Cambodia

Cambodia,officially theKingdom of Cambodia,is a country inSoutheast Asiaon theIndochinese Peninsula. It is bordered byThailandto the northwest,Laosto the north, andVietnamto the east, and has a coastline along theGulf of Thailandin the southwest. It spans an area of 181,035 square kilometres (69,898square miles), dominated by a low-lying plain and the confluence of theMekongriver andTonlé Sap, Southeast Asia's largest lake. It is dominated by atropical climateand is rich in biodiversity. Cambodia has a population of about 17 million people,the majority of which are ethnicallyKhmer. Its capital and most populous city isPhnom Penh, followed bySiem ReapandBattambang.
In 802 AD,Jayavarman IIdeclared himself king, uniting the warring Khmer princes ofChenlaunder the name "Kambuja".This marked the beginning of theKhmer Empire. TheIndianised kingdomfacilitated the spread of firstHinduismand thenBuddhismto Southeast Asia and undertook religious infrastructural projects throughout the region, the most famous of which isAngkor Wat. In the 15th century, it began adecline in poweruntil, in 1863, Cambodia became aFrench protectorate. FollowingJapanese occupationduringWorld War II, Cambodia declaredindependence from Francein 1953. TheVietnam Warembroiled the country incivil warduring the 1960s, culminating in a1970 coupwhich installed the US-alignedKhmer Republicand the takeover of the communistKhmer Rougein1975. The Khmer Rougeruled the countryand carried out theCambodian genocidefrom 1975 until 1979, until they were ousted during theCambodian–Vietnamese War. Peace was restored by the1991 Paris Peace Accordsand subsequentUnited Nations peacekeeping mission, establishing a new constitution, holding the1993 general election, and endinglong-term insurgencies. The1997 coup d'étatconsolidated power under Prime MinisterHun Senand theCambodian People's Party(CPP).
Cambodia is aconstitutional monarchyandmulti-partystate,although the CPP dominates thepolitical system.The UN designates Cambodia aleast developed country.Agricultureremains its dominant economic sector, with growth in textiles, construction, garments, andtourismleading to increased foreign investment and international trade.Corruption,human rights issuesanddeforestationhave remained challenges in Cambodia's post-conflict development. The official and most widely spoken language isKhmer, and the most widely practiced religion isBuddhism. The country'scultureand traditions are shaped by its Angkorean heritage and international influences over its history.
TheKingdom of Cambodiais the official English name of the country. The EnglishCambodiais an anglicisation of the FrenchCambodge, which in turn is the French transliteration of the Khmerកម្ពុជា(Kâmpŭchéa,pronounced[kampuciə]).Kâmpŭchéais the shortened alternative to the country's official name in Khmerព្រះរាជាណាចក្រកម្ពុជា(Preăh Réachéanachâkr Kâmpŭchéa,pronounced[preahriəciənaːcakkampuciə]. The Khmerendonymកម្ពុជាKâmpŭchéaderives from the Sanskrit nameकम्बोजदेशKambojadeśa, composed ofदेशDeśa("land of" or "country of") andकम्बोज(Kamboja), referring to the descendants ofKambu(a legendary Indian sage from the ancientIndian kingdomofKamboja).The termCambodiawas already in use in Europe as early as 1524, sinceAntonio Pigafettacites it in his workRelazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo(1524–1525) asCamogia.
ScholarGeorge Coedesrefers to a 10th-century inscription of a Cambodian dynastic legend in which thehermitKambu Swayambhuvaand the celestial nymphMeraunite and establish the CambodianSolarroyal dynasty (Kambu-Mera), that begins with theChenlarulerSrutavarmanand his sonSreshthavarman. Coedes suggests that theKambu Swayambhuvalegend has its origins in southern India, as a version of theKanchiPallava dynastycreation myth.
Colloquially, Cambodians refer to their country as eitherSrok Khmer(ស្រុកខ្មែរSrŏk Khmêr,pronounced[srokkʰmae]; meaning "Land of the Khmers"), or the slightly more formalប្រទេសកម្ពុជា(Prâtés Kâmpŭchéa,pronounced[prɑtehkampuciə]; "Country of Kampuchea"). The nameCambodiais used most often in the Western world whileKampucheais more widely used in the Eastern world.
There exists evidence for aPleistocenehuman occupation of what later is Cambodia, which includesquartzandquartzitepebble tools found in terraces along the Mekong River, inStung TrengandKratiéprovinces, and inKampot Province.Some archaeological evidence shows communities ofhunter-gatherersinhabited the region during theHolocene: the most ancient archaeological discovery site in Cambodia is considered to be the cave ofLaang Spean, which belongs to theHoabinhianperiod. Excavations in its lower layers produced a series ofradiocarbondates around 6000 BC.Upper layers in the same site gave evidence of transition toNeolithic, containing the earliest dated earthenware ceramics in Cambodia.
Archaeological records for the period between the Holocene andIron Ageremain equally limited. An event in prehistory was the penetration of the first rice farmers from the north, which began in the third millennium BC.Prehistoric evidence are the "circularearthworks" discovered in thered soilsnearMemotand in the adjacent region of Vietnam in the latter 1950s. Their function and age are still debated, and some of them possibly date from the second millennium BC.Other prehistoric sites of somewhat uncertain date areSamrong Sen(not far from the ancient capital ofOudong), where the first investigations began in 1875,andPhum Snay, in the northern province ofBanteay Meanchey.
Iron was worked by about 500 BC, with supporting evidence coming from theKhorat Plateau, in what later is Thailand. In Cambodia, someIron Agesettlements were found beneathBaksei Chamkrongand other Angkorian temples while circular earthworks were discovered at the site ofLoveakilometres north-west of Angkor. Burials testify to improvement of food availability and trade, and the existence of a social structure and labour organisation.Kinds of glass beads recovered from sites, such as the Phum Snay site in the northwest and the Prohear site in the southeast, suggest that there were two main trading networks at the time. The two networks were separated by time and space, which indicate that there was a shift from one network to the other at about the 2nd–4th century AD, probably due to changes in socio-political powers.
During the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries, theIndianised statesofFunanand its successor,Chenla, coalesced in what later is Cambodia and southwestern Vietnam. For more than 2,000 years, what was to become Cambodia absorbed influences fromIndia, passing them on to other Southeast Asian civilisations that later became Thailand and Laos.
TheKhmer Empiregrew out of the remnants of Chenla, becoming firmly established in 802 whenJayavarman II(reignedc.790–c.835) declared independence fromJavaand proclaimed themselves aDevaraja. They and their followers instituted the cult of theGod-kingand began a series of conquests that formed an empire which flourished in the area from the 9th to the 15th centuries.During the rule ofJayavarman VIIIthe Angkor empire was attacked by theMongolarmy ofKublai Khan; the king was able to buy peace.Around the 13th century, Theravada missionaries fromSri LankareintroducedTheravada Buddhismto Southeast Asia, having sent missionaries previously in the 1190s.The religion spread and eventually displaced Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism as the popular religion of Angkor; it was not the official state religion until 1295 whenIndravarman IIItook power.
The Khmer Empire was Southeast Asia's largest empire during the 12th century. The empire's centre of power wasAngkor, where a series of capitals were constructed during the empire's zenith. In 2007 an international team of researchers using satellite photographs and other modern techniques concluded that Angkor had been the largest pre-industrial city in the world with an urban sprawl of 2,980 square kilometres (1,151 square miles).The city could have supported a population of up to 1 million people.
After a series of wars with neighbouring kingdoms, Angkor was sacked by theAyutthaya Kingdomand abandoned in 1432 because of ecological failure and infrastructure breakdown.
Thehill tribepeople were "hunted incessantly and carried off asslavesby the Siamese (Thai), the Annamites (Vietnamese), and the Cambodians".
Formerly part of the Khmer Empire, theMekong Deltahad been controlled by the Vietnamese since 1698,with KingChey Chettha IIgranting the Vietnamese permission to settle in the area decades before.
In 1863,King Norodomsigned a treaty of protection with France.Theprotectorate of Franceperiod lasted until 1953, with a brief interruption while the kingdom wasoccupied by the Japanese empirefrom 1941 to 1945and simultaneously existing as the puppet state ofKingdom of Kampucheain 1945. Between 1874 and 1962, the total population increased from about 946,000 to 5.7 million.After King Norodom's death in 1904, France manipulated the choice of king and Sisowath, Norodom's brother, was placed on the throne. The throne became vacant in 1941 with the death of Monivong, Sisowath's son, and France passed over Monivong's son, Monireth, feeling he was too independently minded. Instead,Norodom Sihanouk, a maternal grandson of King Sisowath was enthroned. The French thought young Sihanouk would be easy to control.Under the reign of King Norodom Sihanouk, Cambodia gained independence from France on 9 November 1953.
In 1955, Sihanouk abdicated in favour of his father to participate in politics and was elected prime minister. Upon his father's death in 1960, Sihanouk again became head of state, taking the title of prince. As theVietnam Warprogressed, Sihanouk adopted an official policy ofneutralityin theCold War. Sihanouk allowed the Vietnamese communists to use Cambodia as a sanctuary and a supply route for their arms and other aid to their armed forces fighting in South Vietnam. In December 1967Washington Postjournalist Stanley Karnow was told by Sihanouk that if the US wanted to bomb the Vietnamese communist sanctuaries, he would not object unless Cambodians were killed.
The same message was conveyed toUS President Johnson'semissaryChester Bowlesin January 1968.In public Sihanouk refuted the right of the U.S. to use air strikes in Cambodia, and on 26 March he said "these criminal attacks must immediately and definitively stop". On 28 March a press conference was held and Sihanouk appealed to the international media: "I appeal to you to publicise abroad this very clear stand of Cambodia—that is, I will, in any case, oppose all bombings on Cambodian territory under whatever pretext." Nevertheless, the bombing continued.
While visiting Beijing in 1970 Sihanouk wasousted by a military coupled by Prime Minister GeneralLon Noland Prince SisowathSirik Matak.Once the coup was completed, the new regime, which demanded that the Vietnamese communists leave Cambodia, gained the political support of the United States. The North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces, desperate to retain their sanctuaries and supply lines from North Vietnam, launched armed attacks on the new government. The king urged his followers to help in overthrowing this government, hastening the onset ofcivil war.
Khmer Rougerebels began using him to gain support. From 1970 until 1972, the Cambodian conflict was largely between the government and army of Cambodia, and the armed forces of North Vietnam. As they gained control of Cambodian territory, the Vietnamese communists imposed a new political infrastructure, which was eventually dominated by the Cambodian communists now referred to as the Khmer Rouge.
Documents uncovered from the Soviet archives after 1991 reveal that the North Vietnamese attempt to overrun Cambodia in 1970 was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge and negotiated byPol Pot's then second in command,Nuon Chea.NVA units overran Cambodian army positions while theCommunist Party of Kampuchea(CPK) expanded their attacks on lines of communication. In response to the North Vietnamese invasion, US PresidentRichard Nixonannounced that US and South Vietnamese ground forces had entered Cambodia in a campaign aimed at destroying NVA base areas in Cambodia (seeCambodian Incursion).
On New Year's Day 1975, Communist troops launched an offensive which, in 117 days, led to the collapse of the Khmer Republic. Simultaneous attacks around the perimeter of Phnom Penh pinned down Republican forces, while other CPK units overran fire bases controlling the vital lower Mekong resupply route. A US-funded airlift of ammunition and rice ended when Congress refused additional aid for Cambodia. The Lon Nol government in Phnom Penh surrendered on 17 April 1975, 5 days after the US mission evacuated Cambodia.
Estimates as to how many people werekilled by the Khmer Rouge regimerange from approximately 1 to 3 million; a cited figure is 2 million (about a quarter of the population).This era gave rise to the termKilling Fields, and the prisonTuol Slengbecame known for its history of mass killing. Hundreds of thousands fled across the border into neighbouring Thailand. The regime disproportionately targetedethnic minoritygroups. TheChamMuslims underwent purges with as much as half of their population exterminated.Pol Pot was determined to keep his power and disenfranchise any enemies or potential threats, and thus increased his violent and aggressive actions against his people.
Forced repatriation in 1970 and deaths during the Khmer Rouge era reduced theVietnamesepopulation in Cambodia from between 250,000 and 300,000 in 1969 to a reported 56,000 in 1984.Most of the victims of the Khmer Rouge regime were not ethnic minorities but ethnic Khmer. Professionals, such as doctors, lawyers and teachers, were targeted. According toRobert D. Kaplan, "eyeglasses were as deadly as theyellow star" as they were seen as a sign of intellectualism.
Religious institutions were targeted by the Khmer Rouge. The majority ofKhmer architecture, 95% of Cambodia's Buddhist temples, were destroyed.
In November 1978, Vietnamese troopsinvaded Cambodiain response to border raids by the Khmer Rougeand conquered it. ThePeople's Republic of Kampuchea(PRK) was established as apro-Sovietstate led by the Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Party, a party created by the Vietnamese in 1951, and led by a group of Khmer Rouge who had fled Cambodia to avoid being purged by Pol Pot andTa Mok.It was fully beholden to the occupying Vietnamese army and under the direction of the Vietnamese ambassador to Phnom Penh. Its arms came from Vietnam and the Soviet Union.
In opposition to the newly created state, a government-in-exile referred to as theCoalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea(CGDK) was formed in 1981 from three factions.This consisted of the Khmer Rouge, a royalist faction led by Sihanouk, and theKhmer People's National Liberation Front. Its credentials were recognised by the United Nations. The Khmer Rouge representative to UN, Thiounn Prasith, was retained, and he had to work in consultation with representatives of the noncommunist Cambodian parties.The refusal of Vietnam to withdraw from Cambodia led toeconomic sanctions.
Peace effortsbegan in Paris in 1989 under theState of Cambodia, culminating two years later in October 1991 in aParis Comprehensive Peace Settlement. The UN was given a mandate to enforce a ceasefire and deal with refugees and disarmament known as theUnited Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia(UNTAC).
In 1993, themonarchywas restored withNorodom Sihanoukreinstated as King, and thefirst post-war electionwas coordinated byUNTAC. The election was won byFUNCINPECled by Sihanouk's sonRanariddhin ahung parliament. A power-sharing agreement was agreed with Ranariddh andHun Senof theCambodian People's Partyboth simultaneously being co-Prime Ministers after the CPP threatened tosecede part of the countryif power was fully transferred to FUNCINPEC. The stability established following the conflict was shaken in 1997 by acoup d'étatled by the co-Prime Minister Hun Sen, who ousted Ranariddh and other parties represented in the government and consolidated power for CPP.After its government was able to stabilize under Sen, Cambodia was accepted into theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN) on 30 April 1999.Norodom Sihamoniwas crowned Cambodia's king in 2004 after his father Sihanouk's abdication.
During the late 1990s and early 2000s, reconstruction efforts progressed which led to some political stability through amultipartydemocracy under aconstitutional monarchyalthough Sen's rule has been marred byhuman rights abusesandcorruption.Cambodia's economygrew rapidly in the 2000s and 2010s,and it received considerable investment and infrastructure development support fromChinaas part of itsBelt and Road Initiative.
A UN-backed war crimes tribunal, theKhmer Rouge Tribunalsought out to investigate crimes committed during the Democratic Kampuchea period and prosecute its leaders. Hun Sen has opposed extensive trials or investigations of former Khmer Rouge officials.In July 2010,Kang Kek Iewwas the first Khmer Rouge member found guilty ofwar crimesandcrimes against humanityin his role as the former commandant of theS21 extermination campand he was sentenced to life in prison.In August 2014, the tribunal sentencedKhieu Samphan, the regime's 83-year-old former head of state, andNuon Chea, its 88-year-old chief ideologue, to life in prison on war crimes charges for their role in the country's terror period in the 1970s.
After the2013 Cambodian general election, allegations of voter fraud from opposition partyCambodia National Rescue Partyled towidespread anti-government proteststhat continued into the following year. The protests ended after a crackdown by government forces.TheCambodia National Rescue Partywas dissolved ahead of the2018 Cambodian general electionand the rulingCambodian People's Partyalso enacted tighter curbs onmass media.The CPP won every seat in the National Assembly without major opposition, effectively solidifyingde factoone-party rule in the country.
The globalCOVID-19 pandemic spread to Cambodiain early 2020. Despite minimising the disease's spread for much of 2020the country's health system was put under strain by a major outbreak in early 2021, which prompted severallockdowns.It also had a severe economic impact, with thetourism industryparticularly affected due tointernational travel restrictions.
Prime Minister Hun Sen assumed office 40 years ago and is one of theworld's longest-serving leaders. He has been accused of crackdowns on opponents and critics. In December 2021, Hun Sen announced his support for his sonHun Manetto succeed him after thenext general election in 2023.A July 2023Human Rights Watchreport showed numerous and significant election fraud and vote tampering in the June 2022 commune elections.In the July 2023election, the ruling Cambodian People's Party (CPP) easily won by a landslide in a flawed election, after the disqualification of Cambodia's most important opposition,Candlelight Party.On 22 August 2023, Hun Manet was sworn in as the new Cambodian prime minister.
Cambodia has an area of 181,035 square kilometres (69,898 square miles) and lies entirely within the tropics, between latitudes10°and15°N, and longitudes102°and108°E. It borders Thailand to the north and west, Laos to the northeast, andVietnamto the east and southeast. It has a 443-kilometre (275-mile) coastline along theGulf of Thailand.
Cambodia's landscape is characterised by a low-lying central plain that is surrounded by uplands and low mountains and includes theTonle Sap(Great Lake) and the upper reaches of theMekong Riverdelta. Extending outward from this central region are transitional plains, thinly forested and rising to elevations of about 650 feet (200 metres)above sea level.In Cambodiaforest coveris around 46% of the total land area, equivalent to 8,068,370 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 11,004,790 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 7,464,400 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 603,970 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 4% was reported to beprimary forest(consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity). For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be underpublic ownership.
To the north the Cambodian plain abuts a sandstone escarpment, which forms a southward-facing cliff stretching more than 200 miles (320 kilometres) from west to east and rising abruptly above the plain to heights of 600 to 1,800 feet (180–550 metres). This cliff marks the southern limit of theDângrêk Mountains.
Flowing south through Cambodia's eastern regions is the Mekong River. East of the Mekong the transitional plains gradually merge with the eastern highlands, a region of forested mountains and high plateaus that extend into Laos and Vietnam. In southwestern Cambodia two distinct upland blocks, theKrâvanh Mountainsand theDâmrei Mountains, form another highland region that covers much of the land area between the Tonle Sap and theGulf of Thailand.
In this remote and largely uninhabited area,Phnom Aural, Cambodia's highest peak rises to an elevation of 5,949 feet (1,813 metres).The southern coastal region adjoining the Gulf of Thailand is a narrow lowland strip, heavily wooded and sparsely populated, which is isolated from the central plain by the southwestern highlands.
The most distinctive geographical feature is the inundations of the Tonle Sap, measuring about 2,590 square kilometres (1,000 square miles) during the dry season and expanding to about 24,605 square kilometres (9,500 square miles) during the rainy season. This densely populated plain, which is devoted to wet rice cultivation, is the heartland of Cambodia.Much of this area has been designated as abiosphere reserve.
Cambodia's climate, like that of the rest of Southeast Asia, is dominated bymonsoons, which are known as tropical wet and dry because of the distinctly marked seasonal differences.
Cambodia has a temperature range from 21 to 35 °C (70 to 95 °F) and experiences tropical monsoons. Southwest monsoons blow inland bringing moisture-laden winds from theGulf of Thailandand Indian Ocean from May to October. The northeast monsoon ushers in the dry season, which lasts from November to April. The country experiences the heaviest precipitation from September to October with the driest period occurring from January to February.
According to theInternational Development Research CentreandThe United Nations, Cambodia is considered Southeast Asia's most vulnerable country to the effects of climate change, alongside the Philippines.Nearly all provinces in Cambodia areaffected by climate change.Rural coastal populations are particularly at risk.Shortages of clean water, extreme flooding, mudslides, higher sea levels and potentially destructive storms are of particular concern, according to the Cambodia Climate Change Alliance. Climate change has also had a major impact on water levels, ecology and productivity of theTonlé Sapin recent years, affecting the food security and agriculture of a large proportion of Cambodia's population.
Cambodia has two distinct seasons. The rainy season, which runs from May to October, can see temperatures drop to 22 °C (72 °F) and is generally accompanied with high humidity. The dry season lasts from November to April when temperatures can rise up to 40 °C (104 °F) around April. Disastrous flooding occurred in 2001 and again in 2002, with some degree of flooding almost every year.Severe flooding also affected 17 provinces in Cambodia during the2020 Pacific typhoon season.
Cambodia'sbiodiversityis largely founded on itsseasonal tropical forests, containing some180 recorded tree species, andriparianecosystems. There are 212mammalspecies, 536 bird species, 240reptilespecies, 850 freshwater fish species (Tonle SapLake area), and 435 marine fish species recorded by science. Much of this biodiversity is contained around the Tonle Sap Lake and the surrounding biosphere.
TheTonle Sap Biosphere Reserveis a reserve surrounding theTonle Saplake. It encompasses the lake and nine provinces:Kampong Thom,Siem Reap,Battambang,Pursat,Kampong Chhnang,Banteay Meanchey,Pailin,Oddar MeancheyandPreah Vihear. In 1997, it was successfully nominated as aUNESCOBiosphere Reserve.Other key habitats include the evergreen and dryDipterocarp forestsofMondolkiriprovince, protected byKeo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary,Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, andSrepok Wildlife Sanctuary, as well asRatanakiriprovince, and theCardamom Mountainsecosystem, includingPreah Monivong National Park,Botum-Sakor National Park, and thePhnom Aural Wildlife SanctuaryandPhnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary.
TheWorldwide Fund for Naturerecognises six distinctterrestrial ecoregionsin Cambodia – theCardamom Mountains rain forests,Central Indochina dry forest, Southeast Indochina dry evergreen forest, SouthernAnnamite Rangetropical forest, Tonle Sap freshwater swamp forest, and Tonle Sap-Mekong peatswamp forest.
The rate ofdeforestation in Cambodiais one of the highest in the world and it is often perceived as the most destructive, singular environmental issue in the country.Cambodia'sprimary forestcover fell from over 70% in 1969 to just 3.1% in 2007. Since 2007, less than 3,220 km(1,243 sq mi) of primary forest remain with the result that the futuresustainabilityof the forest reserves of Cambodia is under severe threat.In 2010–2015, the annual rate of deforestation was 1.3%. The environmental degradation also includes national parks and wildlife sanctuaries on a large scale and many endangered and endemic species are now threatened with extinction due to loss of habitats. Reasons for the deforestation in Cambodia range from opportunisticillegal loggingsto large scale clearings from big construction projects and agricultural activities. The deforestation involves the local population, Cambodian businesses and authorities as well as transnational corporations from all over the world.
Plans forhydroelectric developmentin theGreater Mekong Subregion, byLaosin particular, pose a "real danger to the food supply ofVietnamand Cambodia. Upstream dams will imperil the fish stocks that provide the vast majority of Cambodia's protein and could also denude the Mekong River of the silt Vietnam needs for its rice basket." The rich fisheries ofTonle Sap, the largest freshwater lake inSoutheast Asia, largely supply the impoverished country's protein. The lake all but disappears in the dry season and then expands massively as water flow from the Mekong backs up when the rains come. "Those fish are so important for their livelihoods, both economically and nutritionally", said Gordon Holtgrieve, a professor at theUniversity of Washington; he points out that none of the dams that are either built or being built on the Mekong river "are pointing at good outcomes for the fisheries".
In the 2010s, the Cambodian government and educational system has increased its involvement and co-operation with both national and international environmental groups.A new National Environmental Strategy and Action Plan (NESAP) for Cambodia is to be implemented from late 2016 to 2023 and contains new ideas for how to incite agreenand environmentallysustainablegrowth for the country.
The autonomous municipality (reach thani) and provinces (khaet) of Cambodia are first-level administrative divisions. Cambodia is divided into 25provincesincluding the autonomous municipality.
Municipalities and districts are the second-level administrative divisions of Cambodia. The provinces are subdivided into 159 districts and 26 municipalities. The districts and municipalities in turn are further divided into communes (khum) and quarters (sangkat).
National politics in Cambodia take place within the framework of the nation'sconstitution of 1993. The government is aconstitutional monarchyoperated as aparliamentaryrepresentative democracy. ThePrime Minister of Cambodia, currentlyHun Manet, is thehead of government, while theKing of Cambodia(currentlyNorodom Sihamoni) is thehead of state. The prime minister is appointed by the king, on the advice and with the approval of theNational Assembly. The prime minister and the ministerial appointees exerciseexecutive power.
Legislative powersare shared by the executive and thebicameralParliament of Cambodia(សភាតំណាងរាស្ត្រ,sâphéa tâmnang réastrâ), which consists of a lower house, the National Assembly (រដ្ឋសភា,rôdthâsâphéa) and an upper house, the Senate (ព្រឹទ្ធសភា,prœ̆tthôsâphéa). Members of the 123-seat National Assembly are elected through a system ofproportional representationand serve for a maximum term of five years. The Senate has 61 seats, two of which are appointed by the king and two others by the National Assembly, and the rest elected by thecommune councillorsfrom the 24provinces of Cambodia. Senators serve six-year terms.
On 14 October 2004, KingNorodom Sihamoniwas selected by a special nine-memberRoyal Throne Council, part of a selection process that was quickly put in place after the abdication of KingNorodom Sihanouka week prior. Sihamoni's selection was endorsed by Prime Minister Hun Sen and National Assembly Speaker PrinceNorodom Ranariddh(the king's half-brother and current chief advisor), both members of the throne council. He was enthroned in Phnom Penh on 29 October 2004.
Officially a multiparty democracy, in reality, "the country remain[ed] a one-party state dominated by theCambodian People's Partyand Prime Minister Hun Sen, a recastKhmer Rougeofficial in power since 1985. The open doors to new investment during his reign have yielded the most access to a coterie of cronies of his and his wife,Bun Rany", according to Megha Bahree, a writer onForbes.Cambodia's government has been described by Human Rights Watch's Southeast Asian director, David Roberts, as a "relatively authoritarian coalition via a superficial democracy".
Prime Minister Hun Sen vowed to rule until he turned 74.His government was regularly accusedof ignoring human rights and suppressing political dissent. The2013 electionresults were disputed by the opposition, leading to demonstrations in the capital. Demonstrators were injured and killed in Phnom Penh where a reported 20,000 protesters gathered, with some clashing with riot police.From a humble farming background, Hun Sen was just 33 when he took power in 1985, and was by someconsidered a long-rulingdictator.Hun Sen was succeeded by his sonHun Manetas Prime Minister in August 2023 following an election that was deemed by independent and foreign media and politicians to be neither free nor fair.Hun Sen remains the de facto ruler of Cambodia through his continued leadership of the Cambodian People's Party.Following the2024 Senate election, Hun Sen became president of the Senate, a role which gives him the power to sign off on laws in the King's absence.
Since the 2017 crackdowns on political dissent and free press, Cambodia has been describedas ade factoone-party state.
The foreign relations of Cambodia are handled by theMinistry of Foreign AffairsunderPrak Sokhon. Cambodia is a member of the United Nations, theWorld Bank, and theInternational Monetary Fund. It is a member of theAsian Development Bank(ADB),ASEAN, and joined theWTOin 2004. In 2005 Cambodia attended the inauguralEast Asia Summitin Malaysia.
Cambodia has establisheddiplomatic relationswith numerous countries; the government reports twenty embassies in the countryincluding many of its Asian neighbours and those of important players during the Paris peace negotiations, including the US, Australia, Canada, China, the European Union (EU), Japan, and Russia.As a result of its international relations, various charitable organisations have assisted with social, economic, andcivilinfrastructure needs.
While the violent ruptures of the 1970s and 1980s have passed, severalborder disputesbetween Cambodia and its neighbours persist. There are disagreements over some offshore islands and sections of the boundary with Vietnam and undefinedmaritime boundaries. Cambodia and Thailand also have border disputes, with troopsclashing over landimmediately adjacent to thePreah Vihear templein particular, leading to a deterioration in relations. Most of the territory belongs to Cambodia, but a combination of Thailand disrespecting international law, Thai troops upbuild in the area and lack of resources for the Cambodian military have left the situation unsettled since 1962.
Cambodia and China have cultivated ties in the 2010s. A Chinese company with the support of thePeople's Liberation Armybuilt a deep-water seaport along 90 km (56 mi) stretch of Cambodian coastline of theGulf of ThailandinKoh Kong province; the port is sufficiently deep to be used by cruise ships,bulk carriersor warships. Cambodia's diplomatic support has been invaluable to Beijing'seffort to claim disputed areasin theSouth China Sea. Because Cambodia is a member of ASEAN, and because under ASEAN rules "the objections of one member can thwart any group initiative", Cambodia is diplomatically useful to China as a counterweight to southeast Asian nations that have closer ties to the United States.
Cambodia is the 70th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.
TheRoyal Cambodian Army,Royal Cambodian Navy,Royal Cambodian Air ForceandRoyal Gendarmeriecollectively form theRoyal Cambodian Armed Forces, under the command of theMinistry of National Defence, presided over by thePrime Minister of Cambodia. His Majesty King Norodom Sihamoni is the Supreme Commander of the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF), and the country's Prime Minister Hun Sen effectively holds the position ofcommander-in-chief.
The introduction of a revised command structure early in 2000 was a key prelude to the reorganisation of the Cambodian military. This saw the defence ministry form three subordinate general departments responsible for logistics and finance, materials and technical services, and defence services under the High Command Headquarters (HCHQ). The minister of National Defense is GeneralTea Banh. The Secretaries of State for Defense areChay Saing Yunand Por Bun Sreu.
In 2010, the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces comprised about 102,000 active personnel (200,000 reserve). Total Cambodian military spending stands at 3% of national GDP. The Royal Gendarmerie of Cambodia total more than 7,000 personnel. Its civil duties include providing security and public peace, to investigate and prevent organised crime, terrorism, and other violent groups; to protect state and private property; to help and assist civilians and other emergency forces in a case of emergency, natural disaster, civil unrest, and armed conflicts.
Hun Sen has accumulated highly centralised power in Cambodia, including apraetorian guardthat 'appears to rival the capabilities of the country's regular military units', and is allegedly used by Hun Sen to quell political opposition.'Cambodia signed the UNtreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.
TheCambodian People's Party(CPP) is the sole dominant-party in Cambodia. The CPP currently commands 120 of the 125 seats in the National Assembly and 55 of 62 seats in the Senate.
Hun Sen and his government have seen much controversy. Hun Sen was a former Khmer Rouge commander who was originally installed by the Vietnamese and, after the Vietnamese left the country, maintains hisstrong manposition by violence and oppression when deemed necessary.In 1997, fearing the growing power of his co-prime minister, Prince Norodom Ranariddh, Hun launched acoup, using the army to purge Ranariddh and his supporters. Ranariddh was ousted and fled to Paris while other opponents of Hun Sen were arrested, tortured, and some summarily executed.
In addition topolitical oppression, the Cambodian government has been accused of corruption in the sale of vast areas of land to foreign investors resulting in the eviction of thousands of villagersas well as taking bribes in exchange for grants to exploit Cambodia's oil wealth and mineral resources.Cambodia is consistently listed as one of the most corrupt governments in the world.Amnesty Internationalcurrently recognises oneprisoner of consciencein the country: 33-year-old land rights activistYorm Bopha.
Journalists covering a protest over disputed election results in Phnom Penh on 22 September 2013 say they were deliberately attacked by police and men in plain clothes, with slingshots and stun guns. The attack against the president of the Overseas Press Club of Cambodia, Rick Valenzuela, was captured on video.
The violence came amid political tensions as the opposition boycotted the opening ofParliamentdue to concerns about electoral fraud. Seven reporters sustained minor injuries while at least two Cambodian protesters were hit by slingshot projectiles and hospitalised.
In 2017, Cambodia's Supreme Court dissolved the main opposition party,Cambodia National Rescue Party(CNRP), paving the way for a return to a yet more authoritarian political system.
The level ofcorruptionin Cambodia exceeds most countries in the world. Despite adopting an 'Anti-Corruption Law' in 2010, corruption prevails throughout the country. Corruption affects the judiciary, the police, and other state institutions. Favouritism by government officials and impunity is commonplace. Lack of a clear distinction between the courts and the executive branch of government also makes for a deep politicisation of the judicial system.
Examples of areas where Cambodians encounter corrupt practices in their everyday lives include obtaining medical services, dealing with alleged traffic violations, and pursuing fair court verdicts. Companies deal with extensive red tape when obtaining licenses and permits, especially construction-related permits, and the demand for and supply of bribes are commonplace in this process. The 2010 Anti-Corruption Law provided no protection to whistle-blowers, and whistle-blowers can be jailed for up to 6 months if they report corruption that cannot be proven.
The Cambodian legal profession was established in 1932. By 1978, due to theKhmer Rougeregime, the entire legal system was eradicated. Judges and lawyers were executed after being deemed "class enemies" and only 6–12 legal professionals actually survived and remained in the country.Lawyers did not reappear until 1995 when the Bar Association of the Kingdom of Cambodia was created.
AUS State Departmentreport says "forces under Hun Sen and theCambodian People's Partyhave committed frequent and large-scale abuses, including extrajudicial killings and torture, with impunity".According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 256,800 people areenslavedin modern-day Cambodia, or 1.65% of the population.
Forced land evictionsby senior officials, security forces, and government-connected business leaders are commonplace in Cambodia.Land has been confiscated from hundreds of thousands of Cambodians over more than a decade for the purpose of self-enrichment and maintaining power of various groups of special interests.Credible non-governmental organisations estimate that "770,000 people have been adversely affected by land grabbing covering at least four million hectares (nearly 10 million acres) of land that have been confiscated", says Paris-basedInternational Federation for Human Rights(FIDH).
On 14 March 2018, the UN expert on the human rights situation in Cambodia "expressed serious concerns about restrictions on the media, freedom of expression and political participation ahead of a national election in July".Some critics of the government have beenarrestedfor allegedly spreadingfake newsabout theCOVID-19 pandemic in Cambodia.
In 2017, Cambodia's per capita income is $4,022 in PPP and $1,309 in nominal per capita. The United Nations designates Cambodia as aleast developed country. Most rural households depend on agriculture and its related sub-sectors.Rice, fish, timber, garments, and rubber are Cambodia's major exports. TheInternational Rice Research Institute(IRRI) reintroduced more than 750 traditional rice varieties to Cambodia from its rice seed bank in the Philippines.These varieties had been collected in the 1960s.
Based on the Economist, IMF:Annual average GDP growthfor the period 2001–2010 was 7.7% making it one of the world's top ten countries with the highest annual average GDP growth. Tourism was Cambodia's fastest-growing industry, with arrivals increasing from 219,000 in 1997 to over 2 million in 2007. In 2004, inflation was at 1.7% and exports at US$1.6 billion.
Oil and natural gas deposits found beneath Cambodia's territorial waters in 2005 yield great potential but remain mostly untapped, due in part to territorial disputes withThailand.
TheNational Bank of Cambodiais the central bank of the kingdom and provides regulatory oversight to the country's banking sector and is responsible in part for increasing the foreign direct investment in the country. Between 2010 and 2012 the number of regulated banks and micro-finance institutions increased from 31 covered entities to over 70 individual institutions underlining the growth within the Cambodian banking and finance sector.
In 2012, Credit Bureau Cambodia was established with direct regulatory oversight by the National Bank of Cambodia.The Credit Bureau further increases the transparency and stability within the Cambodian Banking Sector as all banks and microfinance companies are now required by law to report accurate facts and figures relating to loan performance in the country.
One of the largest challenges facing Cambodia is still the fact that the older population often lacks education, particularly in the countryside, which suffers from a lack of basic infrastructure. Fear of renewed political instability and corruption within the government discourage foreign investment and delay foreign aid, although there has been significant aid from bilateral and multilateral donors. Donors pledged $504 million to the country in 2004,while theAsian Development Bankalone has provided $850 million in loans, grants, and technical assistance.Bribes are often demanded from companies operating in Cambodia when obtaining licences and permits, such as construction-related permits.
Cambodia ranked among the worst places in the world for organised labour in the 2015International Trade Union Confederation(ITUC) Global Rights Index, landing in the category of countries with "no guarantee of rights".'
In April 2016, Cambodia's National Assembly has adopted a Law on Trade Unions. "The law was proposed at a time when workers have been staging sustained protests in factories and in the streets demanding wage increases and improvements in their working conditions".The concerns about Cambodia's new law are shared not only by labour and rights groups but international organisations more generally. TheInternational Labour Organisation(ILO) Country Office for Thailand, Cambodia and Lao PDR, has noted that the law has "several key concerns and gaps".
The garment industry represents the largest portion of Cambodia's manufacturing sector, accounting for 80% of the country's exports. In 2012, the exports grew to $4.61 billion up 8% over 2011. In the first half of 2013, the garment industry reported exports worth $1.56 billion.The sector employs 335,400 workers, of which 91% are female.
Better Factories Cambodia was created in 2001 as a unique partnership between the ILO and the International Finance Corporation (IFC), a member of the World Bank Group. The programme engages with workers, employers, and governments to improve working conditions and boost the competitiveness of the garment industry.On 18 May 2018, the Project Advisory Committee (PAC) of the ILO Better Factories Cambodia Programme met in Phnom Penh to provide input into the draft conclusions and recommendations of the BFC's independent mid-term evaluation, as well as to discuss options on how to further strengthen the programme's transparent reporting initiative. The members of the PAC concurred with the findings of the evaluation related to the impact the programme has had on the Cambodian garment sector and workers, including:
a. contributing to sustained overall growth of the garment industry
b. improving the lives of at least half a million Cambodian workers of factories in the BFC
programme and many more of their family members;
c. ensuring that workers receive correct wages and social protection benefits
d. virtually eliminating child labour in the sector
e. making Cambodia's garment factories safer overall
f. creating a "level playing field" for labour across garment sector
g. influencing business practices through (1) using factory data to highlight areas for
improvement and (2) being a core part of risk management strategies of international
brands/buyers.
The tourism industry is the country's second-greatest source ofhard currencyafter the textile industry.International visitor arrivals in 2018 topped six million, a ten-fold increase since the beginning of the 21st century.Tourism employs 26% of the country's workforce, which translates into roughly 2.5 million jobs for Cambodians.
Besides Phnom Penh and Angkor Wat, other tourist destinations includeSihanoukvillein the southwest which has several popular beaches, andBattambangin the northwest, both of which are popular stops for backpackers who make up a significant portion of visitors to Cambodia.The area aroundKampotandKepincluding theBokor Hill Stationare also of interest to visitors. Tourism has increased steadily each year in the relatively stable period since the 1993UNTACelections.
Most international arrivals in 2018 were Chinese. Tourism receipts exceeded US$4.4 billion in 2018, accounting for almost ten percent of the kingdom's gross national product. The Angkor Wat historical park inSiem Reap Province, the beaches in Sihanoukville, the capital city Phnom Penh, and Cambodia's 150 casinos (up from just 57 in 2014)are the main attractions for foreign tourists.
Cambodia's reputation as a safe destination for tourism has been hindered by civil and political unrestand several high-profile examples of serious crime committed against tourists visiting the kingdom.
Cambodia's tourist souvenir industry employs many people around the main places of interest. The quantity of souvenirs produced is insufficient to face the increasing number of tourists. Most products sold to tourists on the markets are imported from China, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Agriculture is the mainstay of the Cambodian economy. Agriculture accounted for 90 per cent ofGDPin 1985 and employed approximately 80 per cent of the workforce.Riceis the principal commodity. Major secondary crops includemaize,cassava,sweet potatoes,groundnuts,soybeans,sesame seeds, dry beans, andrubber. The principal commercial crop is rubber. In the 1980s it was an important primary commodity, second only to rice, and one of the country's few sources of foreign exchange.
The civil war and neglect severely damaged Cambodia's transport system. With assistance from other countries, Cambodia has been upgrading the main highways to international standards and most are vastly improved from 2006.Most main roads are now paved.
Cambodia has two rail lines, totalling about 612 kilometres (380 miles) of single, one-metre (3-foot-3-inch) gauge track.The lines run from the capital to Sihanoukville on the southern coast. Trains are again running to and from the Cambodian capital and popular destinations in the south. After 14 years, regular rail services between the two cities restarted recently – offering a safer option than road for travellers.Trains also run from Phnom Penh toSisophon(although trains often run only as far asBattambang). As of 1987, only one passenger train per week operated between Phnom Penh and Battambang but a US$141 million project, funded mostly by theAsian Development Bank, has been started to revitalise the languishing rail system that will "(interlink) Cambodia with major industrial and logistics centres in Bangkok and Ho Chi Minh City".
Besides the main inter-provincial traffic artery connecting Phnom Penh with Sihanoukville, resurfacing a former dirt road with concrete/asphalt and bridging five major river crossings have now permanently connected Phnom Penh withKoh Kong, and hence there is now uninterrupted road access to neighbouring Thailand and its road network.
Cambodia's road traffic accident rate is high by world standards. In 2004, the number of road fatalities per 10,000 vehicles was ten times higher in Cambodia than in the developed world, and the number of road deaths had doubled in the preceding three years.
Cambodia's extensive inland waterways were important historically in international trade. TheMekongand theTonle Sap River, their numerous tributaries, and the Tonle Sap provided avenues of considerable length, including 3,700 kilometres (2,300 miles) navigable all year by craft drawing 0.6 metres (2.0 feet) and another 282 kilometres (175 miles) navigable to craft drawing 1.8 metres (5.9 feet).
Cambodia has two major ports, Phnom Penh and Sihanoukville, and five minor ones. Phnom Penh, at the junction of theBassac, the Mekong, and the Tonle Sap Rivers, is the onlyriver portcapable of receiving 8,000-tonships during the wet season and 5,000-ton ships during the dry season.
With increasing economic activity has come an increase in automobile use, though motorcycles still predominate."Cyclo" (as hand-me-down French) orCycle rickshawswere popular in the 1990s but are increasingly replaced byremorques(carriages attached to motorcycles) and rickshaws imported from India. Cyclos are unique to Cambodia in that the cyclist sits behind the passenger seat.
Cambodia has three commercial airports. In 2018, they handled a record of 10 million passengers.Phnom Penh International Airportis the busiest airport in Cambodia.Siem Reap-Angkor International Airportis the second busiest, and serves the most international flights in and out of Cambodia.Sihanouk International Airport, is in the coastal city ofSihanoukville.Techo International Airport, intended to replace the existing Phnom Penh International Airport as the city's main airport, is currently under construction.
A National Committee for Science and Technology representing 11 ministries has been in place since 1999. Although seven ministries are responsible for the country's 33 public universities, the majority of these institutions come under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports.
In 2010, the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports approved a Policy on Research Development in the Education Sector. This move represented the first step towards a national approach to research and development across the university sector and the application of research for the purposes of national development.
This policy was followed by the country's firstNational Science and Technology Master Plan 2014–2020. It was officially launched by the Ministry of Planning in December 2014, as the culmination of a two-year process supported by theKorea International Cooperation Agency. The plan makes provision for establishing a science and technology foundation to promote industrial innovation, with a particular focus on agriculture, primary industry and ICTs.Cambodia was ranked 103rd in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024.
Cambodia has high potential for developingrenewable energyresources. Even though the country has not attracted much international investment in renewable energy by 2020, the country serves as a model to learn from for other ASEAN countries in terms of conducting solar power auctions.To attract more investment in renewable energy, the government could improve renewable energy governance, adopt clear targets, develop an effective regulatory framework, improve project bankability and facilitate market entry for international investors.Cambodia is highly vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change and it is advised that the country focuses more on developing renewable energy as part of climate change mitigation measures.
The French protectorate of Cambodia condudcted its first official census in 1921. Only men aged 20 to 60 were counted, as its purpose was for the collection of taxes.After the 1962 population census was conducted, Cambodia's civil conflicts and instability lead to a 36-year-long gap before the country could have another official census in 1998.
As of 2010, half of the Cambodian population is younger than 22 years old. At a 1.04 female to male ratio, Cambodia has the most female-biased sex ratio in the Greater Mekong Subregion.Among the Cambodian population aged over 65, the female to male ratio is 1.6:1.
The total fertility rate in Cambodia was 2.5 children per woman in 2018.The fertility rate was 4.0 children in 2000.Women in urban areas have 2.2 children on average, compared with 3.3 children per woman in rural areas.Fertility is highest inMondol KiriandRattanak KiriProvinces, where women have an average of 4.5 children, and lowest in Phnom Penh where women have an average of 2.0 children.
The vast majority of Cambodia's population is of ethnicKhmerorigin (95.8%) who are speakers of theKhmer language, the country's sole official language. Cambodia's population is largely homogeneous. Its minority groups includeChams(1.8%),Vietnamese(0.5%) andChinese(0.6%).
The largest ethnic group, theKhmersare indigenous to the lowland Mekong subregion in which they inhabit. The Khmers historically have lived near thelower Mekong Riverin a contiguous diagonal arc, from where modern-day Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia meet in the northwest, all the way to the mouth of theMekong Riverin southeastern Vietnam.
The Vietnamese are the second-largest ethnic minority in Cambodia, with an estimated 16,000 living in provinces concentrated in the southeast of the country adjacent to theMekong Delta. Although the Vietnamese language has been determined to be aMon–Khmerlanguage, there are very few cultural connections between the two peoples because the early Khmers were influenced by theIndian cultural spherewhile the Vietnamese are part of theChinese cultural sphere.Ethnic tensions between the Khmer and the Vietnamese can be traced to thePost-Angkor Period(from the 16th to 19th centuries), during which time a nascentVietnamandThailandeach attempted to vassalise a weakened post-Angkor Cambodia, and effectively dominate all ofIndochina.
Chinese Cambodiansare approximately 0.6% of the population.Most Chinese are descended from 19th–20th-century settlers who came in search of trade and commerce opportunities during the time of theFrench protectorate. Most are urban dwellers, engaged primarily in commerce.
The indigenous ethnic groups of the mountains are known collectively as Montagnards orKhmer Loeu, a term meaning "Highland Khmer". They are descended from neolithic migrations of Mon–Khmer speakers via southern China andAustronesianspeakers from insular Southeast Asia. Being isolated in the highlands, the various Khmer Loeu groups were not Indianized like their Khmer cousins and consequently are culturally distant from modern Khmers and often from each other, observing many pre-Indian-contact customs and beliefs.
The Cham are descended from theAustronesianpeople ofChampa, a former kingdom on the coast of central and southern present-day Vietnam and former rival to the Khmer Empire. The Cham in Cambodia number under a million and often maintain separate villages in the southeast of the country. Almost all Cham in Cambodia are Muslims.
TheKhmer languageis a member of theMon–Khmersubfamily of theAustroasiatic languagegroup.French, once the language of government inIndochina, is still spoken by many older Cambodians, and is also the language of instruction in some schools and universities that are funded by the government of France. There is also a French-language newspaper and some TV channels are available in French. Cambodia is a member ofLa Francophonie.Cambodian French, a remnant of the country's colonial past, is a dialect found in Cambodia and is sometimes used in government, particularly in court. Since 1993, there has been a growing use of English, which has been replacing French as the main foreign language. English is widely taught in several universities and there is also a significant press in that language, while street signs are now bilingual in Khmer and English.Due to this shift, mostly English is now used in Cambodia's international relationships, and it has replaced French both on Cambodia's stamps and, since 2002, on Cambodian currency.
TheKhmer scriptis derived from theSouth IndianPallava script.
TheravadaBuddhismis the official religion of Cambodia, practised by more than 95 per cent of the population with an estimated 4,392 monastery temples throughout the country.Cambodian Buddhism is deeply influenced byHinduismand nativeanimism.
The close interrelationship between spirits and the community, the efficacy ofapotropaicand luck-attracting actions and charms, and the possibility of manipulating one's life through contact with spiritual entities such as the "baromey" spirits originates from the native folk religion. Hinduism has left little trace beyond the magical practices of Tantricism and a host of Hindu gods now assimilated into the spirit world (for example, the importantneak taspirit calledYeay Maois the modern avatar of the Hindu goddess Kali).
Mahayana Buddhismis the religion of the majority of Chinese and Vietnamese in Cambodia. Elements of other religious practices, such as the veneration offolk heroesand ancestors,Confucianism, andTaoismmix with Chinese Buddhism are also practised.
Islam is followed by about 2% of the population. There are three varieties of the religion. Two of which are practised by theCham people; the third is practiced by the descendants ofMalays, who have lived in the country for generations. Cambodia's Muslim population is reported to be 80% ethnic Cham.
Cambodianlife expectancywas 75 years in 2021,a major improvement since 1995 when the average life expectancy was 55.Health care is offered by both public and private practitioners and research has found that trust in health providers is a key factor in improving the uptake of health care services in rural Cambodia.The government plans to increase the quality of healthcare in the country by raising awareness ofHIV/AIDS,malaria, and other diseases.
Cambodia'sinfant mortality ratehas decreased from 86 per 1,000 live births in 1998 to 24 in 2018.
In the province with worst health indicators,Ratanakiri, 22.9% of children die before age five.
Cambodia was once one of the mostlandminedcountries in the world. According to some estimates, unexplodedland mineshave been responsible for over 60,000 civilian deaths and thousands more maimed or injured since 1970.The number of reported landmine casualties has sharply decreased, from 800 in 2005 to 111 in 2013 (22 dead and 89 injured).Adults that survive landmines often requireamputationof one or more limbs and have to resort to begging for survival.Cambodia is expected to be free of land mines by 2025but the social and economic legacy, including orphans and one in 290 people being an amputee,is expected to affect Cambodia for years to come.
In Cambodia, landmines and exploded ordnance alone have caused 44,630 injuries between 1979 and 2013, according to the Cambodia Mine/UXO Victim Information System.
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Cambodia ranks 68th out of 127 countries with sufficient data. Cambodia's GHI score is 14.7, which indicates a moderate level of hunger.
TheMinistry of Education, Youth and Sportsis responsible for establishing national policies and guidelines for education in Cambodia. The Cambodian education system is heavily decentralised, with three levels of government, central, provincial, and district – responsible for its management. The constitution of Cambodia promulgates free compulsory education for nine years, guaranteeing the universal right to basic quality education.
The 2019 Cambodian census estimated that 88.5% of the population was literate (91.1% of men and 86.2% of women).Male youth age (15–24 years) have a literacy rate of 89% compared to 86% for females.
The education system in Cambodia continues to face many challenges, but during the past years, there have been significant improvements, especially in terms of primary net enrolment gains, the introduction of programme based-budgeting, and the development of a policy framework which helps disadvantaged children to gain access to education. The country has also significantly invested invocational education, especially in rural areas, to tackle poverty and unemployment.Two of Cambodia's most acclaimed universities are based in Phnom Penh.
Traditionally, education in Cambodia was offered by the wats (Buddhist temples), thus providing education exclusively for the male population.During theKhmer Rougeregime, education suffered significant setbacks. Education has also suffered setbacks fromchild labour, A study by Kim (2011) reports that most employed children in Cambodia are enrolled in school but their employment is associated with late school entry, negative impacts on their learning outcomes, and increased drop out rates.With respect to academic performance among Cambodian primary school children, research showed that parental attitudes and beliefs played a significant role.
In 2017, Cambodia had a homicide rate of 2.4 per 100,000 population.
Prostitution is illegal in Cambodiabut yet appears to be prevalent. In a series of 1993 interviews of women about prostitution, three quarters of the interviewees found being a prostitute to be anormand a profession they felt was not shameful having.That same year, it was estimated that there were about 100,000 sex workers in Cambodia.
On 18 August 2019, Prime Minister Hun Sen signed a directive banning the Finance Ministry from issuing new online gambling licenses, while operators currently holding online licenses would only be allowed to continue operating until those licenses expire. The directive cited the fact that "some foreigners have used this form of gambling to cheat victims inside and outside the country" as justifying the new policy.Cambodia had issued over 150 such licenses before the new policy was announced.
Various factors contribute to the Cambodian culture includingTheravada Buddhism,Hinduism,French colonialism,Angkorianculture, and modernglobalisation. TheCambodian Ministry of Culture and Fine Artsis responsible for promoting and developing Cambodian culture. Cambodian culture not only includes the culture of thelowlandethnic majority, but also some 20 culturally distinct hill tribes colloquially known as theKhmer Loeu, a term coined byNorodom Sihanoukto encourage unity between the highlanders and lowlanders.
Rural Cambodians wear akramascarf which is a unique aspect ofCambodian clothing. Thesampeahis a traditional Cambodian greeting or a way of showing respect to others. Khmer culture, as developed and spread by theKhmer empire, has distinctive styles of dance, architecture, and sculpture, which have been exchanged with neighbouringLaosandThailandthroughout history.Angkor Wat(Angkormeans "city" andWatmeans "temple") is the best-preserved example of Khmer architecture from the Angkorian era along with hundreds of other temples that have been discovered in and around the region.
Traditionally, the Khmer people have a recorded information onTraleaves.Traleaf books record legends of the Khmer people, the Ramayana, the origin of Buddhism and other prayer books. They are taken care of by wrapping in cloth to protect from moisture and the climate.
Bon Om Touk(Cambodian Water & Moon Festival), the annual boat rowing contest, is the most attended Cambodian national festival. Held at the end of the rainy season when the Mekong River begins to sink back to its normal levels allowing theTonle Sap Riverto reverse flow, approximately 10% of Cambodia's population attends this event each year to play games, give thanks to the moon, watch fireworks, dine, and attend the boat race in a carnival-type atmosphere.
Popular games include soccer, kicking asey,which is similar to afootbag, and chess. Based on the classical Indian solar calendar and Theravada Buddhism, theCambodian New Yearis a major holiday that takes place in April. Recent artistic figures include singersSinn SisamouthandRos Serey Sothea(and laterPreap SovathandSokun Nisa), who introduced new musical styles to the country.
Every year, Cambodians visitpagodasacross the country to mark thePchum Ben(Ancestors' Day). During the 15-day festival, people offer prayers and food to the spirits of their dead relatives. For most Cambodians, it is a time to remember their relatives who died during the 1975–1979Khmer Rougeregime.
Rice is the staple grain, as in other Southeast Asian countries. Fish from the Mekong andTonlé Saprivers is also an important part of the diet. The supply of fish and fish products for food and trade as of 2000was 20 kilograms (44 pounds) per person or 2ouncesper day per person.Some of the fish can be made intoprahokfor longer storage.
Thecuisine of Cambodiacontains tropical fruits, soups and noodles. Key ingredients arekaffir lime,lemon grass, garlic,fish sauce,soy sauce,tamarind,ginger,oyster sauce,coconut milkandblack pepper. Some delicacies arenum banhchok(នំបញ្ចុក),fish amok(អាម៉ុកត្រី) andaping(អាពីង). The country also boasts various distinct local street foods.
French influence on Cambodian cuisine includes the Cambodian red curry with toastedbaguettebread. The toasted baguette pieces are dipped in the curry and eaten. Cambodian red curry is also eaten with rice andrice vermicellinoodles. Probably the most popular dine out dish,kuyteav, is apork brothrice noodlesoupwith fried garlic,scallions,green onionsthat may also contain various toppings such asbeef balls,shrimp, pork liver or lettuce. Kampot pepper is reputed to be the best in the world and accompanies crab at the Kep crab shacks and squid in the restaurants on the Ou Trojak Jet river.The cuisine is relatively unknown to the world compared to that of its neighbours Thailand and Vietnam.
Cambodians drink plenty of tea, grown inMondulkiri Provinceand around Kirirom.te krolapis a strong tea, made by putting water and a mass of tea leaves into a small glass, placing a saucer on top, and turning the whole thing upside down to brew. When it is dark enough, the tea is decanted into another cup and plenty of sugar added, but no milk. Lemon teate kdau kroch chhma, made with Chinese red-dust tea and lemon juice, is refreshing both hot and iced and is generally served with a hefty dose of sugar.Regarding coffee, the beans are generally imported from Laos and Vietnam – although domestically produced coffee fromRatanakiri ProvinceandMondulkiri Provincecan be found in some places. Beans are traditionally roasted with butter and sugar, plus various other ingredients that might include anything from rum to pork fat, giving the beverage a strange, sometimes faintly chocolatey aroma.
Cambodia has several industrial breweries, located mainly inSihanoukville ProvinceandPhnom Penh. There are also a growing number of microbreweries inPhnom PenhandSiem Reap.As of 2019, there are 12brewpubsormicrobreweriesin Cambodia.Rice wineis a popular alcoholic drink. Its quality varies widely and it is often infused with fruits or medicinal herbs.When prepared with macerated fruits or spices, like theSombailiqueur, it is calledsra tram(soaked wine).
Football (soccer) is one of the most popular sports, although professional organised sports are not as prevalent in Cambodia as in western countries because of the economic conditions. Soccer was brought to Cambodia by the French and became popular with the locals.TheCambodia national football teammanaged fourth in the1972 Asian Cup, but development has slowed since the civil war.
Western sports such as basketball, volleyball, bodybuilding, field hockey, rugby union, golf, and baseball are gaining popularity. Volleyball is by far the most popular sport in the country. Native sports includetraditional boat racing, buffalo racing,Pradal Serey,Khmer traditional wrestlingandBokator. Cambodia first participated in the Olympics during the1956 Summer Olympic Gamessendingequestrianriders. Cambodia also hosted theGANEFOGames in 1966 and recently, theSEA Gamesin2023.
Cambodian dance can be divided into three main categories:Khmer classical dance, folk dance, and social dances. The exact origins of Khmer classical dance are disputed. Most native Khmer scholars trace modern dance forms back to the time ofAngkor, seeing similarities in the temple engravings of the period, while others hold that modern Khmer dance styles were learned (or re-learned) from Siamese court dancers in the 1800s.
Khmer classical dance is the form of stylised performance art established in the royal courts of Cambodia exhibited for both entertainment and ceremonial purposes.The dances are performed by intricately costumed, highly trained men and women on public occasions for tribute, invocation or to enact traditional stories and epic poems such asReamker, the Khmer version of theRamayana.Known formally asRobam Preah Reach Troap(របាំព្រះរាជទ្រព្យ"theater of royal wealth") it is set to the music of apinpeatensemble accompanied by a vocal chorus.
Cambodian folk dance, often performed tomahorimusic, celebrates the various cultural and ethnic groups of Cambodia. Folk dances originated in the villages and are performed, for the most part, by the villagers for the villagers.The movements are less stylised and the clothing worn is that of the people the dancers are portraying, such as hill tribes,Chamsor farmers. Typically faster-paced than classical dance, folk dances display themes of the "common person" such as love, comedy or warding off evil spirits.
Social dances are those performed by guests at banquets, parties or other informal social gatherings. Khmer traditional social dances are analogous to those of other Southeast Asian nations. Examples include thecircle dancesRomvongandRomkbachas well asSaravanandLam Leav. Modern western popular dances includingCha-cha,Bolero, and theMadison, have also influenced Cambodian social dance.
Traditional Cambodian music dates back as far as theKhmer Empire.Royal dances like theApsaraDance are icons of the Cambodian culture as are the Mahori ensembles that accompany them. More rural forms of music includeChapeiandAyai. The former is popular among the older generation and is most often a solo performance of a man plucking a Cambodian guitar (chapei) in betweena cappellaverses. The lyrics usually have moral or religious theme.
A Yaican be performed solo or by a man and woman and is often comedic in nature. It is a form of lyrical poetry, often full of double entendres, that can be either scripted or completely impromptu andad-libbed. When sung by a duo, the man and women take turns, "answering" the other's verse or posing riddles for the other to solve, with short instrumental breaks in between verses.Pleng kaah(lit. "wedding music") is a set of traditional music and songs played both for entertainment and as accompaniment for the various ceremonial parts of a traditional, days-long Khmer wedding.
Cambodian popular music is performed with western style instruments or a mixture of traditional and western instruments. Dance music is composed in particular styles for social dances. The music of croonerSinn Sisamouth,Ros Sereysothea, andPen Ranfrom the 1960s to the 1970s is considered to be the classic pop music of Cambodia. During theKhmer Rouge Revolution, many classic and popular singers of the 1960s and 1970s were murdered, starved to death, or overwork to death by the Khmer Rouge.and many original master tapes from the period were lost or destroyed.
In the 1980s, Keo Surath, (a refugee resettled in the United States) and others carried on the legacy of the classic singers, often remaking their popular songs. The 1980s and 1990s also saw the rise in popularity ofkantrum, a music style of theKhmer Surinset to modern instrumentation.
The Australianhip hopgroup Astronomy Class has recorded with Kak Channthy, a native-born Cambodian female singer.
TheDengue Feverrock and roll band features a Cambodian female singer and back-up band from California. It is classified as "world music" and combines Cambodian music with Western-style rock.
Civil society
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