South America

South Americais a continententirely in theWestern Hemisphereand mostly in theSouthern Hemisphere, with a considerably smaller portion in theNorthern Hemisphere. It can also be described as the southernsubregionof theAmericas.
South America is bordered on the west by thePacific Ocean, on the north and east by theAtlantic Ocean, and to the south by theDrake Passage;North Americaand theCaribbean Sealie to the northwest.
The continent includes twelvesovereign states:Argentina,Bolivia,Brazil,Chile,Colombia,Ecuador,Guyana,Paraguay,Peru,Suriname,Uruguay, andVenezuela; twodependent territories: theFalkland IslandsandSouth Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands;and oneinternal territory:French Guiana.
TheABC islands(Dutch Caribbean) andTrinidad and Tobagoare geologically located on the South-American continental shelf,and thus may be considered part of South America as well.Panama,Ascension Island(a part ofSaint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha) andBouvet Island(adependencyofNorway) may also be considered parts of South America.
South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 sq mi). Its population as of 2021has been estimated at more than 434 million.South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) andfifthin population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America). Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with almost half of the continent's population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela, and Peru. In recent decades, Brazil has also generated half of the continent's GDP and has become the continent's first regional power.
Most of the population lives near the continent's western or eastern coasts while the interior and thefar southare sparsely populated. The geography of western South America is dominated by theAndesmountains; in contrast, the eastern part contains both highland regions and vast lowlands where rivers such as theAmazon,OrinocoandParanáflow. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, except for a large part of theSouthern Conelocated in themiddle latitudes.
The continent's cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction ofIndigenous peopleswith Europeanconquerorsand immigrants and, more locally, withAfrican slaves. Given a longhistory of colonialism, the overwhelming majority of South Americans speakSpanishorPortuguese, and societies and states are rich inWestern traditions. Relative to Africa, Asia, and Europe, post-1900 South America has been a peaceful continent with few wars,althoughhigh rates of violent crimeremain a concern in some countries.
South America occupies the southern portion of the Americas. The continent is generally delimited on the northwest by theDarién watershedalong theColombia–Panama border, although some may consider the border instead to be thePanama Canal.Geopoliticallyand geographically, all ofPanama– including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is typically included in North America aloneand among the countries ofCentral America.Almost all of mainland South America sits on theSouth American Plate.
South America is home to several superlatives, including theworld's highest uninterrupted waterfall,Angel Fallsin Venezuela; the highest single-drop waterfallKaieteur Fallsin Guyana; the largest river by volume, theAmazon River; the longest mountain range, theAndes(whose highest mountain isAconcaguaat 6,962 m or 22,841 ft); the driest non-polar place on earth, theAtacama Desert;the wettest place on earth,López de Micayin Colombia; the largest rainforest, theAmazon rainforest; the highest capital city,La Paz,Bolivia; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world,Lake Titicaca; and, excluding research stations inAntarctica, the world's southernmost permanently inhabited community,Puerto Toro, Chile.
South America's majormineralresources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore,tin, and petroleum. These resources have brought high income to its countries, especially in times of war or of rapid economic growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one, or few, major exportcommoditieshas often hindered the development and diversification of its economies. The fluctuation in the price of commodities in international markets has led historically to major highs and lows, booms and busts, in the economies of South American states, often causing political instability.This has led for calls to diversify production and increase trade within South America itself.
Brazil is the largest country in South America, covering a little less than half of the continent's land area and encompassing around half of the continent's population.The remaining countries and territories are divided among foursubregions: theAndean states,Caribbean South America,The Guianas, and theSouthern Cone.
Physiographically, South America also includes some of the nearby islands. The DutchABC islands(Aruba,Bonaire, andCuraçao), the islands ofTrinidad and Tobago(Trinidad IslandandTobago Islandetc.), theState of Nueva Esparta, and theFederal Dependencies of Venezuelasit on the northern portion of the South Americancontinental shelfand are sometimes considered parts of the continent. Geopolitically, all the island countries and territories in theCaribbeanhave generally been grouped as asubregionof North America instead. By contrast,Aves Island(administered byVenezuela) and theArchipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina(San Andrés Island,Providencia Island, andSanta Catalina Islandetc., which are administered byColombia) are politically parts of South American countries but physiographically parts of North America.
Other islands often associated with geopolitical South America are theChiloé ArchipelagoandRobinson Crusoe Island(both administered by Chile),Easter Island(culturally a part of Oceania, also administered by Chile),theGalápagos Islands(administered byEcuador, sometimes considered part of Oceania),andTierra del Fuego(split between Argentina and Chile). In the Atlantic Ocean, Brazil administersFernando de Noronha,Trindade and Martim Vaz, and theSaint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, while theFalkland Islands(Spanish:Islas Malvinas) andSouth Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands(biogeographicallyandhydrologicallyassociated with Antarctica)have been administered as twoBritish Overseas Territoriesunderthe Crown, whose sovereignty over the islands isdisputedbyArgentina.
An isolatedvolcanic islandon theSouth American Plate,Ascension Islandis geologically a part of South America.Administered as a dependency ofSaint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, the island is geopoliticallya partof Africa.
All of the world's major climate zones are present in South America.
The distribution of the average temperatures in the region presents a constant regularity from the30° of latitude south, when the isotherms tend, more and more, to be confused with the degrees of latitude.
In temperate latitudes, winters and summers are milder than in North America. This is because the most extensive part of the continent is in the equatorial zone (the region has more areas of equatorial plains than any other region),therefore giving theSouthern Conemore oceanic influence, which moderates year round temperatures.
The average annual temperatures in the Amazon basin oscillate around 27 °C (81 °F), with low thermal amplitudes and high rainfall indices. Between theMaracaibo Lakeand the mouth of the Orinoco, predominates anequatorial climateof the type Congolese, that also includes parts of the Brazilian territory.
The east-central Brazilian plateau has a humid and warm tropical climate. The northern and eastern parts of the Argentine pampas have ahumid subtropical climatewith dry winters and humid summers of the Chinese type, while the western and eastern ranges have a subtropical climate of the dinaric type. At the highest points of the Andean region, climates are colder than the ones occurring at the highest point of the Norwegian fjords. In the Andean plateaus, the warm climate prevails, although it is tempered by the altitude, while in the coastal strip, there is an equatorial climate of the Guinean type. From this point until the north of the Chilean coast appear, successively,Mediterranean oceanic climate, temperate of the Breton type and, already inTierra del Fuego, cold climate of the Siberian type.
The distribution of rainfall is related to the regime of winds and air masses. In most of thetropical regioneast of the Andes, winds blowing from the northeast, east and southeast carry moisture from the Atlantic, causing abundant rainfall. However, due to a consistently strongwind shearand a weakIntertropical Convergence Zone,South Atlantic tropical cyclonesare rare.In theOrinoco Llanosand in theGuianas Plateau, the precipitation levels go from moderate to high. The Pacific coast of Colombia and northern Ecuador are rainy regions, withChocóin Colombia being the rainiest place in the world along with the northern slopes of Indian Himalayas.The Atacama Desert, along this stretch of coast, is one of the driest regions in the world. The central and southern parts of Chile are subject toextratropical cyclones, and most of the ArgentinePatagoniaisdesert. In thePampasof Argentina, Uruguay and South of Brazil the rainfall is moderate, with rains well distributed during the year. The moderately dry conditions of the Chaco oppose the intense rainfall of the eastern region of Paraguay. In thesemiaridcoast of the Brazilian Northeast the rains are linked to a monsoon regime.
Important factors in the determination of climates are sea currents, such as the current Humboldt andFalklands. The equatorial current of the South Atlantic strikes the coast of the Northeast and there is divided into two others: the current of Brazil and a coastal current that flows to the northwest towards theAntilles, where there it moves towards northeast course thus forming the most important and famous ocean current in the world, theGulf Stream.
South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on Earth. It is home to many unique species of animals including thellama,anaconda,piranha,jaguar,vicuña, andtapir, and to one of the largest known insects in the world, theTitan beetle. The Amazon rainforests possess highbiodiversity, with Brazil estimated to contain 10% of Earth'sspecies.83% of South America's large mammals (megafauna) became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene around 11,000 years ago as part of theQuaternary extinction event, among the highest of any continent, with the casualties includingsaber-toothed cats,ground sloths,glyptodonts,gomphotheres, the equinesHippidionandEquus neogeus, and all remainingSouth American native ungulates.
South America is thought to have been first inhabited by humans when people were crossing theBering Land Bridge(now theBering Strait) at least 15,000 years ago from the territory that is present-day Russia. They migrated south through North America, and eventually reached South America through theIsthmus of Panama.
Amongst the oldest evidence for human presence in South America is theMonte Verde IIsite in Chile, suggested to date to around 14,500 years ago.From around 13,000 years ago, theFishtail projectile pointstyle became widespread across South America, with its disappearance around 11,000 years ago coincident with the disappearance of South America's megafauna.Maize was present in northern South America by around 6,000 years ago.
By 2000 BC, manyagrariancommunities had been settled throughout theAndesand the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along the coast, helping establish fish as a primary source of food. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of anagrarian society.
South American cultures began domesticatingllamas,vicuñas,guanacos, andalpacasin the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BC. Besides their use as sources of meat and wool, these animals were used for transportation of goods.
The rise of plant growing and the subsequent appearance of permanent human settlements allowed for the multiple and overlapping beginnings of civilizations in South America.
One of the earliest known South American civilizations wasCaral–Supe, on the central Peruvian coast. Though a pre-ceramic culture, the monumental architecture of Caral–Supe created one of the first cities of the world, generally dated to around 3500 BC, atHuaricangain theFortalezaarea, contemporaneous with the pyramids ofAncient Egypt, one of theoldest-known civilizationsin the Americas and one of the six sites where civilization separately originated in the ancient world.Caral–Supe governing class established a trade network and developed agriculture then followed byChavínby 900 BC, according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site calledChavín de Huantarin modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters (10,423 ft). Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC.
In the central coast of Peru, around the beginning of the 1st millennium AD,Moche(100 BC – 700 AD, at the northern coast of Peru),ParacasandNazca(400 BC – 800 AD, Peru) cultures flourished with centralized states with permanent militia improving agriculture throughirrigationand new styles of ceramic art. At theAltiplano, Tiahuanaco orTiwanaku(100 BC – 1200 AD, Bolivia) managed a large commercial network based on religion.
Around the 7th century, both Tiahuanaco and Wari orHuariEmpire (600–1200, Central and northern Peru) expanded its influence to all the Andean region, imposing the Huari urbanism and Tiahuanaco religious iconography.
TheMuiscawere the main indigenous civilization in what is now Colombia. They established theMuisca Confederationof many clans, orcacicazgos, that had a free trade network among themselves. Many were goldsmiths and farmers.
Other important Pre-Columbian cultures include: theCañaris(in south central Ecuador),Chimú Empire(1300–1470, Peruvian northern coast),Chachapoyas, and the Aymaran kingdoms (1000–1450, Western Bolivia and southern Peru).
Holding their capital at the great city ofCusco, theInca civilizationdominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known asTawantin suyu, and "the land of the four regions", inQuechua, theInca Empirewas highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some nine to fourteen million people connected by a 25,000 kilometerroad system. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain.Terrace farmingwas a useful form of agriculture.
TheMapuchein Central and Southern Chile resisted the European and Chilean settlers, waging theArauco Warfor more than 300 years.
In 1494,Portugaland Spain, the two great maritime European powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed theTreaty of Tordesillas, by which they agreed, with the support of the Pope, that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusiveduopolybetween the two countries.
The treaty established an imaginary line along a north–southmeridian370leagueswest of theCape Verde Islands, roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (known to comprise most of the South American soil) would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements oflongitudewere impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in aPortuguese expansion of Brazilacross the meridian.
Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreignconquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies.
European infectious diseases (smallpox,influenza,measles, andtyphus) – to which thenative populationshad no immune resistance – caused large-scale depopulation of the native population under Spanish control. Systems of forced labor, such as thehaciendasand mining industry'smit'aalso contributed to the depopulation. After this,enslaved Africans, who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them.
The Spaniards were committed to converting their native subjects to Christianity and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end; however, many initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as native groups simply blendedCatholicismwith their established beliefs and practices. Furthermore, the Spaniards brought their language to the degree they did with their religion, although the RomanCatholic Church's evangelization inQuechua,Aymara, andGuaraníactually contributed to the continuous use of these native languages albeit only in the oral form.
Eventually, thenativesand the Spaniards interbred, forming amestizoclass. At the beginning, many mestizos of the Andean region were offspring of Amerindian mothers and Spanish fathers. After independence, most mestizos had native fathers and European or mestizo mothers.
Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers; this included many gold and silver sculptures and other artifacts found in South America, which were melted down before their transport to Spain or Portugal. Spaniards and Portuguese brought the western European architectural style to the continent, and helped to improve infrastructures like bridges, roads, and the sewer system of the cities they discovered or conquered. They also significantly increased economic and trade relations, not just between the old and new world but between the different South American regions and peoples. Finally, with the expansion of the Portuguese and Spanish languages, many cultures that were previously separated became united through that of Latin American.
Guyanawas initiallycolonized by the Dutchbefore coming underBritish control, though there was a brief period during theNapoleonic Warswhen it was occupied by theFrench. The region was initially partitioned between the Dutch, French and British before fully coming under the control of Britain.
Suriname was first explored by the Spanish in the 16th century and thensettled by the Englishin the mid-17th century. It became aDutch colonyin 1667.
The indigenous peoples of the Americas in various European colonies were forced to work in European plantations and mines; along with enslaved Africans who were also introduced in the proceeding centuries via theslave trade. European colonists were heavily dependent on indigenous labor during the initial phases of settlement to maintain the subsistence economy, and natives were often captured by expeditions. The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, but the enslavement of indigenous peoples continued well into the 17th and 18th centuries. TheAtlantic slave tradebrought enslaved Africans primarily to South American colonies, beginning with the Portuguese since 1502.The main destinations of this phase were theCaribbeancolonies and Brazil, as European nations built up economically slave-dependent colonies in theNew World. Nearly 40% of all African slaves trafficked to the Americas went to Brazil. An estimated 4.9 million slaves from Africa came to Brazil during the period from 1501 to 1866.
In contrast to other European colonies in the Americas which mainly used the labor of African slaves, Spanish colonists mainly enslaved indigenous Americans. In 1750, thePortuguese Crownabolished the enslavement of indigenous peoples incolonial Brazil, under the belief that they were unfit for labor and less effective than enslaved Africans. Enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas onslave ships, under inhuman conditions and ill-treatment, and those who survived were sold inslave markets.After independence, all South American countries maintained slavery for some time. The first South American country to abolish slavery was Chile in 1823, Uruguay in 1830, Bolivia in 1831, Guyana in 1833, Colombia and Ecuador in 1851, Argentina in 1853, Peru and Venezuela in 1854, Suriname in 1863, Paraguay in 1869, and in 1888 Brazil was the last South American nation and the last country in western world to abolish slavery.
The EuropeanPeninsular War(1807–14), a theater of theNapoleonic Wars, changed the political situation of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. First, Napoleon invaded Portugal, but theHouse of Braganzaavoided capture byescaping to Brazil. Napoleon captured KingFerdinand VIIof Spain, and appointed his own brother instead. This appointment provoked popular resistance, which createdJuntasto rule in the name of the captured king.
Many cities in the Spanish colonies, however, considered themselves equally authorized to appoint local Juntas like those of Spain. This began theSpanish American wars of independencebetween the patriots, who promoted such autonomy, and theroyalists, who supported Spanish authority over the Americas. The Juntas, in both Spain and the Americas, promoted the ideas of theEnlightenment. Five years after the beginning of the war, Ferdinand VII returned to the throne and began theAbsolutist Restoration, as the royalists got the upper hand in the conflict.
The independence of South America was secured bySimón Bolívar(Venezuela) andJosé de San Martín(Argentina), the two most importantLibertadores. Bolívar led a great uprising in the north, then led his army south towardsLima, the capital of theViceroyalty of Peru. Meanwhile, San Martín led an army across the Andes Mountains, along with Chilean expatriates, and liberated Chile. He organized a fleet to reach Peru by sea, and sought the military support of various rebels from the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1822 the two men met at theGuayaquil Conferencein Ecuador, where they failed to agree on governance strategies for the liberated nations.Two years later Bolívar's forces beat the Spanish at theBattle of Ayacucho, securing the independence of Peru and the rest of South America.
In thePortuguese Kingdom of Brazil,Dom Pedro I(also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese KingDom João VI, proclaimed the independentKingdom of Brazilin 1822, which later became theEmpire of Brazil. Despite the Portuguese loyalties of garrisons inBahia,CisplatinaandPará, independence was diplomatically accepted by Portugal in 1825, on condition of a high compensation paid by Brazil mediated by the United Kingdom.
The newly independent nations began a process of fragmentation, with several civil and international wars. However, it was not as strong as in Central America. Some countries created from provinces of larger countries stayed as such up to modern times (such as Paraguay or Uruguay), while others were reconquered and reincorporated into their former countries (such as theRepublic of Entre Ríosand theRiograndense Republic).
The first separatist attempt was in 1820 by the Argentine province ofEntre Ríos, led by acaudillo.In spite of the "Republic" in its title,General Ramírez, its caudillo, never really intended to declare an independent Entre Rios. Rather, he was making a political statement in opposition to the monarchist and centralist ideas that back then permeatedBuenos Airespolitics. The "country" was reincorporated at the United Provinces in 1821.
In 1825, theCisplatine Provincedeclared its independence from theEmpire of Brazil, which led to theCisplatine Warbetween the imperials and the Argentine from theUnited Provinces of the Río de la Platato control the region. Three years later, the United Kingdom intervened in the question by proclaiming a tie and creating in the former Cisplatina a new independent country: TheOriental Republic of Uruguay.
Later in 1836, while Brazil was experiencing the chaos of the regency,Rio Grande do Sulproclaimed its independencemotivated by a tax crisis. With the anticipation of the coronation ofPedro IIto the throne of Brazil, the country could stabilize and fight the separatists, which the province ofSanta Catarinahad joined in 1839. The Conflict came to an end by a process of compromise by which bothRiograndense RepublicandJuliana Republicwere reincorporated as provinces in 1845.
ThePeru–Bolivian Confederation, a short-lived union of Peru and Bolivia, was blocked by Chile in theWar of the Confederation(1836–1839) and again during theWar of the Pacific(1879–1883). Paraguay was virtually destroyed by Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay in theParaguayan War.
Despite theSpanish American wars of independenceand theBrazilian War of Independence, the new nations quickly began to suffer with internal conflicts and wars among themselves. Most of the 1810 borders countries had initially accepted on theuti possidetis iurisprinciple had by 1848 either been altered by war or were contested.
In 1825, the proclamation of independence of Cisplatina led to theCisplatine Warbetween historical rivals theEmpire of Braziland theUnited Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Argentina's predecessor. The result was a stalemate, ending with theBritish governmentarranging for the independence of Uruguay. Soon after, another Brazilian province proclaimed its independence leading to theRagamuffin Warwhich Brazil won.
Between 1836 and 1839, theWar of the Confederationbroke out between the short-livedPeru-Bolivian Confederationand Chile, with the support of theArgentine Confederation. The war was fought mostly in the actual territory ofPeruand ended with a Confederate defeat and the dissolution of the Confederacy and annexation of many territories by Argentina.
Meanwhile, theArgentine Civil Warsplagued Argentina since its independence. The conflict was mainly between those who defended the centralization of power in Buenos Aires and those who defended a confederation. During this period it can be said that "there were two Argentines": theArgentine Confederationand theArgentine Republic. At the same time, the political instability in Uruguay led to theUruguayan Civil Waramong the main political factions of the country. All this instability in theplatine regioninterfered with the goals of other countries such as Brazil, which was soon forced to take sides. In 1851, theBrazilian Empire, supporting the centralizing unitarians, and theUruguayan governmentinvaded Argentina and deposed the caudillo,Juan Manuel Rosas, who ruled the confederation with an iron hand. Although thePlatine Wardid not put an end to the political chaos and civil war in Argentina, it brought temporary peace to Uruguay where theColorados factionwon, supported byBrazil,Britain,Franceand theUnitarian Partyof Argentina.
Peace lasted only a short time: in 1864, the Uruguayan factions faced each other again in theUruguayan War. TheBlancossupported by Paraguay started to attack Brazilian and Argentine farmers near the borders. The Empire made an initial attempt to settle the dispute between Blancos and Colorados without success. In 1864, after a Brazilian ultimatum was refused, the imperial government declared that Brazil's military would begin reprisals. Brazil declined to acknowledge a formal state of war, and, for most of its duration, the Uruguayan–Brazilian armed conflict was an undeclared war which led to the deposition of theBlancosand the rise of the pro-BrazilianColoradosto power again. This angered the Paraguayan government, which even before the end of the war invaded Brazil, beginning the longest and bloodiest inter-state war in Latin American history: the Paraguayan War.
The Paraguayan War began when the Paraguayan dictatorFrancisco Solano Lópezordered the invasion of the Brazilian provinces ofMato GrossoandRio Grande do Sul. His attempt to cross Argentinian territory without Argentinian approval led the pro-Brazilian Argentine government into the war. The pro-Brazilian Uruguayan government showed its support by sending troops. In 1865 the three countries signed theTreaty of the Triple Allianceagainst Paraguay. At the beginning of the war, the Paraguayans took the lead with several victories, until the Triple Alliance organized to repel the invaders and fight effectively. This was the secondtotal warexperience in the world after theAmerican Civil War. It was deemed the greatest war effort in the history of all participating countries, taking almost 6 years and ending with the complete devastation of Paraguay. The country lost 40% of its territory to Brazil and Argentina and lost 60% of its population, including 90% of the men. The dictator Lopez was killed in battle and a new government was instituted in alliance with Brazil, which maintained occupation forces in the country until 1876.
The last South American war in the 19th century was theWar of the Pacificwith Bolivia and Peru on one side and Chile on the other. In 1879 the war began with Chilean troops occupying Bolivian ports, followed by Bolivia declaring war on Chile which activated an alliance treaty with Peru. The Bolivians were completely defeated in 1880 and Lima was occupied in 1881. Peace was signed with Peru in 1883 while a truce was signed with Bolivia in 1884. Chile annexed territories of both countries leaving Bolivialandlocked.
In the new century, as wars became less violent and less frequent, Brazil entered into a small conflict with Bolivia for the possession of the Acre, which was acquired by Brazil in 1902. In 1917 Brazil declared war on theCentral Powers, joined the allied side in theFirst World Warand sent a small fleet to theMediterranean Seaand some troops to be integrated with the British and French forces in the region. Brazil was the only South American country that participated in the First World War.Later in 1932 Colombia and Peru entered ashort armed conflictfor territory in the Amazon. In the same year Paraguay declaredwar on Boliviafor possession of the Chaco, in a conflict that ended three years later with Paraguay's victory. Between 1941 and 1942 Peru and Ecuadorfought for territoriesclaimed by both that were annexed by Peru, usurping Ecuador's frontier with Brazil.
Also in this period, the first major naval battle ofWorld War IItook place in the South Atlantic close to the continental mainland: theBattle of the River Plate, between a Britishcruisersquadron and a Germanpocket battleship.The Germans still made numerous attacks on Brazilian ships on the coast, causing Brazil to declare war on theAxis powersin 1942, being the only South American country to fight in this war (and in both World Wars). Brazil sent naval and air forces tocombat German and Italian submarinesoff the continent and throughout the South Atlantic, in addition to sending anexpeditionary forceto fight in theItalian Campaign.
A brief war was fought between Argentina and the UK in 1982, following an Argentine invasion of theFalkland Islands, which ended with an Argentine defeat. The last international war to be fought on South American soil was the 1995Cenepa Warbetween Ecuador and the Peru along their mutual border.
Wars became less frequent in the 20th century, with Bolivia-Paraguay and Peru-Ecuador fighting the last inter-state wars. Early in the 20th century, thethree wealthiest South American countriesengaged ina vastly expensive naval arms racewhich began after the introduction of a new warship type, the "dreadnought". At one point, the Argentine government was spending a fifth of its entire yearly budget for just two dreadnoughts, a price that did not include later in-service costs, which for the Brazilian dreadnoughts was sixty percent of the initial purchase.
The continent became a battlefield of theCold Warin the late 20th century. Some democratically elected governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay were overthrown or displaced by military dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s. To curtail opposition, their governments detained tens of thousands ofpolitical prisoners, many of whom were tortured or killed oninter-state collaboration. Economically, they began a transition toneoliberaleconomic policies. They placed their own actions within the US Cold War doctrine of "National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered froman internal conflict.
In 1982, Argentina invaded theFalkland Islands, a Britishdependent territory. TheFalklands Warbegan and 74 days laterArgentine forces surrendered.
Colombia has had an ongoing, though diminished internal conflict, which started in 1964 with the creation ofMarxistguerrillas(FARC-EP) and then involved several illegal armed groups of leftist-leaning ideology as well as the private armies of powerful drug lords. Many of these are now defunct, and only a small portion of the ELN remains, along with the stronger, though also greatly reduced, FARC.
Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships became common after World War II, but since the 1980s, a wave of democratization passed through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now.Nonetheless, allegations of corruption are still very common, and several countries have developed crises which have forced the resignation of their governments, although, on most occasions, regular civilian succession has continued.
International indebtednessbecame a significant problem in the late 1980s, and some countries, despite having strong democracies, have not developed political institutions capable of handling such crises without resorting to unorthodox economic policies. This was illustrated by Argentina'sdefaultin the early 21st century.There has been an increased push towardsregional integration, with the creation of uniquely South American institutions such as theAndean Community,MercosurandUnasur. Starting with the election ofHugo Chávezin Venezuela in 1998, the region experienced apink tide– the election of several leftist and center-left administrations in most countries, except the Guianas and Colombia.
South America's political geography since the 1990s has been characterized by a desire to reduce foreign influence.The nationalization of industries, by which the state controls entire economic sectors (as opposed of private companies doing it), has become a prominent political issue in the region.Some South American nations have nationalized their electricity industries.
Historically, the Hispanic countries were founded as Republican dictatorships led bycaudillos. Brazil was the only exception, being aconstitutional monarchyfor its first 67 years of independence, until a coup d'état proclaimed a republic. In the late 19th century, the most democratic countries wereBrazil,Chile, Argentina and Uruguay.
All South American countries arepresidential republicswith the exception ofSuriname, aparliamentary republic.French Guianais aFrench overseas department, while theFalkland IslandsandSouth Georgia and the South Sandwich Islandsare British overseas territories. It is currently the only inhabited continent in the world without monarchies; theEmpire of Brazilexisted during the 19th century and there was an unsuccessful attempt to establish aKingdom of Araucanía and Patagoniain southern Argentina and Chile. Also in the twentieth century,Surinamewas established as a constituent kingdom of theKingdom of the NetherlandsandGuyanaretained theBritish monarchashead of statefor 4 years after its independence.
Recently, an intergovernmental entity has been formed which aims to merge the two existing customs unions:Mercosurand theAndean Community, thus forming the third-largest trade bloc in the world.This new political organization, known asUnion of South American Nations, seeks to establish free movement of people, economic development, a common defense policy and the elimination oftariffs.
South America has a population of over 428 million people. They are distributed as to form a "hollow continent" with most of the population concentrated around the margins of the continent.On one hand, there are several sparsely populated areas such astropical forests, theAtacama Desertand the icy portions ofPatagonia. On the other hand, the continent presents regions of high population density, such as the great urban centers. The population is formed by descendants of Europeans (mainlySpaniards,Portugueseand Italians),AfricansandAmerindians. There is a high percentage ofMestizosthat vary greatly in composition by place. There is a population of about 5 million Asians, mostlyEast Asians, especially in Brazil,Peru, andArgentina. The two main languages are by far Spanish and Portuguese, followed by English, French and Dutch in smaller numbers.
Spanish andPortugueseare the most spoken languages in South America, with approximately 200 million speakers each. Spanish is the official language of most countries, along with other native languages in some countries. Portuguese is the official language of Brazil.Dutchis the official language ofSuriname; English is the official language ofGuyana, although there are at least twelve other languages spoken in the country, includingPortuguese, Chinese,Hindustaniand several native languages.English is also spoken in theFalkland Islands. French is the official language ofFrench Guianaand the second language inAmapá, Brazil.
Indigenous languagesof South America includeQuechuain Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Argentina and Colombia;Wayuunaikiin northern Colombia (La Guajira) and northwestern Venezuela (Zulia);Guaraníin Paraguay and, to a much lesser extent, in Bolivia;Aymarain Bolivia, Peru, and less often in Chile; andMapudungunis spoken in certain pockets of southern Chile. At least three South American indigenous languages (Quechua, Aymara, and Guarani) are recognized along with Spanish as national languages.
Other languages found in South America includeSranan Tongo,HindustaniandJavanesein Suriname; Italian in Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Venezuela; and German in certain pockets of Argentina, Chile and Brazil. German is also spoken in many regions of the southern states of Brazil,Riograndenser Hunsrückischbeing the most widely spoken German dialect in the country; among other Germanic dialects, a Brazilian form ofEast Pomeranianis also well represented and is experiencing a revival.Welshremains spoken and written in the historic towns ofTrelewandRawsonin the ArgentinePatagonia,Croatianis spoken in southern Chile, Arabic speakers, often ofLebanese,Syrian, orPalestiniandescent, can be found in Arab communities in Argentina, Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela and in Paraguay.
An estimated 90% of South Americans are Christians(82%Roman Catholic, 8% other Christian denominations mainly traditionalProtestantsandEvangelicalsbut alsoOrthodox), accounting for 19% of Christians worldwide.
African descendent and Indigenous religions are common throughout South America; some examples areSanto Daime,Candomblé, andUmbanda.Crypto-JewsorMarranos,conversos, andAnusimwere an important part of colonial life in Latin America. Buenos Aires and São Paulo figure among the largestJewish populations by urban area.
East Asian religionssuch asJapanese Buddhism,Shintoism, andShinto-derivedJapanese New Religionsare common in Brazil and Peru.Korean Confucianismis especially found in Brazil, whileChinese BuddhismandChinese Confucianismhave spread throughout the continent.Kardecist Spiritismcan be found in several countries.
Hindusform 25% of the Guyanese population and 22% of Suriname's.
Muslims account for 7% of the Guyanese population and 14% of the Surinamese population.Almost all Muslims in Suriname are either Indonesian or Indians and in Guyana, most are Indian.
Part of Religions in South America (2013):
Genetic admixtureoccurs at high levels in South America. In Argentina, European influence accounts for 65–80% of the genetic background,Amerindian(indigenous people) 17–31% and sub-Saharan African 2–4%. In Colombia, the sub-Saharan African genetic background varied 1% to 89%, while the European genetic background varied from 20 to 79%, depending on the region. In Peru, European ancestries ranged from 1% to 31%, while the African contribution was only 1–3%.The Genographic Project determined the average Peruvian from Lima had about 25% European ancestry, 68% Native American, 3% Southwest Asian ancestry and 2% sub-Saharan African.
Descendants ofindigenous peoples, such as theQuechuaandAymara, or theUrarinaofAmazonia, make up the majority of the population in Bolivia (56%) and Peru (44%).In Ecuador, Amerindians comprise two-fifths of the population. The indigenous population is also a significant element in most other countries in South America.
People who identify as of primarily or totallyEuropean descent, or identify theirphenotypeas corresponding to such group, are a majority in Uruguay,ArgentinaandChile(64.7%),and are 43.5% of the population in Brazil.In Venezuela, according to the census, 42% of the population is of primarily Spanish, Italian or Portuguese descendence.In Colombia, people who identify as from European descendants are about 20%.In Peru, European descendants are the third group in number (15%).
Mestizos(mixed European and Amerindian) are the largest ethnic group in Bolivia, Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombiaand Ecuador and the second group in Peru, Chile and Argentina.
South America is home to one of the largest populations ofAfricans. This group is significantly present in Brazil, Colombia,Guyana,Suriname, French Guiana, Venezuela and Ecuador. Brazil, followed by Peru, has the largest Japanese, Korean and Chinese communities in South America. Lima has the largest ethnic Chinese community in Latin America.Guyana and Suriname have the largest ethnicEast Indiancommunity.
In some places indigenous people still practice a traditional lifestyle, based on subsistence agriculture or as hunter-gatherers. There are stilluncontacted tribesresiding in the Amazon Rainforest.
While Brazil, Argentina, and Colombia maintain the largest populations, large city populations are not restricted to those nations. The top ten largest South American metropolitan areas by population as of 2015, based on national censuses:
Five of thetop ten metropolitan areasare in Brazil. These metropolitan areas all have a population of above 4 million and include theSão Paulo metropolitan area,Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, andBelo Horizonte metropolitan area. Whilst the majority of the largest metropolitan areas are within Brazil, Argentina is host to the second largest metropolitan area by population in South America: theBuenos Aires metropolitan region, above 13 million.
South America has been witness to the growth ofmegapolitan areas. In Brazil four megaregions exist including theExpanded Metropolitan Complex of São Paulowith more than 32 million inhabitants. The others are the Greater Rio, Greater Belo Horizonte andGreater Porto Alegre. Colombia also has four megaregions which comprise 72% of its population, followed by Venezuela, Argentina and Peru which are also homes of megaregions.
Since 1930, the continent has experienced growth and diversification in most economic sectors. Most agricultural and livestock products are destined for the domestic market and local consumption. However, the export ofagricultural productsis essential for thebalance of tradein most countries.
The main agrarian crops are export crops, such assoyand wheat. The production of staple foods such as vegetables, corn or beans is large, but focused on domestic consumption. Livestock raising for meat exports is significant in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and Colombia. In tropical regions the most important crops are coffee,cocoaandbananas, mainly in Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador. Traditionally, the countries producing sugar for export are Peru, Guyana and Suriname, and in Brazil,sugar caneis also used to makeethanol. On the coast of Peru, northeast and south of Brazil, cotton is grown. 51% of South America's land surface is covered by forest.Transnational companies have settled in theAmazon rainforestto exploit timber destined for export.
The Pacific coastal waters are the most important for commercial fishing. The anchovy catch reaches thousands of tonnes, and tuna is abundant, Peru is a major exporter. The capture ofcrustaceansis large, particularly in northeastern Brazil and Chile.
Brazil and Argentina are part of theG20industrial countries, while only Brazil is part of theG8+5(the most powerful and influential nations in the world). In the tourism sector, negotiations began in 2005 to promote tourism and increase air connections within the region.Punta del Este,FlorianópolisandMar del Plataare among the largest resorts in South America.
The most industrialized countries in South America are Brazil, Argentina, Colombia and Chile respectively. These countries alone account for more than 80% of the region's economy. Industries in South America significantly developed from the 1930s, when theGreat Depressionin the United States and elsewhere, boosted industrial production on the continent. The region partially moved away from agriculture and began to achieve high rates of economic growth that remained until the early 1990s, when they slowed due to political instabilities and economic crises.
Since the end of the economic crisis in Brazil and Argentina between 1998 and 2002, which led toeconomic recession, rising unemployment and falling income, the industrial and service sectors have recovered. South America has shown good signs of economic stability, with controlled inflation and exchange rates, continuous growth, a decrease insocial inequalityand unemployment – factors that favor industry.
The main industries are: electronics, textiles, food, automotive, metallurgy, aviation, naval, clothing, beverage, steel, tobacco, timber, chemical, among others.
Theeconomic gapbetween rich and poor in most South American nations is larger than most other continents. The richest 10% receive over 40% of the nation's income in Bolivia, Brazil and Colombia,while the poorest 20% receive 4% or less.This wide gap can be seen in large South American cities where makeshift shacks and slums lie in the vicinity of skyscrapers and luxury apartments; many South Americans live on less than $2 per day.
The four countries with the strongest agriculture are Brazil,Argentina, Chile andColombia. Currently:
Brazil is the world's largest exporter ofchicken meat: 3.8 million tonnes in 2019.The country is the holder of the second largest herd of cattle in the world, 22% of the world herd. The country was the second largest producer of beef in 2019, responsible for 15% of global production.It was also the third largest world producer of milk in 2018, 35 billion liters.In 2019, Brazil was the 4th largest pork producer in the world, with almost 4 million tonnes.In 2018,Argentinawas the fourth largest producer of beef in the world, with a production of 3 million tonnes (behind only the United States, Brazil and China).
Inchicken meatproduction, Argentina ranks among the 15 largest producers in the world, and Peru and Colombia among the 20 biggest producers. In beef production, Colombia is one of the 20 largest producers in the world. Inhoneyproduction, Argentina ranks among the five largest. Incow's milk, Argentina ranks among the 20 largest producers.
TheWorld Bankannually lists the top manufacturing countries by total manufacturing value. According to the 2019 list, Brazil has the thirteenth most valuable industry in the world (US$174 billion),Venezuelathe thirtieth largest (US$58.2 billion, however, it depends on oil to obtain this value),Argentinathe 31st largest (US$57.7 billion),Colombiathe 46th largest (US$35.4 billion),Peruthe 50th largest (US$28.7 billion) and Chile the 51st largest (US$28.3 billion).
Brazil has the third-largest manufacturing sector in the Americas. Accounting for 29 percent of GDP, Brazil's industries range from automobiles, steel, and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft (Embraer), food, pharmaceutical, footwear, metallurgy and consumer durables. In thefood industry, in 2019, Brazil was the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world.In 2016, the country was the 2nd largest producer ofpulpand the 8th producer of paper.In thefootwear industry, in 2019, Brazil ranked 4th among world producers.In 2019, the country was the 8th producer ofvehiclesand the 9th producer of steel in the world.In 2018, thechemical industryof Brazil was the 8th in the world.Intextile industry, Brazil, although it was among the five largest world producers in 2013, is very little integrated in world trade.
Mining is one of the most important economic sectors in South America, especially for Chile, Peru and Bolivia, whose economies are highly dependent on this sector. The continent is a large producer of gold (mainly in Peru, Brazil and Argentina);silver (mainly in Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina);copper (mainly in Chile, Peru and Brazil);iron ore (Brazil, Peru and Chile);zinc(Peru, Bolivia and Brazil);molybdenum(Chile and Peru);lithium(Chile, Argentina and Brazil);lead (Peru and Bolivia);bauxite(Brazil);tin(Peru, Bolivia and Brazil);manganese(Brazil);antimony(Bolivia and Ecuador);nickel(Brazil);niobium(Brazil);rhenium(Chile);iodine(Chile),among others.
Brazil stands out in the extraction of iron ore (where it is the second largest producer and exporter in the world – iron ore is usually one of the three export products that generate the greatest value in the country's trade balance), copper, gold,bauxite(one of the five largest producers in the world),manganese(one of the five largest producers in the world),tin(one of the largest producers in the world),niobium(concentrates 98% of reserves known to the world) andnickel. In terms of gemstones, Brazil is the world's largest producer ofamethyst,topaz,agateand one of the main producers oftourmaline,emerald,aquamarine,garnetandopal.
Chile contributes about a third of the world copper production.In addition to copper, Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer ofiodineandrhenium,the second largest producer oflithiumandmolybdenum,the sixth largest producer of silver,the seventh largest producer of salt,the eighth largest producer ofpotash,the thirteenth producer ofsulfurand the thirteenth producer of iron orein the world.
In 2019,Peruwas the 2nd largest world producer of copperand silver,8th largest world producer of gold,3rd largest world producer of lead,2nd largest world producer ofzinc,4th largest world producer oftin,5th largest world producer ofboronand 4th largest world producer ofmolybdenum.
In 2019,Boliviawas the 8th largest world producer of silver;4th largest world producer ofboron;5th largest world producer ofantimony;5th largest world producer oftin;6th largest world producer oftungsten;7th largest producer ofzinc,and the 8th largest producer of lead.
In 2019,Argentinawas the 4th largest world producer oflithium,the 9th largest world producer of silver,the 17th largest world producer of goldand the 7th largest world producer ofboron.
Colombiais the world's largest producer ofemeralds.In the production of gold, among 2006 and 2017, the country produced 15 tonnes (15 long tons; 17 short tons) per year until 2007, when its production increased significantly, breaking a record of 66.1 tonnes (65.1 long tons; 72.9 short tons) extracted in 2012. In 2017, it extracted 52.2 tonnes (51.4 long tons; 57.5 short tons). The country is among the 25 largest gold producers in the world.In the production of silver, in 2017 the country extracted 15.5 tonnes (15.3 long tons; 17.1 short tons).
In the production of oil, Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day. Venezuela was the 21st largest, with 877 thousand barrels / day and Colombia in 22nd with 886 thousand. As Venezuela and Ecuador consume little oil and export most of their production, they are part ofOPEC. Venezuela had a big drop in production after 2015 (where it produced 2.5 million barrels / day), falling in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of investment.
For natural gas, in 2018, Argentina produced 1524 bcf (billion cubic feet), Venezuela 946, Brazil 877, Bolivia 617, Peru 451, Colombia 379.
In the beginning of 2020, in the production ofoiland natural gas, Brazil exceeded 4 millionbarrels of oil equivalentper day, for the first time. In January 2021, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 139 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.The continent had 2 of the 30 largest world producers of coal in 2018: Colombia (12th) and Brazil (27th).
Tourism has increasingly become a significant source of income for South American countries.
Historic relics, architectural and natural wonders, a diverse range of foods and culture, colorful cities, and pretty landscapes attract millions of tourists every year to South America. Some of the most visited places in the region areRio de Janeiro,Florianópolis,Iguazu Falls, São Paulo,Armação dos Búzios,Salvador,Bombinhas,Angra dos Reis,Balneário Camboriú,Paraty,Ipojuca,Natal,Cairu,FortalezaandItapemain Brazil;Buenos Aires,Bariloche,Salta,Jujuy,Perito Moreno Glacier,Valdes Peninsula,Guarani Jesuit Missions in the cities of Misiones and Corrientes,Ischigualasto Provincial Park,UshuaiaandPatagoniain Argentina;Isla Margarita,Angel Falls,Los Roques archipelago,Gran Sabanain Venezuela;Machu Picchu, Lima,Nazca Lines,Cuzcoin Peru;Lake Titicaca,Salar de Uyuni, La Paz,Jesuit Missions of Chiquitosin Bolivia;Tayrona National Natural Park,Santa Marta,Bogotá,Cali,Medellín,Cartagenain Colombia, and theGalápagos Islandsin Ecuador.In 2016 Brazil hosted the2016 Summer Olympics.
South Americans are culturally influenced by their indigenous peoples, the historic connection with the Iberian Peninsula and Africa, and waves of immigrants from around the globe.
South American nations have a rich variety ofmusic. Some of the most famous genres includevallenatoandcumbiafrom Colombia,pasillofrom Colombia and Ecuador,samba,bossa novaandmúsica sertanejafrom Brazil,joropofrom Venezuela andtangofrom Argentina and Uruguay. Also well known is the non-commercial folk genreNueva Canciónmovement which was founded in Argentina and Chile and quickly spread to the rest of the Latin America.
People on the Peruvian coast created the fine guitar andcajonduos or trios in the mostmestizo(mixed) of South American rhythms such as the Marinera (from Lima), theTondero(from Piura), the 19th-century popular Creole Valse or Peruvian Valse, the soulful Arequipan Yaravi, and the early-20th-century ParaguayanGuarania. In the late 20th century,Spanish rockemerged by young hipsters influenced by British pop and American rock.Brazilhas a Portuguese-language pop rock industry as well a great variety of other music genres. In the central and western regions of Bolivia, Andean and folklore music likeDiablada,CaporalesandMorenadaare the most representative of the country, which were originated by European, Aymara and Quechua influences.
Theliteratureof South America has attracted considerable critical and popular acclaim, especially with theLatin American Boomof the 1960s and 1970s, and the rise of authors such asMario Vargas Llosa,Gabriel García Márquezin novels andJorge Luis BorgesandPablo Nerudain other genres. The BraziliansMachado de AssisandJoão Guimarães Rosaare widely regarded as the greatest Brazilian writers.
Because of South America's broad ethnic mix,South American cuisinehas African, Mestizo, South Asian, East Asian, and European influences.Bahia, Brazil, is especially well known for its West African–influenced cuisine. Argentines, Chileans, Uruguayans, Brazilians, Bolivians, and Venezuelans regularly consume wine. People in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, southern Chile, Bolivia and Southern Brazil drinkmate, an herb which is brewed. The Paraguayan version,terere, differs from other forms of mate in that it is served cold.Piscois a liquor distilled from grapes in Peru and Chile. Peruvian cuisine mixes elements from Chinese, Japanese, Spanish, Italian, African, Arab, Andean, and Amazonic food.
The artistOswaldo Guayasamín(1919–1999) fromEcuador, represented with his painting style the feeling of the peoples of Latin Americahighlighting social injustices in various parts of the world. The ColombianFernando Botero(1932–2023) was one of the greatest exponents of painting and sculpture was able to develop a recognizable style of his own.For his part, the VenezuelanCarlos Cruz-Diezhas contributed significantly to contemporary art,with the presence of works around the world.
Currently several emerging South American artists are recognized by international art critics:Guillermo Lorca– Chilean painter,Teddy Cobeña– Ecuadorian sculptor and recipient of international sculpture award in France)and Argentine artistAdrián Villar Rojas– winner of the Zurich Museum Art Award among many others.
A wide range of sports are played in the continent of South America, withfootballbeing the most popular overall, while baseball is the most popular in Venezuela.
Other sports include basketball,cycling,polo, volleyball,futsal,motorsports,rugby(mostly in Argentina and Uruguay),handball, tennis, golf,field hockey,boxing, andcricket.
South America hosted its firstOlympic Gamesin Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2016, and has hosted theYouth Olympic Gamesin Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 2018. A multi-sport event, theSouth American Games, are held every four years. The first edition was held inLa Pazin 1978 and the most recent took place inSantiagoin 2014.
South America shares, with Europe, supremacy over football: all winners in theFIFA World CupandFIFA Club World Cuphave come from these two continents. Brazil has won the FIFA World Cup a record five times; Argentina three times, Uruguay twice. Five South American nations have hosted the tournament including the first edition in Uruguay (1930). Two were in Brazil (1950, 2014), Chile (1962), and Argentina (1978). South America is home to the longest-running international football tournament, theCopa América, which has been contested since 1916. Argentina haswon the Copa América16 times, the most among all countries.
South American Cricket Championshipis an internationalone-day crickettournament played since 1995 featuring national teams fromSouth Americaand certain other invited sides including teams from North America, currently played annually but until 2013 was usually played every two seasons.
Due to the diversity oftopographyand pluviometric precipitation conditions, the region's water resources vary enormously in different areas. In theAndes, navigation possibilities are limited, except for the Magdalena River,Lake Titicacaand the lakes of the southern regions of Chile and Argentina. Irrigation is an important factor for agriculture from northwestern Peru to Patagonia. Less than 10% of the known electrical potential of the Andes had been used until the mid-1960s.
TheBrazilian Highlandshave a much higher hydroelectric potential than theAndean regionand its possibilities of exploitation are greater due to the existence of several large rivers with high margins and the occurrence of great differences forming huge cataracts, such as those of Paulo Afonso, Iguaçu and others. TheAmazon Riversystem has about 13,000 km of waterways, but its possibilities for hydroelectric use are still unknown.
Most of the continent's energy is generated throughhydroelectric power plants, but there is also an important share ofthermoelectricandwind energy. Brazil and Argentina are the only South American countries that generatenuclear power, each with twonuclear power plants. In 1991 these countries signed a peaceful nuclear cooperation agreement.
The Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported petroleum. Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs but Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in 2006–2007. Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day. Production manages to supply the country's demand.In the beginning of 2020, in the production ofoiland natural gas, the country exceeded 4 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, for the first time. In January this year, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.
Brazil is one of the main world producers ofhydroelectric power. In 2019, Brazil had 217 hydroelectric plants in operation, with an installed capacity of 98,581 MW, 60.16% of the country's energy generation.In the total generation of electricity, in 2019 Brazil reached 170,000 megawatts of installed capacity, more than 75% from renewable sources (the majority, hydroelectric).
In 2013, theSoutheast Regionused about 50% of the load of the National Integrated System (SIN), being the main energy consuming region in the country. The region's installed electricity generation capacity totaled almost 42,500 MW, which represented about a third of Brazil's generation capacity. Hydroelectric generation represented 58% of the region's installed capacity, with the remaining 42% coming mostly from thermoelectric generation. São Paulo accounted for 40% of this capacity; Minas Gerais for about 25%; Rio de Janeiro for 13.3%; and Espírito Santo accounted for the rest. TheSouth Regionowns theItaipu Dam, which was the largest hydroelectric plant in the world for several years, until the inauguration ofThree Gorges Damin China. It remains the second largest operating hydroelectric in the world. Brazil is the co-owner of the Itaipu Plant withParaguay: the dam is located on theParaná River, located on the border between countries. It has an installed generation capacity of 14 GW for 20 generating units of 700 MW each.North Regionhas large hydroelectric plants, such asBelo Monte DamandTucuruí Dam, which produce much of the national energy. Brazil's hydroelectric potential has not yet been fully exploited, so the country still has the capacity to build several renewable energy plants in its territory.
As of July 2022,according to ONS, total installed capacity ofwind powerwas 22 GW, with averagecapacity factorof 58%.While the world average wind production capacity factors is 24.7%, there are areas in Northern Brazil, specially in Bahia State, where some wind farms record with average capacity factors over 60%;the average capacity factor in theNortheast Regionis 45% in the coast and 49% in the interior.In 2019, wind energy represented 9% of the energy generated in the country.In 2019, it was estimated that the country had an estimated wind power generation potential of around 522 GW (this, only onshore), enough energy to meet three times the country's current demand.In 2021 Brazil was the 7th country in the world in terms of installed wind power (21 GW),and the 4th largest producer of wind energy in the world (72 TWh), behind only China, United States and Germany.
Nuclear energy accounts for about 4% of Brazil's electricity.The nuclear power generation monopoly is owned byEletronuclear (Eletrobrás Eletronuclear S/A), a wholly owned subsidiary ofEletrobrás. Nuclear energy is produced bytwo reactorsatAngra. It is located at the Central Nuclear Almirante Álvaro Alberto (CNAAA) on the Praia de Itaorna inAngra dos Reis, Rio de Janeiro. It consists of twopressurized water reactors, Angra I, with capacity of 657 MW, connected to the power grid in 1982, and Angra II, with capacity of 1,350 MW, connected in 2000. A third reactor, Angra III, with a projected output of 1,350 MW, is planned to be finished.
As of October 2022,according to ONS, total installed capacity ofphotovoltaic solarwas 21 GW, with averagecapacity factorof 23%. Some of the mostirradiatedBrazilian States are MG ("Minas Gerais"), BA ("Bahia") and GO (Goiás), which have indeed worldirradiationlevel records.In 2019, solar power represented 1.27% of the energy generated in the country.In 2021, Brazil was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed solar power (13 GW),and the 11th largest producer of solar energy in the world (16.8 TWh).
In 2020, Brazil was the 2nd largest country in the world in the production of energy throughbiomass(energy production from solid biofuels and renewable waste), with 15,2 GW installed.
After Brazil,Colombiais the country in South America that most stands out in energy production. In 2020, the country was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2015 it was the 19th largest exporter. In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 40th largest producer in the world. Colombia's biggest highlight is in coal, where the country was, in 2018, the world's 12th largest producer and the 5th largest exporter. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 45th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (0.5 GW), 76th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.1 GW) and 20th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW).Venezuela, which was one of the world's largest oil producers (about 2.5 million barrels/day in 2015) and one of the largest exporters, due to its political problems, has had its production drastically reduced in recent years: in 2016, it dropped to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, reaching only 300,000 barrels/day at a given point. The country also stands out in hydroelectricity, where it was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed capacity in 2020 (16,5 GW).Argentinawas, in 2017, the 18th largest producer in the world, and the largest producer in Latin America, of natural gas, in addition to being the 28th largest oil producer; although the country has the Vaca Muerta field, which holds close to 16 billion barrels of technically recoverable shale oil, and is the second largest shale natural gas deposit in the world, the country lacks the capacity to exploit the deposit: it is necessary capital, technology and knowledge that can only come from offshore energy companies, who view Argentina and its erratic economic policies with considerable suspicion, not wanting to invest in the country. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 27th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (2.6 GW), 42nd in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.7 GW) and 21st in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (11.3 GW). The country has great future potential for the production of wind energy in the Patagonia region. Chile, although currently not a major energy producer, has great future potential for solar energy production in the Atacama Desert region.Paraguaystands out today in hydroelectric production thanks to the Itaipu Power Plant.Boliviastand out in the production of natural gas, where it was the 31st largest in the world in 2015.Ecuador, because it consumes little energy, is part of OPEC and was the 27th largest oil producer in the world in 2020, being the 22nd largest exporter in 2014.
Transport infrastructure in South America includes roads, railways,seaportsand airports. The railway andfluvialsector, although having more robust contemporary potential, are still somewhat treated in a secondary way.
Due to theAndes Mountains,Amazon RiverandAmazon Forest, there have always been difficulties in implementing larger scale transcontinental or bi-oceanic highways. Practically the only route that existed was the one that connected Brazil to Buenos Aires, (in Argentina) and later to Santiago, (in Chile). However, in recent years, with the combined effort of countries, new routes have started to emerge, such as Brazil-Peru (Interoceanic Highway), and a new highway between Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina and northern Chile (Bioceanic Corridor).
Some of the most modern roads extend through northern and south-east Argentina; and south of Brazil, a vast road complex aims to linkBrasília, the federal capital, to the South, Southeast, Northeast and Northern regions of Brazil.
Brazil has more than 1.7 million km of roads, of which 215,000 km are paved, and about 14,000 km aredivided highways. The two most important highways in the country areBR-101andBR-116.Argentina has more than 600,000 km of roads, of which about 70,000 km are paved, and about 2,500 km are divided highways. The three most important highways in the country areRoute 9,Route 7andRoute 14.Colombia has about 210,000 km of roads, and about 2,300 km are divided highways.Chile has about 82,000 km of roads, 20,000 km of which are paved, and about 2,000 km are divided highways. The most important highway in the country is theRoute 5(Pan-American Highway)These 4 countries are the ones with the best road infrastructure and with the largest number of double-lane highways.
In addition, there is a reputedPan-American Highway, which crosses Argentina and the Andean countries from north to south, although various stretches are unfinished.
In South America,commercial aviationhas a magnificent expansion field, which has one of the largest traffic density lines in the world, Rio de Janeiro–São Paulo, and large airports, such asCongonhas,São Paulo–Guarulhos InternationalandViracopos(São Paulo),Rio de Janeiro InternationalandSantos Dumont(Rio de Janeiro),El Dorado(Bogotá),Ezeiza(Buenos Aires),Tancredo Neves International Airport(Belo Horizonte),Curitiba International Airport(Curitiba), Brasília, Caracas, Montevideo, Lima,Viru Viru International Airport(Santa Cruz de la Sierra), Recife, Salvador, Salgado Filho International Airport (Porto Alegre), Fortaleza, Manaus and Belém.
There are more than 2,000 airports in Brazil. The country has the second largest number of airports in the world, behind only the United States.São Paulo International Airport, located in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, is the largest and busiest in the country – the airport connects São Paulo to practically all major cities around the world. Brazil has 44 international airports, such as those inRio de Janeiro,Brasília,Belo Horizonte,Porto Alegre,Florianópolis,Cuiabá,Salvador,Recife,Fortaleza,BelémandManaus, among others. Argentina has important international airports such asBuenos Aires,Cordoba,Bariloche,Mendoza,Salta,Puerto Iguazú,NeuquénandUsuhaia, among others. Chile has important international airports such asSantiago,Antofagasta,Puerto Montt,Punta ArenasandIquique, among others. Colombia has important international airports such asBogotá,Medellín,Cartagena,CaliandBarranquilla, among others. Other important airports are those in the capitals of Uruguay (Montevideo), Paraguay (Asunción), Peru (Lima), Bolivia (La Paz) and Ecuador (Quito). The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina), and Minas Gerais (Brazil).
The two main merchant fleets also belong to Brazil and Argentina. The following are those of Chile, Venezuela, Peru and Colombia. The largest ports in commercial movement are those ofBuenos Aires,Santos, Rio de Janeiro,Bahía Blanca,Rosario,Valparaíso,Recife,Salvador, Montevideo,Paranaguá,Rio Grande,Fortaleza,BelémandMaracaibo.
About ports, Brazil has some of the busiest seaports in South America, such asPort of Santos,Port of Rio de Janeiro,Port of Paranaguá,Port of Itajaí,Port of Rio Grande,Port of São Francisco do SulandSuape Port. Argentina has ports such asPort of Buenos AiresandPort of Rosario. Chile has important ports inValparaíso,Caldera,Mejillones,Antofagasta,Iquique,AricaandPuerto Montt. Colombia has important ports such asBuenaventura,Cartagena Container TerminalandPuerto Bolivar. Peru has important ports inCallao,IloandMatarani. The 15 busiest ports in South America are: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile).
Two primary railroads are continental: the Transandina, which connectsBuenos Aires, in Argentina toValparaíso, in Chile, and the Brazil–Bolivia Railroad, which makes it the connection between the port ofSantosin Brazil and the city ofSanta Cruz de la Sierra, in Bolivia.
Two areas of greater density occur in the railway sector: the platinum network, which develops around thePlatine region, largely belonging to Argentina, with more than 45,000 km in length; And theSoutheast Brazilnetwork, which mainly serves thestate of São Paulo,state of Rio de JaneiroandMinas Gerais.
The Argentine rail network, with 47,000 km of tracks, and at one stage was one of the largest in the world and continues to be the most extensive in Latin America. It came to have about 100,000 km of rails, but the lifting of tracks and the emphasis placed on motor transport gradually reduced it. It has four different trails and international connections with Paraguay, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil and Uruguay. The Brazilian railway network has an extension of about 30,000 kilometers. It is basically used for transporting ores.Chile has almost 7,000 km of railways, with connections to Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. Colombia has about 3,500 km of railways.
South America has one of the largest bays of navigable inland waterways in the world, represented mainly by theAmazon basin, thePlatine basin, the São Francisco and the Orinoco basins, Brazil having about 54,000 km navigable, while Argentina has 6,500 km and Venezuela, 1,200 km.
Among the main Brazilianwaterways, two stand out:Hidrovia Tietê-Paraná(which has a length of 2,400 km, 1,600 on the Paraná River and 800 km on the Tietê River, draining agricultural production from the states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás and part of Rondônia, Tocantins and Minas Gerais) andHidrovia do Solimões-Amazonas(it has two sections: Solimões, which extends from Tabatinga to Manaus, with approximately 1600 km, and Amazonas, which extends from Manaus to Belém, with 1650 km. Almost entirely passenger transport from the Amazon plain is done by this waterway, in addition to practically all cargo transportation that is directed to the major regional centers of Belém and Manaus). In Brazil, this transport is still underused: the most important waterway stretches, from an economic point of view, are found in the Southeast and South of the country. Its full use still depends on the construction of locks, major dredging works and, mainly, of ports that allow intermodal integration. InArgentina, the waterway network is made up of the La Plata, Paraná, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers. The main river ports areZárateandCampana. The port of Buenos Aires is historically the first in individual importance, but the area known as Up-River, which stretches along 67 km of the Santa Fé portion of the Paraná River, brings together 17 ports that concentrate 50% of the total exports of the country.
The main public transport in major cities is the bus. Many cities have a diverse system of metro and subway trains, the first of which was theBuenos Aires subte, opened 1913.TheSantiago subwayis the largest network in South America, with 103 km, while theSão Paulo subwayis the most heavily used, with more than 4.6 million passengers per day.Rio de Janeiroinstalled the continent's first railroad in 1854. Today the city has a diversified system of metropolitan trains, integrated with buses and subway. It has a Light Rail System calledVLT, with small electrical trams at low speed, whileSão Paulohas inaugurated amonorail. In Brazil, an express bus system called Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), which operates in several cities, has been developed.Mi Teleférico, also known as TeleféricoLa Paz–El Alto(La Paz–El Alto Cable Car), is an aerial cable car urban transit system serving the La Paz–El Alto metropolitan area in Bolivia.