Galicia (Eastern Europe)

Galicia, also known by itsvariant nameGalizia(/ɡəˈlɪʃ(i)ə/gə-LISH-(ee-)ə;Polish:Galicja,IPA:[ɡaˈlit͡sja];Ukrainian:Галичина,romanized:Halychyna,IPA:[ɦɐlɪtʃɪˈnɑ];Yiddish:גאַליציע,romanized:Galitsye; seebelow), is a historical and geographic region spanning what is now southeasternPolandand westernUkraine, long part of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.It covers much of the other historic regions ofRed Ruthenia(centered onLviv) andLesser Poland(centered onKraków).
The name of the region derives from the medieval city ofHalych,and was first mentioned in Hungarian historical chronicles in the year 1206 asGaliciæ.The eastern part of the region was controlled by the medievalKingdom of Galicia–Volhyniabefore it was annexed by theKingdom of Polandin 1352 and became part of theRuthenian Voivodeship. During thepartitions of Poland, it was incorporated into acrown landof theAustrian Empire– theKingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria.
The nucleus of historic Galicia lies within the modern regions ofwestern Ukraine: theLviv,Ternopil, andIvano-Frankivskoblastsnear Halych.In the 18th century, territories that later became part of the modern Polish regions of theLesser Poland Voivodeship,Subcarpathian Voivodeship, andSilesian Voivodeshipwere added to Galicia after the collapse of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Eastern Galiciabecame contested ground between Poland and Ruthenia in medieval times and was fought over byAustria-HungaryandRussiaduringWorld War Iand alsoPoland and Ukrainein the 20th century. In the 10th century, several cities were founded there, such asVolodymyrandJaroslaw, whose names mark their connections with theGrand Princes of Kiev,Vladimir the GreatandYaroslav the Wise. There is considerable overlap between Galicia andPodolia(to the east) as well as between Galicia and south-westRuthenia, especially in across-border region(centred onCarpathian Ruthenia) inhabited by various nationalities and religious groups.
The name of the region in the local languages is:
Some historiansspeculated that the name had to do with a group of people ofThracianorigin (i.e.Getae)who during theIron Agemoved into the area after the Roman conquest ofDaciain 106 CE and may have formed the Lypytsia culture with theVenedipeople who moved into the region at the end ofLa Tène period.The Lypytsia culture supposedly replaced the existing Thracian Hallstatt (seeThraco-Cimmerian) and Vysotske cultures.Some other scholars assert that the nameHalychhas Slavic origins – fromhalytsa, meaning "a naked (unwooded) hill", or fromhalkawhich means "jackdaw".(The jackdaw featured as a charge in the city'scoat of armsand later also in the coat of arms of Galicia-Lodomeria.The name, however, predates the coat of arms, which may representcantingor simplyfolk etymology). Although Ruthenians drove out the Hungarians from Halych-Volhynia by 1221, Hungarian kings continued to addGalicia et Lodomeriato their official titles.
In 1349, in the course of theGalicia–Volhynia Wars, KingCasimir III the Greatof Poland conquered the major part of Galicia and put an end to the independence of this territory. Upon the conquest Casimir adopted the following title:
Under theJagiellonian dynasty(Kings of Poland from 1386 to 1572), the Kingdom of Poland revived and reconstituted its territories. In place of historic Galicia there appeared theRuthenian Voivodeship.
In 1526, after the death ofLouis II of Hungary, theHabsburgsinherited the Hungarian claims to the titles of the Kingship of Galicia and Lodomeria, together with the Hungarian crown. In 1772 the Habsburg EmpressMaria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary, used those historical claims to justify her participation in theFirst Partition of Poland. In fact, the territories acquired by Austria did not correspond exactly to those of former Halych-Volhynia – theRussian Empiretook control ofVolhyniato the north-east, including the city ofVolodymyr-Volynskyi(Włodzimierz Wołyński) – after whichLodomeriawas named. On the other hand, much ofLesser Poland–Nowy SączandPrzemyśl(1772–1918),Zamość(1772–1809),Lublin(1795–1809), andKraków(1846–1918) – became part ofAustrian Galicia. Moreover, despite the fact that Austria's claim derived from the historical Hungarian crown, "Galicia and Lodomeria" were not officially assigned to Hungary, and after theAusgleichof 1867, the territory found itself inCisleithania, or the Austrian-administered part ofAustria-Hungary.
The full official name of the new Austrian territory was theKingdom of Galicia and Lodomeriawith the Duchies ofAuschwitzandZator. After the incorporation of theFree City of Krakówin 1846, it was extended toKingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, and theGrand Duchy of Krakówwith the Duchies of Auschwitz and Zator(German:Königreich Galizien und Lodomerien mit dem Großherzogtum Krakau und den Herzogtümern Auschwitz und Zator).
Each of those entities was formally separate; they were listed as such in theAustrian emperor's titles, each had its distinct coat-of-arms and flag. For administrative purposes, however, they formed a single province. The duchies of Auschwitz (Oświęcim) and Zator were small historical principalities west ofKraków, on the border withPrussianSilesia.Lodomeria, under the name Volhynia, remained under the rule of the Russian Empire – seeVolhynian Governorate.
InRomantimes, the region was populated by various tribes of Celto-Germanic admixture, includingCeltic-based tribes, theLugians,Cotini,VandalsandGoths(thePrzeworskandPúchovcultures). During theMigration Period, a variety of nomadic groups invaded the area.The East Slavic tribesWhite CroatsandTivertsidominated the area since the 6th century until it was annexed toKievan Rus'in the 10th century.
In the 12th century, thePrincipality of Galiciawas formed, which merged at the end of the century with neighbouringVolhyniainto theKingdom of Galicia–Volhynia. Galicia and Volhynia had originally been two separateRurikidprincipalities, assigned on a rotating basis to younger members of the Kievan dynasty. The line of PrinceRoman the GreatofVolodymyrhad held the Principality of Volhynia, while the line ofYaroslav Osmomyslheld the Principality of Galicia. Galicia–Volhynia was created following the death in 1198or 1199 (and without a recognised heir in the paternal line) of the last Prince of Galicia,Vladimir II Yaroslavich; Roman acquired the Principality of Galicia and united his lands into one state. Roman's successors would mostly use Halych (Galicia) as the designation of their combined kingdom. In Roman's time Galicia–Volhynia's principal cities wereHalychand Volodymyr. In 1204, Roman capturedKyivin alliance withPoland, signed a peace treaty with theKingdom of Hungaryand established diplomatic relations with theByzantine Empire.
In 1205, Roman turned against his Polish allies, leading to a conflict withLeszek the WhiteandKonrad of Masovia. Roman was killed in theBattle of Zawichost(1205), and Galicia–Volhynia entered a period of rebellion and chaos, becoming an arena of rivalry between Poland and Hungary. KingAndrew II of Hungarystyled himselfrex Galiciæ et Lodomeriæ,Latinfor "king of Galicia and Vladimir [in-Volhynia]", a title that later was adopted in theHouse of Habsburg. In a compromise agreement made in 1214 between Hungary and Poland, the throne of Galicia–Volhynia was given to Andrew's son,Coloman of Lodomeria.
In 1352, when the principality was divided between Poland and theGrand Duchy of Lithuania, the territory became subject to thePolish Crown. With theUnion of Lublinin 1569, Poland and Lithuania merged to form thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which lasted for 200 years until conquered and divided up by Russia,Prussia, and Austria in the 1772partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The south-eastern part of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was awarded to the Habsburg EmpressMaria-Theresa, whose bureaucrats named it theKingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, after one of the titles of the princes of Hungary, although its borders coincided but roughly with those of the former medieval principality.Known informally as Galicia, it became the largest, most populous, and northernmost province of theAustrian Empire. After 1867 it was part of theAustrian halfofAustria-Hungary, until the dissolution of the monarchy at the end ofWorld War Iin 1918.
During theFirst World War, Galicia saw heavy fighting between the forces of theRussian Empireand theCentral Powers, on theEastern Front of World War I. The Russian forces overran most of the region in 1914 after defeating the Austro-Hungarian army in a chaotic frontier battle in the opening months of the war.They were in turn pushed out in the spring and summer of 1915 by a combined German/Austro-Hungarian offensive.
In 1918,Western Galiciabecame a part of the restoredRepublic of Poland, which absorbed theLemko-Rusyn Republic. The local Ukrainian population declared the independence ofEastern Galiciaas the short-livedWest Ukrainian People's Republic. During thePolish-Soviet War, the Soviets tried to establish thepuppet-stateof theGalician SSRinEast Galicia, but the territory was then conquered by the Poles.
The 1921Peace of Rigaconfirmed Galicia's status as part of theSecond Polish Republic. Although never accepted as legitimate by someUkrainian nationalists, this was ratified by theConference of Ambassadorson 14 March 1923and internationally recognized on 15 May 1923.
The Ukrainians of Eastern Galicia and the neighbouring province ofVolhyniamade up about 12% of the Polish Republic's population, and were its largest minority. As Polish government policies were discriminatory towards minorities, tensions between the Polish government and the Ukrainian population grew, eventually giving rise to the militant undergroundOrganization of Ukrainian Nationalists.
In 1773, Galicia had about 2.6 million inhabitants in 280 cities and market towns and approximately 5,500 villages. There were nearly 19,000 noble families, with 95,000 members (about 3% of the population). Theserfsaccounted for 1.86 million, more than 70% of the population. A small number were full-time farmers, but by far the overwhelming number (84%) had only smallholdings or no possessions.
Galicia had arguably the most ethnically diverse population of all the countries in the Austrian monarchy, consisting mainly of Poles and "Ruthenians";the peoples known later asUkrainiansandRusyns, as well as ethnicJews,Germans,Armenians,Czechs,Slovaks,Hungarians,Romaand others. In Galicia as a whole, the population in 1910 was estimated to be 45.4% Polish, 42.9% Ruthenian, 10.9% Jewish, and 0.8% German.This population was not evenly distributed. ThePoleslived mainly in the west, with the Ruthenians predominant in the eastern region ("Ruthenia"). At the turn of the twentieth century, Poles constituted 88% of the whole population of Western Galicia and Jews 7.5%. The respective data for Eastern Galicia show the following numbers: Ruthenians 64.5%, Poles 22.0%, Jews 12%.Of the 44 administrative divisions of Austrian eastern Galicia,Lviv(Polish:Lwów,German:Lemberg) was the only one in which Poles made up a majority of the population.AnthropologistMarianna Dusharhas argued that this diversity led to a development of a distinctive food culture in the region.
The Polish language was the most spoken language in Galicia as a whole, although the eastern part of the region was predominantly Ruthenian-speaking. According to the 1910 census, 58.6% of Galicia spoke Polish as its mother tongue, compared to 40.2% who spoke a Ruthenian language.The number of Polish-speakers may have been inflated because Jews were not given the option of listing Yiddish as their language.Eastern Galiciawas the most diverse part of the region, and one of the most diverse areas in Europe at the time.
TheGalician Jewsimmigrated in the Middle Ages from Germany. German-speaking people were more commonly referred to by the region of Germany where they originated (such asSaxonyorSwabia). For those who spoke different native languages, e.g. Poles and Ruthenians, identification was less problematic, and the widespread multilingualism blurred ethnic divisions.
Religiously, Galicia is predominantly Catholic, andCatholicismis practiced in two rites. Poles areRoman Catholic, while Ukrainians belong to theGreek Catholic Church. Other Christians belong to one of theUkrainian Orthodox Churches. Untilthe Holocaust,Judaismwas widespread, and Galicia was the center ofHasidism.
The new state borders cut Galicia off from many of its traditional trade routes and markets of the Polish sphere, resulting in stagnation of economic life and decline of Galician towns. Lviv lost its status as a significant trade center. After a short period of limited investments, the Austrian government started the fiscal exploitation of Galicia and drained the region of manpower through conscription to the imperial army. The Austrians decided that Galicia should not develop industrially but remain an agricultural area that would serve as a supplier of food products and raw materials to other Habsburg provinces. New taxes were instituted, investments were discouraged, and cities and towns were neglected.The result was significantpoverty in Austrian Galicia.Galicia was the poorest province of Austro-Hungary,and according toNorman Davies, could be considered "the poorest province in Europe".
NearDrohobychandBoryslavin Galicia, significant oil reserves were discovered and developed during the mid 19th and early 20th centuries.The first European attempt to drill for oil was inBóbrkain western Galicia in 1854.By 1867, a well at Kleczany, in Western Galicia, was drilled using steam to about 200 meters.On 31 December 1872, arailway linelinking Borysław (now Boryslav) with the nearby city of Drohobycz (now Drohobych) was opened. British engineer John Simeon Bergheim and CanadianWilliam Henry McGarveycame to Galicia in 1882.In 1883, their company bored holes of 700 to 1,000 meters and found large oil deposits.In 1885, they renamed their oil developing enterprise the Galician-Karpathian Petroleum Company (German:Galizisch-Karpathische Petroleum Aktien-Gesellschaft), headquartered in Vienna, with McGarvey as the chief administrator and Bergheim as a field engineer,and built a huge refinery at Maryampole nearGorlice, south of Tarnow.Considered the biggest, most efficient enterprise in Austro-Hungary, Maryampole was built in six months and employed 1,000 men.Subsequently, investors from Britain, Belgium, and Germany established companies to develop the oil and natural gas industries in Galicia.This influx of capital caused the number of petroleum enterprises to shrink from 900 to 484 by 1884, and to 285 companies manned by 3,700 workers by 1890.However, the number of oil refineries increased from thirty-one in 1880 to fifty-four in 1904.By 1904, there were thirty boreholes in Borysław of over 1,000 meters.Production increased by 50% between 1905 and 1906 and then trebled between 1906 and 1909 because of unexpected discoveries of vast oil reserves of which many were gushers.By 1909, production reached its peak at 2,076,000 tons or 4% of worldwide production.Often called the "Polish Baku", the oil fields of Borysław and nearby Tustanowice accounted for over 90% of the national oil output of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.From 500 residents in the 1860s, Borysław had swollen to 12,000 by 1898.At the turn of the century, Galicia was ranked fourth in the world as an oil producer.This significant increase in oil production also caused a slump in oil prices.A very rapid decrease in oil production in Galicia occurred just before theBalkan Warsof 1912–1913.
Galicia was theCentral Powers' only major domestic source of oil duringthe Great War.
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