Somali people

TheSomali people(Somali:Soomaalida,Osmanya:𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒆𐒖,Wadaad:صومالِدَ‎) are aCushiticethnic groupnative to theHorn of Africawho share a common ancestry, culture and history. TheEast CushiticSomali languageis the shared mother tongue of ethnic Somalis, which is part of theCushiticbranch of theAfroasiaticlanguage family. They are predominantlySunni Muslim.Forming one of the largest ethnic groups on the continent, they cover one of the most expansive landmasses by a single ethnic group inAfrica.
According to most scholars, the ancientLand of Puntand its native inhabitants formed part of the ethnogenesis of the Somali people. This ancient historical kingdom is where a great portion of their cultural traditions and ancestry are said to derive from.Somalis share many historical and cultural traits with otherCushitic peoples, especially withLowland East Cushiticpeople, specifically theAfarand theSaho.
Ethnic Somalis are principally concentrated inSomalia(around 17.6 million),Somaliland(5.7 million),Ethiopia(4.6 million),Kenya(2.8 million),andDjibouti(534,000).
Somali diasporasare also found in parts of theMiddle East,North America,Western Europe,African Great Lakesregion,Southern AfricaandOceania.
Samaale, the oldest common ancestor of severalSomali clans, is generally regarded as the source of theethnonymSomali. One other theory is that the name is held to be derived from the wordssooandmaal, which together mean "go and milk". This interpretation differs depending on region with northern Somalis imply it refers to go and milk in regards to the camel's milk,southern Somalis use the transliteration "sa'maal" which refers to cow's milk.This is a reference to the ubiquitouspastoralismof the Somali people.Another plausibleetymologyproposes that the termSomaliis derived from theArabicword for "wealthy" (zāwamāl), again referring to Somali riches in livestock.
Alternatively, the ethnonymSomaliis believed to have been derived from the Automoli (Asmach), a group of warriors fromancient Egyptdescribed byHerodotus.Asmachis thought to have been their Egyptian name, withAutomolibeing a Greek derivative of the Hebrew wordS’mali(meaning "on the left hand side").
ATang Chinesedocument from the 9th century CE referred to the northern Somalia coast — which was then part of a broader region inNortheast Africaknown asBarbaria, in reference to the area'sBarbars(Cushitic) inhabitants— asPo-pa-li.
The first clear written reference of the sobriquetSomalidates back to the early 15th century CE during the reign of Ethiopian EmperorYeshaq Iwho had one of his court officials compose ahymncelebrating a military victory over theSultanate of Ifat.Simurwas also an ancientHararialias for the Somali people.
Somalis overwhelmingly prefer the demonymSomaliover the incorrectSomaliansince the former is an endonym, while the latter is an exonym with double suffixes.Thehypernymof the termSomalifrom a geopolitical sense isHornerand from an ethnic sense, it isCushite.
The origin of the Somali people which was previously theorized to have been from SouthernEthiopiasince 1000 BC or from theArabian Peninsulain the eleventh century has now been overturned by newer archeological and linguistic studies which puts the original homeland of the Somali people inSomalilandregion, which concludes that the Somalis are the indigenous inhabitants of theHorn of Africafor the last 7000 years.
Ancientrock paintings, which date back 5000 years (estimated), have been found inSomalilandregion. These engravings depict early life in the territory.The most famous of these is theLaas Geel complex. It contains some of the earliest knownrock arton theAfrican continentand features many elaborate pastoralist sketches of animal and human figures. In other places, such as theDhambalinregion, a depiction of a man on a horse is postulated as being one of the earliest known examples of a mounted huntsman.
Inscriptionshave been found beneath many of the rock paintings, butarchaeologistshave so far been unable to decipher this form of ancient writing.During theStone Age, theDoianandHargeisancultures flourished here with their respectiveindustriesand factories.
The oldest evidence of burial customs in theHorn of Africacomes fromcemeteriesin Somalia dating back to4th millennium BC.Thestone implementsfrom theJalelositein Somalia are said to be the most important link in evidence of the universality inpalaeolithictimes between theEastand theWest.
Inantiquity, the ancestors of the Somali people were an important link in the Horn of Africa connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers offrankincense,myrrhandspices, items which were considered valuable luxuries by theAncient Egyptians,Phoenicians,MycenaeansandBabylonians.
According to most scholars, the ancientLand of Puntand its native inhabitants formed part of theethnogenesisof the Somali people.The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations withPharaonic Egyptduring the times ofPharaohSahureandQueenHatshepsut. Thepyramidal structures, temples and ancient houses ofdressed stonelittered around Somalia may  date from this period.
Inclassical antiquity, theMacrobians, who may have been ancestral to the Automoli or ancient Somalis, established a powerful tribal kingdom that ruled large parts of modernSomalia. They were reputed for their longevity and wealth, and were said to be the "tallest and handsomest of all men".The Macrobians were warrior herders and seafarers. According to Herodotus' account, theAchaemenid emperorCambyses II, uponhis conquest of Egypt in 525 BCE, sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based on his stature and beauty, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to draw it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire.The Macrobians were a regional power reputed for their advanced architecture andgoldwealth, which was so plentiful that they shackled their prisoners in golden chains.
Several ancient city-states, such asOpone,Essina,Sarapion,Nikon,Malao,DamoandMosylonnearCape Guardafui, which competed with theSabaeans,ParthiansandAxumitesfor the wealthyIndo-Greco-Romantrade, also flourished in Somalia.
Islamwas introduced to the area early on by the first Muslims ofMeccafleeing prosecution during the firstHejirawithMasjid al-Qiblataynbeing built before theQiblahfaced towardsMecca. The town ofZeila's two-mihrabMasjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is one of the oldestmosquesin Africa.
Consequently the Somalis were some of the earliest non-Arabs that converted to Islam.The peaceful conversion of the Somali population bySomali Muslim scholarsin the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into IslamicMogadishu,Berbera,Zeila,Barawa,HafunandMerca, which were part of the Berberi civilization. The city of Mogadishu came to be known as theCity of Islam,and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries.
TheSultanate of Ifat, led by theWalashma dynastywith its capital atZeila, ruled over parts of what is now eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somaliland. The historianal-Umarirecords that Ifat was situated near theRed Seacoast, and states its size as 15 days travel by 20 days travel. Its army numbered 15,000 horsemen and 20,000 foot soldiers. Al-Umari also credits Ifat with seven "mother cities": Belqulzar, Kuljura, Shimi,Shewa, Adal, Jamme and Laboo.
In theMiddle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade including theAjuran Sultanate, which excelled inhydraulic engineeringandfortressbuilding,theAdal Sultanate, whose generalAhmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi(Ahmed Gurey) was the firstcommanderto use cannon warfare on the continent during Adal's conquest of theEthiopian Empire,and theSultanate of the Geledi, whose military dominance forced governors of theOmani empirenorth of the city ofLamuto pay tribute to the Somali SultanAhmed Yusuf.TheHarla, an early group who inhabited parts of Somalia, Tchertcher and other areas in the Horn, also erected varioustumuli.These masons are believed to have been ancestral to the Somalis ("proto-Somali").
Berberawas the most important port in theHorn of Africabetween the 18th–19th centuries.For centuries,Berberahad extensive trade relations with several historic ports in theArabian Peninsula. Additionally, the Somali and Ethiopian interiors were very dependent onBerberafor trade, where most of the goods for export arrived from. During the 1833 trading season, the port town swelled to over 70,000 people, and upwards of 6,000 camels laden with goods arrived from the interior within a single day.Berberawas the main marketplace in the entire Somali seaboard for various goods procured from the interior, such aslivestock,coffee,frankincense,myrrh,acacia gum,saffron,feathers,ghee,hide (skin),goldandivory.Historically, the port ofBerberawas controlled indigenously between themercantileReer Ahmed Nur and Reer Yunis Nuh sub-clans of theHabar Awal.
According to a trade journal published in 1856,Berberawas described as “the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf.”:
As a tributary ofMocha, which in turn was part of the Ottoman possessions in Western Arabia, the port ofZeilahad seen several men placed as governors over the years. The Ottomans based in Yemen held nominal authority of Zeila whenSharmarke Ali Saleh, who was a successful and ambitious Somali merchant, purchased the rights of the town from the Ottoman governor of Mocha and Hodeida.
However, the previous governor was not eager to relinquish his control of Zeila. Hence in 1841, Sharmarke chartered two dhows (ships) along with fifty SomaliMatchlockmen and twocannonsto targetZeilaand depose its Arab Governor, Syed Mohammed Al Barr. Sharmarke initially directed his cannons at the city walls which frightened Al Barr's followers and caused them to abandon their posts and succeeded Al Barr as the ruler of Zeila. Sharmarke's governorship had an instant effect on the city, as he maneuvered to monopolize as much of the regional trade as possible, with his sights set as far asHararand theOgaden.
In 1845, Sharmarke deployed a few matchlock men to wrest control of neighboring Berbera from that town's then feuding Somali local authorities.Sharmarke's influence was not limited to the Somali coast as he had allies and influence in the interior of the Somali country, the Danakil coast and even further afield in Abyssinia. Among his allies were the Kings of Shewa. When there was tension between the Amir of HararAbu Bakr II ibn `Abd al-Munanand Sharmarke, as a result of the Amir arresting one of his agents inHarar, Sharmarke persuaded the son ofSahle Selassie, ruler ofShewa, to imprison on his behalf about 300 citizens of Harar then resident in Shewa, for a length of two years.
In the late 19th century, after theBerlin Conferencehad ended, theScramble for Africareached the Horn of Africa. Increasing foreign influence in the region culminated in the creation of the firstDarawiish,an armed resistance movement calling for the independence from the European powers.TheDervishhad their leaders,Mohammed Abdullah Hassan,Haji SudiandSultan Nur Ahmed Aman, who sought a state in the Nugaaland began one of the longest African conflicts in modern history.
The news of the incident that sparked the 21 year longDervish rebellion, according to the consul-generalJames Hayes Sadler, was spread or as he claimed was concocted by Sultan Nur of theHabr Yunis. The incident in question was that of a group of Somali children who were converted to Christianity and adopted by the French Catholic Mission atBerberain 1899. Whether Sultan Nur experienced the incident first hand or whether he was told of it is not clear but what is known is that he propagated the incident in June 1899, precipitating the religious rebellion of the Dervishes.
TheDervish movementsuccessfully stymiedBritish forcesfour times and forced them to retreat to the coastal region.As a result of its successes against the British, the Dervish movement received support from theOttomansandGermans. TheOttoman governmentalso named HassanEmirof the Somali nation,and theGerman governmentpromised to officially recognise any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.
After a quarter of a century of military successes against the British, the Dervishes were finally defeated by Britain in 1920 in part due to the successful deployment of the newly-formedRoyal Air Forceby theBritish government.
Majeerteen Sultanatewas founded in the early-1700s and rose to prominence in the following century, under the reign of the resourceful Boqor (King)Osman Mahamuud.His Kingdom controlled Bari Karkaar, Nugaaal, and also central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Majeerteen Sultanate maintained a robust trading network, entered into treaties with foreign powers, and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front.
The Majeerteen Sultanate was nearly dismantled in the late-1800s by a power struggle between BoqorOsman Mahamuudand his ambitious cousin,Yusuf Ali Kenadidwho founded theSultanate of Hobyoin 1878. Initially Kenadid wanted to seize control of the neighbouring Sultanate. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavour, and was eventually forced into exile inYemen.Both sultanates maintained written records of their activities, which still exist.
In late 1888, Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid entered into a treaty with the Italian government, making his Sultanate of Hobyo an Italianprotectorateknown asItalian Somalia. His rival Boqor Osman Mahamuud was to sign a similar agreement vis-a-vis his own Majeerteen Sultanate the following year. In signing the agreements, both rulers also hoped to exploit the rival objectives of the European imperial powers so as to more effectively assure the continued independence of their territories.The Italians, for their part, were interested in the territories mainly because of itsportsspecifically Port ofBosasowhich could grant them access to the strategically importantSuez Canaland theGulf of Aden.The terms of each treaty specified that Italy was to steer clear of any interference in the Sultanates' respective administrations.In return for Italian arms and an annual subsidy, the Sultans conceded to a minimum of oversight and economic concessions.The Italians also agreed to dispatch a few ambassadors to promote both the Sultanates' and their own interests.The new protectorates were thereafter managed byVincenzo Filonardithrough achartered company.An Anglo-Italian border protocol was later signed on 5 May 1894, followed by an agreement in 1906 between Cavalier Pestalozza and General Swaine acknowledging thatBaranfell under the Majeerteen Sultanate's administration.With the gradual extension into northern Somalia of Italian colonial rule, both Kingdoms were eventually annexed in the early 20th century.However, unlike the southern territories, the northern sultanates were not subject to direct rule due to the earlier treaties they had signed with the Italians.
FollowingWorld War II, Britain retained control of bothBritish SomalilandandItalian Somaliaasprotectorates. In 1945, during thePotsdam Conference, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somalia, but only under close supervision and on the condition — first proposed by theSomali Youth League(SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) and the Somali National League (SNL) — that Somalia achieve independence within ten years.British Somalia remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960.
To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the newSomali Republicstate, did not have. Although in the 1950s British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated. The disparity between the two territories in economic development and political experience would cause serious difficulties when it came time to integrate the two parts.
Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from theirWorld War II alliesand to the dismay of the Somalis,the British ceded official control of theHaud(an important Somali grazing area that was brought under British protection via treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and theOgadento Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian EmperorMenelikin exchange for his help against raids by Somali clans.Britain included the proviso that the Somali nomads would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over them.This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to purchase back the Somali lands it had turned over.The British government also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabitedNorthern Frontier District(NFD) to theKenyan governmentdespite an informalplebiscitedemonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed Somali Republic.
Areferendumwas held in neighboringDjibouti(then known asFrench Somaliland) in 1958, on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizableAfarethnic group and resident Europeans.There was also widespreadvote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls.The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed byMahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.Djibouti finally gained its independence fromFrancein 1977, andHassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as Djibouti's first president (1977–1991).
British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as theState of Somaliland, and theTrust Territory of Somalia(the former Italian Somalia) followed suit five days later.On 1 July 1960, the two territories united to form theSomali Republic, albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain.A government was formed byAbdullahi Issa MohamudandMuhammad Haji Ibrahim Egalother members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, withHaji Bashir Ismail Yusufas president of the Somali National Assembly,Aden Abdullah Osman Daaras thepresidentof the Somali Republic andAbdirashid Ali ShermarkeasPrime Minister(later to become president from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a popularreferendum, the people of Somalia ratified a newconstitution, which was first drafted in 1960. The constitution was rejected by the people of Somaliland.In 1967,Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egalbecame Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke.
On 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town ofLas Anod, Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by one of his own bodyguards. His assassination was quickly followed by a militarycoup d'étaton 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which theSomali Armyseized power without encountering armed opposition — essentially a bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major GeneralMohamed Siad Barre, who at the time commanded the army.
Alongside Barre, theSupreme Revolutionary Council(SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Lieutenant ColonelSalaad Gabeyre Kediyeand Chief of PoliceJama Korshel. The SRC subsequently renamed the country theSomali Democratic Republic,dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.
The revolutionary army established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and ruralliteracycampaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with theArab world, eventually joining theArab League(AL) in 1974.That same year, Barre also served as chairman of theOrganization of African Unity(OAU), the predecessor of theAfrican Union(AU).
Somali clans (Somali:Qabaa'ilka Soomaalida;Arabic:القبائل الصومالية,romanized:al-Qabā'il al-Sūmāliyya) are patrilineal kinship groups based on agnatic descent of the Somali people.Tradition and folklore connects the origin of the Somali population by language and way of life, and societal organisations, by customs, and by a feeling of belonging to a broader family among individuals from theArabian Peninsula.
The Somali people are mainly divided among five patrilineal clans, theHawiye,Darod,Rahanweyn,Dir, andIsaaq.The average person is able to trace his/her ancestry generations back. Somali clans in contemporary times have an established official structure in the country's political system, acknowledged by a mathematical formula for equitably distributing  seats between the clans in theFederal Parliament of Somalia.Minor Somali clans includeAsharaf.
The clan represents the highest degree of familial affiliation. It holds territorial properties and is typically overseen by a Sultan. Clans possess ancestral lands, which are associated with the migratory patterns of the Somali people throughout their historical narrative. Each clan is administered by its designated leader and supported by its council of elders, with land being communally owned and overseen.Various Somali clans utilisedistinct titlesfor their leaders, includingSultan,Emir,Imam,Ughaz,andGaraad.Clan leadership may behereditary, or leaders may beelectedby the council of elders composed of representatives from diverse clan lineages. The leaders of these clans fulfill both religious and political responsibilities.
Certain clans are traditionally classed as noble clans, referring to theirpastorallifestyle in contrast to the sedentary "Sab".The noble clans are theDir,Darod,HawiyeandIsaaq.Out of these clans,DirandHawiyeare regarded as descended fromSamaale, the likely source of the ethnonymSomali (soomaali).TheHawiyeare descended fromSamaalethrough his grandsonAhmed Bin Abdulrahman Bin Uthman.DarodandIsaaqhave separate agnatic traditions of descent fromAbdirahman bin Isma'il al-JabartiandIshaaq bin Ahmedrespectively.Sheikh Darod and Sheikh Ishaaq are asserted to have married women from the Dir clan, thus establishingmatrilateralties with the Samaale main stem."Sab" is a term used to refer to theagriculturalclans such as theRahanweyn, in contrast to "Samaale".
The traditions of descent from noble elite forefathers who settled on the littoral are debated, although they are based on early Arab documents and folklore.Thetombsof the founders ofDarod,Dir,Isaaqas well as theAbgaalsubclan ofHawiyeare all located in northern Somalia. Tradition holds this area as the ancestral homeland of the Somali people.
According to data from thePew Research Center, the creed breakdown of Muslims in the Somali-majorityDjiboutiis as follows: 77% adhere toSunnism, 8% arenon-denominational Muslim, 2% areShiaand 13% declined to answer, and a further report inclusive ofSomali Regionstipulating 2% adherence to a minority sect (e.g.Ibadism,Quranismetc.).In the neighboring country ofSomalia, 99.8% of the population isMuslimaccording to the Pew Research Center.The majority belong to theSunnibranch ofIslamand theShafi'ischool ofIslamic jurisprudence.Sufism, themysticalsect of Islam, is also well established, with many localjama'a(zawiya) or congregations of the varioustariiqaor Sufi orders.The constitution of Somalia likewise defines Islam as the state religion of the Federal Republic of Somalia, and Islamicsharialaw as the basic source for national legislation. It also stipulates that no law that is inconsistent with the basic tenets of Shari'a can be enacted.There are some nobles who believe with great pride that they are of Arabian ancestry, and trace their stirp to Muhammad's lineage ofQurayshand those of his companions. Although they do not consider themselves culturally Arabs, except for the shared religion, their presumed noble Arabian origins genealogically unite them.The purpose behind claiming genealogical traditions of descent from theArabian Peninsulais used to reinforce one's lineage and the various associated patriarchs with the spread of Islam.
TheSomali language(Af-Soomaali) is a member of theCushiticbranch of theAfroasiaticfamily. Its nearest relatives are theAfarandSaholanguages.Somali is the best documented of the Cushitic languageswith academic studies dating from the 19th century.
The exact number of speakers of Somali is unknown. One source estimates that there are 16.3 million speakers of Somali within Somalia and 25.8 million speakers globally.Recent estimates had approximately 24 million speakers of Somali, spread inGreater Somaliaof which around 17 million resided in Somalia.The Somali language is spoken by ethnic Somalis in Greater Somalia and the Somali diaspora.
Somali dialects are divided into three main groups:Northern,Benadiri, andMaay. Northern Somali (or Northern-Central Somali) forms the basis for Standard Somali. Benadiri (also known as Coastal Somali) is spoken on theBenadircoast fromAdaleto south ofMerca, including Mogadishu, as well as in the immediate hinterland. The coastal dialects have additionalphonemeswhich do not exist in Standard Somali. Maay is principally spoken by the Digil and Mirifle (Rahanweyn) clans in the southwestern areas of Somalia.
A number ofwriting systemshave been used over the years for transcribing the Somali language. Of these, theSomali Latin alphabetis the most widely used, and has been the official writing script in Somalia since the government of former President of Somalia Mohamed Siad Barre formally introduced it in October 1972.The script was developed by the Somali linguistShire Jama Ahmedspecifically for the Somali language. It uses all letters of theLatin alphabet, exceptp,v, andz. Besides the Latin script, other orthographies that have been used for centuries for writing Somali include the long-establishedArabic scriptandWadaad writing. Other writing systems developed in the twentieth century including theOsmanya,BoramaandKaddarescripts, which were invented byOsman Yusuf Kenadid,Abdurahman Sheikh NuurandHussein Sheikh Ahmed Kaddarerespectively.
In addition to Somali,Arabic, which is also an Afro-Asiatic tongue, is an official national language in Somalia and Djibouti. Many Somalis speak it due to millennia-old ties with theArab world, the far-reaching influence of the Arabic media, and religious education.Somalia and Djibouti are also both members of theArab League.
Theculture of Somaliais an amalgamation of traditions developed independently and through interaction with neighbouring and far away civilizations, such as other parts ofNortheast Africa, theArabian Peninsula,IndiaandSoutheast Asia.
The textile-making communities in Somalia are a continuation of an ancient textile industry, as is the culture ofwood carving,potteryandmonumental architecturethat dominates Somali interiors and landscapes. The cultural diffusion ofSomali commercial enterprisecan be detected in itscuisine, which contains Southeast Asian influences. Due to the Somali people's passionate love for and facility with poetry, Somalia has often been referred to by scholars as a "Nation of Poets" and a "Nation ofBards" including, among others, theCanadiannovelistMargaret Laurence.
According to Canadian novelist and scholarMargaret Laurence, who originally coined the term "Nation of Poets" to describe the Somali Peninsular, the Eidagale clan were viewed as "the recognized experts in the composition of poetry" by their fellow Somali contemporaries:
All of these traditions, includingfestivals,martial arts, dress, literature, sport and games such asShax, have immensely contributed to the enrichment of Somali heritage.
Somalis have a rich musical heritage centered on traditional Somalifolklore. Most Somali songs arepentatonic. That is, they only use fivepitchesperoctavein contrast to aheptatonic(seven note) scale, such as themajor scale. At first listen, Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as Ethiopia,SudanorArabia, but it is ultimately recognizable by its own unique tunes and styles. Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration betweenlyricists(midho), songwriters (laxan) and singers (Codkaor "voice").
Growing out of the Somali people's rich storytelling tradition, the first few feature-length Somali films and cinematic festivals emerged in the early 1960s, immediately after independence. Following the creation of theSomali Film Agency(SFA) regulatory body in 1975, the local film scene began to expand rapidly.Hassan Sheikh Muminwas considered one of the most prolific and early playwrights and composers in Somali literature. Mumin's most important work isShabeel Naagood(1965), a piece that touches on the social position of women, urbanization, changing traditional practices, and the importance of education during the early pre-independence period. Although the issues it describes were later to some degree redressed, the work remains a mainstay of Somali literature.Shabeel Naagoodwas translated into English in 1974 under the titleLeopard Among the Womenby theSomali StudiespioneerBogumił W. Andrzejewski, who also wrote the introduction. Mumin composed both the play itself and the music used in it.The piece is regularly featured in various school curricula, includingOxford University, which first published the English translation under itspress house.
During one decisive passage in the play, the heroine, Shallaayo, laments that she has been tricked into a false marriage by the Leopard in the title:
The Somali filmmakerAli Said Hassanconcurrently served as the SFA's representative in Rome. In the 1970s and early 1980s, popular musicals known asriwaayadowere the main driving force behind the Somali movie industry.
Epic and period films as well as international co-productions followed suit, facilitated by the proliferation ofvideotechnology and national television networks.Said Salah Ahmedduring this period directed his first feature film,The Somali Darwish(The Somalia Dervishes), devoted to the Dervish movement. In the 1990s and 2000s, a new wave of more entertainment-oriented movies emerged. Referred to asSomaliwood, this upstart, youth-based cinematic movement has energized the Somali film industry and in the process introduced innovative storylines, marketing strategies and production techniques. The young directorsAbdisalam Aatoof Olol Films and Abdi Malik Isak are at the forefront of this quiet revolution.
Somalis have old visual art traditions, which include pottery, jewelry and wood carving. In the medieval period, affluent urbanites commissioned local wood and marble carvers to work on their interiors and houses. Intricate patterns also adorn themihrabsandpillarsof ancient Somalimosques. Artistic carving was considered the province of men, whereas the textile industry was mainly that of women. Among the nomads, carving, especiallywoodwork, was widespread and could be found on the most basic objects such asspoons,combsandbowls. It also included more complex structures, such as the portable nomadic house, theaqal. In the last several decades, traditional carving of windows, doors and furniture have given way to workshops employing electrical machinery, which deliver the same results in a far shorter time period.
Additionally,hennais an important part of Somali culture. It is worn by Somali women on their hands, arms, feet and neck during wedding ceremonies,Eid,Ramadanand other festive occasions. Somali henna designs are similar to those in the Arabian peninsula, often featuring flower motifs and triangular shapes. The palm is also frequently decorated with a dot of henna and the fingertips are dipped in the dye. Henna parties are usually held before the wedding takes place. Somali women have likewise traditionally appliedkohl(kuul) to their eyes.Usage of theeye cosmeticin the Horn region is believed to date to the ancient Land of Punt.
Footballis the most popular sport amongst Somalis. Important competitions are theSomalia LeagueandSomalia Cup. TheOcean Starsis Somalia's multi-ethnic national team.
Basketballis also played in the country. TheFIBA Africa Championship 1981was hosted in Mogadishu from 15 to 23 December December 1981, during which thenational basketball teamreceived the bronze medal.The squad also takes part in thebasketball eventat thePan Arab Games. Other team sports include badminton, baseball, table tennis, and volleyball.
In themartial arts,Faisal Jeylani Aweysand Mohamed Deq Abdulle also took home a silver medal and fourth place, respectively, at the 2013 Open WorldTaekwondoChallenge Cup inTongeren. The Somali National Olympic committee has devised a special support program to ensure continued success in future tournaments.Additionally, Mohamed Jama has won both world and European titles inK1andThai Boxing.Other individuals sports include judo, boxing, athletics, weight lifting, swimming, rowing, fencing and wrestling.Somalis have also produced many world-class distance runners like their neighboring countries withMo Farah,Abdi BileandMohammed Ahmed.
Traditionally, Somali men typically wear themacawis. It is asarongthat is worn around the waist. On their heads, they often wrap a colorfulturbanor wear thekoofiyad, which is an embroideredfez.
Due to Somalia's proximity to and close ties with the Arabian Peninsula, many Somali men also wear thejellabiya(jellabiyadorqamiis). The costume is a long white garment common in theArab world.
During regular, day-to-day activities, Somali women usually wear theguntiino. It is a long stretch of cloth tied over the shoulder and draped around the waist. The cloth is usually made out ofalandi, which is a textile that is common in the Horn region and some parts of North Africa. The garment can be worn in different styles. It can also be made with other fabrics, including white cloth with gold borders. For more formal settings, such as at weddings or religious celebrations like Eid, women wear thedirac. It is a long, light, diaphanousvoiledress made ofsilk,chiffon,taffetaor saree fabric. The gown is worn over a full-lengthhalf-slipand a brassiere. Known as thegorgorad, the underskirt is made out of silk and serves as a key part of the overall outfit. The dirac is usually sparkly and very colorful, the most popular styles being those with gilded borders or threads.
Married women tend to wearheadscarvesreferred to asshaash. They also often cover their upper body with ashawl, which is known asgarbasaar. Unmarried or young women, however, do not always cover their heads. Traditional Arabian garb, such as thejilbabandabaya, is also commonly worn.
Additionally, Somali women have a long tradition of wearinggold jewelry, particularlybangles. During weddings, the bride is frequently adorned in gold. Many Somali women by tradition also wear goldnecklacesand anklets.
TheSomali flagis anethnic flagconceived to represent ethnic Somalis.It was created in 1954 by the Somali scholarMohammed Awale Liban, after he had been selected by the labour trade union of theTrust Territory of Somaliato come up with a design.Uponindependencein 1960, the flag was adopted as the national flag of the nascentSomali Republic.The five-pointedStar of Unityin the flag's center represents the Somali ethnic group inhabiting the five territories inGreater Somalia.
The Somali staple food comes from their livestock, however, theSomali cuisinevaries from region to region and consists of afusionof diverse culinary influences. In the interiors, the cuisine is mainly local with usage of Ethiopian grains and vegetables while in the coast it is the product of Somalia's richtradition of trade and commerce. Despite the variety, there remains one thing that unites the various regional cuisines: all food is servedhalal. There are therefore no pork dishes, alcohol is not served, nothing that died on its own is eaten, and no blood is incorporated.
Breakfast (quraac) is an important meal for Somalis, some drinktea(shahie or shaah)otherscoffee(qaxwa or bun). The tea is often in the form ofhaleeb shai(Yemeni milk tea) in the north. The main dish is typically a pancake-like bread (canjeeroorcanjeelo) similar to Ethiopianinjera, but smaller and thinner, ormuufoa Somali flat bread traditionally baked on a clay oven. These breads might also be eaten with a stew (maraqe) or soup at lunch or dinner.Qadoor lunch is often elaborate, varieties ofbariis(rice), the most popular beingbasmatiare usually served as the main dish alongside goat, lamb or fish. Spices likecumin,cardamom,cloves,cinnamon, andgarden sageare used to aromatize these different rice delicacies. Somalis eat dinner as late as 9 pm. DuringRamadan, supper is often served afterTarawihprayers; sometimes as late as 11 pm.
In some regions, xalwo(halva) is a popular confection eaten during festive occasions such as Eid celebrations or wedding receptions. It is made from sugar,corn starch, cardamom powder,nutmegpowder andghee.Peanutsare also sometimes added to enhance texture and flavor.After meals, homes are traditionally perfumed usingfrankincense(lubaan) orincense(cuunsi), which is prepared inside an incense burner referred to as adabqaad.
Somali scholars have for centuries produced many notable examples ofIslamic literatureranging from poetry toHadith. With the adoption of theLatin alphabetin 1972 to transcribe the Somali language, numerous contemporary Somali authors have also released novels, some of which have gone on to receive worldwide acclaim. Most of the early Somali literature is in theArabic scriptandWadaadwriting.This usage was limited to Somali clerics and their associates, as sheikhs preferred to write in the liturgical Arabic language. Various such historical manuscripts in Somali nonetheless exist, which mainly consist of Islamic poems (qasidas), recitations and chants.Among these texts are the Somali poems by Sheikh Uways and Sheikh Ismaaciil Faarah. The rest of the existing historical literature in Somali principally consists of translations of documents from Arabic.
Somalis for centuries have practiced a form ofcustomary law, which they callxeer. Xeer is apolycentriclegal system where there is no monopolistic agent that determines what the law should be or how it should be interpreted. It is assumed to have developed exclusively in the Horn of Africa since approximately the 7th century. Given the dearth ofloan wordsfrom foreign languages within the xeer's nomenclature, the customary law appears to have evolved in situ.
Xeer is defined by a few fundamental tenets that are immutable and which closely approximate the principle ofjus cogensininternational law: payment ofblood money(locally referred to asdiyaormag), assuring good inter-clanrelations by treating women justly, negotiating with "peace emissaries" in good faith, and sparing the lives of socially protected groups (e.g. children, women, the pious, poets and guests), family obligations such as the payment ofdowry, and sanctions for eloping, rules pertaining to the management of resources such as the use of pasture land, water, and other natural resources, providing financial support to married female relatives and newlyweds, donating livestock and other assets to the poor.The Xeer legal system also requires a certain amount ofspecializationof different functions within the legal framework. Thus, one can findodayal(judges),xeer boggeyaal(jurists),guurtiyaal(detectives),garxajiyaal(attorneys),murkhaatiyal(witnesses) andwaranle(police officers) to enforce the law.
Somali architectureis a rich and diverse tradition ofengineeringanddesigning. It involves multiple different construction types, such asstone cities,castles,citadels,fortresses,mosques,mausoleums,towers,tombs,tumuli,cairns,megaliths,menhirs,stelae,dolmens,stone circles,monuments,temples,enclosures,cisterns,aqueducts, andlighthouses. Spanning the ancient, medieval and early modern periods in Greater Somalia, it also includes the fusion of Somali architecture with Western designs incontemporarytimes.
In ancient Somalia,pyramidicalstructures known in Somali astaalowere a popular burial style. Hundreds of thesedry stonemonuments are found around the country today. Houses were built ofdressed stonesimilar to the ones inAncient Egypt.There are also examples ofcourtyardsand large stone walls enclosing settlements, such as theWargaade Wall.
The peaceful introduction ofIslamin the early medieval era of Somalia's history broughtIslamic architectural influencesfromArabiaandPersia. This had the effect of stimulating a shift in construction from drystone and other related materials tocoral stone,sundried bricks, and the widespread use oflimestonein Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designs, such as mosques, were built on the ruins of older structures. This practice would continue over and over again throughout the following centuries.
Somalis constitute the largest ethnic group in Somalia, at approximately 85% of the nation's inhabitants.They also comprise around 60% of the inhabitants in Djibouti.
Civil strifein the early 1990s greatly increased the size of theSomali diaspora, as many of the best educated Somalis left for the Middle East, Europe and North America.InCanada, the cities ofToronto,Ottawa,Calgary,Edmonton,Montreal,Vancouver,WinnipegandHamiltonall harbor Somali populations. Statistics Canada's 2006 census ranks people of Somali descent as the 69th largest ethnic group in Canada.
UN migration estimates of the international migrant stock 2015 suggest that 1,998,764 people from Somalia were living abroad.
While the distribution of Somalis per country in Europe is hard to measure because the Somali community on the continent has grown so quickly in recent years, the Office for National Statistics estimates that 98,000 people born in Somalia were living in theUnited Kingdomin 2016.This includessecondary migrationof Somalis frommainland Europeancountries.Somalis in Britain are largely concentrated in the cities of London,Sheffield,Bristol,Birmingham,Cardiff,Liverpool,Manchester,Leeds, andLeicester, with London alone accounting for roughly 78% of Britain's Somali population in 2001.There are also significant Somali communities incontinental Europesuch asSweden: 63,853 (2016);Norway: 42,217 (2016);theNetherlands: 39,465 (2016);Germany: 33,900 (2016);Denmark: 21,050 (2016);andFinland: 20,007 (2017).
In theUnited States,Minneapolis,Saint Paul,Columbus, San Diego,Seattle, Washington, D.C.,Houston,Atlanta, Los Angeles,Portland,Denver,Nashville,Green Bay,Lewiston,Portland, MaineandCedar Rapidshave the largest Somali populations.
An estimated 20,000 Somalis emigrated to the U.S. state ofMinnesotain the mid-1990s and theTwin Cities(MinneapolisandSaint Paul) now have the highest population of Somalis in North America.The city of Minneapolis hosts hundreds of Somali-owned and operated businesses offering a variety of products, including leather shoes, jewelry and other fashion items,halalmeat, andhawalaor money transfer services. Community-basedvideo rental storeslikewise carry the latest Somali films and music.The number of Somalis has especially surged in theCedar-Riversidearea of Minneapolis.
There is a sizable Somali community in the United Arab Emirates. Somali-owned businesses line the streets ofDeira, theDubaicity centre,with onlyIraniansexporting more products from the city at large.Internet cafés,hotels,coffee shops,restaurantsandimport-export businessesare all testimony to the Somalis' entrepreneurial spirit. Star African Air is also one of three Somali-ownedairlineswhich are based in Dubai.
Besides their traditional areas of inhabitation inGreater Somalia, a Somali community mainly consisting of entrepreneurs, academics, and students also exists inEgypt.In addition, there is an historical Somali community in the generalSudanarea. Primarily concentrated in the north andKhartoum, the expatriate community mainly consists of students as well as some businesspeople.More recently, Somali entrepreneurs have established themselves inKenya, investing over $1.5 billion in the Somali enclave ofEastleighalone.InSouth Africa, Somali businesspeople also provide most of the retail trade in informal settlements around theWestern Capeprovince.
According toY chromosomestudies by Sanchez et al. (2005), Cruciani et al. (2004, 2007), the Somalis are paternally closely related to otherAfro-Asiatic-speaking groups inNortheast Africa.Besides comprising the majority of the Y-DNA in Somalis, theE1b1b(formerly E3b)haplogroupalso makes up a significant proportion of the paternal DNA ofEthiopians,Sudanese,Egyptians,Berbers,North African Arabs, as well as manyMediterraneanpopulations.Sanchez et al. (2005) observed the E-M78 subclade ofE1b1b1ain about 70.6% of their Somali male samples.According to Cruciani et al. (2007), the presence of this subhaplogroup in the Horn region may represent the traces of an ancient migration fromEgypt/Libya.
After haplogroup E1b1b, the second most frequently occurringY-DNA haplogroupamong Somalis is the West Asianhaplogroup T(M184).The clade is observed in more than 10% of Somali males generally,with a peak frequency amongst the SomaliDirclan members inDjibouti(100%)and Somalis inDire Dawa(82.4%), a city with a majorityDirpopulation.Haplogroup T, like haplogroup E1b1b, is also typically found among other populations of Northeast Africa, theMaghreb, theNear Eastand the Mediterranean.
In Somalis, theTime to Most Recent Common Ancestor(TMRCA) was estimated to be 4000–5000 years (2,500BCE) for the haplogroupE-M78cluster γ and 2100–2200 years (150 BCE) for SomaliT-M184bearers.
Deep subclade E-Y18629 is commonly found in Somalis and has a formation date of 3,700 YBP (years before present) and a TMRCA of 3,300 YBP.
According tomtDNAstudies a significant proportion of the maternal lineages of Somali females consists of sub saharan clades such as L haplogroup,  the most frequently observed haplogroups are L0a1d, L2a1h and L3f.
M1 haplogroupis also observed at a rate of over.This mitochondrial clade is common among Ethiopians and North Africans, particularlyEgyptiansandAlgerians.M1 is believed to have originated in Asia,where its parent M clade represents the majority of mtDNA lineages.
Research shows that Somalis have a mixture of a type of native African ancestry unique and autochthonous to theHorn of Africa, as well as ancestry originating from a non-African back-migration. According to anautosomal DNAstudy by Hodgson et al. (2014), the Afro-Asiatic languages were likely spread across Africa and the Near East by an ancestral population(s) carrying a newly identified non-African genetic component, which the researchers dub as the "Ethio-Somali". This component today is most common among Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations in the Horn of Africa. It reaches a frequency peak among ethnic Somalis, representing the majority of their ancestry. The Ethio-Somali component is most closely related to the Maghrebi non-African genetic component, and is believed to have diverged from all other non-African ancestries at least 23,000 years ago. On this basis, the researchers suggest that the original Ethio-Somali carrying population(s) probably arrived in the pre-agricultural period from the Near East, having crossed over into northeastern Africa via theSinai Peninsula. The population then likely split into two branches, with one group heading westward toward theMaghreband the other moving south into the Horn.Ancient DNA analysis indicates that this foundational ancestry in the Horn region is akin to that of Neolithic farmers of the southernLevant.
Furthermore, according to Hodgson et al. both the African ancestry (Ethiopic) and the non-African ancestry (Ethio-Somali) in Cushitic speaking populations is significantly differentiated from all neighboring African and non-African ancestries today. The overall genetic ancestry of Cushitic and Semitic speaking populations in the Horn of Africa represents ancestries not found outside of HOA populations. The researchers state:
Moreover, Hodgson et al. (2014) elaborates further:
Molinaro, Ludovica et al in 2019 characterized the Non-African ancestry in Ethiopian Somalis as being derived from Anatolia Neolithic groups (similar to Tunisian Jews).Ali, A.A., Aalto, M., Jonasson, J. et al. (2020) using principal component analysis showed that approximately 60% of Somali ancestry is East African and 40% Western Eurasian.
The scholarly term for research concerning Somalis and Greater Somalia isSomali studies. It consists of several disciplines such asanthropology,sociology,linguistics,historiographyandarchaeology. The field draws from oldSomali chronicles, records and oral literature, in addition to written accounts and traditions about Somalis from explorers and geographers in the Horn of Africa and the Middle East. Since 1980, prominentSomalistscholars from around the world have also gathered annually to hold the International Congress of Somali Studies.