Psilocybin mushroom

Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known asmagic mushrooms,shrooms, or broadly ashallucinogenic mushrooms, are apolyphyleticinformal group offungithat containpsilocybin, which turns intopsilocinupon ingestion. The most potent species are members ofgenusPsilocybe, such asP. azurescens,P. semilanceata, andP. cyanescens, but psilocybin has also been isolated from approximately a dozen other genera, includingPanaeolus(includingCopelandia),Inocybe,Pluteus,Gymnopilus, andPholiotina.
Amongst other cultural applications, psilocybin mushrooms are used asrecreational drugs. They may be depicted inStone Agerock artin Africa and Europe, but are more certainly represented inpre-Columbiansculptures andglyphsseen throughout the Americas.
Psilocybin mushrooms have beenand continue to be used inMexicanandCentral Americancultures in religious,divinatory, orspiritualcontexts.
Rock artfromc.9000–7000BCEfromTassili,Algeria, is believed to depictpsychedelic mushroomsand the transformation of the user under their influence.Prehistoric rock art nearVillar del Humoin Spain suggests thatPsilocybe hispanicawas used in religiousrituals6,000 years ago.Thehallucinogenicspecies of thePsilocybegenus have a history of use among the native peoples ofMesoamericafor religious communion, divination, and healing, frompre-Columbiantimes to the present day.Mushroom stones and motifs have been found inGuatemala.A statuette dating fromc.200 CEdepicting a mushroom strongly resemblingPsilocybe mexicanawas found in the west Mexican state of Colima in ashaft and chamber tomb. APsilocybespecies known to theAztecsasteōnanācatl(literally "divine mushroom": the agglutinative form ofteōtl(god, sacred) andnanācatl(mushroom) inNahuatl language) was reportedly served at the coronation of theAztecrulerMoctezuma IIin 1502. Aztecs andMazatecsreferred to psilocybin mushrooms as genius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous mushrooms when translated into English.Bernardino de Sahagúnreported the ritualistic use ofteonanácatlby the Aztecs when he traveled to Central America after the expedition ofHernán Cortés.
After the Spanish conquest, Catholic missionaries campaigned against the cultural tradition of the Aztecs, dismissing the Aztecs as idolaters, and the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, together with other pre-Christian traditions, was quickly suppressed.The Spanish believed the mushroom allowed the Aztecs and others to communicate with demons. Despite this history, the use ofteonanácatlhas persisted in some remote areas.
The first mention of hallucinogenic mushrooms in European medicinal literature was in the London Medical and Physical Journal in 1799: A man servedPsilocybe semilanceatamushrooms he had picked for breakfast in London'sGreen Parkto his family. The apothecary who treated them later described how the youngest child "was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or mother refrain him."
In 1955,Valentina Pavlovna WassonandR. Gordon Wassonbecame the first known European Americans to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their experience, even publishing an article on their experiences inLifeon May 13, 1957.In 1956,Roger Heimidentified the psychoactive mushroom the Wassons brought back from Mexico asPsilocybe,and in 1958,Albert Hofmannfirst identifiedpsilocybinandpsilocinas the active compounds in these mushrooms.
Inspired by the Wassons'Lifearticle,Timothy Learytraveled to Mexico to experience psilocybin mushrooms himself. When he returned toHarvardin 1960, he andRichard Alpertstarted theHarvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious studies of psilocybin and otherpsychedelic drugs. Alpert and Leary sought to conduct research with psilocybin on prisoners in the 1960s, testing its effects onrecidivism.This experiment reviewed the subjects six months later, and found that the recidivism rate had decreased beyond their expectation, below 40%. This, and another experiment administering psilocybin to graduate divinity students, showed controversy. Shortly after Leary and Alpert were dismissed from their jobs by Harvard in 1963, they turned their attention toward promoting thepsychedelic experienceto the nascenthippiecounterculture.
The popularization ofentheogensby the Wassons, Leary,Terence McKenna,Robert Anton Wilson, and many others led to an explosion in the use of psilocybin mushrooms throughout the world. By the early 1970s, many psilocybin mushroom species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating large quantities ofPsilocybe cubensiswere also published. The availability of psilocybin mushrooms from wild and cultivated sources has made them one of the most widely used psychedelic drugs.
At present, psilocybin mushroom use has been reported among some groups spanning from central Mexico toOaxaca, including groups ofNahua,Mixtecs,Mixe,Mazatecs,Zapotecs, and others.An important figure of mushroom usage in Mexico wasMaría Sabina,who used native mushrooms, such asPsilocybe mexicanain her practice.
In a 2000 review on the worldwide distribution of psilocybin mushrooms,Gastón Guzmánand colleagues considered these distributed among the followinggenera:Psilocybe(116 species),Gymnopilus(14),Panaeolus(13),Copelandia(12),Pluteus(6)Inocybe(6),Pholiotina(4) andGalerina(1).Guzmán increased his estimate of the number of psilocybin-containingPsilocybeto 144 species in a 2005 review.
Many of them are found in Mexico (53 species), with the remainder distributed throughout Canada and the US (22), Europe (16), Asia (15), Africa (4), and Australia and associated islands (19).Generally, psilocybin-containing species are dark-spored,gilledmushrooms that grow in meadows and woods in thesubtropicsand tropics, usually in soils rich inhumusand plant debris.Psilocybin mushrooms occur on all continents, but the majority of species are found insubtropical humid forests.P. cubensisis the most commonPsilocybein tropical areas.P. semilanceata, considered the world's most widely distributed psilocybin mushroom,is found in temperate parts of Europe, North America, Asia, South America, Australia and New Zealand, although it is absent from Mexico.
Magic mushroom composition varies from genus to genus and species to species.Its principal component is psilocybin,which is converted intopsilocinto produce psychoactive effects.Besides psilocin,norpsilocin,baeocystin,norbaeocystin, andaeruginascinmay also be present, which might result in anentourage effectand modify the effects of magic mushrooms.Panaeolus subbalteatus, one species of magic mushroom, had the highest amount of psilocybin compared to the rest of the fruiting body.Certain mushrooms are found to produce beta-carbolines which inhibit monoamine oxidase, an enzyme that breaks down tryptamine alkaloids. They occur in differentgenera, such asPsilocybe,Cyclocybe,andHygrophorus.Harmine, harmane, norharmane and a range of other l-tryptophan-derivedβ-carbolineswere discovered inPsilocybespecies.
The effects of psilocybin mushrooms come from psilocybin and psilocin. When psilocybin is ingested, it is broken down by the liver in a process calleddephosphorylation. The resulting compound is called psilocin, responsible for thepsychedeliceffects.Psilocybinandpsilocincreate short-term increases in tolerance of users, thus making it difficult to misuse them because the more often they are taken within a short period, the weaker the resultant effects are.Psilocybin mushrooms have not been known to cause physical or psychologicaldependence(addiction).The psychedelic effects appear around 20 minutes after ingestion and can last up to 6 hours. Physical effects may occur, including nausea, vomiting, euphoria, muscle weakness or relaxation, drowsiness, and lack of coordination.
As with many psychedelic substances, the effects of psychedelic mushrooms are subjective and can vary considerably among individual users. The mind-altering effects of psilocybin-containing mushrooms typically last from three to eight hours, depending on dosage, preparation method, and personal metabolism. The first 3–4 hours after ingestion are typically referred to as the 'peak'—in which the user experiences more vivid visuals and distortions in reality. The effects can seem to last much longer for the user because of psilocybin's ability to alter time perception.
Sensory effects include visual and auditory hallucinations followed by emotional changes and altered perception of time and space.Noticeable changes to the auditory, visual, and tactile senses may become apparent around 30 minutes to an hour after ingestion, although effects may take up to two hours to take place. These shifts in perception visually include enhancement and contrasting of colors, strange light phenomena (such as auras or "halos" around light sources), increased visual acuity, surfaces that seem to ripple, shimmer, or breathe; complex open and closed eye visuals ofform constantsor images, objects that warp, morph, or change solid colors; a sense of melting into the environment, andtrails behind moving objects. Sounds may seem to have increased clarity—music, for example, can take on a profound sense of cadence and depth.Some users experiencesynesthesia, wherein they perceive, for example, a visualization of color upon hearing a particular sound.
As with otherpsychedelicssuch asLSD, the experience, or 'trip,' is strongly dependent uponset and setting.Hilarity, lack of concentration, and muscular relaxation (includingdilated pupils) are all normal effects, sometimes in the same trip.A negative environment could contribute to abad trip, whereas a comfortable and familiar environment would set the stage for a pleasant experience. Psychedelics make experiences more intense, so if a person enters a trip in an anxious state of mind, they will likely experience heightened anxiety on their trip. Many users find it preferable to ingest the mushrooms with friends or people familiar with 'tripping.'The psychological consequences of psilocybin use include hallucinations and an inability to discern fantasy from reality. Panic reactions and psychosis also may occur, particularly if a user ingests a large dose.
The dosage of mushrooms containing psilocybin depends on the psilocybin and psilocin content, which can vary significantly between and within the same species but is typically around 0.5–2.0% of the dried weight of the mushroom.Usual doses of the common speciesPsilocybe cubensisrange around 1.0 to 2.5 g, while about 2.5 to 5.0 g dried mushroom material is considered a strong dose.Above 5 g is often considered a heavy dose, with 5.0 grams of dried mushroom often being referred to as a "heroic dose".
However,microdosinghas become a popular technique for many users, which involves taking <1.0g for an experience that is not as intense or powerful, but recreationally enjoyable and even alleviating for symptoms ofdepression.
The concentration of active psilocybin mushroom compounds varies from species to species but also from mushroom to mushroom within a given species,subspeciesorvariety.The speciesPsilocybe azurescenscontains the most psilocybin (up to 1.78%).
The species within the most commonly foraged and ingested genus of psilocybin mushrooms, thepsilocybe, contains two primary hallucinogenic toxins;psilocybinandpsilocin.Themedian lethal dose, also known as "LD50", of psilocybin is 280 mg/kg.
From a toxicological profile, it would be incredibly difficult tooverdoseon psilocybin mushrooms, given their primary toxin compounds. To consume such massive amounts of psilocybin, one must ingest more than1.2 kgof driedPsilocybe cubensisgiven 1-2% of the dried mushroom contains psilocybin.
Posing a more realistic threat than a lethal overdose, significantly elevated levels of psilocin can overstimulate the5-HT2Areceptors in the brain, causing acuteserotonin syndrome.A 2015 study observed that a dose of 200 mg/kg psilocin induced symptoms of acute serotonin poisoning in mice.
Neurotoxicity-induced fatal events are uncommon with psilocybin mushroom overdose, as most patients admitted to critical care are released from the department only requiring moderate treatment.However, fatal events related to emotional distress and trip-induced psychosis can occur as a result of over-consumption of psilocybin mushrooms. In 2003, a 27-year-old man was found dead in an irrigation canal due to hypothermia. In his bedroom was found two cultivation pots of psilocybin mushrooms, but no report of toxicology was made.
Due partly to restrictions of theControlled Substances Act, research in the United States was limited until the early 21st century when psilocybin mushrooms were tested for their potential to treatdrug dependence,anxietyandmood disorders.In 2018–19, theFood and Drug Administration(FDA) grantedBreakthrough Therapy Designationfor studies of psilocybin indepressive disorders.
The legality of the cultivation, possession, and sale of psilocybin mushrooms and psilocybin and psilocin varies from country to country.
After Oregon Measure 109, in 2020, Oregon became the first US state to decriminalize psilocybin and legalize it for therapeutic use. However, selling psilocybin without being licensed may still attract fines or imprisonment.In 2022Coloradolegalized consumption, growing, and sharing for personal use,though sales are prohibited while regulations are being drafted.Other jurisdictions in the United States where psilocybin mushrooms are decriminalized include Ann Arbor and Detroit, Michigan; Oakland and Santa Cruz, California; Easthampton, Somerville, Northampton, and Cambridge, Massachusetts; Seattle, Washington; and Washington, DC.
Furthermore, buying spores of mushroom species containing psilocybin online in the United States is legal in all states except Georgia, Idaho and California.This is because only fruiting mushrooms and mycelium contain psilocybin, a federally banned substance.A technical caveat to consider, however, is that the distributed spores must not be intended to be used for cultivation, but allowed for microscopy purposes.
Internationally,mescaline,DMT, andpsilocin, are Schedule I drugs under theConvention on Psychotropic Substances. The Commentary on theConvention on Psychotropic Substancesnotes, however, that the plants containing them are not subject to international control: