Operation Eagle Claw

Operation Eagle Claw(Persian: عملیات پنجه عقاب) was a failedoperationby theUnited States Armed Forcesordered by U.S. PresidentJimmy Carterto attempt the rescue of53 embassy staff held captiveat theEmbassy of the United States, Tehran, on 24 April 1980. The operation, one ofDelta Force's first,encountered many obstacles and failures and was subsequently aborted. Eight helicopters were sent to the first staging area calledDesert One, but only five arrived in operational condition.One had encountered hydraulic problems, another was caught in asand storm, and the third showed signs of a cracked rotor blade.  During the operational planning, it was decided that the mission would be aborted if fewer than six helicopters remained operational upon arrival at the Desert One site, despite only four being absolutely necessary.In a move that is still discussed in military circles, the field commanders advised President Carter to abort the mission, which he did.
As the U.S. forces prepared to withdraw fromDesert One,  one of the remaining helicopters crashed into a transport aircraft that contained both servicemen and jet fuel. The resulting fire destroyed both aircraft and killed eight servicemen.In the context of theIranian Revolution, Iran's new leader, AyatollahRuhollah Khomeini, stated that the mission had been stopped by an act of God ("angels of God") who had foiled the U.S. mission in order to protect Iran and its newIslamistgovernment. In turn, Carter blamed his loss in the1980 U.S. presidential electionmainly on his failure to secure the release of the hostages. The American hostages were released the day ofRonald Reagan'sinauguration.
On 4 November 1979, fifty-two American diplomats and citizens were taken hostage in the United States Embassy in Tehran, Iran, by a group of Iranian college students belonging to theMuslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line, avid supporters of theIranian Revolution.American PresidentJimmy Cartercalled the hostage-taking an act of "blackmail" and the hostages "victims of terrorism and anarchy".but in Iran it was widely seen as an act against the U.S. and its influence in Iran, including its perceived attempts to undermine the Iranian Revolution and its longstanding support of the Shah of Iran,Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was overthrown in 1979.
The crisis had reached a climax after diplomatic negotiations failed to secure the release of the hostages. Facing elections and with little to show from negotiations, the Carter government ordered the State Department to sever diplomatic relations with Iran on 7 April 1980.Cyrus Vance, theUnited States Secretary of State, had argued against a push byNational Security AdvisorZbigniew Brzezinskifor a military solution to the crisis.Vance left Washington on Thursday 10 April for a long weekend vacation in Florida.The following day, Friday 11 April, Brzezinski held a newly scheduled meeting of theNational Security Councilwhere he insisted that it was time to "lance the boil",and Carter said it was "time for us to bring our hostages home".During this Security Council meeting of 11 April Carter confirmed that he had authorized the mission.He also continued to entertain the planning for a concurrent punitive air-strike, but this was finally rejected on 23 April, one day before the start of the mission,which was code-namedOperation Eagle Claw.
Operation Eagle Clawoccurred amid a breakdown indiplomatic relationsbetween Iran and its western neighborIraq, including frequent border skirmishes, calls by Khomeini for IraqiShi'itesto revolt against the rulingBa'ath Party, and allegations of Iraqi support for Arab and Kurdish separatists in Iran. According to an 11 April 1980Central Intelligence Agency(CIA) analysis, "Evidence indicates that Iraq had probably planned to initiate a major military move against Iran with the aim of toppling the Khomeini regime" and had "sought to engage theKuwaitisto act as intermediary in obtaining United States approval and support for Iraqi military action against Iran". Carter, who wrote in his diary on 10 April that "The Iranian terrorists are making all kinds of crazy threats to kill the American hostages if they are invaded by Iraq—whom they identify as an American puppet," may have been influenced by such reports to approve a rescue mission prior to the outbreak of a possibleIran–Iraq War.
Planning for a possible rescue mission began on 6 November, two days after the hostages were taken.Army Major GeneralJames B. Vaughtwas appointed as Joint Task Force commander and was to be forward-based at Wadi Kena in Egypt, reporting directly to the President.  In turn, he had two field commanders: USAF Colonel James H. Kyle as the field commander for aviation and U.S. Army ColonelCharlie Beckwithas ground forces field commander.In planning the operation, some of the maps the US used were tourist maps.
The ambitious plan was to be based on the use of elements from four branches of the U.S. military: Army, Navy, Marines, and Air Force. The concept was based on an operation where helicopters andC-130aircraft, following different routes, would rendezvous on a salt flat (code-namedDesert One) 200 miles (320 km) southeast ofTehran. Here the helicopters would refuel from the C-130s and pick up the combat troops who had flown in on the C-130 transports. The helicopters would then transport the troops to a mountain location (Desert Two) closer to Tehran, from which the rescue raid would be launched into the city the following night.The operation was further to be supported by an in-country CIA team.On completion of the raid, hostages were to be taken to a captured Tehran airport from where they were to be flown to Egypt.
On 31 March, anticipating the need for military action, aU.S. Air Force Combat Controller, Major John T. Carney Jr., was flown in aTwin OttertoDesert Oneby covert CIA operatives Jim Rhyne and Claude "Bud" McBroom for a clandestine survey of the proposed landing areas for the helicopters and C-130s. Carney installed remotely operatedinfraredlights and anIR strobeto outline a landing pattern for the pilots.He also took soil samples to determine the load-bearing properties of the desert surface. At the time of the survey, the salt-flat floor was hard-packed sand, but in the ensuing three weeks an ankle-deep layer of powdery sand had been deposited by sandstorms.
The Tehran CIASpecial Activities Divisionin-country paramilitary team, led by retired U.S. Army Special Forces officerRichard J. Meadows, had two assignments: to obtain information about the hostages and the embassy groundsand to transport the rescue team fromDesert Twoto the embassy grounds in pre-staged vehicles.Desert Onewas in theSouth Khorasan Province, in theDasht-e Lutdesert nearTabas(33°04′23″N55°53′33″E﻿ / ﻿33.07306°N 55.89250°E﻿ /33.07306; 55.89250);Desert Twowas located 50 miles (80 km) short of Tehran at35°14′N52°09′E﻿ / ﻿35.233°N 52.150°E﻿ /35.233; 52.150.
The ground forces consisted of 93 Delta soldiers to assault the embassy and a 13-man special forces assault team from Detachment "A"Berlin Brigadeto assault the Ministry of Foreign Affairs where three further hostages were being held. A third group of 12Rangerswere to act as the roadblock team at theDesert Onelanding area. Rangers were also tasked with taking and holding the Manzariyeh Air Base near Tehran to be used to escape from Iran. In addition, the CIA had prepared an in-country team of 15 Iranian and AmericanPersian-speakers, most of whom would act as truck drivers.
The complex plan required that on the first night, three USAFEC-130s(Call signs:Republic 4,5, and6), carrying the logistical supplies, and threeMC-130E Combat Talons(Call signs:Dragon 1,2, and3), carrying Delta Force and Ranger troops (132 assault and security troops in total),would departMasirah, off the coast ofOman, forDesert One,a flight of over 1,000 miles (1600 km). They would be refueled by Air ForceKC-135tankers en route.Desert Onewould be secured by a protection force, and once secured, a refueling area would be established for the helicopters with approximately 6,000 US gallons (22,700 L) of jet fuel being made available from collapsible fuel bladders carried in the C-130s.
EightUnited States Navy(USN)RH-53D Sea Stallion(Call signs:Bluebeard 1 – 8)helicopters were positioned aboardUSSNimitz, 60 miles off the coast of Iran.The helicopters would fly 600 miles (970 km) toDesert One, refuel, load up the Delta Force and part of the Ranger teams, then fly 260 miles (420 km) further toDesert Two.As it would be close to morning, the helicopters and ground forces would hide during the day atDesert Two. The rescue operation would take place the second night.
First, CIA officers who were already inside Iran would bring trucks they had sourced toDesert Two. Together, the CIA officers and ground forces would then drive fromDesert Twointo Tehran. This team would assault the embassy and Foreign Affairs building, eliminate the guards, and rescue the hostages, with air support from Air ForceAC-130gunships flying fromDesert One.The hostages and rescue team would then rendezvous with the helicopters fromDesert Twoat the nearbyAmjadieh Stadium, where the hostages and rescue teams would board the helicopters.
In parallel to the rescue, an Army Ranger company would capture the abandoned Manzariyeh Air Base,(34°58′58″N50°48′20″E﻿ / ﻿34.98278°N 50.80556°E﻿ /34.98278; 50.80556) about 60 miles southwest of Tehran, to allow twoC-141 Starliftersto arrive from Saudi Arabia. The helicopters would bring all parties from the stadium to the Manzariyeh airbase, and the C-141s would fly them to an airbase in Egypt. The eight helicopters would be destroyed before departure.
Protection for the operation was to be provided byCarrier Air Wing Eight(CVW-8) operating fromNimitzandCVW-14operating fromUSSCoral Sea. For this operation, the aircraft bore special invasion stripe identification on their right wings. This was necessary to distinguish support aircraft from IranianF-14andF-4aircraft purchased by Iran from the US in the time of the Shah. CVW-14 Marine F-4Ns were marked with a red (VMFA-323) or yellow (VMFA-531) stripe enclosed by two black stripes while CVW-14 attack aircraft (A-7sandA-6s) had an orange stripe enclosed by two black stripes.
Only the delivery of the soldiers, equipment and fuel by the C-130 aircraft went according to plan.MC-130Dragon 1landed atDesert Oneat 22:47 local time. The landing was made under blacked-out conditions using the improvised infrared landing light system installed by Carney on the airstrip, visible only throughnight vision goggles. The heavily loadedDragon 1required four passes to determine that there were no obstructions on the airstripand to align with the runway.Dragon 1off-loaded the road-watch teams in Jeeps and aUSAF Combat Control Team (CCT)to establish a parallel landing zone north of the dirt road and to set outTACAN beaconsto guide in the helicopters.
Soon after the first crews landed and began securingDesert One, a civilian Iranian bus with a driver and 43 passengers was stopped while traveling on the  road, which now served as the runway for the aircraft. The bus was forced to halt by the Rangers and the passengers were detained aboardRepublic 3.Minutes after the bus had been stopped, the Rangers in the road-watch team observed a fuel tanker truck, ignoring their orders to halt, bearing down on them.The truck, apparently smuggling fuel, was blown up by the Army Ranger roadblock team using ashoulder-fired rocketas it tried to escape the site. The truck's passenger was killed, but the driver managed to escape in an accompanying pickup truck. As the tanker truck was thought to be engaged in clandestine smuggling, the driver was not considered to pose a security threat to the mission.The resulting fire illuminated the nighttime landscape for many miles around, and provided a visual guide toDesert Onefor the disoriented incoming helicopters.
Two hours into the flight, RH-53DBluebeard 6made an emergency landing in the desert when a sensor indicated a cracked rotor blade.Its crew was picked up byBluebeard 8and the aircraft was abandoned in the desert.The remaining helicopters ran into an unexpected weather phenomenon known as ahaboob(an enormous, nearly opaque cloud of fine dust).Bluebeard 5flew into the haboob, but abandoned the mission and returned to theNimitzwhen electrical problems disabled flight instruments and flying without visual references proved impossible. The remaining six helicopters reachedDesert One, 50 to 90 minutes behind schedule.Bluebeard 2arrived last atDesert Oneat 01:00 with a malfunctioning secondary hydraulic system, leaving only one hydraulic system to control the aircraft.
With only five fully serviceable helicopters now remaining to transport the men and equipment toDesert Two(minimum of six aircraft was the planned mission's abort threshold), the various commanders reached a stalemate. Senior helicopter pilot Seiffert refused to use unsafeBluebeard 2on the mission, while Beckwith (field commander for ground forces) refused to consider reducing his trained rescue team's size. Kyle (the field aviation commander), therefore, recommended to Vaught that the mission be aborted. The recommendation was passed on by satellite radio to the President. After two and a half hours on the ground, the presidential abort confirmation was received.
Fuel consumption calculations showed that the extra 90 minutes idling on the ground waiting for the abort confirmation order had made fuel critical for one of the EC-130s. When it became clear that only six helicopters would arrive atDesert One, Kyle had authorized the EC-130s to transfer 1,000 US gallons (3,800 L) from the bladders to their own main fuel tanks, butRepublic 4had already expended all of its bladder fuel refueling three of the helicopters and had none to transfer. To make it to the air tanker refueling track without running out of fuel, it had to leave immediately and was already loaded with part of the Delta team. In addition, RH-53DBluebeard 4needed additional fuel, requiring it to be moved to the opposite side of the road.
To accomplish both actions,Bluebeard 3piloted by Maj. James Schaeferhad to be moved from directly behind the EC-130. The aircraft could not be moved by ground taxi and had to be moved byhover taxi(flying a short distance at low speed and altitude).A Combat Controller attempted to direct the maneuvre from in front of the aircraft but was blasted by desert sand churned up by the rotor. The Controller attempted to back away, which ledBluebeard 3'spilot to mistakenly perceive that his craft was drifting backward (engulfed in a dust cloud, the pilot only had the Controller as a point of reference) and thus attempted to "correct" this situation by applying forward stick to maintain the same distance from the rearward moving marshaller. The RH-53D struck the EC-130'svertical stabilizerwith its main rotor and crashed into the EC-130'swing root.
In the ensuing explosion and fire, eight servicemen died: five of the fourteen USAF aircrew in the EC-130, and three of the five USMC aircrew in the RH-53D, with only the helicopter's pilot and co-pilot (both badly burned) surviving.After the crash, it was decided to abandon the helicopters. During the frantic evacuation to the EC-130s by the helicopter crews, unsuccessful attempts were made to retrieve their classified mission documents and destroy the aircraft. The helicopter crews boarded the EC-130s. Five RH-53D aircraft were left behind at Desert One mostly intact, some damaged by shrapnel. They could not be destroyed because they were loaded with ammunition and any fire or explosion would have endangered the EC-130s.
The EC-130s carried the remaining forces back to the intermediate airfield at Masirah Island, where two C-141 medical evacuation aircraft from the staging base at Wadi Abu Shihat, Egypt,picked up the injured personnel, helicopter crews, Rangers, andDelta Forcemembers, and returned to Wadi Kena. The injured were then transported toLandstuhl Army Regional Medical Centerin Germany. The following day, after learning about the events at Desert One from the local Iranian news, the Tehran CIA team quietly left Iran, with the Iranians unaware of their presence.
The White House announced the failed rescue operation at 01:00 a.m. the following day (25 April 1980).Iranian Army investigators found eight bodies (eight Americans) and also alleged to have found the body of an Iranian civilian. However, it has been acknowledged that the fuel tank driver near the landing site who refused to stop, and whose tanker truck exploded after being hit by an anti-tank round, managed to leap from his vehicle and escape in a nearby pickup truck which was following;it was reported that the gas tank truck and a bus with 44 civilians were the vehicles which were stopped at the opposite ends of the dirt road near the Desert One landing site when the C-130 aircraft landed.Nine caskets were made, with AyatollahSadegh Khalkhalialleging that nine Americans were killed.The American bodies, which were acknowledged to have been numbered at eight,were returned to the United States on 6 May 1980,and buried at various locations across the country. The 44 Iranian civilians taken prisoner on the bus were released and subsequently gave eyewitness accounts of the operation.
The eight Americans who died included three Marines and five Air Force personnel.  On 25 April 1980,Major GeneralRobert M. Bondread a message from PresidentJimmy Carterat a memorial service commemorating them inNiceville, Florida.A memorial honoring them was erected in theArlington National Cemeteryand Carter attended a memorial service there with the families on 9 May.Three of the servicemen who died – Maj. Richard Bakke, Maj. Harold Lewis Jr., and Sgt. Joel Mayo – were buried in the Arlington National Cemetery in a grave marked by a common headstone, located about 25 feet from the group memorial.In addition, five servicemen were injured, One from Valdosta, Georgia (Capt. Lynn McIntosh), including USMC Majors Jim Schaefer, pilot, and Les Petty, co-pilot.
After the termination of the operation and the abandonment of equipment by the infiltration team, the Iranians became aware of the landings as well as the subsequent accident and fire. Mohammad Montazer al-Qaim, Commander of the Yazd Iranian Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC) went to the scene to investigate reports from locals. At the same time, without knowing of the investigation activities of the IRGC, the Iranian Air Force conducted two observation flights over the incident area. During the first flight, two F-14s flew over the abandoned US equipment and the flight requested permission to fire on the equipment. This was refused by the Iranian command. The next day, Iranian Air Force F-4 fighter jets patrolling the area thought that the American helicopters were about to fly and they fired at the remaining American equipment with direct order from Abolhassan Banisadr ( Iran's president at the time ) killing Mohammad Montazer al-Qaim.
President Cartercontinued to attemptto secure the hostages' release before his presidency's end. On 20 January 1981, minutes after Carter's term ended, the 52 US captives held in Iran were released, ending the 444-day Iran hostage crisis.US Secretary of StateCyrus R. Vance, believing that the operation would not work and would only endanger the lives of the hostages, opted to resign, regardless of whether the mission was successful or not. His resignation was confirmed several days later.
Ruhollah Khomeinicondemned Jimmy Carter,and in a speech after the incident, credited God with protecting Iran.He said:
The embassy hostages were subsequently scattered across Iran to preclude any second rescue attempt and were released on 20 January 1981, minutes after Ronald Reagan had taken the oath of office, after winning the 1980 election over Carter.
RetiredChief of Naval OperationsAdmiralJames L. Holloway IIIled the official investigation in 1980 into the causes of the operation's failure on behalf of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Holloway Report primarily cited deficiencies in mission planning, command and control, and inter-service operability, and provided a catalyst to reorganize the Department of Defense.
The various services' failure to cohesively work together prompted the establishment of a new multi-service organization several years later. TheUnited States Special Operations Command(USSOCOM) became operational on 16 April 1987. Each service now has its own special operations forces under USSOCOM's overall control.
The lack of well-trained Army helicopter pilots who were capable of the low-level night flying needed for modern special operations missions prompted the creation of the160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR)(Night Stalkers). In addition to the 160th SOAR's creation, the US Defense Department now trains many military helicopter pilots in low-level penetration, aerial refueling, and use of night-vision goggles. In addition to the formal report, various reasons for the mission failure have been argued, with most analysts agreeing that an excessively complex plan, poor operational planning, flawed command structure, lack of adequate pilot training and poor weather conditions were contributing factors.
The Joint Communications Unit (JCU) is a unit of the Joint Special Operations Command charged to standardize and ensure interoperability of the communication procedures and equipment of JSOC and its subordinate units.
The JCU was created in 1980 after the failure of Eagle Claw. Its headquarters are inFort Liberty, North Carolina (formerly known as Fort Bragg).
The official Operation Eagle Claw Memorial is at Arlington National Cemetery and is described by cemetery literature thusly:
The incident is considered as a US defeat and is commemorated annually in Tabas where government officials, religious leaders and people gather and display wreckage of the American planes and helicopters from the incident.A mosque called "gratitude mosque" was built at the crash site.On the road fromAshkezarto Tabas, at the location ofDesert Onethere are several remnants of the operation, including wreckage and mock-ups of the RH-53D helicopters.
An Iranianair-defensesystem is namedTabas, in commemoration of the crash site.  At the old Tehran Airport, there is the shell of a RH-53D airframe on display.
Shortly after the first mission failed, planning for a second rescue mission was authorized under the nameProject Honey Badger. Plans and exercises were conducted,but the manpower and aircraft requirements grew to involve nearly a battalion of troops, more than fifty aircraft, and such contingencies as transporting a 12-ton bulldozer to rapidly clear a blocked runway. Even though numerous rehearsal exercises were successful, the helicopters' failure during the first attempt resulted in the development of a subsequent concept involving only fixed-wingSTOLaircraft capable of flying from the US to Iran using aerial refueling, then returning to land on an aircraft carrier for medical treatment of wounded.
The concept calledOperation Credible Sport, was developed but never implemented. It called for a modified Hercules, the YMC-130H, outfitted withrocket thrusters fore and aftto allow an extremely short landing and take-off in Amjadieh Stadium. Three aircraft were modified under a rushed secret program. The first fully modified aircraft crashed during a demonstration atDuke FieldatEglin Air Force Baseon 29 October 1980, when its landing braking rockets were fired too soon. The misfire caused a hard touchdown that tore off the starboard wing and started a fire. All on board survived without injury. The impending change of administration in the White House forced this project's abandonment.