Pontic Greeks

ThePontic Greeks(Pontic:Ρωμαίοι, Ρωμιοί;Turkish:Pontus RumlarıorKaradeniz Rumları;Greek:Πόντιοι,Ελληνοπόντιοι), alsoPontian Greeksor simplyPontians, are an ethnicallyGreekgroupindigenous tothe region ofPontus, in northeasternAnatolia(modern-day Turkey). They share a commonPontic Greek culturethat is distinguished by itsmusic,dances,cuisine, andclothing. Folk dances, such as theSerra(also known asPyrrhichios), and traditional musical instruments, like thePontic lyra, remain important to Pontian diaspora communities. Pontians traditionally speakPontic Greek, amodern Greek variety, that has developed remotely in the region of Pontus. Commonly known asPontiaka, it is traditionally calledRomeikaby its native speakers.
The earliestGreek coloniesin the region of Pontus begin in 700 BC, includingSinope,Trapezus, andAmisos. Greek colonies continued to expand on the coast of theBlack Sea(Euxeinos Pontos) between theArchaicandClassicalperiods. TheHellenisticKingdom of Pontuswas annexed byRomein 63 BC becomingRomanand laterByzantineterritory. During the 11th century AD, Pontus was largely isolated from the rest of the Greek–speaking world, following theSeljuk conquestof Anatolia. After the 1203siege of Constantinopleby theFourth Crusade, theEmpire of Trebizondwas established on the Black Sea coast by a branch of theKomnenosdynasty, later known as 'Grand Komnenos'. Anatolia, including Trebizond, was eventually conquered by theOttomansentirely by the 15th century AD. Greek presence in Pontus remained vibrant during theearly modern periodup until the 20th century, when, following thePontic Greek genocideand the 1923population exchangewith Turkey, Pontic Greeksmigratedprimarily toGreeceand around theCaucasus, including in the country ofGeorgia.
Today, most Pontic Greeks live inNorthern Greece, especially in and aroundThessalonikiinMacedonia. Those from southernRussia,Ukraine, andCrimeaare often referred to as "Northern Pontic [Greeks]", in contrast to those from "South Pontus", which strictly speaking is Pontus proper. Those from Georgia, northeastern Anatolia, and the former Russian Caucasus are in contemporary Greek academic circles often referred to as "Eastern Pontic [Greeks]" orCaucasian Greeks. The Turkic-speakingGreek OrthodoxUrumsare included in this latter groups as well. Aside from their predominantly Greek origin, they also likely owe a degree of their ancestry to several sources.
Pontic Greeks are an ethnicGreeksubgroup, indigenous to the region ofPontus, in northeasternAnatolia.Greeks have lived in Pontus since "the time of theArgonauts,HerodotusandXenophonand theTen Thousand".Pontic Greeks claim descent from ancient Greeks who in the 8th century BC had moved from theIoniancities located in the islands and shores of theAegean Sea, to the area of theBlack SeacalledPontus.However, as many different ethnic groups have lived in the region since ancient times and have intermarried, today's Pontic Greeks also likely owe their ancestry toancient Anatolians,other Greeks, other migrants to Pontus,andCaucasian peoples(such as Hellenized Lazs and Armenians).
Pontic Greeks are genetically similar to other groups living in the Caucasus. A genetic study of male Georgians, including Pontic Greeks in Georgia, revealed that the latter had high incidence ofhaplogroup L, which is also prevalent amongLaz people. HaplogroupG2and haplogroupJ2were also prevalent among the Pontians studied.Pontians in Georgia and Lazes are genetically similar. Armenians in Georgia and Pontians in Georgia are also genetically similar.In addition, the Pontians studied were genetically diverse, indicating genetic mixture with other groups.The region of Pontus has been diverse since at least the Middle Ages; in 1204, the Matzouka (Maçka) region alone contained Greeks, Italians, Lazes and a few Armenians.
In the 21st century, most Pontians strongly identify as Greeks.However, this has not always been the case. Before the creation of the diaspora, many Pontians did not consider themselves Greek.
An ethnicity is made up of people with ancestry or cultural background in common.Self-identification is an important part of belonging to anethnic group.Pontians have a lot in common with other Greeks; for example, they speakRomeika, a Greek language variety. Pontians also traditionally follow theGreek Orthodoxfaith, although a minority in Turkey areSunni Muslims. Pontian Greeks also share traits with other ethnic groups. Like Turks, they cookhavítz(kuymak),boortsog, andİmam bayıldı. They share other aspects of their culture with Lazes, Persians, and Armenians. They may owe some aspects of their culture toancient Anatolian peoples.
The Pontic label is relatively new. Anton Popov writes, "Anthony Bryer states that 'at the beginning of the nineteenth century a Pontic Christian might describe himself in the old way as a Douberites, Phytanos or Tsitenos first, and then as a "Roman" (Rum) Orthodox subject of the sultan; by the end of the century he was calling himself a Greek, and after he had finally left the Pontos in 1923, a Pontic Greek.'" Anton Popov studied Caucasus Greeks in former Soviet territories. Most of the Romeika speakers that Popov interviewed referred to themselves as "Romei." He also mentioned that many Caucasus Greeks only began referring to themselves as Pontians when they went to work in Greece.
During Ottoman times, most Pontian Greeks did not see themselves as "Greeks"per se. Neal Acherson, in his bookBlack Sea, writes, "Who did they think they were, in this pre-nationalist age? In the first place, they did not think of themselves as 'Greek' or as a people in some way rooted in the peninsula and islands we now call 'Greece.' Sophisticates in Trebizond might address one another in the fifteenth century as 'Hellenes,' but this was a cultural fancy rather than an ethnic description. Outsiders, whether Turks or northern Europeans, referred to them and to all the inhabitants of the Byzantine Empire as 'Rom' or 'Rum' people, or as 'Romanians' [Romans] — citizens of the Roman Empire, in other words, who were also distinguished by their Orthodox Christian faith. Struggling with these categories, a Pontic Turk whose village had once been Greek told Anthony Bryer: 'This is Roman (Rum) country; they spoke Christian here...'"This identification mirrored the identification of other non-intellectualGreeksat the time.
Greek nationalism only began to spread to the Pontos in the 1800s after the Greek nation gained independence from the Ottoman Empire. This nationalism came during a time of commercial prosperity in the Pontos. Again, Acherson writes, "The teachers and the school curricula came from Athens, bringing with them a new concept of Greekness which linked the Greek-Orthodox communities of the Black Sea and the 'nation' of Greece." He goes on to explain how the Greek government encouraged nationalist thinking: "A speaker in the Greek parliament in 1844 expounded this newly designed identity: 'The Kingdom of Greece is not Greece. It constitutes only one part, the smallest and the poorest. A Greek is not only a man who lives within the Kingdom, but also one who lives in Yoannina, Serrai, Adrianople, Constantinople, Smyrna, Trebizond, Crete and in any land associated with Greek history and the Greek race."The newly established Kingdom of Greece set up consulates in the Ottoman Empire to spread theMegali Idea. While the Anatolians recognized a shared cultural heritage, most weren't involved in an irredentist movement.
Few Pontic Greeks supported theMegali Ideaexcept for some Greek nationalists such asNikos Kapetanidis. Very few wanted an independent Pontic state, and few had ambition to join with Greece, even in the early 1900s.The reason for this is unclear.Benny MorrisandDror Ze'evigive three theories on why most Pontic Greeks distanced themselves from nationalism and separatism: poorly developed political consciousness, tradition of submissiveness to Islamic hegemony, or fears of massacres and economic harm.More generally, Greek nationalism in Asia Minor mostly appealed to "the most enlightened and liberal", to the medical, legal and literary professionals and to the rising middle class. It was opposed, however, by the "ancient [Greek] nobility, the superior clergy, the lay dignitaries of the church and the wealthy merchants".There are also some Turkish-speaking Pontic Greeks, living in the Greek region ofWestern Macedonia, specifically inMetamorfosi, Kozani.These Pontians follow the Greek Orthodox Church and profess a strong Greek identity. After the Greek-Turkish population exchange in 1923, even though the state never considered them a "national threat", many of these Pontians saw their language as a "cultural flaw" and desired to get rid of it. Historian and psychologist Stavros Iason Gavriilidis states that this was a result of the trauma they faced from theGreek genocide.
InGreek mythologythe Black Sea region is the region whereJasonand theArgonautssailed to find theGolden Fleece. TheAmazons, female warriors inGreek Mythologylived inPontus, and a minority lived inTaurica, also known asCrimea, which is also the minor unique settlement of Pontic Greeks. The warlike characteristics of Pontic Greeks were once said to have been derived from the Amazons of Pontus.
The first recordedGreek colony, established on the northern shores of ancient Anatolia, wasSinopeon the Black Sea, circa 800 BC. The settlers of Sinope were merchants from the Ionian Greek city state ofMiletus. After the colonization of the shores of the Black Sea, known until then to the Greek world asPontos Axeinos(Inhospitable Sea), the name changed toPontos Euxeinos(Hospitable Sea). In time, as the numbers of Greeks settling in the region grew significantly, more colonies were established along the whole Black Sea coastline of what is nowTurkey,Bulgaria,Georgia,Russia,Ukraine, andRomania.
The region of Trapezus (later called Trebizond, nowTrabzon) was mentioned byXenophonin his famous workAnabasis, describing how he and other10,000 Greek mercenariesfought their way to theEuxine Seaafter the failure of the rebellion ofCyrus the Youngerwhom they fought for, against his older brotherArtaxerxes II of Persia. Xenophon mentions that when at the sight of sea they shouted "Thalatta! Thalatta!" – "The sea! The sea!", the local people understood them. They were Greeks too and, according to Xenophon, they had been there for over 300 years.A whole range of trade flourished among the various Greek colonies, but also with the indigenous tribes who inhabited the Pontus inland. Soon Trebizond established a leading stature among the other colonies and the region nearby become the heart of the Pontian Greek culture and civilization. A notable inhabitant of the region wasPhiletaerus(c. 343 BC–263 BC) who was born to a Greek fatherin the small town of Tieion which was situated on the Black Sea coast of thePontus Euxinus, he founded theAttalid dynastyand the Anatolian city ofPergamonin the second century BC.
This region was organized circa 281 BC as a kingdom byMithridates I of Pontus, whose ancestry line dated back toAriobarzanes I, aPersianruler of the Greek town ofCius. The most prominent descendant of Mithridates I wasMithridates VI Eupator, who between 90 and 65 BC fought theMithridatic Wars, three bitter wars against theRoman Republic, before eventually being defeated. Mithridates VI the Great, as he was left in memory, claiming to be the protector of the Greek world against the barbarian Romans, expanded his kingdom toBithynia,CrimeaandPropontis(in present-day Ukraine and Turkey) before his downfall after theThird Mithridatic War.
Nevertheless, the kingdom survived as a Romanvassalstate, now namedBosporan Kingdomand based in Crimea, until the 4th century AD, when it succumbed to theHuns. The rest of the Pontus became part of the Roman Empire, while the mountainous interior (Chaldia) was fully incorporated into theEastern Roman Empireduring the 6th century.
Pontus was the birthplace of theKomnenos dynasty, which ruled the Byzantine Empire from 1082 to 1185, a time in whichthe empire resurgedto recover much of Anatolia from theSeljuk Turks. In the aftermath of the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of theFourth Crusadein 1204, theEmpire of Trebizondwas established byAlexios I of Trebizond, a descendant ofAlexios I Komnenos, the patriarch of theKomnenos dynasty. The Empire was ruled by this new branch of the Komenos dynasty which bore the nameMegas Komnenos Axouch(or Axouchos or Afouxechos) as early rulers intermarried with the family of Axouch, a Byzantine noble house of Turkic origin which included famed politicians such asJohn Axouch
This empire lasted for more than 250 years until it eventually fell at the hands ofMehmed IIof theOttoman Empirein 1461. However it took the Ottomans 18 more years to finally defeat the Greek resistance in Pontus. During this long period of resistance many Pontic Greeks nobles and aristocrats married foreign emperors and dynasties, most notably ofMedieval Russia,Medieval Georgia, or theSafavidPersian dynasty, and to a lesser extent theKara Koyunlurulers, in order to gain their protection and aid against the Ottoman threat. Many of the landowning and lower-class families of Pontus "turned-Turk", adopting the Turkish language and Turkish Islam but often remaining crypto-Christian before reverting to their Greek Orthodoxy in the early 19th century. The long period of Ottoman rule up until the population exchange was called theTourkokratia.
In the 1600s and 1700s, as Turkish lords calledderebeysgained more control of land along the Black Sea coast, many coastal Pontians moved to thePontic Mountains. There, they established villages such asSanta.
Between 1461 and the secondRusso-Turkish Warof 1828–29, Pontic Greeks from northeastern Anatolia migrated as refugees or economic migrants (especially miners and livestock breeders) into nearby Armenia or Georgia, where they came to form a nucleus of Pontic Greeks which increased in size with the addition of each wave of refugees and migrants until these eastern Pontic Greek communities of the South Caucasus region came to define themselves asCaucasian Greeks.
During the Ottoman period a number of Pontian Greeks converted toIslamand adopted the Turkish language. This could be willingly, for example so to avoid paying the higher rate of taxation imposed on Orthodox Christians or in order to make themselves more eligible for higher level government and regular military employment opportunities within the empire (at least in the later period following the abolition of the infamous Greek and Balkan Christian child levy or 'devshirme', on which the elite Janissary corps had in the early Ottoman period depended for its recruits). But conversion could also occur in response to pressures from central government and local Muslim militia (e.g.) following any one of the Russo-Turkish wars in which ethnic Greeks from the Ottoman Empire's northern border regions were known to have collaborated, fought alongside, and sometimes even led invading Russian forces, such as was the case in the Greek governed, semi-autonomous Romanian Principalities, Trebizond, and the area that was briefly to become part of the Russian Caucasus in the far northeast.
Large communities (around 25% of the population) ofChristianPontic Greeksremained throughout thePontusarea (includingTrabzonandKarsin northeastern Turkey/the Russian Caucasus) until the 1920s, and in parts of Georgia and Armenia until the 1990s, preserving their own customs anddialect of Greek.
Between 1913 and 1923, theOttomanleadership attempted to expel or kill its native Christian population ofAnatolia, including the Pontic Greeks. The genocide was first perpetrated by theThree Pashasand later by the rebel government underMustafa Kemal.Different scholars have made different estimates for the death toll; most estimates range from 300,000 to 360,000 Pontic Greeks killed.Some notable victims includeMatthaios KofidisandNikos Kapetanidis. Many were executed, for example during theAmasya trials;others were subject to massacres; many Pontic men were forced to work in labor camps until they died; still others were deported to the interior ondeath marches.Rape, primarily of Pontic women and girls, was prominent.
In 1923 those still remaining in Turkey were exiled to Greece as part of thepopulation exchange between Greece and Turkeydefined by theTreaty of Lausanne. In his bookBlack Sea, authorNeal Aschersonwrites:
According to the 1928 census of Greece, there were in total 240,695 Pontic Greek refugees in Greece: 11,435 from Russia, 47,091 from the Caucasus,and 182,169 from the Pontus region of Anatolia.
In Turkey, however, together withCrypto-Armenianssurfacing it has also given the Pontic community in Turkey more attention, estimates are up to 345,000
During their millennia-long presence on the Black Sea's southern coast, Pontic Greeks constructed a number of buildings, some of which still stand today. Many structures sit in ruins. Others, however, enjoy active use; one example isNakip Mosquein Trabzon, originally built as a Greek Orthodox church during the 900s or 1000s.
Ancient Greeks reached and settled the Black Sea by the 700s BC;Sinopewas perhaps the earliest colony.According to the Pontic Greek historianStrabo, Greeks from the existing colony ofMiletussettled the Pontus region.Some walls from an early fortification stand in the modern Turkish city ofSinop(renamed from Sinope).These fortificationsmay date back to early Greek colonization in the 600s BC.During late Ottoman and recent Turkish times, the fortress houseda state prison.
Between 281 BC and 62 AD, theMithridatic kingsruled the Pontos region and called it theKingdom of Pontus.While the ruling dynasty was Persian in origin, many kings had Greek ancestry, as Pontic rulers often marriedSeleucidnobility.Some of these Persian/Greek rulers were interred in theTombs of the kings of Pontus. Theirnecropolisis still visible in Amasya.
One Pontic king,Pharnaces I of Pontus, may have builtGiresun Castlein the 100s BC.There's also a chance it was built during medieval times.From the castle, the Black Sea and much ofGiresunare visible.
Many other structures date back to Greek occupation in ancient times. Ancient Greeks inhabitedGiresun, then called Kerasous, from the 5th century BC. During this time, they must also have usedGiresun Island. The poetApollonius of Rhodesmentioned this island in his best-known epic, theArgonautica. Altars on the island date to theClassicalorHellenisticperiod. Its use as a religious center continued after the rise of Christianity in the region. During Byzantine times, likely in the 400s or 500s AD, amonastic complexwas built on the island, dedicated to eitherSt Phocas of SinopeorMary. It functioned both as a religious center and as a fortress.
Many old Pontic Greek city-states remain in ruins. One isAthenae, an archaeological site near modernPazar. It sat on the Black Sea coast and housed a temple to Athena.
After Christianity spread to the Pontus region in Roman times, Pontic Greeks began constructing a number of churches, monasteries, and other religious buildings. TheVirgin Mary MonasteryinŞebinkarahisar District, Giresun Province may be one of the oldest Greek Orthodox monasteries in the region; Turkish archaeologists suspect it may date to the 2nd century. The monastery is made of carved stone and built into a cave. As of the mid-2010s, it was open for tourism.
Other religious buildings were constructed later. Three ruined monasteries lie inMaçka, Trabzon Province:Panagias Soumela Monastery,Saint George Peristereotas Monastery, andVazelon Monastery. These were built during early Byzantine times. Vazelon Monastery, for example, was built around 270 AD, and it retained great political and societal importance until its abandonment in 1922/3.While St. George Monastery (also called Kuştul Monastery)and Vazelon are abandoned, Sumela is a prominent tourist attraction.
Pontic Greeks also constructed a number of non-religious buildings duringByzantinetimes. In the 500s, for example,a castlewas built inRizeon the order ofJustinian I. It was later expanded. The old fortress still stands today, serving tourists.
Later, the Pontians built further churches and castles.Balatlar Churchis a Byzantine church dating back to 660. It lies on the Black Sea coast. Despite vandalism and natural deterioration, the church still has old frescoes, which have been of interest to modern historians. The actual structure itself may date to Roman times. It likely had different uses over the centuries, potentially being a public bath and gymnasium before its use as a church. Pottery found at the site dates to theRomanandHellenisticeras.There is also speculation that a piece of theTrue Crosswas found at Balatlar Church; however, it's more likely that the materials found were actually therelicsof a saint or other holy person.
Trabzon has at least three more late Byzantine churches that stand today.St. Anne Church, as the name suggests, was dedicated toSaint Anne, the mother ofMary. While the actual date of construction is uncertain, it was restored by the Byzantine emperors in 884 and 885.It had threeapsesand atympanumover the door. Unlike many churches in Trabzon, there is no evidence of it being converted into a mosque following Ottoman conquest in 1461.
Two other structures in Trabzon, built as churches in Byzantine orTrapezuntinetimes, are now functional mosques. TheNew Friday Mosque, for example, was originally the Hagios Eugenios Church dedicated toSaint Eugenios of Trebizond.Another isFatih Mosque. It was originally the Panagia Chrysokephalos church, a cathedral in Trabzon.The name is fitting;fatihmeans "conqueror" in both Ottoman and modern Turkish.
Another church,Trabzon's Hagia Sophia, was perhaps built byManuel I Komnenos.It was used as a mosque after Turkish conquest; the frescoes may have been covered for Muslim worship. Hagia Sophia underwent restoration work in the mid-20th century.
After European invaders sacked Constantinople in 1204,theByzantine Empirefractured. The Pontus region went into the hands of theKomnenos family, who ruled the newEmpire of Trebizond.
During the Empire of Trebizond, many new structures were built. One isKiz CastleinRize Province. The castle sits on an islet just off the Black Sea coast. According toAnthony Bryer, a BritishByzantinist, it was built in the 1200s or 1300s on the order of Trapezuntine rulers.Zilkale Castleis another fortress in Rize Province. According to the same historian, it may have been built by theEmpire of Trebizondfor localHemshinrulers.Yet another fortress, the Kov Castle inGümüşhane Province, may have been built by Trapezuntine EmperorAlexios III.
Alexios III, one of the last emperors under whom theEmpire of Trebizondflourished, builtPanagia Theoskepastos Monasteryin the 1300s. It was an all-female monastery in Trabzon.The monastery may undergo restoration work to boost tourism.
AfterMehmed the Conquerorlay siege to Trabzon in 1461, the Empire of Trebizond fell.Many church buildings became mosques around this time, while others remained in the Greek Orthodox community.
Pontic Greeks continued to live and build under Ottoman rule. For example, Pontians in Gümüşhane established the valley town of Santa (today calledDumanlı) in the 1600s. Even today, many of the stone schools, houses, and churches built by Santa's Greek Orthodox residents still stand.
They weren't divorced from Ottoman society, however; Pontic Greeks also contributed their labor to Ottoman construction projects. In 1610, Pontians built the Hacı Abdullah Wall in Giresun Province. The wall is 6.5 km (4.0 mi) long.
Trabzon remained an important center of Pontic Greek society and culture throughout Ottoman times. A scholar namedSevastos Kyminitisfounded thePhrontisterion of Trapezous, a Greek school operating in Trabzon from the late 1600s to the early 1900s. It was an important center for Greek-language education across the whole Pontus region.Some students came from outside of Trabzon to learn there (one example beingNikos Kapetanidis, who was born in Rize).
After theOttoman Reform Edict of 1856guaranteed more religious freedom and civic equality for the Ottoman Empire's Jews and Christians,new churches were constructed. One of these was the church atCape JasoninPerşembe, Ordu Province. Local Georgians and Greeks built this church in the 1800s; it remains today.Another was the small stone church inÇakrak, Giresun Province.Still another was Taşbaşı Church in Ordu, built in the 1800s; after the Greek Orthodox were expelled from Turkey, it saw some use as a prison.Many other less-notable churches remain throughout the Pontus region.
Some of the old houses once belonging to Pontic Greeks still stand. For example,Konstantinos Theofylaktos, a wealthy Greek,had a mansion built for him in Trabzon. It now functions asTrabzon Museum.
Many structures have not survived to the present day. One example of this isSaint Gregory of Nyssa Church, Trabzon, which was dynamited in the 1930s to make way for a new building.
Some of the settlements historically inhabited by Pontian Greeks include (current official names in parentheses):
Ethnic Greeks indigenous to the high plateau ofEastern Anatoliato the immediate south of the boundaries of theEmpire of Trebizond– essentially the northern portion of the former OttomanVilayet of ErzurumbetweenErzinjanandKarsprovince, that is the western half of theArmenian Highlands– are sometimes differentiated from both Pontic Greeks proper and Caucasian Greeks.These Greeks pre-date the refugees and migrants who left their homelands in thePontic Alpsand moved onto the Eastern Anatolian plateau after the fall of the Empire of Trebizond in 1461. They were mainly the descendants of Greek farmers, soldiers, state officials and traders, who settled in Erzurum province in the late Roman andByzantine Empireperiod.
Unlike the thoroughly Hellenized areas of the western and central Black Sea coast and the Pontic Alps, the Erzinjan and Erzerum regions were primarily Turkish- and Armenian-speaking, with Greeks forming only a small minority of the population.The Greeks of this region were consequently more exposed to Turkish and Armenian cultural influences than those of Pontus proper, and also more likely to have a strong command of the Turkish language, particular since the areas they inhabited had also been part of theSeljuk Sultanate of Rumand other pre-Ottoman Turkish powers in Central and Eastern Anatolia.Many are also known to have "turned Turk" in both the Seljuk and Ottoman periods, and consequently to have assimilated into Turkish society or reverted to Christian Orthodoxy in the 19th century. Erzurum province was invaded and occupied by theRussian Empireseveral times in the 19th and early 20th centuries, and large numbers of Eastern Anatolia Greeks are known to have collaborated with the Russians in these campaigns, particularly that of the 1828–29Russo-Turkish War, alongside Pontic Greeks inhabiting areas to the immediate north of Erzinjan and Erzurum.
As with Pontic Greeks proper, those Eastern Anatolia Greeks who migrated eastwards into Kars province,Georgia,ArmeniaandSouthern Russiabetween the early Ottoman period and 1829 generally assimilated into the branch of Pontic Greeks usually called Caucasian Greeks.Those who remained and retained their Greek identity into the early 20th century were either deported to theKingdom of Greeceas part of theexchange of populations between Greece and Turkeyin 1923-4 or massacred in the Greek genocide that occurred after the largerArmenian genocidein the same part of Anatolia.
The culture of Pontus has been strongly influenced by the topography of its different regions. In commercial cities likeTrebizond,Sampsounta,Kerasounta, andSinopeupper-level education and arts flourished under the protection of a cosmopolitan middle class. In the inland cities such asArgyroupolis, the economy was based uponagricultureandmining, thus creating an economic and cultural gap between the developed urban ports and the rural centers which lay upon the valleys and plains extending from the base of the Pontic alps.
Pontic's linguistic lineage stems fromIonic GreekviaKoineandByzantine Greekwith many archaisms and containsloanwordsfrom Turkish and to a lesser extent,Persianand variousCaucasian languages.
Tsalka Greeks speak a dialect of Turkish, theTsalka language.
The rich cultural activity of Pontian Greeks is witnessed by the number of educational institutions, churches, andmonasteriesin the region. These include thePhrontisterion of Trapezousthat operated from 1682/3 to 1921 and provided a major impetus for the rapid expansion of Greek education throughout the region.The building of this institution still remains the most impressive Pontic Greek monument in the city.
Another well known institution was the Argyroupolis, built in 1682 and 1722 respectively, 38 highschools in the Sinopi region, 39 highschools in the Kerasounda region, a plethora of churches and monasteries, most notable of which are the St. Eugenios andHagia Sophiachurches of Trapezeus, the monasteries of St. George and St. Ioannes Vazelonos, and arguably the most famous and highly regarded of all, the monastery ofPanagia Soumela.
During the 19th century hundreds of schools were constructed by Pontic Greek communities in theTrebizond Vilayet, giving the region one of the highest literacy rates in the Ottoman Empire. The Greeks of Caykara, who according to Ottoman tax records converted to Islam during the 17th century, were also recognized for their educational facilities. Teachers from the Of-valley provided education for thousands of Anatolian Sunni and Sufi students in home schools and smallmadrassas. Some of these schools taught Pontic Greek alongside Arabic (and to a lesser extent Persian or Ottoman Turkish as well). Although Atatürk banned these madrassas during the early republican period, some of them remained functioning until the second half of the 20th century because of their remote location.The effects of this educational heritage continue to this day, with many prominent religious figures, scientists and politicians coming from the areas influenced by the Naqshbandi Sufi orders of Pontic Greek extraction in Of, Caykara and Rize, among them presidentErdogan, whose family originates from the village of Potamia.
Pontian music retains elements of the musical traditions ofAncient Greece,Byzantium, and the Caucasus (especially from the region ofKars). Possibly there is an underlying influence from the native peoples who lived in the area before theGreeksas well, but this is not clearly established.
Musical styles, like language patterns and other cultural traits, were influenced by the topography ofPontos. The mountains and rivers of the area impeded communication between Pontian Greek communities and caused them to develop in different ways. Also significant in the shaping of Pontian music was the proximity of various non-Greek peoples on the fringes of the Pontic area. For this reason we see that musical style of the east Pontos has significant differences from that of the west or southwest Pontos. The Pontian music of Kars, for example, shows a clear influence from the music of the Caucasus and elements from other parts ofAnatolia. The music and dances of Turks from Black Sea region are very similar to Greek Pontic and some songs and melodies are common. Except for certainlamentsandballads, this music is played primarily to be danced to.
An important part of Pontic music is theAcritic songs, heroic orepic poetryset to music that emerged in the Byzantine Empire, probably in the 9th century. These songs celebrated the exploits of theAkritai, the frontier guards defending the eastern borders of the Byzantine Empire.
The most popular instrument in the Pontian musical collection is thekemenche or lyra, which is related closely with other bowed musical instruments of the medieval West, like theKit violinandRebec. Also important are other instruments such as theAngionorTulum(a type ofBagpipe), thedavul, a type of drum, theShiliavrin, and the Kaval or Ghaval (a flute-like pipe).
Thezurnaexisted in several versions which varied from region to region, with the style from Bafra sounding differently due to its bigger size. The Violin was very popular in the Bafra region and all throughout west Pontos. TheKemane, an instrument closely related to the one of Cappadocia, was highly popular in southwest Pontos and with the Pontian Greeks who lived inCappadocia. Finally worth mentioning are the Defi (a type oftambourine),Outiand in the region of Kars, theclarinetandaccordion.
Popular singers of Pontic music includeStelios Kazantzidis,Chrysanthos Theodoridis, Stathis Nikolaidis, Theodoros Pavlidis, Giannis Tsitiridis, and Pela Nikolaidou.
Pontian danceretains aspects ofPersianandGreekdance styles. The dances called Horoi/Choroi (Greek:Χοροί), singularHoros/Choros (Chorus) (Greek:Χορός), meaning literally "Dance" in both Ancient Pontian and Modern Greek languages, are circular in nature and each is characterized by distinct short steps. A unique aspect of Pontian dance is the tremoulo (Greek:Τρέμουλο), which is a fast shaking of the upper torso by a turning of the back on its axis. Like other Greek dances, they are danced in a line and the dancers form a circle. Pontian dances also resemble Persian and Middle Eastern dances because they are not led by a single dancer. The most renowned Pontian dances areTik (dance),Serra,MaheriaorPyrecheios,KotsariandOmal. Other, less common, dances includeLetsina,Dipat,Podaraki, andAtsiapat.
Pontic Greek history with organised sports began with extra-curricular activities offered by educational institutions. The students would establish athletics clubs providing the Pontic Greek youth with an opportunity to participate in organised sporting competition. The Hellenic Athletic Club,Pontus Merzifounta, founded in 1903 was one such example formed by students attendingAnatolia Collegein Merzifon nearAmasya. The college's forced closure in 1921 by the Turkish government resulted in the school's relocation to Greece in 1924, along with much of the Greek population of Asia Minor in the aftermath of genocide and a subsequent treaty that agreed upon a population exchange between Greece and Turkey. This resulted in the establishment of Pontic and Anatolian Greek sporting clubs in Greece, of which football is the sport with which they are most commonly associated. Today a number of these clubs still compete; some at a professional and intercontinental level. Such as:
Outside of Greece, due to the widespread Pontic Greek diaspora,association footballclubs also exist. In Australia, the Pontian Eagles SC are a semi-professional team based inAdelaide, South Australiaand inMunich, Germany, FC Pontos have an academy relationship with PAOK FC.
Pontic Greeks have also contributed to sporting successes internationally, not limited to but mostly representing Greece, with several team members a part of sports triumphs in major international basketball (2006 FIBA World Championship,Eurobasket 2005) and football tournaments (UEFA Euro 2004). Champion individuals of Pontic Greek origin have also emerged in World Championship andOlympiclevels of competition for athletics (Katerina Stefanidi,Voula Patoulidou), gymnastics (Ioannis Melissanidis), diving (Nikolaos Siranidis), taekwondo (Alexandros Nikolaidis) and kick-boxing (Mike Zambidis,Stan Longinidis).
On 19 May of each year, theEvzonoiof theGreek Army Presidential Guardceremonial unit wear the traditional blackPontic uniformto commemorate thePontic genocide.
Today, Pontic Greek cuisine is mostly found in thenorthern part of Greece.Culinary traditions have played an integral role in the preservation of Pontic Greek identity.Dairy products, grains, and vegetables are commonly used.Pontic cuisine specialities include:
There are many different views on Pontians in Greece. Pontians may be celebrated as representations of Greek heroism or as near-mythic warriors. However, they have also been stereotyped as simple and backwards rural people. There is a genre of Greek humor, called Pontic anecdotes, that depicts the Pontians as buffoons, while in some Greek slang the word "Pontian" may mean "idiot"; these stem from the pre-1950s reception of the Pontic refugees, and today most Pontians are amused by the anecdotes.
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