Beef

Beefis theculinary nameformeatfromcattle(Bos taurus). Beef can be prepared in various ways;cutsare often used forsteak, which can be cooked to varying degrees ofdoneness, while trimmings are oftenground or minced, as found in mosthamburgers. Beef containsprotein,iron, andvitamin B12. Along with other kinds ofred meat, high consumption is associated with an increased risk ofcolorectal cancerandcoronary heart disease, especially whenprocessed. Beef has a highenvironmental impact, being a primary driver ofdeforestationwith the highestgreenhouse gas emissionsof any agricultural product.
In prehistoric times, humankind huntedaurochsand laterdomesticatedthem. Since that time, numerousbreeds of cattlehave beenbredspecifically for the quality or quantity of their meat. Today, beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, afterporkandpoultry. As of 2018, the United States, Brazil, and China were the largest producers of beef.
Some religions and culturesprohibit beef consumption, especiallyIndian religionslikeHinduism.Buddhistsare also againstanimal slaughtering, but they do not have a wrongful eating doctrine.
The wordbeefis from the Latin wordbōs,in contrast tocowwhich is from Middle Englishcou(both words have the sameIndo-Europeanroot*gʷou-).
This is one example of the common English dichotomy between the words for animals (with largelyGermanicorigins) and their meat (withRomanicorigins) that is also found in such English word-pairs aspig/pork,deer/venison,sheep/mutton, andchicken/poultry(also the less commongoat/chevon).Beefiscognatewithbovinethrough theLate Latinbovīnus.The rarely used plural form of beef isbeeves.
People have eaten the flesh ofbovinessince prehistoric times; some of the earliest knowncave paintings, such as those ofLascaux, showaurochsin hunting scenes.Peopledomesticatedcattle to provide ready access to beef,milk, andleather.Cattle have been domesticated at least twice over the course of evolutionary history. The first domestication event occurred around 10,500 years ago with the evolution ofBos taurus. The second was more recent, around 7,000 years ago, with the evolution ofBos indicusin theIndian subcontinent. There is a possible third domestication event 8,500 years ago, with a potential third speciesBos africanusarising in Africa.
In the United States, the growth of the beef business was largely due to expansion in the Southwest. Upon the acquisition of grasslands through theMexican–American Warof 1848, and later the expulsion of the Plains Indians from this region and theMidwest, the American livestock industry began, starting primarily with the taming offeralandsemi-feralLonghorn cattle. Chicago and New York City were the first to benefit from these developments in their stockyards and in their meat markets.
Beef cattleare raised andfedusing a variety of methods, includingfeedlots,free range,ranching,backgroundingandintensive animal farming.Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations(CAFOs), commonly referred to as factory farms, are commonly used to meet the demand of beef production. CAFOs supply 70.4% of cows in the US market and 99% of all meat in the United States supply.Cattle CAFOs can also be a source ofE. colicontamination in the food supplydue to the prevalence of manure in CAFOs. TheseE. colicontaminations include one strain,E. coliO157:H7, which can be toxic to humans, because cattle typically hold this strain in their digestive system.Another consequence of unsanitary conditions created by high-density confinement systems is increaseduse of antibioticsin order to prevent illness.An analysis ofFDAsales data by theNatural Resources Defense Councilfound 42% of medically important antibiotic use in the U.S. was on cattle, posing concerns about the development ofantibiotic resistantbacteria.In 2023 production was forecast to peak by 2035.
The consumption of beef poses numerous threats to thenatural environment. Of all agricultural products, beef requires some of the most land and water, and its production results in the greatest amount ofgreenhouse gas emissions(GHG),air pollution, and water pollution.A 2021 study added up GHG emissions from the entire lifecycle, including production, transportation, and consumption, and estimated that beef contributed about 4 billion tonnes (9%) ofanthropogenic greenhouse gasesin 2010.Cattle populations graze around 26% of all land on Earth, not including the largeagricultural fieldsthat are used to grow cattle feed.According toFAO, "Ranching-induced deforestation is one of the main causes of loss of some unique plant and animal species in the tropical rainforests of Central and South America as well as carbon release in the atmosphere."Beef is also the primary driver ofdeforestationin theAmazon, with around 80% of all converted land being used to rear cattle.91% of Amazon land deforested since 1970 has been converted to cattle ranching.41% of global deforestation from 2005 to 2013 has been attributed to the expansion of beef production.This is due to the higher ratio of net energy of gain to net energy of maintenance where metabolizable energy intake is higher.The ratio of feed required to produce an equivalent amount of beef (live weight) has been estimated at 7:1 to 43:1, compared with about 2:1 for chicken.However, assumptions about feed quality are implicit in such generalizations. For example, production of a kilogram of beef cattle live weight may require between 4 and 5 kilograms of feed high in protein and metabolizable energy content, or more than 20 kilograms of feed of much lower quality.A simple exchange of beef to soy beans (a common feed source for cattle) in Americans' diets would, according to one estimate, result in meeting between 46 and 74 percent of the reductions needed to meet the 2020 greenhouse gas emission goals of the United States as pledged in 2009.A 2021CSIROtrial concluded that feeding cattle a 3% diet of the seaweedAsparagopsis taxiformiscould reduce the methane component of their emissions by 80%.While such feed options are still experimental, even when looking at the most widely used feeds around the globe, there is high variability in efficiency.One study found that shifting compositions of current feeds, production areas, and informed land restoration could enable greenhouse gas emissions reductions of 34–85% annually (612–1,506 MtCO2e yr−1) without increasing costs to global beef production.
Some scientists claim that the demand for beef is contributing tosignificant biodiversity lossas it is a significant driver of deforestation andhabitat destruction; species-rich habitats, such as significant portions of the Amazon region, are being converted to agriculture for meat production.The 2019IPBESGlobal Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Servicesalso concurs that the beef industry plays a significant role inbiodiversity loss.Around 25% to nearly 40% of global land surface is being used for livestock farming, which is mostly cattle.
Some kinds of beef may receive special certifications or designations based on criteria including their breed (Certified Angus Beef,Certified Hereford Beef),origin(Kobe beef,Carne de Ávila,Belgian Blue), or the way the cattle are treated, fed or slaughtered (organic,grass-fed,Kosher, orHalalbeef). Some countries regulate the marketing and sale of beef by observing criteria post-slaughter andclassifyingthe observed quality of the meat.
In 2018, the United States, Brazil, and China produced the most beef with 12.22 million tons, 9.9 million tons, and 6.46 million tons respectively.The top 3 beef exporting countries in 2019 were Australia (14.8% of total exports), the United States (13.4% of total exports), and Brazil (12.6% of total exports).Beef production is also important to theeconomiesof Japan, Argentina, Uruguay, Canada, Paraguay, Mexico, Belarus and Nicaragua.
As per 2020, Brazil was the largest beef exporter in the world followed by Australia, United States, India (IncludesCarabeefonly) and Argentina.Brazil, Australia, the United States and India accounted for roughly 61% of the world's beef exports.
The world produced 60.57 million metric tons of beef in 2020, down 950K metric tons from the prior year. Major decline for production of beef was from India up to 510k and Australia down to 309K metric tons from the prior year.
Most beef can be used as is by merely cutting into certain parts, such asroasts,short ribsorsteak(filet mignon,sirloin steak,rump steak,rib steak,rib eye steak,hanger steak, etc.), while other cuts are processed (corned beeforbeef jerky). Trimmings, on the other hand, which are usually mixed with meat from older, leaner (therefore tougher) cattle, areground,mincedor used insausages. The blood is used in some varieties calledblood sausage. Other parts that are eaten include other muscles andoffal, such as theoxtail,liver,tongue,tripefrom thereticulumorrumen,glands(particularly thepancreasandthymus, referred to assweetbread), theheart, thebrain(although forbidden where there is a danger ofbovine spongiform encephalopathy, BSE, commonly referred to as mad cow disease), thekidneys, and the tendertesticlesof the bull (known in the United States ascalf fries,prairie oysters, orRocky Mountain oysters). Someintestinesare cooked and eaten as is,but are more often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings. The bones are used for makingbeef stock. Meat from younger cows (calves) is calledveal. Beef fromsteersandheifersis similar.
Beef is first divided intoprimal cuts, large pieces of the animal initially separated by butchering. These are basic sections from whichsteaksand other subdivisions are cut. The term "primal cut" is quite different from "prime cut", used to characterize cuts considered to be of higher quality. Since the animal's legs and neck muscles do the most work, they are the toughest; the meat becomes more tender as distance fromhoof and hornincreases. Different countries and cuisines have different cuts and names, and sometimes use the same name for a different cut; for example, the cut described as "brisket" in the United States is from a significantly different part of the carcass than British brisket.
To improvetendernessof beef, it is often aged (i.e., stored refrigerated) to allow endogenousproteolyticenzymes to weaken structural andmyofibrillarproteins. Wet aging is accomplished using vacuum packaging to reduce spoilage and yield loss. Dry aging involves hanging primals (usually ribs or loins) in humidity-controlled coolers. Outer surfaces dry out and can support growth of molds (and spoilage bacteria, if too humid), resulting in trim and evaporative losses.
Evaporation concentrates the remaining proteins and increases flavor intensity; the molds can contribute a nut-like flavor. After two to three days there are significant effects. The majority of the tenderizing effect occurs in the first 10 days. Boxed beef, stored and distributed in vacuum packaging, is, in effect, wet aged during distribution. Premium steakhouses dry age for 21 to 28 days or wet age up to 45 days for maximum effect on flavor and tenderness.
Meat from less tender cuts or older cattle can be mechanically tenderized by forcing small, sharp blades through the cuts to disrupt the proteins. Also, solutions of exogenous proteolytic enzymes (papain,bromelinorficin) can be applied or injected to augment the endogenous enzymes; this can be done with purified enzyme or by using amarinadeincluding ingredients that naturally contain the enzyme (e.g.papayafor papain orpineapplefor bromelin). Similarly, solutions of salt and sodium phosphates can be injected to soften and swell the myofibrillar proteins. This improves juiciness and tenderness. Salt can improve the flavor, but phosphate can contribute a soapy flavor.
These methods are applicable to all types of meat and some other foodstuffs.
Beef can be cooked to various degrees, from very rare to well done. The degree of cooking corresponds to the temperature in the approximate center of the meat, which can be measured with ameat thermometer. Beef can be cooked using thesous-videmethod, which cooks the entire steak to the same temperature, but when cooked using a method such asbroilingorroastingit is typically cooked such that it has a "bulls eye" of doneness, with the least done (coolest) at the center and the most done (warmest) at the outside.
Meat can be cooked in boiling oil, typically byshallow frying, althoughdeep fryingmay be used, often for meat enrobed withbreadcrumbsas inmilanesasorfinger steaks. Larger pieces such as steaks may be cooked this way, or meat may be cut smaller as instir frying, typically an Asian way of cooking: cooking oil with flavorings such as garlic, ginger and onions is put in a very hotwok. Then small pieces of meat are added, followed by ingredients which cook more quickly, such as mixed vegetables. The dish is ready when the ingredients are 'just cooked'.
Moist heat cooking methods includebraising,pot roasting,stewingandsous-vide. These techniques are often used for cuts of beef that are tougher, as these longer, lower-temperature cooking methods have time to dissolve connecting tissue which otherwise makes meat remain tough after cooking.
Meat has usually been cooked in water which is justsimmering, such as in stewing; higher temperatures make meat tougher by causing the proteins to contract. Sincethermostatictemperature control became available, cooking at temperatures well below boiling, 52 °C (126 °F) (sous-vide) to 90 °C (194 °F) (slow cooking), for prolonged periods has become possible; this is just hot enough to convert the toughcollagenin connective tissue into gelatin throughhydrolysis, with minimal toughening.
With the adequate combination of temperature and cooking time,pathogens, such asbacteriawill be killed, andpasteurizationcan be achieved. Because browning (Maillard reactions) can only occur at higher temperatures (above the boiling point of water), these moist techniques do not develop the flavors associated with browning. Meat will often undergosearingin a very hot pan,grillingor browning with a torch before moist cooking (though sometimes after).
Thermostatically controlled methods, such as sous-vide, can also prevent overcooking by bringing the meat to the exact degree of doneness desired, and holding it at that temperature indefinitely. The combination of precise temperature control and long cooking duration makes it possible to be assured that pasteurization has been achieved, both on the surface and the interior of even very thick cuts of meat, which can not be assured with most other cooking techniques.  (Although extremely long-duration cooking can break down the texture of the meat to an undesirable degree.)
Beef can be cooked quickly at the table through several techniques. Inhot potcooking, such asshabu-shabu, very thinly sliced meat is cooked by the diners at the table by immersing it in a heated pot of water or stock with vegetables. Infonduebourguignonne, diners dip small pieces of beef into a pot of hot oil at the table. Both techniques typically feature accompanying flavorfulsaucesto complement the meat.
Steak tartareis aFrenchdish made from finely chopped or ground (minced) raw meat (often beef). More accurately, it is scraped so as not to let even the slightest of the sinew fat get into the scraped meat. It is often served with onions, capers, seasonings such as fresh ground pepper and Worcestershire sauce, and sometimes raw egg yolk.
TheBelgianor Dutch dishfilet américainis also made of finely chopped ground beef, though it is seasoned differently, and either eaten as a main dish or can be used as a dressing for a sandwich.Kibbeh nayyehis a similarLebaneseandSyriandish. And in Ethiopia, a ground raw meat dish calledtire sigaorkitfois eaten (upon availability).
Carpaccioof beef is a thin slice of raw beef dressed with olive oil, lemon juice and seasoning. Often, the beef is partially frozen before slicing to allow very thin slices to be cut.
Yukhoeis a variety ofhoe, raw dishes inKorean cuisinewhich is usually made from raw ground beef seasoned with various spices or sauces. The beef part used foryukhoeis tenderrump steak. For the seasoning,soy sauce, sugar, salt, sesame oil, green onion, and ground garlic, sesame seed, black pepper and juice ofbae(Korean pear) are used. The beef is mostly topped with the yolk of a raw egg.
Bresaolais anair-dried, salted beef that has been aged about two to three months until it becomes hard and a dark red, almost purple, colour. It is lean, has a sweet, musty smell and is tender. It originated inValtellina, a valley in theAlpsof northern Italy'sLombardyregion.Bündnerfleischis a similar product from neighbouring Switzerland.Chipped beefis an American industrially produced air-dried beef product, described by one of its manufacturers as being "similar to bresaola, but not as tasty."
Beef jerkyis dried, salted, smoked beef popular in the United States.
Biltongis a cured, salted, air dried beef popular in South Africa.
Pastramiis often made from beef; raw beef issalted, then partly dried and seasoned with various herbs and spices, andsmoked.
Corned beefis a cut of beef cured or pickled in a seasonedbrine. The corn incorned beefrefers to the grains of coarse salts (known as corns) used to cure it. The termcorned beefcan denote different styles of brine-cured beef, depending on the region. Some, like American-style corned beef, are highly seasoned and often considereddelicatessenfare.
Spiced beefis a cured and salted joint of round, topside, or silverside, traditionally served atChristmasin Ireland. It is a form ofsalt beef, cured with spices andsaltpetre, intended to be boiled or broiled inGuinnessor a similarstout, and then optionally roasted for a period after.There are various other recipes forpickledbeef.Sauerbratenis a German variant.
Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, afterporkandpoultryat 38% and 30% respectively.
Beef is a source of complete protein and it is a rich source (20% or more of theDaily Value, DV) ofniacin,vitamin B12,ironandzinc, but also contains high amounts ofsaturated fat.Red meatis the most significant dietary source ofcarnitineand, like any other meat (pork, fish, veal, lamb etc.), is a source ofcreatine. Creatine is converted to creatinine during cooking.
Consumption ofred meat, and especiallyprocessed red meat, is known to increase the risk ofbowel cancerand some other cancers.
A 2010 meta-analysis found that processedred meat(and allprocessed meat) was correlated with a higher risk ofcoronary heart disease, although based on studies that separated the two, this meta-analysis found that red meat intake was not associated with higher incidence of coronary heart disease.As of 2020, there is substantial evidence for a link between high consumption of red meat and coronary heart disease.
Some cattle raised in the United States feed on pastures fertilized withsewage sludge. Elevateddioxinsmay be present in meat from these cattle.
Ground beef has been subject to recalls in the United States, due toEscherichia coli(E. coli) contamination:
In 1984, the use ofmeat and bone mealin cattle feed resulted in the world's first outbreak ofbovine spongiform encephalopathy(BSE or, colloquially, mad cow disease) in the United Kingdom.
Since then, other countries have had outbreaks of BSE:
In 2010, the EU, through the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), proposed a roadmap to gradually lift the restrictions on the feed ban.In 2013, the ban on feeding mammal-based products to cattle,was amended to allow for certain milk, fish, eggs, and plant-fed farm animal products to be used.
Most Indic religions reject the killing and eating of cows. Hinduism prohibits cow beef known asGo-MaansinHindi. Bovines have a sacred status inIndiaespecially the cow, due to their provision of sustenance for families. Bovines are generally considered to be integral to the landscape. However, they do not consider the cow to be a god.
Many of India's rural economies depend on cattle farming; hence they have been revered in society.Since theVedic period, cattle, especially cows, were venerated as a source of milk, and dairy products, and their relative importance in transport services and farming likeploughing, row planting, ridging. Veneration grew with the advent ofJainismand theGupta period.In medieval India,Maharaja Ranjit Singhissued a proclamation on stopping cow slaughter. Conflicts over cow slaughter often have sparked religious riots that have led to loss of human life and in one 1893 riot alone, more than 100 people were killed for the cause.
For religious reasons, the ancient Egyptian priests also refrained from consuming beef. Buddhists and Sikhs are also against wrongful slaughtering of animals, but they do not have a wrongful eating doctrine.
Inancient China, the killing of cattle and consumption of beef was prohibited, as they were valued for their role inagriculture. This custom is still followed by a few Chinese families across the world.
During the season ofLent,Orthodox ChristiansandCatholicsperiodically give up meat and poultry (and sometimes dairy products and eggs) as a religious act. ObservantJewsandMuslimsmay not eat any meat or poultry which has not beenslaughtered and treated in conformance with religious laws.
Most of theNorth Indian statesprohibit the killing of cow and consumption of beef for religious reasons.Certain Hindu castes and sects continue to avoid beef from theirdiets.Article 48 of theConstitution of Indiamandates the state may take steps for preserving and improving the bovine breeds, and prohibit the slaughter, of cows and calves and other milch and draught cattle.Article 47 of the Constitution of Indiaprovides states must raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health as among its primary duties, based on this a reasonableness in slaughter of common cattle was instituted, if the animals ceased to be capable of breeding, providing milk, or serving as draught animals. The overall mismanagement of India's common cattle is dubbed in academic fields as  "India's bovine burden."
In 2017, a rule against the slaughter of cattle and the eating of beef was signed into law by presidential assent as a modified version of Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960. The original act, however, did permit the humane slaughter of animals for use as food.Existing meat export policy in India prohibits the export of beef (meat of cow, oxen and calf). Bone-in meat, a carcass, or half carcass of buffalo is also prohibited from export. Only the boneless meat of buffalo, meat of goat and sheep and birds is permitted for export.In 2017, India sought a total "beef ban" and Australian market analysts predicted that this would create market opportunities for leather traders and meat producers there and elsewhere. Their prediction estimated a twenty percent shortage of beef and a thirteen percent shortage of leather in the world market.
The cow is the national animal of Nepal, and slaughter of cattle is prohibited by law.
In 2003, Cuba banned cow slaughter due to severe shortage of milk and milk products.On 14 April 2021, the ban was loosened, allowing ranchers to do as they wish as long as state quotas were met and the health of the herd could be ensured.