Latin America

Latin Americarefers to a cultural region of theAmericaswhereRomance languagesare predominantly spoken, primarily in the form ofSpanishandPortuguese(excludingAzores islands), and to a lesser extent,Italiandialects,French(excludingQuebec) and its creoles. There is no precise or official inclusion list. Latin America is defined according to cultural identity, not geography, and as such it includes countries in both North andSouth America. Most countries south of the United States tend to be included:Mexicoand the countries ofCentral America,South Americaand theCaribbean. Despite being in the same geographical region, English- and Dutch-speaking countries are sometimes excluded (Suriname,Guyana, theFalkland islands,Jamaica,Trinidad and Tobago,Belize, etc.).In a narrower sense, it often refers toSpanish AmericaplusBrazil.Related terms are the narrowerHispanic America, which exclusively refers to Spanish-speaking nations, and the broaderIbero-America, which includes all Iberic countries in the Americas and occasionally European countries like Spain and Portugal.
The termLatin Americawas first introduced in 1856 at a Paris conference titledInitiative of America: Idea for a Federal Congress of the Republics(Iniciativa de la América. Idea de un Congreso Federal de las Repúblicas).Chilean politicianFrancisco Bilbaocoined the term to unify countries with shared cultural and linguistic heritage. It gained further prominence during the 1860s under the rule ofNapoleon III, whose government sought to justify France's intervention in theSecond Mexican Empire. Napoleon III extended the term to include French-speaking territories in the Americas, such asFrench Canada,Haiti,French Louisiana,French Guiana, and the French Antillean Creole Caribbean islands (e.g.,Martinique,Guadeloupe,Saint Lucia, andDominica). This broader conceptualization aligned with France’s geopolitical ambitions to categorize these regions alongside the predominantly Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking countries of the Americas.
Research has shown that the idea that a part of the Americas has a linguistic and cultural affinity with the Romance cultures as a whole can be traced back to the 1830s, in the writing of the FrenchSaint-SimonianMichel Chevalier, who postulated that a part of the Americas was inhabited by people of a "Latin race", and that it could, therefore, ally itself with "Latin Europe", ultimately overlapping theLatin Church, in a struggle with "Teutonic Europe" and "Anglo-Saxon America" with itsAnglo-Saxonism, as well as "Slavic Europe" with itsPan-Slavism.
Scholarship has political origins of the term. Two Latin American historians,UruguayanArturo ArdaoandChileanMiguel Rojas Mix, found evidence that the term "Latin America" was used earlier than Phelan claimed, and the first use of the term was in fact in opposition to imperialist projects in the Americas. Ardao wrote about this subject in his bookGénesis de la idea y el nombre de América latina(Genesis of the Idea and the Name of Latin America, 1980),and Miguel Rojas Mix in his article "Bilbao y el hallazgo de América latina: Unión continental, socialista y libertaria" (Bilbao and the Finding of Latin America: a Continental, Socialist, and Libertarian Union, 1986).As Michel Gobat points out in his article "The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism,Democracy, and Race", "Arturo Ardao, Miguel Rojas Mix, and Aims McGuinness have revealed [that] the term 'Latin America' had already been used in 1856 by Central Americans and South Americans protesting US expansion into the Southern Hemisphere".Edward Shawcross summarizes Ardao's and Rojas Mix's findings in the following way: "Ardao identified the term in a poem by a Colombian diplomat and intellectual resident in France, José María Torres Caicedo, published on 15 February 1857 in a French based Spanish-language newspaper, while Rojas Mix located it in a speech delivered in France by the radical liberal Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao in June 1856".
By the late 1850s, the term was being used in California (which had become a part of the United States), in local newspapers such asEl Clamor PúblicobyCalifornioswriting aboutAmérica latinaandlatinoamérica, and identifying asLatinosas the abbreviated term for their "hemispheric membership inla raza latina".
The words "Latin" and "America" were first found to be combined in a printed work to produce the term "Latin America" in 1856 at a conference by the Chilean politicianFrancisco Bilbaoin Paris.The conference had the title "Initiative of the America. The idea for a Federal Congress of Republics."The following year, Colombian writerJosé María Torres Caicedoalso used the term in his poem "The Two Americas".Two events related with the United States played a central role in both works. The first event happened less than a decade before the publication of Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo's works: the Invasion of Mexico or, in the US, theMexican–American War, after which the United States annexed more than half of Mexico's territory. The second event, theWalker affair, which happened the same year that both works were written: the decision by US presidentFranklin Pierceto recognize the regime recently established inNicaraguaby AmericanWilliam Walkerand his band of filibusters who ruled Nicaragua for nearly a year (1856–57) and attempted to reinstate slavery there, where it had been already abolished for three decades
In both Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo's works, theMexican–American War(1846–48) and William Walker's expedition to Nicaragua are explicitly mentioned as examples of dangers for the region. For Bilbao, "Latin America" was not a geographical concept, as he excluded Brazil, Paraguay, and Mexico. Both authors also asked for the union of all Latin American countries as the only way to defend their territories against further foreign US interventions. Both also rejected European imperialism, claiming that the return of European countries to non-democratic forms of government was another danger for Latin American countries, and used the same word to describe the state of European politics at the time: "despotism." Several years later, during theFrench invasion of Mexico, Bilbao wrote another work, "Emancipation of the Spirit in America", where he asked all Latin American countries to support the Mexican cause against France, and rejected French imperialism in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas. He asked Latin American intellectuals to search for their "intellectual emancipation" by abandoning all French ideas, claiming that France was: "Hypocrite, because she [France] calls herself protector of the Latin race just to subject it to her exploitation regime; treacherous, because she speaks of freedom and nationality, when, unable to conquer freedom for herself, she enslaves others instead!" Therefore, as Michel Gobat puts it, the term Latin America itself had an "anti-imperial genesis," and their creators were far from supporting any form of imperialism in the region, or in any other place of the globe.
The distinction betweenLatin AmericaandAnglo-Americais a convention based on the predominant languages in the Americas by which Romance language- and English-speaking cultures are distinguished. Neither area is culturally or linguistically homogeneous; in substantial portions of Latin America (e.g., highlandPeru,Bolivia, Mexico,Guatemala),Native Americancultures and, to a lesser extent, Amerindian languages, are predominant, and in other areas, the influence of African cultures is strong (e.g., the Caribbean basin – including parts ofColombiaandVenezuela).
The term's meaning is contested and not without controversy. Historian Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo explores at length the "allure and power" of the idea of Latin America. He remarks at the outset, "The idea of 'Latin America' ought to have vanished with the obsolescence of racial theory... But it is not easy to declare something dead when it can hardly be said to have existed," going on to say, "The term is here to stay, and it is important."Following in the tradition of Chilean writer Francisco Bilbao, who excluded Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay from his early conceptualization of Latin America,Chilean historianJaime Eyzaguirrehas criticized the term Latin America for "disguising" and "diluting" the Spanish character of a region (i.e.Hispanic America) with the inclusion of nations that, according to him, do not share the same pattern ofconquest and colonization.
TheFrancophonepart of North America which includesQuebec,Acadia, andLouisianais generally excluded from the definition of Latin America.The primarilyPapiamento-speakingABC Islandsare also often excluded, Papiamento being a Portuguese-based creole.
Latin America can be subdivided into several subregions based on geography, politics,democracy, demographics and culture. The basic geographical subregions are North America, Central America, theCaribbeanand South America; the latter contains further politico-geographical subdivisions such as theSouthern Cone,the Guianasand the Andean states. It may be subdivided on linguistic grounds intoSpanish America,Portuguese America, andFrench America.
The term "Latin America" is defined to mean parts of Americas south of the mainland of theUnited States of Americawhere a Romance language (a language derived from Latin) predominates. Latin America are the countries and territories in the Americas which speak Spanish or Portuguese, with French being sometimes included. As is customary,Puerto Ricois included andDominica,Grenada, andSaint Lucia(where French is spoken but not official language) are excluded from Latin America.
*: Not a sovereign state
Before thearrival of Europeansin the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the region was home to many indigenous peoples, including advanced civilizations, most notably from  South: theOlmec,Maya,Muisca,AztecsandInca. The region came under control of the kingdoms ofSpainandPortugal, which established colonies, and imposedRoman Catholicismand their languages. Both brought Africanslavesto their colonies as laborers, exploiting large, settled societies and their resources. The Spanish Crown regulated immigration, allowing only Christians to travel to the New World. The colonization process led to significant native population declines due to disease, forced labor, and violence. They imposed their culture, destroying native codices and artwork. Colonial-era religion played a crucial role in everyday life, with the Spanish Crown ensuring religious purity and aggressively prosecuting perceived deviations like witchcraft.
In the early nineteenth century nearly all of areas ofSpanish Americaattained independence by armed struggle, with the exceptions ofCubaandPuerto Rico.Brazil, which had become a monarchy separate from Portugal, became a republic in the late nineteenth century. Political independence from European monarchies did not result in the abolition of black slavery in the new nations, it resulted in political and economic instability in Spanish America, immediately after independence. Yet, as regionalCaudillosstarted to rise in power nation nation-builders started to view themselves as more modern than their former European colonizers. Leaders began to shift away from aristocracy toward republicanism and democracy, which allowed all citizens, not just the Creole elites, to have a voice in politics. Politics helped unify many of the Latin American nations as all people, even illiterate people, would gather in their communities to talk about political ideals and how they should be used in their nation.Great Britain and the United States exercised significant influence in the post-independence era, resulting in a form ofneo-colonialism, where political sovereignty remained in place, but foreign powers exercised considerable power in the economic sphere. Newly independent nations faced domestic and interstate conflicts, struggling with economic instability and social inequality.
The 20th century brought U.S. intervention and theCold War's impact on the region, with revolutions in countries like Cuba influencing Latin American politics. The late 20th and early 21st centuries saw shifts towards left-wing governments, followed by conservative resurgences, and a recent resurgence of left-wing politics in several countries.
In many countries in the early 2000s, left-wing political parties rose to power, known as thePink tide. The presidencies ofHugo Chávez(1999–2013) in Venezuela,Ricardo LagosandMichelle Bacheletin Chile,Lula da SilvaandDilma Rousseffof theWorkers Party(PT) in Brazil,Néstor Kirchnerand his wifeCristina Fernándezin Argentina,Tabaré VázquezandJosé Mujicain Uruguay,Evo Moralesin Bolivia,Daniel Ortegain Nicaragua,Rafael Correain Ecuador,Fernando Lugoin Paraguay,Manuel Zelayain Honduras (removed from power by acoup d'état),Mauricio FunesandSalvador Sánchez Cerénin El Salvador are all part of this wave of left-wing politicians who often declare themselvessocialists,Latin Americanists, oranti-imperialists, often implyingopposition to USpolicies towards the region. An aspect of this has been the creation of the eight-member ALBA alliance, or "The Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America" (Spanish:Alianza Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra América) by some of these countries.
Following the pink tide, there was aConservative waveacross Latin America. In Mexico, the rightwingNational Action Party(PAN) won thepresidential election of 2000with its candidateVicente Fox, ending the 71-year rule of theInstitutional Revolutionary Party.  He was succeed six-years later by another conservative,Felipe Calderón(2006–2012), who attempted to crack down on the Mexican drug cartels and instigated theMexican drug war.  Several right-wing leaders rose to power, including Argentina'sMauricio Macriand Brazil'sMichel Temer, following the impeachment of the country's first female president. InChile, the conservativeSebastián Piñerasucceeded the socialistMichelle Bacheletin 2017.In 2019, center-rightLuis Lacalle Pouended a 15-year leftist rule in Uruguay, after defeating theBroad Frontcandidate.
Economically, the2000s commodities boomcaused positive effects for many Latin American economies. Another trend was the rapidly increasing importance of theirrelations with China.However, with theGreat Recessionbeginning in 2008, there was an end to the commodity boom, resulting ineconomic stagnationorrecessionresulted in some countries. A number of left-wing governments of the Pink tide lost support. The worst-hit was Venezuela, which is facing severesocial and economic upheaval.
Charges of against a major Brazilian conglomerate,Odebrecht, has raised allegations of corruption across the region's governments (seeOperation Car Wash). This bribery ring has become the largest corruption scandal in Latin American history.As of July 2017, the highest ranking politicians charged were former Brazilian PresidentLuiz Inácio Lula da Silva, who was arrested,and former Peruvian presidentsOllanta HumalaandAlejandro Toledo, who fled to the United States and was extradited back to Peru.
TheCOVID-19 pandemicproved a political challenge for many unstable Latin American democracies, with scholars identifying a decline in civil liberties as a result of opportunistic emergency powers. This was especially true for countries with strong presidential regimes, such asBrazil.
Wealth inequalityin Latin America and theCaribbeanremains a serious issue despite strong economic growth and improved social indicators. A report released in 2013 by theUN Department of Economic and Social AffairsentitledInequality Matters: Report of the World Social Situation, observed that: 'Declines in the wage share have been attributed to the impact of labour-saving technological change and to a general weakening of labour market regulations and institutions.'Such declines are likely to disproportionately affect individuals in the middle and bottom of theincome distribution, as they rely mostly on wages for income. In addition, the report noted that 'highly-unequal land distribution has created social and political tensions and is a source ofeconomic inefficiency, as small landholders frequently lack access to credit and other resources to increaseproductivity, while big owners may not have had enough incentive to do so.
According to the United NationsECLAC, Latin America is the most unequal region in the world.Inequality in Latin America has deep historical roots in theLatin European racially based Casta systeminstituted in Latin America during colonial times that has been difficult to eradicate because of the differences between initial endowments and opportunities among social groups have constrained the poorest'ssocial mobility, thus causing poverty to transmit from generation to generation, and become a vicious cycle. Inequality has been reproduced and transmitted through generations because Latin American political systems allow a differentiated access on the influence that social groups have in the decision-making process, and it responds in different ways to the least favored groups that have less political representation and capacity of pressure.Recenteconomic liberalisationalso plays a role as not everyone isequally capableof taking advantage of its benefits.Differences in opportunities and endowments tend to be based onrace, ethnicity, rurality, andgender. Because inequality in gender and location are near-universal, race and ethnicity play a larger, more integral role in discriminatory practices in Latin America. The differences have a strong impact on the distribution of income, capital and political standing.
One indicator of inequality is access to and quality of education. During the first phase ofglobalizationin Latin America, educational inequality was on the rise, peaking around the end of the 19th century. In comparison with otherdeveloping regions, Latin America then had the highest level ofeducational inequality, which is certainly a contributing factor for its current general high inequality. During the 20th century, however, educational inequality started decreasing.
Latin America has the highest levels ofincome inequalityin the world.The following table lists all the countries in Latin America indicating a valuation of the country'sHuman Development Index, GDP at purchasing power parity per capita, measurement of inequality through theGini index, measurement of poverty through theHuman Poverty Index, a measure of extreme poverty based on people living on less than 1.25 dollars a day,life expectancy, murder rates and a measurement of safety through theGlobal Peace Index. Green cells indicate the best performance in each category, and red the lowest.
List of countries bylife expectancyat birth for 2022 according to theWorld Bank Group.This service doesn't provide data for French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Saint Barthélemy.
Urbanizationaccelerated starting in the mid-twentieth century, especially incapital cities, or in the case of Brazil, traditional economic and political hubs founded in the colonial era. In Mexico, the rapid growth and modernization in country's north has seen the growth ofMonterrey, inNuevo León. The following is a list of the ten largest metropolitan areas in Latin America. Entries in "bold" indicate they are ranked the highest.
Latin American populations are diverse, with descendants of the Indigenous peoples, Europeans, Africans initially brought as slaves, and Asians, as well as new immigrants. Mixing of groups was a fact of life at contact of the Old World and the New, but colonial regimes established legal and social discrimination against non-white populations simply on the basis of perceived ethnicity and skin color.Social classwas usually linked to a person's racial category, with European-born Spaniards and Portuguese on top. During the colonial era, with a dearth initially of European women, European men and Indigenous women and African women produced what were considered mixed-race children. In Spanish America, the so-calledSociedad decastasorSistema de castaswas constructed by white elites to try to rationalize the processes at work. In the sixteenth century the Spanish crown sought to protect Indigenous populations from exploitation by white elites for their labor and land. The crown created theRepública de indios[es]to paternalistically govern and protect Indigenous peoples. It also created theRepública de Españoles, which included not only European whites, but all non-Indigenous peoples, such as blacks, mulattoes, and mixed-race castas who were not dwelling in Indigenous communities. In the religious sphere, the Indigenous were deemed perpetual neophytes in the Catholic faith, which meant Indigenous men were not eligible to be ordained as Catholic priests; however, Indigenous were also excluded from the jurisdiction of theInquisition. Catholics saw military conquest and religious conquest as two parts of the assimilation of Indigenous populations, suppressing Indigenous religious practices and eliminating the Indigenous priesthood. Some worship continued underground. Jews and other non-Catholics, such as Protestants (all called "Lutherans") were banned from settling and were subject to the Inquisition. Considerable mixing of populations occurred in cities, while the countryside was largely Indigenous. At independence in the early nineteenth century, in many places in Spanish America formal racial and legal distinctions disappeared, although slavery was not uniformly abolished.
Significant black populations exist in Brazil and Spanish Caribbean islands such as Cuba and Puerto Rico and the circum-Caribbean mainland (Venezuela, Colombia, Panama), as long as in the southern part of South America and Central America (Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Ecuador, and Peru) a legacy of their use in plantations. All these areas also have significant white populations. In Brazil, coastal Indigenous peoples largely died out in the early sixteenth century, with Indigenous populations surviving far from cities, sugar plantations, and other European enterprises. Many mixed-race people in much of Latin America are tri-racial, usually of European, African, and Indigenous blood, where European (mostly Spanish/Portuguese) tends to be the strongest of the three. In most of Brazil and the Spanish Caribbean, the average ancestral mix is European and African blood, with much smaller amounts of indigenous blood. While the opposite is true in many mainland Spanish-speaking Latin American countries like Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama, where the average ancestral mix is of European and indigenous blood, with smaller amounts of African. But in Mexico, and other places in northern Central America and southern South America, mixed race people tend to be completely of European and indigenous blood.
Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Brazil have dominant Mulatto/Triracial populations ("Pardo" in Brazil), in Brazil and Cuba, there is equally large white populations and smaller black populations, while Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico are more Mulatto/Triracial dominated, with significant black and white minorities. Parts of Central America and northern South America are more diverse in that they are dominated by Mestizos and whites but also have large numbers of Mulattos, blacks, and indigenous, especially Colombia, Venezuela, and Panama. The southern cone region, Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile are dominated by whites and mestizos. The rest of Latin America, including México, northern Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras), and central South America (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay), are dominated by mestizos but also have large white and indigenous minorities. The French Caribbean is dominated by blacks, but is sometimes not considered part of Latin America.
In the nineteenth century, a number of Latin American countries sought immigrants from Europe and Asia. With the abolition of black slavery in 1888, the Brazilian monarchy fell in 1889. By then, another source of cheap labor to work on coffee plantations was found in Japan. Chinese male immigrants arrived in Cuba, Mexico, Peru and elsewhere. With political turmoil in Europe during the mid-nineteenth century and widespread poverty, Germans, Spaniards, and Italians immigrated to Latin America in large numbers, welcomed by Latin American governments both as a source of labor as well as a way to increase the size of their white populations. In Argentina, manyAfro-Argentinesmarried Europeans.
In twentieth-century Brazil, sociologistGilberto Freyreproposed that Brazil was a "racial democracy", with less discrimination against blacks than in the U.S.Even if a system of legal racial segregation was never implemented in Latin America, unlike the United States, subsequent research has shown that in Brazil there's discrimination against darker citizens, and that whites remain the elites in the country.In Mexico, the mestizo population was considered the true embodiment of "the cosmic race", according to Mexican intellectualJosé Vasconcelos, thus erasing other populations. There was considerable discrimination against Asians, with calls for the expulsion ofChinesein northern Mexico during theMexican Revolution(1910–1920) and racially motivatedmassacres. In a number of Latin American countries, Indigenous groups have organized explicitly as Indigenous, to claim human rights and influence political power. With the passage of anti-colonial resolutions in theUnited Nations General Assemblyand the signing of resolutions for Indigenous rights, the Indigenous are able to act to guarantee their existence within nation-states with legalstanding.
Spanishis the predominant language of Latin America. It is spoken as first language by about 60% of the population.Portugueseis spoken by about 30%, and about 10% speak other languages such asQuechua,Mayan languages,Guaraní,Aymara,Nahuatl,English,French,DutchandItalian. Portuguese is spoken mostly in Brazil, the largest and most populous country in the region. Spanish is the official language of most of the other countries and territories on the Latin American mainland, as well as in Cuba, Puerto Rico (where it is co-official with English), and the Dominican Republic. French is spoken in Haiti and in the Frenchoverseas departmentsofGuadeloupe,Martinique, andGuiana. It is also spoken by somePanamaniansof Afro-Antilleandescent. Dutch is the official language inSuriname,Aruba,CuraçaoandBonaire. (As Dutch is aGermanic language, the territories are not necessarily considered part of Latin America.) However, the native and co-official language ofAruba,Bonaire, andCuraçao, isPapiamento, acreole languagelargely based on Portuguese and Spanish that has had a considerable influence from Dutch and otherPortuguese-based creole languages.
Amerindian languagesare widely spoken in Peru, Guatemala, Bolivia, Paraguay and Mexico, and to a lesser degree, in Panama, Ecuador, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, and Chile. In other Latin American countries, the population of speakers of Indigenous languages tend to be very small or even non-existent, for example in Uruguay. Mexico is possibly contains more Indigenous languages than any other Latin American country, but the most-spoken Indigenous language there is Nahuatl.
In Peru,Quechuais an official language, alongside Spanish and other Indigenous languages in the areas where they predominate. In Ecuador, whileQuichuaholds no official status, it is a recognized language under the country's constitution; however, it is only spoken by a few groups in the country's highlands. In Bolivia,Aymara, Quechua andGuaraníhold official status alongside Spanish. Guaraní, like Spanish, is an official language of Paraguay, and is spoken by a majority of the population, which is, for the most part, bilingual, and it is co-official with Spanish in the Argentine province ofCorrientes. In Nicaragua, Spanish is the official language, but on the country's Caribbean coast English and Indigenous languages such asMiskito,Sumo, andRamaalso hold official status. Colombia recognizes all Indigenous languages spoken within its territory as official, though fewer than 1% of its population are native speakers of these languages.Nahuatlis one of the 62 Native languages spoken by Indigenous people in Mexico, which are officially recognized by the government as "national languages" along with Spanish.
Other European languages spoken in Latin America include: English, by half of the current population in Puerto Rico, as well as in nearby countries that may or may not be considered Latin American, likeBelizeandGuyana, and spoken by descendants of British settlers in Argentina and Chile. German is spoken in southern Brazil, southern Chile, portions of Argentina, Venezuela and Paraguay;Italian in Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, and Uruguay;Ukrainian,Polish, andRussianin southern Brazil and Argentina; andWelsh, in southern Argentina.Non-European or Asian languages include Japanese in Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay,Koreanin Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Chile, Arabic in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and Chile, and Chinese throughout South America. Countries like Venezuela, Argentina and Brazil have their own dialects or variations of German and Italian.
In several nations, especially in the Caribbean region,creole languagesare spoken. The most widely-spoken creole language in Latin America and the Caribbean isHaitian Creole, the predominant language of Haiti, derived primarily from French and certain West African tongues, withAmerindian, English, Portuguese and Spanish influences as well. Creole languages of mainland Latin America, similarly, are derived from European languages and various African tongues. The aforementioned Papiamento, commonly spoken on the Dutch CaribbeanABC Islands, is aPortuguese-based creole.
TheGarifuna languageis spoken along the Caribbean coast in Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Belize, mostly by theGarifuna people, a mixed-raceZambopeople who were the result of mixing between Indigenous Caribbeans and escaped Black slaves. Primarily anArawakan language, it has influences from Caribbean and European languages.
Archaeologists have deciphered over 15 pre-Columbian distinct writing systems from Mesoamerican societies. AncientMayahad the most sophisticated textually written language, but since texts were largely confined to the religious and administrative elite, traditions were passed down orally. Oral traditions also prevailed in other major Indigenous groups including, but not limited to theAztecsand other Nahuatl speakers,Quechuaand Aymara of the Andean regions, theQuichéof Central America, theTupi-Guaraníin today's Brazil, theGuaraníin Paraguay and theMapuchein Chile.
The vast majority of Latin Americans areChristians(90%),mostly Roman Catholics belonging to theLatin Church.About 70% of the Latin American population considers itself Catholic.In 2012 Latin America constitutes in absolute terms the secondworld's largest Christian population, after Europe.
According to the detailed Pew multi-country survey in 2014, 69% of the Latin American population is Catholic and 19% is Protestant. Protestants are 26% in Brazil and over 40% in much of Central America. More than half of these are converts from Roman Catholicism.
The entire hemisphere was settled by migrants from Asia, Europe, and Africa. Native American populations settled throughout the hemisphere before the arrival of Europeans in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and the forced migration of slaves from Africa.
In the post-independence period, a number of Latin American countries sought to attract European immigrants as a source of labor as well as to deliberately change the proportions of racial and ethnic groups within their borders. Chile, Argentina, and Brazil actively recruited labor from Catholic southern Europe, where populations were poor and sought better economic opportunities. Many nineteenth-century immigrants went to the United States and Canada, but a significant number arrived in Latin America. Although Mexico tried to attract immigrants, it largely failed.As black slavery was abolished in Brazil in 1888, coffee growers recruited Japanese migrants to work in coffee plantations. There is a significant population of Japanese descent in Brazil. Cuba and Peru recruited Chinese labor in the late nineteenth century. Some Chinese immigrants who were excluded from immigrating to the U.S. settled in northern Mexico. When the U.S. acquired its southwest by conquest in theMexican American War, Latin American populations did not cross the border to the U.S., the border crossed them.
In the twentieth century there have been several types of migration. One is the movement of rural populations within a given country to cities in search of work, causing many Latin American cities to grow significantly. Another is international movement of populations, often fleeing repression or war. Other international migration is for economic reasons, often unregulated or undocumented. Mexicans immigrated to the U.S. during the violence of theMexican Revolution(1910–1920)and the religiousCristero War(1926–29);during World War II, Mexican men worked in the U.S. in thebracero program. Economic migration from Mexico followed the crash of the Mexican economy in the 1980s.Spanish refugees fled to Mexico following the fascist victory in theSpanish Civil War(1936–38), with some 50,000 exiles finding refuge at the invitation of PresidentLázaro Cárdenas.Following World War II a larger wave of refugees to Latin America, many of them Jews, settled in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, and Venezuela. Some were only transiting through the region, but others stayed and created communities.A number of Nazis escaped to Latin America, living under assumed names, in an attempt to avoid attention and prosecution.
In the aftermath of the Cuban Revolution, middle class and elite Cubans moved to the U.S., particularly to Florida. Some fled Chile for the U.S. and Europe after the 1973 military coup.Colombians migrated to Spain and the United Kingdom during the region's political turmoil, compounded by the rise ofnarcotraffickingandguerrilla warfare.During the Central American wars of the 1970s to the 1990s, many Salvadorans, Guatemalans, and Hondurans migrated to the U.S. to escape narcotrafficking, gangs, and poverty. As living conditions deteriorated in Venezuela underHugo ChávezandNicolás Maduro, many left for neighboring Colombia and Ecuador. In the 1990s, economic stress in Ecuador during theLa Década Perdidatriggered considerable migration to Spain and to the U.S.
Some Latin American countries seek to strengthen links between migrants and their states of origin, while promoting their integration in the receiving state. These emigrant policies focus on the rights, obligations and opportunities for participation of emigrated citizens who already live outside the borders of the country of origin. Research on Latin America shows that the extension of policies towards migrants is linked to a focus on civil rights and state benefits that can positively influence integration in recipient countries. In addition, the tolerance of dual citizenship has spread more in Latin America than in any other region of the world.
Despite significant progress, education access and school completion remains unequal in Latin America. The region has made great progress in educational coverage; almost all children attendprimary school, and access tosecondary educationhas increased considerably. Quality issues such as poor teaching methods, lack of appropriate equipment, and overcrowding exist throughout the region. These issues lead to adolescents dropping out of the educational system early. Most educational systems in the region have implemented various types of administrative and institutional reforms that have enabled reach for places and communities that had no access to education services in the early 1990s. School meal programs are also employed to expand access to education, and at least 23 countries in the Latin America and Caribbean region have large-scale school feeding activities, altogether reaching 88% of primary school-age children in the region.Compared to prior generations, Latin American youth have seen an increase in their levels of education. On average, they have completed two more years of school than their parents.
However, there are still 23 million children in the region between the ages of 4 and 17 outside of the formal education system. Estimates indicate that 30% of preschool age children (ages 4–5) do not attend school, and for the most vulnerable populations, the poor and rural, this proportion exceeds 40 percent. Among primary school age children (ages 6 to 12), attendance is almost universal; however there is still a need to enroll five million more children in the primary education system. These children mostly live in remote areas, are Indigenous or Afro-descendants and live in extreme poverty.
Among people between the ages of 13 and 17 years, only 80% are full-time students, and only 66% of these advance to secondary school. These percentages are lower among vulnerable population groups: only 75% of the poorest youth between the ages of 13 and 17 years attend school. Tertiary education has the lowest coverage, with only 70% of people between the ages of 18 and 25 years outside of the education system. Currently, more than half of low income or rural children fail to complete nine years of education.
Latin America and the Caribbean have been cited by numerous sources to be the most dangerous regions in the world.Studies have shown that Latin America contains the majority of the world'smost dangerous cities.
Crime and violence prevention and public security are now important issues for governments and citizens in Latin America and the Caribbean region. Homicide rates in Latin America are the highest in the world. From the early 1980s through the mid-1990s, homicide rates increased by 50 percent. Latin America and the Caribbean experienced more than 2.5 million murders between 2000 and 2017.There were a total of 63,880 murders in Brazil in 2018.
The most frequent victims of such homicides are young men, 69 percent of them between the ages of 15 and 19. Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean with the highest homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants in 2015 were: El Salvador 109, Honduras 64, Venezuela 57, Jamaica 43, Belize 34.4,St. Kitts and Nevis34, Guatemala 34,Trinidad and Tobago31,the Bahamas30, Brazil 26.7, Colombia 26.5, the Dominican Republic 22,St. Lucia22,Guyana19, Mexico 16, Puerto Rico 16, Ecuador 13,Grenada13,Costa Rica12, Bolivia 12, Nicaragua 12, Panama 11,Antigua and Barbuda11, and Haiti 10.Most of the countries with the highest homicide rates are in Africa and Latin America. Countries in Central America, like El Salvador and Honduras, top the list of homicides in the world.
Brazil has more overallhomicidesthan any country in the world, at 50,108, accounting for one in 10 globally. Crime-related violence is the biggest threat to public health in Latin America, striking more victims thanHIV/AIDSor any other infectious disease.Countries with the lowest homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants as of 2015 were: Chile 3, Peru 7, Argentina 7, Uruguay 8 and Paraguay 9.
According toGoldman Sachs'BRICSreview of emerging economies, by 2050 the largest economies in the world will be as follows: China, United States, India, Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, Mexico and Brazil.
The four countries with the strongest agricultural sector in South America are Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Colombia. Currently:
In Central America, the following stand out:
Brazil is the world's largest exporter ofchicken meat: 3.77 million tons in 2019.The country had the second largest herd of cattle in the world, 22.2% of the world herd. The country was the second largest producer of beef in 2019, responsible for 15.4% of global production.It was also the third largest world producer of milk in 2018. This year, the country produced 35.1 billion liters.In 2019, Brazil was the fourth largest pork producer in the world, with almost four million tons.
In 2018, Argentina was the fourth largest producer of beef in the world, with a production of 3 million tons (behind only United States, Brazil and China). Uruguay is also a major meat producer. In 2018, it produced 589 thousand tons of beef.
In the production ofchicken meat, Mexico is among the ten largest producers in the world, Argentina among the 15 largest and Peru and Colombia among the 20 largest. In beef production, Mexico is one of the ten largest producers in the world and Colombia is one of the 20 largest producers. In the production of pork, Mexico is among the 15 largest producers in the world. In the production ofhoney, Argentina is among the five largest producers in the world, Mexico among the ten largest and Brazil among the 15 largest. In terms ofcow's milkproduction, Mexico is among the 15 largest producers in the world and Argentina among the 20 largest.
Miningis one of the most important economic sectors in Latin America, especially forChile,PeruandBolivia, whose economies are highly dependent on this sector. The continent has large productions of:
Brazilstands out in the extraction of
In terms of gemstones, Brazil is the world's largest producer ofamethysts,topaz, andagatesand one of the main producers oftourmaline, emeralds,aquamarines,garnetsandopals.
Chilecontributes about a third of the world'scopperproduction.In addition, Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of iodineandrhenium,the second largest producer oflithiumandmolybdenum,the sixth largest producer ofsilver,the seventh largest producer ofsalt,the eighth largest producer ofpotash,the thirteenth-largest producer ofsulfurand the thirteenth largest producer ofiron orein the world.
In 2019, Peru was the second largest world producer of copperand silver,8th largest world producer of gold,third largest world producer of lead,second largest world producer ofzinc,fourth largest world producer oftin,fifth largest world producer ofboron,and fourth largest world producer of molybdenum.
In 2019, Bolivia was the eighth largest world producer of silver;fourth largest world producer of boron;fifth largest world producer ofantimony;fifth largest world producer oftin;sixth largest world producer oftungsten;seventh largest producer ofzinc,and the eighth largest producer of lead.
In 2019, Mexico was the world's largest producer of silver(representing almost 23% of world production, producing more than 200 million ounces in 2019);ninth largest producer of gold,the eighth largest producer of copper,the world's fifth largest producer of lead,the world's sixth largest producer of zinc,the world's fifth largest producer of molybdenum,the world's third largest producer ofmercury,the world's fifth largest producer ofbismuth,the world's 13th largest producer ofmanganeseand the 23rd largest world producer ofphosphate.It is also the eighth largest world producer ofsalt.
In 2019, Argentina was the fourth largest world producer of lithium,the ninth largest world producer of silver,the 17th largest world producer of goldand the seventh largest world producer of boron.
Colombia is the world's largest producer ofemeralds.In the production of gold, between 2006 and 2017, the country produced 15 tons per year until 2007, when its production increased significantly, breaking a record of 66.1 tons extracted in 2012. In 2017, it extracted 52.2 tons. The country is among the 25 largest gold producers in the world.In the production of silver, in 2017 the country extracted 15,5 tons.
In the production ofoil, Brazil was the tenth largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels a day. Mexico was the twelfth largest, with 2.1 million barrels a day, Colombia in 20th place with 886 thousand barrels a day, Venezuela was the twenty-first place, with 877 thousand barrels a day, Ecuador in 28th with 531 thousand barrels a day and Argentina. 29th with 507 thousand barrels a day. Since Venezuela and Ecuador consume little oil and export most of their production, they are part ofOPEC. Venezuela had a big drop in production after 2015 (when it produced 2.5 million barrels a day), falling in 2016 to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of investment.
In the production ofnatural gas, in 2018, Argentina produced 1,524 bcf (billions of cubic feet), Mexico produced 999, Venezuela 946, Brazil 877, Bolivia 617, Peru 451, Colombia 379.
In the production ofcoal, the continent had three of the 30 largest world producers in 2018: Colombia (12th), Mexico (24th) and Brazil (27th).
TheWorld Bankannually lists the top manufacturing countries by total manufacturing value. According to the 2019 list:
In Latin America, few countries stand out in industrial activity: Brazil, Argentina, Mexico and, less prominently, Chile. Begun late, the industrialization of these countries received a great boost from World War II: this prevented the countries at war from buying the products they were used to importing and exporting what they produced. At that time, benefiting from the abundant local raw material, the low wages paid to the labor force and a certain specialization brought by immigrants, countries such as Brazil, Mexico and Argentina, as well as Venezuela, Chile, Colombia and Peru, were able to implement important industrial parks. In general, in these countries there are industries that require little capital and simple technology for their installation, such as the food processing and textile industries. The basic industries (steel, etc.) also stand out, as well as the metallurgical and mechanical industries.
The industrial parks of Brazil, Mexico, Argentina and Chile, however, present much greater diversity and sophistication, producing advanced technology items. In the rest of Latin American countries, mainly in Central America, the processing industries of primary products for export predominate.
In thefood industry, in 2019,Brazilwas the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world.In 2016, the country was the second largest producer ofpulpin the world and the eighth largest producer ofpaper.In thefootwear industry, in 2019, Brazil ranked fourth among world producers.In 2019, the country was the eighth largest producer ofvehiclesand the ninth largest producer ofsteelin the world.In 2018, thechemical industryof Brazil was the eighth largest in the world.In thetextile industry, Brazil, although it was among the five largest world producers in 2013, is very little integrated into world trade.In the aviation sector, Brazil hasEmbraer, the third largest aircraft manufacturer in the world, behindBoeingandAirbus.
Transport in Latin America is basically carried out using theroadmode, the most developed in the region. There is also a considerable infrastructure ofportsandairports. Therailwayandfluvialsector, although it has potential, is usually treated in a secondary way.
Brazil has more than 1.7 million km ofroads, of which 215,000 km are paved, and about 14,000 km aredivided highways. The two most important highways in the country areBR-101andBR-116.Argentina has more than 600,000 km of roads, of which about 70,000 km are paved, and about 2,500 km are divided highways. The three most important highways in the country areRoute 9,Route 7andRoute 14.Colombia has about 210,000 km of roads, and about 2,300 km are divided highways.Chile has about 82,000 km of roads, 20,000 km of which are paved, and about 2,000 km are divided highways. The most important highway in the country is theRoute 5(Pan-American Highway)These 4 countries are the ones with the best road infrastructure and with the largest number of double-lane highways, in South America.
The roadway network in Mexico has an extent of 366,095 km (227,481 mi),of which 116,802 km (72,577 mi) are paved,Of these, 10,474 km (6,508 mi) are multi-laneexpressways: 9,544 km (5,930 mi) are four-lane highways and the rest have 6 or more lanes.
Due to theAndes Mountains,Amazon RiverandAmazon Forest, there have always been difficulties in implementing transcontinental or bioceanic highways. Practically the only route that existed was the one that connected Brazil to Buenos Aires, in Argentina and later to Santiago, in Chile. However, in recent years, with the combined effort of countries, new routes have started to emerge, such as Brazil-Peru (Interoceanic Highway), and a new highway between Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina and northern Chile (Bioceanic Corridor).
There are more than 2,000 airports in Brazil. The country has the second largest number of airports in the world, behind only the United States.São Paulo International Airport, located in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, is the largest and busiest in the country – the airport connects São Paulo to practically all major cities around the world. Brazil has 44 international airports, such as those inRio de Janeiro,Brasília,Belo Horizonte,Porto Alegre,Florianópolis,Cuiabá,Salvador,Recife,Fortaleza,BelémandManaus, among others. Argentina has important international airports such asBuenos Aires,Cordoba,Bariloche,Mendoza,Salta,Puerto Iguazú,NeuquénandUshuaia, among others. Chile has important international airports such asSantiago,Antofagasta,Puerto Montt,Punta ArenasandIquique, among others. Colombia has important international airports such asBogotá,Medellín,Cartagena,CaliandBarranquilla, among others. Peru has important international airports such asLima,CuzcoandArequipa. Other important airports are those in the capitals of Uruguay (Montevideo), Paraguay (Asunción), Bolivia (La Paz) and Ecuador (Quito). The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina), and Minas Gerais (Brazil).
There are 1,834 airports in Mexico, the third-largest number of airports by country in the world.The seven largest airports—which absorb 90% of air travel—are (in order of air traffic):Mexico City,Cancún,Guadalajara,Monterrey,Tijuana,Acapulco, andPuerto Vallarta.Considering all of Latin America, the 10 busiest airports in 2017 were: Mexico City (Mexico), São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), Cancún (Mexico), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago ( Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasilia (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) and Tocumen (Panama).
Aboutports, Brazil has some of the busiest ports in South America, such asPort of Santos,Port of Rio de Janeiro,Port of Paranaguá,Port of Itajaí,Port of Rio Grande,Port of São Francisco do SulandSuape Port. Argentina has ports such asPort of Buenos AiresandPort of Rosario. Chile has important ports inValparaíso,Caldera,Mejillones,Antofagasta,Iquique,AricaandPuerto Montt. Colombia has important ports such asBuenaventura,Cartagena Container TerminalandPuerto Bolivar. Peru has important ports inCallao,IloandMatarani. The 15 busiest ports in South America are: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile).
The four major seaports concentrating around 60% of the merchandise traffic inMexicoareAltamiraandVeracruzin theGulf of Mexico, andManzanilloandLázaro Cárdenasin thePacific Ocean. Considering all of Latin America, the 10 largest ports in terms of movement are: Colon (Panama), Santos (Brazil), Manzanillo (Mexico), Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Pacifico (Panama), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile) and Buenaventura (Colombia).
TheBrazilian railway networkhas an extension of about 30,000 kilometers. It is basically used for transporting ores.TheArgentine rail network, with 47,000 km of tracks, was one of the largest in the world and continues to be the most extensive in Latin America. It came to have about 100,000 km of rails, but the lifting of tracks and the emphasis placed on motor transport gradually reduced it. It has four different trails and international connections with Paraguay, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil and Uruguay.Chilehas almost 7,000 km of railways, with connections to Argentina, Bolivia and Peru.Colombiahas only about 3,500 km of railways.
Among the main Brazilianwaterways, two stand out:Hidrovia Tietê-Paraná(which has a length of 2,400 km, 1,600 on the Paraná River and 800 km on the Tietê River, draining agricultural production from the states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás and part of Rondônia, Tocantins and Minas General) andHidrovia do Solimões-Amazonas(it has two sections: Solimões, which extends from Tabatinga to Manaus, with approximately 1600 km, and Amazonas, which extends from Manaus to Belém, with 1650 km. Almost entirely passenger transport from the Amazon plain is done by this waterway, in addition to practically all cargo transportation that is directed to the major regional centers of Belém and Manaus). In Brazil, this transport is still underutilized: the most important waterway stretches, from an economic point of view, are found in the Southeast and South of the country. Its full use still depends on the construction of locks, major dredging works and, mainly, of ports that allow intermodal integration. InArgentina, the waterway network is made up of the La Plata, Paraná, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers. The main river ports areZárateandCampana. The port of Buenos Aires is historically the first in individual importance, but the area known as Up-River, which stretches along 67 km of the Santa Fé portion of the Paraná River, brings together 17 ports that concentrate 50% of the total exports of the country.
The Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported petroleum. Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs but Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in 2006–2007. Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day. Production manages to supply the country's demand.In the beginning of 2020, in the production ofoilandnatural gas, the country exceeded 4 millionbarrels of oil equivalentper day, for the first time. In January this year, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.
Brazil is one of the main world producers ofhydroelectric power. In 2019, Brazil had 217 hydroelectric plants in operation, with an installed capacity of 98,581 MW, 60.16% of the country's energy generation.In the total generation of electricity, in 2019 Brazil reached 170,000 megawatts of installed capacity, more than 75% from renewable sources (the majority, hydroelectric).
In 2013, theSoutheast Regionused about 50% of the load of the National Integrated System (SIN), being the main energy consuming region in the country. The region's installed electricity generation capacity totaled almost 42,500 MW, which represented about a third of Brazil's generation capacity. Thehydroelectricgeneration represented 58% of the region's installed capacity, with the remaining 42% corresponding basically to thethermoelectricgeneration. São Paulo accounted for 40% of this capacity; Minas Gerais by about 25%; Rio de Janeiro by 13.3%; and Espírito Santo accounted for the rest. TheSouth Regionowns theItaipu Dam, which was the largest hydroelectric plant in the world for several years, until the inauguration ofThree Gorges Damin China. It remains the second largest operatinghydroelectricin the world. Brazil is the co-owner of the Itaipu Plant withParaguay: the dam is located on theParaná River, located on the border between countries. It has an installed generation capacity of 14GWfor 20 generating units of 700MWeach.North Regionhas large hydroelectric plants, such asBelo Monte DamandTucuruí Dam, which produce much of the national energy. Brazil's hydroelectric potential has not yet been fully exploited, so the country still has the capacity to build several renewable energy plants in its territory.
As of July 2022,according to ONS, total installed capacity ofwind powerwas 22 GW, with averagecapacity factorof 58%.While the world average wind production capacity factors is 24.7%, there are areas in Northern Brazil, specially in Bahia State, where some wind farms record with average capacity factors over 60%;the average capacity factor in theNortheast Regionis 45% in the coast and 49% in the interior.In 2019, wind energy represented 9% of the energy generated in the country.In 2019, it was estimated that the country had an estimated wind power generation potential of around 522 GW (this, only onshore), enough energy to meet three times the country's current demand.In 2021 Brazil was the 7th country in the world in terms of installed wind power (21 GW),and the 4th largest producer of wind energy in the world (72 TWh), behind only China, USA and Germany.
Nuclear energy accounts for about 4% of Brazil's electricity.The nuclear power generation monopoly is owned byEletronuclear (Eletrobrás Eletronuclear S/A), a wholly owned subsidiary ofEletrobrás. Nuclear energy is produced bytwo reactorsatAngra. It is located at the Central Nuclear Almirante Álvaro Alberto (CNAAA) on the Praia de Itaorna inAngra dos Reis,Rio de Janeiro. It consists of twopressurized water reactors, Angra I, with capacity of 657 MW, connected to the power grid in 1982, and Angra II, with capacity of 1,350 MW, connected in 2000. A third reactor, Angra III, with a projected output of 1,350 MW, is planned to be finished.
As of October 2022,according to ONS, total installed capacity ofphotovoltaic solarwas 21 GW, with averagecapacity factorof 23%.Some of the mostirradiatedBrazilian States are MG ("Minas Gerais"), BA ("Bahia") and GO ("Goiás"), which have indeed worldirradiationlevel records.In 2019, solar power represented 1.27% of the energy generated in the country.In 2021, Brazil was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed solar power (13 GW),and the 11th largest producer of solar energy in the world (16.8 TWh).
In 2020, Brazil was the 2nd largest country in the world in the production of energy throughbiomass(energy production from solid biofuels and renewable waste), with 15,2 GW installed.
After Brazil,Mexicois the country in Latin America that most stands out in energy production. In 2020, the country was the 14th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2018 it was the 12th largest exporter. In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 21st largest producer in the world, and in 2007 it was the 29th largest exporter. Mexico was also the world's 24th largest producer of coal in 2018. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 14th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (8.1 GW), 20th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (5.6 GW) and 19th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW). In third place,Colombiastands out: In 2020, the country was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2015 it was the 19th largest exporter. In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 40th largest producer in the world. Colombia's biggest highlight is in coal, where the country was, in 2018, the world's 12th largest producer and the 5th largest exporter. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 45th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (0.5 GW), 76th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.1 GW) and 20th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW).
Venezuela, which was one of the world's largest oil producers (about 2.5 million barrels/day in 2015) and one of the largest exporters, due to its political problems, has had its production drastically reduced in recent years: in 2016, it dropped to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, reaching only 300,000 barrels/day at a given point. The country also stands out in hydroelectricity, where it was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed capacity in 2020 (16,5 GW).
Argentinawas, in 2017, the 18th largest producer in the world, and the largest producer in Latin America, of natural gas, in addition to being the 28th largest oil producer; although the country has the Vaca Muerta field, which holds close to 16 billion barrels of technically recoverable shale oil, and is the second largest shale natural gas deposit in the world, the country lacks the capacity to exploit the deposit: it is necessary capital, technology and knowledge that can only come from offshore energy companies, who view Argentina and its erratic economic policies with considerable suspicion, not wanting to invest in the country. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 27th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (2.6 GW), 42nd in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.7 GW) and 21st in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (11.3 GW). The country has great future potential for the production of wind energy in the Patagonia region.Chile, although currently not a major energy producer, has great future potential for solar energy production in the Atacama Desert region.
Paraguaystands out today in hydroelectric production thanks to the Itaipu Power Plant.Trinidad and TobagoandBoliviastand out in the production of natural gas, where they were, respectively, the 20th and 31st largest in the world in 2015.Ecuador, because it consumes little energy, is part of OPEC and was the 27th largest oil producer in the world in 2020, being the 22nd largest exporter in 2014.
The majortrade blocs(oragreements) in the region are thePacific AllianceandMercosur. Minor blocs or trade agreements are theG3 Free Trade Agreement, theDominican Republic – Central America Free Trade Agreement(DR-CAFTA), theCaribbean Community(CARICOM) and theAndean Community of Nations(CAN). However, major reconfigurations are taking place along opposing approaches to integration and trade; Venezuela has officially withdrawn from both the CAN and G3 and it has been formally admitted into the Mercosur (pending ratification from the Paraguayan legislature).The president-elect of Ecuador has manifested his intentions of following the same path. This bloc nominally opposes any Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States, although Uruguay has manifested its intention otherwise. Chile,Peru,Colombiaand Mexico are the only four Latin American nations that have an FTA with the United States and Canada, both members of theNorth American Free Trade Agreement(NAFTA).
China's economic influence in Latin America increased substantially in the 21st century. Imports from China valued $8.3 billion in 2000, but by 2022 its value was $450 billion and had grown to be the largest trading partner of South America, as well as the second-largest for the broader Latin America.In particular, many of the investments are related to theBelt and Road Initiativeor energy. China has also provided loans to several Latin American countries; this has raised concerns about the possibility of "debt traps."Specifically, Venezuela, Brazil, Ecuador, and Argentina received the most loans from China during 2005–2016.
Income from tourism is key to the economy of several Latin American countries.Mexico is the only Latin American country to be ranked in the top 10 worldwide in the number of tourist visits. It received by far the largest number of international tourists, with 39.3 million visitors in 2017, followed by Argentina, with 6.7 million; then Brazil, with 6.6 million; Chile, with 6.5 million; Dominican Republic, with 6.2 million; Cuba with 4.3 million; Peru and Colombia with 4.0 million. TheWorld Tourism Organizationreports the following destinations as the top six tourism earners for the year 2017: Mexico, with US$21,333 million; the Dominican Republic, with US$7,178 million; Brazil, with US$6,024 million; Colombia, with US$4,773 million; Argentina, with US$4,687 million; and Panama, with US$4,258 million.
Places such asCancún,Riviera Maya,Chichen Itza,Cabo San Lucas, Mexico City,Acapulco,Puerto Vallarta,Guanajuato City,San Miguel de Allende,Guadalajarain Mexico,Punta Cana,Santo Domingoin Dominican Republic,Punta del Estein Uruguay,San Juan,Poncein Puerto Rico, Panama City in Panama,Poás Volcano National Parkin Costa Rica,Viña del Marin Chile,Rio de Janeiro,Florianópolis,Iguazu Falls,São Paulo,Armação dos Búzios,Salvador,Bombinhas,Angra dos Reis,Balneário Camboriú,Paraty,Ipojuca,Natal,Cairu,FortalezaandItapemain Brazil;Buenos Aires,Bariloche,Salta,Jujuy,Perito Moreno Glacier,Valdes Peninsula,Guarani Jesuit Missions in the cities of Misiones and Corrientes,Ischigualasto Provincial Park,UshuaiaandPatagoniain Argentina;Isla Margarita,Angel Falls,Los Roques archipelago,Gran Sabanain Venezuela;Machu Picchu,Lima,Nazca Lines,Cuzcoin Peru;Lake Titicaca,Salar de Uyuni,La Paz,Jesuit Missions of Chiquitosin Bolivia;Tayrona National Natural Park,Santa Marta,Bogotá,Cali,Medellín,Cartagena,San Andrésin Colombia, and theGalápagos Islandsin Ecuador. are popular among international visitors in the region.
Latin American culture is a mixture of many influences:
Beyond the tradition of Indigenous art, the development of Latin American visual art owed much to the influence of Spanish, Portuguese and FrenchBaroquepainting, which in turn often followed the trends of the Italians. In general, artisticEurocentrismbegan to wane in the early twentieth century with the increased appreciation for indigenous forms of representation.
From the early twentieth century, the art of Latin America was greatly inspired by theConstructivist Movement.The movement rapidly spread from Russia to Europe and then into Latin America.Joaquín Torres GarcíaandManuel Rendónhave been credited with bringing the Constructivist Movement into Latin America from Europe.
An important artistic movement generated in Latin America ismuralismrepresented byDiego Rivera,David Alfaro Siqueiros,José Clemente OrozcoandRufino Tamayoin Mexico,Santiago Martinez DelgadoandPedro Nel Gómezin Colombia andAntonio Berniin Argentina. Some of the most impressiveMuralistaworks can be found in Mexico, Colombia, New York City, San Francisco, Los Angeles andPhiladelphia.
PainterFrida Kahlo, one of the most famous Mexican artists, painted about her own life and the Mexican culture in a style combiningRealism,SymbolismandSurrealism. Kahlo's work commands the highest selling price of all Latin American paintings.
The VenezuelanArmando Reverón, whose work begins to be recognized internationally, is one of the most important artists of the 20th century in South America; he is a precursor ofArte PoveraandHappening. In the 60s kinetic art emerged in Venezuela. Its main representatives areJesús Soto,Carlos Cruz-Diez,Alejandro OteroandGego.
Colombian sculptor and painterFernando Boterohas gained regional and international recognition for his works which, on first examination, are noted for their exaggerated proportions and the corpulence of the human and animal figures.
The EcuadorianOswaldo Guayasamín, considered one of the most important and seminal artists in Ecuador and South America. In his life, he made over 13,000 paintings and held more than 180 exhibitions all over the world, including Paris, Barcelona, New York, Buenos Aires, Moscow, Prague, and Rome. He brought his unique style of expressionism and cubism to the collection of Ecuador artwork during theAge of Angerwhich relates to the period of the Cold War when the United States opposed communist presence in South America.Social criticism of human and social inequality was central to his artwork.
Latin American film is both rich and diverse. Historically, the main centers of production have been Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and Cuba. Latin American film flourished after sound was introduced in cinema, which added a linguistic barrier to the export of Hollywood film south of the border.
Mexican cinemabegan in the silent era from 1896 to 1929 and flourished in theGolden Eraof the 1940s. It boasted a huge industry comparable toHollywoodat the time, with stars such asMaría Félix,Dolores del Río, andPedro Infante. In the 1970s, Mexico was the location for many cult horror and action movies. More recently, films such asAmores Perros(2000) andY tu mamá también(2001) enjoyed box office and critical acclaim and propelledAlfonso CuarónandAlejandro González Iñárrituto the front rank of Hollywood directors. Iñárritu in 2010 directedBiutifulandBirdman(2014), Alfonso Cuarón directedHarry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkabanin 2004 andGravityin 2013. A close friend of both,Guillermo del Toro, a top rank Hollywood director in Hollywood and Spain, directedPan's Labyrinth(2006) and producedEl Orfanato(2007).Carlos Carrera(The Crime of Father Amaro), and screenwriterGuillermo Arriagaare also some of the best known modern Mexican film makers.Rudo y Cursireleased in December (2008) in Mexico, was directed byCarlos Cuarón.
Argentine cinemahas also been prominent since the first half of the 20th century and today averages over 60 full-length titles yearly. The industry suffered during the1976–1983 military dictatorship; but re-emerged to produce theAcademy AwardwinnerThe Official Storyin 1985. A wave of imported US films again damaged the industry in the early 1990s, though it soon recovered, thriving even during theArgentine economic crisisaround 2001. Many Argentine movies produced during recent years have been internationally acclaimed, includingNueve reinas(2000),Son of the Bride(2001),El abrazo partido(2004),El otro(2007), the 2010 Foreign LanguageAcademy AwardwinnerEl secreto de sus ojos,Wild Tales(2014) andArgentina, 1985(2022).
In Brazil, theCinema Novomovement created a particular way of making movies with critical and intellectual screenplays, clearer photography related to the light of the outdoors in a tropical landscape, and a political message. The modern Brazilian film industry has become more profitable inside the country, and some of its productions have received prizes and recognition in Europe and the United States, with movies such asCentral do Brasil(1999),Cidade de Deus(2002) andTropa de Elite(2007).
Puerto Rican cinemahas produced some notable films, such asUna Aventura Llamada Menudo,Los Diaz de DorisandCasi Casi. An influx of Hollywood films affected the local film industry in Puerto Rico during the 1980s and 1990s, but several Puerto Rican films have been produced since and it has been recovering.
Cuban cinemahas enjoyed much official support since theCuban revolutionand important film-makers includeTomás Gutiérrez Alea.
Venezuelan televisionhas also had a great impact in Latin America, is said that whilst "Venezuelan cinema began sporadically in the 1950s[, it] only emerged as a national-cultural movement in the mid-1970s" when it gained state support and auteurs could produce work. International co-productions with Latin America and Spain continued into this era and beyond, and Venezuelan films of this time were counted among the works of New Latin American Cinema. This period is known as Venezuela's Golden Age of cinema, having massive popularity even though it was a time of much social and political upheaval.
One of the most famous Venezuelan films, even to date, is the 1976 filmSoy un delincuentebyClemente de la Cerda, which won theSpecial Jury Prizeat the 1977Locarno International Film Festival. Soy un delincuente was one of nine films for which the state gave substantial funding to produce, made in the year after the Venezuelan state began giving financial support to cinema in 1975. The support likely came from increased oil wealth in the early 1970s, and the subsequent 1973 credit incentive policy. At the time of its production the film was the most popular film in the country, and took a decade to be usurped from this position, even though it was only one in a string of films designed to tellsocial realiststories of struggle in the 1950s and '60s. Equally famous is the 1977 filmEl Pez que Fuma(Román Chalbaud). In 1981 FONCINE (the Venezuelan Film Fund) was founded, and this year it provided even more funding to produce seventeen feature films. A few years later in 1983 withViernes Negro, oil prices dropped and Venezuela entered a depression which prevented such extravagant funding, but film production continued; more transnational productions occurred, many more with Spain due to Latin America's poor economic fortune in general, and there was some in new cinema, as well:Fina Torres' 1985Orianawon theCaméra d'OrPrize at the1985 Cannes Film Festivalas the best first feature. Film production peaked in 1984–5,with 1986 considered Venezuelan cinema's most successful year by the state, thanks to over 4 million admissions to national films, according toVenezuelanalysis. The Venezuelan capital of Caracas hosted the Ibero-American Forum on Cinematography Integration in 1989, from which the pan-continental IBERMEDIA was formed; a union which provides regional funding.
Pre-Columbian cultures were primarily oral, although the Aztecs and Maya, for instance, produced elaboratecodices. Oral accounts of mythological and religious beliefs were also sometimes recorded after the arrival of European colonizers, as was the case with thePopol Vuh. Moreover, a tradition of oral narrative survives to this day, for instance among theQuechua-speaking population of Peru and theQuiché (K'iche')of Guatemala.
From the very moment of Europe's discovery of the continents, early explorers andconquistadoresproduced written accounts and crónicas of their experience – such asColumbus's letters orBernal Díaz del Castillo's description of the conquest of Mexico. During the colonial period, written culture was often in the hands of the church, within which contextSor Juana Inés de la Cruzwrote memorable poetry and philosophical essays. Towards the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, a distinctivecriolloliterary tradition emerged, including the first novels such as Lizardi'sEl Periquillo Sarniento(1816).
The 19th century was a period of "foundational fictions" in critic Doris Sommer's words, novels in theRomanticorNaturalisttraditions that attempted to establish a sense of national identity, and which often focussed on the Indigenous question or thedichotomyof "civilization or barbarism" (for which see, say,Domingo Sarmiento'sFacundo(1845),Juan León Mera'sCumandá(1879), orEuclides da Cunha'sOs Sertões(1902)). The 19th century also witnessed the realist work ofMachado de Assis, who made use of surreal devices of metaphor and playful narrative construction, much admired by criticHarold Bloom.
At the turn of the 20th century,modernismoemerged, a poetic movement whose founding text was Nicaraguan poetRubén Darío'sAzul(1888). This was the first Latin American literary movement to influence literary culture outside of the region, and was also the first truly Latin American literature, in that national differences were no longer so much at issue.José Martí, for instance, though a Cuban patriot, also lived in Mexico and the United States and wrote for journals in Argentina and elsewhere.
However, what really put Latin American literature on the global map was no doubt the literaryboomof the 1960s and 1970s, distinguished by daring and experimental novels (such asJulio Cortázar'sRayuela(1963)) that were frequently published in Spain and quickly translated into English. The Boom's defining novel wasGabriel García Márquez'sCien años de soledad(1967), which led to the association of Latin American literature withmagic realism, though other important writers of the period such as the PeruvianMario Vargas LlosaandCarlos Fuentesdo not fit so easily within this framework. Arguably, the Boom's culmination wasAugusto Roa Bastos's monumentalYo, el supremo(1974). In the wake of the Boom, influential precursors such asJuan Rulfo,Alejo Carpentier, and above allJorge Luis Borgeswere also rediscovered.
Contemporary literature in the region is vibrant and varied, ranging from the best-sellingPaulo CoelhoandIsabel Allendeto the more avant-garde and critically acclaimed work of writers such asDiamela Eltit,Giannina Braschi,Ricardo Piglia, orRoberto Bolaño. There has also been considerable attention paid to the genre oftestimonio, texts produced in collaboration withsubalternsubjects such asRigoberta Menchú. Finally, a new breed of chroniclers is represented by the more journalisticCarlos Monsiváisand Pedro Lemebel.
The region boasts sixNobel Prize winners: in addition to the two Chilean poetsGabriela Mistral(1945) andPablo Neruda(1971), there is also the Guatemalan novelistMiguel Ángel Asturias(1967), the Colombian writerGabriel García Márquez(1982), the Mexican poet and essayistOctavio Paz(1990), and the Peruvian novelistMario Vargas Llosa(2010).
Latin America has produced many successful worldwide artists in terms of recorded global music sales. Among the most successful have beenJuan Gabriel(Mexico) only Latin American musician to have sold over 200 million records worldwide,Gloria Estefan(Cuba),Carlos Santana,Luis Miguel(Mexico) of whom have sold over 90 million records,Shakira(Colombia) andVicente Fernández(Mexico) with over 50 million records sold worldwide.Enrique Iglesias, although not a Latin American, has also contributed for the success of Latin music.
Other notable successful mainstream acts through the years, includeRBD,Celia Cruz,Soda Stereo,Thalía,Ricky Martin,Maná,Marc Anthony,Ricardo Arjona,Selena, andMenudo.
Latin Caribbean music, such asmerengue,bachata,salsa, and more recentlyreggaeton, from such countries as the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Panama, has been strongly influenced by African rhythms and melodies.
Another well-known Latin American musical genre includes theArgentineandUruguayan tango(withCarlos Gardelas the greatest exponent), as well as the distinctnuevo tango, a fusion of tango,acousticandelectronic musicpopularized bybandoneónvirtuosoÁstor Piazzolla.Samba, North Americanjazz,European classical musicandchorocombined to formbossa novain Brazil, popularized by guitaristJoão Gilbertowith singerAstrud GilbertoandpianistAntonio Carlos Jobim.
Other influential Latin American sounds include the Antilleansocaandcalypso, Dennery segment which is a style of Soca music developed in Saint Lucia in the early 2010s which came from Kuduro music, Zouk influence and Lucian drums alongside lyrics usually sung in FrenchAntillean CreoleKwéyòl, Bouyon music is a mixture of Soca, Zouk, and traditional genres native to Dominica which is sung in FrenchAntillean Creoleand is one of the most popular musical genres in Dominica, the Honduran (Garifuna)punta, the Colombiancumbiaandvallenato, the Chileancueca, the Ecuadorianboleros, the Haitian compas [ konpa] androckoleras, the Mexicanrancheraand themariachiwhich is the epitome of Mexican soul, the Nicaraguanpalo de Mayo, the Peruvianmarineraandtondero, the Uruguayancandombeand the various styles of music from pre-Columbian traditions that are widespread in theAndeanregion.
The classical composerHeitor Villa-Lobos(1887–1959) worked on the recording of Native musical traditions within his homeland of Brazil. The traditions of his homeland heavily influenced his classical works.Also notable is the recent work of the CubanLeo Brouwer, Uruguayan-AmericanMiguel del Águila, guitar works of the VenezuelanAntonio Lauroand the ParaguayanAgustín Barrios. Latin America has also produced world-class classical performers such as the Chilean pianistClaudio Arrau, Brazilian pianistNelson Freireand the Argentine pianist and conductorDaniel Barenboim. Brazilian opera sopranoBidu Sayão, one of Brazil's most famous musicians, was a leading artist of the Metropolitan Opera in New York City from 1937 to 1952.
Arguably, the main contribution to music entered through folklore, where the true soul of the Latin American and Caribbean countries is expressed. Musicians such asYma Súmac,Chabuca Granda,Atahualpa Yupanqui,Violeta Parra,Víctor Jara,Jorge Cafrune,Facundo Cabral,Mercedes Sosa,Jorge Negrete,Luiz Gonzaga,Caetano Veloso,Susana Baca,Chavela Vargas,Simon Diaz,Julio Jaramillo,Toto la Momposina,Gilberto Gil,Maria Bethânia,Nana Caymmi,Nara Leão,Gal Costa,Ney Matogrossoas well as musical ensembles such asInti IllimaniandLos Kjarkasare magnificent examples of the heights that this soul can reach.
Latin pop, including many forms of rock, is popular in Latin America today (seeSpanish language rock and roll).A few examples areCafé Tacuba,Soda Stereo,Maná,Los Fabulosos Cadillacs,Rita Lee,Mutantes,Secos e MolhadosLegião Urbana,Titãs,Paralamas do Sucesso,Cazuza,Barão Vermelho,Skank,Miranda!,Cansei de Ser Sexy or CSS, and Bajo Fondo.
More recently, reggaeton, which blends Jamaican reggae and dancehall with Latin America genres such asbombaandplena, as well aship hop, is becoming more popular, in spite of the controversy surrounding its lyrics, dance steps (Perreo) and music videos. It has become very popular among populations with a "migrant culture" influence – both Latino populations in the United States, such as southern Florida and New York City, and parts of Latin America where migration to the United States is common, such as Trinidad and Tobago, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, and Mexico.
The following is a list of the ten countries with the mostUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitesin Latin America.