of recession and depression that severely impacted the local urban population. War factories that had employed thousands were shut down, and Italians began to be repatriated. Additionally, many small manufacturing plants established between 1936 and 1945 were forced to close due to intense competition from factories in Europe and the Middle East.
The British placed Eritrea under British military administration untilAllied forcescould determine its fate. In the absence of agreement amongst the Allies concerning the status of Eritrea, the British administration continued for the remainder of World War II and until 1950.  During the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious community lines and annexed partly to the British colony of Sudan and partly to Ethiopia. After the peace treaty with Italy was signed in 1947, theUnited Nationssent a Commission of Enquiry to decide the fate of the colony.
In the 1950s, the Ethiopian feudal administration under EmperorHaile Selassiesought to annex Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. He laid claim to both territories in a letter toFranklin D. Rooseveltat the Paris Peace Conference and the First Session of the United Nations.In the United Nations, the debate over the fate of the former Italian colonies continued. The British and Americans preferred to cede all of Eritrea except the Western province to the Ethiopians as a reward for their support duringWorld War II.The Independence Bloc of Eritrean parties consistently requested from the United Nations General Assembly that a referendum be held immediately to settle the Eritrean question of sovereignty.
The United Nations Commission of Enquiry arrived in Eritrea in early 1950 and after about six weeks returned to New York to submit its report. Two reports were presented. The minority report presented by Pakistan and Guatemala proposed that Eritrea be independent after a period of trusteeship. The majority report compiled by Burma, Norway, and the Union of South Africa called for Eritrea to be incorporated into Ethiopia.
Following the adoption ofU.N. Resolution 390A(V)in December 1950, Eritrea wasfederatedwith Ethiopia under the prompting of the United States.The resolution called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own new flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation.The federal government, which for all practical purposes was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation. The resolution ignored the wishes of Eritreans for independence but guaranteed the population democratic rights and a measure of autonomy.
In 1958, a group of Eritreans founded the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM). The organization mainly consisted of Eritrean students, professionals, and intellectuals. It engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial Ethiopian state.On 1 September 1961, theEritrean Liberation Front(ELF), under the leadership ofHamid Idris Awate, waged an armed struggle for independence. In 1962, EmperorHaile Selassieunilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament andannexedthe territory. The ensuingEritrean War of Independencewent on for 30 years against successive Ethiopian governments until 1991, when theEritrean People's Liberation Front(EPLF), a successor of theELF, defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea and helped a coalition ofEthiopian rebel forcestake control of the Ethiopian capitalAddis Ababa.
In the 1980s a non-government organization called the Eritrea Inter-Agency Consortium (EIAC) aided in the development projects for the Eritrean Liberation movement.
Following areferendum in Eritreasupervised by the United Nations (dubbed UNOVER) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993.The EPLF seized power, established a one-party state along nationalist lines and banned further political activity. As of 2020, there have been no elections.On 28 May 1993, Eritrea was admitted into theUnited Nationsas the 182nd member state.
Eritrea is located inEast Africa. It is bordered to the northeast and east by theRed Sea,Sudanto the west,Ethiopiato the south, andDjiboutito the southeast. Eritrea lies between latitudes 12° and 18°N, and longitudes 36° and 44°E.
The country is virtually bisected by a branch of theEast African Rift. Eritrea, at the southern end of the Red Sea, is the home of the fork in the rift. TheDahlak Archipelagoand its fishing grounds are situated off the sandy arid coastline.
Eritrea may be split into threeecoregions. A hot arid coastal plain extends along the coast. The coastal plain is narrow in the west and widens towards the east. These coastal lowlands are part of theDjibouti xeric shrublandsecoregion. The cooler, more fertilehighlandsreach up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) and are a northern extension of theEthiopian Highlands, I home tomontane grasslands and woodlands.Habitats here vary from thesub-tropical rainforestat Filfil Solomona to the precipitous cliffs andcanyonsof the southern highlands.Filfil receives over 1,100 mm of rainfall annually.There is a steep escarpment along the eastern side of the highlands, which is the western wall of the East African Rift. The western slope of the highlands is more gradual, descending to interior lowlands. Southwestern Eritrea is drained by theAtbara River, which flows northwestwards to join theNile. The northwestern slope of the highlands is drained by theBarka River, which flows northwards into Sudan to empty into the Red Sea.Western Eritrea is part of theSahelian Acacia savanna, which extends across Africa south of theSaharafrom Eritrea to Senegal.
TheAfar Triangleor Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of atriple junctionwhere three tectonic plates are pulling away from one another. The highest point of the country,Emba Soira, is located in the center of Eritrea, at 3,018 m (9,902 ft)above sea level. Eritrea has volcanic activity in the southeastern parts of the country. In 2011Nabro Volcanohad an eruption.
The main cities of the country are the capital city ofAsmaraand the port town ofAssebin the southeast, as well as the towns ofMassawato the east, the northern town ofKeren, and the central townMendefera.
Local variability in rainfall patterns and reduced precipitation are known to occur, which may precipitate soil erosion, floods, droughts,land degradation, and desertification.
Eritrea is part of a 14-nation constituency within theGlobal Environment Facility, which partners with international institutions, civil society organizations, and the private sector to address global environmental issues while supporting national sustainable development initiatives.
In 2006, Eritrea announced that it would become the first country in the world to turn its entire coast into an environmentally protected zone. The 1,347 km (837 mi) coastline, along with another 1,946 km (1,209 mi) of coast around its more than 350 islands, will come under governmental protection.
Based on temperature variations, Eritrea can be broadly divided into three major climate zones: thetemperate zone,subtropical climate zone, andtropical climate zone.
The climate of Eritrea is shaped by its diverse topographical features and its location within the tropics. The diversity of its landscape and topography in the highlands and lowlands of Eritrea results in a diversity of climate. The highlands have a temperate climate throughout the year. The climate of most lowland zones is arid and semiarid. The distribution of rainfall and vegetation types varies markedly throughout the country. Eritrean climate varies based on seasonal and altitudinal differences.
Due to its physical diversity, Eritrea is one of the few countries where one can experience "four seasons in a day".In the highlands (up to 3000m above sea level) the hottest month is usually May, with temperatures reaching 30 C, whereas winter occurs during December to February when temperatures can be as low as 10 C at night. The capital, Asmara, has a pleasant temperature all year round.
In the lowlands and the coastal areas, summer occurs from June to September, when temperatures can reach 40 C. Winter in the lowlands occurs from February to April, when temperatures are between 21 and 35 C.
A 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Eritrea to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences ofclimate changeare going to be high.
Eritrea has several species of mammals and a rich avifauna of 560 species of birds.
Eritrea is home to a large number of mammals; 126 species of mammals, 90 species of reptiles, and 19 species of amphibians have been recorded.Enforced regulations have helped in steadily increasing their numbers throughout Eritrea.Mammals commonly seen today include theAbyssinian hare,African wild cat,Black-backed jackal,African golden wolf,Genet,Ground squirrel,pale fox,Soemmerring's gazelle, andwarthog.Dorcas gazelleare common on the coastal plains and inGash-Barka.
Lionsare said to inhabit the mountains of the Gash-Barka Region.Dik-diksmay be found in many areas. The endangeredAfrican wild assmay be seen in Denakalia Region. Other local wildlife includebushbuck,duikers,greater kudu,Klipspringer,African leopards,oryx, andcrocodiles.Thespotted hyenais widespread and fairly common.
Historically, a small population ofAfrican bush elephantsroamed some parts of the country. Between 1955 and 2001 there were no reported sightings of elephant herds, however, and they were thought to have fallen victim to the war of independence. In December 2001, a herd of approximately 30, including 10 juveniles, was observed in the vicinity of theGash River. The elephants seemed to have formed asymbioticrelationship witholive baboons. The baboons use the water holes dug by the elephants and the elephants seem to be taking advantage of vocalizations made by baboons from the tree tops as an early warning system. It is estimated that there are approximately 100African bush elephantleft in Eritrea, the most northerly of the East African elephants.
The endangeredAfrican wild dog(Lycaon pictus) was previously found in Eritrea but is now deemed extirpated from the entire country.In Gash-Barka, snakes such assaw-scaled viperare common.Puff adderandred spitting cobraare widespread and may be found even in the highlands. In the coastal areas, common marine species includedolphin,dugong,whale shark,turtles,marlin,swordfish, andmanta ray.500 fish species, 5 marine turtles, 8 or more cetaceans, and the dugong have been recorded in the country.
Eritrea also harbours many species only found in Eritrea, these include various bugs, frogs, mammals, snakes, and plants.
Over 700 plants have been recorded in Eritrea, including marine plants and seagrass.In Eritrea 26% of is arable land.Eritrea has diverse habitats, including Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas, Shrublands, Deserts, Xeric Shrublands, Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests and Mangrove forests.
All of Eritrea's national parks are protected, which include Dahlak Marine National Park, Nakfa Wildlife Reserve, Gash-Setit Wildlife Refuge, Semenawi Bahri National Park, and Yob Wildlife Reserve.
ThePeople's Front for Democracy and Justice(PFDJ) is theonly legal partyin Eritrea.Other political groups are not allowed to organize, although the unimplementedConstitution of 1997provides for the existence ofmulti-party politics. The National Assembly has 150 seats. National elections have been periodically scheduled and cancelled; as of 2022, none have ever been held in the country.PresidentIsaias Afwerkihas been in office since independence in 1993.
In 1993, 75 representatives were elected to the National Assembly; the rest were appointed. As the report by the United Nations Human Rights Council explained: "No national elections have taken place since that time, and no presidential elections have ever taken place. Local or regional elections have not been held since 2003–2004. The National Assembly elected independent Eritrea's first president, Isaias Afwerki, in 1993. Following his election, Afwerki consolidated his control of the Eritrean government." President Isaias Afwerki has regularly expressed his disdain for what he refers to as "Western-style" democracy. In a 2008 interview withAl Jazeera, for example, the president stated that "Eritrea will wait three or four decades, maybe more, before it holds elections. Who knows?"According to 2023V-Dem Democracy indicesEritrea is 2nd lowest ranked worldwide and the lowest rankedelectoral democracy in Africa.
Given that the full implementation of the Joint Declaration of Peace and Friendship between Eritrea and Ethiopia is still incomplete, the Eritrean authorities still do not consider that the peace agreement is formally implemented. However, local elections were held for a time in Eritrea. The most recent round of local government elections were in 2010 and 2011.
Eritrea is divided into six administrativeregions. These areas are further divided into 58districts.
The regions of Eritrea are the primary geographical divisions through which the country is administered. Six in total, they include the Maekel/Central, Anseba, Gash-Barka, Debub/Southern, Northern Red Sea, and Southern Red Sea regions. At the time of independence in 1993, Eritrea was arranged into ten provinces. These provinces were similar to the nine provinces operating during the colonial period. In 1996, these were consolidated into six regions (zobas). The boundaries of these new regions are based onwater catchment basins.
Eritrea is a member of theUnited Nationsand theAfrican Union. It is anobserving memberof theArab League, alongside Brazil andVenezuela.The nation holds a seat on the United Nations Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions (ACABQ). Eritrea also holds memberships in theInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development,International Finance Corporation,International Criminal Police Organization(INTERPOL),Non-Aligned Movement,Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons,Permanent Court of Arbitration,Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa, and theWorld Customs Organization.
The Eritrean government previously withdrew its representative to the African Union to protest the AU's alleged lack of leadership in facilitating the implementation of a binding border decision demarcating the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia. Since January 2011, the Eritrean government has appointed an envoy, Tesfa-Alem Tekle, to the AU.
Its relations with Djibouti and Yemen are tense due to territorial disputes over theDoumeira IslandsandHanish Islands, respectively.
On 28 May 2019, the United States removed Eritrea from the "Counterterror Non-Cooperation List" which also includesIran,North Korea,Syria, andVenezuela.Moreover, Eritrea was visited two months earlier by a U.S. congressional delegation for the first time in 14 years.
Along withBelarus, Syria, and North Korea, Eritrea was one of only four countries not including Russia to vote against aUnited Nations General Assembly resolutioncondemning Russia's2022 invasion of Ukraine.
The undemarcated border with Ethiopia is the primary external issue currently facing Eritrea. Eritrea's relations with Ethiopia turned from that of cautious mutual tolerance, following the 30-year war for Eritrean independence, to a deadly rivalry that led to the outbreak of hostilities from May 1998 to June 2000 that claimed approximately 70,000 lives from both sides.The border conflict cost hundreds of millions of dollars.TheEritrean–Ethiopian Warfrom 1998 to 2000 involved a major border conflict, notably aroundBadmeandZalambessa, eventually resolved in 2018.
Disagreements following the war have resulted in stalemates punctuated by periods of elevated tension and renewed threats of war.The stalemate led the president of Eritrea to urge the UN to take action on Ethiopia with theEleven Letterspenned by the president to the United Nations Security Council. The situation has been further escalated by the continued efforts of the Eritrean and Ethiopian leaders in supporting the opposition in one another's countries.In 2011, Ethiopia accused Eritrea of planting bombs at anAfrican Unionsummit inAddis Ababa, which was later supported by a UN report. Eritrea denied the claims.
A peace treaty between both nations was signed on 9 July 2018.The next day, they signed a joint declaration that formally ended theEritrean–Ethiopian border conflict.
In 2020, Eritrean troops intervened inTigray Waron the side of the Ethiopian government.In April 2021, Eritrea confirmed its troops were fighting in Ethiopia.
TheEritrean Defence Forcesare the officialarmed forcesof the State of Eritrea. Eritrea's military is one of the largest in Africa.
Compulsory military service was instituted in 1995. Officially,conscripts, male and female, must serve for 18 months minimum, which includes six months of military training and 12 months during the regular school year to complete their last year of high school. Thus around 5% of Eritreans do military service at Sawa facilities, but also by doing projects such as road building as part of their service.
The National Service Proclamation of 1995 does not recognize the right to conscientious objection to military service. According to the 1957 Ethiopian penal code adopted by Eritrea during independence, failure to enlist in the military or refusal to perform military service are punishable with imprisonment terms of six months to five years and up to ten years, respectively.National service enlistment times may be extended during times of "national crisis"; since 1998, everyone under the age of 50 is enlisted in national service for an indefinite period until released, which may depend on the arbitrary decision of a commander. In a study of 200 escaped conscripts, the average service was 6.5 years, and some had served more than 12 years.
According to theNYU School of Law, the Legal Committee of the Ministry of Justice oversees the admission and requirements to practice law in Eritrea. Although the establishment of an independent bar association is not proscribed under Proclamation 88/96, among other domestic laws, there is no bar association. The community electorate in the local jurisdiction of the Community Court chooses the court judges. The Community Court's standing on women in the legal profession is unclear but elected women judges have reserved seats.
Eritrea is aone-party statein which national legislative elections have been repeatedly postponed.According toHuman Rights Watch, the government'shuman rightsrecord is considered among the worst in the world.Most countries have accused the Eritrean authorities ofarbitrary arrest and detentions, and of detaining an unknown number of people without charge for their political activism. Both male and femalesame-sex sexual activityare illegal in Eritrea.
A prominent group of fifteen Eritreans, called the G-15, including three cabinet members, were arrested in September 2001 after publishing an open letter to the government and President Isaias Afewerki calling for democratic dialogue. This group and thousands of others who were alleged to be affiliated with them are imprisoned without legal charges, hearing, trial, or judgment.
Since Eritrea conflicted with Ethiopia in 1998–2001, the nation's human rights record has been criticized by the United Nations.Human rights violations are allegedly often committed by the government or on behalf of the government.Freedom of speech,press,assembly, andassociationare limited. Those who practice "unregistered" religions, try to flee the nation, or escape military duty are arrested and put intoprison.By 2009, the number of political prisoners was in the range of 10,000–30,000, there was widespread and systematictortureandextrajudicial killings, with "anyone" for "any or no reason", including children eight years old, people more than 80 years old, and ill people, being liable to be arrested, and Eritrea was "one of the world's most totalitarian and human rights-abusing regimes".During the Eritrean independence struggle and 1998Eritrean-Ethiopian War, many atrocities were committed by the Ethiopian authorities against unarmed Eritrean civilians.
In June 2016, a 500-pageUnited Nations Human Rights Councilreport accused the Eritrean government of extrajudicial executions, torture, indefinitely prolonged national service (6.5 years on average), and forced labour, and it indicated that among state officials, sexual harassment, rape, and sexual servitude practices are widespread.Barbara Lochbihlerof theEuropean Parliament Subcommittee on Human Rightssaid the report detailed 'very serious human rights violations', and asserted that EU funding for development would not continue as at present without change in Eritrea.The Eritrean Foreign Ministry responded by describing the commission's report as being "wild allegations" that were "totally unfounded and devoid of all merit".Representatives of the United States and China disputed the report's language and accuracy.
All Eritreans aged between 18 and 40 years must complete a mandatory national service, which includes military service. This requirement was implemented after Eritrea gainedindependencefrom Ethiopia, as a means to protect Eritrea'ssovereignty, to instill national pride, and to create a disciplined populace.Eritrea's national service requires long, indefinite conscription (6.5 years on average), which some Eritreans leave the country to avoid.
In an attempt at reform, Eritrean government officials and NGO representatives in 2006 participated in many public meetings and dialogues. In these sessions, they answered questions as fundamental as, "What are human rights?", "Who determines what are human rights?", and "What should take precedence, human or communal rights?".
In 2007, the Eritrean government bannedfemale genital mutilation.In Regional Assemblies and religious circles, Eritreans themselves speak out continuously against the use of female circumcision. They cite health concerns and individual freedom as being of primary concern when they say this. Furthermore, they implore rural peoples to cast away this ancient cultural practice.
In 2009, a movement called Citizens for Democratic Rights in Eritrea was formed to create dialogue between the government and political opposition. The group consists of ordinary citizens and some people close to the government.Since the movement's creation, no significant effort has been made by the Eritrean government to improve its record on human rights.
In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Eritrea, signed a joint letter to theUNHRCdefending China's treatment ofUyghursand other Muslim minority groups in theXinjiangregion.Eritrea continued this support in 2020.
Eritrea claimsWestern mediastories of the country are decontextualized, sometimes fabricated, and almost always deployed to build a regime change narrative.It claims it's being targeted for not conforming to the West's agenda towards African countries,for instance by refusing to accept humanitarian foreign aid. Eritrea aspires to be self-reliant and has since 2005 rejected foreign aid because it sees aid as a hindrance to true economic development. In 2006 alone, Eritrea walked away from US$200 million in foreign aid. The same year it also refused a US$100 million loan from the World Bank.
Besides accusing theWestof deliberate demonization through smear-campaigns, it also sees itself targeted by sanctions and western supported war against Eritrea through the Ethiopian groupTPLF.It also accuses the west of luring Eritreans abroad by purposely granting many Eritreans political asylum.
In its 2023 Press Freedom Index,Reporters Without Bordersranked the media environment in Eritrea at 174.According to theBBC, "Eritrea is the only African country to have no privately owned news media",and Reporters Without Borders said of the public media, "[They] do nothing but relay the regime's belligerent and ultra-nationalist discourse... Not a single [foreign correspondent] now lives in Asmara."The state-owned news agency censors news about external events.Independent media have been banned since 2001.The Eritrean authorities had reportedly imprisoned the fourth highest number of journalists after Turkey, China, andEgypt.
The 2024Edelstam Prizewas awarded to journalistDawit Isaak, whom Eritrean authorities have imprisoned since 2001 without legal process.
In 2020, the IMF estimated Eritrea's GDP at $2.1 billion, or $6.4 billion on a PPP basis.Between 2016 and 2019 Eritrea had a GDP growth between 7,6 %-10,2 %, down from the peak at 30,9% in 2014. In 2023 the GDP growth is expected to be 2,8%, a decrease due to factors such as the Ukraine and Russia war impacting the global economy and the effects of COVID-19 on value chains. However, the country's economy is expecting a steady growth in coming years.
Mining and agriculture in 2021 account for 20% of the GDP. As of 2020,remittancesfrom abroad were estimated to account for 12% of gross domestic product.
Mining accounts for about 20% of GDP in 2021.In 2013, the pickup in growth had been attributed to the commencement of full operations in the gold and silverBisha Mineby Canadian Nevsun Resources (now ChineseZijin Mining), the production of cement from the cement factory inMassawa,and investment in Eritrea'scopper,zinc, andColluli potash miningoperations by Australianand Chinesemining companies.
Since independence, Eritrea has constructed 187 dams, each with a capacity of over 50,000 m3 and the biggest ones with a capacity of 350 million m3 in size. These have been built to combat drought, for agriculture, fishing, and energy purposes. In addition, 600 micro-dams have been built.
Annual consumption of petroleum in 2001 was estimated at 370,000 tons. Eritrea has no domestic petroleum production; the Eritrean Petroleum Corporation conducts purchases through international competitive tender. According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, opportunities exist for both on- and offshore oil and natural gas exploration; however, these prospects have yet to come to fruition. The use ofwind energy,solar power,hydropowerhas slightly increased, due to the growth of solar power manufacturing companies in the country. The Eritrean government has expressed interest in developing alternative energy sources, including geothermal, solar, and wind power.
Tourism made up 2% ofEritrea's economyup to 1997. After 1998, revenue from the industry fell to one-quarter of 1997 levels. In 2006, it made up less than 1% of the country's GDP.
Eritrea is a member ofWorld Tourism Organizationwhich calculated that the country's international tourism receipts in 2002 were US$73 million.Sources from 2015 state that most tourists are members of the Eritrean diaspora. Overall visitors have steadily increased in recent years and annual visitors were 142,000 as of 2016.
Tourism in Eritrea has seen increased attention in later years. For instance, in 2019, the country was added toNational Geographic's Cool List. Highlighted areas included the capital, Asmara, known for its art deco architecture; theDahlak Islands; and the country's wilderness areas.Lonely Planetalso lists the capital Asmara, the Dahlak Islands, the city of Massawa and archeological sites as top attractions.
The nation's flag carrier,Eritrean Airlines, had no scheduled service as of July 2023. International visitors rely on alternatives such asEthiopian AirlinesandTurkish Airlines, to get to the country.
The government has started a twenty-year tourism development plan entitled "the 2020 Eritrea Tourism Development Plan" to develop the country's tourist industry, aiming to enhance the rich cultural and natural resources of the country. The country is a participant in many tourism trade fairs to promote the tourism of the country.
Transport in Eritrea includes highways, airports, railways, and seaports, in addition to various forms of public and private vehicular, maritime, and aerial transportation.
The Eritrean highway system is named according to the road classification. The three levels of classification are primary (P), secondary (S), and tertiary (T). The lowest level road is tertiary and serves local interests. Typically, the tertiary ones are improved earth roads that occasionally are paved. During the wet seasons, these roads typically become impassable.
The next higher-level road is a secondary road and typically is a single-layered asphalt road that connects district capitals and those to the regional capitals. Roads that are considered primary roads are those that are fully constructed of asphalt (throughout their entire length) and in general, they carry traffic between all the major cities and towns in Eritrea.
As of 1999, there is a total of 317 kilometres of950 mm(3 ft1+3⁄8in) (narrow gauge) rail line in Eritrea. TheEritrean Railwaywas built between 1887 and 1932.Badly damaged duringWorld War IIand in later fighting, it was closed section by section, with the final closure coming in 1978.After independence, a rebuilding effort commenced, and the first rebuilt section was reopened in 2003. As of 2009, the section fromMassawatoAsmarawas fully rebuilt and available for service.
Rehabilitation of the remainder and the rolling stock has occurred in recent years. Current service is very limited due to the extreme age of most of the railway equipment and its limited availability. Further rebuilding is planned. The railway linking Agordat and Asmara with the port of Massawa had been inoperative since 1978 except for an approximately 5-kilometre stretch that was reopened in Massawa in 1994. A railway formerly ran from Massawa to Bishia via Asmara and is under reconstruction.
Even during the war, Eritrea developed itstransportation infrastructureby asphalting new roads, improving its ports, and repairing war-damaged roads and bridges as a part of theWefri Warsay Yika'aloprogram. The most significant of these projects was the construction of a coastal highway of more than 500 km connectingMassawawithAsseb, as well as the rehabilitation of theEritrean Railway. The rail line has been restored between the port of Massawa and the capital Asmara, although services are sporadic. Steam locomotives are sometimes used for groups of enthusiasts.
Sources disagree as to the current population of Eritrea, with some proposing numbers as low as 3.5 millionand others as high as 6.4 million.Eritrea has never conducted an official government census.The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2020 was 41.1%, 54.3% were between 15 and 65 years of age, while 4.5% were 65 or older.
In 2015, there was a major outflow of emigrants from Eritrea.The Guardianattributed the emigration to Eritrea being "a totalitarian state where most citizens fear arrest at any moment and dare not speak to their neighbours, gather in groups or linger long outside their homes", with a major factor being the conditions and long durations ofconscription in the Eritrean Army.At the end of 2018, theUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR) estimated that about 507,300 Eritreans were refugees who had fled Eritrea.
There are nine recognized ethnic groups according to the government of Eritrea.An independent census has yet to be conducted, but theTigrinya peoplemake up approximately 55% andTigre peoplemake up approximately 30% of the population. A majority of the remaining ethnic groups belong toAfroasiatic-speaking communities of theCushiticbranch, such as theSaho,Hedareb,Afar, andBilen. There are also severalNiloticethnic groups, who are represented in Eritrea by theKunamaandNara. Each ethnicity speaks a different native tongue but, typically, many of the minorities speak more than one language.
TheArabicRashaidapeople represent approximately 2% of Eritrea's population.They reside in the northern coastal lowlands of Eritrea as well as the eastern coasts of Sudan. The Rashaida first came to Eritrea in the nineteenth century from theHejazregion.
In addition, there existItalian Eritrean(concentrated in Asmara) and Ethiopian Tigrayan communities. Neither is generally given citizenship unless through marriage or, more rarely, by having it conferred upon them by the state. In 1941, Eritrea had approximately 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians.Most Italians left after Eritrea became independent from Italy. It is estimated that as many as 100,000 Eritreans are of Italian descent.
Eritrea is a multilingual country. The nation has no official language, as the Constitution establishes the "equality of all Eritrean languages".Eritrea has nine national languages which areTigrinya,Tigre,Afar,Beja,Bilen,Kunama,Nara, andSaho. Tigrinya,Arabic, andEnglishserve as de facto working languages, with English used in university education and many technical fields. WhileItalian, the former colonial language, holds no government-recognised status in Eritrea, it is spoken by a few monolinguals and in commerce at times, and Asmara had theScuola Italiana di Asmara, an Italian government-operated school that was shut down in 2020.Also, native Eritreans assimilated the language of the Italian Eritreans and spoke a version of Italian mixed with many Tigrinya words:Eritrean Italian.
Most of the languages spoken in Eritrea belong to theEthiopian Semiticbranch of theAfroasiaticfamily.Other Afroasiatic languages belonging to theCushiticbranch are also widely spoken in the country.The latter includeAfar,Beja,Blin, andSaho. In addition,Nilo-Saharan languages(KunamaandNara) are spoken as anative languageby the Nilotic Kunama and Nara ethnic groups that live in the western and northwestern part of the country.
Smaller groups speak other Afroasiatic languages, such as the newly recognizedDahlikand Arabic (theHejaziandHadhramidialectsspoken by the Rashaida and Hadhrami, respectively).
The two main religions followed in Eritrea areChristianityandIslam. However, the number of adherents of each faith is subject to debate. According to thePew Research Center, as of 2020, 62.9% of the population of Eritrea adhered toChristianity, 36.6% followedIslam, and 0.4% practicedtraditional African religions. The remainder observedJudaism,Hinduism,Buddhism, other faiths (<0.1% each), or were religiously unaffiliated (0.1%).The U.S. Department of State estimated that as of 2019, 49% of the population of Eritrea adhered to Christianity, 49% followed Islam, and 2% observed other religions, including traditional faiths and animism.The World Religion Database reports that in 2020, 47% of the population were Christian and 51% were Muslim.Christianityis the oldest world religion practiced in the country, and the first Christian monasteryDebre Sinawas built during the fourth century.
Since May 2002, the government of Eritrea has officially recognized theEritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church(Oriental Orthodox),Sunni Islam, theEritrean Catholic Church(aMetropolitanatesui juris), and theEvangelicalLutheranchurch. All other faiths and denominations are required to undergo a registration process.Among other things, the government registration system requires religious groups to submit personal information on their membership to be allowed toworship.
The Eritrean government is against what it deems as "reformed" or "radical" versions of its established religions. Therefore, alleged radical forms of Islam and Christianity,Jehovah's Witnesses, and numerous otherProtestantEvangelical denominations are not registered and cannot worship freely. Three named Jehovah's Witnesses are known to have been imprisoned since 1994 along with 51 others.The government treats Jehovah's Witnesses especially harshly, denying them ration cards and work permits.Jehovah's Witnesses were stripped of their citizenship and basic civil rights by presidential decree in October 1994.
In its 2017 religious freedom report, the U.S. State Department named Eritrea a Country of Particular Concern (CPC).
Eritrea has achieved significant improvements in health care and is one of the few countries to be on target to meet itsMillennium Development Goals(MDG) for health, in particular child health.Life expectancyat birth increased from 39.1 years in 1960 to 66.44 years in 2020;maternal andchild mortalityrates dropped dramatically and the health infrastructure expanded.
TheWorld Health Organisation(WHO) in 2008 found average life expectancy to be slightly less than 63 years, a number that has increased to 66.44 in 2020.Immunisationand child nutrition have been tackled by working closely with schools in a multi-sectoral approach; the number of children vaccinated against measles almost doubled in seven years, from 40.7% to 78.5% and the prevalence of underweight children decreased by 12% from 1995 to 2002 (severe underweight prevalence by 28%).The National Malaria Protection Unit of the Ministry of Health registered reductions in malarial mortality by as much as 85% and in the number of cases by 92% between 1998 and 2006.The Eritrean government has bannedfemale genital mutilation(FGM), saying the practice was painful and put women at risk of life-threatening health problems.
However, Eritrea still faces many challenges. Although the number of physicians increased from only 0.2 in 1993 to 0.5 in 2004 per 1000 people, this is still very low.Malariaandtuberculosisare common.HIV prevalence for ages 15 to 49 years exceeds 2%.The fertility rate is about 4.1 births per woman.Maternal mortality dropped by more than half from 1995 to 2002 but is still high.Similarly, the number of births attended by skilled health personnel doubled from 1995 to 2002 but still is only 28.3%.A major cause of death in newborns is severeinfection.Per-capita expenditure on health is low.
There are five levels of education in Eritrea:pre-primary,primary,middle,secondary, andpost-secondary. There are nearly 1,270,000 students in the primary, middle, and secondary levels of education.There are approximately 824 schools,two universities, (theUniversity of Asmaraand theEritrea Institute of Technology), and several smaller colleges and technical schools.
The Eritrea Institute of Technology "EIT" is a technological institute located near the town of Himbrti,Mai NefhioutsideAsmara. The institute has three colleges: Science, Engineering and Technology, and Education. The institute began with approximately 5,500 students during the 2003–2004academic year. The EIT was opened after the University of Asmara was reorganized. According to the Ministry of Education, the institution was established, as one of many efforts to achieve equal distribution of higher learning in areas outside the capital city, Asmara. Accordingly, several similar colleges have also been established in other parts of the country. The Eritrea Institute of Technology is the main local institute of higher studies in science, engineering, and education. The University of Asmara is the oldest in the country and was opened in 1958.It is currently not in operation.
As of 2018, the overall adult literacy rate in Eritrea is 76.6% (84.4% for men and 68.9% for women). For youth 15–24, the overall literacy rate is 93.3% (93.8% for men and 92.7% for women).
Education in Eritrea is officially compulsory for children aged 6 to 13 years.Statistics vary at the elementary level, suggesting that 70% to 90% of school-aged children attend primary school; approximately 61% attend secondary school. Student-teacher ratios are high: 45:1 at the elementary level and 54:1 at the secondary level. Class sizes average 63 and 97 students per classroom at the elementary and secondary school levels, respectively.
Barriers to education in Eritrea include traditionaltaboos, school fees (for registration and materials), and theopportunity costsoflow-incomehouseholds.
The culture of Eritrea is the collective cultural heritage of the various populations native to Eritrea and its rich cultural heritage inherited through its long history. Modern-day Eritrea is also defined by the struggle for independence.The nation has a rich oral and literary tradition which ranges across all nine ethnic groups, it includes a wealth of poetry and proverbs, songs and chants, folk tales, histories and legends. It also has a rich history in theatre and painting, often colourful and depicting a reflection of the Eritrean people's history.
One of the most recognizable parts of Eritrean culture is thecoffee ceremony.Coffee (Ge'ezቡንbūn) is offered when visiting friends, during festivities, or as a daily staple of life. During the coffee ceremony, some traditions are upheld. The coffee is served in three rounds: the first brew or round is calledawelin Tigrinya (meaning "first"), the second round is calledkalaay(meaning "second"), and the third round is calledbereka(meaning "to be blessed").
Traditional Eritrean attire is quite varied among the ethnic groups of Eritrea. In the larger cities, most people dress in Western casual dress such as jeans and shirts. In offices, both men and women often dress in suits. A common traditional clothing forChristianTigrinya highlanders consists of bright white gowns calledzuriasfor the women, and a white shirt accompanied by white pants for the men. In Muslim communities in the Eritrean lowlands, the women traditionally dress in brightly colored clothes. Besides convergent culinary tastes, Eritreans share an appreciation for similar music and lyrics, jewelry and fragrances, and tapestry and fabrics, as many other populations in the region.
On 8 July 2017, the entire capital city ofAsmarawas listed as aUNESCO World Heritage Site, with the inscription taking place during the 41st World Heritage Committee Session.
The city has thousands ofArt Deco,futurist,modernist, andrationalistbuildings, constructed during the period ofItalian Eritrea.Asmara, a small town in the nineteenth century, started to grow quickly during 1889.The city also became a place "to experiment with radical new designs", mainly futuristic and art deco inspired.Even though city planners, architects, and engineers were largely European, members of the indigenous population were largely used as construction workers, Asmarinos still identify with their city's legacy.
The city shows off most early twentieth-century architectural styles. Some buildings areneo-Romanesque, such as theChurch of Our Lady of the Rosary. Art Deco influences are found throughout the city. Essences ofCubismmay be found on the Africa Pension Building and on a small collection of buildings. TheFiat Tagliero Buildingshows almost the height of futurism, just as it was becoming fashionable in Italy. In recent times, some buildings have been functionally built, which sometimes can spoil the atmosphere of some cities, but they fit into Asmara as it is such a modern city.
Many buildings such as opera houses, hotels, and cinemas were built during this period. Some notable buildings include theArt DecoCinema Impero(opened in 1937 and considered by the experts one of the world's finest examples of Art Déco style building), Cubist Africa Pension, eclectic Eritrean OrthodoxEnda Mariam CathedralandAsmara Opera, thefuturistFiat Tagliero Building, theneoclassicalAsmara city hall.
A statement from UNESCO read:
Eritrea's ethnic groups each have their distinct styles of music and accompanying dances. Amongst the Tigrinya, the best-known traditional musical genre is the guaila. Traditional instruments of Eritrean folk music include the strungkrar,kebero,begena,masenqo, and the wata (a distant/rudimentary cousin of the violin). A popular Eritrean artist is the Tigrinya singerHelen Meles, who is noted for her powerful voice and wide singing range.Other prominent local musicians include the Kunama singerDehab Faytinga,Ruth Abraha,Bereket Mengisteab, the lateYemane Ghebremichaeland the lateAbraham Afewerki.
Dancing plays an important role in Eritrean society. The nine ethnic groups have many exuberant dances.The dancing styles differ amongst the ethnic groups; for instance the Bilen and Tigre ethnicities shake their shoulders, while standing rotating in a circle towards the end of the dance, which differs from the Tigrinya who first dance rotating anti-clockwise but later change it to fast-paced dancing and at the same breaking the circular rotation. Kunama ethnic group have dances that include rituals, these are - "tuka (rites of passage); indoda (prayers for rain); sangga-nena (peaceful mediation); and shatta (showcases of endurance and courage)". They are often fast-paced in their character and are accompanied by drum beats.
There are no current independent mass media in Eritrea. All media outlets in Eritrea are from the Ministry of Information, a government source.
A typical traditional Eritrean dish consists ofinjeraaccompanied by a spicy stew, which frequently includes beef, chicken, lamb, or fish.Overall, Eritrean cuisine strongly resembles that of neighboringEthiopia,though Eritrean cooking tends to feature moreseafoodthan Ethiopian cuisine on account of their coastal location.Eritrean dishes are also frequently "lighter" in texture than Ethiopian meals. They likewise tend to employ lessseasoned butterand spices and moretomatoes, as in thetsebhidorhodelicacy.
Additionally, owing to its colonial history, cuisine in Eritrea features moreItalianinfluences than are present in Ethiopian cooking, including morepastaand greater use ofcurrypowders andcumin. Italian Eritrean cuisine started to be practiced during the colonial times of theKingdom of Italy, when a large number of Italians moved to Eritrea. They brought the use of pasta toItalian Eritrea, and it is one of the main foods eaten in present-dayAsmara. AnItalian Eritrean cuisineemerged, and common dishes are "pasta al sugo e berbere" (pasta with tomato sauce and berbere spice),lasagna, and "cotoletta alla Milanese" (veal Milanese).
In addition to coffee, local alcoholic beverages are enjoyed. These includesowa, a bitter drink made from fermented barley, andmies, a fermented honey wine.
Footballandcyclingare the most popular sports in Eritrea.
Cycling has a long tradition in Eritrea and was first introduced during the colonial period.TheTour of Eritrea, a multi-stage cycling event, was first held in 1946 and most recently held in 2017.
The national cycling teams of both men and women are ranked first on the African continent,with the men's team ranked 16th in the world as of February 2023.The Eritrean national cycling team has experienced much success, winning the African Continental cycling championship several years in a row. In 2013, the women's team won the gold medal in theAfrican Continental Cycling Championshipsfor the first time, and for the second time in 2015 and third time in 2019. The men's team has won gold eight times in the last 12 years in the African Continental cycling championships, between 2010 and 2022.
Eritrea has more than 500 elite cyclist riders (men and women) within the country.More than 20 Eritrean riders from Eritrea have signed professional contracts to international cycling teamsDaniel TeklehaimanotandMerhawi Kudusbecame the first cyclists from Africa to compete in theTour de Francein the2015 editionof the race.In 2022,Biniam Girmaywas the first African rider to win both theGent-Wevelgemand a stage in one of theGrand ToursduringGiro d'Italia. MultipleAfrican female championMosana Debesaybecame the first African female cyclist to compete in an Olympics, representing Eritrea in theTokyo 2020 Summer OlympicsAll these accomplishments from Eritrean cyclists, have helped push Eritrea into the top of global rankings in cycling.
Eritrean athletes have also seen increasing success in the international arena in other sports.Zersenay Tadese, an Eritrean athlete, formerly held the world record in the half marathon.Ghirmay Ghebreslassiebecame the first Eritrean to win a gold medal at aWorld Championships in Athleticsfor his country when he took themarathonat the2015 World Championships.Eritrea made its Winter Olympic debut 25 February 2018, when they competed at the2018 Winter OlympicsinPyeongchang,South Korea2018. Eritrea's team was represented by their flagbearerShannon-Ogbnai Abedawho competed asalpine skier.
Neither the Eritrean nationalmenorwomen'snational football team currently have a world ranking despite being a member association of global governing bodyFIFA.
Hailemariam, Chefena; Kroon, Sjaak; Walters, Joel (1999). "Multilingualism and Nation Building: Language and Education in Eritrea" (PDF). Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 20 (6): 474–493. doi:10.1080/01434639908666385. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2012-04-04.
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