History of Southeast Asia

Thehistory of Southeast Asiacovers the people ofSoutheast Asiafromprehistoryto the present in two distinct sub-regions:Mainland Southeast Asia(or Indochina) andMaritime Southeast Asia(or Insular Southeast Asia). Mainland Southeast Asia comprisesCambodia,Laos,Myanmar(or Burma),Peninsular Malaysia,ThailandandVietnamwhereas Maritime Southeast Asia comprisesBrunei,Cocos (Keeling) Islands,Christmas Island,East Malaysia,East Timor,Indonesia,PhilippinesandSingapore.
The earliestHomo sapienspresence in Mainland Southeast Asia can be traced back to 70,000 years ago and to at least 50,000 years ago in Maritime Southeast Asia. Since 25,000 years ago, East Asian-related (Basal East Asian) groups expanded southwards into Maritime Southeast Asia from Mainland Southeast Asia.As early as 10,000 years ago,Hoabinhiansettlers from Mainland Southeast Asia had developed a tradition and culture of distinct artefact and tool production. During theNeolithic,Austroasiaticpeoples populated Indochina via land routes, and sea-borneAustronesianimmigrants preferably settled in Maritime Southeast Asia. The earliest agricultural societies that cultivatedmilletandwet-riceemerged around 1700 BCE in the lowlands and river floodplains of Indochina.
ThePhung Nguyen culture(modern northern Vietnam) and theBan Chiangsite (modern Thailand) account for the earliest use of copper by around 2,000 BCE, followed by theDong Son culture, which by around 500 BCE had developed a highly sophisticated industry ofbronzeproduction and processing. Around the same time, the first Agrarian Kingdoms emerged where territory was abundant and favourable, such asFunanat the lowerMekongandVan Langin theRed River Delta.Smaller and insular principalities increasingly engaged in and contributed to the rapidly expanding sea trade.
The wide topographical diversity of Southeast Asia has greatly influenced its history. For instance, Mainland Southeast Asia with its continuous but rugged and difficult terrain provided the basis for the earlyCham,Khmer, andMoncivilizations. The sub-region's extensive coastline and major river systems of theIrrawaddy,Salween,Chao Phraya, Mekong andRed Riverhave directed socio-cultural and economic activities towards theIndian OceanandSouth China Sea.
In Maritime Southeast Asia, apart from exceptions such asBorneoandSumatra, the patchwork of recurring land-sea patterns on widely dispersed islands and archipelagos admitted moderately sizedthalassocraticstates indifferent to territorial ambitions, where growth and prosperity were associated with sea trade.Since around 100 BCE, Maritime Southeast Asia has occupied a central position at the crossroads of theIndian Oceanand theSouth China Seatrading routes, immensely stimulating its economy and influencing its culture and society. Most local trading polities selectively adoptedIndianHinduelements of statecraft, religion, culture and administration during the early centuries of thecommon era, which marked the beginning of recorded history in the area and the continuation of a characteristic cultural development. Chinese culture diffused into the region more indirectly and sporadically, as trade was mostly based on land routes like theSilk Road. Long periods of Chinese isolationism and political relations that were confined to ritualistic tribute procedures prevented deepacculturation.
Buddhism, particularly in Indochina, began to affect political structures beginning in the 8th to 9th centuries CE.Islamicideas arrived in insular Southeast Asia as early as the 8th century, and the first Muslim societies in the area emerged by the 13th century.The era of Europeancolonialism,early Modernityand theCold Warera revealed the reality of limited political significance for the various Southeast Asian polities.Post-World War IInational survival and progress required a modern state and a strong national identity.Most modern Southeast Asian countries enjoy a historically unprecedented degree of political freedom and self-determination and have embraced the practical concept of intergovernmental co-operation within theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN).
Though there are numerous ancient historic Asian designations for Southeast Asia, none are geographically consistent with each other. Names referring to Southeast Asia includeSuvarnabhumiorSovannah Phoum(Golden Land) andSuvarnadvipa(Golden Islands) in Indian tradition, theLands below the WindsinArabiaandPersia,Nanyang(Chinese: 南洋;lit.'South Ocean') in China andNan’yō(南洋) in Japan.A 2nd-century world map created byPtolemyofAlexandrianames theMalay PeninsulaasChersonesus Aurea(lit.'Golden Peninsula').
The term "Southeast Asia" was first used in 1839 by American pastor Howard Malcolm in his bookTravels in South-Eastern Asia. Malcolm only included the Mainland section and excluded the Maritime section in his definition of Southeast Asia.The term was officially used to designate the area of operation (theSouth East Asia Command, SEAC) for Anglo-American forces in thePacific TheaterofWorld War IIfrom 1941 to 1945.
The region was already inhabited byHomo erectusfrom approximately 1,500,000 years ago during theMiddle Pleistoceneage.Data analysis of stone toolassemblagesand fossil discoveries fromIndonesia,Southern China, thePhilippines,Sri Lankaand more recentlyCambodiaandMalaysiahas establishedHomo erectusmigration routes and episodes of presence as early as 120,000 years ago, with even older isolated finds dating back to 1.8 million years ago.Java Man(Homo erectus erectus) andHomo floresiensisboth discovered on Indonesia’s islands, attest to a sustained regional presence and isolation, long enough for notable diversification of the species' specifics.Rock art(parietal art) dating from 40,000 to 60,000 years ago (which is currently the world's oldest) has been discovered in the caves ofSulawesiandBorneo(Kalimantan).Homo floresiensisalso lived in the area up until at least 50,000 years ago, after which they became extinct.DistinctHomo sapiensgroups, ancestral to East-Eurasian (East Asian-related) populations, and South-Eurasian (Papuan-related) populations, reached the region by 50,000BCE to 70,000BCE, with some arguing earlier.These immigrants might have, to some extent, merged and reproduced with members of the archaic population ofHomo erectus, as the fossil discoveries in theTam Pa Ling Cavesuggest.During much of this time the present-day islands of western Indonesia were joined into a single landmass known asSundalanddue to lower sea levels.
Ancient remains of hunter-gatherers in Maritime Southeast Asia, such as oneHolocenehunter-gatherer from cave of Leang Panninge inSouth Sulawesi, had ancestry from both the South-Eurasian lineage (represented byPapuansandAboriginal Australians), and the East-Eurasian lineage (represented byEast Asians). The hunter-gatherer individual had approximately 50% "Basal-East Asian" ancestry and was positioned in between modern East Asians and Papuans of Oceania. The authors writing about the individual concluded that East Asian-related ancestry expanded fromMainland Southeast AsiaintoMaritime Southeast Asiamuch earlier than previously suggested, as early as 25,000BCE, long before the expansion ofAustroasiaticandAustronesiangroups.
DistinctiveBasal-East Asian(East-Eurasian) ancestry was recently found to have originated inMainland Southeast Asiaat ~50,000BCE, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. Geneflow of East-Eurasian ancestry intoMaritime Southeast AsiaandOceaniais estimated to ~25,000BCE (possibly as early as 50,000BCE). The pre-NeolithicSouth-Eurasian populations of Maritime Southeast Asia were largely replaced by the expansion of various East-Eurasian populations, beginning about 25,000BCE fromMainland Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia was dominated by East Asian-related ancestry already in 15,000BCE, predating the expansion ofAustroasiaticandAustronesian peoples.
Ocean drops of up to 120 m (393.70 ft) below the present level duringPleistoceneglacial periods revealed the vast lowlands known asSundaland, enabling hunter-gatherer populations to freely access insular Southeast Asia via extensive terrestrial corridors. Modern human presence in theNiah caveonEast Malaysiadates back to 40,000 yearsBP, although archaeological documentation of the early settlement period suggests only brief occupation phases.However, authorCharles Highamargues that despite glacial periods, modern humans were able to cross the sea barrier beyondJavaandTimor, who around 45,000 years ago left traces in theIvane Valleyin easternNew Guinea"at an altitude of 2,000 m (6,561.68 ft) exploitingyamsandpandanus, hunting and making stone tools between 43,000 and 49,000 years ago."
The oldest habitation discovered in thePhilippinesis located at theTabon Cavesand dates back to approximately 50,000 years BP. Items found there such as burial jars, earthenware, jade ornaments and other jewellery, stone tools, animal bones and human fossils date back to 47,000 years BP. Unearthed human remains are approximately 24,000 years old.
Signs of an early tradition are discernible in theHoabinhian, the name given to an industry and cultural continuity of stone tools and flaked cobble artefacts that appear around 10,000 BP in caves and rock shelters first described inHòa Bình,Vietnam, and later documented inTerengganu,Malaysia,Sumatra,Thailand,Laos,Myanmar,CambodiaandYunnan, southernChina. Research emphasises considerable variations in quality and nature of the artefacts, influenced by region-specific environmental conditions and proximity and access to local resources. The Hoabinhian culture accounts for the first verified ritual burials in Southeast Asia.
TheNeolithicwas characterized by several migrations intoMainlandandIsland Southeast Asiafrom southernChinabyAustronesian,Austroasiatic,Kra-DaiandHmong-Mien-speakers.
The most widespread migration event was theAustronesian expansion, which began around 5,500BP(3,500 BCE) fromTaiwanand coastal southernChina. Due to their early invention of ocean-goingoutrigger boatsand voyagingcatamarans, Austronesians rapidly colonizedIsland Southeast Asia, before spreading further intoMicronesia,Melanesia,Polynesia,Madagascarand theComoros. They dominated the lowlands and coasts of Island Southeast Asia, intermarrying with the indigenousNegritoandPapuanpeoples to varying degrees, giving rise to modernIslander Southeast Asians,Micronesians,Polynesians,MelanesiansandMalagasy.
TheAustroasiaticmigration wave involved theMonandKhmerpeoples and migrated to the broad riverine floodplains ofBurma,IndochinaandMalaysia.
Territorial principalities in both Insular and Mainland Southeast Asia, characterised asAgrarian kingdoms,developed an economy by around 500 BCE based on surplus crop cultivation and moderate coastal trade of domestic natural products. Several states of the Malayan-Indonesian "thalassian" zoneshared these characteristics with Indochinese polities like thePyu city-statesin theIrrawaddy Rivervalley, theVăn Lang kingdomin theRed River DeltaandFunanaround the lowerMekong.Văn Lang, founded in the 7th century BCE, endured until 258 BCE under theHồng Bàng dynasty, as part of theĐông Sơn culturethat sustained a dense and organised population that produced an elaborateBronze Ageindustry.
Intensive wet-rice cultivation in an ideal climate enabled the farming communities to produce a regular crop surplus that was used by the ruling elite to raise, command and pay work forces for public construction and maintenance projects such as canals and fortifications.
Thoughmilletand rice cultivation was introduced around 2000 BCE, hunting and gathering remained an important aspect of food provision, in particular in forested and mountainous inland areas. Many tribal communities of the aboriginalAustralo-Melanesiansettlers continued a lifestyle of mixed sustenance until the modern era.Many areas in Southeast Asia participated in theMaritime Jade Road, a diverse sea-based trade network which functioned for 3,000 years, mostly in Southeast Asia, between 2000 BCE to 1000 CE.
The earliest known evidence of copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia was found atBan Chiangin north-east Thailand and among thePhùng Nguyên cultureof northern Vietnam around 2000 BCE.
TheĐông Sơnculture established a tradition of bronze production and the manufacture of evermore refined bronze and iron objects, such as plows, axes and sickles with shaft holes, socketed arrows and spearheads and small ornamented items.By about 500 BCE, large and delicately decorated bronze drums of remarkable quality, weighing more than 70 kg (150 lb), were produced in the laboriouslost-wax castingprocess. This industry of highly sophisticated metal processing was developed independent of Chinese or Indian influence. Historians relate these achievements to the presence of organized, centralized and hierarchical communities and a large population.
Between 1000 BCE and 100 CE, theSa Huỳnh cultureflourished along the south-central coast ofVietnam.Ceramic jar burial sites that included grave goods have been discovered at various sites along the entire territory. Among large, thin-walled terracotta jars, ornamented and colorized cooking pots, glass items,jadeearrings and metal objects were deposited near the rivers and along the coast.
TheBuni cultureis the name given to another early independent centre of refinedpotteryproduction that has been well documented on the basis of excavated burial gifts, deposited between 400 BCE and 100 CE in coastal north-westernJava.The objects and artifacts  of the Buni tradition are known for their originality and remarkable quality of incised and geometric decors.Its resemblance to the Sa Huỳnh culture and the fact that it represents the earliestIndian Rouletted Warerecorded in Southeast Asia are subjects of ongoing research.
The first true maritime trade network in theIndian Oceanwas theAustronesian maritime trade networkinitiated by theAustronesian peoplesofIsland Southeast Asia.They established trade routes withSouthern IndiaandSri Lankaas early as 1500 BCE, exchangingmaterial culture(likecatamarans,outrigger boats, sewn-plank boats andpaan) andcultigens(likecoconuts,sandalwood,bananasandsugarcane). The trade network also connected the material cultures of India and China, as well as constituting the majority of the Indian Ocean component of thespice trade.Indonesiansin particular were trading in spices (mainlycinnamonandcassia) withEast Africausing catamarans and outrigger boats and sailing with the help of theWesterliesin the Indian Ocean. This trade network expanded to reach as far asAfricaand theArabian Peninsula, resulting in the Austronesian colonization ofMadagascarby 500 CE. It continued through historic times, later becoming theMaritime Silk Road.This trade network also included smaller trade routes withinIsland Southeast Asia, including thelingling-ojadeandtrepangingnetworks.
In easternAustronesia, various traditional maritime trade networks also existed. Among them were the ancientLapita trade networkofIsland Melanesia;theHiri trade cycle,Sepik Coast exchangeandKula ringofPapua New Guinea;the ancient trading voyages inMicronesiabetween theMariana Islandsand theCaroline Islands(and possibly alsoNew Guineaand thePhilippines);and the vast inter-island trade networks ofPolynesia.
By around 500 BCE, Asia's expanding land andmaritime tradeled to socio-economic and cultural stimulation and diffusion of mainlyHindubeliefs into the regional cosmology ofSoutheast Asia.Iron Agetrade expansion also caused regionalgeostrategicremodelling. Southeast Asia was now situated at the convergence of the Indian and the East Asian maritime trade routes, a basis for economic and cultural growth. The concept of "Indianised kingdoms", a term coined by French scholarGeorge Cœdès, describes how Southeast Asianprincipalitiesincorporated central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture,epigraphy, writing and architecture.
The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged inSumatraandJava, followed by mainland polities such asFunanandChampa. Selective adoption of Indian sociocultural elements stimulated the emergence of centralised states and development of highly organised societies. Local leaders began to adopt Hindu worship into state religion, using the Hindu concept ofdevarājato reinforcedivine rule(as opposed to the Chinese concept ofMandate of Heaven).
The exact nature, process and extent of Indian influence upon the civilizations of the region is still fiercely debated by contemporary scholars. One such debate is over the extent to which Indian merchants,Brahmins, nobles or Southeast Asian mariner-merchants played central roles in bringing Indian conceptions to Southeast Asia. Additionally, the depth of the influence of Indian traditions is still contested. Whereas early 20th-century scholars emphasized the thorough Indianization of Southeast Asia, more recent authors have argued that Indian influence was much more limited, affecting only a small section of the elite.
Maritime trade from China to India passed Champa and Funan at theMekong Delta, proceeded along the coast to theIsthmus of Kra, portaged across the narrow andtranshippedfor distribution in India. This trading link boosted the development of Funan, its successorChenlaand the Malayan states ofLangkasukaon the eastern coast andKedahon the western.
Numerous coastal communities inmaritime Southeast Asiaadopted Hindu andBuddhistcultural and religious elements from India and developed complex polities ruled by native dynasties. Early Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia include the 4th-centuryKutaithat rose inEast Kalimantan,TarumanagarainWest JavaandKalinggainCentral Java.
The earliest attested trading contacts in Southeast Asia were with the ChineseShang dynasty(c.1600–1046BCE), whencowryshellsserved as currency. During theZhou dynasty(1050–771 BCE), various natural products, such asivory,rhinoceroshorn,tortoiseshells, pearls and birds' feathers found their way toLuoyang, the Zhou capital. Although current knowledge about port localities and shipping lanes is very limited, it is assumed that most of this exchange took place on land routes, and only a small percentage was shipped "on coastal vessels crewed byMalayandYuetraders".
Military conquests during theHan dynasty(202 BCE–220 CE) brought a number of foreign peoples within the Chinese empire when theImperial Chinese tributary systembegan to evolve under Han rule. This tributary system was based on the Chinese worldview that had developed under the Shang dynasty, in which China was deemed the center and apogee of culture and civilization, the "Middle kingdom" (Mandarin: 中国, Zhōngguó), surrounded by several layers of increasinglybarbarouspeoples.Contact with Southeast Asia steadily increased by the end of the Han period.
Between the 2nd-century BCE and 15th-century CE, theMaritime Silk Roadflourished, connectingChina,Southeast Asia, theIndian subcontinent, theArabian Peninsula,Somaliaand all the way toEgyptandEurope.Despite its association with China in recent centuries, the Maritime Silk Road was primarily established and operated byAustronesiansailors in Southeast Asia and byPersianandArabtraders in theArabian Sea.
The Maritime Silk Road developed from the earlierAustronesianspice tradenetworks ofIslander Southeast AsianswithSri LankaandSouthern India(established 1000–600 BCE), as well as thejadeindustry trade inlingling-oartifacts from thePhilippinesin theSouth China Sea(c.500BCE).For most of its history, Austronesianthalassocraciescontrolled the flow of the Maritime Silk Road, especially thepolitiesaround theStraitofMalaccaandBangka, theMalay Peninsulaand theMekong Delta(although Chinese records misidentified these kingdoms as being "Indian" due to theIndianizationof these regions).Prior to the 10th century, the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian traders, althoughTamilandPersiantraders also sailed them.The route was influential in the early spread ofHinduismandBuddhismto the East.
China later built its own fleets starting from theSong dynastyin the 10th century, participating directly in the trade route up until the end of theColonial Eraand the collapse of theQing dynasty.
Local rulers benefited from the introduction ofHinduismduring the early common era, using it to greatly enhance the legitimacy of their reign asdevarāja. Historians increasingly argue that the process of Hindu religious diffusion in the region must be attributed to the initiative of the local chieftains.Buddhist teachings, which almost simultaneously arrived in Southeast Asia, developed during the subsequent centuries, gaining more appeal among the general population. In the 3rd century BCE, the Buddhist Indian EmperorAshokainitiated missionary efforts to send trained monks and missionaries abroad to proselytise Buddhism, including itssizeable body of literature, oral traditions,iconographyandart. To missionaries used Buddhist teachings to offer guidance in central existential questions, placing an emphasis on individual effort and conduct.
Between the 5th and the 13th century CE, Buddhism flourished in Southeast Asia. By the 8th century, the BuddhistSrivijayakingdom based inSumatraemerged as a major trading power in centralMaritime Southeast Asia. Around the same period, theShailendra dynastyofJavaextensively promotedBuddhist artthat found its strongest expression in the vastBorobudurtemple.Following the establishment of theKhmer EmpireinCambodia, the first Buddhist kings of Mainland Southeast Asia emerged during the 11th century.Mahayana Buddhismtook hold first in Southeast Asia, as the originalTheravada Buddhismhad fallen out of favor India centuries before reaching the region. However, a pure form of Theravada Buddhist teachings had been preserved inSri Lankasince the 3rd century. Pilgrims and wandering monks from Sri Lanka introduced Theravada Buddhism in thePagan EmpireofBurma, theSukhothai Kingdomin northernThailandandLaos, the LowerMekong BasinduringCambodia's dark agesand further intoVietnamand Maritime Southeast Asia.
InMaritime Southeast Asia, theSrivijaya kingdomonSumatradeveloped into the dominant power by the 5th century CE. Its capitalPalembangbecame a major seaport and functioned as anentrepôton theSpice Routebetween India and China. Srivijaya was also a notable center ofVajrayānaBuddhist learning and influence.Around the 6th century CE,Malaymerchants began sailing to Srivijaya, where goods were transported directly in Sumatran ports. The winds of theNortheast Monsoonduring October to December prevented sailing ships from proceeding directly from theIndian Oceanto theSouth China Sea, as did theSouthwest Monsoonduring July to September, forcing trade routes to pass through Srivijaya. However, the kingdom's wealth and influence began to fade when advancements in nautical technology in the 10th century enabled Chinese and Indian merchants to ship cargo directly between their countries. These advancements also aided theCholadynasty ofTamilakam,Southern India, in carrying out a series of destructive attacks on Srivijaya, effectively ending Palembang'sentrepôtposition in the Indo-Chinese trade route. As the influence of the Srivijaya kingdom faded by about the 13th century, Sumatra came to be ruled by a kaleidoscope of Buddhist kingdoms for the next two centuries, including theMalayu,Pannai, andDharmasrayakingdoms.
To the southeast of Sumatra,West Javawas ruled by theHinduSunda Kingdom(c.669–1579) after the fall of theTarumanagara, whileCentralandEast Javawere dominated by a myriad of competing agrarian kingdoms including theMataram Kingdom(716–929),Kediri(1052–1222),Singhasari(1222–1292), andMajapahit(1293–c.1500). In the late 8th and early 9th centuries, the Śailendra dynasty that ruled the Mataram kingdom built a number of massive monuments in Central Java, including theSewuandBorobudurBuddhist temples. According to theDeśavarṇana, anOld Javanesepoem completed in 1365, vassal states of theMajapahit Empirespread throughout much of today's Indonesia, making it possibly the largest empire ever to exist in Southeast Asia, though the true character of its control over these territories is unclear.The empire declined in the early 16th century after the rise ofIslamic statesin coastal Java, theMalay Peninsula, and Sumatra.
In thePhilippines, theLaguna Copperplate Inscriptiondating from 900 CE is the earliest known calendar-dated document from the islands.It relates a debt granted from amaginoo(royalty) who lived in theTagalogcity-state ofTondowhich is now part ofManilaarea. The document mentions several contemporary states in the area, includingMataram KingdominJava.
TheKhmer Empirecovered much ofmainland Southeast Asiafrom the early 9th until the 15th century, during which time asophisticated architecturewas developed, exemplified in the structures of the capital cityAngkor. Situated in modern-dayVietnam, the kingdoms ofĐại ViệtandChampawere rivals to the Khmer Empire in the region. TheMonkingdom ofDvaravatiwas another major regional presence, first appearing in records around the 6th century CE. By the 10th century, however, Dvaravati had come under the influence of the Khmer. Nearby,Thaitribes conquered theChao Phraya Rivervalley of modern-day central Thailand around the 12th century and established theSukhothai Kingdomin the 13th century and theAyutthaya Kingdomin the 14th century.
By the mid-16th century, theBurmeseFirst Toungoo Empirewas one of the largest, strongest and richest empires in Southeast Asia.At its peak, it was the dominant power in mainland Southeast Asia, exercising "suzerainty fromManipurto theCambodianmarchesand from the borders ofArakantoYunnan".The empire includedMonandShan statesand annexed territories in theKingdom of Lan Na,Kingdom of Laos, and theAyutthaya kingdom.Early European accounts describe the lower part of the Toungoo Empire as having possessed 3–4 excellent ports that facilitated considerable trade in a variety of goods.The empire supplied the port ofMalaccawith rice and other foodstuffs, along with luxury goods such asrubies,sapphires,musk,lac,benzoin, and gold to trade. In return, the lower part of the empire imported Chinese manufactures and Indonesian spices through its ports. Additionally, merchants from West Asia and India exchanged large quantities ofIndian textilesfor Burmese luxury products and eastern goods. The arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century further strengthened the empire's position, both commercially and militarily.
By the 8th century CE, less than 200 years after theestablishment of IslaminArabia, the first Islamic traders and merchants who adhered toMohammad's prophecies began to appear inmaritime Southeast Asia. However,Islamdid not play a notable role anywhere inmainland Southeast Asiauntil the 13th century.Instead, widespread and gradual replacement ofHinduismbyTheravāda Buddhismreflected a shift to a more personal, introverted spirituality acquired through individual ritual activities and effort.
In addressing the issue of how Islam was introduced into Southeast Asia, historians have elaborated various routes from Arabia toIndiaand then from India toSoutheast Asia. Of these, two seem to take prominence: either Arabian traders and scholars who did not live or settle in India spread Islam directly to maritime Southeast Asia, or Arab traders that had been settling in coastal India andSri Lankafor generations did. Muslim traders from India (Gujarat) and converts ofSouth Asiandescent are variously considered to play a major role.
A number of sources propose theSouth China Seaas another route of Islamic introduction to Southeast Asia. Arguments for this hypothesis include the following:
In 2013, theEuropean Unionpublished theEuropean Commission Forum, which maintains an inclusive attitude on the matter:
Unlike in other Islamic regions, Islam developed in Southeast Asia in a distinctlysyncreticmanner that allowed the continuation and inclusion of elements and ritual practices ofHinduism,Buddhismand ancient Pan-East Asiananimism. Most principalities developed highly distinctive cultures as a result of centuries of active participation in cultural exchange situated at the cross-roads of theMaritime Silk Roadcoming from across theIndian Oceanin the West and theSouth China Seain the East. Cultural and institutional adoption was a creative and selective process, in which foreign elements were incorporated into a local synthesis.Unlike some other "Islamised" regions likeNorth Africa,Iberia, theMiddle Eastand later northernIndia, Islamic faith in Southeast Asia was not enforced in the wake ofterritorial conquests, but because of trade routes. In this way, the Islamisation of Southeast Asia is more akin to that ofTurkic Central Asia,sub-Saharan Africa,southern Indiaandnorthwest China.
There are various records of lay Muslim missionaries, scholars and mystics, particularlySufis, who were active in peacefully proselytizing in Southeast Asia.Java, for example, received Islam by nine men, referred to as the "Wali Sanga" or "Nine Saints," although the historical identity of such people is almost impossible to determine. The foundation of the first Islamic kingdom inSumatra, theSamudera Pasai Sultanate, took place during the 13th century.
The conversion of the remnants of the BuddhistSrivijaya empirethat once controlled trade in much of Southeast Asia, in particular theStrait of Malacca, marked a religious turning point with the conversion of the strait into an Islamic water. With the fall of Srivijaya, the way was open for effective and widespread proselytization and the establishment of Muslim trading centers. Many modern Malays view theSultanate of Malacca, which existed from the 15th to the early 16th century, as the first political entity of contemporaryMalaysia.
The idea of equality before God for theUmmah(the people of God) and a personal religious effort through regular prayer in Islam could have been more appealing than a perceivedfatalismin Hinduism at the time.However, Islam also taught obedience and submission, which could have helped guarantee that the social structure of a converted people or political entity saw less fundamental changes.
Islam and its notion of exclusivity and finality is seemingly incompatible with other religions, including the Chinese concept ofheavenly harmonyand theSon of Heavenas its enforcer. The integration of the traditional East Asian tributary system with China at the centre Muslim Malays and Indonesians exacted a pragmatic approach of cultural Islam in diplomatic relations with China.
By the end of the 14th century,Ming Chinahad conqueredYunnanin the South, yet it had lost control of theSilk Roadafter the fall of the MongolYuan dynasty. The rulingYongle Emperorresolved to focus on the Indian Ocean sea routes, seeking to consolidate the ancientImperial Tributary System, establish greater diplomatic and military presence, and widen the Chinese sphere of influence. He ordered the construction of a hugetrade and representation fleetthat, between 1405 and 1433, undertook several voyages into Southeast Asia, India, thePersian Gulf, and as far as East Africa. Under the leadership ofZheng He, hundreds of naval vessels of then unparalleled size, grandeur, and technological advancement and manned by sizeable military contingents, ambassadors, merchants, artists and scholars repeatedly visited major Southeast Asian principalities. The individual fleets engaged in a number of clashes with pirates and occasionally supported various royal contenders. However, pro-expansionist voices at the court inBeijinglost influence after the 1450s, and the voyages were discontinued. The protraction of the ritualistic ceremonies and scanty travels of emissaries in the Tributary System alone was not sufficient to develop firm and lasting Chinese commercial and political influence in the region, especially during the impending onset of highly competitive global trade. During theChenghuaperiod of the Ming Dynasty,Liu Daxia, who later became the Shangshu of the Ministry of War, hid or burned the archives ofMing treasure voyages.
The earliestEuropeansto have visited Southeast Asia wereMarco Poloduring the 13th century in the service of Kublai Khan andNiccolò de' Contiduring the early 15th century. Regular and momentous voyages only began in the 16th century after the arrival of the Portuguese, who actively sought direct and competitive trade. They were usually accompanied by missionaries, who hoped to promoteChristianity.
Portugalwas the first European power to establish a bridgehead on the lucrativemaritime Southeast Asiatrade route, with the conquest of theSultanate of Malaccain 1511. TheNetherlandsandSpainfollowed and soon superseded Portugal as the main European powers in the region. In 1599, Spain began to colonise thePhilippinesvia the Mexico-governedViceroyalty of New Spain, which the Philippines was territory of. In 1619, acting through theDutch East India Company, the Dutch took the city ofSunda Kelapa, renamed it Batavia (nowJakarta) as a base for trading and expansion into the other parts ofJavaand the surrounding territory. In 1641, the Dutch tookMalaccafrom the Portuguese.Economic opportunities attractedOverseas Chineseto the region in great numbers. In 1775, theLanfang Republic, possibly the firstrepublicin the region, was established inWest Kalimantan,Indonesia, as atributary stateof theQing Empire; the republic lasted until 1884, when it fell under Dutch occupation as Qing influence waned.
The British, in the guise of theEast India Companyled byJosiah Child, had little interest or impact in the region, and were effectively expelled following theAnglo-Siamese War.Britainlater turned their attention to theBay of Bengalfollowing thePeace with France and Spain (1783). During the conflicts, Britain had struggled for naval superiority with the French, and the need of good harbours became evident.Penang Islandhad been brought to the attention of theGovernment of IndiabyFrancis Light. In 1786, the settlement ofGeorge Townwas founded at the northeastern tip ofPenang Islandby CaptainFrancis Light, under the administration ofSir John Macpherson; this marked the beginning of British expansion into theMalay Peninsula.
The British also temporarily possessedDutch territoriesduring theNapoleonic Wars; andSpanish areasin theSeven Years' War. In 1819,Stamford RafflesestablishedSingaporeas a key trading post for Britain in their rivalry with the Dutch. However, their rivalry cooled in 1824 when anAnglo-Dutch treatydemarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia.British rule in Burmabegan with thefirst Anglo-Burmese War(1824–1826).
EarlyUnited Statesentry into what was then called theEast Indies(usually in reference to theMalay Archipelago) was low key. In 1795, a secret voyage forpepperset sail fromSalem, Massachusettson an 18-month voyage that returned with a bulk cargo of pepper, the first to be so imported into the country, which sold at the extraordinary profit of seven hundred per cent.In 1831, the merchantmanFriendshipof Salem returned to report the ship had been plundered, and the first officer and two crewmen murdered in Sumatra.
TheAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824obligated the Dutch to ensure the safety of shipping and overland trade in and around Aceh, who accordingly sent theRoyal Netherlands East Indies Armyon thepunitive expedition of 1831. PresidentAndrew Jacksonalso ordered America'sfirst Sumatran punitive expeditionof 1832, which was followed by apunitive expeditionin 1838. TheFriendshipincident thus afforded the Dutch a reason to take over Ache; and Jackson, to dispatchdiplomatist Edmund Roberts,who in 1833 secured theRoberts Treaty with Siam. In 1856 negotiations for amendment of this treaty,Townsend Harrisstated the position of the United States:
From the end of the 1850s onwards, while the attention of the United States shifted to maintaining their union, the pace of European colonisation shifted to a significantly higher gear. This phenomenon, denotedNew Imperialism, saw the conquest of nearly all Southeast Asian territories by the colonial powers. The Dutch East India Company and British East India Company were dissolved by their respective governments, who took over the direct administration of the colonies.
OnlyThailandwas spared the experience of foreign rule, though Thailand, too, was greatly affected by the power politics of the Western powers. TheMonthonreforms of the late 19th Century continuing up till around 1910, imposed a Westernised form of government on the country's partially independent cities calledMueang, such that the country could be said to have successfully colonised itself.Western powers did, however, continue to interfere in both internal and external affairs.
By 1913, the British had occupiedBurma,Malayaand the northernBorneoterritories, theFrenchcontrolledIndochina, the Dutch ruled theNetherlands East IndieswhilePortugalmanaged to hold on toPortuguese Timor. In thePhilippines, the 1872Cavite Mutinywas a precursor to thePhilippine Revolution(1896–1898). When theSpanish–American Warbegan in Cuba in 1898, Filipino revolutionariesdeclared Philippine independenceand established theFirst Philippine Republicthe following year. In theTreaty of Paris of 1898that ended the war with Spain, the United States gained the Philippines and other territories; in refusing to recognise the nascent republic, America effectively reversed her position of 1856. This led directly to thePhilippine–American War, in which the First Republic was defeated; wars followed with theRepublic of Zamboanga, theRepublic of Negrosand theRepublic of Katagalugan, all of which were also defeated.
Colonial rule had had a profound effect on Southeast Asia. While the colonial powers profited much from the region's vast resources and large market, colonial rule did develop the region to a varying extent. Commercial agriculture, mining and an export based economy developed rapidly during this period. The introduction Christianity bought by the colonist also have profound effect in the societal change.
Increased labour demand resulted in mass immigration, especially fromBritish IndiaandChina, which brought about massive demographic change. The institutions for a modernnation statelike a state bureaucracy, courts of law, print media and to a smaller extent, modern education, sowed the seeds of the fledglingnationalistmovements in the colonial territories. In the inter-war years, these nationalist movements grew and often clashed with the colonial authorities when they demandedself-determination.
In September 1940, following theFall of Franceand pursuant to the Pacific war goals ofImperial Japan, theJapanese Imperial ArmyinvadedVichy French Indochina, which ended in the abortiveJapanese coup de main in French Indochinaof 9 March 1945. On 5 January 1941, Thailand launched theFranco-Thai War, ended on 9 May 1941 by a Japanese-imposed treaty signed in Tokyo.On 7/8 December, Japan's entry intoWorld War IIbegan with theinvasion of Thailand, the only invaded country to maintain nominal independence, due to her political and military alliance with the Japanese—on 10 May 1942, her northwesternPayap Armyinvaded Burma during theBurma Campaign. From 1941 until war's end, Japaneseoccupied Cambodia,Malayaand the Philippines, which ended in independence movements.Japanese occupation of the Philippinesled to the forming of theSecond Philippine Republic, formally dissolved in Tokyo on 17 August 1945. Also on 17 August, aproclamation of Indonesian Independencewas read at the conclusion ofJapanese occupation of the Dutch East Indiessince March 1942.
With the rejuvenated nationalist movements in wait, the Europeans returned to a very different Southeast Asia afterWorld War II.Indonesiadeclared independenceon 17 August 1945 and subsequentlyfought a bitter waragainst the returning Dutch; the Philippines was granted independence by the United States in 1946; Burma secured their independence from Britain in 1948, and theFrenchwere driven fromIndochinain 1954 after a bitterly fought war (theIndochina War) against communist Vietnamese nationalists. TheUnited Nationsprovided a forum for nationalism, post-independent self-definition, nation-building and the acquisition of territorial integrity for many newly independent nations.
During theCold War, countering the threat ofcommunismwas a major theme in thedecolonisationprocess. After suppressing the communist insurrection during theMalayan Emergencyfrom 1948 to 1960, Britain granted independence toMalayaand later,Singapore,SabahandSarawakin 1957 and 1963 respectively within the framework of theFederation of Malaysia. In one of the most bloody single incidents of violence in Cold War Southeast Asia, General Suhartoseized power in Indonesiain 1965 and initiateda massacreof approximately 500,000 alleged members of theCommunist Party of Indonesia(PKI).
After French defeat in Điện Biên Phủ, France granted complete independence to the anti-communistState of Vietnamon 4 June 1954 before the communists took over the North in July.North Vietnameseattempts to conquerSouth Vietnamresulted in theVietnam War. The conflict spread toLaosandCambodiaand heavy intervention from theUnited States. By the war's end in 1975, all these countries were controlled by communist parties. After the communist victory, two wars between communist states—theCambodian–Vietnamese Warof 1975–89 and theSino-Vietnamese Warof 1979—were fought in the region. The victory of theKhmer Rougein Cambodia resulted in theCambodian genocide.
In 1975, Portuguese rule ended in East Timor. However, independence was short-lived as Indonesiaannexed the territorysoon after. However, after more than20 years of fighting Indonesia, East Timor won its independence and was recognised by the UN in 2002. Finally, Britain ended its protectorate of the Sultanate ofBruneiin 1984, marking the end of European rule in Southeast Asia.
Modern Southeast Asia has been characterised by high economic growth by most countries and closer regional integration.Indonesia,Malaysia, thePhilippines,SingaporeandThailandhave traditionally experienced high growth and are commonly recognised as the more developed countries of the region. As of late,Vietnamtoo had been experiencing an economic boom. However,Myanmar,Cambodia,Laosand the newly independentEast Timorare still lagging economically.
On 8 August 1967, theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN) was founded by Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines. Since Cambodian admission into the union in 1999, East Timor is the only Southeast Asian country that is not part of ASEAN, although plans are under way for eventual membership. The association aims to enhance co-operation among Southeast Asian community.ASEAN Free Trade Areahas been established to encourage greater trade among ASEAN members. ASEAN has also been a front runner in greater integration of Asia-Pacific region throughEast Asia Summits.