Muscat

Muscat(Arabic:مَسْقَط,romanized:Masqaṭ;pronounced[ˈmasqatˤ]) is thecapitaland most populous city inOman. It is the seat of theGovernorate of Muscat. According to theNational Centre for Statistics and Information(NCSI), the population of the Muscat Governorate in 2022 was 1.72 million.The metropolitan area includes sixprovinces, calledwilayats, and spans approximately 3,500 km(1,400 sq mi),making it the largest city by area on the Arabian Peninsula.Known since the early 1st century CE as a leading port for trade between thewestand theeast, Muscat was ruled successively by various indigenous tribes, as well as by foreign powers such as thePersians, thePortuguese Empireand theOttoman Empire. In the 18th century, Muscat was a regional military power: its influence extended as far asEast AfricaandZanzibar. As an important port town in theGulf of Oman, Muscat attracted foreign traders and settlers such as the Persians, theBalochsand theSindhis. Beginning in 1970, after the accession ofQaboos bin Saidas theSultanof Oman, Muscat experienced rapid infrastructural development; it developed a vibrant economy and became a multi-ethnic society. TheGlobalization and World Cities Research Networkclassifies Muscat as a Beta-levelGlobal City.
TheHajar Mountainsdominate the view from Muscat. The city lies on theArabian Sea, along the Gulf of Oman, near the strategically importantStraits of Hormuz. Low-lying white buildings are a typical feature of its architecture. The city'sport districtofMuttrah, with itscornicheand harbour, are at the north-eastern edge of the city. Muscat's economy is dominated by trade, petroleum, liquified natural gas and porting.
Ptolemy'sMap of Arabiaidentifies the territories ofCryptus PortusandMoscha Portus.Scholars are divided in opinion on which of the two is related to the city ofMuscat. Similarly,ArrianusreferencesOmanaandMoschainVoyage of Nearchus. Interpretations of Arrianus' work byWilliam VincentandJean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anvilleconclude thatOmanawas a reference toOman, whileMoschareferred toMuscat.Similarly, other scholars identifyPliny the Elder's reference toAmithoscutato beMuscat.
The origin of the wordMuscatis disputed. Some authors claim that the word hasArabicorigins – frommoscha, meaning aninflated hideorskin.Other authors claim that the nameMuscatmeansanchorageorthe place of "letting fall the anchor".Other derivations includemuscatfromOld Persian, meaningstrong-scented,or fromArabic, meaningfalling-place,orhidden.Cryptus Portusis synonymous with Oman ("hidden land"). But "Ov-man" (Omman), and the old Sumerian nameMagan (Maa-kan), means sea-people in Arabic. An inhabitant is aMuscatter,Muscatian,MuscatiteorMuscatan. In 1793 AD the capital was transferred fromRustaqto Muscat.
Evidence of communal activity in the area around Muscat dates back to the 6th millennium BC in Ras al-Hamra, where burial sites of fishermen have been found. The graves appear to be well formed and indicate the existence of burial rituals. South of Muscat, remnants ofHarappanpottery indicate some level of contact with theIndus Valley civilisation.Muscat's notability as a port was acknowledged as early as the 1st century AD by theGreekgeographerPtolemy, who referred to it asCryptus Portus(theHidden Port), and byPliny the Elder, who called itAmithoscuta.
The port fell to aSassanidinvasion in the 3rd century AD, under the rule ofShapur I,while conversion to Islam occurred during the 7th century. Muscat's importance as a trading port continued to grow in the centuries that followed, under the influence of theAzd dynasty, a local tribe. The establishment of the FirstImamatein the 9th century was the first step in consolidating disparate Omani tribal factions under the banner of anIbadistate. However, tribal skirmishes continued, allowing theAbbasidsofBaghdadto conquer Oman. The Abbasids occupied the region until the 11th century, when they were driven out by the local Yahmad tribe. Power over Oman shifted from the Yahmad tribe to theAzdiNabahinah clan, during whose rule, the people of coastal ports such as Muscat prospered from maritime trade and close alliances with theIndian subcontinent, at the cost of the alienation of the people of the interior of Oman. ThePortugueseadmiralAfonso de Albuquerquesailed to Muscat in 1507, in an attempt to establish trade relations. As he approached the harbour, his ships were fired on. He then decided to conquer Muscat. Most of the city burned to the ground during and after the fighting.
The Portuguese maintained a hold on Muscat for over a century, despite challenges fromPersiaand a bombardment of the town by theOttoman Turksin 1546.The Turks twice captured Muscat from the Portuguese, in theCapture of Muscat (1552)and 1581–88. The election ofNasir bin Murshid Al-Ya'rubias Imam of Oman in 1624 changed the balance of power again in the region, from the Persians and the Portuguese to local Omanis. Among the most important castles and forts in Muscat, theAl Jalali Fortand theAl-Mirani Fortare the most prominent buildings left by the Portuguese. On August 16, 1648, the Imam dispatched an army to Muscat, which captured and demolished the high towers of the Portuguese, weakening their grip over the town. Decisively, in 1650, a small but determined body of the Imam's troops attacked the port at night, forcing an eventual Portuguese surrender on January 23, 1650.A civil war and repeated incursions by the Persian kingNader Shahin the 18th century destabilised the region, and further strained relations between the interior and Muscat. This power vacuum in Oman led to the emergence of theAl Bu Sa‘id dynasty, which has ruled Oman ever since.
Muscat's naval and military supremacy was re-established in the 19th century bySaid bin Sultan, who signed a treaty with U.S. PresidentAndrew Jackson's representativeEdmund Robertson September 21, 1833.Having gained control overZanzibar, in 1840 Said moved his capital toStone Town, the ancient quarter ofZanzibar City; however, after his death in 1856, control over Zanzibar was lost when it became an independent sultanate under his sixth son,Majid bin Said(1834/5–1870), while the third son,Thuwaini bin Said, became the Sultan of Oman.
By the 19th century, a large Hindu merchant community in the port city dominated its commercial life. It is argued that their settlement at least since the fifteenth century; one of the reasons is that the Portuguese relied heavily on them to secure a trade monopoly in the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf area. TheSindhiswere amongst the first during this era, followed by theKutchis. The merchant community played an important role in expelling the Europeans in 1650. They were not affected by civil war that established theAl Bu Sa‘id dynastyand continued to prosper underAhmad bin Said al-Busaidi. Important trade existed between the city andThatta, and later,Kutch, expanding to other parts of India.
During the second half of the 19th century, the fortunes of the Al Bu Sa‘id declined and friction with the Imams of the interior resurfaced. Muscat andMuttrahwere attacked by tribes from the interior in 1895 and again in 1915.A tentative ceasefire was brokered by theBritish, which gave the interior more autonomy. However, conflicts among the disparate tribes of the interior, and with the Sultan ofMuscat and Omancontinued into the 1950s, and eventually escalated into theDhofar Rebellion(1962). The rebellion forced the SultanSaid bin Taimurto seek the assistance of the British in quelling the uprisings from the interior. The failed assassination attempt of April 26, 1966 on Said bin Taimur led to the further isolation of the Sultan, who had moved his residence from Muscat toSalalah, amidst the civilian armed conflict. On July 23, 1970,Qaboos bin Said, son of the Sultan, staged a bloodlesscoup d'étatin the Salalah palace with the assistance of the British, and took over as ruler.
With the assistance of the British, Qaboos bin Said put an end to the Dhofar uprising and consolidated disparate tribal territories. He renamed the country theSultanate of Oman(calledMuscat and Omanhitherto), in an attempt to end to the interior's isolation from Muscat. Qaboos enlisted the services of capable Omanis to fill positions in his new government,drawing from such corporations asPetroleum Development Oman. New ministries for social services such as health and education were established. The construction ofMina Qaboos, a new port conceived initially by Sa‘id bin Taimur, was developed during the early days of Qaboos' rule. Similarly, anew international airportwas developed in Muscat'sSeebdistrict. A complex of offices, warehouses, shops and homes transformed the old village ofRuwiin Muttrah into a commercial district.The first five-year development plan in 1976 emphasised infrastructural development of Muscat, which provided new opportunities for trade and tourism in the 1980s–1990s, attracting migrants from around the region. On June 6, 2007,Cyclone Gonuhit Muscat causing extensive damage to property, infrastructure and commercial activity.
Early photographs of the city and harbour, taken in the early 20th century by German explorer and photographer,Hermann Burchardt, are now held at theEthnological Museum of Berlin.
Muscat is located in northeast Oman. TheTropic of Cancerpasses south of the area. It is bordered to its west by the plains of theAl Batinah Regionand to its east byAsh Sharqiyah Region. The interior plains ofAd Dakhiliyah Regionborder Muscat to the south, while theGulf of Omanforms the northern and western periphery of the city. The water along the coast of Muscat runs deep, forming two naturalharbours, inMuttrahand Muscat. TheCentral Hajar Mountainsrun through the northern coastline of the city.
Volcanic rocks, predominantly serpentinite anddioriteare apparent in the Muscat area and extend along the Gulf of Oman coast for ten or twelve 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) from the district of Darsait to Yiti.Plutonicrocks constitute the hills and mountains of Muscat and span approximately 30 miles (48 km) from Darsait to Ras Jissah. Theseigneous rocksconsists ofserpentinite,greenstone, andbasalt, typical of rocks in southeastern regions of theArabian Peninsula. South of Muscat, the volcanic rock strata are broken up and distorted, rising to a maximum height of 6,000 feet (1,800 m) inAl-Dakhiliyah, a region which includesJebel Akhdar, the country's highest range. The hills in Muscat are mostly devoid of vegetation but are rich iniron.
Thehalophyticsabkhatype desert vegetation is predominant in Muscat.TheQurumNature Reserve contains plants such as theArthrocnemum MacrostachyumandHalopeplis Perfoliata.Coral reefsare common in Muscat.Acroporareefs exist in the sheltered bays of the satellite towns of Jussah and Khairan.Additionally, smallerPoritesreef colonies exist in Khairan, which have fused to form a flat-top pavement that is visible at low tide.Crabsandspiny crayfishare found in the waters of the Muscat area, as aresardinesandbonito.Glassfishare common in freshwaterestuaries, such as the Qurum Nature Reserve.
The Sultan Qaboos Street forms the main artery of Muscat, running west-to-east through the city. The street eventually becomes Al Nahdah Street near Al Wattayah. Several inter-city roads such as Nizwa Road and Al Amrat Road, intersect with Al Sultan Qaboos Road (in Rusail andRuwi, respectively).Muttrah, with the Muscat Harbour,Corniche, andMina Qaboos, is located in the north-eastern coastline of the city, adjacent to the Gulf of Oman. Other coastal districts of Muscat includeDarsait,Mina Al Fahal, Ras Al Hamar,Al QurumHeights, Al Khuwair, andAl Seeb. Residential and commercial districts further inland includeAl Hamriyah,Al Wadi Al Kabir,Ruwi, Al Wattayah,Madinat Qaboos, Al Azaiba andAl Ghubra.
Muscat features a hot,arid climate(Köppen climate classificationBWh) with long, sweltering summers and warm winters. Annualrainfallin Muscat is about 10 centimetres or 4 inches, falling mostly from December to April. In general, precipitation is scarce in Muscat, with the months May to November typically receiving only a trace of rainfall. However, in recent years, heavy precipitation events from tropical systems originating in the Arabian Sea have struck the city.Cyclone Gonuin June 2007 andCyclone Phetin June 2010 affected the city with damaging winds and rainfall amounts exceeding 100 millimetres or 4 inches in just a single day. The climate generally is very hot and also very humid in the summer, with temperatures sometimes reaching as high as 45 °C or 113 °F.
Muscat's economy, like that of Oman, is dominated by trade. The more traditional exports of the city includeddates,mother of pearl, and fish. Many of thesouksof Muttrah sell these items and traditionalOmaniartefacts.Petroleum Development Omanhas been central to Muscat's economy since at least 1962 and is the country's second largest employer, after the government. Its major shareholders includeShell, Total, and Partex and its production is estimated to be about 720,000 barrels per day (114,000 m/d). Muscat also has major trading companies such as the Suhail Bahwan Group, which is a trading partner for corporations such asToshiba,Subaru,Seiko,Hewlett-Packard,General Motors,RAK Ceramics; Saud Bahwan Group whose trading partners areToyota,Daihatsu, KIA andHertz Rent-a-Car; Zubair Automotive whose trading partners includeMitsubishi, andChryslerbrands such as Dodge; andMoosa AbdulRahman Hassanwhich operates as one of the oldest automotive agencies in the entire region having been established in 1927.The private Health Care sector of Muscat, Oman has numerous hospitals and clinics.
TheMuscat Securities Marketis the principal stock exchange of Oman. It is located in Central Business District of Muscat and it was established in 1988, and has since distinguished itself as a pioneer among its regional peers in terms of transparency and disclosure regulations and requirements.
Mina'a Sultan Qaboos, Muscat's main trading port, is a trading hub between thePersian Gulf, theIndian subcontinentand the Far East with an annual volume of about 1.6 million tons. However, the emergence of theJebel Ali Free Zonein neighboringDubai,United Arab Emirates, has made that port the premier maritime trading port of the region with about 44 million tons traded in cargo annually. Many infrastructural facilities are owned and operated by the government of Oman.Omantelis the major telecommunications organization in Oman and provides local, long-distance and international dialing facilities and operates as the country's onlyISP. Recent liberalization of the mobile telephone market has seen the establishment of a second provider,Ooredoo.
Muscat is home to multibillion-dollar conglomerate CK Industries with their headquarters located inRuwi.Ajmanbased Amtek Industries also have a couple of offices around the city.It is also home to Galfar Engineering,headed by P. Mohammed Ali.
The airlineOman Airhas its head office on the grounds ofMuscat International Airport.
According to the 2003censusconducted by the Oman Ministry of National Economy, the population of Muscat is over 630,000, which included 370,000 males and 260,000 females.Muscat formed the second largest governorate in the country, afterAl Batinah, accounting for 27% of the total population of Oman. As of 2003,Omanisconstituted 60% of the total population of Muscat, while expatriates accounted for about 40%.Thepopulation densityof the city was 162.1 per km.
The governorate of Muscat comprises sixwilayats:Muttrah, Bawshar,Seeb, Al Amrat, Muscat andQurayyat. Seeb, located in the western section of the governorate, was the most populous (with over 220,000 residents), while Muttrah had the highest number of expatriates (with over 100,000).Approximately 71% of the population was within the 15–64 age group, with the average Omani age being 23 years.About 10% of the population isilliterate, an improvement when compared to the 18% illiteracy rate recorded during the 1993 census. Expatriates accounted for over 60% of thelabour force, dominated by males, who accounted for 80% of the city's total labour. A majority of expatriates (34%) was in engineering-related occupations, while most Omanis worked in engineering, clerical, scientific or technical fields. Thedefensesector was the largest employer for Omanis, while construction,wholesaleandretailtrade employed the largest number of expatriates.
The ethnic makeup of Muscat has historically been influenced by people not native to the Arabian Peninsula.British Parliamentarypapers dating back to the 19th century indicate the presence of a significantHinduGujaratimerchantsin the city.Indeed, fourHindutemplesexisted in Muscat ca. 1760.Christianityflourished in Oman (Bēṯ Mazūnāyē "land of the Maganites"; a name deriving from its Sumerian designation) from the late 4th century to the 7th century. Missionary activity by theAssyriansof theChurch of the Eastresulted in a significant Christian population living in the region, with a bishop being attested by 424 AD under the Metropolitan of Fars and Arabia. The rise of Islam saw theSyriacand Arabic-speaking Christian population eventually disappear. It is thought to have been brought back in by thePortuguesein 1507.Protestantmissionariesestablished a hospital in Muscat in the 19th century.
Like the rest of Oman,Arabicis the predominant language of the city. In addition,English,Balochi,Sindhi,SwahiliandIndianlanguages such asBengali,Gujarati,Hindi,Konkani,Malayalam,Marathi,Odia,Tamil,Tulu,TeluguandUrduare spoken by the residents of Muscat.
Islamis the predominant religion in the city, with most followers beingIbadiMuslims. Non-Muslims are allowed to practise their religion, but may notproselytizepublicly or distribute religious literature. In 2017 the Sultanate of Oman unveiled theMushaf Muscat, aninteractivecalligraphicQuran following a brief from theOmani Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs.
The city has numerous mosques including theSultan Qaboos Grand Mosque, Ruwi Mosque, Saeed bin Taimoor andZawawi Mosque. A few Shi'ite mosques also exist here. Muscat has a number of museums. These includeMuseum of Omani Heritage,National Museum of Oman,Oman Children's Museum,Bait Al Zubair,Oman Oil and Gas Exhibition Centre,Omani French Museum,Sultan's Armed Forces Museumand theOmani Aquarium and Marine Science and Fisheries Centre.The Bait Al Falaj Fort played an important role in Muscat's military history.
Recent projects include anopera housewhich opened on October 14, 2011. One of the most notable new projects is the Oman National Museum. It is expected to be an architectural jewel along with theSultan Qaboos Grand Mosque. Visitors are also encouragedto visitOld Muscatand the Old Palace. The main shopping district is situated inAl QurumCommercial Area. However, shopping malls are found throughout the city. One of the largest malls in Oman isOman Avenues Mall, located in Ghubra. The fourth largest mall is inSeeb, near the international airport, calledCity Centre Muscat, housing all major international brands and the largestCarrefourhypermarket. Two new megamalls opened during 2019 and 2020: in the Mabela area of Muscat are Al Araimi Boulevard and Mall of Muscat.The Mall of Muscat is also home to the Oman Aquarium.Mall Of Oman, the largest shopping mall in Oman was opened in Summer 2021 housing over 100+ stores includingSnow Oman,Vox Cinemas, an arcade (Magic Planet) and various food chains.
Sultan Qaboos Port serves as one of the most important ports ofMuscat Governorate, which is well known for being sailing of many commercial ships and boats. Here also, the traditional boats of Arabian Peninsula namedDhowscan be also seen. This port since many centuries have been a main commercial and financial centre in terms of its international maritime trade.
The mainairportisMuscat International Airport(formerly known as Seeb International Airport) around 25 km (16 mi) from the city's business district of Ruwi and 15 to 20 km from the main residential localities of Al-Khuwair, Madinat Al Sultan Qaboos, Shati Al-Qurm and Al-Qurm. Muscat is the headquarters for the localOman Air, which flies to several destinations within theMiddle East, the Indian Subcontinent, East Africa and Europe.
The Muscat area is well serviced by paved roads anddual-carriagewayconnects most major cities and towns in the country.
Since November 2015, Public transportation in Muscat has been revamped with a bus network connecting most important parts of the city with a fleet of modern Mwasalat (earlier Oman National Transport Company buses. 
Mwasalat buses procured from VDL of the Netherlands and MAN of Germany have several hi-tech features, including free Wi-Fi.
Several forms of public transport are popular in Oman. Most popular are the "Baiza" buses, so named for the lower denomination of theOmani rial, the baiza (an adaptation of theIndianlower denominationpaisa). These are relatively inexpensive and service all major roadways, as well as a wide and loose network of smaller byways in the greater Muscat metropolitan area, opportunistically dropping off and picking up passengers at any location. Less popular and slightly more expensive are large public buses, coloured red and green, whose service is limited to major roadways and point-to-point travel routes between Oman's major cities and towns. Taxis, also colour-coded orange and white, provide semi-personal transportation in the form of both individual hire and the same opportunistic roadway service as Baiza buses.
Baiza buses and colour-coded orange-and-white taxis are unmetered, after several government initiatives to introduce meters were rejected. The fare is set by way ofnegotiation, although taxi drivers usually adhere to certain unwritten rules for fares within the city. In many countries, one is advised to negotiate a fare with the driver before getting into a taxi. However, in Oman, asking for the fare beforehand often demonstrates a passenger's newness and unfamiliarity with the area. One should always find out the normally accepted fare for one's journey from one's hotel or host before looking for a taxi. Taxis also generally take passengers to locations out of the city, includingSohar,BuraimiandDubai.
Outwardly, Oman shares many of the cultural characteristics of its Arab neighbours, particularly those in theGulf Cooperation Council.Despite these similarities, important factors make Oman unique in the Middle East.These result as much from geography and history as from culture and economics.The relatively recent and artificial nature of thestateof Oman makes it difficult to describe a national culture;however, sufficient cultural heterogeneity exists within its national boundaries to make Oman distinct from other Arab States of the Persian Gulf.Oman's cultural diversity is greater than that of its Arab neighbours, given its historical expansion to the Swahili Coast and the Indian Ocean.
Oman has a long tradition of shipbuilding, as maritime travel played a major role in the Omanis' ability to stay in contact with the civilisations of the ancient world.Surwas one of the most famous shipbuilding cities of the Indian Ocean. The Al Ghanja ship takes one whole year to build. Other types of Omani ship include As Sunbouq and Al Badan.
In March 2016, archaeologists working off Al-Hallaniyah Island identified a shipwreck believed to be that of theEsmeraldafromVasco da Gama's 1502–1503 fleet. The wreck was initially discovered in 1998. Later underwater excavations took place between 2013 and 2015 through a partnership between the Oman Ministry of Heritage and Culture andBlue Water RecoveriesLtd., a shipwreck recovery company. The vessel was identified through such artifacts as a "Portuguese coin minted for trade with India (one of only two coins of this type known to exist) and stone cannonballs engraved with what appear to be the initials of Vincente Sodré, da Gama's maternal uncle and the commander of theEsmeralda".