Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guineais a country inOceaniathat comprises the eastern half of the island ofNew Guineaand offshore islands inMelanesia, a region of the southwesternPacific Oceannorth ofAustralia. It has aland borderwithIndonesiato the west and neighbours Australia to the south and theSolomon Islandsto the east. Its capital, on its southern coast, isPort Moresby. The country is the world's third largestisland country, with an area of 462,840 km(178,700 sq mi).
The nation was split in the 1880s betweenGerman New Guineain the North and theBritish Territory of Papuain the South, the latter of which was ceded to Australia in 1902. All of present-day Papua New Guinea came under Australian control followingWorld War I, with the legally distinctTerritory of New Guineabeing established out of the former German colony as aLeague of Nations mandate. The nation was the site of fierce fighting during theNew Guinea campaignofWorld War II. Papua New Guinea became an independentCommonwealth realmin 1975 withElizabeth IIas its Queen. SinceElizabeth II's deathin 2022,Charles IIIhas been theKing.
There are 840 knownlanguages of Papua New Guinea(including English), making it the most linguistically diverse country in the world.It is also one of the most rural countries, with only 13.25% of its population living in urban centres in 2019.Most of its people live incustomary communities.Although government estimates reported the country's population to be 11.8 million,it was reported in December 2022 that its population was in fact closer to 17 million.Papua New Guinea is the most populous Pacific island country.
The country is believed to be the home of many undocumented species of plants and animals.
Papua New Guinea is classified as adeveloping economyby theInternational Monetary Fund;nearly 40% of the population aresubsistence farmers, living relatively independently of the cash economy.Their traditional social groupings are explicitly acknowledged by thePapua New Guinea Constitution, which expresses the wish for "traditional villages and communities to remain as viable units of Papua New Guinean society"and protects their continuing importance to local and national community life. Papua New Guinea has been an observer state in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1976, and has filed its application for full membership status.It is a full member of theCommonwealth of Nations,thePacific Community, thePacific Islands Forum,and theUnited Nations.
Papuais derived from a local term of uncertain origin.Regarding the islands of New Guinea, the Portuguese captain and geographerAntónio Galvãowrote that:
"New Guinea" (Nueva Guinea) was the namecoinedby theSpanishexplorerYñigo Ortiz de Retez. In 1545, he noted the resemblance of the people to those he had earlier seen along theGuineacoast of Africa. Guinea, in its turn, is etymologically derived from thePortuguesewordGuiné. The name is one of severaltoponymssharing similaretymologies, ultimately meaning "land of the blacks" or similar meanings, in reference to thedark skinof the inhabitants.
Archaeological evidence indicates that humans first arrived in Papua New Guinea around 42,000 to 45,000 years ago. They were descendants of migrants out ofAfrica, in one of the early waves of human migration.A 2016 study at theUniversity of Cambridgeby Christopher Klein et al. suggests that it was about 50,000 years ago that these peoples reachedSahul(the paleocontinent consisting of present-day Australia and New Guinea). Thesea levels roseand isolated New Guinea about 10,000 years ago, but Aboriginal Australians and Papuans diverged from each other genetically earlier, about 37,000 years BP.Evolutionary geneticistSvante Pääbofound that people of New Guinea share 4%–7% of their genome with theDenisovans, indicating that the ancestors of Papuansinterbredin Asia with these archaic hominins.
Agriculture was independently developed in the New Guinea highlands around 7000 BC, making it one of the few areas in the world where people independently domesticated plants.A major migration ofAustronesian-speakingpeoples to coastal regions of New Guinea took place around 500 BC. This has been correlated with the introduction of pottery, pigs, and certain fishing techniques.
In the 18th century, traders brought thesweet potatoto New Guinea, where it was adopted and became astaple food.Portuguese tradershad obtained it from South America and introduced it to theMoluccas.The far higher crop yields from sweet potato radically transformed traditional agriculture and societies. Sweet potato largely supplanted the previous staple,taro, and resulted in a significant increase in population in the highlands.
Although by the late 20th centuryheadhuntingandcannibalismhad been practically eradicated, in the past they were practised in many parts of the country as part of rituals related towarfareand taking in enemy spirits or powers.In 1901, onGoaribari Islandin theGulf of Papua, missionaryHarry Daunceyfound 10,000 skulls in the island's long houses, a demonstration of past practices.According to Marianna Torgovnick, writing in 1991, "The most fully documented instances of cannibalism as a social institution come from New Guinea, where head-hunting and ritual cannibalism survived, in certain isolated areas, into the Fifties, Sixties, and Seventies, and still leave traces within certain social groups."
Little was known in Europe about the island until the 19th century, although Portuguese and Spanish explorers, such as DomJorge de MenezesandYñigo Ortiz de Retez, had encountered it as early as the 16th century. Traders from Southeast Asia visited New Guinea beginning 5,000 years ago to collectbird-of-paradiseplumes.
Christianity was introduced to New Guinea on 15 September 1847 when a group ofMarist missionariescame toWoodlark Island. They established their first mission onUmboi Island. Following that year, they were forced to withdraw their mission endeavour. Five years later on 8 October 1852, thePontifical Institute for Foreign Missions, a pontifical institute, reestablished the mission on Woodlark Island, encountering sickness and resistance from local people.
The country's dual name results from its complex administrative history before independence. Beginning in 1884, the region was split between two colonial powers.Germanyruled the northern half of the country for several decades as a colony namedGerman New Guinea, while the southern part of the country became aBritishprotectorate.
In 1888, the British protectorate, as well as some adjacent islands, were annexed byBritainas British New Guinea. In 1902, Papua was effectively transferred to the authority of the new BritishdominionofAustralia. With the passage of the Papua Act 1905, the area was officially renamed the Territory of Papua, and the Australian administration became formal in 1906.
Following the outbreak ofWorld War Iin 1914, Australian forcescaptured German New Guineaand occupied it throughout the war. After Germany and theCentral Powerswere defeated in the war, theLeague of Nationsauthorised Australia to administer this area as aLeague of Nations mandateterritory, which became theTerritory of New Guinea.
In contrast to establishing an Australian mandate in former German New Guinea, the League of Nations determined that Papua was an external territory of the Australian Commonwealth; as a matter of law it remained a British possession. The difference in legal status meant that until 1949, Papua (former British protectorateTerritory of Papua) and New Guinea (former German territoryGerman New Guinea) had entirely separate administrations, both controlled by Australia. These conditions contributed to the complexity of organising the country's post-independence legal system.
Thehighland valleyswere first explored by Australians in the 1930s and were found to be inhabited by over a million people.
DuringWorld War II, theNew Guinea campaign(1942–1945) was one of the major military campaigns and conflicts between Japan and theAllies. Approximately 216,000 Japanese, Australian, and U.S. servicemen died.After World War II and the victory of the Allies, the two territories were combined into theTerritory of Papua and New Guinea. This was later referred to as "Papua New Guinea."
After World War II, Australia administered the two newly combined territories of Papua and New Guinea. By 1951, a 28-memberLegislative Councilwas instituted, although this was largely dominated by Australian administrative members, with only 3 seats allocated to Papua New Guineans.Sir Donald Cleland, an Australian soldier, became the first administrator of this new council.
In 1964, the Council was replaced by the 64-memberHouse of Assembly of Papua and New Guinea, which for the first time had a majority of Papua New Guinean members. The Assembly increased to 84 members in 1967 and 100 by 1971.
Debate began over Australian administration both in Papua New Guinea and Australia, with the Bougainville independence movement pushing for greater autonomy as Australian mining companyRio Tinto's exploitative practices became extremely controversial to the region's indigenous landowners, with demands for compensation being made.
Australian Opposition LeaderGough Whitlamvisited Papua New Guinea in 1970 and 1971, amid further calls for independence by theTolai peopleinGazelle Peninsula. He called for self-governance for the Territory as early as 1972.
At the1972 Papua New Guinean general electionin July,Michael Somarewas elected as the first Papua New Guinean Chief Minister of the Territory. In December, Whitlam was elected as Prime Minister at the1972 Australian federal election. TheWhitlam Governmentthen instituted self-governance under the rule of Somare in late 1973.
Over the next two years, further arguments for independence were forwarded, culminating in the Whitlam Government passing thePapua New Guinea Independence Act 1975in September 1975, citing the 16th of September 1975 as the date of independence.
Whitlam and then-Prince Charlesattended the independence ceremony, with Somare continuing as the country's first Prime Minister.
A secessionist revolt in 1975–76 onBougainville Islandresulted in an eleventh-hour modification of the draftConstitution of Papua New Guineato allow for Bougainville and the other eighteen districts to have quasi-federal status as provinces. A reneweduprising on Bougainvillestarted in 1988 and claimed 20,000 lives until it was resolved in 1997. Bougainville had been the primary mining region of the country, generating 40% of the national budget. The native peoples felt they were bearing the adverse environmental effects of the mining, which contaminated the land, water and air, without gaining a fair share of the profits.
The government and rebels negotiated a peace agreement that established the Bougainville Autonomous District and Province. The autonomous Bougainville electedJoseph Kabuias president in 2005, who served until he died in 2008. He was succeeded by his deputyJohn Tabinamanas acting president while an election to fill the unexpired term was organised.James Taniswon that election in December 2008 and served until the inauguration of John Momis, the winner of the 2010 elections. As part of the current peace settlement, a non-bindingindependence referendumwas held, between 23 November and 7 December 2019. The referendum question was a choice between greater autonomy within Papua New Guinea and full independence for Bougainville, and voters voted overwhelmingly (98.31%) for independence.Negotiations between the Bougainville government and national Papua New Guinea on a path to Bougainville independence began after the referendum, and are ongoing.
At 462,840 km(178,704 sq mi), Papua New Guinea is the world's 54th-largest country and the third-largestisland country.Papua New Guinea is part of theAustralasian realm, which also includesAustralia,New Zealand,eastern Indonesia, and several Pacific island groups, including theSolomon IslandsandVanuatu. Including all its islands, it lies between latitudes0°and12°S, and longitudes140°and160°E. It has anexclusive economic zoneof 2,402,288 km(927,529 sq mi). The mainland of the country is the eastern half of New Guinea island, where the largest towns are also located, includingPort Moresby(capital) andLae; other major islands within Papua New Guinea includeNew Ireland,New Britain,ManusandBougainville.
Located north of the Australian mainland, the country's geography is diverse and, in places, extremely rugged. A spine of mountains, theNew Guinea Highlands, runs the length of the island ofNew Guinea, forming a populoushighlandsregion mostly covered withtropical rainforest, and the longPapuan Peninsula, known as the 'Bird's Tail'. Denserainforestscan be found in the lowland and coastal areas as well as very largewetlandareas surrounding theSepikandFlyrivers. This terrain has made it difficult for the country to develop transportation infrastructure. This has made it so that air travel is often the most efficient and reliable means of transportation.The highest peak isMount Wilhelmat 4,509 metres (14,793 ft). Papua New Guinea is surrounded bycoral reefswhich are under close watch, in the interests of preservation.Papua New Guinea's largest riversare inNew Guineaand includeSepik,Ramu,Markham,Musa,Purari,Kikori,Turama,WawoiandFly.
The country is situated on the PacificRing of Fire, at the point of collision of severaltectonic plates. Geologically, the island of New Guinea is a northern extension of theIndo-Australian tectonic plate, forming part of a single land mass which isAustralia-New Guinea(also calledSahulorMeganesia). It is connected to the Australian segment by a shallowcontinental shelfacross theTorres Strait, which in former ages lay exposed as aland bridge, particularly duringice ageswhen sea levels were lower than at present. As the Indo-Australian Plate (which includes landmasses ofIndia, Australia, and the Indian Ocean floor in between) drifts north, it collides with theEurasian Plate. The collision of the two plates pushed up theHimalayas, the Indonesian islands, and New Guinea'sCentral Range. The Central Range is much younger and higher than the mountains of Australia, so high that it is home to rare equatorialglaciers.
There are several activevolcanoes, and eruptions are frequent. Earthquakes are relatively common, sometimes accompanied bytsunamis. On 25 February 2018, anearthquake of magnitude 7.5and depth of 35 kilometres struck the middle of Papua New Guinea.The worst of the damage was centred around the Southern Highlands region.Papua New Guinea is one of the few regions close to theequatorthat experiencesnowfall, which occurs in the most elevated parts of the mainland.
The border between Papua New Guinea and Indonesia was confirmed by a treaty with Australia before independence in 1974.The land border comprises a segment of the141° E meridianfrom the north coast southwards to where it meets the Fly River flowing east, then a short curve of the river'sthalwegto where it meets the 141°01'10" E meridian flowing west, then southwards to the south coast.The 141° E meridian formed the entire eastern boundary of Dutch New Guinea according to its 1828 annexation proclamation.By theTreaty of The Hague (1895)the Dutch and British agreed to a territorial exchange, bringing the entire left bank of the Fly River into British New Guinea and moving the southern border east to theTorasi Estuary.The maritime boundary with Australia was confirmed by a treaty in 1978.In theTorres Straitit runs close to the mainland of New Guinea, keeping the adjacent North WesternTorres Strait Islands(Dauan,BoiguandSaibai) under Australian sovereignty. Maritime boundaries with theSolomon Islandswere confirmed bya 1989 treaty.
Papua New Guinea is famous for its frequent seismic activity, being on theRing of Fire. On 17 July 1998, amagnitude 7.0 earthquakestruck north ofAitape. It triggered a 50-foot-high tsunami, which killed over 2,180 people in one of the worst natural disasters in the country.
In September 2002, amagnitude 7.6 earthquakestruck off the coast ofWewak,Sandaun Province, killing six people.
From March to April 2018,a chain of earthquakeshitHela Province, causing widespread landslides and the deaths of 200 people. Various nations fromOceaniaandSoutheast Asiaimmediately sent aid to the country.
Another severeearthquakeoccurred on 11 September 2022, killing seven people and causing damaging shaking in some of the country's largest cities, such asLaeandMadang, it was also felt in the capitalPort Moresby.
On May 24, 2024, alandslidehit the village of Kaokalam inEnga Province, about 600 kilometers (372 miles) northwest of the capital,Port Moresby, at about 3 a.m. local time. Thelandslideburied more than 2000 people alive, caused major destruction to buildings, and food gardens and caused major impact on the economic lifeline of the country. The casualty figure surpasses the2006 Southern Leyte mudslidetragedy where a total of 1,126 people lost their lives as the debris flow from a landslide followed 10 days of heavy rain. With over 2,000 reported dead by the Papua New Guinea government, this disaster has now emerged as the deadliest landslide of the 21st century.
The climate on the island is essentially tropical, but it varies by region. The maximum mean temperature in the lowlands is 30 to 32 °C, and the minimum 23–24 °C. In the highlands above 2100 metres, colder conditions prevail and night frosts are common there, while the daytime temperature exceeds 22 °C, regardless of the season.
Many species of birds and mammals found on New Guinea have close genetic links with corresponding species found in Australia. One notable feature in common for the two landmasses is the existence of several species ofmarsupialmammals, including somekangaroosandpossums, which are not found elsewhere. Papua New Guinea is amegadiverse country.
Many of the other islands within PNG territory, including New Britain, New Ireland, Bougainville, theAdmiralty Islands, theTrobriand Islands, and theLouisiade Archipelago, were never linked to New Guinea by land bridges. As a consequence, they have their own flora and fauna; in particular, they lack many of the land mammals and flightless birds that are common to New Guinea and Australia.
Australia and New Guinea are portions of the ancient supercontinent ofGondwana, which started to break into smaller continents in theCretaceousperiod, 65–130 million years ago. Australia finally broke free fromAntarcticaabout 45 million years ago. All the Australasian lands are home to theAntarctic flora, descended from the flora of southern Gondwana, including theconiferouspodocarpsandAraucariapines, and the broad-leafed southern beech (Nothofagus). These plant families are still present in Papua New Guinea. New Guinea is part of the humid tropics, and manyIndomalayanrainforest plants spread across the narrow straits from Asia, mixing with the old Australian and Antarctic floras. New Guinea has been identified as the world's most floristically diverse island in the world, with 13,634 known species of vascular plants.
Papua New Guinea includes several terrestrialecoregions:
Three new species of mammals were discovered in the forests of Papua New Guinea by an Australian-led expedition in the early 2010s. A small wallaby, a large-eared mouse and a shrew-like marsupial were discovered. The expedition was also successful in capturing photographs and video footage of some other rare animals such as theTenkiletree kangaroo and the Weimang tree kangaroo.Nearly one-quarter of Papua New Guinea's rainforests were damaged or destroyed between 1972 and 2002.Papua New Guinea had aForest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 8.84/10, ranking it 17th globally out of 172 countries.Mangrove swamps stretch along the coast, and in the inland it is inhabited by nipa palm (Nypa fruticans), and deeper in the inland the sago palm tree inhabits areas in the valleys of larger rivers. Trees such as oaks, red cedars, pines, and beeches are becoming predominant in the uplands above 3,300 feet. Papua New Guinea is rich in various species of reptiles, indigenous freshwater fish and birds, but it is almost devoid of large mammals.
Papua New Guinea is aCommonwealth realmwithCharles IIIasKing of Papua New Guinea. The monarch's representative is thegovernor-general of Papua New Guinea, who is elected by the unicameralNational Parliament of Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea andSolomon Islandsare the only realms in which the governor-general is elected by parliament, although the governor-general is still formally appointed by the monarch in accordance with the parliamentary vote.
Thenational constitutionprovides forthe executive to be responsible to parliamentas the representative of the Papua New Guinean people. Theprime minister of Papua New Guineais elected by the National Parliament, while the other ministers are appointed by the governor-general on the prime minister's advice and form theNational Executive Council, which acts as the country's cabinet. The National Parliament has 111 seats, of which 22 are occupied by the governors of the 22 provinces and theNational Capital District. Candidates for members of parliament are voted upon when the prime minister asks the governor-general to call a national election, a maximum of five years after the previous national election.
In the early years of independence, the instability of the party system led to frequentvotes of no confidencein parliament, with resulting changes of the government, but with referral to the electorate, through national elections only occurring every five years. In recent years, successive governments have passed legislation preventing such votes sooner than 18 months after a national election and within 12 months of the next election. In 2012, the first two (of three) readings were passed to prevent votes of no confidence occurring within the first 30 months. This restriction on votes of no confidence has arguably resulted in greater stability, although perhaps at the cost of reducing the accountability of the executive branch of government.
Elections in PNG attract numerous candidates. After independence in 1975, members were elected by thefirst-past-the-postsystem, with winners frequently gaining less than 15% of the vote. Electoral reforms in 2001 introduced the Limited Preferential Vote system (LPV), a version of thealternative vote. The2007 general electionwas the first to be conducted using LPV.
Under a 2002 amendment, the leader of the party winning the largest number of seats in the election is invited by the governor-general to form the government, if they can muster the necessary majority in parliament. The process of forming such a coalition in PNG, where parties do not have much ideology, involves considerable "horse-trading" right up until the last moment.Peter O'Neillemerged as Papua New Guinea's prime minister after the July 2012 election, and formed a government withLeo Dion, the former Governor of East New Britain Province, as deputy prime minister.
In 2011 there was aconstitutional crisisbetween the parliament-elect Prime Minister,Peter O'Neill(voted into office by a large majority of MPs), andSir Michael Somare, who was deemed by the supreme court to retain office. The stand-off between parliament and the supreme court continued until the July 2012 national elections, with legislation passed effectively removing the chief justice and subjecting the supreme court members to greater control by the legislature, as well as a series of other laws passed, for example limiting the age for a prime minister. The confrontation reached a peak, with the deputy prime minister entering the supreme court during a hearing, escorted by police, ostensibly to arrest the chief justice. There was strong pressure among some MPs to defer the national elections for a further six months to one year, although their powers to do that were highly questionable. The parliament-elect prime minister and other cooler-headed MPs carried the votes for the writs for the new election to be issued, slightly late, but for the election itself to occur on time, thereby avoiding a continuation of the constitutional crisis.
In May 2019, O'Neill resigned as prime minister and was replaced through a vote of Parliament byJames Marape. Marape was a key minister in O'Neill's government and his defection from the government to the opposition camp had finally led to O'Neill's resignation from office.Davis Stevenwas appointed deputy prime minister, justice Minister and Attorney General.After an election widely criticised by observers for its inadequate preparation (including failure to update the electoral roll), abuses and violence, in July 2022, Prime Minister James Marape'sPANGUParty secured the most seats of any party in theelection, enabling James Marape to be invited to form a coalition government, which he succeeded in doing and he continued as PNG's Prime Minister.In the 2022 Election two women were elected into the eleventh Parliament, one,Rufina Peter, also became Provincial governor of Central Province.
Papua New Guinea is divided into fourregions, which are not the primary administrative divisions but are quite significant in many aspects of government, commercial, sporting and other activities. The nation has 22province-level divisions: twenty provinces, theAutonomous Region of Bougainvilleand theNational Capital District. Each province is divided into one or moredistricts, which in turn are divided into one or moreLocal-Level Government areas. Provincesare the primary administrative divisions of the country. Provincial governments are branches of the national government as Papua New Guinea is not a federation of provinces. The province-level divisions are as follows:
In 2009, Parliament approved the creation of two additional provinces:Hela Province, consisting of part of the existingSouthern Highlands Province, andJiwaka Province, formed by dividingWestern Highlands Province.Jiwaka and Hela officially became separate provinces on 17 May 2012.The declaration of Hela and Jiwaka is a result of the largestliquefied natural gasproject in the country that is situated in both provinces. The government set 23 November 2019as the voting date for a non-bindingindependence referendum in theBougainville autonomous region.In December 2019, the autonomous region voted overwhelmingly for independence, with 97.7% voting in favour of obtaining full independence and around 1.7% voting in favour of greater autonomy.
Papua New Guinea is a member of theCommonwealth of Nations,Pacific Community, Pacific Islands Forum, and theMelanesian Spearhead Group(MSG) of countries. It was accorded observer status withinASEANin 1976, followed later by special observer status in 1981. It is also a member ofAPECand anACPcountry, associated with the European Union.
Papua New Guinea has been a member of theForum of Small States(FOSS) since the group's founding in 1992.
Papua New Guinea supported Indonesia's control of Western New Guinea,the focus of thePapua conflictwhere numerous human rights violations have reportedly been committed by the Indonesian security forces.
ThePapua New Guinea Defence Forceis the military organisation responsible for the defence of Papua New Guinea. It consists of three wings.The Land Element has 7 units: theRoyal Pacific Islands Regiment, a special forces unit, a battalion of engineers, three other small units primarily dealing with signals and health, and a military academy. The Air Element consists of one aircraft squadron, which transports the other military wings. The Maritime Element consists of fourPacific-classpatrol boats, three ex-AustralianBalikpapan-classlanding craft, and oneGuardian-classpatrol boat. One of the landing craft is used as a training ship. Three more Guardian-class patrol boats are under construction in Australia, to replace the old Pacific-class vessels. The main tasks of the Maritime Element are to patrol inshore waters and to transport the Land Element. Papua New Guinea has a very largeexclusive economic zonebecause of its extensive coastline. The Maritime Element relies heavily on satellite imagery to surveil the country's waters. Patrolling is generally ineffective because underfunding often leaves the patrol boats unserviceable. This problem will be partially corrected when the larger Guardian-class patrol boats enter service.
The unicameral Parliament enacts legislation in the same manner as in other Commonwealth realms that use the Westminster system of government. The cabinet collectively agrees on government policy, and then the relevant minister introduces bills to Parliament, depending on which government department is responsible for the implementation of a particular law. Backbench members of parliament can also introduce bills. Parliament debates bills, and (section 110.1 of the Constitution) they become enacted laws when the Speaker certifies that Parliament has passed them. There is no Royal assent.
All ordinary statutes enacted by Parliament must be consistent with the Constitution. The courts have jurisdiction to rule on the constitutionality of statutes, both in disputes before them and on a reference where there is no dispute but only an abstract question of law. Unusually among developing countries, the judicial branch of government in Papua New Guinea has remained remarkably independent, and successive executive governments have continued to respect its authority.
The "underlying law" (Papua New Guinea'scommon law) consists of principles and rules of common law and equity in Englishcommon law as it stood on 16 September 1975 (the date of independence), and thereafter the decisions of PNG's own courts. The courts are directed by the Constitution and, latterly, theUnderlying Law Act, to take note of the "custom" of traditional communities. They are to determine which customs are common to the whole country and may be declared also to be part of the underlying law. In practice, this has proved difficult and has been largely neglected. Statutes are largely adapted from overseas jurisdictions, primarily Australia and England. Advocacy in the courts follows the adversarial pattern of other common-law countries. This national court system, used in towns and cities, is supported by a village court system in the more remote areas. The law underpinning the village courts is 'customary law'.
Papua New Guinea is often ranked as likely the worst place in the world forviolence against women.A 2013 study inThe Lancetfound that 27% of men on Bougainville Island reported having raped a non-partner, while 14.1% reported having committedgang rape.According toUNICEF, nearly half of reported rape victims are under 15 years old, and 13% are under 7 years old.A report byChildFundAustralia, citing former Parliamentarian DameCarol Kidu, claimed 50% of those seeking medical help after rape are under 16, 25% are under 12, and 10% are under 8.Under Dame Carol's term as Minister for Community Development, Parliament passed the Family Protection Act (2013) and the Lukautim Pikini Act (2015), although the Family Protection Regulation was not approved until 2017, delaying its application in the Courts.
The 1971 Sorcery Act imposed a penalty of up to 2 years in prison for the practice of"black" magic, until the act was repealed in 2013.An estimated 50–150 allegedwitchesarekilledeach year in Papua New Guinea.A Sorcery and Witchcraft Accusation Related National Action Plan (SNAP) was approved by the Government in 2015, although funding and application has been deficient.There are also no protections given toLGBT citizens in the country.Homosexual actsare prohibited by law in Papua New Guinea.
While tribal violence has long been a way of life in the highlands regions, an increase in firearms has led to greater loss of life. In the past, rival groups had been known to utilise axes, bush knives and traditional weapons, as well as respecting rules of engagement that prevented violence while hunting or at markets. These norms have been changing with a greater uptake of firearms. These are believed to be sourced from smuggling operations over the border intoIndonesia, as well as losses from government armouries. Only 1/5th of 5000 Australian-madeSelf Loading Riflesand half of the 2000M16sdelivered to thePNGDFfrom the 1970s-1990s were found in government armouries during an audit in 2004 and 2005. The smuggling and theft of ammunition have also increased violence in these regions, leading to the police force and military finding it difficult to maintain control, often finding themselves outgunned and only able to retrieve bodies. Village massacres have increased with 69 villagers killed in a single attack in February 2024 inEnga Province, the largest killings since theBougainville conflictof the 1980s and 90s.
Papua New Guinea received a score of 5.6 out of 10 for safety from the state from theHuman Rights Measurement Initiative.
TheRoyal Papua New Guinea Constabularyhas been troubled in recent years by infighting, political interference and corruption. It was recognised from early after Independence (and hitherto) that a national police force alone could never have the capacity to administer law and order across the country, and that it would also require effective local-level systems of policing and enforcement, notably the village court magisterial service.The weaknesses of police capacity, poor working conditions and recommendations to address them were the subject of the 2004 Royal PNG Constabulary Administrative Review to the Minister for Internal Security.In 2011, Commissioner for Police Anthony Wagambie took the unusual step of asking the public to report police asking for payments for performing their duties.In September 2020, Minister for PoliceBryan Jared Kramerlaunched a broadside on Facebook against his own police department,which was subsequently reported in the international media.In the post, Kramer accused the Royal PNG Constabulary of widespread corruption, claiming that "Senior officers based in Police Headquarters in Port Moresby were stealing from their own retired officers’ pension funds. They were implicated in organised crime, drug syndicates, smuggling firearms, stealing fuel, insurance scams, and even misusing police allowances. They misused tens of millions of kina allocated for police housing, resources, and welfare. We also uncovered many cases of senior officers facilitating the theft of Police land."Commissioner for Police David Manning, in a separate statement, said that his force included "criminals in uniform."
Papua New Guinea is richly endowed with natural resources, including mineral and renewable resources, such as forests, marine resources (including a large portion of the world's major tuna stocks), and in some parts agriculture. The rugged terrain (including high mountain ranges and valleys, swamps and islands) and the high cost of developing infrastructure, combined with other factors (including law and order problems in some centres and the system of customary land title) make it difficult for outside developers. Local developers are hindered by years of deficient investment in education, health, and access to finance. Agriculture, for subsistence and cash crops, provides a livelihood for 85% of the population and continues to provide some 30% of GDP. Mineral deposits, including gold, oil, and copper, account for 72% of export earnings.Oil palmproduction has grown steadily over recent years (largely from estates and with extensive outgrower output), withpalm oilnow the main agricultural export. Coffee remains the major export crop (produced largely in the Highlands provinces); followed bycocoaandcoconut oil/coprafrom the coastal areas, each largely produced by smallholders; tea, produced on estates; and rubber. The Iagifu/Hedinia Field was discovered in 1986 in the Papuanfold and thrust belt.
Former Prime Minister SirMekere Morautatried to restore integrity to state institutions, stabilise thekina, restore stability to the national budget, privatise public enterprises where appropriate, and ensure ongoing peace on Bougainville following the 1997 agreement which ended Bougainville's secessionist unrest. The Morauta government had considerable success in attracting international support, specifically gaining the backing of theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) and theWorld Bankin securing development assistance loans.
As of 2019, PNG's real GDP growth rate was 3.8%, with an inflation rate of 4.3%This economic growth has been primarily attributed to strong commodity prices, particularly mineral but also agricultural, with the high demand for mineral products largely sustained even during the crisis by the buoyant Asian markets,a booming mining sectorand by a buoyant outlook and the construction phase fornatural gas exploration, production, and exportation in liquefied form (liquefied natural gas or "LNG") byLNG tankers, all of which will require multibillion-dollar investments (exploration, production wells, pipelines, storage, liquefaction plants, port terminals, LNG tanker ships).
The first major gas project was the PNG LNG joint venture.ExxonMobilis operator of the joint venture, also comprising PNG companyOil Search,Santos, Kumul Petroleum Holdings (Papua New Guinea's national oil and gas company),JX Nippon Oil and Gas Exploration, the PNG government'sMineral Resources Development CompanyandPetromin PNG Holdings.The project is an integrated development that includes gas production and processing facilities in theHela,Southern HighlandsandWesternProvinces of Papua New Guinea, including liquefaction and storage facilities (located northwest of Port Moresby) with capacity of 6.9 million tonnes per year. There are over 700 kilometres (430 mi) of pipelines connecting the facilities.It is the largest private-sector investment in the history of PNG.A second major project is based on initial rights held by the French oil and gas majorTotalEnergiesand the U.S. companyInterOilCorp. (IOC), which have partly combined their assets after TotalEnergies agreed in December 2013 to purchase 61.3% of IOC's Antelope and Elk gas field rights, with the plan to develop them starting in 2016, including the construction of a liquefaction plant to allow export of LNG. TotalEnergies has separately another joint operating agreement withOil Search.
Further gas and mineral projects are proposed (including the large Wafi-Golpu copper-gold mine), with extensive exploration ongoing across the country.
The PNG government's long-term Vision 2050 and shorter-term policy documents, including the 2013 Budget and the 2014 Responsible Sustainable Development Strategy, emphasise the need for a more diverse economy, based upon sustainable industries and avoiding the effects ofDutch diseasefrom major resource extraction projects undermining other industries. This occurred in many countries experiencing oil or other mineral booms, notably in Western Africa, undermining much of their agriculture sector, manufacturing and tourism, and with them broad-based employment prospects. Measures have been taken to mitigate these effects, including through the establishment of asovereign wealth fund, partly to stabilise revenue and expenditure flows, but much will depend upon the readiness to make real reforms to effective use of revenue, tackling rampant corruption and empowering households and businesses to access markets, services and develop a more buoyant economy, with lower costs, especially for small to medium-sized enterprises. One major project conducted through the PNG Department for Community Development suggested that other pathways to sustainable development should be considered.
TheInstitute of National Affairs, a PNG independent policy think tank, provides a report on the business and investment environment of Papua New Guinea every five years, based upon a survey of large and small, local and overseas companies, highlighting law and order problems and corruption, as the worst impediments, followed by the poor state of transport, power and communications infrastructure.
The PNG legislature has enacted laws in which a type of tenure called "customary land title" is recognised, meaning that the traditional lands of theindigenous peopleshave some legal basis for inalienable tenure. This customary land notionally covers most of the usable land in the country (some 97% of total land area);alienated landis either held privately under state lease or is government land. Freehold title (also known asfee simple) can only be held by Papua New Guinean citizens.
Only some 3% of the land of Papua New Guinea is in private hands; this is privately held under a 99-year state lease, or it is held by the State. There is virtually no freehold title; the few existing freeholds are automatically converted to state leases when they are transferred between vendor and purchaser. Unalienated land is owned under customary title by traditional landowners. The precise nature of theseisinvaries from one culture to another. Many writers portray land as the communal ownership of traditional clans; however, closer studies usually show that the smallest portions of land whose ownership cannot be further divided are held by the individual heads of extended families and their descendants or their descendants alone if they have recently died.
This is a matter of vital importance because a problem of economic development is identifying the membership of customary landowning groups and the owners. Disputes between mining and forestry companies and landowner groups often devolve on the issue of whether the companies entered into contractual relations for the use of land with the true owners. Customary property—usually land—cannot be devised by will. It can only be inherited according to the custom of the deceased's people.The Lands Act was amended in 2010 along with the Land Group Incorporation Act, intended to improve the management of state land, mechanisms for dispute resolution over land, and to enable customary landowners to be better able to access finance and possible partnerships over portions of their land if they seek to develop it for urban or rural economic activities. The Land Group Incorporation Act requires more specific identification of the customary landowners than hitherto and their more specific authorisation before any land arrangements are determined; (a major issue in recent years has been a land grab, using, or rather misusing, the Lease-Leaseback provision under the Land Act, notably using 'Special Agricultural and Business Leases' (SABLs) to acquire vast tracts of customary land, purportedly for agricultural projects, but in almost all cases as a back-door mechanism for securing tropical forest resources for logging—circumventing the more exacting requirements of the Forest Act, for securing Timber Permits (which must comply with sustainability requirements and be competitively secured, and with the customary landowners' approval). Following a national outcry, these SABLs have been subject to a Commission of Inquiry, established in mid-2011, for which the report is still awaited for initial presentation to the Prime Minister and Parliament.
Traces ofgoldwere first found in 1852, in pottery fromRedscar Bayon thePapuan Peninsula.
Papua New Guinea'sNational Vision 2050was adopted in 2009. This has led to the establishment of the Research, Science and Technology Council. At its gathering in November 2014, the Council re-emphasised the need to focus on sustainable development throughscience and technology.
Vision 2050's medium-term priorities are:
In 2016, women accounted for 33.2% of researchers in Papua New Guinea.
According to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Papua New Guinea had the largest number of publications (110) among Pacific Island states in 2014, followed by Fiji (106). Nine out of ten scientific publications from Papua New Guinea focused on immunology, genetics, biotechnology and microbiology. Nine out of ten were also co-authored by scientists from other countries, mainly Australia, the United States of America, the United Kingdom, Spain and Switzerland.In 2019, Papua New Guinea took second place among Pacific Island states with 253 publications, behind Fiji with 303 publications, in the Scopus (Elsevier) database of scientific publications.Health sciences accounted for 49% of these publications.Papua New Guinea's top scientific collaborators from 2017 to 2019 were Australia, the United States of America, the United Kingdom, France and India.
Forestry is an important economic resource for Papua New Guinea, but the industry uses low and semi-intensive technological inputs. As a result, product ranges are limited to sawed timber, veneer, plywood, block board, moulding, poles and posts and wood chips. Only a few limited finished products are exported. Lack of automated machinery, coupled with inadequately trained local technical personnel, are some of the obstacles to introducing automated machinery and design.
Renewable energysources represent two-thirds of the total electricity supply.In 2015, the Secretariat of thePacific Communityobserved that, 'while Fiji, Papua New Guinea, and Samoa are leading the way with large-scale hydropower projects, there is enormous potential to expand the deployment of other renewable energy options such as solar, wind, geothermal and ocean-based energy sources'.The European Union funded the Renewable Energy in Pacific Island Countries Developing Skills and Capacity programme (EPIC) over 2013 to 2017. The programme developed a master's programme in renewable energy management, accredited in 2016, at the University of Papua New Guinea and helped to establish a Centre of Renewable Energy at the same university.
Papua New Guinea is one of the 15 beneficiaries of a programme on Adapting to Climate Change and Sustainable Energy worth €37.26 million. The programme resulted from the signing of an agreement in February 2014 between the European Union and the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat. The other beneficiaries are the Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu.
The country's mountainous terrain impedes transport. Aeroplanes opened up the country during its colonial period and continue to be used for most travel and most high-density/value freight. The capital, Port Moresby, has no road links to any of PNG's other major towns. Similarly, many remote villages are reachable only by light aircraft or on foot.
Jacksons International Airportis the major international airport in Papua New Guinea, located 8 kilometres (5 mi) from Port Moresby. In addition to two international airfields, Papua New Guinea has 578 airstrips, most of which are unpaved.Thenational airlineisAir Niugini, operating out of Jacksons International.
Papua New Guinea is one of the mostheterogeneousnations in the worldwith an estimated 8.95 million inhabitants as of 2020.There are hundreds of ethnic groups indigenous to Papua New Guinea, the majority being from the group known asPapuans, whose ancestors arrived in the New Guinea region tens of thousands of years ago. The other indigenous peoples areAustronesians, their ancestors having arrived in the region less than four thousand years ago.
There are also numerous people from other parts of the world now resident, includingChinese,Europeans, Australians, Indonesians, Filipinos, Polynesians, andMicronesians(the last four belonging to the Austronesian family). Around 50,000 expatriates, mostly from Australia and China, were living in Papua New Guinea in 1975, but most of these had moved by the 21st century.Data from theWorld Bankindicates that about 0.3% of the Papua New Guinean population is made up of international migrants as of 2015.
With the National Census deferred during 2020/2021, ostensibly on the grounds of the COVID-19 pandemic, an interim assessment was conducted using satellite imagery. In December 2022, a report by the UN, based upon a survey conducted with the University of Southampton using satellite imagery and ground-truthing, suggested a new population estimate of 17 million, nearly double the country's official estimate.
According to the CIA World Factbook (2018),Papua New Guinea has the second lowest urban population percentage in the world, with 13.2%, only behindBurundi. Thegeographyandeconomyof Papua New Guinea are the main factors behind the low percentage. Papua New Guinea has an urbanisation rate of 2.51%, measured as the projected change in urban population from 2015 to 2020.
Numerous Chinese have worked and lived in Papua New Guinea, establishing Chinese-majority communities.Anti-Chineserioting involving tens of thousands of people broke out in May 2009. The initial spark was a fight betweenethnic Chineseand indigenous workers at anickelfactory under construction by a Chinese company. Native resentment against Chinese ownership of numerous small businesses and their commercial monopoly in the islands led to the rioting.
There is an existing collaboration between Papua New Guinea and African countries. Papua New Guinea is part of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) forum.There is a thriving community of Africans who live and work in the country.
Papua New Guinea has more languages than any other country,with over 820 indigenous languages, representing 12% of the world's total, but most have fewer than 1,000 speakers. With an average of only 7,000 speakers per language, Papua New Guinea has a greater density of languages than any other nation on earth exceptVanuatu.The most widely spoken indigenous language isEnga, with about 200,000 speakers, followed byMelpaandHuli.Indigenous languages are classified into two large groups,Austronesian languagesand non-Austronesian, orPapuan, languages. There are four languages in Papua New Guinea with some statutory recognition: English,Tok Pisin,Hiri Motu,and, since 2015, sign language (which in practice meansPapua New Guinean Sign Language).
English is the language of government and the education system, but it is not spoken widely. The primarylingua francaof the country is Tok Pisin (commonly known in English as New Guinean Pidgin or Melanesian Pidgin), in which much of the debate in Parliament is conducted, many information campaigns and advertisements are presented, and a national weekly newspaper,Wantok, is published. The only area where Tok Pisin is not prevalent is the southern region of Papua, where people often use the third official language, Hiri Motu. Although it lies in the Papua region, Port Moresby has a highly diverse population that primarily uses Tok Pisin, and to a lesser extent English, with Motu spoken as the indigenous language in outlying villages.
The government and judiciary uphold the constitutional right to freedom of speech, thought, and belief, and no legislation to curb those rights has been adopted. The 2011 census found that 95.6% of citizens identified themselves asChristian, 1.4% were not Christian, and 3.1% gave no answer. Virtually no respondent identified as being non-religious.Religious syncretismis high, with many citizens combining their Christian faith with some traditional indigenous religious practices.Most Christians in Papua New Guinea areProtestants, constituting roughly 70% of the total population. They are mostly represented by theEvangelical Lutheran Church of Papua New Guinea, theSeventh-day Adventist Church, diversePentecostaldenominations, theUnited Church in Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands, theEvangelical AlliancePapua New Guinea, and theAnglican Church of Papua New Guinea. Apart from Protestants, there is a notableRoman Catholicminority with approximately 25% of the population.
There are approximately 5,000Muslims in the country. The majority belong to theSunnigroup. Non-traditional Christian churches and non-Christian religious groups are active throughout the country. ThePapua New Guinea Council of Churcheshas stated that both Muslim and Confucian missionaries are highly active.Traditional religions are oftenanimist. Some also tend to have elements ofveneration of the dead, though generalisation is suspect given the extreme heterogeneity of Melanesian societies. Prevalent among traditional tribes is the belief inmasalai, or evil spirits, which are blamed for "poisoning" people, causing calamity and death, and the practice ofpuripuri(sorcery).
The first Bahá'í in PNG was Violete Hoenke who arrived at Admiralty Island, from Australia, in 1954. The PNG Bahá'í community grew so quickly that in 1969 aNational Spiritual Assembly(administrative council) was elected. As of 2020 there are over 30,000 members of theBahá'í Faithin PNG. In 2012 the decision was made to erect the firstBahá'í House of Worshipin PNG. Its design is that of a woven basket, a common feature of all groups and cultures in PNG. It is, therefore, hoped to be a symbol for the entire country. Its nine entrances are inspired by the design of Haus Tambaran (Spirit House). Construction began in Port Moresby in 2018.
A large proportion of the population isilliterate,with women predominating in this area.Much of the education in PNG is provided by church institutions.This includes 500 schools of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Papua New Guinea.Papua New Guinea has six universities as well as other tertiary institutions. The two founding universities are theUniversity of Papua New Guinea, based in theNational Capital District,and thePapua New Guinea University of Technology, based outside ofLae, inMorobe Province.
The four other universities were once colleges but have since been recognised by the government. These are theUniversity of Gorokain the Eastern Highlands province,Divine Word University(run by theCatholic Church'sDivine Word Missionaries) inMadang Province,Vudal UniversityinEast New Britain Province, andPacific Adventist University(run by theSeventh-day Adventist Church) in the National Capital District.
TheHuman Rights Measurement Initiativereports that Papua New Guinea is achieving 68.5% of what should be possible for the right to education, based on their level of income.
As of 2019, life expectancy in Papua New Guinea at birth was 63 years for men and 67 for women.Government expenditure health in 2014 accounted for 9.5% of total government spending, with total health expenditure equating to 4.3% of GDP.There were five physicians per 100,000 people in the early 2000s.The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Papua New Guinea was 250. This is compared with 311.9 in 2008 and 476.3 in 1990. The under-5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 69 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under-5s' mortality is 37. In Papua New Guinea, the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 1 and the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women is 1 in 94.
TheHuman Rights Measurement Initiativefinds that Papua New Guinea is achieving 71.9% of what should be possible for the right to health, based on their level of income.
It is estimated that more than one thousand cultural groups exist in Papua New Guinea. Because of this diversity, many styles of cultural expression have emerged. Each group has created its own expressive forms in art, dance, weaponry, costumes, singing, music, architecture and much more. Most of these cultural groups have their own language. People typically live in villages that rely on subsistence farming. In some areas people hunt and collect wild plants (such asyam rootsandkaruka) to supplement their diets. Those who become skilled at hunting, farming and fishing earn a great deal of respect.
Seashellsare no longer the currency of Papua New Guinea, as they were in some regions—sea shells were abolished as currency in 1933. This tradition is still present in local customs. In some cultures, to get a bride, a groom must bring a certain number of golden-edged clam shellsas abride price. In other regions, the bride price is paid in lengths ofshell money, pigs,cassowariesor cash. Elsewhere, it is brides who traditionally pay adowry.
People of the highlands engage in colourful local rituals that are called "sing sings." They paint themselves and dress up with feathers, pearls and animal skins to represent birds, trees or mountain spirits. Sometimes an important event, such as a legendary battle, is enacted at such a musical festival.
The country possesses oneUNESCOWorld Heritage Site, theKuk Early Agricultural Site, which was inscribed in 2008. The country, however, has no elements inscribed yet in theUNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists, despite having one of the widest arrays of intangible cultural heritage elements in the world.
Sport is an important part of Papua New Guinean culture, andrugby leagueis by far the most popular sport.In a nation where communities are far apart and many people live at a minimal subsistence level, rugby league has been described as a replacement for tribal warfare as a way of explaining the local enthusiasm for the game. Many Papua New Guineans have become celebrities by representing their country or playing in an overseas professional league. Even Australian rugby league players who have played in the annualState of Origin series, which is celebrated every year in PNG, are among the most well-known people throughout the nation. State of Origin is a highlight of the year for most Papua New Guineans, although the support is so passionate that many people have died over the years in violent clashes supporting their team.ThePapua New Guinea national rugby league teamusually plays against the Australian Prime Minister's XIII (a selection of NRL players) each year, normally in Port Moresby.
Although not as popular,Australian rules footballis significant in another way, asthe national teamis ranked second, only after Australia. Other major sports that have a part in the Papua New Guinea sporting landscape arenetball,association football,rugby union,basketballand, in eastern Papua,cricket.
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