Finger millet

Finger millet(Eleusine coracana) is anannual herbaceous plantwidely grown as acerealcrop in thearidandsemiaridareas inAfricaandAsia. It is atetraploidandself-pollinatingspecies probably evolved from its wild relativeEleusine africana.
Finger millet is native to theEthiopianandUgandanhighlands.Interesting crop characteristics of finger millet are the ability to withstand cultivation at altitudes over 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) above sea level, its high drought tolerance, and the long storage time of the grains.
Finger millet originated inEast Africa(Ethiopian and Ugandan highlands). It was claimed to have been found in an Indian archaeological site dated to 1800 BCE (Late Bronze Age);however, this was subsequently demonstrated to be incorrectly identified cleaned grains of hulled millets.The oldest record of finger millet comes from an archaeological site in Africa dating to the 3rd millennium B.C.
By 1996, cultivation of finger millet in Africa was declining rapidly because of the large amount of labor it required, with farmers preferring to grow nutritionally-inferior but less labor-intensive crops such asmaize,sorghum, andcassava.Such a decline was not seen in Asia, however.
Finger millet is under the genusEleusineGaertn.
Main cultivation areas are parts of eastern and southern Africa – particularlyUganda,Kenya, theDemocratic Republic of the Congo,Zimbabwe,Zambia,Malawi, andTanzania– and parts ofIndiaandNepal.It is also grown in southernSudanand "as far south" in Africa asMozambique.
Finger millet is ashort-day plantwith a growing optimum 12 hours of daylight for most varieties. Its main growing area ranges from 20°N to 20°S, meaning mainly the semiarid to arid tropics. Nevertheless, finger millet is found to be grown at 30°N in theHimalayaregion (India and Nepal). It is generally considered as a drought-tolerant crop, but compared with other millets, such aspearl milletandsorghum, it prefers moderate rainfall (500 millimetres (20 in) annually). The majority of worldwide finger millet farmers grow it rainfed, although yields often can be significantly improved when irrigation is applied. In India, finger millet is a typicalrabi(dry-winter season) crop. Heat tolerance of finger millet is high. For Ugandan finger millet varieties, for instance, the optimal average growth temperature ranges at about 27 °C, while the minimal temperatures should not be lower than 18 °C. Relative to other species (pearl millet and sorghum), finger millet has a higher tolerance to cool temperatures. It is grown from about 500 to 2,400 metres (1,600 to 7,900 ft) above sea level (e.g. in Himalaya region). Hence, it can be cultivated on higher elevations than most tropical crops. Finger millet can grow on various soils, including highly weathered tropicallateriticsoils. It thrives in free-draining soils with steady moisture levels. Furthermore, it can toleratesoil salinityup to a certain extent. Its ability to bear waterlogging is limited, so good drainage of the soils and moderate water-holding capacity are optimal.Finger millet can tolerate moderately acidic soils (pH 5), but also moderately alkaline soils (pH 8.2).
Finger millet monocrops grown under rainfed conditions are most common in drier areas of Eastern Africa. In addition,intercroppingwith legumes, such ascowpeaorpigeon pea, are also quite common in East Africa. Tropical Central Africa supports scattered regions of finger millet intercropping mostly withlegumes, but also withcassava,plantain, and vegetables.
Most common finger millet intercropping systems in South India are as follows:
Weeds are the major biotic stresses for finger millet cultivation. Its seeds are very small, which leads to a relatively slow development in early growing stages. This makes finger millet a weak competitor for light, water, and nutrients compared with weeds.In East and Southern Africa, the closely related speciesEleusine indica(common name Indian goose grass) is a severe weed competitor of finger millet. Especially in early growing stages of the crop and the weed and whenbroadcast seedinginstead of row seeding is applied (as often the case in East Africa), the two species are very difficult to distinguish.BesidesEleusine indica, the speciesXanthium strumarium,which is animal dispersed and thestolon-owning speciesCyperus rotondusandCynodon dactylonare important finger millet weeds.Measures to control weeds include cultural, physical, and chemical methods. Cultural methods could be sowing in rows instead of broadcast sowing to make distinction between finger millet seedlings andE. indicaeasier when hand weeding.ICRISATpromotescover cropsandcrop rotationsto disrupt the growing cycle of the weeds. Physical weed control in financial resource-limited communities growing finger millet are mainly hand weeding or weeding with a hand hoe.
Finger millet is generally seen as not very prone to diseases and pests. Nonetheless, finger millet blast, caused by the fungal pathogenMagnaporthe grisea(anamorphPyricularia grisea), can locally cause severe damages, especially when untreated.In Uganda, yield losses up to 80% were reported in bad years. The pathogen leads to drying out of leaves, neck rots, and ear rots.These symptoms can drastically impairphotosynthesis, translocation of photosynthetic assimilates, and grain filling, so reduce yield and grain quality. Finger millet blast can also infest finger millet weeds such as the closely relatedE. indica,E. africana,Digitariaspp.,Setariaspp., andDoctylocterium spp.Finger millet blast can be controlled with cultural measures, chemical treatments, and the use of resistant varieties. Researchers in Kenya have screened wild relatives of finger millet and landraces for resistance to blast.Cultural measures to control finger millet blast suggested by ICRISAT for Eastern Africa include crop rotations with nonhost crops such aslegumes, deep ploughing under of finger millet straw on infected fields, washing of field tools after use to prevent dissemination of the pathogen to uninfected fields, weed control to reduce infections by weed hosts, and avoiding of high plant densities to impede the pathogen dispersal from plant to plant.Chemical measures can be direct spraying of systemicfungicides, such as the active ingredients pyroquilon orseed dressingswith fungicides, such as trycyclozole.
Striga,a parasiticweedwhich occurs naturally in parts of Africa, Asia, and Australia, can severely affect the crop and yield losses in finger millet and other cereals by 20 to 80%.Strigacan be controlled with limited success by hand weeding, herbicide application, crop rotations, improved soil fertility, intercropping and biological control.The most economically feasible and environmentally friendly control measure would be to develop and useStriga-resistant cultivars.Strigaresistant genes have not been identified yet in cultivated finger millet but could be found in crop wild relatives of finger millet.Another pathogen in finger millet cultivation is the fungusHelminthosporium nodulosum, causing leaf blight.Finger millet pests are bird predators, such asqueleain East Africa.
The pink stem borer (Sesamia inferens) and the finger millet shoot fly (Atherigona miliaceae)are considered as the most relevant insect pests in finger millet cultivation.Measures to controlSesamia inferensare uprooting of infected plants, destroying of stubbles, having a crop rotation, chemical control withinsecticides, biological measures such aspheromonetraps, orbiological pest controlwith the use of antagonistic organisms (e.g.Sturmiopsis inferens).
Other insect pests include:
Propagation in finger millet farming is done mainly by seeds. In rainfed cropping, four sowing methods are used:
Crop does not mature uniformly and hence the harvest is to be taken up in two stages. When the earhead on the main shoot and 50% of the earheads on the crop turn brown, the crop is ready for the first harvest. At the first harvest, all earheads that have turned brown should be cut. After this drying, threshing and cleaning the grains by winnowing. The second harvest is around seven days after the first. All earheads, including the green ones, should be cut. The grains should then be cured to obtain maturity by heaping the harvested earheads in shade for one day without drying, so that the humidity and temperature increase and the grains get cured. After this drying, threshing and cleaning as after the first harvesting.
Once harvested, theseedskeep extremely well and are seldom attacked byinsectsormoulds. Finger millet can be kept for up to 10 years when it is unthreshed. Some sources report a storage duration up to 50 years under good storage conditions.The long storage capacity makes finger millet an importantcropin risk-avoidance strategies as a famine crop for farming communities.
As a first step of processing finger millet can be milled to produceflour. However, finger millet is difficult to mill due to the small size of the seeds and because thebranis bound very tightly to theendosperm. Furthermore, the delicate seed can get crushed during the milling. The development of commercial mechanical milling systems for finger millet is challenging. Therefore, the main product of finger millet iswhole grainflour. This has disadvantages, such as reduced storage time of the flour due to the high oil content. Furthermore, the industrial use of whole grain finger millet flour is limited. Moistening the millet seeds prior to grinding helps to remove the bran mechanically without causing damage to the rest of the seed. The mini millet mill can also be used to process other grains such aswheatandsorghum.
Another method to process the finger millet grain is germinating the seed. This process is also calledmaltingand is very common in the production of brewed beverages such asbeer. When finger millet is germinated, enzymes are activated, which transferstarchesinto othercarbohydratessuch assugars. Finger millet has a good malting activity. The malted finger millet can be used as a substrate to produce for example gluten-free beer or easily digestible food for infants.
Finger millet is 11% water, 7%protein, 54%carbohydrates, and 2%fat(table). In a 100 gram (3.5 oz) reference amount, finger millet supplies 305calories, and is a rich source (20% or more of theDaily Value, DV) ofdietary fiberand severaldietary minerals, especiallyironat 87% DV (table).
TheInternational Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics(ICRISAT), a member of theCGIARconsortium, partners with farmers, governments, researchers and NGOs to help farmers grow nutritious crops, including finger millet. This helps their communities have more balanced diets and become more resilient to pests and drought. For example, the Harnessing Opportunities for Productivity Enhancement of Sorghum and Millets in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia (HOPE) project is increasing yields of finger millet inTanzaniaby encouraging farmers to grow improved varieties.
Finger millet can begroundinto aflourand cooked into cakes,puddingsorporridge. The flour is made into afermented drink(orbeer) inNepaland in many parts of Africa. Thestrawfrom finger millet is used as animal fodder.
Finger millet is a staple grain in many parts of India, especiallyKarnataka, where it is known asragi(fromKannadaರಾಗಿrāgi).  It is malted and its grain isgroundintoflour.
There are numerous ways to prepare finger millet, includingdosa,idli, andladdu. Insouthern India, onpediatrician'srecommendation, finger millet is used in preparingbaby food, because of millet's highnutritional content, especiallyironandcalcium.Satva,pole(dosa),bhakri,ambil(a sour porridge), and pappad are common dishes made using finger millet. In Karnataka, finger millet is generally consumed in the form of a porridge calledragi muddein Kannada. It is the staple diet of many residents of South Karnataka. Mudde is prepared by cooking theragi flourwith water to achieve a dough-like consistency. This is then rolled into balls of desired size and consumed withsambar(huli),saaru(ಸಾರು), or curries. Ragi is also used to makeroti,idli,dosaandconjee. In the Malnad region of Karnataka, the whole ragi grain is soaked and the milk is extracted to make a dessert known askeelsa. A type of flat bread is prepared using finger millet flour (calledragi rottiinKannada) in Northern districts ofKarnataka.
In Tamil Nadu, ragi is calledkezhvaragu(கேழ்வரகு) and also has other names like keppai, ragi, and ariyam.Ragi is dried, powdered, and boiled to form a thick mass that is allowed to cool. This is the famedkaliorkeppai kali. This is made into large balls to quantify the intake. It is taken withsambarorkuzhambu.  For children, ragi is also fed with milk and sugar (malt). It is also made in the form of pancakes with chopped onions and tomatoes.Kezhvaraguis used to makeputtuwithjaggeryorsugar. Ragi is calledkoozh– a staple diet in farming communities, eaten along with raw onions and green chillies. In Andhra Pradesh,ragi sankatiorragi muddha– ragi balls – are eaten in the morning with chilli, onions, andsambar. In Kerala,puttu, a traditional breakfast dish, can be made with ragi flour and grated coconut, which is then steamed in a cylindrical steamer. In the tribal and western hilly regions ofOdisha, ragi ormandiaais a staple food. In theGarhwalandKumaonregions ofUttarakhand,kodaormaduwais made into thick rotis (served with ghee), and also made intobadi, which is similar tohalwabut without sugar. In the Kumaon region, ragi is traditionally fed to women after child birth. In some parts of Kumaon region the ragi flour is used to make various snacks likenamkeen sev,mathriandchips.
To make the flour, ragi is graded and washed. It is allowed to dry naturally in sunlight for 5 to 8 hours. It is then powdered. Ragi porridge, ragi halwa, ragi ela ada, and ragi kozhukatta can be made withragi flour.All-purpose flour can be replaced with ragi flour during baking. Ragi cake and ragi biscuits can be prepared.The flour is consumed withmilk, boiled water, oryogurt. The flour is made into flatbreads, including thin, leaveneddosaand thicker, unleavenedroti.
InNepal, a thick dough (ḍhĩḍo) made of millet flour (kōdō) is cooked and eaten by hand. The dough, on other hand, can be made into thick bread (rotee) spread over flat utensil and heating it.  Fermented millet is used to make a beerchhaangand the mash is distilled to make a liquor (rakśiशी). Whole grain millet is fermented to maketongba. Its use in holy Hindu practices is barred especially by upper castes. In Nepal, the National Plant Genetic Resource Centre at Khumaltar maintains 877 accessions (samples) of Nepalese finger millet (kodo).
In Sri Lanka, finger millet is calledkurakkanand is made intokurakkan roti– an earthy brown thick roti with coconut andthallapa– a thick dough made of ragi by boiling it with water and some salt until like a dough ball. It is then eaten with a spicy meat curry and is usually swallowed in small balls, rather than chewing. It is also eaten as a porridge (kurrakan kenda) and as a sweet called 'Halape'. In northwest Vietnam, finger millet is used as a medicine for women at childbirth. A minority use finger millet flour to make alcohol.
Ragi malt porridge is made from finger millet which is soaked and shadow dried, then roasted and ground. This preparation is boiled in water and used as a substitute for milk powder-based beverages.