Yemenite Jews

Yemenite Jews, also known asYemeni JewsorTeimanim(fromHebrew:יהודי תימן,romanized:Yehudei Teman;Arabic:اليهود اليمنيون), areJewswho live, or once lived, inYemen, and their descendants maintaining their customs. After several waves ofpersecution, the vast majority of Yemenite Jewsemigrated to IsraelinOperation Magic Carpetbetween June 1949 and September 1950. MostYemenite Jews now live in Israel, with smaller communities in theUnited Statesand elsewhere.As of 2024, only one Jew,Levi Marhabi, remains in Yemen,althoughYnetcited local sources stating that the actual number is five.
Yemenite Jews observe a unique religious tradition that distinguishes them fromAshkenazi Jews,Sephardic Jews, andother Jewish groups. They have been described as "the most Jewish of all Jews" and "the ones who have preserved theHebrew languagethe best".Yemenite Jews are consideredMizrahior "Eastern" Jews, though they differ from other Mizrahis, who have undergone a process of total or partial assimilation toSephardic law and customs. While the Shami sub-group of Yemenite Jews did adopt a Sephardic-influenced rite, this was mostly due to it being forced upon them,and did not reflect a demographic or general cultural shift among the vast majority of Yemenite Jews.
Records referring to Judaism in Yemen started to appear during the rule of theHimyarite Kingdom, which was established in Yemen in 110 BCE. Various inscriptions in theAncient South Arabian scriptin the2nd century CErefer to the construction ofsynagoguesapproved by Himyarite kings.
In the aftermath of theBar Kokhba revoltin 132 CE, there was significant Jewish emigration fromRoman Judeato Yemen, which was then famous in the Greco-Roman world for its prosperous trade, particularly in spices.The Christian missionaryTheophilos the Indian, who came to Yemen in the mid-fourth century, complained that he had found great numbers of Jews.
By 380 CE, Himyarite religious practices had undergone fundamental changes. The inscriptions were no longer addressed toAlmaqahorAttarbut to a single deity calledRahmanan. Debate among scholars continues as to whether the Himyarite monotheism was influenced by Judaism or Christianity.Jews became especially numerous and powerful in the southern part of Arabia, a rich and fertile land of incense and spices and a way station on theincense trade routeand the trade routes to Africa, India, and East Asia. The Yemeni tribes did not oppose the Jewish presence in their country.
In 390 CE, the Himyarite kingAbu Karibled a military campaign northwards and fought theJewsofYathrib. When Abu Karib fell ill, two local Jewish scholars named Kaab and Assad took the opportunity to travel to his camp, where they treated him and persuaded him to lift the siege.The scholars also inspired in the king an interest in Judaism, and he converted in 390, persuading his army to do likewise.With this, the Himyarite kingdom, "the dominant power on the Arabian peninsula", was converted to Judaism.In Yemen, several inscriptions dating back to the 4th and 5th centuries CE have been found inHebrewandSabaeanpraising the ruling house in Jewish terms for "helping and empowering thePeople of Israel".
By 516 AD, tribal unrest broke out, and several tribal elites fought for power. One of those elites wasJoseph Dhu Nuwasor "Yûsuf 'As'ar Yaṯ'ar" as mentioned in ancient south Arabian inscriptions.The actual story of Joseph is murky. Greek and Ethiopian accounts, portray him as a Jewish zealot.Some scholars suggest that he was a converted Jew.Church of the Eastaccounts claim that his mother was a Jew taken captive fromNisibisand bought by a king in Yemen, whose ancestors had formerly converted to Judaism.Syriac and Byzantine sources maintain that Yûsuf 'As'ar sought to convert other Yemeni Christians, but they refused to renounce Christianity. The actual picture, however, remains unclear.
In 2009 aBBCbroadcast defended a claim that Yûsuf 'As'ar offered villagers the choice between conversion to Judaism or death and then massacred 20,000 Christians. The program's producers stated that, "The production team spoke to many historians over 18 months, among themNigel Groom, who was our consultant, and Professor Abdul Rahman Al-Ansary [former professor of archaeology at theKing Saud UniversityinRiyadh]."Inscriptions attributed to Yûsuf 'As'ar himself show the great pride he expressed after killing more than 22,000 Christians inẒafārandNajran.According to Jamme,Sabaean inscriptionsreveal that the combined war booty (excluding deaths) from campaigns waged against theAbyssiniansin Ẓafār, the fighters in 'Ašʻarān, Rakbān, Farasān, Muḥwān (Mocha), and the fighters and military units in Najran, amounted to 12,500 war trophies, 11,000 captives and 290,000 camels and bovines and sheep.
HistorianGlen Bowersockdescribed this as a "savage pogrom that the Jewish king of the Arabs launched against the Christians in the city of Najran. The king himself reported in excruciating detail to his Arab and Persian allies about the massacres he had inflicted on all Christians who refused to convert to Judaism."There were also reports of massacres and destruction of places of worship by Christians, too.Francis Edward Peterswrote that while there is no doubt that this was a religious persecution, it is equally clear that a political struggle was going on as well.
According to 'Irfan Shahid'sMartyrs of Najran – New Documents, Dhu-Nuwas sent an army of some 120,000 soldiers to lay siege to the city ofNajran, which lasted for six months, with the city finally taken and burnt on the 15th day of the seventh month (i.e. the lunar monthTishri). The city had revolted against the king and they refused to deliver it up unto the king. About three hundred of the city's inhabitants surrendered to the king's forces, under the assurances of an oath that no harm would come to them, and these were later bound, while those remaining in the city were burnt alive within their church. The death toll in this account is said to have reached about two thousand. However, in the Sabaean inscriptions describing these events, it is reported that by the month Dhu-Madra'an (between July and September) there were "1000 killed, 1500 prisoners [taken] and 10,000 head of cattle."
There are two dates mentioned in the "letter of Simeon of Beit Aršam." One date indicates the letter was written in Tammuz in the year 830 of Alexander (518/519 CE), from the camp of GBALA (Jebala), king of the 'SNYA (Ghassanids or the Ġassān clan). In it, he tells of the events that transpired inNajran, while the other date puts the letter's composition in the year 835 of Alexander (523/524 CE). The second letter, however, is actually a Syriac copy of the original, copied in the year 1490 of the Seleucid Era (= 1178/79 CE). Today, it is largely agreed that the latter date is the accurate one, as it is confirmed by the Martyrium Arethae, as well as by epigraphic records, namely Sabaean inscriptions discovered in the Asir of Saudi Arabia (Bi'r Ḥimâ), photographed by J. Ryckmans in Ry 507, 8 ~ 9, and by A. Jamme in Ja 1028, which give the old Sabaean year 633 for these operations (said to correspond with 523 CE).
Procopius,John of Ephesus, and other contemporary historians recount Kaleb's invasion ofYemenaround 520, against theHimyarite kingYūsuf As'ar Yath'ar, known asDhu Nuwas, aJewish convertwho was persecuting theChristian community of Najran. After much fighting, Kaleb's soldiers eventually routed Yusuf's forces. They killed the king, allowing Kaleb to appointSumyafa Ashwa, a native Christian (named Esimiphaios by Procopius), as hisviceroyof Himyar.
Aksumite control ofArabia Felixcontinued until c. 525 when Sumyafa Ashwa was deposed by the Abyssinian GeneralAbraha, who made himself king. Procopius states that Kaleb made several unsuccessful attempts to recover his overseas territory; however, his successor later negotiated a peace with Abraha, where Abraha acknowledged the Axumite king's authority and paid tribute.Stuart Munro-Hayopines that by this expedition Axum overextended itself, and this final intervention across theRed Sea, "was Aksum's swan-song as a great power in the region."
There are numerous accounts and traditions concerning the arrival of Jews in various regions in Southern Arabia. One tradition suggests thatKing Solomonsent Jewish merchant marines to Yemen to prospect for gold and silver with which to adorn hisTempleinJerusalem.In 1881, the French vice consulate in Yemen wrote to the leaders of the Alliance (theAlliance Israelite Universelle) in France, that he read in a book by the Arab historianAbu-Alfadathat the Jews of Yemen settled in the area in 1451 BCE.
Another legend says that Yemeni tribes converted toJudaismafter theQueen of Sheba's visit to King Solomon.TheSanaiteJews have a tradition that their ancestors settled in Yemen 42 years before the destruction of theFirst Temple.It is said that under the prophetJeremiahsome 75,000 Jews, including priests andLevites, traveled to Yemen.
Another legend states that whenEzracommanded the Jews to return toJerusalemthey disobeyed, whereupon he pronounced abanupon them. According to this legend, as a punishment for this hasty action, Ezra was denied burial inIsrael. As a result of this local tradition, which cannot be validated historically, it is said that no Jew of Yemen gives the name of Ezra to a child, although all other Biblical appellatives are used. The Yemenite Jews claim that Ezra cursed them to be a poor people for not heeding his call. This seems to have come true in the eyes of some Yemenites, as Yemen is extremely poor. However, some Yemenite sages in Israel today emphatically reject this story as myth, if not outright blasphemy.
Because of Yemenite Jewry's cultural affiliation withBabylon, historian Yehuda Ratzaby opines that the Jews of Yemen migrated to Yemen from places in Babylonia.According to local legends, the kingdom's aristocracy converted to Judaism in the 6th century CE.
AsPeople of the Book, Jews were assured freedom of religion in exchange for payment of thejizyaor poll tax, which was imposed on non-Muslim monotheists. Feudal overlords imposed this annual tax upon Jews, which, under Islamic law, was to ensure their status as protected persons of the state. This tax (tribute) was assessed against every male thirteen years and older and its remittance varied between the wealthy and the poor.In the early 20th century, this amounted to oneMaria Theresa thaler(riyal) for a poor man, two thalers in specie for the middle classes, and four or more thalers for the rich.Upon payment, Jews were also exempt from paying thezakatwhich must be paid by Muslims once their residual wealth reaches a certain threshold.
Activepersecution of Jewsdid not gain full force until aZaydiclan seized power from the more tolerantSunni Muslims, early in the 10th century.The legal status of Jews in Yemen started to deteriorate around the time theTahiridstook Sana'a from Zaidis, mainly because of new discrimination established by the Muslim rulers. Such laws were not included in Zaidi legal writings till comparatively late withKitab al-Azharofal-Mahdi Ahmad bin Yahyain the first half of the 15th century. This also led to deterioration of the economic and social situation of Jews.
Jewish intellectuals wrote in both Hebrew and Arabic and engaged in the same literary endeavours as the Muslim majority. According to a late-9th-century document, the first Zaydi imamal-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahyahad imposed limitations and a special tax on land held by Jews and Christians ofNajran. In the mid-11th century, Jews from several communities in the Yemen highlands, including Sanaʿa, appear to have been attracted to theSulayhids' capital ofDhu Jibla.The city was founded by Abdullah bin Muhammad al-Sulaihi in the mid-11th century, and according toTarikh al-Yammanof the famed Yemenite author Umara al-Yamani (1121–74), was named after a Jewish pottery merchant.
During the 12th century,Adenwas first ruled by theFatimid Caliphateand then theAyyubids. The city formed a greatemporiumon the sea route toIndia. Documents of theCairo Genizaabout Aden reflect a thriving Jewish community led by the prominent Bundar family. Abu Ali Hasan ibn Bundar served as the head of the Jewish communities in Yemen as well as a representative of the merchants in Aden. His son Madmun was the central figure in Yemenite Jewry during the flourishing of trade with India. The Bundar family produced some celebratednegidimwho exerted authority over the Jews of Yemen as well as Jewish merchants in India andCeylon. The community developed communal and spiritual connections in addition to business and family ties with other Jewish communities in the Islamic world. They also developed ties with and funded Jewish centers inIraq,Palestine, andEgypt. Due to the trade, Jews also emigrated to Aden for mercantile and personal reasons.
Yemenite Jews experienced violent persecution at times. In the late 1160s, the Yemenite ruler'Abd-al-Nabī ibn Mahdigave Jews a choice of conversion to Islam ormartyrdom.Mahdi also imposed his beliefs upon the Muslims besides the Jews. This led to a revival of Jewish messianism, but also led to mass-conversion.While a popular local Yemenite Jewish preacher called on Jews to choose martyrdom,Maimonidessent what is known as theEpistle to Yemenrequesting that they remain faithful to their religion, but if at all possible, not to cast affronts before their antagonists.The persecution ended in 1173 with the defeat of ibn Mahdi and conquest of Yemen byTuran-Shah, the brother ofSaladin, and they were allowed to return to their faith.
According to two Genizah documents, the Ayyubid ruler of Yemen al-Malik al-Mu'izz al-Ismail (reigned 1197–1202) attempted to force the Jews of Aden to convert. The second document details the relief of the Jewish community after his murder and those who had been forced to convert reverted to Judaism.
The rule ofShafi'iRasulidswhich lasted from 1229 to 1474 brought stability to the region. During this period, Jews enjoyed social and economic prosperity. This changed with the rise of theTahiri dynastythat ruled until the conquest of Yemen by theOttoman Empirein 1517. A note written in a Jewish manuscript mentions the destruction of the old synagogue in Sana'a in 1457 under the rule of the dynasty's founder Ahmad 'Amir. An important note of the treatment of Jews by Tahirids is found in thecolophonof a Jewish manuscript from Yemen in 1505, when the last Tahirid Sultan took Sana'a from the Zaydis. The document describes one kingdom as exploitive and the other as repressive.
The Jewish communities experienced a messianic episode with the rise of anotherMessiah claimantinBayhan District, mentioned by Hayim bin Yahya Habhush inHistory of the Jews in Yemenwritten in 1893 and Ba'faqia al-Shihri'sChroniclewritten in the 16th century. The messiah was acknowledged as a political figure and gathered many people around him into what seemed to be an organized military force. The Tahirid Sultan Amir ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab attacked the messiah, killing many Jews and crushing the movement. He saw it as a violation of the protection agreement and liquidated the Jewish settlement inHadhramautas collective punishment. Presumably some of them were killed, many converted to Islam or migrated to Aden and the adjacent mainland of Yemen. It seems, however, that the liquidation was not immediate. Jews of the place are recorded by 1527, but not by the 1660s. After the 15th century, Jewish communities only existed in theHadhramaut's western periphery. The oppression at the hands of pious Muslim rulers and endangerment of the community because of the plots of a few Jewish messianists are common themes in the history of Yemenite Jews.
Maimonides(1138–1204), the 12th-century philosopher, scholar and codifier ofhalakha, was adulated by the Jews of Yemen for his interventions on their behalf during times ofreligious persecution,heresy,and heavy taxation.
When the writings of Maimonides reached the heads of the community, they continued to address their questions unto him and sent emissaries to purchase several copies of his books, just as he acknowledged.In all the subjects of the Torah, Yemenite Jews customarily base their rule of practice (halakhah) on Maimonides' teachings, and will instruct following his view, whether in lenient or strict rulings, even where most other halakhic authorities disagree.Even so, some ancient customs remained with the Yemenite Jews, especially in those matters committed unto the masses and to the general public, which are still adhered to by them from an ancient period, and which they did not change even though Maimonides ruled otherwise.In common Jewish practice, the Jews of Yemen dissented with Maimonides' rulings in more than 50 places, ten of which places are named explicitly byYosef Qafih.
TheZaydienforced a statute known as theOrphan's Decree, anchored in their own 18th-century legal interpretations and enforced at the end of that century. It obligated the Zaydi state to take under its protection and to educate in Islamic ways anydhimmi(i.e. non-Muslim) child whose parents had died when he was a minor. The Orphan's Decree was ignored during theOttomanrule (1872–1918), but was renewed during the period ofImam Yahya(1918–1948).
Under the Zaydi rule, the Jews were considered to be impure and therefore forbidden to touch a Muslim or a Muslim's food. They were obligated to humble themselves before a Muslim, to walk to the left side, and greet him first. They could not build houses higher than a Muslim's or ride a camel or horse, and when riding on a mule or a donkey, they had to sit sideways. Upon entering the Muslim quarter a Jew had to take off his foot-gear and walk barefoot. If attacked with stones or fists by youth, a Jew was not allowed to fight them. In such situations, he had the option of fleeing or seeking intervention by a merciful Muslim passerby.
Ottoman rule ended in 1630, when the Zaydis took over Yemen. Jews were once again persecuted. In 1679, under the rule ofAl-Mahdi Ahmad, Jews were expelleden massefrom all parts of Yemen to the distant province ofMawza, in what was known as theMawza Exile, when many Jews died of starvation and disease as a consequence. As many as two-thirds of the exiled Jews did not survive.Their houses and property were seized, and many synagogues were destroyed or converted into mosques.
The Jewish community recovered partly because of ImamMuhammad al-Mahdi, also called "Sahib al-Mawahib", who protected them and allowed them to return to their previous status. He rejected the pleas for Jewish deportation by the clerics and maintained ties with the Jewish 'Iraqi family which was charged with the mint house. From the end of the 17th century, the Jews ran the mint house of the imams. In 1725, ImamAl-Mutawakkilordered closure of synagogues because of the Jews selling wine to Muslims. However, their closure was rejected by a religious legal ruling that these synagogues were permitted by his predecessors.
The Jews of Yemen had expertise in a wide range of trades normally avoided by Zaydi Muslims. Trades such as silver-smithing, blacksmiths, repairing weapons and tools, weaving, pottery, masonry, carpentry, shoemaking, and tailoring were occupations that were exclusively taken by Jews. The division of labor created a sort of covenant, based on mutual economic and social dependency, between the Zaydi Muslim population and the Jews of Yemen. The Muslims produced and supplied food, and the Jews supplied all manufactured products and services that the Yemeni farmers needed.
The Jewish community headed by Shalom 'Iraqi recovered from this affair and the position of 'Iraqi strengthened under ImamAl-Mansur. The community flourished under him because of the part it played in trade with India throughMocha. The German researcherCarsten Niebuhrwhovisited Yemenin 1763, reports that two years before he arrived, Shalom 'Iraqi had been imprisoned and fined while twelve out of fourteen synagogues in a village near Sana'a were shut down. 'Iraqi was released two weeks before his arrival. Jewish sources attribute this to a regime change. The ImamAl-Mahdi Abbaswas extremely religious and his ideological affinity with the clerics created an atmosphere of extreme repression. He however resisted their pressure on him to expel the Jews. The synagogues were reopened byAli al-Mansurafter payment of a heavy fee.
In the early 18th-century, many Jews in Yemen were employed in some of the most degrading and menial tasks, on behalf of the Arab population, such as cleaning the cess pools and latrines.
At the beginning of the nineteenth-century, Yemenite Jews lived principally inSana'a(7,000-plus), with the largest Jewish population and twenty-eight synagogues, followed byRada'a, with the second-largest Jewish population and nine synagogues,Sa'dah(1,000),Dhamar(1,000),Aden(200), the desert ofBeda(2,000),Manakhah(3,000), among others.Almost all resided in the interior of the plateau.Carl Rathjenswho visited Yemen in the years 1927 and 1931 puts the total number of Jewish communities in Yemen at 371 settlements.Other significant Jewish communities in Yemen were based in the south central highlands in the cities of:Taiz(the birthplace of one of the most famous Yemenite Jewish spiritual leaders,MoriSalem Al-Shabazzi Mashta), Ba'dan, and other cities and towns in theShar'ab region. Many other Jewish communities in Yemen were long since abandoned by their Jewish inhabitants. Yemenite Jews were chiefly artisans, including gold-, silver- and blacksmiths in the San'a area, and coffee merchants in the south central highland areas.
In 1912, Zionist emissary Shmuel Yavne'eli came into contact withHabbani Jews, describing them in the following way:
During this period messianic expectations were very intense among the Jews of Yemen (and among many Arabs as well). The three pseudo-messiahs of this period, and their years of activity, are:
According to the Jewish travelerJacob Saphir, the majority of Yemenite Jews during his visit of 1862 entertained a belief in the messianic proclamations ofShukr Kuhayl I. Earlier Yemenite messiah claimants included the anonymous 12th-century messiah who was the subject of Maimonides's famousIggeret Teman, orEpistle to Yemen,the messiah ofBayhan(c. 1495), and Suleiman Jamal (c. 1667), in what Lenowitzregards as a unified messiah history spanning 600 years.
In 1922, the government of Yemen, underYahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din, re-introduced an ancient Islamic law entitled the "orphans decree". The law dictated that if Jewish boys or girls under the age of 12 were orphaned, they were to be forcibly converted toIslam, their connections to their families and communities were to be severed, and they had to be handed over to Muslim foster families. The rule was based on the law that the prophetMuhammadis "the father of the orphans", and on the fact that the Jews in Yemen were considered "under protection", and the ruler was obligated to care for them.The Jews tried to prevent the conversion of orphans in two main ways, which were by marrying them so the authorities would consider them as adults, or by smuggling them out of the country.
The three major population centers for Jews insouthern ArabiawereAden,Habban, and theHadhramaut. TheJews of Adenlived in and around the city, and flourished during the BritishAden Protectorate.
The vast majority of Yemenite immigrants counted by the authorities ofMandate Palestinein 1939 had settled in the country prior to that date. Throughout the periods ofOttoman Palestineand Mandatory Palestine, Jews from Yemen had settled primarily in agricultural settlements in the country, namely:Petach Tikvah(Machaneh Yehuda),Rishon Lezion(Shivat Zion),Rehovot(Sha'arayim and Marmorek),Wadi Chanin (later calledNess Ziona),Be'er Ya'akov,Hadera(Nachliel),Zichron Yaakov,Yavne'el,Gedera,Ben Shemen,Kinneret,DeganiaandMilhamia.Others chose to live in the urban areas ofJerusalem(Silwan, and Nachalat Zvi),Jaffa,Tel Aviv(Kerem Hateimanim),and later,Netanya(Shekhunat Zvi).
Emigration from Yemen toPalestinebegan in 1881, and continued almost without interruption until 1914. It was during this time that about 10% of the Yemenite Jews left. Due to the changes in theOttoman Empire, citizens could move more freely, and in 1869, travel was improved with the opening of theSuez Canal, which reduced the travel time from Yemen to Palestine. Certain Yemenite Jews interpreted these changes and the new developments in the "Holy Land" as heavenly signs that the time of redemption was near. By settling in the Holy Land, they would play a part in what they believed could precipitate the anticipated messianic era.
From 1881 to 1882, some 30 Jewish families leftSana'aand several nearby settlements, and made the long trek by foot and by sea to Jerusalem, where most had settled inSilwan.This wave was followed by other Jews from central Yemen, who continued to move into Palestine until 1914. The majority of these groups would later move intoJerusalemproper andJaffa. RabbiAvraham Al-Naddaf, who migrated to Jerusalem in 1891, described in his autobiography the hardships the Yemenite Jewish community faced in their new country, where there were no hostelries to accommodate wayfarers and new immigrants. On the other hand, he writes that theSephardikollelim(seminaries) had taken under their auspices the Yemenite Jews from the moment they set foot in Jerusalem. Later, however, the Yemenites would come to feel discriminated against by the Sephardic community, who compelled them to no longer make use of their own soft, pliablematzah, but to buy from them only the hard cracker-like matzah made weeks in advance prior to Passover. He also mentions that the Yemenite community would pay the prescribed tax to the public coffers; yet, they were not being allotted an equal share or subsidy as had been given to the Sephardic Jews. By 1910, the Yemenites had broken away from the Sephardic seminaries.
BeforeWorld War I, there was another wave that began in 1906 and continued until 1914. Hundreds of Yemenite Jews made their way to the Holy Land, and chose to settle in the agricultural settlements. It was after these movements that theWorld Zionist Organizationsent Shmuel Yavne'eli to Yemen to encourage Jews to emigrate to Palestine. Yavne'eli reached Yemen at the beginning of 1911, and returned in April 1912. Due to Yavne'eli's efforts, about 1,000 Jews left central and southern Yemen, with several hundred more arriving before 1914.The purpose of this immigration was considered by the Zionist Office as allowing the importation of cheap labour. This wave of Yemenite Jewry underwent extreme suffering, physically and mentally, and those who arrived between 1912 and 1918 had a very high incidence of premature mortality, ranging from between 30% and 40% generally and, in some townships, reaching as high as 50%.
During theBritish Mandate of Palestine, the total number of persons registered as immigrants from Yemen, between the years April 1939 – December 1945, was put at 4,554.By 1947, there were an estimated 35,000 Yemenite Jews living in Mandate Palestine.After theUN partition vote on Palestine, Arab rioters, assisted by the local police force, engaged in apogrom in Adenthat killed 82 Jews and destroyed hundreds of Jewish homes. Aden's Jewish community was economically paralyzed, as most of the Jewish stores and businesses were destroyed. Early in 1948, the unfounded rumour of the ritual murder of two girls led to looting.
This increasingly perilous situation led to the emigration of virtually the entire Yemenite Jewish community between June 1949 and September 1950 inOperation Magic Carpet. During this period, over 50,000 Jews migrated toIsrael. The operation began in June 1949 and ended in September 1950.Part of the operation happened during the1948 Palestine Warand it was planned by theAmerican Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. The plan was for the Jews from all over Yemen to make their way to the Aden area. Specifically, the Jews were to arrive in Hashed Camp and live there until they could be airlifted to Israel. Hashed was an old British military camp in the desert, about a mile away from the city ofSheikh Othman.The operation took longer than was originally planned. Over the course of the operation, hundreds of migrants died in Hashed Camp, as well as on the plane rides to Israel.By September 1950, almost 50,000 Jews had been successfully airlifted to the newly formed state of Israel.
A smaller, continuous migration was allowed to continue into 1962, when acivil warput an abrupt halt to any further Jewish exodus.
According to an official statement byAlaska Airlines:
In the wake of the1948 Arab Israeli Warwhen vast territories were added to the State of Israel, theJewish Agencyunder the good offices ofLevi Eshkol, then head of the Settlement Department in that Agency, decided to settle many of the new immigrants arriving in Israel in newly founded agricultural communities.The idea was given further impetus when Yosef Weitz of theJewish National Fundproposed settling many of the country's new immigrants upon agricultural farms built in the recently acquired territories: in the mountainous regions, in Galilee and in theJerusalem Corridor, places heretofore sparsely settled.It was decided that these new immigrants, many of whom were Yemenites, would make their livelihood by preparing the land for cultivation and planting trees. The first stage of this plan was to call such places "work villages," later to be converted into "cooperative farms" (moshavim).In this manner were establishedEshtaol,Yish'i,Ajjur,Dayraban Gimel,Allar Aleph,Allar-Bet,Kesalon, among other places, although the majority of these frontier places were later abandoned by the new immigrants from Yemen for more urban places in central Israel. This prompted Levi Eshkol to write in a letter toPrime-Minister Ben-Gurion(dated 10 April 1950): "The Yemenite vision doesn't allow him to see what he can do in a place of boulders and rocks. He cannot imagine such a development asNeve Ilanwhich sits upon dry rock. Instead, he imagines that he is being deprived..."Many Yemenite Jews became irreligious through the re-education program of the Jewish Agency.
Claims were made that, between 1949 and 1951, up to 1,033 children of Yemenite immigrant families may have disappeared from the immigrant camps. It was said that the parents were told that their children were ill and required hospitalization. Upon later visiting the hospital, it is claimed that the parents were told that their children had died though no bodies were presented and graves which have later proven to be empty in many cases were shown to the parents. Those who believed the theory contended that the Israeli government as well as other organizations in Israel kidnapped the children and gave them for adoption to other, non-Yemenite, families.
In 2001 a seven-year public inquiry commission concluded that the accusations that Yemenite children were kidnapped by the government are not true. The commission unequivocally rejected claims of a plot to take children away from Yemenite immigrants. The report determined that documentation existed showing that 972 of the 1,033 missing children were deceased. Five additional missing babies were found to be alive. The commission was unable to discover what happened in another 56 cases. With regard to these unresolved 56 cases, the commission deemed it "possible" that the children were handed over for adoption following decisions made by individual local social workers, but not as part of an official policy.In 2016, 400,000 documents were released in regard to the Yemenite Jewish Children affair.
A third wave of emigration from Yemen began in the late 20th-century, with the intercession of Human Rights activist and professor, Hayim Tawil, founder of the International Coalition for the Revival of the Jews of Yemen (ICROJOY) in 1988.Tawil was instrumental in bringing out from Yemen the first Jew to emigrate in 23 years, and who set foot in Israel in September 1990. He was followed by other families in 1992, with the greatest bulk of Jewish families arriving in Israel between 1993 and 1994. These new Yemenite Jewish immigrants settled mainly inRehovot(Oshiyot),AshkelonandBeer-Sheva. Other families arrived in 1995 and 1996.
From August 1992 to July 17, 1993, Jews numbering some 246 persons moved to Israel from Yemen, via Germany, and some via the United States.
A small Jewish community existed in the town ofBayt Harash(2 km away fromRaydah). They had a rabbi, a functioning synagogue, and amikveh. They also had a boysyeshivaand a girls seminary, funded by aSatmar-affiliatedHasidicorganization inMonsey,New York, U.S. A small Jewish enclave also existed in the town ofRaydah, which lies 30 miles (49 km) north of Sana'a. The town hosted ayeshiva, also funded by a Satmar-affiliated organization.
In spite of hostile conditions in recent years for Jews still living in Yemen, Yemeni security forces have gone to great lengths to try to convince the Jews to stay in their towns. These attempts, however, failed, and the authorities were forced to provide financial aid for the Jews so they would be able to rent accommodations in safer areas.
Despite an official ban on emigration, many Yemenite Jews emigrated to Israel, the United States, and the United Kingdom in the 2000s, fleeing anti-Semitic persecution and seeking better Jewish marriage prospects. Many of them had initially gone there to study but had never returned. There was essentially no Jewish population in Sanaʽa until theShia insurgencybroke out in northern Yemen in 2004. In 2006 it was reported that a Jewish woman in Yemen who had spurned a Muslim suitor had not only been kidnapped and forced tomarryhim, but had been forced to convert to Islam as well.TheHouthisdirectly threatened the Jewish community in 2007, prompting the government ofPresident Salehto offer them refuge inSanaʽa. As of 2010, around 700 Jews were living in the capital under government protection.
In December 2008,Moshe Ya'ish al-Nahari, a 30-year-old Hebrew teacher and kosher butcher fromRaydah, was shot and killed by Abed el-Aziz el-Abadi, a formerMiG-29pilot in theYemeni Air Force. Abadi confronted Nahari in the Raydah market, and shouted out, "Jew, accept the message of Islam", and opened fire with anAK-47. Nahari was shot five times and died. During interrogation, Abadi proudly confessed his crime, and stated that "these Jews must convert to Islam". Abadi had murdered his wife two years before but had avoided prison by paying her family compensation.The court found Abadi mentally unstable, and ordered him to pay only a fine, but an appeals court sentenced him to death.Following al-Nahari's murder, the Jewish community expressed its feelings of insecurity, claiming to have received hate mail and threats by phone from Islamic extremists. Dozens of Jews reported receiving death threats and said that they had been subjected to violent harassment. Nahari's killing and continual anti-Semitic harassment prompted approximately 20 other Jewish residents of Raydah to emigrate to Israel.In 2009, five of Nahari's children moved to Israel, and in 2012, his wife and four other children followed, having initially stayed in Yemen so she could serve as a witness in Abadi's trial.
In February 2009, 10 Yemeni Jews migrated to Israel, and in July 2009, three families, or 16 people in total, followed suit.On October 31, 2009,The Wall Street Journalreported that in June 2009, an estimated 350 Jews were left in Yemen, and by October 2009, 60 had emigrated to theUnited States, and 100 were considering following suit.The BBC estimated that the community numbered 370 and was dwindling.In 2010, it was reported that 200 Yemeni Jews would be allowed to immigrate to theUnited Kingdom.
In August 2012, Aharon Zindani, a Jewish community leader from Sana'a, was stabbed to death in a market in an anti-Semitic attack. Subsequently, his wife and five children emigrated to Israel, and took his body with them for burial in Israel, with assistance from theJewish Agencyand theIsraeli Foreign Ministry.
In January 2013, it was reported that a group of 60 Yemenite Jews had migrated to Israel in a secret operation, arriving in Israel via a flight fromQatar. This was reported to be part of a larger operation which was being carried out in order to bring the approximately 400 Jews left in Yemen to Israel in the coming months.
On October 11, 2015,LikudMKAyoob Karastated that members of the Yemenite Jewish community had contacted him to say that theHouthi-ledYemen governmenthad given them an ultimatum to convert or leave the country. A spokesman for the party of former PresidentAli Abdullah Salehdenied the reports as incorrect.
On March 21, 2016, a group of 19 Yemenite Jews were flown to Israel in a secret operation, leaving the population at about 50.On 7 June 2016, Jews who had been arrested in Yemen after having helped to smuggle out a Torah scroll were released.
In May 2017 the Yemeni-based charityMona Relief(Yemen Organization for Humanitarian Relief and Development) gave aid to 86 members of the Jewish community in Sana'a.
In a July 2018 interview with a Yemenite rabbi, he claimed that they were definitely treated very well before the recentwar in Yemenwhich has affected all communities in Yemen. He has also said that Yemenite Jews should have never traveled away from Yemen and that he believes thousands of Yemenite Jews will return to Yemen after the war ends.
In 2019, the Mona Relief website reported (February 25): "Mona Relief's team in the capital Sana'a delivered today monthly food aid packages to Jewish minority families in Yemen. Mona Relief has been delivering food aid baskets to Jewish community in the capital Sana'a since 2016. Our project today was funded by Mona Relief's online fundraising campaign in indiegogo..."
As of March 2020, the Jewish cemetery in Aden was destroyed.On April 28, 2020, Yemenite Minister Moammer al-Iryani remarked thefate of the last 50 Jewsin Yemen isunknown.
A 2020 World Population Review with a Census of Jewish population by country hasnolisting ofanyJews in Yemen.
On July 13, 2020, it was reported that the Houthi Militia were capturing the last Jews of Yemen of theKharif District.In their last mention of the Jews in Yemen in July 2020 the Mona Relief reported on their Website that as of July 19, 2020, of the Jewish Population in Yemen there were only a "handful" of Jews in Sana'a.
According to Yemeni publications published in July 2020, the last two Jewish families were waiting for deportation from the areas controlled by the Houthis, which would make Yemen, for the first time in its modern history, devoid of Jews, with the exception of the families of the brothers Suleiman Musa Salem and Sulaiman Yahya Habib in Sana'a and the family of Salem Musa Mara'bi who moved to the complex owned by the Ministry of Defense near the U.S. embassy in 2007 after the Houthis assaulted them and looted their homes. The publications said that a Jewish woman lives with her brother in the Rayda district and a man and his wife live in the Arhab district of the Sana'a governorate. A source said, "It is now clear that the Houthis want to deport the rest of the Jews, and prevent them from selling their properties at their real prices, and we are surprised that the international community and local and international human rights organizations have remained silent towards the process of forced deportation and forcing the Jews to leave their country and prevent them from disposing of their property.
In August 2020 of an estimated 100 or so remaining Yemen Jews, 42 have migrated to UAE and the rest would also leave.On November 10, 2020, the U.S. State Department called for the immediate and unconditional release ofLevi Salem Musa Marhabi, one of the last remaining Yemenite Jews in Yemen. A press statement said Marhabi has been wrongfully detained by the Houthi militia for four years, despite a court ordering his release in September 2019.In December 2020 an Israeli Rabbi visited the Yemenite Jews who escaped to the UAE.
On 28 March 2021, 13 Jews were forced by the Houthis to leave Yemen; less than 10 Jews still resided in Yemen.According to one report there are six Jews left in Yemen: one woman; her brother; 3 others, and Levi Salem Marhabi (who has been imprisoned for helping smuggle a Torah scroll out of Yemen).The Jerusalem Postreported that the remaining Jewish population in Yemen consists of four elderly Jews, ending the continuous presence of a community that dated back to antiquity.In December 2021 the Jews of Yemen received Hanukkah kits.In March 2022 the United Nations reported there is just one Jew in Yemen (Levi Salem Marhabi),howeverYnetcited local sources stating that as of 19 June 2024 the actual number is five.
Yemenite Jews and the Aramaic speakingKurdish Jewsare the only communities who maintain the tradition of reading theTorahin the synagogue in both Hebrew and the AramaicTargum("translation"). Most non-Yemenite synagogues have a specified person called a Baal Koreh, who reads from the Torah scroll when congregants are called to the Torah scroll for analiyah. In the Yemenite tradition, each person called to theTorah scrollfor an aliyah reads for himself. Children under the age ofBar Mitzvahare often given the sixth aliyah. Each verse of the Torah read in Hebrew is followed by the Aramaic translation, usually chanted by a child. Both the sixth aliyah and the Targum have a simplified melody, distinct from the general Torah melody used for the other aliyot.
Like most other Jewish communities, Yemenite Jews chant different melodies for Torah, Prophets (Haftara), Megillat Aicha (Book of Lamentations), Kohelet (Ecclesiastes, read duringSukkot), and MegillatEsther(the Scroll of Esther read onPurim). UnlikeAshkenaziccommunities, there are melodies for Mishle (Proverbs) andPsalms.
In larger Jewish communities, such asSana'aandSad'a, boys were sent to themelamedat the age of three to begin their religious learning. They attended themelamedfrom early dawn to sunset on Sunday through Thursday and until noon on Friday. Jewish women were required to have a thorough knowledge of the laws pertaining toKashrutand Taharat Mishpachah (family purity) i.e.Niddah. Some women even mastered the laws ofShechita, thereby acting as ritual slaughterers.
People also sat on the floors of synagogues instead of sitting on chairs, similar to the way many other non-Ashkenazi Jews sat in synagogues. This is in accordance with what Rambam (Maimonides) wrote in hisMishneh Torah:
The lack of chairs may also have been to provide more space forprostration, another ancient Jewish observance that the Jews of Yemen continued to practise until very recent times.There are still a few Yemenite Jews who prostrate themselves during the part of everyday Jewish prayer calledTachanun(Supplication), though such individuals usually do so in privacy. In the small Jewish community that exists today in Bet Harash, prostration is still done during the tachanun prayer. Jews of European origin generally prostrate only during certain portions of special prayers duringRosh Hashanah(Jewish New Year) andYom Kippur(Day of Atonement). Prostration was a common practise amongst all Jews until some point during the lateMiddle AgesorRenaissanceperiod.
Like Yemenite Jewish homes, the synagogues in Yemen had to be lower in height than the lowest mosque in the area. In order to accommodate this, synagogues were built into the ground to give them more space without looking large from the outside. In some parts of Yemen,minyanimwould often just meet in homes of Jews, instead of the community having a separate building for a synagogue. Beauty and artwork were saved for the ritual objects in the synagogue and in the home.
Yemenite Jews also wore a distinctivetallitoften found to this day. The Yemenite tallit features a wideataraand large corner patches, embellished with silver or gold thread, and the fringes along the sides of the tallit are netted. According to the Baladi custom, thetzitzitare tied with sevenchulyot(hitches), based onMaimonides' teaching.
On Sabbath days, the traditional Yemenite bread was not theChallah, as found in Western Jewish communities, but theKubaneh, which was eaten on Sabbath mornings after first making the blessing over twoflatbreadsbaked in anearthen oven.
During a Yemenite Jewish wedding, the bride was bedecked with jewelry and wore a traditional wedding costume, including an elaborate headdress decorated with flowers and rue leaves, which were believed to ward off evil. Gold threads were woven into the fabric of her clothing. Songs were sung as part of a seven-day wedding celebration, with lyrics about friendship and love in alternating verses of Hebrew and Arabic.
In Yemen, the Jewish practice was not for the groom and his bride to be secluded in a canopy (chuppah) hung on four poles, as is widely practiced today in Jewish weddings, but rather in a bridal chamber that was, in effect, a highly decorated room in the house of the groom. This room was traditionally decorated with large hanging sheets of colored, patterned cloth, replete with wall cushions and short-length mattresses for reclining.Their marriage is consummated when they have been left together alone in this room. This ancient practice finds expression in the writings ofIsaac ben Abba Mari(c. 1122 – c. 1193), author ofSefer ha-'Ittur,concerning the Benediction of the Bridegroom: "Now thechuppahis when her father delivers her unto her husband, bringing her into that house wherein is some new innovation, such as the sheets… surrounding the walls, etc. For we recite in the Jerusalem Talmud,Sotah46a (Sotah9:15), 'Those bridal chambers, (chuppoth hathanim), they hang within them patterned sheets and gold-embroidered ribbons,' etc."
After immigration to Israel, the regional varieties of Yemenite bridal jewelry were replaced by a uniform item that became identified with the community: the splendid bridal garb of Sana'a.
Before the wedding, Yemenite and other Eastern Jewish communities perform the henna ceremony, an ancient ritual withBronze Ageorigins.The family of the bride mixes a paste derived from thehennaplant that is placed on the palms of the bride and groom, and their guests. After the paste is washed off, a deep orange stain remains that gradually fades over the next week.
Yemenites had a special affinity for Henna due to biblical and Talmudic references. Henna, in the Bible, is Camphire, and is mentioned in theSong of Solomon, as well as in theTalmud. This tradition is also practiced byPashtunsandAfghan Jews.
A Yemenite Jewish wedding custom specific only to the community of Aden is the Talbis, revolving around the groom. A number of special songs are sung by the men while holding candles, and the groom is dressed in a golden garment.
The three main groups of Yemenite Jews are the Baladi, Shami, and the Maimonideans or "Rambamists". In addition, the "Rechabites" are a tribe in Sana'a claiming to be descendants ofJehonadabthat was found in 1839 by ReverendJoseph Wolff, who later went toBukharato attempt to save Lieutenant ColonelCharles Stoddartand CaptainArthur Conolly.
The differences between these groups largely concern the respective influence of the original Yemenite tradition, which was largely based on the works of Maimonides, and on theKabbalistictradition embodied in theZoharand in the school ofIsaac Luria, which was increasingly influential from the 17th century on.
Towards the end of the 19th century, new ideas began to reach Yemenite Jews from abroad. Hebrew newspapers began to arrive, and relations developed with Sephardic Jews, who came to Yemen from various Ottoman provinces to trade with the army and government officials.
Two Jewish travelers,Joseph Halévy, a French-trained Jewish Orientalist, andEduard Glaser, an Austrian-Jewish astronomer and Arabist, in particular had a strong influence on a group of young Yemenite Jews, the most outstanding of whom was RabbiYiḥyah Qafiḥ. As a result of his contact with Halévy and Glaser,Qafiḥ introduced modern content into the educational system. Qafiḥ opened a new school and, in addition to traditional subjects, introduced arithmetic, Hebrew and Arabic, with the grammar of both languages. The curriculum also included subjects such as natural science, history, geography, astronomy, sports and Turkish.
The Dor Daim and Iqshim dispute about the Zohar literature broke out in 1912, inflamedSana'a's Jewish community, and split it into two rival groups that maintained separate communal institutionsuntil the late 1940s. Rabbi Qafiḥ and his friends were the leaders of a group of Maimonideans calledDor Daim(the "generation of knowledge"). Their goal was to bring Yemenite Jews back to the original Maimonidean method of understanding Judaism that existed in pre-17th-centuryYemen.
Similar to certainSpanish and Portuguese Jews(WesternSephardi Jews), theDor Daimrejected theZohar, a book of esoteric mysticism. They felt that theKabbalahwhich was based on the Zohar was irrational, alien, and inconsistent with the true reasonable nature ofJudaism. In 1913, when it seemed that Rabbi Qafiḥ, then headmaster of the new Jewish school and working closely with the Ottoman authorities, enjoyed sufficient political support, the Dor Daim made its views public, and tried to convince the entire community to accept them. Many of the non-Dor Deah elements of the community rejected the Dor Deah concepts. The opposition, the Iqshim, headed by RabbiYiḥya Yiṣḥaq, theHakham Bashi, refused to deviate from the accepted customs and from the study of the Zohar. One of the Iqshim's targets in the fight against Rabbi Qafiḥ was his modern Turkish-Jewish school.Due to the Dor Daim and Iqshim dispute, the school closed 5 years after it was opened, before the educational system could develop a reserve of young people who had been exposed to its ideas.
Education of children was of paramount importance to Jewish fathers in Yemen, who, as a rule, sent their children from an early age to study the portions of theTorah, usually under the tutelage of a local teacher. Often, such teachings were conducted in the home of their teacher. It was not uncommon for the teacher to be occupied in his trade (coat maker, weaver, etc.) while instructing his students.All instruction consisted of the recital and memorization of sacred texts. The most astute of these students, when they came of age, pursued after a higher Jewish education and which almost always entailed studyingShechita(ritual slaughter), and receiving a license (Hebrew:הרשאה) from a qualified instructor to slaughter domestic livestock.
Yemenite Hebrew has been studied by scholars, many of whom believe it to contain the most ancient phonetic and grammatical features.There are two main pronunciations ofYemenite Hebrew, considered by many scholars to be the most accurate modern-day form of Biblical Hebrew, although there are technically a total of five that relate to the regions of Yemen. In the Yemenite dialect, allHebrew lettershave a distinct sound, except forsāmeḵ(Hebrew:ס) andśîn(Hebrew:שׂ), which are both pronounced/s/.TheSanaani Hebrewpronunciation (used by the majority) has been indirectly critiqued bySaadia Gaonsince it contains the Hebrew lettersjimmelandguf, which he rules is incorrect. There are Yemenite scholars, such as RabbiRatzon Arusi, who say that such a perspective is a misunderstanding of Saadia Gaon's words.
Rabbi Mazuz postulates this hypothesis through the Djerban (Tunisia) Jewish dialect's use ofgimmelandquf, switching tojimmelandgufwhen talking with Gentiles in the Arabic dialect of Jerba. While Jewish boys learned Hebrew from the age of 3, it was used primarily as a liturgical and scholarly language. In daily life, Yemenite Jews spoke inregional Judeo-Arabic.
The oldest Yemenite manuscripts are those of theHebrew Bible, which the Yemenite Jews call "Taj" ("crown"). The oldest texts dating from the 9th century, and each of them has a short Masoretic introduction, while many contain Arabic commentaries.
Yemenite Jews were acquainted with the works ofSaadia Gaon,Rashi, Kimhi,Nahmanides,Yehudah ha Levyand Isaac Arama, besides producing a number of exegetes from among themselves. In the 14th century, Nathanael ben Isaiah wrote an Arabic commentary on the Bible; in the second half of the 15th century, Saadia ben David al-Adeni was the author of a commentary onLeviticus,Numbers, andDeuteronomy. Abraham ben Solomon wrote on theProphets.
Among themidrashcollections from Yemen mention should be made of theMidrash ha-Gadolof David bar Amram al-Adeni. Between 1413 and 1430 the physician Yaḥya Zechariah b. Solomon wrote a compilation entitled "Midrash ha-Ḥefeẓ," which included thePentateuch,Lamentations,Book of Esther, and other sections of theHebrew Bible. Between 1484 and 1493 David al-Lawani composed his "Midrash al-Wajiz al-Mughni."The earliest completeJudeo-Arabiccopy ofMaimonides'Guide for the Perplexed, copied inYemenin 1380, was found in theIndia Office Libraryand added to the collection of theBritish Libraryin 1992.
Among theYemenite poetswho wrote Hebrew and Arabic hymns modeled after the Spanish school, mention may be made ofZechariah (Yaḥya) al-Dhahiriand the members of theShabazifamily. Al-Dhahiri's work, which makes use of the poetic genre known asmaqāmah, a style inspired by Ḥariri, was written in 1573 under the titleSefer ha-Musar. Herein, the author describes in 45 chapters his travels throughout India, Iraq, Turkey, Syria, the Land of Israel and Egypt, including a description of RabbiYosef Karo's seat of learning inSafed. The philosophical writers include: Saadia b. Jabeẓ and Saadia b. Mas'ud, both at the beginning of the 14th century; Ibn al-Ḥawas, the author of a treatise in the form of a dialogue written in rhymed prose, and termed by its author the "Flower of Yemen"; Ḥasan al-Dhamari; and Joseph ha-Levi b. Jefes, who wrote the philosophical treatises "Ner Yisrael" (1420) and "Kitab al-Masaḥah."
ATunic(Hebrew:חלוק) and habit (Hebrew:סודרא), the latter made with a central hat (Hebrew:כומתא), were the traditional items of clothing worn by a married Jewish man in Yemen.Leading rabbinic scholar and sage, RabbiYosef Qafih, described the manner in which they would wrap their habits, saying that the habit was sometimes worn while wrapped around a man's head, or simply partly draped over his head. German ethnographerErich Brauer(1895–1942) described the differences between Jewish and Gentile garb, making note of the fact that the differences existed only in their outer garments, but not in their undergarments. He also offered the following description:
As noted, some of the men's dress-codes were forced upon them by laws of the State. For example, formerly in Yemen, Jews were not allowed to wear clothing of any color besides blue.Earlier, inJacob Saphir's time (1859), they'd wear outer garments that were "utterly black." When German-Danish explorer,Carsten Niebuhr, visited Yemen in 1763, the only person he saw wearing the blue-colored tunic was the Jewish courtier, the Minister and Prince, Sālim b. Aharon Irāqi Ha-Kohen, who served under two kings for a period of no less than twenty-eight years.
The traditional Yemenitetallītis a full-lengthtallītmade from fine wool or goat's hair of a single black or brown color, calledšämläh, but it was not unique unto Jews alone. Muslims would also wear similar items of covering, to protect them from the heat or rain.Jewish garments, however, bore the ritualfringesprescribed for such garments. The wearing of such garments was not unique to prayer time alone, but was worn the entire day.Later, decorative black and white striped shawls were imported into the country from Europe, and which were highly valued by the Jews of Yemen who wore them on special occasions and on the Sabbath day. The smalltallīt(ṭallīt kaṭan) was introduced into Yemen viaAdenfrom European centers, and principally worn by rabbis and educated persons.
Jewish women in Yemen traditionally wore branchedpantaloonsbeneath their long black tunics. The pantaloons were usually made of a jet-black color, tapering close to their ankles, and decorated at the lower seams with a fine embroidered stitch of silver. The tunic served as, both, a dress and long-sleeved blouse, all in one piece. In addition, all young girls wore a black, conical shaped hat upon their heads, which took the place of a scarf. These hats were called in the local vernacular,gargush, and were also decorated with an embroidered sash about its borders, besides being equipped with tapering flaps that extended down to the ears and to the nape of the neck. Older women inSana'awould wear a broad veil-like scarf over their heads, calledmaswan, especially when going out in public places, and which was traditionally worn above the closer fitting scarves that covered their hair. All women were adorned with black slippers when walking in public places, and only very small girls would walk barefoot.
Jewish women and girls inHaydan a-sham(in the far northern districts of Yemen) did not make use of thegargush, but would wear a black scarf tied firmly to their foreheads, resembling a black band, along with the covering made by an additional scarf that covered the hair.
The Yemenite Jews are known for bringing to Israel certain culinary dishes, now popularly eaten by all ethnic-groups living in Israel, namely, themalawach(itself an adaptation of the Yemenimulawah), andjachnun. Lesser-known breadstuffs include thekubaneh(a traditional Sabbath bread),luḥūḥ,sabayah, andzalabiyeh.
The subject of Jewish surnames in Yemen is a complex one. Most surnames aregentilicortoponymic surnames, meaning, they are derived from the name of an ancestor's place of residence (the name of a town or village, such as Gadasi from al-Gades; Qa'taby from Qa'tabah; Manqadi from Manqadah; Damari from Dhamar, Damti from Damt, etc.), while fewer are eponymous orpatronymic surnames, being derived from the name of an ancient ancestor.Some surnames reflect an ancestor's profession.In some cases, surnames are derived from a certain physical characteristic of one's distant ancestor.Some families bear original Spanish surnames, such as Medina and Giyyat. Some names went through additional changes upon emigration toIsrael. For example, some who formerly bore the surname of Radha (Judeo-Arabic:רצ'א‎) have changed their surname to Ratzon (Hebrew:רצון‎), the Hebrew being the direct translation of the word's meaning in Arabic, while yet others have simply changed their names to a more Hebraicized sound, such as the surnames of Al-Nadaf (lit. a stuffer of cushions; carder of cotton), which was later changed to Nadav ("generous"), and 'Urqabi (so-named from a locality in Yemen) which was later changed to Argov; or Sheḥib (Judeo-Arabic:שחב‎), meaning "one whose voice is hoarse," which was changed to Shevach (Hebrew:שבח‎), meaning "praise," by a reversal of the last two letters.
Some Jewish families have preserved traditions which are related to their tribal affiliations, based on partial genealogical records which have been passed down from generation to generation. In Yemen, for example, some Jews trace their lineage toJudah, others trace their lineage toBenjamin, and others trace their lineage toLeviandReuben. Of particular interest is one distinguished Jewish family of Yemen which traced its lineage to Bani, one of the sons of Peretz, the son of Judah.
Israeli Yemenite Jews were initially discouraged from practicing their culture by the dominant Ashkenazi majority, and the practice of usinghennabefore weddings declined. Beginning around the late 1970s, discussions were held in honor of the ethnic heritage of Yemenite Jews and by 2018, a revival of some Yemenite customs occurred. The cathartic moment was an exhibition of a Yemeni bride which was shown at theIsrael Museumin 1965.
Yemeni Jews are predominant among Israeli performers of Mizrahi music.Yemenite singerShoshana Damariis considered "The queen of Israeli music", and 2 of the most successful Israeli singers abroad,Ofra HazaandAchinoam Nini(Noa), are of Yemenite origin. At theEurovision Song Contest, 1998, 1979, and 1978 winnersDana International,Gali Atari, andIzhar Cohen, 1983 runner-upOfra Haza, and 2008 top 10 finalistBoaz Mauda, are Yemenite Jews.Harel Skaat, who competed at Oslo in 2010, is the son of a Yemenite Jewish father. Other Israeli singers and musicians of Yemenite Jewish descent includeZohar Argov, the three sisters of the music groupA-WA(Yemenite Jewish father),Inbar Bakal,Mosh Ben-Ari,Yosefa Dahari,Daklon,Eyal Golan,Zion Golan,Yishai Levi,Sara Levi-Tanai(choreographer and songwriter),Bo'az Ma'uda,Avihu Medina,Boaz Sharabi,Pe'er Tasi,Rucka Rucka Ali,Shimi Tavori,Margalit Tzan'ani, andTomer YosefofBalkan Beat Box.
Israeli Politicians of Yemenite Jewish descent includeGila Gamliel(current member of the Knesset for Likud),Meir Yitzhak Halevi(the Mayor ofEilat),Saadia Kobashi(leader of the Yemenite Jewish community in Israel, and one of the signatories of the country's declaration of independence), andAvraham Taviv.
Becky Griffin, whose mother is Yemenite Jewish, works as a model, TV presenter and actress.Shahar Tzuberiis an Olympic windsurfer.Linoy Ashramis an Israeli individual rhythmic gymnast. She is the 2020 Olympic All-around Champion.Sagi Mukiis an Olympic championjudoka.
Studies on uniparental haplogroups have indicated shared roots between Yemenite Jewish andmembers of the world's other various Jewish communities, as well as some type of contribution from the local non-Jewish population.Y chromosomehaplogroups have shown a strong link to other Jewish groups, such as the EuropeanAshkenaziand Middle EasternIraqi Jews, and to non-JewishLevantinepopulations, such asPalestiniansandSamaritans.Yemenite Jews commonly carry West Eurasianmitochondrial DNAhaplogroups that are found in other Jewish and Levantine groups but not in non-Jewish Yemenis, suggesting ancientIsraelitedescent. What makes them stand out among Jewish populations is the presence ofsub-Saharan AfricanL haplogroups, which are common among non-Jewish Yemenis but not in other Jewish groups. Nonetheless, compared to non-Jewish Yemenis, Yemenite Jews have a lower frequency and diversity of L haplotypes.It has been proposed that the L lineages might reflect admixture from a local non-Jewish source,whereas a 2011 study by Amy L. Non and others concluded that there is ”little evidence for large-scale conversion of local Yemeni”.
Byautosomal DNA, Yemenite Jews are relatively distinct from other Jewish groups. Instead, they are closer to the non-Jewish population of the Arabian Peninsula.
However, according toSimon Schama, the Israeli geneticistBatsheva Bonne-Tamirestablished that the ancestry of Yemeni Jews goes back to south-Western Arabian and Bedouin conversions.
In medicine, the mutation SAMD9 (sterile alpha motif domain containing 9), which encodes a protein involved in the regulation of extraosseous calcification, has been found to underlie normophosphatemic familial tumoral calcinosis in families of Jewish Yemenite origin.