Medieval demography

Medieval demographyis the study of humandemographyinEuropeand the Mediterranean during theMiddle Ages. It estimates and seeks to explain the number of people who were alive during the Medieval period, population trends, life expectancy, family structure, and related issues. Demography is considered a crucial element ofhistoricalchange throughout the Middle Ages.
The population of Europe remained at a low level in the Early Middle Ages, boomed during the High Middle Ages and reached a peak around 1300, then a number of calamities caused a steep decline, the nature of which historians have debated. Population levels began to recover around the late 15th century, gaining momentum in the early 16th century.
The science of medieval demography relies on various lines of evidence, such as administrative records, wills and other types of records, archaeological field data, economic data, and written histories. Because the data are often incomplete and/or ambiguous, there can be significant disagreement among medieval demographers.
The population levels of Europe during the Middle Ages can be roughly categorized:
Late Antiquitysaw various indicators of Roman civilization beginning to decline, including urbanization, seaborne commerce, and total population. Only 40% as many Mediterranean shipwrecks have been found for the 3rd century as for the 1st.During the period from 150 to 400, with the intermittent appearance of plague, thepopulation of the Roman Empireranged from a high of 70 to a low of 50 million, followed by a fairly good recovery if not to the previous highs of the Early Empire. Serious gradual depopulation began in the West only in the 5th century and in the East due to the appearance of bubonic plague in 541 after 250 years of economic growth after the troubles which afflicted the empire from the 250s to 270s.  Proximate causes of the population decrease include theAntonine Plague(165–180), thePlague of Cyprian(250 toc.260), and theCrisis of the Third Century. European population probably reached a minimum during theextreme weather events of 535–536and the ensuingPlague of Justinian(541–542). Some have connected this demographic transition to theMigration Period Pessimum,when a decrease in global temperatures impaired agricultural yields.
A majorplague epidemicstruck the Mediterranean, and much of Europe, in the 6th century.
TheEarly Middle Agessaw relatively little population growth with urbanization well below its Roman peak, reflecting a low technological level, limited trade and political, social and economic dislocation exacerbated by the impact ofViking expansionin the north,Arab expansionin the south and the movement ofSlavsandBulgarians, and later theMagyarsin the east.This rural, uncertain life spurred the development offeudalismand theChristianizationof Europe.Estimates of the total population of Europe are speculative, but at the time ofCharlemagneit is thought to have been between 25 and 30 million, of which perhaps half were in theCarolingianEmpire that covered modern France, the Low Countries, western Germany, Austria, Slovenia, northern Italy and part of northern Spain.Most medieval settlements remained small, with agricultural land and large zones of unpopulated and lawlesswildernessin between (Geographers estimate that around 800, as much as three-quarters of Europe was still forested).Population density was only two to five persons per square kilometer in Britain, similarly in Germany, and somewhat higher in France.
Manorial surveys and some allusions to provincial hearth taxes suggest a population of 5 million for Carolingian France. Presumed densities of settlement support estimates of 4 million for Italy and a similar number for Iberia, as well as German lands (including Scandinavia); 6 million for Slavic lands and perhaps 2 million for Greece and southern Balkans; 1.5 million people for the entire British Isles.
In the 10th–13th centuries, agriculture expanded into the wilderness, in what has been termed the "great clearances".During theHigh Middle Ages, many forests and marshes were cleared and cultivated.At the same time, during theOstsiedlung, Germans resettled east of theElbeandSaalerivers, in regions previously only sparsely populated byPolabian Slavs.Crusaders expanded to theCrusader states, parts of theIberian Peninsulawerereconquered from the Moors, and theNormanscolonized England andsouthern Italy.These movements and conquests are part of a larger pattern of population expansion and resettlement that occurred in Europe at this time.
Reasons for this expansion and colonization include an improving climate known as theMedieval warm period, which resulted in longer and more productive growing seasons; the end of the raids byVikings,Arabs, andMagyars, resulting in greater political stability; advancements inmedieval technologyallowing more land to be farmed; 11th-century reforms of the Church that further increased social stability; and the rise ofFeudalism, which also brought a measure of social stability.Towns and trade revived, and the rise of a money economy began to weaken the bonds ofserfdomthat tied peasants to the land.Land was at first plentiful while labour to clear and work the land was scarce; lords who owned the land found new ways to attract and keep labour.Urban centres were able to attract serfs with the promise of freedom.As new regions were settled, both internally and externally, population naturally increased.
Overall, European population tripled between the years 1000 to 1348and is estimated to have reached a peak of 73.5 million to as high as 100 million.
By the 14th century, the frontiers of settled cultivation had ceased to expand and internal colonization was coming to an end, but population levels remained high. Then a series of events—sometimes called theCrisis of the Late Middle Ages—collectively killed millions. Starting with theGreat Faminein 1315 and theBlack Deathfrom 1348, the population of Europe fell abruptly. The period between 1348 and 1420 saw the heaviest loss. In parts of Germany, about 40% of the named inhabitants disappeared.The population ofProvencewas reportedly halved and in some parts ofTuscany, 70% were lost during this period.
Historians have struggled to explain why so many died.Some have questioned the long-standing theory that the decline in population was caused only by infectious disease (see further discussions atBlack Death) and so historians have examined other social factors, as follows.
A classicMalthusianargument has been put forward that Europe wasoverpopulated: even in good times it was barely able to feed its population.Grain yields in the 14th century were between 2:1 and 7:1 (2:1 means for every seed planted, 2 are harvested.Modern grain yields are 30:1 or more.)Malnutrition developed gradually over decades, lowering resistance to disease, and competition for resources meant more warfare, and then finally crop yields were pushed down by theLittle Ice Age.
An alternative theory is that competition for resources exacerbated the imbalance between property-owners and workers,and that the money supply ceased to keep up with fixed increased economic activity (beingcommodity moneybased principally on silver)so that wages sank while rents rose,leading to demographic stagnation. The economic conditions of the poor also aggravated the calamities of the plague because they had no recourse, such as fleeing to a villa in the country in the manner of the nobles in theDecameron.The poor lived in crowded conditions and could not isolate the sick, and had weaker immunities from a deficient diet, difficult living and working conditions and poor sanitation.After the plague and other exogenous causes of population decline lowered the labor supply, wages increased.This increased the mobility of labour and led to aredistribution of wealth, although property-owners' attempts to resist change through wage freezes and price controlscontributed topopular uprisingssuch as thePeasants' Revoltof 1381. By 1450, the total population of Europe was substantially below that of 150 years earlier, but all classes overall had a higher standard of living.
Still yet another theory, as introduced by Robert Brenner in a 1976 paper, is that the economic system of the High Middle Ages limited population growth. Feudal lords and landlords controlled most of Europe's land; they could charge high enough rents or demand a large enough percentage of peasants' profit that peasants on these lands were forced to survive at subsistence levels. With any surplus of food, labor, and income absorbed by the landowners, the peasants did not have enough capital to invest in their farms or enough incentive to increase the productivity of their land.
In addition, the small size of most peasants' farms inhibited centralized and more efficient cultivation of land on larger fields. In regions of Europe whereprimogeniturewas less widely practiced, peasant lands were subdivided and re-subdivided with each generation of heirs; Brenner writes that consequently: "This too naturally reduced the general level of peasant income, the surplus available for potential investment in agriculture, and the slim hope of agricultural innovation."
As a result, on account of the social and economic system, the size of Europe's population was limited; the existing agricultural system and technology could not support a population beyond a certain size. When the population of Europe surpassed the threshold that the existing economic structure permitted: population loss, social instability, and famine could result. Only through modifying the existing social structure of land ownership and distribution could Europe's population surpass early 14th century levels.
The above paragraphs are a synopsis of Brenner's argument. The 1976 article has the full text of his original argument.Later, in 1985, T.H. Ashton and C.H.E. Philpin compiled a larger volume containing Brenner's original article and several scholarly responses to it.
Regardless of the cause, populations continued to fall into the 15th century and remained low into the 16th because the plague returned in cycles over the course of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, although subsequent plagues, such as the "children's plagues" of the 1360s were less virulent than the Great Plague of 1347–1348.
Sources traditionally used by modern demographers, such as marriage, birth and death records, are often not available for this period, so scholars rely on other sources, such as archaeological surveys, and written records when available.
Examples of field data include the physical size of a settlement, and how it grows over time, and theappearance, or disappearance, of settlements.For example, after theBlack Deaththe archaeological record shows the abandonment of upwards of 25% of all villages inSpain.However, archaeological data are often difficult to interpret.It is often difficult to assign a precise age to discoveries. Also, some of the largest and most important sites are still occupied and cannot be investigated.Available archaeological records may be concentrated on the more peripheral regions, for example early Middle AgesAnglo–Saxonburials atSutton Hoo, in East Anglia in England, for which otherwise no records exist.
Because of these limitations, much of our knowledge comes from written records: descriptive and administrative accounts. Descriptive accounts include those of chroniclers who wrote about the size of armies, victims ofwarorfamine, participants in an oath. However these cannot be relied on as accurate, and are most useful as supporting evidence rather than being taken factually on their own.
The most important written accounts are those contained in administrative records.These accounts are more objective and accurate because the motivation for writing them was not to influence others.These records can be divided into two categories: surveys and serial documents. Surveys cover an estate or region on a particular date, rather like a modern inventory.Manorialsurveys were very common throughout the Middle Ages, in particular in France and England, but faded as serfdom gave way to a money economy.Fiscal surveys came with the rise of the money economy, the most famous and earliest being theDomesday Bookin 1086.The Book of Hearths from Italy in 1244 is another example. The largest fiscal survey was of France in 1328. As kings continued to look for new ways to raise money, these fiscal surveys increased in number and scope over time. Surveys have limitations, because they are only a snapshot in time; they do not show long-term trends, and they tend to exclude elements of society.
Serial records come in different forms.The earliest are from the 8th century and are land conveyances, such as sales, exchanges, donations, and leases.Other types of serial records include death records from religious institutions and baptismal registrations. Other helpful records includeheriots, court records,food pricesand rent prices, from which inferences can be made.
The tables below are estimated byUrlanis 1941, pp. 91, 414.