Sudan

Sudan,officially theRepublic of the Sudan,is a country inNortheast Africa. It borders theCentral African Republicto the southwest,Chadto the west,Libyato the northwest,Egyptto the north, theRed Seato the east,EritreaandEthiopiato the southeast, andSouth Sudanto the south. Sudan has a population of 50 million people as of 2024and occupies 1,886,068 square kilometres (728,215 square miles), making it Africa'sthird-largest country by areaand the third-largest by area in theArab League. It was the largest country by area in Africa and the Arab League until thesecession of South Sudan in 2011;since then both titles have been held byAlgeria. Sudan's capital and most populous city isKhartoum.
The area that is now Sudan witnessed theKhormusan(c.40000–16000 BC),Halfan culture(c.20500–17000 BC),Sebilian(c.13000–10000 BC),Qadan culture(c.15000–5000 BC),the war ofJebel Sahaba, the earliest known war in the world, around 11500 BC,A-Group culture(c. 3800–3100 BC),Kingdom of Kerma(c.2500–1500 BC), theEgyptian New Kingdom(c.1500–1070 BC), and theKingdom of Kush(c.785 BC – 350 AD). After the fall of Kush, theNubiansformed the three Christian kingdoms ofNobatia,Makuria, andAlodia.
Between the 14th and 15th centuries, most of Sudan was gradually settled byArab nomads. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, central and eastern Sudan were dominated by theFunj sultanate, whileDarfurruled the west and the Ottomans the east. In 1811,Mamluksestablished a state atDunqulahas a base for theirslave trading. UnderTurco-Egyptian ruleof Sudan after the 1820s, the practice of trading slaves was entrenched along a north–south axis, withslave raidstaking place in southern parts of the country and slaves being transported to Egypt and theOttoman Empire.
From the 19th century, the entirety of Sudan was conquered by the Egyptians under theMuhammad Ali dynasty. Religious-nationalist fervour erupted in theMahdist Uprisingin which Mahdist forces were eventually defeated by a joint Egyptian-British military force. In 1899, under British pressure, Egypt agreed to share sovereignty over Sudan with the United Kingdom as acondominium. In effect, Sudan was governed as a British possession.
TheEgyptian revolution of 1952toppled the monarchy and demanded the withdrawal of British forces from all of Egypt and Sudan.Muhammad Naguib, one of the two co-leaders of the revolution and Egypt's first President, was half-Sudanese and had been raised in Sudan. He made securing Sudanese independence a priority of the revolutionary government. The following year, under Egyptian and Sudanese pressure, the British agreed to Egypt's demand for both governments to terminate their shared sovereignty over Sudan and to grant Sudan independence. On 1 January 1956, Sudan was duly declared an independent state.
After Sudan became independent, theGaafar Nimeiryregime beganIslamistrule.This exacerbated the rift between the Islamic North, the seat of the government, and theAnimistsand Christians in the South. Differences in language, religion, and political power erupted in acivil warbetween government forces, influenced by theNational Islamic Front(NIF), and the southern rebels, whose most influential faction was theSudan People's Liberation Army(SPLA), which eventually led to theindependenceofSouth Sudanin 2011.Between 1989 and 2019, a 30-year-longmilitary dictatorshipled byOmar al-Bashirruled Sudan and committed widespreadhuman rights abuses, including torture, persecution of minorities,alleged sponsorship of global terrorism, andethnic genocideinDarfurfrom 2003–2020. Overall, the regime killed an estimated 300,000 to 400,000 people.Protests eruptedin 2018, demanding Bashir's resignation, which resulted in acoup d'étaton 11 April 2019 and Bashir's imprisonment.Sudan is currently embroiled ina civil warbetween two rival factions, theSudanese Armed Forces(SAF), and the paramilitaryRapid Support Forces(RSF).
Islamwas Sudan's state religion andIslamic lawswere applied from 1983 until 2020 when the country became asecular state.Sudan is aleast developed countryand among the poorest countries in the world,ranking 170th on theHuman Development Indexas of 2024 and 185th bynominal GDP per capita. Itseconomylargely relies onagriculturedue tointernational sanctionsand isolation, as well as a history of internal instability and factional violence. The large majority of Sudan is dry and over 60% of Sudan's population lives in poverty. Sudan is a member of theUnited Nations,Arab League,African Union,COMESA,Non-Aligned Movementand theOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation.
The country's nameSudanis a name given historically to the largeSahelregion of West Africa to the immediate west of modern-day Sudan. Historically, Sudan referred to both thegeographical region, stretching fromSenegalon theAtlanticCoast to Northeast Africa and the modern Sudan.
The name derives from the Arabicbilād as-sūdān(بلاد السودان), or "The Land of theBlacks".The name is one of varioustoponymssharing similaretymologies, in reference to the very dark skin of the indigenous people. Prior to this, Sudan was known asNubiaandTa NehesiorTa SetibyAncient Egyptiansnamed for the Nubian andMedjayarchers or bowmen.
Since 2011, Sudan is also sometimes referred to asNorth Sudanto distinguish it fromSouth Sudan.
Affad 23is anarchaeological sitelocated in theAffadregion of southern Dongola Reach in northern Sudan,which hosts "the well-preserved remains of prehistoric camps (relics of the oldestopen-airhutin the world) and diversehuntingandgatheringloci some 50,000 years old".
By the eighth millennium BC, people of aNeolithicculture had settled into a sedentary way of life there in fortifiedmudbrickvillages, where they supplemented hunting and fishing on the Nile with grain gathering and cattle herding.Neolithic peoples created cemeteries such asR12. During the fifth millennium BC, migrations from the drying Sahara brought neolithic people into the Nile Valley along with agriculture.
The population that resulted from this cultural and genetic mixing developed a social hierarchy over the next centuries which became theKingdom of Kermaat 2500 BC. Anthropological and archaeological research indicates that during the predynastic period Nubia and Nagadan Upper Egypt were ethnically and culturally nearly identical, and thus, simultaneously evolved systems of pharaonic kingship by 3300 BC.
The Kerma culture was an early civilization centered inKerma, Sudan. It flourished from around 2500 BC to 1500 BC in ancientNubia. The Kerma culture was based in the southern part of Nubia, or "Upper Nubia" (in parts of present-day northern and central Sudan), and later extended its reach northward into Lower Nubia and the border of Egypt.The polity seems to have been one of severalNile Valleystates during theMiddle Kingdom of Egypt. In the Kingdom of Kerma's latest phase, lasting from about 1700–1500 BC, it absorbed the Sudanese kingdom ofSaïand became a sizable, populous empire rivaling Egypt.
Mentuhotep II, the 21st century BC founder of theMiddle Kingdom, is recorded to have undertaken campaigns against Kush in the 29th and 31st years of his reign. This is the earliest Egyptian reference toKush; theNubianregion had gone by other names in the Old Kingdom.UnderThutmose I, Egypt made several campaigns south.
The Egyptians ruled Kush in the New kingdom beginning when the Egyptian King Thutmose I occupied Kush and destroyed its capital, Kerma.
This eventually resulted in their annexation of Nubiac.1504 BC. Around 1500 BC, Nubia was absorbed into theNew Kingdom of Egypt, but rebellions continued for centuries. After the conquest, Kerma culture was increasingly Egyptianized, yet rebellions continued for 220 years untilc.1300 BC. Nubia nevertheless became a key province of the New Kingdom, economically, politically, and spiritually. Indeed, major pharaonic ceremonies were held at Jebel Barkal near Napata.As an Egyptian colony from the 16th century BC, Nubia ("Kush") was governed by an EgyptianViceroy of Kush.
Resistance to the early eighteenth Dynasty Egyptian rule by neighboring Kush is evidenced in the writings ofAhmose, son of Ebana, an Egyptian warrior who served under Nebpehtrya Ahmose (1539–1514 BC), Djeserkara Amenhotep I (1514–1493 BC), and Aakheperkara Thutmose I (1493–1481 BC). At the end of theSecond Intermediate Period(mid-sixteenth century BC), Egypt faced the twin existential threats—theHyksosin the North and the Kushites in the South. Taken from the autobiographical inscriptions on the walls of his tomb-chapel, the Egyptians undertook campaigns to defeat Kush and conquer Nubia under the rule ofAmenhotep I(1514–1493 BC). In Ahmose's writings, the Kushites are described asarchers, "Now after his Majesty had slain the Bedoin of Asia, he sailed upstream toUpper Nubiato destroy the Nubian bowmen."The tomb writings contain two other references to the Nubian bowmen of Kush. By 1200 BC, Egyptian involvement in theDongola Reachwas nonexistent.
Egypt's international prestige had declined considerably towards the end of theThird Intermediate Period. Its historical allies, the inhabitants ofCanaan, had fallen to theMiddle Assyrian Empire(1365–1020 BC), and then the resurgentNeo-Assyrian Empire(935–605 BC). TheAssyrians, from the tenth century BC onwards, had once more expanded from northernMesopotamia, and conquered a vast empire, including the whole of theNear East, and much ofAnatolia, the easternMediterranean, theCaucasusandearly Iron Age Iran.
According to Josephus Flavius, the biblical Moses led the Egyptian army in a siege of the Kushite city of Meroe. To end the siege Princess Tharbis was given to Moses as a (diplomatic) bride, and thus the Egyptian army retreated back to Egypt.
TheKingdom of Kushwas an ancientNubianstate centred on the confluences of theBlue NileandWhite Nile, and theAtbarah Riverand theNile River. It was established after theBronze Agecollapse and the disintegration of theNew Kingdom of Egypt; it was centred at Napata in its early phase.
After KingKashta("the Kushite") invaded Egypt in the eighth century BC, the Kushite kings ruled as pharaohs of theTwenty-fifth Dynasty of Egyptfor nearly a century before being defeated and driven out by theAssyrians.At the height of their glory, the Kushites conquered an empire that stretched from what is now known asSouth Kordofanto the Sinai. PharaohPiyeattempted to expand the empire into the Near East but was thwarted by the Assyrian kingSargon II.
Between 800 BCE and 100 AD theNubian pyramidswere built, among them can be namedEl-Kurru,Kashta,Piye,Tantamani,Shabaka, Pyramids ofGebel Barkal,Pyramids of Meroe (Begarawiyah), theSedeinga pyramids, andPyramids of Nuri.
The Kingdom of Kush is mentioned in the Bible as having saved the Israelites from the wrath of the Assyrians, although disease among the besiegers might have been one of the reasons for the failure to take the city.The war that took place between PharaohTaharqaand the Assyrian kingSennacheribwas a decisive event in western history, with the Nubians being defeated in their attempts to gain a foothold in theNear Eastby Assyria. Sennacherib's successorEsarhaddonwent further and invaded Egypt itself to secure his control of the Levant. This succeeded, as he managed to expel Taharqa from Lower Egypt. Taharqa fled back to Upper Egypt and Nubia, where he died two years later. Lower Egypt came under Assyrian vassalage but proved unruly, unsuccessfully rebelling against the Assyrians. Then, the kingTantamani, a successor of Taharqa, made a final determined attempt to regain Lower Egypt from the newly reinstated Assyrian vassalNecho I. He managed to retakeMemphiskilling Necho in the process and besieged cities in the Nile Delta.Ashurbanipal, who had succeeded Esarhaddon, sent a large army in Egypt to regain control. He routed Tantamani near Memphis and, pursuing him,sacked Thebes. Although the Assyrians immediately departed Upper Egypt after these events, weakened, Thebes peacefully submitted itself to Necho's sonPsamtik Iless than a decade later. This ended all hopes of a revival of the Nubian Empire, which rather continued in the form of a smaller kingdom centred onNapata. The city was raided by the Egyptianc.590 BC, and sometime soon after to the late-3rd century BC, the Kushite resettled inMeroë.
On the turn of the fifth century theBlemmyesestablished a short-lived state in Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia, probably centred around Talmis (Kalabsha), but before 450 they were already driven out of the Nile Valley by the Nobatians. The latter eventually founded a kingdom on their own,Nobatia.By the sixth century there were in total three Nubian kingdoms: Nobatia in the north, which had its capital at Pachoras (Faras); the central kingdom,Makuriacentred at Tungul (Old Dongola), about 13 kilometres (8 miles) south of modernDongola; andAlodia, in the heartland of the old Kushitic kingdom, which had its capital atSoba(now a suburb of modern-day Khartoum).Still in the sixth century they converted to Christianity.In the seventh century, probably at some point between 628 and 642, Nobatia was incorporated into Makuria.
Between 639 and 641 the Muslim Arabs of theRashidun CaliphateconqueredByzantineEgypt. In641 or 642and again in652they invaded Nubia but were repelled, making the Nubians one of the few who managed to defeat the Arabs during theIslamic expansion. Afterward the Makurian king and the Arabs agreed on aunique non-aggression pact that also included an annual exchange of gifts, thus acknowledging Makuria's independence.While the Arabs failed to conquer Nubia they began to settle east of the Nile, where they eventually founded several port townsand intermarried with the localBeja.
From the mid eighth to mid eleventh century the political power and cultural development of Christian Nubia peaked.In 747 Makuria invaded Egypt, which at this time belonged to the decliningUmayyads,and it did so again in the early 960s, when it pushed as far north asAkhmim.Makuria maintained close dynastic ties with Alodia, perhaps resulting in the temporary unification of the two kingdoms into one state.The culture of the medieval Nubians has been described as "Afro-Byzantine",but was also increasingly influenced by Arab culture.The state organisation was extremely centralised,being based on theByzantine bureaucracyof the sixth and seventh centuries.Arts flourished in the form of pottery paintingsand especially wall paintings.The Nubians developed an alphabet for their language,Old Nobiin, basing it on theCoptic alphabet, while also usingGreek,CopticandArabic.Women enjoyed high social status: they had access to education, could own, buy and sell land and often used their wealth to endow churches and church paintings.Even the royal succession wasmatrilineal, with the son of the king's sister being the rightful heir.
From the late 11th/12th century, Makuria's capital Dongola was in decline, and Alodia's capital declined in the 12th century as well.In the 14th and 15th centuriesBedouintribes overran most of Sudan,migrating to theButana, theGezira,KordofanandDarfur.In 1365 a civil war forced the Makurian court to flee toGebel AddainLower Nubia, while Dongola was destroyed and left to the Arabs. Afterwards Makuria continued to exist only as a petty kingdom.After the prosperousreign of kingJoel(fl.1463–1484) Makuria collapsed.Coastal areas from southern Sudan up to the port city ofSuakinwas succeeded by theAdal Sultanatein the fifteenth century.To the south, the kingdom of Alodia fell to either the Arabs, commanded by tribal leaderAbdallah Jamma, or theFunj, an African people originating from the south.Datings range from the9th century after the Hijra(c.1396–1494),the late 15th century,1504to 1509.An alodian rump state might have survived in the form of thekingdom of Fazughli, lasting until 1685.
In 1504 the Funj are recorded to have founded theKingdom of Sennar, in which Abdallah Jamma's realm was incorporated.By 1523, when Jewish travellerDavid Reubenivisited Sudan, the Funj state already extended as far north as Dongola.Meanwhile, Islam began to be preached on the Nile bySufiholy men who settled there in the 15th and 16th centuriesand by David Reubeni's visit kingAmara Dunqas, previously a Pagan or nominal Christian, was recorded to be Muslim.However, the Funj would retain un-Islamic customs like the divine kingship or the consumption of alcohol until the 18th century.Sudanesefolk Islampreserved many rituals stemming from Christian traditions until the recent past.
Soon the Funj came in conflict with theOttomans, who had occupiedSuakinc.1526and eventually pushed south along the Nile, reaching the third Nile cataract area in 1583/1584. A subsequent Ottoman attempt to capture Dongola wasrepelledby the Funj in 1585.Afterwards,Hannik, located just south of the third cataract, would mark the border between the two states.The aftermath of the Ottoman invasion saw the attempted usurpation ofAjib, a minor king of northern Nubia. While the Funj eventually killed him in 1611/1612 his successors, theAbdallab, were granted to govern everything north of the confluence of Blue and White Niles with considerable autonomy.
During the 17th century the Funj state reached its widest extent,but in the following century it began to decline.A coup in 1718 brought a dynastic change,while another one in 1761–1762resulted in theHamaj Regency, where theHamaj(a people from the Ethiopian borderlands) effectively ruled while the Funj sultans were their mere puppets.Shortly afterwards the sultanate began to fragment;by the early 19th century it was essentially restricted to the Gezira.
The coup of 1718 kicked off a policy of pursuing a more orthodox Islam, which in turn promoted theArabisationof the state.To legitimise their rule over their Arab subjects the Funj began to propagate anUmayyad descend.North of the confluence of the Blue and White Niles, as far downstream asAl Dabbah, the Nubians adopted the tribal identity of the ArabJaalin.Until the 19th century Arabic had succeeded in becoming the dominant language of central riverine Sudanand most of Kordofan.
West of the Nile, inDarfur, the Islamic period saw at first the rise of theTunjur kingdom, which replaced the oldDaju kingdomin the 15th centuryand extended as far west asWadai.TheTunjur peoplewere probably ArabisedBerbersand, their ruling elite at least, Muslims.In the 17th century the Tunjur were driven from power by theFurKeira sultanate.The Keira state, nominally Muslim since the reign ofSulayman Solong(r.c.1660–1680),was initially a small kingdom in northernJebel Marra,but expanded west- and northwards in the early 18th centuryand eastwards under the rule ofMuhammad Tayrab(r. 1751–1786),peaking in the conquest of Kordofan in 1785.The apogee of this empire, now roughly the size of present-dayNigeria,would last until 1821.
In 1821, the Ottoman ruler of Egypt,Muhammad Ali of Egypt, invaded and conquered northern Sudan. Although technically theValiof Egypt under theOttoman Empire, Muhammad Ali styled himself asKhediveof a virtually independent Egypt. Seeking to add Sudan to his domains, he sent his third son Ismail (not to be confused withIsmaʻil Pashamentioned later) to conquer the country, and subsequently incorporate it into Egypt. With the exception of the Shaiqiya and the Darfur sultanate in Kordofan, he was met without resistance. The Egyptian policy of conquest was expanded and intensified byIbrahim Pasha's son, Ismaʻil, under whose reign most of the remainder of modern-day Sudan was conquered.
The Egyptian authorities made significant improvements to the Sudanese infrastructure (mainly in the north), especially with regard to irrigation and cotton production. In 1879, theGreat Powersforced the removal of Ismail and established his sonTewfik Pashain his place. Tewfik's corruption and mismanagement resulted in the'Urabi revolt, which threatened the Khedive's survival. Tewfik appealed for help to the British, who subsequently occupied Egypt in 1882. Sudan was left in the hands of the Khedivial government, and the mismanagement and corruption of its officials.
During the Khedivial period, dissent had spread due to harsh taxes imposed on most activities. Taxation on irrigation wells and farming lands were so high most farmers abandoned their farms and livestock. During the 1870s, European initiatives against theslave tradehad an adverse impact on the economy of northern Sudan, precipitating the rise ofMahdistforces.Muhammad Ahmad ibn Abd Allah, theMahdi(Guided One), offered to theansars(his followers) and those who surrendered to him a choice between adopting Islam or being killed. The Mahdiyah (Mahdist regime) imposed traditional ShariaIslamic laws. On 12 August 1881, an incident occurred atAba Island, sparking the outbreak of what became theMahdist War.
From his announcement of the Mahdiyya in June 1881 until thefall of Khartoumin January 1885, Muhammad Ahmad led asuccessful military campaignagainst the Turco-Egyptian government of the Sudan, known as theTurkiyah. Muhammad Ahmad died on 22 June 1885, a mere six months after the conquest of Khartoum. After a power struggle amongst his deputies,Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, with the help primarily of theBaggaraof western Sudan, overcame the opposition of the others and emerged as the unchallenged leader of the Mahdiyah. After consolidating his power, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad assumed the title ofKhalifa(successor) of the Mahdi, instituted an administration, and appointedAnsar(who were usuallyBaggara) as emirs over each of the several provinces.
Regional relations remained tense throughout much of the Mahdiyah period, largely because of the Khalifa's brutal methods to extend his rule throughout the country. In 1887, a 60,000-man Ansar army invadedEthiopia, penetrating as far asGondar. In March 1889, kingYohannes IVof Ethiopia marched onMetemma; however, after Yohannes fell in battle, the Ethiopian forces withdrew. Abd ar-Rahman an-Nujumi, the Khalifa's general, attempted an invasion of Egypt in 1889, but British-led Egyptian troops defeated the Ansar at Tushkah. The failure of the Egyptian invasion broke the spell of the Ansar's invincibility. TheBelgiansprevented the Mahdi's men from conqueringEquatoria, and in 1893, the Italians repelled an Ansar attack atAgordat(inEritrea) and forced the Ansar to withdraw from Ethiopia.
In the 1890s, the British sought to re-establish their control over Sudan, once more officially in the name of the Egyptian Khedive, but in actuality treating the country as a British colony. By the early 1890s, British, French, and Belgian claims had converged at theNileheadwaters. Britain feared that the other powers would take advantage of Sudan's instability to acquire territory previously annexed to Egypt. Apart from these political considerations, Britain wanted to establish control over the Nile to safeguard a planned irrigation dam atAswan.Herbert Kitchenerled military campaigns against theMahdist Sudanfrom 1896 to 1898. Kitchener's campaigns culminated in a decisive victory in theBattle of Omdurmanon 2 September 1898. A year later, theBattle of Umm Diwaykaraton 25 November 1899 resulted in the death ofAbdallahi ibn Muhammad, subsequently bringing to an end the Mahdist War.
In 1899, Britain and Egypt reached an agreement under which Sudan was run by a governor-general appointed by Egypt with British consent.In reality, Sudan was effectively administered as aCrown colony. The British were keen to reverse the process, started underMuhammad Ali Pasha, of uniting theNile Valleyunder Egyptian leadership and sought to frustrate all efforts aimed at further uniting the two countries.
Under the Delimitation, Sudan's border with Abyssinia was contested by raiding tribesmen trading slaves, breaching boundaries of the law. In 1905 local chieftain Sultan Yambio, reluctant to the end, gave up the struggle with British forces that had occupied theKordofanregion, finally ending the lawlessness. Ordinances published by Britain enacted a system of taxation. This was following the precedent set by the Khalifa. The main taxes were recognized. These taxes were on land, herds, and date-palms.The continued British administration of Sudan fuelled an increasingly strident nationalist backlash, with Egyptian nationalist leaders determined to force Britain to recognise a single independent union of Egypt and Sudan. With a formal end to Ottoman rule in 1914, SirReginald Wingatewas sent that December to occupy Sudan as the new Military Governor.Hussein Kamelwas declaredSultan of Egypt and Sudan, as was his brother and successor,Fuad I. They continued upon their insistence of a single Egyptian-Sudanese state even when theSultanate of Egyptwas retitled as theKingdom of Egypt and Sudan, but it wasSaad Zaghloulwho continued to be frustrated in the ambitions until his death in 1927.
From 1924 until independence in 1956, the British had a policy of running Sudan as two essentially separate territories; the north and south. Theassassination of a Governor-General of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in Cairowas the causative factor; it brought demands of the newly electedWafdgovernment from colonial forces. A permanent establishment of two battalions in Khartoum was renamed theSudan Defence Forceacting as under the government, replacing the former garrison of Egyptian army soldiers, saw action afterward during theWalwal Incident.TheWafdistparliamentary majority had rejectedSarwat Pasha's accommodation plan withAusten Chamberlainin London; yet Cairo still needed the money. The Sudanese Government's revenue had reached a peak in 1928 at £6.6 million, thereafter the Wafdist disruptions, and Italian borders incursions from Somaliland, London decided to reduce expenditure during the Great Depression. Cotton and gum exports were dwarfed by the necessity to import almost everything from Britain leading to a balance of payments deficit at Khartoum.
In July 1936 the Liberal Constitutional leader, Muhammed Mahmoud was persuaded to bring Wafd delegates to London to sign the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, "the beginning of a new stage in Anglo-Egyptian relations", wroteAnthony Eden.The British Army was allowed to return to Sudan to protect the Canal Zone. They were able to find training facilities, and the RAF was free to fly over Egyptian territory. It did not, however, resolve the problem of Sudan: the Sudanese Intelligentsia agitated for a return to metropolitan rule, conspiring with Germany's agents.
Italian fascist leaderBenito Mussolinimade it clear that he could not invade Abyssinia without first conquering Egypt and Sudan; they intended unification ofItalian LibyawithItalian East Africa. The British Imperial General Staff prepared for military defence of the region, which was thin on the ground.The British ambassador blocked Italian attempts to secure a Non-Aggression Treaty with Egypt-Sudan. But Mahmoud was a supporter of theGrand Mufti of Jerusalem; the region was caught between the Empire's efforts to save the Jews, and moderate Arab calls to halt migration.
The Sudanese Government was directly involved militarily in theEast African Campaign. Formed in 1925, theSudan Defence Forceplayed an active part in responding to incursions early in World War Two. Italian troops occupiedKassalaand other border areas fromItalian Somalilandduring 1940. In 1942, the SDF also played a part in the invasion of the Italian colony by British and Commonwealth forces. The last Britishgovernor-generalwasRobert George Howe.
TheEgyptian revolution of 1952finally heralded the beginning of the march towards Sudanese independence. Having abolished the monarchy in 1953, Egypt's new leaders,Mohammed Naguib, whose mother was Sudanese, and laterGamal Abdel Nasser, believed the only way to end British domination in Sudan was for Egypt to officially abandon its claims of sovereignty. In addition, Nasser knew it would be difficult for Egypt to govern an impoverished Sudan after its independence. The British on the other hand continued their political and financial support for the Mahdist successor,Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi, who it was believed would resist Egyptian pressure for Sudanese independence. Abd al-Rahman was capable of this, but his regime was plagued by political ineptitude, which garnered a colossal loss of support in northern and central Sudan. Both Egypt and Britain sensed a great instability fomenting, and thus opted to allow both Sudanese regions, north and south to have a free vote on whether they wished independence or a British withdrawal.
A polling process was carried out resulting in the composition of a democratic parliament andIsmail al-Azhariwas elected first Prime Minister and led the first modern Sudanese government.On 1 January 1956, in a special ceremony held at the People's Palace, the Egyptian and British flags were lowered and the new Sudanese flag, composed of green, blue and yellow stripes, was raised in their place by the prime ministerIsmail al-Azhari.
Dissatisfaction culminated in acoup d'étaton 25 May 1969. The coup leader, Col.Gaafar Nimeiry, became prime minister, and the new regime abolished parliament and outlawed all political parties. Disputes betweenMarxistand non-Marxist elements within the ruling military coalition resulted ina briefly successful coup in July 1971, led by theSudanese Communist Party. Several days later, anti-communist military elements restored Nimeiry to power.
In 1972, theAddis Ababa Agreementled to a cessation of the north–south civil war and a degree of self-rule. This led to ten years hiatus in the civil war but an end to American investment in theJonglei Canalproject. This had been considered absolutely essential to irrigate the Upper Nile region and to prevent an environmental catastrophe and wide-scalefamineamong the local tribes, most especially the Dinka. In the civil war that followed their homeland was raided, looted, pillaged, and burned. Many of the tribe were murdered in a bloody civil war that raged for over 20 years.
Until the early 1970s, Sudan's agricultural output was mostly dedicated to internal consumption. In 1972, the Sudanese government became more pro-Western and made plans to export food andcash crops. However, commodity prices declined throughout the 1970s causing economic problems for Sudan. At the same time, debt servicing costs, from the money spent mechanizing agriculture, rose. In 1978, theIMFnegotiated aStructural Adjustment Programwith the government. This further promoted the mechanised export agriculture sector. This caused great hardship for the pastoralists of Sudan. In 1976, the Ansars had mounted a bloody but unsuccessful coup attempt. But in July 1977, President Nimeiry met with Ansar leaderSadiq al-Mahdi, opening the way for a possible reconciliation. Hundreds of political prisoners were released, and in August a general amnesty was announced for all oppositionists.
On 30 June 1989, ColonelOmar al-Bashirled a bloodlessmilitary coup.The new military government suspended political parties and introduced an Islamic legal code on the national level.Later, al-Bashir carried out purges and executions in the upper ranks of the army, the banning of associations, political parties, and independent newspapers, and the imprisonment of leading political figures and journalists.On 16 October 1993, al-Bashir appointed himself "President" and disbanded the Revolutionary Command Council. The executive and legislative powers of the council were taken by al-Bashir.
In the1996 general election, he was the only candidate by law to run for election.Sudan became aone-party stateunder theNational Congress Party(NCP).During the 1990s,Hassan al-Turabi, then Speaker of the National Assembly, reached out toIslamic fundamentalistgroups and invitedOsama bin Ladento the country.The United States subsequently listed Sudan as astate sponsor of terrorism.Following Al Qaeda'sbombing of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, the U.S. launchedOperation Infinite Reachand targeted theAl-Shifa pharmaceutical factory, which the U.S. government falsely believed was producing chemical weapons for the terrorist group. Al-Turabi's influence began to wane, and others in favour of more pragmatic leadership tried to change Sudan'sinternational isolation.The country worked to appease its critics by expelling members of theEgyptian Islamic Jihadand encouraging bin Laden to leave.
Before the2000 presidential election, al-Turabi introduced a bill to reduce the President's powers, prompting al-Bashir toorder a dissolutionand declare astate of emergency. When al-Turabi urged a boycott of the President's re-election campaign signing agreement withSudan People's Liberation Army, al-Bashir suspected they were plotting to overthrow the government.Hassan al-Turabi was jailed later the same year.
In February 2003, theSudan Liberation Movement/Army(SLM/A) andJustice and Equality Movement(JEM) groups in Darfur took up arms, accusing the Sudanese government of oppressing non-Arab Sudanese in favour ofSudanese Arabs, precipitating theWar in Darfur. The conflict has since beendescribed as a genocide,and theInternational Criminal Court(ICC) in The Hague has issued twoarrest warrantsfor al-Bashir.Arabic-speaking nomadic militias known as theJanjaweedstand accused of many atrocities.
On 9 January 2005, the government signed theNairobi Comprehensive Peace Agreementwith theSudan People's Liberation Movement(SPLM) with the objective of ending theSecond Sudanese Civil War. TheUnited Nations Mission in Sudan(UNMIS) was established under theUN Security Council Resolution 1590to support its implementation. The peace agreement was a prerequisite to the 2011referendum: the result was a unanimous vote in favour of secession ofSouth Sudan; the region of Abyei will holdits own referendumat a future date.
TheSudan People's Liberation Army(SPLA) was the primary member of theEastern Front, a coalition of rebel groups operating in eastern Sudan. After the peace agreement, their place was taken in February 2004 after the merger of the largerfulaniandBeja Congresswith the smallerRashaida Free Lions.A peace agreement between the Sudanese government and the Eastern Front was signed on 14 October 2006, in Asmara. On 5 May 2006, theDarfur Peace Agreementwas signed, aiming at ending the conflict which had continued for three years up to this point.The Chad–Sudan Conflict (2005–2007) had erupted after theBattle of Adrétriggered a declaration of war by Chad.The leaders of Sudan and Chad signed an agreement inSaudi Arabiaon 3 May 2007 to stop fighting from theDarfur conflictspilling along their countries' 1,000-kilometre (600 mi) border.
In July 2007 the country was hit bydevastating floods,with over 400,000 people being directly affected.Since 2009, a series ofongoing conflictsbetween rival nomadic tribes in Sudan and South Sudan have caused a large number of civilian casualties.
TheSudanese conflict in South Kordofan and Blue Nilein the early 2010s betweenthe Army of Sudanand theSudan Revolutionary Frontstarted as a dispute over the oil-rich region ofAbyeiin the months leading up toSouth Sudanese independencein 2011, though it is also related to civil war in Darfur that is nominally resolved. A year later in 2012 during theHeglig CrisisSudan would achieve victory against South Sudan, a war over oil-rich regions between South Sudan'sUnityand Sudan'sSouth Kordofanstates. The events would later be known as theSudanese Intifada, which would end only in 2013 after al-Bashir promised he would not seek re-election in 2015. He later broke his promise and sought re-election in 2015, winning through a boycott from the opposition who believed that the elections would not be free and fair. Voter turnout was at a low 46%.
On 13 January 2017, US presidentBarack Obamasigned an Executive Order that lifted many sanctions placed against Sudan and assets of its government held abroad. On 6 October 2017, the following US presidentDonald Trumplifted most of the remaining sanctions against the country and its petroleum, export-import, and property industries.
On 19 December 2018,massive protestsbegan after a government decision to triple the price of goods at a time when the country was suffering an acute shortage of foreign currency and inflation of 70 percent.In addition, President al-Bashir, who had been in power for more than 30 years, refused to step down, resulting in the convergence of opposition groups to form a united coalition. The government retaliated by arresting more than 800 opposition figures and protesters, leading to the death of approximately 40 people according to the Human Rights Watch,although the number was much higher than that according to local and civilian reports. The protests continued after the overthrow of his government on 11 April 2019 after a massive sit-in in front of theSudanese Armed Forcesmain headquarters, after which the chiefs of staff decided to intervene and they ordered the arrest of President al-Bashir and declared a three-month state of emergency.Over 100 people died on 3 June after security forces dispersed the sit-in using tear gas and live ammunition in what is known as theKhartoum massacre,resulting in Sudan's suspension from the African Union.Sudan's youth had been reported to be driving the protests.The protests came to an end when theForces for Freedom and Change(an alliance of groups organizing the protests) andTransitional Military Council(the ruling military government) signed the July 2019 Political Agreement and the August 2019 Draft Constitutional Declaration.The transitional institutions and procedures included the creation of a joint military-civilianSovereignty Council of Sudanas head of state, a newChief Justice of Sudanas head of the judiciary branch of power,Nemat Abdullah Khair, and a new prime minister. The former Prime Minister,Abdalla Hamdok, a 61-year-old economist who worked previously for the UNEconomic Commission for Africa, was sworn in on 21 August 2019.He initiated talks with theIMFandWorld Bankaimed at stabilising the economy, which was in dire straits because of shortages of food, fuel and hard currency. Hamdok estimated that US$10bn over two years would suffice to halt the panic, and said that over 70% of the 2018 budget had been spent on civil war-related measures. The governments ofSaudi Arabiaand theUnited Arab Emirateshad invested significant sums supporting the military council since Bashir's ouster.On 3 September, Hamdok appointed 14 civilian ministers, including the first female foreign minister and the first Coptic Christian, also a woman.As of August 2021, the country was jointly led by Chairman of the Transitional Sovereign Council,Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, and Prime Minister Abdallah Hamdok.
The Sudanese government announced on 21 September 2021 that there was a failed attempt at acoup d'étatfrom the military that had led to the arrest of 40 military officers.
One month after the attempted coup, another military coup on 25 October 2021 resulted in the deposition of the civilian government, including former Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok. The coup was led by generalAbdel Fattah al-Burhanwho subsequently declared a state of emergency.Burhan took office as the de facto head of state of Sudan and formed a new army-backed government on 11 November 2021.
On 21 November 2021, Hamdok was reinstated as prime minister after a political agreement was signed by Burhan to restore the transition to civilian rule (although Burhan retained control). The 14-point deal called for the release of all political prisoners detained during the coup and stipulated that a 2019 constitutional declaration continued to be the basis for a political transition.Hamdok fired the chief of police Khaled Mahdi Ibrahim al-Emam and his second in command Ali Ibrahim.
On 2 January 2022, Hamdok announced his resignation from the position of Prime Minister following one of the most deadly protests to date.He was succeeded byOsman Hussein.By March 2022 over 1,000 people including 148 children had been detained for opposing the coup, there were 25 allegations of rapeand 87 people had been killedincluding 11 children.
In April 2023 – as an internationally brokered plan for a transition to civilian rule was discussed – power struggles grew between army commander (andde factonational leader) Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, and his deputy,Hemedti, head of the heavily armed paramilitaryRapid Support Forces(RSF), formed from theJanjaweedmilitia.
On 15 April 2023, their conflict erupted into a civil war starting with thebattles in the streets of Khartoumbetween the army and the RSF – with troops, tanks and planes. By the third day, 400 people had been reported killed and at least 3,500 injured, according to theUnited Nations.Among the dead were three workers from theWorld Food Programme, triggering a suspension of the organization's work in Sudan, despite ongoing hunger afflicting much of the country.Sudanese GeneralYasser al-Attasaid theUAEwas providing supplies to RSF, which were being used in the war.
Both the Sudanese Armed Forces and the Rapid Support Forces areaccused of committing war crimes.As of 29 December 2023, over 5.8 million were internally displaced and more than 1.5 million others had fled the country as refugees,and many civilians inDarfurhave been reported dead as part of theMasalit massacres.Up to 15,000 people were killed in the city ofGeneina.
As a result of the war theWorld Food Programmereleased a report on 22 February 2024 saying that more than 95% of Sudan's population could not afford a meal a day.As of April 2024, the United Nations reported that more than 8.6 million people have been forced out of their homes, while 18 million are facing severe hunger, five million of them are at emergency levels.In May 2024, US government officials estimated that at least 150,000 people had died in the war in the past year alone.The RSF's apparent targeting of Black indigenous communities, especially around the city of El Fasher, have led international officials to warn of the risk of history repeating itself with another genocide in the Darfur region.
On 31 May 2024, a conference was called at the House of Representatives by a US CongresswomanEleanor Holmes Nortonto address Sudan's humanitarian crisis. A report by the State Department concerning the UAE's involvement in Sudan, including war crimes and arms exports, was the prime focus of the conference's discussion. A panelist speaker, Councilman Mohamed Seifeldein, called for an end to the UAE's involvement in Sudan, stating that the UAE's role in using the RSF in Sudan and also in theYemeni civil war"need to be stopped". Seifeldein, along with another panelistHagir S. Elsheikh, urged the international community to stop all support for the RSF, pointing to the militant group's destructive role in Sudan. Elsheikh also recommended to use social media in raising awareness about the Sudanese war, and to put pressure on the US elected officials to halt arms sales to the UAE.The latest report presented to the UN states that 2025 will see 30.4 million people in Sudan in need for humanitarian aid, due to the military conflict in the country.
Sudan is situated in North Africa, with an 853 km (530 mi) coastline bordering theRed Sea.It has land borders withEgypt,Eritrea,Ethiopia,South Sudan, theCentral African Republic,Chad, andLibya. With an area of 1,886,068 km(728,215 sq mi), it is the third-largest country on the continent (afterAlgeriaandDemocratic Republic of the Congo) and thefifteenth-largestin the world.
Sudan lies between latitudes8°and23°N. The terrain is generally flat plains, broken by several mountain ranges. In the west, theDeriba Caldera(3,042 m or 9,980 ft), located in theMarrah Mountains, is the highest point in Sudan. In the east are theRed Sea Hills.
TheBlue NileandWhite Nilerivers meet inKhartoumto form theNile, which flows northwards through Egypt to the Mediterranean Sea. The Blue Nile's course through Sudan is nearly 800 km (497 mi) long and is joined by theDinderandRahad RiversbetweenSennarandKhartoum. The White Nile within Sudan has no significant tributaries.
There are several dams on the Blue and White Niles. Among them are theSennarandRoseires Damson the Blue Nile, and theJebel Aulia Damon the White Nile. There is alsoLake Nubiaon the Sudanese-Egyptian border.
Rich mineral resources are available in Sudan includingasbestos,chromite,cobalt, copper, gold,granite,gypsum, iron,kaolin, lead,manganese,mica, natural gas,nickel, petroleum, silver,tin,uraniumandzinc.In 2015, Sudan's gold production was 82 metric tons.
The amount of rainfall increases towards the south. The central and the northern part have extremely dry, semi-desert areas such as theNubian Desertto the northeast and theBayuda Desertto the east; in the south, there are grasslands and tropical savanna. Sudan's rainy season lasts for about four months (June to September) in the north, and up to six months (May to October) in the south.
The dry regions are plagued bysandstorms, known ashaboob, which can completely block out the sun. In the northern and western semi-desert areas, people rely on scarce rainfall for basic agriculture and many arenomadic, travelling with their herds of sheep and camels. Nearer the River Nile, there arewell-irrigatedfarms growingcash crops.The sunshine duration is very high all over the country but especially in deserts where it can soar to over 4,000 hours per year.
Desertificationis a serious problem in Sudan.There is also concern oversoil erosion.Agricultural expansion, both public and private, has proceeded withoutconservationmeasures. The consequences have manifested themselves in the form ofdeforestation, soil desiccation, and the lowering ofsoil fertilityand thewater table.
The nation's wildlife is threatened by poaching. As of 2001, twenty-one mammal species and nine bird species are endangered, as well as two species of plants. Critically endangered species include: thewaldrapp,northern white rhinoceros,tora hartebeest,slender-horned gazelle, andhawksbill turtle. TheSahara oryxhas become extinct in the wild.
The politics of Sudan formally took place within the framework of afederalauthoritarianIslamic republicuntil April 2019, when PresidentOmar al-Bashir's regime was overthrown in amilitary coupled by Vice PresidentAhmed Awad Ibn Auf. As an initial step he established theTransitional Military Councilto manage the country's internal affairs. He also suspended theconstitutionand dissolved thebicameralparliament – theNational Legislature, with itsNational Assembly(lower chamber) and theCouncil of States(upper chamber). Ibn Auf however, remained in office for only a single day and then resigned, with the leadership of the Transitional Military Council then being handed toAbdel Fattah al-Burhan. On 4 August 2019, a new Constitutional Declaration was signed between the representatives of the Transitional Military Council and theForces of Freedom and Change, and on 21 August 2019 the Transitional Military Council was officially replaced as head of state by an 11-member Sovereignty Council, and as head of government by a civilian Prime Minister. According to 2023V-Dem Democracy indicesSudan is 6th leastdemocratic country in Africa.
In September 1983, President Jaafar Nimeiri introduced sharia law in Sudan, known asSeptember laws, symbolically disposing of alcohol and implementinghudud punishmentslike public amputations. Al-Turabi supported this move, differing from Al-Sadiq al-Mahdi's dissenting view. Al-Turabi and his allies within the regime also opposed self-rule in the south, a secular constitution, and non-Islamic cultural acceptance. One condition for national reconciliation was re-evaluating the1972 Addis Ababa Agreementthat granted thesouth self-governance, reflecting a failure to accommodate minority rights and leverage Islam's rejection of racism.TheIslamic economyfollowed in early 1984, eliminating interest and institutingzakat. Nimeiri declared himself the imam of the Sudanese Umma in 1984.
During the regime of Omar al-Bashir, the legal system in Sudan was based on IslamicSharia law. The 2005Naivasha Agreement, ending the civil war between north and south Sudan, established some protections for non-Muslims in Khartoum. Sudan's application of Sharia law is geographically inconsistent.
Stoningwas a judicial punishment in Sudan. Between 2009 and 2012, several women were sentenced to death by stoning.Floggingwas a legal punishment. Between 2009 and 2014, many people were sentenced to 40–100 lashes.In August 2014, several Sudanese men died in custody after being flogged.53 Christians were flogged in 2001.Sudan'spublic order lawallowed police officers to publicly whip women who were accused of public indecency.
Crucifixionwas also a legal punishment. In 2002, 88 people were sentenced to death for crimes relating to murder, armed robbery, and participating in ethnic clashes.Amnesty Internationalwrote that they could be executed by either hanging or crucifixion.
International Court of Justicejurisdiction is accepted, though with reservations. Under the terms of the Naivasha Agreement, Islamic law did not apply in South Sudan.Since the secession of South Sudan there was some uncertainty as to whether Sharia law would apply to the non-Muslim minorities present in Sudan, especially because of contradictory statements by al-Bashir on the matter.
The judicial branch of the Sudanese government consists of a Constitutional Court of nine justices, the National Supreme Court, the Court of Cassation,and other national courts; the National Judicial Service Commission provides overall management for the judiciary.
Following the ousting of al-Bashir, the interim constitution signed in August 2019 contained no mention of Sharia law.As of 12 July 2020, Sudan abolished the apostasy law, public flogging and alcohol ban for non-Muslims. The draft of a new law was passed in early July. Sudan also criminalizedfemale genital mutilationwith a punishment of up to 3 years in jail.An accord between the transitional government and rebel group leadership was signed in September 2020, in which the government agreed to officially separate the state and religion, ending three decades of rule under Islamic law. It also agreed that no official state religion will be established.
Sudan is divided into18 states(wilayat,sing.wilayah). They are further divided into 133districts.
In addition to the states, there also exist regional administrative bodies established by peace agreements between the central government and rebel groups.
Sudan has had a troubled relationship with many of its neighbours and much of the international community, owing to what is viewed as its radical Islamic stance. For much of the 1990s,Uganda,KenyaandEthiopiaformed an ad hoc alliance called the "Front Line States" with support from the United States to check the influence of theNational Islamic Frontgovernment. The Sudanese Government supported anti-Ugandan rebel groups such as theLord's Resistance Army(LRA).
As the National Islamic Front regime in Khartoum gradually emerged as a real threat to the region and the world, the U.S. began to list Sudan on its list ofState Sponsors of Terrorism. After the US listed Sudan as a state sponsor of terrorism, theNIFdecided to develop relations withIraq, and laterIran, the two most controversial countries in the region.
From the mid-1990s, Sudan gradually began to moderate its positions as a result of increased U.S. pressure following the1998 U.S. embassy bombings, inTanzaniaandKenya, and the new development of oil fields previously in rebel hands. Sudan also has a territorial dispute with Egypt over theHala'ib Triangle. Since 2003, the foreign relations of Sudan had centred on the support for ending theSecond Sudanese Civil Warand condemnation of government support for militias in thewar in Darfur.
Sudan has extensive economic relations with China. China obtains ten percent of its oil from Sudan. According to a former Sudanese government minister, China is Sudan's largest supplier of arms.
In December 2005, Sudan became one of the few states to recognise Moroccan sovereignty overWestern Sahara.
In 2015, Sudan participated in theSaudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemenagainst theShiaHouthisand forces loyal to former PresidentAli Abdullah Saleh,who was deposed in the 2011 uprising.
In June 2019, Sudan was suspended from theAfrican Unionover the lack of progress towards the establishment of a civilian-led transitional authority since its initial meeting following the coup d'état of 11 April 2019.
In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Sudan, have signed a joint letter to theUNHRCdefending China'streatment of Uyghursin theXinjiangregion.
On 23 October 2020, U.S. PresidentDonald Trumpannounced that Sudan will start tonormalize ties with Israel, making it the third Arab state to do so as part of the U.S.-brokeredAbraham Accords.On 14 December the U.S. Government removed Sudan from its State Sponsor of Terrorism list; as part of the deal, Sudan agreed to pay $335 million in compensation to victims of the 1998 embassy bombings.
The dispute between Sudan andEthiopiaover theGrand Ethiopian Renaissance Damescalated in 2021.An advisor to the Sudanese leaderAbdel Fattah al-Burhanspoke of awater war"that would be more horrible than one could imagine".
In February 2022, it is reported that a Sudanese envoy has visited Israel to promote ties between the countries.
In the early months of 2023, fighting reignited, primarily between the military forces of Gen. Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, the army chief and de facto head of state, and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces led by his rival, Gen. Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo. As a result, the U.S. and most European countries have shut down their embassies in Khartoum and have attempted evacuations. In 2023, it was estimated that there were 16,000 Americans in Sudan who needed to be evacuated. In absence of an official evacuation plan from the U.S. State Department, many Americans have been forced to turn to other nations' embassies for guidance, with many fleeing to Nairobi. Other African countries and humanitarian groups have tried to help. The Turkish embassy has reportedly allowed Americans to join its evacuation efforts for its own citizens. The TRAKboys, a South-Africa based political organization which came into conflict with theWagner Group, a Russian private military contractor operating in Sudan since 2017, has been assisting with the evacuation of both Black Americans and Sudanese citizens to safe locations in South Africa.
On April 15, 2024, France is hosting an international conference on Sudan, marking the one-year anniversary of the outbreak of war in the northeast African nation, which has resulted in a humanitarian and political crisis. The country is calling for support from the global community, aiming to draw attention to a crisis that officials believe has been overshadowed by ongoing conflicts in the Middle East.
The Sudanese Armed Forces is the regular forces of Sudan and is divided into five branches: the Sudanese Army,Sudanese Navy(including the Marine Corps),Sudanese Air Force, Border Patrol and the Internal Affairs Defence Force, totalling about 200,000 troops. The military of Sudan has become a well-equipped fighting force; a result of increasing local production of heavy and advanced arms. These forces are under the command of the National Assembly and its strategic principles include defending Sudan's external borders and preserving internal security.
Since theDarfur crisisin 2004, safe-keeping the central government from the armed resistance and rebellion of paramilitary rebel groups such as theSudan People's Liberation Army(SPLA), theSudanese Liberation Army(SLA) and theJustice and Equality Movement(JEM) have been important priorities. While not official, the Sudanese military also uses nomad militias, the most prominent being theJanjaweed, in executing a counter-insurgency war.Somewhere between 200,000and 400,000people have died in the violent struggles.
Since 1983, a combination of civil war andfaminehas taken the lives of nearly two million people in Sudan.It is estimated that as many as 200,000 people had been taken intoslaveryduring theSecond Sudanese Civil War.
Muslims who convert to Christianity can face the death penalty for apostasy; seePersecution of Christians in Sudanand the death sentence againstMariam Yahia Ibrahim Ishag(who actually was raised as Christian). According to a 2013 UNICEF report, 88% of women in Sudan had undergonefemale genital mutilation.Sudan'sPersonal Statuslaw on marriage has been criticised for restrictingwomen's rightsand allowingchild marriage.Evidence suggests that support for female genital mutilation remains high, especially among rural and less well educated groups, although it has been declining in recent years.Homosexualityis illegal; as of July 2020 it was no longer a capital offence, with the highest punishment being life imprisonment.
A report published byHuman Rights Watchin 2018 revealed that Sudan has made no meaningful attempts to provideaccountabilityfor past and current violations. The report documented human rights abuses against civilians inDarfur,southern Kordofan, andBlue Nile. During 2018, theNational Intelligence and Security Service(NISS) used excessive force to disperse protests and detained dozens of activists and opposition members. Moreover, the Sudanese forces blockedUnited Nations-African UnionHybrid Operation and other international relief andaid agenciesto access todisplaced peopleand conflict-ridden areas in Darfur.
A 14 August 2006 letter from the executive director ofHuman Rights Watchfound that the Sudanese government is both incapable of protecting its own citizens inDarfurand unwilling to do so, and that itsmilitiasare guilty ofcrimes against humanity. The letter added that these human-rights abuses have existed since 2004.Some reports attribute part of the violations to the rebels as well as the government and theJanjaweed. The U.S. State Department's human-rights report issued in March 2007 claims that "[a]ll parties to the conflagration committed serious abuses, including widespread killing of civilians, rape as a tool of war, systematic torture, robbery and recruitment of child soldiers."
Over 2.8 million civilians have been displaced and the death toll is estimated at 300,000 killed.Both government forces and militias allied with the government are known to attack not only civilians in Darfur, but also humanitarian workers. Sympathisers of rebel groups are arbitrarily detained, as are foreign journalists,human-rights defenders, student activists and displaced people in and around Khartoum, some of whom face torture. The rebel groups have also been accused in a report issued by the U.S. government of attacking humanitarian workers and of killing innocent civilians.According to UNICEF, in 2008, there were as many as 6,000child soldiersin Darfur.
Under the government of Omar al-Bashir (1989–2019), Sudan's media outlets were given little freedom in their reporting.In 2014,Reporters Without Borders'freedom of the pressrankings placed Sudan at 172th of 180 countries.After al-Bashir's ousting in 2019, there was a brief period under a civilian-led transitional government where there was some press freedom.However, the leaders of a 2021 coup quickly reversed these changes."The sector is deeply polarised", Reporters Without Borders stated in their 2023 summary of press freedom in the country. "Journalistic critics have been arrested, and the internet is regularly shut down in order to block the flow of information."Additional crackdowns occurred after the beginning of the 2023Sudanese civil war.
Several UN agents are operating in Sudan such as theWorld Food Program(WFP); theFood and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations (FAO); theUnited Nations Development Programme(UNDP); theUnited Nations Industrial Development Organization(UNIDO); the United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF); theUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR); the United Nations Mine Service (UNMAS), the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and theWorld Bank. Also present is theInternational Organisation for Migration(IOM).
Since Sudan has experienced civil war for many years, many non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are also involved in humanitarian efforts to help internally displaced people. The NGOs are working in every corner of Sudan, especially in the southern part and western parts. During the civil war, international non-governmental organisations such as the Red Cross were operating mostly in the south but based in the capital Khartoum.The attention of NGOs shifted shortly after the war broke out in the western part of Sudan known as Darfur. The most visible organisation in South Sudan is theOperation Lifeline Sudan(OLS) consortium.Some international trade organisations categorise Sudan as part of theGreater Horn of Africa
Even though most of the international organisations are substantially concentrated in both South Sudan and theDarfurregion, some of them are working in the northern part as well. For example, theUnited Nations Industrial Development Organizationis successfully operating inKhartoum, the capital. It is mainly funded by the European Union and recently opened more vocational training. The Canadian International Development Agency is operating largely in northern Sudan.
In 2010, Sudan was considered the 17th-fastest-growing economyin the world and the rapid development of the country largely from oil profits even when facing international sanctions was noted byThe New York Timesin a 2006 article.Because of the secession ofSouth Sudan, which contained about 75 percent of Sudan's oilfields,Sudan entered a phase ofstagflation, GDP growth slowed to 3.4 percent in 2014, 3.1 percent in 2015 and was projected to recover slowly to 3.7 percent in 2016 while inflation remained as high as 21.8% as of 2015.Sudan's GDP fell from US$123.053 billion in 2017 to US$40.852 billion in 2018.
Even with the oil profits before the secession of South Sudan, Sudan still faced formidable economic problems, and its growth was still a rise from a very low level of per capita output. The economy of Sudan has been steadily growing over the 2000s, and according to a World Bank report the overall growth in GDP in 2010 was 5.2 percent compared to 2009 growth of 4.2 percent.This growth was sustained even during thewar in Darfurandperiod of southern autonomypreceding South Sudan's independence.Oilwas Sudan's main export, with production increasing dramatically during the late 2000s, in the years before South Sudan gained independence in July 2011. With rising oil revenues, the Sudanese economy was booming, with a growth rate of about nine percent in 2007. The independence of oil-richSouth Sudan, however, placed most majoroil fieldsout of the Sudanese government's direct control and oil production in Sudan fell from around 450,000 barrels per day (72,000 m/d) to under 60,000 barrels per day (9,500 m/d). Production has since recovered to hover around 250,000 barrels per day (40,000 m/d) for 2014–15.
To export oil, South Sudan relies on a pipeline toPort Sudanon Sudan'sRed Seacoast, as South Sudan is alandlocked country, as well as the oil refining facilities in Sudan. In August 2012, Sudan and South Sudan agreed to a deal to transport South Sudanese oil through Sudanese pipelines to Port Sudan.
The People's Republic of China is one of Sudan's major trading partners, China owns a 40 percent share in theGreater Nile Petroleum Operating Company.The country also sells Sudan small arms, which have been used in military operations such as the conflicts in Darfur andSouth Kordofan.
While historically agriculture remains the main source of income and employment hiring of over 80 percent of Sudanese, and makes up a third of the economic sector, oil production drove most of Sudan's post-2000 growth. Currently, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) is working hand in hand with Khartoum government to implement sound macroeconomic policies. This follows a turbulent period in the 1980s when debt-ridden Sudan's relations with the IMF and World Bank soured, culminating in its eventual suspension from the IMF.
According to the Corruptions Perception Index, Sudan is one of the most corrupt nations in the world.According to theGlobal Hunger Indexof 2013, Sudan has an GHI indicator value of 27.0 indicating that the nation has an 'Alarming Hunger Situation.' It is rated the fifth hungriest nation in the world.According to the 2015Human Development Index(HDI) Sudan ranked the 167th place in human development, indicating Sudan still has one of the lowest human development rates in the world.In 2014, 45% of the population lives on less than US$3.20 per day, up from 43% in 2009.
Sudan has around 25–30 universities; instruction is primarily in Arabic or English. Education at the secondary and university levels has been seriously hampered by the requirement that most males perform military service before completing their education.In addition, the "Islamisation" encouraged by president Al-Bashir alienated many researchers. The official language of instruction in universities was changed from English to Arabic and Islamic courses became mandatory. Internal science funding withered.According toUNESCO, more than 3,000 Sudanese researchers left the country between 2002 and 2014. By 2013, the country had a mere 19 researchers for every 100,000 citizens, or 1/30 the ratio ofEgypt, according to the Sudanese National Centre for Research. In 2015, Sudan published only about 500 scientific papers.In comparison, Poland, a country of similar population size, publishes on the order of 10,000 papers per year.
Sudan's National Space Program has produced multipleCubeSatsatellites, and has plans to produce a Sudanese communications satellite (SUDASAT-1) and a Sudanese remote sensing satellite (SRSS-1). The Sudanese government contributed to an offer pool for a private-sector ground surveying Satellite operating above Sudan, Arabsat 6A, which was successfully launched on 11 April 2019, from the Kennedy Space Center.Sudanese president Omar Hassan al-Bashir called for an African Space Agency in 2012, but plans were never made final.
In Sudan's 2008 census, the population of northern, western and eastern Sudan was recorded to be over 30 million.This puts present estimates of the population of Sudan after the secession ofSouth Sudanat a little over 30 million people. This is a significant increase over the past two decades, as the 1983 census put the total population of Sudan, including present-day South Sudan, at 21.6 million.The population of Greater Khartoum (includingKhartoum,Omdurman, andKhartoum North) is growing rapidly and was recorded to be 5.2 million.
Aside from being a refugee-generating country, Sudan also hosts a large population of refugees from other countries. According toUNHCRstatistics, more than 1.1 million refugees and asylum seekers lived in Sudan in August 2019. The majority of this population came fromSouth Sudan(858,607 people),Eritrea(123,413),Syria(93,502),Ethiopia(14,201), theCentral African Republic(11,713) andChad(3,100). Apart from these, the UNHCR report 1,864,195Internally displaced persons(IDP's).Sudan is a party to the 1951Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees.
TheArabpopulation is estimated at 70% of the national total. They are almost entirely Muslims and speak predominantlySudanese Arabic. Other ethnicities includeBeja,Fur,Nubians,NubaandCopts.
Non-Arab groups are often ethnically, linguistically and to varying degrees culturally distinct. These include the Beja (over two million), Fur (over one million),Nuba(approx. one million),Moro,Masalit,Bornu,Tama,Fulani,Hausa,Nubians,Berta,Zaghawa,Nyimang,Ingessana,Daju,Koalib,Gumuz,MidobandTagale.Hausais used as a trade language.There is also a small, but prominentGreek community.
Some Arab tribes speak other regional forms of Arabic, such as theAwadia and Fadnia tribesandBani Araktribes, who speakNajdi Arabic; and theBeni Ḥassān,Al-Ashraf,KawhlaandRashaidawho speakHejazi Arabic. A few ArabBedouinof the northernRizeigatspeak Sudanese Arabic and share the same culture as the Sudanese Arabs. SomeBaggaraandTunjurspeakChadian Arabic.
Sudanese Arabs of northern and eastern Sudan claim to descend primarily from migrants from theArabian Peninsulaand intermarriages with the indigenous populations of Sudan. TheNubian peopleshare a common history with Nubians in southernEgypt. The vast majority of Arab tribes in Sudan migrated into Sudan in the 12th century, intermarried with the indigenous Nubian and other African populations and gradually introduced Islam.Additionally, a few pre-Islamic Arabic tribes existed in Sudan from earlier migrations into the region from western Arabia.
In several studies on the Arabization of Sudanese people, historians have discussed the meaning of Arab versus non-Arabcultural identities. For example, historian Elena Vezzadini argues that the ethnic character of different Sudanese groups depends on the way this part of Sudanese history is interpreted and that there are no clear historical arguments for this distinction. In short, she states that "Arab migrants were absorbed into local structures, that they became "Sudanized" and that "In a way, a group became Arab when it started to claim that it was."
In an article on thegenealogyof different Sudanese ethnic groups, French archaeologist and linguistClaude Rillyargues that most Sudanese Arabs who claim Arab descent based on an important male ancestor ignore the fact that their DNA is largely made up of generations of African or African-Arab wives and their children, which means that these claims are rather more founded on oral traditions than on biological facts.
Approximately 70 languages are native to Sudan.Sudan has multiple regional sign languages, which are notmutually intelligible. A 2009 proposal for a unifiedSudanese Sign Languagehad been worked out.
Prior to 2005, Arabic was the nation's soleofficial language.In the 2005 constitution, Sudan's official languages became Arabic and English.Theliteracy rateis 70.2% of the total population (male: 79.6%, female: 60.8%).
At the 2011 division which split off South Sudan, over 97% of the population in the remaining Sudan adhered toIslam.Most Muslims are divided between two groups:SufiandSalafiMuslims. Two popular divisions ofSufism, the Ansar and the Khatmia, are associated with the opposition Umma and Democratic Unionist parties, respectively. Only theDarfurregion has traditionally been bereft of the Sufi brotherhoods common in the rest of the country.
Long-established groups ofCoptic OrthodoxandGreek Orthodox Christiansexist in Khartoum and other northern cities.EthiopianandEritrean Orthodoxcommunities also exist in Khartoum and eastern Sudan, largely made up of refugees and migrants from the past few decades. TheArmenian Apostolic Churchalso has a presence serving the Sudanese-Armenians. TheSudan Evangelical Presbyterian Churchalso has membership.
Religious identity plays a role in the country's political divisions. Northern and western Muslims have dominated the country's political and economic system since independence. The NCP draws much of its support fromIslamists,Salafis/Wahhabisand other conservativeArab-Muslimsin the north. TheUmmaParty has traditionally attracted Arab followers of the Ansar sect of Sufism as well as non-Arab Muslims from Darfur and Kordofan. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) includes bothAraband non-ArabMuslimsin the north and east, especially those in the Khatmia Sufi sect.
Sudan has alife expectancyof 65.1 years according to the latest data for the year 2019 from macrotrends.netInfant mortality in 2016 was 44.8 per 1,000.
UNICEFestimates that 87% of Sudanese females between the ages of 15 and 49 have hadfemale genital mutilationperformed on them.
Education in Sudan is free and compulsory for children aged 6 to 13 years, although more than 40% of children do not go to schools due to the economic situation. Environmental and social factors also increase the difficulty of getting to school, especially for girls.Primary education consists of eight years, followed by three years of secondary education. The former educational ladder 6 + 3 + 3 was changed in 1990. The primary language at all levels is Arabic. Schools are concentrated in urban areas; many in the west have been damaged or destroyed by years of civil war. In 2001 the World Bank estimated that primary enrollment was 46 percent of eligible pupils and 21 percent of secondary students. Enrollment varies widely, falling below 20 percent in some provinces. The literacy rate is 70.2% of total population, male: 79.6%, female: 60.8%.
Sudanese culture melds the behaviours, practices, and beliefs of about 578 ethnic groups, communicating in numerous different dialects and languages, in a region microcosmic of Africa, with geographic extremes varying from sandy desert to tropical forest. Recent evidence suggests that while most citizens of the country identify strongly with both Sudan and their religion, Arab and African supranational identities are much more polarising and contested.
Sudan has a rich and unique musical culture that has been through chronic instability and repression during the modern history of Sudan. Beginning with the imposition of strictSalafiinterpretation ofsharialaw in 1983, many of the country's most prominent poets and artists, likeMahjoub Sharif, were imprisoned while others, likeMohammed el Amin(returned to Sudan in the mid-1990s) andMohammed Wardi(returned to Sudan 2003), fled to Cairo. Traditional music suffered too, with traditionalZārceremonies being interrupted and drums confiscated.
At the same time European militaries contributed to the development of Sudanese music by introducing new instruments and styles; military bands, especially the Scottishbagpipes, were renowned, and set traditional music tomilitary marchmusic. The marchMarch Shulkawi No 1, is an example, set to the sounds of theShilluk. Northern Sudan listens to different music than the rest of Sudan. A type of music called Aldlayib uses a musical instrument called the Tambur. The Tambur has five strings, is made from wood and makes music accompanied by the voices of human applause and singing artists.
Thecinema of Sudanbegan withcinematographyby theBritish colonial presencein the early 20th century. After independence in 1956, a vigorous documentary film tradition was established, but financial pressures and serious constraints imposed by theIslamistgovernment led to the decline of filmmaking from the 1990s onwards. Since the 2010s, several initiatives have shown an encouraging revival of filmmaking and public interest in film shows and festivals, albeit limited mainly to Khartoum.
The use ofphotography in Sudangoes back to the 1880s and theAnglo-Egyptian rule. As in other countries, the growing importance of photography for mass media like newspapers, as well as for amateur photographers led to a wider photographicdocumentationanduse of photographsin Sudan during the 20th century and beyond. In the 21st century, photography in Sudan has undergone important changes, mainly due todigital photographyand distribution through social media and the internet.
Most Sudanese wear either traditional or western attire. A traditional garb widely worn by Sudanese men is thejalabiya, which is a loose-fitting, long-sleeved, collarless ankle-length garment also common toEgypt. The jalabiya is often accompanied by a large turban and a scarf, and the garment may be white, coloured, striped, and made of fabric varying in thickness, depending on the season of the year and personal preferences.
The most common dress for Sudanese women is thethobeorthawb, pronouncedtobein Sudanese dialect. The thobe is a white or colourful long, one-piece cloth that women wrap around their inner garments, usually covering their head and hair.
Due to a 1991 penal code (Public Order Law), women were not allowed to wear trousers in public, because it was interpreted as an "obscene outfit". The punishment for wearing trousers could be up to 40 lashes, but after being found guilty in 2009, one woman was fined the equivalent of 200 U.S. dollars instead.
Like in many countries, football is the most popular sport also in Sudan. TheSudan Football Associationwas founded in 1936 and thus it became one of the oldest football associations to exist in Africa. However, before the foundation of the Football Association, Sudan had started experiencing football brought to the country by the British colonizers since early 20th century via Egypt. Other Sudanese clubs founded at that time includeAl-Hilal Omdurman,Al-Merrikh, which led to popularization of football in the country. TheKhartoum Leaguebecame the first national league to be played in Sudan, laying ground for the future development of Sudanese football.
Since September 2019, there has been an official national league for women's football clubs that started on the basis of informal women's clubs since the beginning of the 2000s.In 2021, theSudan women's national football teamparticipated for the first time in theArab Women's Cup, held in Cairo, Egypt.
Sudan's national beach volleyball team competed at the2018–2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cupin both the women's and the men's section.In June 2022, Patricia Seif El Din El Haj, the first Sudanese womanwrestlerto participate in an African championship, was photographed byReutersphotographer Mohamed Nureldin Abdallah, as she got ready to travel to Nigeria to prepare for the2024 Summer Olympic games.
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