Sugar

Sugaris the generic name forsweet-tasting, solublecarbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also calledmonosaccharides, includeglucose,fructose, andgalactose. Compound sugars, also calleddisaccharidesor double sugars, are molecules made of twobondedmonosaccharides; common examples aresucrose(glucose + fructose),lactose(glucose + galactose), andmaltose(two molecules of glucose).White sugaris a refined form of sucrose. In the body, compound sugars arehydrolysedinto simple sugars.
Longer chains of monosaccharides (>2) are not regarded as sugars and are calledoligosaccharidesorpolysaccharides.Starchis a glucose polymer found in plants, the most abundant source of energy inhuman food. Some other chemical substances, such asethylene glycol,glycerolandsugar alcohols, may have a sweet taste but are not classified as sugar.
Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants.Honeyand fruits are abundant natural sources of simple sugars. Sucrose is especially concentrated insugarcaneandsugar beet, making them ideal for efficient commercialextractionto make refined sugar. In 2016, the combined world production of those two crops was about two billiontonnes. Maltose may be produced bymaltinggrain. Lactose is the only sugar that cannot be extracted from plants. It can only be found in milk, including human breast milk, and in somedairy products. A cheap source of sugar iscorn syrup, industrially produced by convertingcorn starchinto sugars, such as maltose, fructose and glucose.
Sucrose is used in prepared foods (e.g., cookies and cakes), is sometimesaddedto commercially availableultra-processed foodand beverages, and is sometimes used as a sweetener for foods (e.g., toast and cereal) and beverages (e.g., coffee and tea). The average person consumes about 24 kilograms (53 pounds) of sugar each year. North and South Americans consume up to 50 kg (110 lb), and Africans consume under 20 kg (44 lb).
Asfree sugarconsumption grew in the latter part of the 20th century, researchers began to examine whether a diet high in free sugar, especially refined sugar, was damaging tohuman health. In 2015, theWorld Health Organizationstrongly recommended that adults and children reduce their intake of free sugars to less than 10% of their totalenergy intakeand encouraged a reduction to below 5%.In general, high sugar consumption damages human health more than it provides nutritional benefit and is associated with a risk of cardiometabolic and other health detriments.
Theetymologyofsugarreflects the commodity's spread. FromSanskritśarkarā, meaning "ground or candied sugar", camePersianshakarand Arabicsukkar. The Arabic word was borrowed in Medieval Latin assuccarum, whence came the 12th centuryFrenchsucreand the Englishsugar. Sugar was introduced into Europe by the Arabs in Sicily and Spain.
The English wordjaggery, a coarsebrown sugarmade fromdate palmsap orsugarcanejuice, has a similar etymological origin: Portuguesejágarafrom the Malayalamcakkarā, which is from the Sanskritśarkarā.
Sugar has been produced in theIndian subcontinentfor thousands of years. Sugarcane cultivation spread from there into China via theKhyber Passand caravan routes.It was not plentiful or cheap in early times, and in most parts of the world,honeywas more often used for sweetening.Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness. Even after refined sugarcane became more widely available during the European colonial era,palm sugarwas preferred inJavaand other sugar producing parts of southeast Asia, and along withcoconut sugar, is still used locally to make desserts today.
Sugarcane is native of tropical areas such as the Indian subcontinent (South Asia) and Southeast Asia.Different species seem to have originated from different locations;Saccharum barberioriginated in India, andS. eduleandS. officinarumcame fromNew Guinea.One of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating to the 8th century BCE, which state that the use of sugarcane originated in India.
In the tradition of Indian medicine (āyurveda), sugarcane is known by the nameIkṣu, and sugarcane juice is known asPhāṇita. Its varieties, synonyms and characteristics are defined innighaṇṭussuch as the Bhāvaprakāśa (1.6.23, group of sugarcanes).
Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turningsugarcane juiceinto granulated crystals that were easier to store and transport. The Greek physicianPedanius Dioscoridesattested to the method in his 1st century CE medical treatiseDe Materia Medica:
In the local Indian language, these crystals were calledkhanda(Devanagari: खण्ड,Khaṇḍa), which is the source of the wordcandy.Indian sailors, who carriedclarified butterand sugar as supplies, introduced knowledge of sugar along the varioustrade routesthey travelled.Traveling Buddhist monks took sugarcrystallization methodsto China.During the reign ofHarsha(r. 606–647) inNorth India, Indian envoys inTang Chinataught methods of cultivating sugarcane afterEmperor Taizong of Tang(r. 626–649) made known his interest in sugar. China established its first sugarcane plantations in the seventh century.Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, to obtain technology for sugar refining.
Nearchus, admiral ofAlexander the Great, knew of sugar during the year 325 BC because of his participation inthe campaign of Indialed by Alexander (Arrian,Anabasis).In addition to the Greek physicianPedanius Dioscorides, the RomanPliny the Elderalso described sugar in his 1st century CENatural History: "Sugar is made in Arabia as well, but Indian sugar is better. It is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut. Sugar is used only for medical purposes."Crusadersbrought sugar back to Europe after their campaigns in theHoly Land, where they encountered caravans carrying "sweet salt". Early in the 12th century, theRepublic of Veniceacquired some villages nearTyreand set up estates to produce sugar for export to Europe. It supplemented the use of honey, which had previously been the only available sweetener.Crusade chroniclerWilliam of Tyre, writing in the late 12th century, described sugar as "very necessary for the use and health of mankind".In the 15th century,Venicewas the chief sugar refining and distribution center in Europe.
There was a drastic change in the mid-15th century, whenMadeiraand theCanary Islandswere settled from Europe and sugar introduced there.After this an "all-consuming passion for sugar ... swept through society" as it became far more easily available, though initially still very expensive.By 1492, Madeira was producing over 1,400,000 kilograms (3,000,000 lb) of sugar annually.Genoa, one of the centers of distribution, became known for candied fruit, while Venice specialized in pastries, sweets (candies), andsugar sculptures. Sugar was considered to have "valuable medicinal properties" as a "warm" food under prevailing categories, being "helpful to the stomach, to cure cold diseases, and sooth lung complaints".
A feast given inToursin 1457 byGaston de Foix, which is "probably the best and most complete account we have of a late medieval banquet" includes the first mention of sugar sculptures, as the final food brought in was "a heraldic menagerie sculpted in sugar: lions, stags, monkeys ... each holding in paw or beak the arms of theHungarian king".Other recorded grand feasts in the decades following included similar pieces.Originally the sculptures seem to have been eaten in the meal, but later they become merely table decorations, the most elaborate calledtrionfi. Several significant sculptors are known to have produced them; in some cases their preliminary drawings survive. Early ones were in brown sugar, partlycastin molds, with the final touches carved. They continued to be used until at least the Coronation Banquet forEdward VII of the United Kingdomin 1903; among other sculptures every guest was given a sugar crown to take away.
In August 1492,Christopher Columbuscollected sugar cane samples inLa Gomerain theCanary Islands, and introduced it to theNew World.The cuttings were planted and the first sugar-cane harvest inHispaniolatook place in 1501. Many sugar mills had been constructed inCubaandJamaicaby the 1520s.The Portuguese took sugar cane to Brazil. By 1540, there were 800 cane-sugar mills inSanta Catarina Islandand another 2,000 on the north coast of Brazil,Demarara, andSurinam. It took until 1600 for Brazilian sugar production to exceed that ofSão Tomé, which was the main center of sugar production in sixteenth century.
Sugar was a luxury in Europe until the early 19th century, when it became more widely available, due to the rise ofbeet sugarinPrussia, and later inFranceunderNapoleon.Beet sugar was a German invention, since, in 1747,Andreas Sigismund Marggrafannounced the discovery of sugar in beets and devised a method using alcohol to extract it.Marggraf's student,Franz Karl Achard, devised an economical industrial method to extract the sugar in its pure form in the late 18th century.Achard first produced beet sugar in 1783 inKaulsdorf, and in 1801, the world's first beet sugar production facility was established inCunern,Silesia(then part of Prussia, nowPoland).The works of Marggraf and Achard were the starting point for the sugar industry in Europe,and for the modern sugar industry in general, since sugar was no longer a luxury product and a product almost only produced in warmer climates.
Sugar became highly popular and by the 19th century, was found in every household. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient resulted in major economic and social changes.Demand drove, in part, the colonization of tropical islands and areas where labor-intensive sugarcane plantations and sugar manufacturing facilities could be successful.World consumption increased more than 100 times from 1850 to 2000, led by Britain, where it increased from about 2 pounds per head per year in 1650 to 90 pounds by the early 20th century. In the late 18th century Britain consumed about half the sugar which reached Europe.
After slavery wasabolished, the demand for workers in European colonies in the Caribbean was filled byindentured laborersfrom theIndian subcontinent.Millions of enslaved or indentured laborers were brought to various European colonies in the Americas, Africa and Asia (as a result of demand in Europe for among other commodities, sugar), influencing the ethnic mixture of numerous nations around the globe.
Sugar also led to some industrialization of areas where sugar cane was grown. For example, in the 1790s Lieutenant J. Paterson, of theBengal Presidencypromoted to theBritish parliamentthe idea that sugar cane could grow inBritish India, where it had started, with many advantages and at less expense than in theWest Indies. As a result, sugar factories were established inBiharin eastern India.During theNapoleonic Wars, sugar-beet production increased in continental Europe because of the difficulty of importing sugar when shipping was subject toblockade. By 1880 the sugar beet was the main source of sugar in Europe. It was also cultivated inLincolnshireand other parts of England, although the United Kingdom continued to import the main part of its sugar from its colonies.
Until the late nineteenth century, sugar was purchased inloaves, which had to be cut using implements calledsugar nips.In later years, granulated sugar was more usually sold in bags.Sugar cubeswere produced in the nineteenth century. The first inventor of a process to produce sugar in cube form wasJakob Christof Rad, director of a sugar refinery inDačice. In 1841, he produced the first sugar cube in the world.He began sugar-cube production after being granted a five-year patent for the process on 23 January 1843.Henry TateofTate & Lylewas another early manufacturer of sugar cubes at his refineries inLiverpooland London. Tate purchased a patent for sugar-cube manufacture from GermanEugen Langen, who in 1872 had invented a different method of processing of sugar cubes.
Sugar was rationed duringWorld War I, though it was said that "No previous war in history has been fought so largely on sugar and so little on alcohol",and more sharply duringWorld War II.Rationing led to the development and use of variousartificial sweeteners.
Scientifically,sugarloosely refers to a number ofcarbohydrates, such asmonosaccharides,disaccharides, oroligosaccharides. Monosaccharides are also called "simple sugars", the most important being glucose. Most monosaccharides have a formula that conforms toCnH2nOnwith n between 3 and 7 (deoxyribosebeing an exception).Glucosehas themolecular formulaC6H12O6. The names of typical sugars end with -ose, as in "glucose" and "fructose". Sometimes such words may also refer to any types ofcarbohydratessoluble in water. Theacyclicmono- and disaccharides contain eitheraldehydegroups orketonegroups. Thesecarbon-oxygendouble bonds (C=O) are the reactive centers. Allsaccharideswith more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined byglycosidic bondswith the resultant loss of a molecule of water (H2O) per bond.
Monosaccharidesin a closed-chain form can form glycosidic bonds with other monosaccharides, creating disaccharides (such assucrose) andpolysaccharides(such asstarchorcellulose).Enzymesmust hydrolyze or otherwise break these glycosidic bonds before such compounds becomemetabolized. After digestion and absorption the principal monosaccharides present in the blood and internal tissues include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Manypentosesandhexosescan formring structures. In these closed-chain forms, the aldehyde or ketone group remains non-free, so many of the reactions typical of these groups cannot occur. Glucose in solution exists mostly in the ring form atequilibrium, with less than 0.1% of the molecules in the open-chain form.
Biopolymersof sugars are common in nature. Through photosynthesis, plants produceglyceraldehyde-3-phosphate(G3P), a phosphated 3-carbon sugar that is used by the cell to make monosaccharides such as glucose (C6H12O6) or (as in cane and beet) sucrose (C12H22O11). Monosaccharides may be further converted intostructural polysaccharidessuch ascelluloseandpectinforcell wallconstruction or into energy reserves in the form ofstorage polysaccharidessuch as starch orinulin. Starch, consisting of two different polymers of glucose, is a readily degradable form of chemicalenergystored bycells, and can be converted to other types of energy.Another polymer of glucose is cellulose, which is a linear chain composed of several hundred or thousand glucose units. It is used by plants as a structural component in their cell walls. Humans can digest cellulose only to a very limited extent, thoughruminantscan do so with the help ofsymbioticbacteria in their gut.DNAandRNAare built up of the monosaccharidesdeoxyriboseandribose, respectively. Deoxyribose has the formulaC5H10O4and ribose the formulaC5H10O5.
Because sugars burn easily when exposed to flame, the handling of sugars risksdust explosion. The risk of explosion is higher when the sugar has been milled to superfine texture, such as for use inchewing gum.The2008 Georgia sugar refinery explosion, which killed 14 people and injured 36, and destroyed most of the refinery, was caused by the ignition of sugar dust.
In its culinary use, exposing sugar to heat causescaramelization. As the process occurs,volatilechemicals such asdiacetylare released, producing the characteristiccaramelflavor.
Fructose, galactose, and glucose are all simple sugars, monosaccharides, with the general formula C6H12O6. They have five hydroxyl groups (−OH) and a carbonyl group (C=O) and are cyclic when dissolved in water. They each exist as severalisomerswith dextro- and laevo-rotatory forms that cause polarized light to diverge to the right or the left.
Lactose, maltose, and sucrose are all compound sugars, disaccharides, with the general formulaC12H22O11. They are formed by the combination of two monosaccharide molecules with the exclusion of a molecule of water.
The sugar contents of common fruits and vegetables are presented in Table 1.
Due to rising demand, sugar production in general increased some 14% over the period 2009 to 2018.The largest importers were China,Indonesia, and the United States.
In 2022–2023 world production of sugar was 186 million tonnes, and in 2023–2024 an estimated 194 million tonnes — a surplus of 5 million tonnes, according toRagus.
Sugar cane accounted for around 21% of the global crop production over the 2000–2021 period. The Americas was the leading region in the production of sugar cane (52% of the world total).Global production ofsugarcanein 2020 was 1.9 billion tonnes, with Brazil producing 40% of the world total and India 20% (table).
Sugarcane is any of several species, or their hybrids, of giant grasses in the genusSaccharumin the familyPoaceae. They have been cultivated in tropical climates in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia over centuries for the sucrose found in their stems.
Sugar cane requires a frost-free climate with sufficient rainfall during the growing season to make full use of the plant's substantial growth potential. The crop is harvested mechanically or by hand, chopped into lengths and conveyed rapidly to theprocessing plant(commonly known as asugar mill) where it is either milled and the juice extracted with water or extracted by diffusion.The juice is clarified withlimeand heated to destroyenzymes. The resulting thin syrup is concentrated in a series of evaporators, after which further water is removed. The resultingsupersaturatedsolution is seeded with sugar crystals, facilitating crystal formation and drying.Molassesis a by-product of the process and the fiber from the stems, known asbagasse,is burned to provide energy for the sugar extraction process. The crystals of raw sugar have a sticky brown coating and either can be used as they are, can be bleached bysulfur dioxide, or can be treated in acarbonatationprocess to produce a whiter product.About 2,500 litres (660 US gal) of irrigation water is needed for every one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of sugar produced.
In 2020, global production ofsugar beetswas 253 milliontonnes, led by Russia with 13% of the world total (table).
Sugar beet became a major source of sugar in the 19th century when methods for extracting the sugar became available. It is abiennial plant,acultivated varietyofBeta vulgarisin thefamilyAmaranthaceae, the tuberous root of which contains a high proportion of sucrose. It is cultivated as a root crop in temperate regions with adequate rainfall and requires a fertile soil. The crop is harvested mechanically in the autumn and the crown of leaves and excess soil removed. The roots do not deteriorate rapidly and may be left in the field for some weeks before being transported to the processing plant where the crop is washed and sliced, and the sugar extracted by diffusion.Milk of limeis added to the raw juice withcalcium carbonate. After water is evaporated by boiling the syrup under a vacuum, the syrup is cooled and seeded with sugar crystals. Thewhite sugarthat crystallizes can be separated in a centrifuge and dried, requiring no further refining.
Refined sugar is made from raw sugar that has undergone arefiningprocess to remove themolasses.Raw sugar is sucrose which is extracted from sugarcane orsugar beet. While raw sugar can be consumed, the refining process removes unwanted tastes and results in refined sugar or white sugar.
The sugar may be transported in bulk to the country where it will be used and the refining process often takes place there. The first stage is known as affination and involves immersing the sugar crystals in a concentrated syrup that softens and removes the sticky brown coating without dissolving them. The crystals are then separated from the liquor and dissolved in water. The resulting syrup is treated either by acarbonatationor by a phosphatation process. Both involve the precipitation of a fine solid in the syrup and when this is filtered out, many of the impurities are removed at the same time. Removal of color is achieved by using either a granularactivated carbonor anion-exchange resin. The sugar syrup is concentrated by boiling and then cooled and seeded with sugar crystals, causing the sugar to crystallize out. The liquor is spun off in a centrifuge and the white crystals are dried in hot air and ready to be packaged or used. The surplus liquor is made into refiners' molasses.
TheInternational Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysissets standards for the measurement of the purity of refined sugar, known as ICUMSA numbers; lower numbers indicate a higher level of purity in the refined sugar.
Refined sugar is widely used for industrial needs for higher quality. Refined sugar is purer (ICUMSA below 300) than raw sugar (ICUMSA over 1,500).The level of purity associated with the colors of sugar, expressed by standard numberICUMSA, the smaller ICUMSA numbers indicate the higher purity of sugar.
Brown sugarsare granulated sugars, either containing residual molasses, or with the grains deliberately coated with molasses to produce a light- or dark-colored sugar such asmuscovadoandturbinado. They are used in baked goods, confectionery, andtoffees.Their darkness is due to the amount of molasses they contain. They may be classified based on their darkness or country of origin.
Worldwide sugar provides 10% of the daily calories (based on a 2000 kcal diet).In 1750, the average Briton got 72 calories a day from sugar. In 1913, this had risen to 395. In 2015, sugar still provided around 14% of the calories in British diets.According to one source, per capita consumption of sugar in 2016 was highest in the United States, followed by Germany and the Netherlands.
Brown and white granulated sugar are 97% to nearly 100% carbohydrates, respectively, with less than 2% water, and no dietary fiber, protein or fat (table). Brown sugar contains a moderate amount of iron (15% of theReference Daily Intakein a 100 gram amount, see table), but a typical serving of 4 grams (one teaspoon), would provide 15caloriesand a negligible amount of iron or any other nutrient.Because brown sugar contains 5–10%molassesreintroduced during processing, its value to some consumers is a richer flavor than white sugar.
High sugar consumption damages human health more than it provides nutritional benefit, and in particular is associated with a risk of cardiometabolic health detriments.
Sugar refiners and manufacturers of sugary foods and drinks have sought to influence medical research andpublic healthrecommendations,with substantial and largely clandestine spending documented from the 1960s to 2016.The results of research on the health effects of sugary food and drink differ significantly, depending on whether the researcher has financial ties to the food and drink industry.A 2013 medical review concluded that "unhealthy commodity industries should have no role in the formation of national or international NCD [non-communicable disease] policy".Similar efforts to steer coverage of sugar-related health information have been made in popular media, including news media and social media.
A 2003 technical report by theWorld Health Organization(WHO) provides evidence that high intake of sugary drinks (includingfruit juice) increases the risk ofobesityby adding to overallenergy intake.By itself, sugar is doubtfully a factor causing obesity andmetabolic syndrome.Meta-analysisshowed that excessive consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages increased the risk of developingtype 2 diabetesand metabolic syndrome – including weight gainand obesity – in adults and children.
Sugar consumption does not directly cause cancer.Cancer Council Australiahave stated that "there is no evidence that consuming sugar makes cancer cells grow faster or cause cancer".There is an indirect relationship between sugar consumption and obesity-related cancers through increased risk of excess body weight.
TheAmerican Institute for Cancer ResearchandWorld Cancer Research Fundrecommend that people limit sugar consumption.
There is a popular misconception that cancer can be treated by reducing sugar and carbohydrate intake to supposedly "starve" tumours. In reality, the health of people with cancer is best served by maintaining ahealthy diet.
Despite some studies suggesting that sugar consumption causes hyperactivity, the quality of evidence is lowand it is generally accepted within the scientific community that the notion of children's 'sugar rush' is a myth.A 2019meta-analysisfound that sugar consumption does not improvemood, but can lower alertness and increase fatigue within an hour of consumption.One review of low-quality studies of children consuming high amounts ofenergy drinksshowed association with higher rates of unhealthy behaviors, including smoking and excessive alcohol use, and with hyperactivity andinsomnia, although such effects could not be specifically attributed to sugar over other components of those drinks such ascaffeine.
The WHO,Action on Sugarand the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) consider free sugars an essential dietary factor in the development of dental caries.WHO have stated that "dental caries can be prevented by avoiding dietary free sugars".
A review of human studies showed that the incidence of caries is lower when sugar intake is less than 10% of total energy consumed.Sugar-sweetened beverageconsumption is associated with an increased risk of tooth decay.
The "empty calories" argument states that a diet high inadded(or 'free') sugars will reduce consumption of foods that containessential nutrients.This nutrient displacement occurs if sugar makes up more than 25% of daily energy intake,a proportion associated with poor diet quality and risk of obesity.Displacement may occur at lower levels of consumption.
The WHO recommends that both adults and children reduce the intake of free sugars to less than 10% of total energy intake, and suggests a reduction to below 5%. "Free sugars" include monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods, and sugars found in fruit juice and concentrates, as well as in honey and syrups. According to the WHO, "[t]hese recommendations were based on the totality of available evidence reviewed regarding the relationship between free sugars intake and body weight (low and moderate quality evidence) and dental caries (very low and moderate quality evidence)."
On 20 May 2016, the U.S.Food and Drug Administrationannounced changes to the Nutrition Facts panel displayed on all foods, to be effective by July 2018. New to the panel is a requirement to list "added sugars" by weight and as a percent of Daily Value (DV). For vitamins and minerals, the intent of DVs is to indicate how much should be consumed. For added sugars, the guidance is that 100% DV should not be exceeded. 100% DV is defined as 50 grams. For a person consuming 2000 calories a day, 50 grams is equal to 200 calories and thus 10% of total calories—the same guidance as the WHO.To put this in context, most 12-US-fluid-ounce (355 ml) cans of soda contain 39 grams of sugar. In the United States, a government survey on food consumption in 2013–2014 reported that, for men and women aged 20 and older, the average total sugar intakes—naturally occurring in foods and added—were, respectively, 125 and 99 g/day.
Various culinary sugars have different densities due to differences in particle size and inclusion of moisture. The "Engineering Resources – Bulk Density Chart" published inPowder and Bulkgives values for bulk densities:
Manufacturers of sugary products, such as soft drinks and candy, and theSugar Research Foundationhave been accused of trying to influence consumers and medical associations in the 1960s and 1970s by creating doubt about the potential health hazards of sucrose overconsumption, while promotingsaturated fatas the main dietary risk factor incardiovascular diseases.In 2016, the criticism led to recommendations that dietpolicymakersemphasize the need for high-quality research that accounts for multiplebiomarkerson development of cardiovascular diseases.
This article incorporates text from afree contentwork. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken fromWorld Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.