Red meat

Ingastronomy,red meatis commonly red when raw (and a dark color after it iscooked), in contrast towhite meat, which is pale in color before (and after) cooking.In culinary terms, only flesh from mammals or fowl (not fish) is classified as red or white.Innutritional science,red meatis defined as any meat that has more of the proteinmyoglobinthan white meat. White meat is defined as non-dark meat from fish or chicken (excluding the leg orthigh, which is called dark meat).
Regular consumption of red meat, both unprocessed and especially processed types, has been associated with negative health outcomes.
Under the culinary definition, the meat from adult or "gamey" mammals (for example, beef, horse, mutton, venison, boar, hare) is red meat, while that from young mammals (rabbit, veal, lamb) is white although sometimes rabbit meat is considered red meat. Poultry is white, excluding certain birds such asostriches.Most cuts of pork are red, others are white.Gameis sometimes put in a separate category altogether (French:viandes noires— "dark meats").Some meats (lamb, pork) are classified differently by different writers.
According to theUnited States Department of Agriculture(USDA), all meats obtained from mammals (regardless of cut or age) are red meats because they contain moremyoglobin, which gives them their red color,than fish or white meat (but not necessarily dark meat)from chicken.The USDA also classifies ratites, such as ostriches, emus, and rhea, as red meat.Some cuts of pork are considered white under the culinary definition, but all pork is considered red meat in nutritional studies. TheNational Pork Boardhaspositionedit as "the other white meat", profiting from the ambiguity to suggest that pork has the nutritional properties of white meat, which is considered more healthful.
Red meat contains large amounts of iron,creatine, minerals such aszincandphosphorus, and B-vitamins: (niacin,vitamin B12,thiaminandriboflavin).Red meat is a source oflipoic acid.
Red meat contains small amounts ofvitamin D.Offalsuch aslivercontains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal.
In 2011, the USDA launched MyPlate, which did not distinguish between kinds of meat, but did recommend eating at least 8 oz (230 g) of fish each week.In 2011, the Harvard School of Public Health launched the Healthy Eating Plate in part because of the perceived inadequacies of the USDA's recommendations.The Healthy Eating Plate encourages consumers to avoid processed meat and limit red meat consumption to twice a week because of links to heart disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. To replace these meats it recommends consuming fish, poultry, beans, or nuts.
There are no long-termrandomized controlled trialsthat have investigated red meat consumption and disease outcomes and are unlikely to be conducted due to ethical, financial and practical reasons.Most of the data on red meat and health effects is from long-term epidemiological studies.
Overall, diets high in red and processed meats are associated with an increased risk oftype 2 diabetes(T2D),cardiovascular disease(CVD), cancer (particularlycolorectal cancer), and all-cause mortality.The body of epidemiological data showing their associations with T2D, CVD, and cancer is large and consistent.
The associations are strongest forprocessed meat, which is meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavor or improve preservation, such as bacon, ham, salami, pepperoni, hot dogs, and some sausages.Also, meat that is cooked longer and at higher temperatures is associated with a 4.62 times greater risk of breast cancer compared with rare or medium-done meat.
A 2021 umbrella review reported an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8-72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat.
A 2022 study challenged the dose-response relationship using a newly developed burden of proof risk function (BPRF). It found weak evidence available regarding whether eating red meat increases the risk of death. The authors conclude that the quality of the available evidence is insufficient to make stronger or more conclusive recommendations regarding the health effects of eating red meat.However, the BPRF approach has been criticised for being overly simplistic.
TheInternational Agency for Research on Cancer(IARC) of theWorld Health Organization(WHO) classifiesprocessed meatascarcinogenicto humans (Group 1), based on "sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causescolorectal cancer."Unprocessed red meat is categorised as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect."Positive associations have also been observed between red meat consumption and increased risks ofpancreatic cancerandprostate cancerbut the link is not as clear.TheAmerican Cancer Societyhave stated "evidence that red and processed meats increase cancer risk has existed for decades, and many health organizations recommend limiting or avoiding these foods."
TheAmerican Institute for Cancer Research,Cancer Research UKandWorld Cancer Research Fund Internationalhave stated there is strong evidence that consumption of processed red meat is a cause of colorectal cancer and there is probable evidence that unprocessed red meat is a cause of cancer.Put in perspective in the UK, adults eating processed and red meat at 79g per day on average had a 32% increased risk of colorectal cancer compared to those eating less than 11g per day.
Reviews have also found that high consumption of red meat is associated with increased risk ofgastrointestinal cancer.
Heme ironin red meat has been associated with increased colorectal cancer risk.The American Institute for Cancer Research and World Cancer Research Fund have commented that "haem iron, which is present at high levels in red meat, has been shown to promote colorectal tumorigenesis by stimulating the endogenous formation of carcinogenic N-nitroso compound."N-Glycolylneuraminic acid(Neu5Gc) has also been suggested as a mechanism.
A 2017 literature review indicated there are numerous potential carcinogens of colorectal tissue in red meat, particularly those in processed red meat products, such as N-nitroso compounds,polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs), andheterocyclic amines(HCAs).Cooking meat with "high-temperature methods, such as pan frying or grilling directly over an open flame", also causes formation of PAHs and HCAs.
Red meat consumption is associated with an increased risk ofcoronary heart disease,high blood pressureand stroke.Factors associated with increased stroke risk from consuming red meat include saturated fats that increase levels ofblood cholesterol,LDL cholesterol,triglycerides, andhemeiron, which may precipitateatherogenesisin cerebral arteries, leading to stroke.
In 2020, theNational Heart Foundation of New ZealandExpert Nutrition Policy (ENP) issued a position statement that concluded that high consumption of red meat increases risk of heart disease and stroke by 16% therefore one should aim to reduce consumption of red meat below 350g per week and replace meat with plant sources of protein.
Processed and unprocessed red meat consumption is a risk factor for developingtype 2 diabetesacross populations.
A 2017 review found that daily consumption of 85 grams of red meat and 35 grams of processed red meat products by European and American consumers increased their risk of type 2 diabetes by 18–36%, while a diet of abstinence of red meat consumingwhole grains, vegetables, fruits, and dairy was associated with an 81% reduced risk of diabetes.One study estimated that "substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes".A 2022 umbrella review found that consuming an additional 100g of red meat per day was associated with a 17% increased risk oftype 2 diabetes.
TheEuropean Association for the Study of Diabetesrecommends that diabetics minimise the consumption of red meat.
High red and processed meat consumption is associated with an increased risk ofinflammatory bowel disease.TheAmerican Gastroenterological Associationhave stated that a diet low in red and processed meat may reduceulcerative colitisflares.