Phaseolus vulgaris

Phaseolus vulgaris, thecommon bean,is aherbaceousannual plantgrown worldwide for its edible dry seeds orgreen, unripe pods. Its leaf is also occasionally used as avegetableand thestrawasfodder. Itsbotanical classification, along with otherPhaseolusspecies, is as a member of thelegumefamily,Fabaceae. Like most members of this family, common beans acquire thenitrogenthey require through an association withrhizobia, which arenitrogen-fixingbacteria.
The common bean has a long history of cultivation. All wild members of the species have a climbing habit,but manycultivarsare classified either asbush beansorclimbing beans, depending on their style of growth. The other major types of commercially grown beans are the runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus) and the broad bean (Vicia faba).
Beans are grown on every continent except Antarctica. In 2022, 28 milliontonnesof dry common beans were produced worldwide, led by India with 23% of the total.
Raw dry beans contain the toxic compoundphytohaemagglutinin,which can be deactivated by cooking beans for ten minutes atboiling point(100 °C, 212 °F). The U.S.Food and Drug Administrationalso recommends an initial soak of at least 5 hours in water which should then be discarded.
Bush varieties form erect bushes 20–60 centimetres (8–20 inches) tall, while pole or running varieties formvines2–3 metres (7–10 feet) long. All varieties bear alternate, green or purpleleaves, which are divided into three oval, smooth-edged leaflets, each 6–15 cm (2–6 in) long and 3–11 cm (1–4 in) wide. The white, pink, or purpleflowersare about 1 cm long and have 10stamens. The flowers areself-pollinating, which facilitates the selection of stable cultivars. The flowers give way to pods 8–20 cm (3–8 in) long and 1–1.5 cm wide. These may be green, yellow, black, or purple, each containing 4–8 beans. Some varieties develop a string along the pod; these are generally cultivated for dry beans, as green stringy beans are not commercially desirable. The beans are smooth, plump, kidney-shaped, up to 1.5 cm long, range widely in color and are often mottled in two or more colors. The beans maintain their germination capacity for up to 5 years.
Like most species fromPhaseolus, the genome ofP. vulgarishas 11 chromosomal pairs (2n = 22). Its genome is one of the smallest in the legume family at 625 Mbp per haploid genome.
Raw or undercooked beans contain a toxic protein calledphytohaemagglutinin.
The common bean, like all species ofPhaseolusis a member of thelegumefamilyFabaceae.
InSpecies Plantarumin 1753,Carl Linnaeusclassified the beans known by him into genusPhaseolusand genusDolichos, naming 11 species ofPhaseolus,including 6 cultivated species and 5 "wild" species.
The beans cultivated in Europe prior to theColumbian Exchangewere of Asian origin and are unrelated to New WorldPhaseolusspecies. The Eurasian species were transferred to other genera includingVigna,ViciaandLablab, so members of thePhaseolusgenus are now all from the Americas.
Ancient Greeksused the word φάσηλος (phasēlos) to refer to the beans of Asian origins that were cultivated in Europe at the time.TheRomansused both the Latinizedphaseolusand their ownfabato refer to different pre-Columbian species of beans,presumably using the wordfaseolusfor smaller seeds like those belonging to the genusVignasuch as theblack-eyed peasand the wordfabafor larger seeds, such as thefava beans. This latter word,faba, was related to theProto-Germanicbauno, from which theOld Englishwordbeanis derived and has the meaning of "bean, pea, legume".WhenPhaseolus vulgarisarrived in Europe in the16th century, this species was yet another seed in a pod, thus there were already words in the European languages describing it.
In theAmericas,P. vulgarisis also known asayacotlinnahuatl(Azteclanguage),búulinMayan(Mayalanguage) andpurutuinQuechua(Incalanguage). In Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay, the Spanish name 'poroto' is used, being derived from its corresponding Quechua word. Additional names include theCastilian Spanishfrijol, thePortuguesefeijão, and theCatalanfesol.
WildP. vulgarisis native to the Americas. It was originally believed that it had beendomesticatedseparately inMesoamericaand in the southernAndesregion some 8,000 years ago, giving the domesticated bean twogene pools.However, recent genetic analyses show that it was domesticated in Mexico first, then split into the Mesoamerican and AndeanP. vulgarisgene pools.
Beans,squashandmaize(corn) are the three Mesoamerican crops that constitute the"Three Sisters", central toindigenous American agriculture.
The common bean arrived in Europe as part of theColumbian exchange.
Good commercial yield in favorable environments under irrigation is 6 to 8 ton/ha fresh and 1.5 to 2 ton/ha dry seed.
Archeologists found large-seeded varieties of the domesticated bean in the highlands of Peru, dating to 2300 BC, and spreading to the coastal regions by around 500 BC.Small-seeded varieties were found in sites in Mexico, dating to 300 BC, which then spread north and east of theMississippi Riverby 1000 AD.
Many well-known beancultivarsand varieties belong to this species, and the list below is in no way exhaustive. Both bush and running (pole) cultivars/varieties exist. The colors and shapes of pods and seeds vary over a wide range.
In 2022, world production of dry common beans was 28 million tonnes, led by India with 23% of the total.BrazilandMyanmarwere secondary producers.
The toxic compound phytohaemagglutinin, alectin, is present in many common bean varieties but is especially concentrated in red kidney beans. White kidney beans contain about a third as many toxins as the red variety; broad beans (Vicia faba) contain 5 to 10% as much as red kidney beans.
Phytohaemagglutinin can be inactivated by cooking beans for ten minutes atboiling point(100 °C, 212 °F). Insufficient cooking, such as in aslow cookerat 80 °C/ 176 °F, is insufficient to deactivate all toxins. To safely cook the beans, the U.S.Food and Drug Administrationrecommends boiling for 30 minutes to ensure they reach a sufficient temperature for long enough to destroy the toxin completely.For dry beans, the FDA also recommends an initial soak of at least 5 hours in water which should then be discarded.Outbreaks of poisoning have been associated with cooking kidney beans inslow cookers.
The primarysymptomsof phytohaemagglutinin poisoning are nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Onset is from one to three hours after consumption of improperly prepared beans, and symptoms typically resolve within a few hours.Consumption of as few as four or five raw, soaked kidney beans can cause symptoms.Canned red kidney beans are safe to use immediately, as they have already been cooked.
Beans are high inpurines, which are metabolized touric acid. Uric acid is not a toxin but may promote the development or exacerbation ofgout. However, more recent research has questioned this association, finding that moderate intake of purine-rich foods is not associated with an increased risk of gout.
Raw green beans are 90% water, 7%carbohydrates, 1%protein, and contain negligiblefat. In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), raw green beans supply 36calories, and are a rich source (20% or more of theDaily Value, DV) ofvitamin K(41% DV) and a moderate source (10-19% DV) ofvitamin C,vitamin B6, andmanganese.
Dry white common beans, after boiling, are 63% water, 25% carbohydrates, 10% protein, and contain little fat. In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), boiled white common beans supply 139 calories and are a rich source offolateand manganese, with moderate amounts ofthiamineand several dietaryminerals.
Dry beans will keep indefinitely if stored in a cool, dry place, but as time passes, theirnutritivevalue andflavordegrade, and cooking times lengthen. Dried beans are almost always cooked byboiling, often after being soaked in water for several hours. While the soaking is not strictly necessary, it shortens cooking time and results in more evenly textured beans. In addition, soaking beans removes 5 to 10% of the gas-producing sugars that can causeflatulencefor some people.The methods include simple overnight soaking and the power soak method, in which beans are boiled for three minutes and then set aside for 2–4 hours. Before cooking, the soaking water is drained off and discarded. Dry common beans take longer to cook than mostpulses: cooking times vary from one to four hours but are substantially reduced withpressure cooking.
In Mexico, Central America, and South America, the traditional spice used with beans isepazote, which is also said to aid digestion. In East Asia, a type of seaweed,kombu, is added to beans as they cook for the same purpose. Salt, sugar, and acidic foods such as tomatoes may harden uncooked beans, resulting in seasoned beans at the expense of slightly longer cooking times.
Dry beans may also be bought cooked andcannedasrefried beans, or whole withwater,salt, and sometimessugar.
The three commonly known types of green beans are string or snap beans, which may be round or have a flat pod; stringless or French beans, which lack a tough, fibrous string running along the length of the pod; and runner beans, which belong to a separate species,Phaseolus coccineus. Green beans may have a purple rather than green pod, which changes to green when cooked.Wax beans areP. vulgarisbeans that have a yellowor white pod. Wax bean cultivars are commonly grown;the plants are often of the bush or dwarf form.
As the name implies, snap beans break easily when the pod is bent, giving off a distinct audible snap sound. The pods of snap beans (green, yellow, and purple) are harvested when they are rapidly growing, fleshy, tender (not tough and stringy), and bright in color, and the seeds are small and underdeveloped (8 to 10 days after flowering).
Green beans and wax beans are oftensteamed, boiled,stir-fried, orbakedincasseroles.
Shell, shelled, or shelling beans are beans removed from their pods before being cooked or dried. Common beans can be used as shell beans, but the term also refers to other species of beans whose pods are not typically eaten, such aslima beans,soybeans,peas, andfava beans. Fresh shell beans are nutritionally similar to dry beans but are prepared more like vegetables, often steamed, fried, or made into soups.
Thenuñais an Andean subspecies,P. v.subsp.nunas(formerlyP. vulgarisNuñas group), with round, multicolored seeds that resemble pigeon eggs. When cooked on high heat, the bean explodes, exposing the inner part in the manner ofpopcornand otherpuffed grains.
Bean leaves have been used to trapbedbugsin houses.Microscopic hairs (trichomes) on the bean leaves entrap the insects.
Beans have been used as devices in various methods ofdivinationsince ancient times. Fortune-telling using beans is calledfavomancy.
P. vulgarishas been found to bio-accumulatezinc,manganese, andironand have some tolerance to their respective toxicities, suggesting suitability for natural bio-remediation of heavy-metal-contaminated soils.
In 1528, PopeClemente VIIreceived some white beans, which thrived. Five years later, he gave a bag of beans as a present to his niece,Catherine, on her wedding toPrince Henri of France, along with the county of theLauragais, whose county town isCastelnaudary, now synonymous with the white bean dish ofcassoulet.