Cajuns

TheCajuns(/ˈkeɪdʒənz/;French:les Cadjins[lekadʒɛ̃]orles Cadiens[lekadjɛ̃]), also known as LouisianaAcadians(French:les Acadiens),are aLouisiana Frenchethnicitymainly found in theUS stateofLouisianaand surroundingGulf Coaststates.
While Cajuns are usually described as the descendants of theAcadianexiles who went to Louisiana over the course ofLe Grand Dérangement, Louisianians frequently useCajunas a broad cultural term (particularly when referencingAcadiana) without necessitating race or descent from the deported Acadians. Although the termsCajunandCreoletoday are often portrayed as separate identities, Louisianians of Acadian descent have historically been known as, and are, a subset ofCreoles(synonymous for "Louisianais", which is a demonym forFrench Louisianians).Cajuns make up a significant portion of south Louisiana's population and have had an enormous impact on the state's culture.
WhileLower Louisianahad been settled by French colonists since the late 17th century, many Cajuns trace their roots to the influx of Acadian settlers after the Great Expulsion from their homeland during the French and British hostilities prior to theFrench and Indian War(1756 to 1763). The Acadia region to which many modern Cajuns trace their origin consisted largely of what are nowNova Scotia,New Brunswick,Prince Edward Islandplus parts of easternQuebecand northernMaine.
Since their establishment in Louisiana, the Cajuns have become famous for their French dialect,Louisiana French, and have developed a rich culture includingfolkways,music, andcuisine.Acadianais heavily associated with them.
The term "Cajun" comes from a rural pronunciation ofAcadien(Acadian).
The first usage of the term "Cajun" came about during theAmerican Civil War, during theUnion's invasion ofFrench Louisiana.
After conqueringVermilionville, the capital ofNouvelle Acadie(New Acadia) in 1863, Lieutenant George C. Harding of the21st Indiana Infantryused the term "Cajun" to describe the region's inhabitants:
A correspondent for theNew York Heraldreported: "Our forces captured some prisoners. Many deserters and refugees came within our lines. Therebeldeserters are principallyFrench Creoles, orArcadians..."
War correspondent Theophilus Noel reported for his newspaper: "You must not use the wordCagin, implying thereby that there is any nigger blood in the party to whom you are talking."
After the Civil War, urban Creoles began referring to thepeasantclass (petits habitants) as "Cajuns". Cajuns inhabited the "Cajun Countries" ofAlabama,Mississippi, andLouisiana.
At the same time, "Creole" increasingly referred to Creoles of the middle class (bourgeoisie) or aristocratic class (grands habitants), and served as a designation for inhabitants of the "Creole Cities":Mobile, AlabamaandNew Orleans, Louisiana.
Carl Brasseaux notes inAcadian to Cajun, Transformation of a People, that:
Cajans inhabited a region of Alabama called theCajan Country, which was all of the bayou country surrounding Mobile. To the north, the Cajan Country reached the hills ofMount VernonandCitronelle, and to the east, it reached through the bayous and forests aroundDaphneto thePerdido River.
Cajans were of varying racial mixtures; during thesegregation era, some Cajans under Alabama's new racial laws were considered black, others were considered white, and others yet designated as Indians. Cajans were discriminated against due to their racial ambiguity, and many did not have access to public schools. Cajans tended to stay among their own communities.
After the Americanization of Acadiana between the 1950s and 1970s, the term "Cajun" became synonymous with "white French Louisianian", due in part toCODOFIL'sdecision to promote Louisiana's link to Acadia in the "Cajun Renaissance".
It is common to see various demographic differences assigned to the Cajun/Creole binary. A typical example is cuisine: Many claim that "Cajun" gumbo does not include tomatoes whereas "Creole" gumbo does, but this distinction is better viewed as geographic rather than ethnic. Residents ofAcadiana—a historically isolated and rural region—do not typically make gumbo with tomatoes, regardless of ancestry or self-proclaimed identity, whereas urban New Orleanians do. Technically, "Cajun" cuisine should properly fit under the umbrella of "Creole" cuisine, much like "Cajuns" themselves traditionally fit under the "Creole" umbrella.
In contrast to the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, today's Cajuns and Creoles are often presented as distinct groups, and some Cajuns disavow a Creole identity whereas others embrace it. Surnames and geographic location are not necessarily markers of either identity.
The Cajuns retain a unique dialect of theFrench languagecalledLouisiana French(or more commonly known as Cajun French), and hold numerous other cultural traits that distinguish them as an ethnic group. Cajuns were officially recognized by the US government as a national ethnic group in 1980 per a discrimination lawsuit filed in federal district court. Presided over by Judge Edwin Hunter, the case, known asRoach v. Dresser Industries Valve and Instrument Division(494 F.Supp. 215, D.C. La., 1980), hinged on the issue of the Cajuns' ethnicity:
The Britishconquest of Acadiahappened in 1710. Over the next 45 years, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance tothe Crown. During this period, Acadians participated in various military operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French fortress ofLouisbourgandFort Beausejour.During theFrench and Indian War(part of the Seven Years' War and known by that name in Canada and Europe), the British sought to neutralize the Acadian military threat and to interrupt their vital supply lines to Louisbourg bydeporting Acadiansfrom Acadia.The territory ofAcadiawas afterward divided and apportioned to various British colonies, now Canadian provinces:Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,Prince Edward Island, theGaspe Peninsulain the province ofQuebec. The deportation of the Acadians from these areas beginning in 1755 has become known as theGreat UpheavalorLe Grand Dérangement.
The Acadians' migration from Canada was spurred by the1763 Treaty of Pariswhich ended the war. The treaty terms provided 18 months for unrestrained emigration.  Many Acadians moved to the region of theAtakapain present-day Louisiana, often travelling via the French colony ofSaint-Domingue(nowHaiti).Joseph Broussardled the first group of 200 Acadians to arrive in Louisiana on February 27, 1765, aboard theSanto Domingo.On April 8, 1765, he was appointed militia captain and commander of the "Acadians of the Atakapas" region inSt. Martinville.Some of the settlers wrote to their family scattered around the Atlantic to encourage them to join them at New Orleans. For example, Jean-Baptiste Semer wrote to his father in France:
The Acadians were scattered throughout the eastern seaboard. Families were split and boarded ships with different destinations.Many ended up west of theMississippi Riverin what was thenFrench-colonizedLouisiana, including territory as far north asDakota territory. France had ceded the colony toSpain in 1762, prior to their defeat by Britain and two years before the first Acadians began settling in Louisiana.  The interim French officials provided land and supplies to the new settlers. The Spanishgovernor,Bernardo de Gálvez, later proved to be hospitable, permitting the Acadians to continue to speak their language, practice their native religion (Roman Catholicism– which was also the official religion of Spain), and otherwise pursue their livelihoods with minimal interference. Some families and individuals did travel north through the Louisiana territory to set up homes as far north asWisconsin.  Acadians fought in theAmerican Revolution. Although they fought for Spanish General Galvez, their contribution to the winning of the war has been recognized.
Galvez left New Orleans with an army of Spanish regulars and the Louisiana militia made up of 600 Acadian volunteers and captured the British strongholds ofFort ButeatBayou Manchac, across from the Acadian settlement at St. Gabriel. On September 7, 1779, Galvezattacked Fort Buteand then on September 21, 1779, attacked andcaptured Baton Rouge.
A review of participating soldiers shows many common Acadian names among those who fought in the battles of Baton Rouge and West Florida. The Galvez Chapter of theDaughters of the American Revolutionwas formed in memory of those soldiers.
The Spanish colonial government settled the earliest group of Acadian exiles west of New Orleans, in what is now south-central Louisiana—an area known at the time as Attakapas, and later the center of theAcadianaregion.  As Brasseaux wrote, "The oldest of the pioneer communities ... Fausse Point, was established near present-dayLoreauvilleby late June 1765."The Acadians shared the swamps, bayous, and prairies with theAttakapaandChitimachaNative American tribes.
After theendof theAmerican Revolutionary War, about 1,500 more Acadians arrived in New Orleans. About 3,000 Acadians had been deported to France during the Great Upheaval.  In 1785, about 1,500 were authorized to emigrate to Louisiana, often to be reunited with their families, or because they could not settle in France.Living in a relatively isolated region until the early 20th century, Cajuns today are largely assimilated into the mainstream society and culture.  Some Cajuns live in communities outside Louisiana.  Also, some people identify themselves as Cajun culturally despite lacking Acadian ancestry.
In the modern era it is common to see Cajuns andCreolesdiscussed as separate and distinct groups; historically speaking, this was not necessarily the case. Many historical accounts exist wherein persons with Acadian surnames (and of various races) either self-identify or are described by others as Creoles.
In Louisiana, the French wordCréole(itself borrowed from Spanish and Portuguese) meant "born in the New World" (compare with SpanishCriollo). This label was meant to distinguish the native-born population from newly arrived European immigrants and from slaves imported from Africa. Likewise, after theSale of Louisiana, the term "Creole" distinguished people of Catholic, Latin backgrounds from newly arrived Americans and other Protestant anglophones.
In general,Créolitéin Louisiana was largely defined by whether that person was born in Louisiana, spoke a Latin-based language (often French, Spanish orCreole) and practiced Catholicism. Having been born on Louisianian soil and maintaining a Catholic francophone identity, the Acadian descendants were indeed and often considered to be Creoles.
Documents from the late eighteenth century, such as militia rolls, make a distinction between "Acadians" (those born before or duringLe Grand Dérangement) and "Creoles" (those born afterLe Grand Dérangement), often the children of the former group, with identical surnames and belonging to the same families.Today, members of these families—including, among many others, those with surnames such as Broussard, Hébert, and Thibodeaux—usually consider these names Cajun rather than Creole.
Sources from the 19th century sometimes make specific references to "Acadian Creoles" in particular—a term entirely absent from contemporary Louisiana. One article in vol. 56 ofThe Youth's Companionnotes that, "The Acadian Creoles of Louisiana are a humane and charitable race—simple-minded and full of queer, superstitious notions, but an orphan thrown upon their care never suffers."The Mouton family, an influential Acadian family of the period, provides an excellent case study in this regard, with secessionistAlexandre Moutonretaining the famous nickname of "the Creole Hotspur."His son, the Confederate GeneralAlfred Mouton, is also noted in contemporary sources as "a brave and intrepid Creole".Today, by contrast, members of the Mouton family are referred to as "Acadians" or "Cajuns" more often than as "Creoles".
In 1885, theNew Iberia Enterprise(taken from a section of advice for American editors) wrote: "Although all men born here, of whatever color and using whatever language, are Americans, it is the custom to designate the descendants of the old French, Spanish, and Acadian settlers of the country and using as a rule the French language, Creoles, and all using the English tongue, Americans."
In hisRefutation des érreurs de M. George W. Cable sur le sujet des Créoles, published in L'Athénée Louisianais, the francophone Creole John L. Peytavin accused the writerGeorge Washington Cableof fundamentally misrepresenting Creoles to the American public. (Cable, who was not a Creole and did not speak French, had written that Cajuns of Acadian descent were not themselves Creoles.) Peytavin declared: "The Acadian Creoles have the same right to be called Creoles as others of foreign descent."
Not all Cajuns descend solely from Acadian exiles who settled in south Louisiana in the 18th century. Cajuns include people with Irish and Spanish ancestry, and to a lesser extent of Germans and Italians; Many also haveNative American,AfricanandAfro-Latin Creoleadmixture. Historian Carl A. Brasseaux asserted that this process of mixing created the Cajuns in the first place.
Non-AcadianFrench Creolesin rural areas were absorbed into Cajun communities. Some Cajun parishes, such asEvangelineandAvoyelles, possess relatively few inhabitants of actual Acadian origin. Their populations descend in many cases from settlers who migrated to the region fromQuebec,Mobile, or directly from France (French emigration). Regardless, Acadian influences are generally acknowledged to have prevailed in most sections of south Louisiana.
Many Cajuns have ancestors who were not French. Some of the original settlers in Louisiana wereSpanish Basquesand SpanishCanary Islanders. A later migration included Irish and German immigrants who began to settle in Louisiana before and after theLouisiana Purchase, particularly on theGerman Coastalong theMississippi Rivernorth ofNew Orleans.  People ofLatin Americanorigin; a number of earlyFilipinosettlers (notably inSaint Malo, Louisiana) who were known as "Manilamen" from the annual cross-PacificGalleonorManila Galleontrade with neighboringAcapulco, Mexico; descendants of African slaves; and someCuban Americanshave also settled along theGulf Coast, and in some cases, intermarried into Cajun families.
One obvious result of this cultural mixture is the variety of surnames common among the Cajun population. Surnames of the original Acadian settlers (which are documented) have been augmented by French and non-French family names that have become part of Cajun communities. The spelling of many family names has changed over time. (See, for example,Eaux).
Cajuns as an ethnic group historically included Indians and Blacks.Black Louisiana Frenchmen have historically self-identified as Cajun, using the term in regards to the ethnicity of Acadiana and the language they speak:Amédé Ardoinfor example spoke onlyCajun Frenchand at his height was known as the first Black Cajun recording artist;Clifton Chenierthe King ofZydeco, routinely self-identified as a Black Cajun:
People of Acadiana have historically described what the Cajun nationality means to them; Brandon Moreau, a Cajun ofBasile, Louisiana, described Cajun as an "inclusive term designating region, descent, or heritage – not race."Moreau also described an incident of where he used the termcoonasswith a good friend of his: "We were all talking in the hall, and I said I was a coonass. She said she was Cajun, but that she would never be a coonass. She's black and it offended her."
Cajun culture due to its mixed Latin-Creole nature had fostered more laissez-faire attitudes between blacks and whites in Acadiana more than anywhere else in the South.Roman Catholicismactively preached tolerance and condemned racism and all hate crimes; theRoman Churchthreatened toexcommunicateany of its members who would dare to break its laws.
Anglo-Americansopenly discriminated against Cajuns because they were Catholics, had a Latin Culture, and spokeCajun French.White Cajuns and White Creoles accepted advances in racial equality, and they had compassion for Black Cajuns, Black Creoles, andAfrican Americans.In the 1950s, twice as many blacks in Louisiana's French-Catholic parishes registered to vote compared to blacks in the Anglo-Protestant parishes.
When the United States of America began assimilating and Americanizing the parishes of Acadiana between the 1950s and 1970s, they imposed segregation and reorganized the inhabitants of the Cajun Country to identify racially as either "white" Cajuns or "black" Creoles.As the younger generations were made to abandon speaking French and French customs, the White or Indian Cajuns assimilated into theAnglo-Americanhost culture, and the Black Cajuns assimilated into theAfrican Americanculture.
Cajuns looked to thecivil rights movementand other Black liberation and empowerment movements as a guide to fostering Louisiana's French cultural renaissance. A Cajun student protester in 1968 declared "We're slaves to a system. Throw away the shackles... and be free with your brother."
During the early part of the 20th century, attempts were made to suppress Cajun culture by measures such as forbidding the use of the Cajun French language in schools. After the Compulsory Education Act forced Cajun children to attend formal schools, American teachers threatened, punished, and sometimes beat their Cajun students in an attempt to force them to use English (a language to which many of them had not been exposed before). DuringWorld War II, Cajuns often served as French interpreters for American forces in France; this helped to overcome prejudice.
In 1968, the organization ofCouncil for the Development of French in Louisianawas founded to preserve the French language in Louisiana. Besides advocating for their legal rights, Cajuns also recovered ethnic pride and appreciation for their ancestry. Since the mid-1950s, relations between the Cajuns of the USGulf Coastand Acadians in theMaritimesandNew Englandhave been renewed, forming an Acadian identity common to Louisiana, New England, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia.
State SenatorDudley LeBlanc("Coozan Dud", a Cajun slang nickname for "Cousin Dudley") took a group of Cajuns to Nova Scotia in 1955 for the commemoration of the 200th anniversary of the expulsion. TheCongrès Mondial Acadien, a large gathering of Acadians and Cajuns held every five years since 1994, is another example of continued unity.
Sociologists Jacques Henry and Carl L. Bankston III have maintained that the preservation of Cajun ethnic identity is a result of the social class of Cajuns. During the 18th and 19th centuries, "Cajuns" came to be identified as the French-speaking rural people of Southwestern Louisiana. Over the course of the 20th century, the descendants of these rural people became the working class of their region. This change in the social and economic circumstances of families in Southwestern Louisiana created nostalgia for an idealized version of the past. Henry and Bankston point out that "Cajun", which was formerly considered an insulting term, became a term of pride among Louisianans by the beginning of the 21st century.It is common for persons living in the historically Cajun area of Louisiana to self-identify as Cajuns even when they have limited or no Cajun ancestry.
Perhaps the greatest proponent and catalyst for reclaiming Cajun and French history of Louisiana is four-term former Louisiana GovernorEdwin Edwards. Selected to serve as honorary chair of the Eighteenth Century Louisiana panel of the 2014 academic Enlightenment Conference in Montréal,the former Governor in a video addresssaid"One of the legacies of which I am most proud is Louisiana's 1974 Constitution and its provision that the 'right of the people to preserve, foster, and promote their respective historic linguistic and cultural origins is recognized'."
As the late LSU Law Center professor Lee Hargrave wrote, in reference to the protection of cultural heritage, "Proponents of the section were primarily Francophones concerned with the protection of the French Acadian culture. Representatives of the Council for the Development of French in Louisiana appeared before the committee several times to urge some recognition of cultural rights, and delegates from Lafayette and Lake Charles worked strongly for the proposal."
Montréal panelist and New Orleans Créole historian Jari Honora explained that Edwards "is a perfect commentator for this panel given his advocacy for Louisiana's Francophone cultural communities during his four terms as governor. After several decades of 'Americanization' and suppression of French language and culture in Louisiana, Governor Edwards' conscious self-identification as an Acadian descendant marked a high-point for the Cajun/Creole cultural renaissance in this state."
Geography had a strong correlation to Cajun lifestyles. Most Cajuns resided in Acadiana, where their descendants are still predominant. Cajun populations today are found also in the area southwest of New Orleans and scattered in areas adjacent to theFrench Louisianaregion, such as to the north inAlexandria, Louisiana. Strong Cajun roots, influence, and culture can also be found in parts of Southern Mississippi. These areas includeBay St. Louis,Pass Christian, Gulfport, Gautier, Natchez, D'Iberville, and Biloxi, Mississippi. Over the years, many Cajuns and Creoles also migrated to theHouston,Beaumont and Port Arthur areasofSoutheast Texas, in especially large numbers as they followed oil-related jobs in the 1970s and 1980s, when oil companies moved jobs from Louisiana to Texas. Many Cajuns andCreoles of coloralso moved toSouthern California. However, the city ofLafayetteis referred to as "The Heart of Acadiana" because of its location, and it is a major center of Cajun culture.  Despite the migration and influence in other states, cities outside of Louisiana, including these Texas cities, are not considered a part of Acadiana and are not considered a part of "Cajun Country."
Cajun music is evolved from its roots in the music of the French-speaking Catholics of Canada. In earlier years, thefiddlewas the predominant instrument, but gradually theaccordionhas come to share the limelight. Cajun music gained national attention in 2007, when theGrammy Award for Best Zydeco or Cajun Music Albumcategory was created.
Due toLe Grand Dérangement, many Acadians were invited to settle in Louisiana by the Spanish Governor Galvez.Unfamiliar with the terrain, they assimilated Creole and Native American influences into their Acadian traditions.Cajun cuisine focused on local ingredients and wild game (e.g., duck, rabbit), vegetables (e.g.,okra,mirlitons), and grains. Coastal communities relied heavily on fish and shellfish. Seafood, especially shellfish, is still very popular in the region and remains a dominant feature of many classic Cajun dishes like seafoodgumboandcourt-bouillon.
Since many Cajuns were farmers and not especially wealthy, they were known for not wasting any part of a butchered animal. Many rural communities held a weeklyboucherie, which is a communal butchering of an animal, often a pig. Each family received a share of the meat. 
Some high-profile foods likegrattonsandboudinare examples of Cajun cuisine that are widely popular.
Louisiana French is avarietyordialectof the French language spoken primarily in Louisiana. At one time as many as seven dialects were spread across the Cajun heartland.
While Cajuns are often said to speak "Cajun French," this term is increasingly seen as a misnomer because the dialect did not originate with the Acadians, and Acadian-descended people are not the only ones to speak it. Recent linguistic scholarship has also cast doubt on how much Acadian influence is present in Louisianian dialects today, and the influences that do exist are sometimes regional rather than widespread.For these reasons, the term "Louisiana French" is increasingly preferred.
Recent documentation has been made ofCajun English, an oftennon-rhoticFrench-influenced dialect of English spoken by Cajuns, either as a second language, in the case of the older members of the community, or as a first language by younger Cajuns.
"Our Lady of the Assumption" is Patroness of the Acadians (Cajuns).  In 1638, the colonies of France, to include Acadie, and France were consecrated by the Pope and the King to Mary under the aforementioned title; the date of consecration was August 15 which is the Solemnity of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary and is a Holy Day of Obligation for Roman Catholics (Source 4).
Traditional Catholic religious observances such asMardi Gras,Lent, andHoly Weekare integral to many Cajun communities. Likewise, these traditional Catholic religious observances may further be understood fromCultural Catholicism in Cajun-Creole Louisianaby Marcia Gaudetwhich tells that such traditional religious observances, although they may not be "strictly theological and liturgical forms", are still integral and necessary to many and remain religiously valid as "unofficial religious customs and traditions are certainly a part of Roman Catholicism as it is practiced".
Mardi Gras(French for "Fat Tuesday", also known asShrove Tuesday) is the day beforeAsh Wednesday, which marks the beginning ofLent, a 40-day period of fasting and reflection in preparation forEaster Sunday. Mardi Gras was historically a time to use up the foods that were not to be used during Lent, including fat, eggs, and meat.
Mardi Gras celebrations in rural Acadiana are distinct from the more widely known celebrations inNew Orleansand other metropolitan areas. A distinct feature of the Cajun celebration centers on theCourir de Mardi Gras(translated: fat Tuesday run).A group of men, usually on horseback and wearingcapuchons(a cone-shaped ceremonial hat) and traditional costumes, approach a farmhouse and ask for something for the community gumbo pot. Often, the farmer or his wife allows the riders to have a chicken, if they can catch it. The group then puts on a show, comically attempting to catch the chicken set out in a large open area. Songs are sung, jokes are told, and skits are acted out. When the chicken is caught, it is added to the pot at the end of the day.Thecourirheld in the small town ofMamouandChurch Pointhas become well known. This tradition has much in common with the observance ofLa Chandeleur, orCandlemas(February 2), by Acadians inNova Scotia.
OnPâques(French for Easter), a game calledpâquer, orpâque-pâquewas played. Contestants selected hard-boiled eggs, paired off, and tapped the eggs together – the player whose egg did not crack was declared the winner. This is an old European tradition that has survived in Acadia until today. Today, Easter is still celebrated by Cajuns with the traditional game ofpaque, but is now also celebrated in the same fashion as Christians throughout the United States with candy-filled baskets, "Easter bunny" stories,dyed eggs, and Easter egg hunts.
One folk custom is belief in atraiteur, or healer, whose primary method of treatment involves the laying on of hands and of prayers. An important part of this folk religion, thetraiteurcombines Catholic prayer and medicinal remedies to treat a variety of ailments, including earaches, toothaches, warts, tumors, angina, and bleeding. Another is in therougarou, a version of aloup garou(French forwerewolf), that will hunt down and kill Catholics who do not follow the rules of Lent. In some communities, theloup garouof legend has taken on an almost protective role. Children are warned thatloups garouscan read souls, and that they only hunt and kill evil men and women and misbehaved horses. The folkloric creatureleticheis said to be the soul of an unbaptized infantor child raised by alligatorsthat haunts the bayous.
Cajuns, along with otherCajun Countryresidents, have a reputation for ajoie de vivre(French for "joy of living"), in which hard work is appreciated as much as "let the good times roll /laissez les bon temps rouler".
In the culture, acoup de main(French for "to give a hand") is an occasion when the community gathers to assist one of their members with time-consuming or arduous tasks. Examples might include abarn raising,harvests, or assistance for the elderly or sick.
The majority of Cajun festivals include afais do-do("go to sleep" in French, originating from encouraging children to fall asleep in the rafters of the dance hall as the parents danced late into the night) or street dance, usually to a live local band. Crowds at these festivals can range from a few hundred to more than 100,000.