Mongolia

Mongoliais alandlocked countryinEast Asia, bordered byRussiato the north andChinato the south. It covers an area of 1,564,116 square kilometres (603,909 square miles), with a population of 3.5 million, making it the world'smost sparsely populated sovereign state. Mongolia is the world's largest landlocked country that does not border aclosed sea, and much of its area is covered by grassysteppe, with mountains to the north and west and theGobi Desertto the south.Ulaanbaatar, the capital andlargest city, is home to roughly half of the country's population.
The territory of modern-day Mongolia has been ruled by variousnomadic empires, including theXiongnu, theXianbei, theRouran, theFirst Turkic Khaganate, theSecond Turkic Khaganate, theUyghur Khaganateand others. In 1206,Genghis Khanfounded theMongol Empire, which became the largestcontiguous land empirein history. His grandsonKublai KhanconqueredChina properand established theYuan dynasty. After the collapse of the Yuan, theMongolsretreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict, except during the era ofDayan KhanandTumen Zasagt Khan.
In the 16th century,Tibetan Buddhismspread to Mongolia, being further led by theManchu-foundedQing dynasty, which absorbed the country in the 17th century. By the early 20th century, almost one-third of the adult male population were Buddhist monks.After the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongoliadeclared independence, and achieved actualindependence from the Republic of Chinain 1921. Shortly thereafter, the country became asatellite stateof theSoviet Union. In 1924, theMongolian People's Republicwas founded as asocialist state.After the anti-communistrevolutions of 1989, Mongolia conducted its own peacefuldemocratic revolutionin early 1990. This led to amulti-party system, a newconstitution of 1992, and transition to amarket economy.
Approximately 30% of the population isnomadicor semi-nomadic;horse cultureremains integral.Buddhismis the majority religion (51.7%), with the nonreligious being the second-largest group (40.6%).Islamis the third-largest religious identification (3.2%), concentrated among ethnicKazakhs. The vast majority of citizens are ethnic Mongols, with roughly 5% of the population beingKazakhs,Tuvans, and other ethnic minorities, who are especially concentrated in the western regions. Mongolia is a member of theUnited Nations,Asia Cooperation Dialogue,G77,Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank,Non-Aligned Movementand aNATO global partner. Mongolia joined theWorld Trade Organizationin 1997 and seeks to expand its participation in regional economic and trade groups.
The name Mongolia means the "Land of the Mongols" in Latin. The Mongolian word"Mongol"(монгол) is of uncertain etymology. Sükhbataar (1992) and de la Vaissière (2021) proposed it being a derivation fromMugulü, the 4th-century founder of theRouran Khaganate,first attested as the 'Mungu',(Chinese:蒙兀,Modern ChineseMěngwù,Middle ChineseMuwngu),a branch of theShiweiin an 8th-centuryTang dynastylist of northern tribes, presumably related to theLiao-eraMungku(Chinese:蒙古,Modern ChineseMěnggǔ,Middle ChineseMuwngkuX).
After the fall of theLiao dynastyin 1125, theKhamag Mongolsbecame a leading tribe on theMongolian Plateau. However, their wars with theJurchen-ruledJin dynastyand theTatar confederationhad weakened them. The last head of the tribe wasYesügei, whose sonTemüjin(Genghis Khan) eventually united all the Shiwei tribes as theMongol Empire(Yekhe Monggol Ulus). In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group ofMongolic-speakingtribes united under the rule ofGenghis Khan.
Since the adoption of the newConstitution of Mongoliaon 13 February 1992, the official name of the state is "Mongolia" (Mongol Uls).
TheKhoit Tsenkher CaveinKhovd Provinceshows lively pink, brown, and red ochre paintings (dated to 20,000 years ago) ofmammoths,lynx,bactrian camels, andostriches, earning it the nickname "theLascauxof Mongolia". TheVenus figurines of Mal'ta(21,000 years ago) testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia; Mal'ta is now part of Russia.
Neolithic agricultural settlements (c. 5500–3500 BC), such as those at Norovlin, Tamsagbulag, Bayanzag, and Rashaan Khad, predated the introduction of horse-riding nomadism, a pivotal event in the history of Mongolia which became the dominant culture. TheethnogenesisofMongolic peoplesis largely linked with the expansion ofAncient Northeast Asians. The Mongolian pastoralist lifestyle may in part be derived from theWestern Steppe Herders, but without much geneflow between these two groups, suggesting cultural transmission.
Horse-riding nomadism has been documented by archeological evidence in Mongolia during the Copper and Bronze AgeAfanasevo culture(3500–2500 BC);thisIndo-Europeanculture was active to theKhangai Mountainsin Central Mongolia. The wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC.Pastoral nomadism and metalworking became more developed with the laterOkunev culture(2nd millennium BC),Andronovo culture(2300–1000 BC) andKarasuk culture(1500–300 BC), culminating with the Iron AgeXiongnuEmpire in 209 BC. Monuments of the pre-Xiongnu Bronze Age includedeer stones, keregsurkurgans,square slab tombs, and rock paintings.
Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic, agriculture has always remained small in scale compared to pastoral nomadism. Agriculture may have first been introduced from the west or arose independently in the region. The population during theCopper Agehas been described as mongoloid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as europoid in the west.Tocharians (Yuezhi) andScythiansinhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age. The mummy of a Scythian warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old, was a 30- to 40-year-old man with blond hair; it was found inthe Altai, Mongolia.As equine nomadism was introduced into Mongolia, the political center of theEurasian Steppealso shifted to Mongolia, where it remained until the 18th century. The intrusions of northern pastoralists (e.g. the Guifang, Shanrong, andDonghu) into China during theShang dynasty(1600–1046 BC) andZhou dynasty(1046–256 BC) presaged the age ofnomadic empires.
Since the prehistoric times, Mongolia has been inhabited by nomads who, from time to time, formed great confederations that rose to power and prominence. Common institutions were the office of theKhan, theKurultai(Supreme Council), left and right wings, imperial army (Keshig) and the decimal military system. The first of these empires, theXiongnuof undetermined ethnicity, were brought together byModu Shanyuto form a confederation in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the greatest threat to theQin dynasty, forcing the latter to construct theGreat Wall of China. It was guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during MarshalMeng Tian's tenure, as a means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids. The vast Xiongnu empire (209 BC–93 AD) was followed by the MongolicXianbei empire(93–234 AD), which also ruled more than the entirety of present-day Mongolia. The Mongolic Rouran Khaganate (330–555), ofXianbeiprovenance was the first to use "Khagan" as an imperial title. It ruled a massive empire before being defeated by theGöktürks(555–745), an even larger empire.
The Göktürks laid siege toPanticapaeum, present-dayKerch, in 576. They were succeeded by theUyghur Khaganate(745–840) who were defeated by the Kyrgyz. The MongolicKhitans, descendants of the Xianbei, ruled Mongolia during the Liao dynasty (907–1125), after which theKhamag Mongol(1125–1206) rose to prominence.
Lines 3–5 of the memorial inscription ofBilge Khagan(684–737) in central Mongolia summarizes the time of theKhagans:
In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named Temüjin finally succeeded in uniting the Mongol tribes betweenManchuriaand theAltai Mountains. In 1206, he took the titleGenghis Khan, and waged a series of military campaigns – renowned for their brutality and ferocity – sweeping through much of Asia, and forming theMongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in world history. Under his successors it stretched from present-dayPolandin the west toKoreain the east, and from parts ofSiberiain the north to theGulf of OmanandVietnamin the south, covering some 33,000,000 square kilometres (13,000,000 sq mi),(22% of Earth's total land area) and had a population of over 100 million people (about a quarter of Earth's total population at the time). The emergence ofPax Mongolicaalso significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia during its height.
After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms orKhanates. These eventually became quasi-independent after theToluid Civil War(1260–1264), which broke out in a battle for power followingMöngke Khan's death in 1259. One of the khanates, the "Great Khaanate", consisting of the Mongol homeland and most of modern-day China, became known as the Yuan dynasty underKublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. He set up his capital in present-day Beijing. After more than a century of power, the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Ming dynasty in 1368, and the Yuan court fled to the north, thus becoming theNorthern Yuan dynasty. As the Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland, they successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capitalKarakorumand other cities. Some of these attacks were repelled by the Mongols underAyushridarand his generalKöke Temür.
After the expulsion of the Yuan rulers fromChina proper, the Mongols continued to rule their homeland, known in historiography as the Northern Yuan dynasty. With the division of the Mongol tribes, it was subsequently also known as "The Forty and the Four" (Döčin dörben) among them.The next centuries were marked by violent power struggles among various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-GenghisidOirats, as well as by several Ming invasions (such as thefive expeditions led by the Yongle Emperor).
In the early 16th century,Dayan Khanand hiskhatunMandukhaireunited all Mongol groups under the Genghisids. In the mid-16th century,Altan Khanof the Tümed, a grandson of Dayan Khan – but not a hereditary or legitimate Khan – became powerful. He foundedHohhotin 1557. After he met with theDalai Lamain 1578, he ordered the introduction ofTibetan Buddhismto Mongolia. (It was the second time this had occurred.) Abtai Khan of theKhalkhaconverted to Buddhism and founded theErdene Zuumonastery in 1585. His grandsonZanabazarbecame the firstJebtsundamba Khutughtuin 1640. Following the leaders, the entire Mongolian population embraced Buddhism. Each family kept scriptures and Buddha statues on an altar at the north side of theiryurt. Mongolian nobles donated land, money and herders to the monasteries. As was typical in states with established religions, the top religious institutions, the monasteries, wielded significant temporal power in addition to spiritual power.
The last Khagan of Mongols wasLigden Khanin the early 17th century. He came into conflicts with theManchusover the looting of Chinese cities, and also alienated most Mongol tribes. He died in 1634. By 1636, most of theInner Mongoliantribes had submitted to the Manchus, who founded theQing dynasty. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under Manchu rule. After severalDzungar–Qing Wars, theDzungars(western Mongols or Oirats) were virtually annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1757 and 1758.
Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the 600,000 or moreDzungar were killedby a combination of disease and warfare.Outer Mongolia was given relative autonomy, being administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet Khan, Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyon Khan. TheJebtsundamba Khutuktuof Mongolia had immensede factoauthority. The Manchu forbade mass Chinese immigration into the area, which allowed the Mongols to keep their culture. The Oirats who migrated to theVolga steppesin Russia became known asKalmyks.
The main trade route during this period was theTea Roadthrough Siberia; it had permanent stations located every 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 mi), each of which was staffed by 5–30 chosen families.
Until 1911, the Qing dynasty maintained control of Mongolia with a series of alliances and intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures.Ambans, Manchu "high officials", were installed inKhüree,Uliastai, andKhovd, and the country was divided into numerous feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms (which also placed people in power with loyalty to the Qing). Over the course of the 19th century, the feudal lords attached more importance to representation and less importance to the responsibilities towards their subjects. The behavior of Mongolia's nobility, together withusuriouspractices by Chinese traders and the collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals, resulted in widespread poverty among the nomads. By 1911 there were 700 large and small monasteries in Outer Mongolia; their 115,000 monks made up 21% of the population. Apart from the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, there were 13 other reincarnating high lamas, called 'seal-holding saints' (tamgatai khutuktu), in Outer Mongolia.
With the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia under theBogd Khaandeclared its independence. However, the newly establishedRepublic of Chinaconsidered Mongolia to be part of its own territory.Yuan Shikai, thePresident of the Republic of China, considered the new republic to be thesuccessorof the Qing. Bogd Khaan said thatboth Mongolia and Chinahad been administered by the Manchu during the Qing, and after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the contract of Mongolian submission to the Manchu had become invalid.
The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the formerOuter Mongoliaduring the Qing period. In 1919, after theOctober Revolutionin Russia, Chinese troops led by warlordXu Shuzhengoccupied Mongolia. Warfare erupted on the northern border. As a result of theRussian Civil War, theWhiteRussian Lieutenant GeneralBaron Ungernled his troops into Mongolia in October 1920, defeating the Chinese forces inNiislel Khüree(now Ulaanbaatar) in early February 1921 with Mongol support.
To eliminate the threat posed by Ungern,Bolshevik Russiadecided to support the establishment of a communist Mongolian government and army. This Mongolian army took theMongolian partofKyakhtafrom Chinese forces on 18 March 1921, and on 6 July, Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Khüree. Mongolia declared its independence again on 11 July 1921.As a result, Mongolia was closely aligned with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades.
In 1924, after theBogd Khaandied oflaryngeal canceror, as some sources claim, at the hands of Russian spies,the country'spolitical systemwas changed. TheMongolian People's Republicwas established. In 1928,Khorloogiin Choibalsanrose to power. The early leaders of the Mongolian People's Republic (1921–1952) included many withPan-Mongolistideals. However, changing global politics and increased Soviet pressure led to the decline of Pan-Mongol aspirations in the following period.
Khorloogiin Choibalsaninstituted collectivization of livestock, began the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries, and carried outStalinist purges, which resulted in the murders of numerous monks and other leaders. In Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one-third of the male population were monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, 750 monasteries were functioning in Mongolia and by the end of the 1930s almost all had been looted or razed.
In 1930, the Soviet Union stoppedBuryatmigration to theMongolian People's Republicto prevent Mongolian reunification. All leaders of Mongolia who did not fulfill Stalin's demands to performRed Terroragainst Mongolians were executed, includingPeljidiin GendenandAnandyn Amar. TheStalinist purges in Mongolia, which began in 1937, killed more than 30,000 people. Under Stalinist influence in theMongolian People's Republic, an estimated 17,000 monks were killed, official figures show.Choibalsan, who led a dictatorship and organizedStalinist purges in Mongoliabetween 1937 and 1939, died suspiciously in theSoviet Unionin 1952.CominternleaderBohumír Šmeralsaid, "People of Mongolia are not important, the land is important. Mongolian land is larger than England, France and Germany".
After theJapanese invasion of neighboring Manchuriain 1931, Mongolia was threatened on this front. During theSoviet-Japanese Border Warof 1939, the Soviet Union successfully defended Mongolia against Japanese expansionism. Mongolia fought against Japan during theBattles of Khalkhin Golin 1939 and during theSoviet–Japanese Warin August 1945 to liberate Inner Mongolia from Japan andMengjiang.
The February 1945Yalta Conferenceprovided for the Soviet Union's participation in thePacific War. One of the Soviet conditions for its participation, put forward at Yalta, was that after the war Outer Mongolia would retain its independence.The referendumtook place on 20 October 1945, with (according to official numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence.
After the establishment of thePeople's Republic of China, both countries confirmed their mutual recognition on 6 October 1949. However, theRepublic of Chinaused itsSecurity Council vetoin 1955, to stop the admission of theMongolian People's Republicto the United Nations on the grounds it recognized all of Mongolia —including Outer Mongolia— as part of China. This was the only time theRepublic of Chinaever used its veto. Hence, and because of the repeated threats to veto by the ROC, Mongolia did not join the UN until 1961 when the Soviet Union agreed to lift its veto on the admission ofMauritania(and any other newly independent African state), in return for the admission of Mongolia. Faced with pressure from nearly all the other African countries, the ROC relented under protest. Mongolia and Mauritania were both admitted to the UN on 27 October 1961.(seeChina and the United Nations)
On 26 January 1952,Yumjaagiin Tsedenbaltook power in Mongolia after the death of Choibalsan. Tsedenbal was the leading political figure in Mongolia for more than 30 years.While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him withJambyn Batmönkh.
Thedissolution of the Soviet Unionin 1991 strongly influenced Mongolian politics andyouth. Its people undertook thepeaceful Democratic RevolutioninJanuary 1990and the introduction of amulti-party systemand a market economy.At the same time, the transformation of the formerMarxist-LeninistMongolian People's Revolutionary Partyto the current social democraticMongolian People's Partyreshaped the country's political landscape.
Anew constitutionwas introduced in 1992, and the term "People's Republic" was dropped from the country's name.Thetransition to a market economywas often rocky; during the early 1990s the country had to deal with high inflation and food shortages.The first election victories for non-communist parties came in 1993 (presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). China has supported Mongolia's application for membership in theAsia Cooperation Dialogue(ACD),Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation(APEC) and granting it observer status in theShanghai Cooperation Organisation.
At 1,564,116 km(603,909 sq mi), Mongolia is the world's18th-largestcountry.It is significantly larger than the next-largest country, Peru. It mostly lies between latitudes41°and52°N(a small area is north of 52°), and longitudes87°and120°E. As a point of reference the northernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same latitude as Berlin (Germany) and Saskatoon (Canada), while the southernmost part is on roughly the same latitude as Rome (Italy) and Chicago (USA). The westernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same longitude as Kolkata in India, while the easternmost part is on the same longitude as Qinhuangdao and Hangzhou in China, as well as the western edge of Taiwan. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its westernmost point is only 36.76 kilometres (22.84 mi) from Kazakhstan, nearly making aquadripoint.
The geography of Mongolia is varied, with theGobi Desertto the south and cold, mountainous regions to the north and west. Much of Mongolia consists of theMongolian-Manchurian grassland, with forested areas accounting for 11.2% of the total land area.The whole of Mongolia is considered to be part of the Mongolian Plateau. The highest point in Mongolia is theKhüiten Peakin theTavan bogdmassif in the far west at 4,374 m (14,350 ft). The basin of theUvs Lake, shared withTuva Republicin Russia, is a naturalWorld Heritage Site.
Mongolia is known as the "Land of the Eternal Blue Sky" or "Country of Blue Sky" (Mongolian: "Mönkh khökh tengeriin oron") because it has over 250 sunny days a year.
Most of the country is hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter, with January averages dropping as low as −30 °C (−22 °F).A vast front of cold, heavy, shallow air comes in from Siberia in winter and collects in river valleys and low basins causing very cold temperatures while slopes of mountains are much warmer due to the effects oftemperature inversion(temperature increases with altitude).
In winter the whole of Mongolia comes under the influence of theSiberian Anticyclone. The localities most severely affected by this cold weather are Uvs province (Ulaangom), western Khovsgol (Rinchinlhumbe), eastern Zavkhan (Tosontsengel), northern Bulgan (Hutag) and eastern Dornod province (Khalkhiin Gol). Ulaanbaatar is strongly, but less severely, affected. The cold gets less severe as one goes south, reaching the warmest January temperatures in Omnogovi Province (Dalanzadgad,Khanbogd) and the region of the Altai mountains bordering China. A unique microclimate is the fertile grassland-forest region of central and eastern Arkhangai Province (Tsetserleg) and northern Ovorkhangai Province (Arvaikheer) where January temperatures are on average the same and often higher than the warmest desert regions to the south in addition to being more stable. TheKhangai Mountainsplay a certain role in forming this microclimate. In Tsetserleg, the warmest town in this microclimate, nighttime January temperatures rarely go under −30 °C (−22 °F) while daytime January temperatures often reach 0 °C (32 °F) to 5 °C (41 °F).
The country is subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known aszud.It results in large proportions of the country's livestock dying from starvation or freezing temperatures or both, resulting in economic upheaval for the largely pastoral population. The annual average temperature in Ulaanbaatar is −1.3 °C (29.7 °F), making it the world's coldest capital city.Mongolia is high, cold and windy.It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of its annual precipitation falls.The country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure.Precipitation is highest in the north (average of 200 to 350 millimeters (8 to 14 in) per year) and lowest in the south, which receives 100 to 200 millimeters (4 to 8 in) annually.The highest annual precipitation of 622.297 mm (24.500 in) occurred in the forests ofBulgan Provincenear the border with Russia and the lowest of 41.735 mm (1.643 in) occurred in the Gobi Desert (period 1961–1990).The sparsely populated far north of Bulgan Province averages 600 mm (24 in) in annual precipitation which means it receives more precipitation than Beijing (571.8 mm or 22.51 in) or Berlin (571 mm or 22.5 in).
The name "Gobi" is a Mongol term for a desert steppe, which usually refers to a category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to supportmarmotsbut with enough to support camels.Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape.
Gobi rangelands are fragile and easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not evenBactrian camelscan survive.The arid conditions in the Gobi are attributed to therain shadow effectcaused by the Himalayas. Before the Himalayas were formed by the collision of the Indo-Australian plate with the Eurasian plate 10 million years ago, Mongolia was a flourishing habitat for major fauna but still somewhat arid and cold due to distance from sources of evaporation. Sea turtle and mollusk fossils have been found in the Gobi, apart from well-known dinosaur fossils.Tadpole shrimpsare still found in the Gobi today. The eastern part of Mongolia including theOnonandKherlenrivers andLake Buirform part of theAmur riverbasin draining to the Pacific Ocean. It hosts some unique species like the Eastern brook lamprey, Daurian crayfish (cambaroides dauricus) and Daurian pearl oyster (dahurinaia dahurica) in the Onon/Kherlen rivers as well as Siberian prawn (exopalaemon modestus) in Lake Buir.
Mongolia's total population as of January 2015 was estimated by theU.S. Census Bureauto be 3,000,251 people, ranking around 121st in the world. But theU.S. Department of StateBureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairsuses the United Nations (UN) estimationsinstead of the U.S. Census Bureau estimations.United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsPopulation Divisionestimates Mongolia's total population (mid-2007) as 2,629,000 (11% less than the U.S. Census Bureau figure). UN estimates resemble those made by the Mongolian National Statistical Office (2,612,900, end of June 2007). Mongolia's population growth rate is estimated at 1.2% (2007 est.).About 59% of the total population is under age 30, 27% of whom are under 14. This relatively young and growing population has placed strains on Mongolia's economy.
The first census in the 20th century was carried out in 1918 and recorded a population of 647,500.Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a decline oftotal fertility rate(children per woman) that is steeper than in any other country in the world, according to recent UN estimations:in 1970–1975, fertility was estimated to be 7.33 children per woman, dropping to about 2.1 in 2000–2005.The decline ended and in 2005–2010, the fertility value increased to 2.8 in 2013 and stabilised afterwards at a rate of about 2.5-2.6 children per woman around 2020.
The Mongols are moderately homogeneous;ethnic Mongols account for about 95% of the population and consist ofKhalkhaand other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. TheKhalkhamake up 86% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 14% include Oirats,Buryatsand others.Turkic peoples(KazakhsandTuvans) constitute 4.5% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Russian, Chinese, Korean and American nationalities.
Mongolia's official andnational languageisMongolian. A member of theMongolic languagefamily, the standard dialect isKhalkha Mongol. It coexists with various other, largely mutually intelligible varieties of Mongolic such asOirat,Buryat, andKhamnigan. Several dialects have been morphing to become more like the central Khalkha dialect in recent years.Most speakers of these dialects are located in the western part of the country, namelyBayan-Ölgii,Uvs, andKhovd.Kazakh, aTurkic language, is the majority language in Bayan-Ölgii, whileTuvanis another Turkic language spoken inKhövsgöl.Mongolian Sign Languageis the principal language of the deaf community.
Today, Mongolian is mainly written using theCyrillic alphabet, introduced during the 1940s. Since the1990 revolutionthere has been a minor revival of the historicMongolian script, which is still the official script used byMongols in neighboringInner Mongolia. Although Mongolian script has officially been declared thenational script,and is taught from the sixth grade onward at schools,it remains mostly confined to ceremonial usage in daily life.In 2025, Mongolia began using both the Cyrillic and traditional Mongolian scripts for legal papers and official documents.
Since 1990, English has quickly supplanted Russian as the most popular foreign language in Mongolia.In thecommunist era, Russian was a vital language for mobility and professional communication, with a large number of students studying in theSoviet Unionas well as a large number of Soviet professionals and soldiers located within Mongolia.Since then, Mongolia's education system has reoriented away from the Soviet Union to the West, and English has become the dominant foreign language, aided by liberalized media, international aid agencies, the rise of private education and tutoring, as well as official government policy. In the 2014–2015 academic year, 59% of the overall student population studied English at public secondary schools.In 2023, English was declared the "first foreign language", and to be taught from the third grade.
As of the 2014–2015 academic year, the most popular foreign language in specialized language courses were (ordered by popularity), English,Chinese, Russian,Japanese, andKorean. Korean in particular has gained popularity as tens of thousands ofMongolians work in South Korea,forming thelargest group of Mongolians abroad.
According to the 2010 National Census, among Mongolians aged 15 and above, 53% wereBuddhists, while 39% werenon-religious.
Mongolian shamanismhas been widely practiced throughout the history of what is now Mongolia, with similar beliefs being common among the nomads of central Asia. They gradually gave way toTibetan Buddhism, but shamanism has left a mark on Mongolian religious culture, and it continues to be practiced. The Kazakhs of western Mongolia, some Mongols, and other Turkic peoples in the country traditionally adhere toIslam.
Throughout much of the 20th century, thecommunistgovernment repressed religious practices. It targeted the clergy of the Mongolian Buddhist Church, which had been tightly intertwined with the previous feudal government structures (e.g. from 1911 on, the head of the Church had also been theKhanof the country).In the late 1930s, the regime, then led byKhorloogiin Choibalsan, closed almost all of Mongolia's over 700 Buddhist monasteries andkilled at least 30,000 people, of whom 18,000 were lamas.The number ofBuddhist monksdropped from 100,000 in 1924 to 110 in 1990.
Thefall of communismin 1991 restored public religious practice.Tibetan Buddhism, which had been the predominant religion prior to the rise of communism, again rose to become the most widely practised religion in Mongolia. The highest-ranking lama of Buddhism in Mongolia, has been vacant since the 9th Jebtsundamba's passing in 2012and the search for the next Jebtsundamba Khutuktu is being complicated by Beijing's desire to assert control over Tibetan Buddhism.
The end of religious repression in the 1990s also allowed for other religions to spread in the country. According to the Christian missionary groupBarnabas Fund, the number of Christians grew from just four in 1989 to around 40,000 as of 2008. In May 2013,The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints(LDS Church) held a cultural program to celebrate twenty years of LDS Church history in Mongolia, with 10,900 members, and 16 church buildings in the country.There are some 1,000 Catholics in Mongolia and, in 2003, a missionary from thePhilippineswas named Mongolia's firstCatholicbishop.In 2017Seventh-day Adventistsreported 2,700 members in six churches up from zero members in 1991.
Mongolia is asemi-presidentialrepresentative democratic republic with a directly electedPresident.The people also elect the deputies in the national assembly, theState Great Khural. The president appoints the prime minister, and nominates the cabinet on the proposal of the prime minister. Theconstitution of Mongoliaguarantees a number of freedoms, including fullfreedom of expressionandreligion. Mongolia amended its constitution most lately in 2019 transferring some powers from the president to the prime minister.On May 31, 2023, Mongolia's parliament approved a constitutional amendment that increased the number of seats from 76 to 126 and changed the electoral system re-introducing proportional party voting.
Mongolia has a number of political parties; the largest are theMongolian People's Partyand theDemocratic Party. The non-governmental organizationFreedom Houseconsiders Mongolia to be free.
The People's Party – known as the People's Revolutionary Party between 1924 and 2010 – formed the government from 1921 to 1996 (in a one-party system until 1990) and from 2000 to 2004. From 2004 to 2006, it was part of a coalition with the Democrats and two other parties, and after 2006 it was the dominant party in two other coalitions. The party initiated two changes of government from 2004 prior to losing power in the 2012 election. The Democrats were the dominant force in a ruling coalition between 1996 and 2000, and an almost-equal partner with the People's Revolutionary Party in a coalition between 2004 and 2006. An election of deputies to the national assembly on 28 June 2012 resulted in no party having an overall majority;however, as theDemocratic Partywon the largest number of seats,its leader,Norovyn Altankhuyag, was appointedprime ministeron 10 August 2012.In 2014, he was replaced byChimediin Saikhanbileg. TheMPPwon a landslide victory in the2016 electionsand the nextprime ministerwasMPP'sUkhnaagiin Khürelsükh. In June 2020, MPP won a landslide victory in theelection. It took 62 seats and the main opposition DP, 11 of the 76 seats. Before the elections the ruling party had redrawn the electoral map in a way that was beneficial for MPP.In January 2021, Prime Minister Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh resigned after protests over the treatment of a coronavirus patient.On 27 January 2021,Luvsannamsrai Oyun-Erdeneof MPP became new prime minister. He represents a younger generation of leaders that had studied abroad.
ThePresident of Mongoliais able to veto the laws made by parliament, appoint judges and justice of courts and appoint ambassadors. The parliament can override that veto by a two-thirds majority vote. Mongolia's constitution provides three requirements for taking office as president; the candidate must be a native-born Mongolian, be at least 45 years old, and have resided in Mongolia for five years before taking office. The president must also suspend their party membership. After defeating incumbentNambaryn Enkhbayar,Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, a two-time former prime minister and member of theDemocratic Party, was elected as president on 24 May 2009 and inaugurated on 18 June that year.The rulingMongolian People's Revolutionary Party (2010)(MPRP) nominatedBatbold Sukhbaataras new Prime Minister in October 2009.Elbegdorj was re-elected on 26 June 2013 and was inaugurated on 10 July 2013 for his second term as president.In June 2017, oppositionDemocratic PartycandidateKhaltmaagiin Battulgawon the presidentialelection.He was inaugurated on 10 July 2017.
In June 2021, former Prime MinisterUkhnaa Khurelsukh, the candidate of the rulingMongolian People's Party(MPP), became the country's sixth democratically elected president after winning thepresidential election.
Mongolia uses aunicamerallegislature, the State Great Khural, with 76 seats, which is chaired by the Speaker of the House. Its members are directly elected, every four years, by popular vote.As per 2023 constitutional amendment the parliament increased the number of seats from 76 to 126.
Mongolia's foreign relations traditionally focus on its two large neighbors, Russia and China.Mongolia is economically dependent on these countries: China is Mongolia's largest export partner at a 78% share, far above the other top countries (Switzerland at 15%; Singapore 3%). Mongolia receives 36% of imports from China and 29% from Russia.Mongolia is also pursuing a trilateral partnership with China and Russia through thePower of Siberia 2natural gas pipeline, with a contract to be signed in the "near future" according to Russian Deputy Prime Minister Alexander Novak.Due to China's status as Mongolia's most important trading partner, Mongolia has been trying to stay out of the current U.S.-China confrontation.
It has begun seeking positive relations with a wider range of other countries especially in cultural and economic matters, focusing on encouragingforeign direct investmentand trade.Mongolia has been pursuing a 'third-neighbor' foreign policy since early 1990s to build deeper relations and partnerships with countries beyond its two surrounding neighbors.
Mongolia has been a member ofThe Forum of Small States (FOSS)since the group's founding in 1992.
Then Vice President of the U.S. Joe Biden, visited Mongolia in 2011 supporting Mongolia's third neighbor policy.
Mongolia maintains manydiplomatic missionsin other countries and hasembassiesin the following world capitals:
Mongolia supported the2003 invasion of Iraq, and has sent several successive contingents of 103 to 180 troops each toIraq. About 130 troops were deployed toAfghanistan. 200 Mongolian troops are serving inSierra Leoneon a UN mandate to protect the UN'sspecial courtset up there, and in July 2009, Mongolia decided to send a battalion toChadin support ofMINURCAT.
From 2005 to 2006, about 40 troops were deployed with the Belgian and Luxembourg contingents inKosovo. On 21 November 2005,George W. Bushbecame the first-ever sitting U.S. president to visit Mongolia.In 2004, under Bulgarian chairmanship, theOrganization for Security and Co-operation in Europe(OSCE) invited Mongolia as its newest Asian partner.
Thejudiciary of Mongoliais made of a three-tiered court system:first instancecourts in eachprovincial districtand eachUlaanbaatar district;appellatecourts for each province and also the Capital Ulaanbaatar; and the court of last resort (for non-constitutional matters) at theSupreme Court of Mongolia.For questions of constitutional law there is a separate constitutional court.
AJudicial General Council(JGC) nominates judges which must then be confirmed by theparliamentand appointed by the President.
Arbitration centres providealternative dispute resolutionoptions for commercial and other disputes.
Mongolia is divided into 21provinces (aimags)and subdivided into 330districts (sums).Ulaanbaatar is administered separately as acapital city (municipality)with provincial status. Theaimagsare:
As of 2020, 47.6% of the population lives in Ulaanbaatar, further 21.4% lived inDarkhan,Erdenet, theaimagcenters andsumcenters, and other permanent settlements, and 31.0% in rural areas.
Economic activity in Mongolia has long been based on herding and agriculture, although development of extensive mineral deposits of copper, coal,molybdenum, tin,tungstenand gold have emerged as a driver of industrial production.Besides mining (21.8% of GDP) and agriculture (16% of GDP), dominant industries in the composition of GDP are wholesale and retail trade and service, transportation and storage, and real estate activities.Also, Mongolia produces one-fifth of the world's raw cashmere.
Theinformal economyis estimated to be at least one-third the size of the official economy.As of 2022, 78% of Mongolia's exports went to thePRC, and the PRC supplied 36% of Mongolia's imports.
TheWorld Bankhas stated that Mongolia's development prospects are promising due to an expansion of mining and large public investment, although challenges remain from inflation, weaker external demand from China, and persistent fiscal risks due to sizable contingent liabilities.According to the Asian Development Bank, 27.1% of Mongolia's population lived below the national poverty line in 2022.In the same year, GDP per capita was estimated at $12,100.
Mongolia's real GDP grew by 7% in 2023 due to record-high coal production, driven by strong demand from China.Inflation in early 2024 dropped to 7% due to lower global food and fuel prices.Despite a robust increase in import volumes, Mongolia recorded a current account surplus due to the sharp increase in coal exports. Mining sector growth is expected to continue driving GDP growth, although theInternational Monetary Fundpredicts the current account balance will revert to a sizable deficit due to declining coal prices.
In 2011,Citigroupanalysts determined Mongolia to be one of the "global growth generating" countries, which are countries with the most promising growth prospects for 2010–2050.TheMongolian Stock Exchange, established in 1991 in Ulaanbaatar, is among the world's smallest stock exchanges bymarket capitalisation.As of 2024, it has 180 companies listed with a total market capitalization of US$3.2 billion.TheInternational Finance Corporation(IFC) currently ranks Mongolia as 81st globally in its ease of doing business scoring.
Minerals represent more than 80% of Mongolia's exports, a proportion expected to eventually rise to 95%. Fiscal revenues from mining represented 21% of government income in 2010 and rose to 24% in 2018.About 3,000 mining licences have been issued.Mining continues to rise as a major industry of Mongolia as evidenced by the number of Chinese, Russian and Canadian firms starting mining businesses in Mongolia.
In 2009, the Mongolian government negotiated an agreement withRio TintoandIvanhoe Minesto develop theOyu Tolgoicopper and gold deposit,the biggest foreign-investment project in Mongolia at the time. The mine is now a major producer of copper and gold, with plans to further develop underground production and reach an output of 500,000 tons of copper per year.Mongolian's gold production in 2015 is 15 metric tons.Mongolian lawmakers have also attempted to finance the development of theTavan Tolgoiarea, the world's largest untapped coal deposit. However, proposed international partnerships failed in 2011 and 2015, with Mongolia further cancelling an internationalinitial public offeringin 2020, citing financial and political difficulties.
In September 2022, Mongolia built and launched a 233-km direct rail link to China, which is a milestone in Mongolia's plan to become China's leading supplier of high-quality coal from the Tavan Tolgoi mine, which has more than six billion tonnes of coal reserves.
Postal services are provided by state-ownedMongol Postand 54 other licensed operators.
Mongolia imports 98% of its fuel and is building its first ever oil refinery to reduce its foreign energy dependency.
TheTrans-Mongolian Railwayis the main rail link between Mongolia and its neighbors. It begins at theTrans-Siberian Railwayin Russia at the town ofUlan-Ude, crosses into Mongolia, runs through Ulaanbaatar, then passes into China atErenhotwhere it joins the Chinese railway system. A separate railroad link connects the eastern city ofChoibalsanwith the Trans-Siberian Railway. However, that link is closed to passengers after the Mongolian town ofChuluunkhoroot.Mongolia also has a 233 km-long cargo rail link from the Tavan Tolgoi coal mine to Chinese border.
Mongolia has a number of domestic airports, with some of them having international status. However, the main international airport isChinggis Khaan International Airport, located approximately 52 km (32 mi) south of the capital Ulaanbaatar. Direct flight connections exist between Mongolia and South Korea, China, Thailand, Hong Kong, Japan, Russia, Germany, and Turkey.MIAT Mongolian Airlinesis Mongolia's national air carrier, operating international flights, while air carriers such as Aero Mongolia and Hunnu Airlines serve domestic and short international routes.
Many overland roads in Mongolia are only gravel roads or simple cross-country tracks. There are paved roads from Ulaanbaatar to the Russian and Chinese borders, from Ulaanbaatar east- and westward (the so-called Millennium Road), and from Darkhan toBulgan. A number of road construction projects are currently underway. Mongolia has 4,800 km (3,000 mi) of paved roads, with 1,800 km (1,100 mi) of that total completed in 2013 alone.
During the state socialist period, education was one of the areas of significant achievement in Mongolia. Before thePeople's Republic, literacy rates were below one percent. By 1952, illiteracy was virtually eliminated,in part through the use of seasonal boarding schools for children of nomadic families. Funding to these boarding schools was cut in the 1990s, contributing to slightly increased illiteracy.
Primary and secondary education formerly lasted ten years, but was expanded to eleven years. Since the 2008–2009 school year, new first-graders are using the 12-year system, with a full transition to the 12-year system in the 2019–2020 school year.
As of 2006, English is taught in all secondary schools across Mongolia, beginning in fourth grade. English has taken over from Russian as the dominant foreign language in Mongolia, particularly in Ulaanbaatar.
Mongolian national universities are all spin-offs from theNational University of Mongoliaand theMongolian University of Science and Technology. Almost three in five Mongolian youths now enroll in university. There was a six-fold increase in students between 1993 and 2010.
The symbol in the left bar of the national flag is a Buddhist icon calledSoyombo. It represents the sun, moon, stars, and heavens per standard cosmological symbology abstracted from that seen in traditionalthangkapaintings.
Before the 20th century, most works of the fine arts in Mongolia had a religious function, and therefore Mongolian fine arts were heavily influenced by religious texts.Thangkaswere usually painted or made inappliquétechnique. Bronze sculptures usually showed Buddhist deities. A number of great works are attributed to the firstJebtsundamba Khutuktu,Zanabazar.
In the late 19th century, painters like"Marzan" Sharavturned to more realistic painting styles. Under theMongolian People's Republic,socialist realismwas the dominant painting style,however traditionalthangka-like paintings dealing with secular, nationalist themes were also popular, a genre known as "Mongolzurag".
Among the first attempts to introducemodernisminto the fine arts of Mongolia was the paintingEhiin setgel(Mother's love) created by Tsevegjav in the 1960s. The artist was purged as his work was censored.
All forms of fine arts flourished only afterperestroikain the late 1980s. Otgonbayar Ershuu is arguably one of the most well-known Mongolian modern artists in the Western world, he was portrayed in the film "ZURAG" by Tobias Wulff.
The traditional Mongolian dwelling is known as ager. In the past it was known by the Russian termyurt, but this has been changing as the Mongolian term becomes better known in English-speaking countries. According to Mongolian artist and art criticN. Chultem, thegerwas the basis for development of traditional Mongolian architecture. In the 16th and 17th centuries, lamaseries were built throughout the country. Many of them started asger-temples. When they needed to be enlarged to accommodate the growing number of worshippers, the Mongolian architects used structures with 6 and 12 angleswith pyramidal roofs to approximate to the round shape of ager. Further enlargement led to a quadratic shape of the temples. The roofs were made in the shape of marquées.The trellis walls, roof poles and layers of felt were replaced by stone, brick, beams and planks, and became permanent.
Chultem distinguished three styles in traditional Mongolian architecture: Mongolian,TibetanandChineseas well as combinations of the three. Among the first quadratic temples was Batu-Tsagaan (1654) designed byZanabazar. An example of theger-style architecture is the lamasery Dashi-Choiling in Ulaanbaatar. The temple Lavrin (18th century) in theErdene Zuulamasery was built in the Tibetan tradition. An example of a temple built in the Chinese tradition is the lamasery Choijing Lamiin Sume (1904), which is a museum today. The quadratic temple Tsogchin in lamasery Gandan in Ulaanbaatar is a combination of the Mongolian and Chinese tradition. The temple of Maitreya (disassembled in 1938) is an example of the Tibeto-Mongolian architecture.Dashi-Choiling monastery has commenced a project to restore the temple and the 25 metres (82 ft) sculpture of Maitreya.
The music of Mongolia is strongly influenced by nature, nomadism, shamanism, and also Tibetan Buddhism. The traditional music includes a variety of instruments, famously themorin khuur, and also the singing styles like theurtyn duu("long song"), and throat-singing (khoomei). The "tsam" is danced to keep away evil spirits and it was seen as reminiscent ofshamanism.
Mongolian press began in 1920 with close ties to the Soviet Union under the Mongolian Communist Party, with the establishment of theUnen("Truth") newspaper similar to the SovietPravda.Until reforms in the 1990s, the government had strict control of the media and oversaw all publishing, in which no independent media were allowed.Thedissolution of the Soviet Unionhad a significant impact on Mongolia, where theone-party stategrew into amulti-partydemocracy, and with that, media freedoms came to the forefront.
A new law on press freedom, drafted with help from international NGOs on August 28, 1998, and enacted on January 1, 1999, paved the way for media reforms.The Mongolian media currently consists of around 300 print and broadcasting outlets.
Since 2006, the media environment has been improving with the government debating a newFreedom of Information Act, and the removal of any affiliation of media outlets with the government.Market reforms have led to an annually increasing number of people working in the media, along with students at journalism schools.
In its 2013 World Press Freedom Index report,Reporters Without Bordersclassified the media environment as 98th out of 179, with 1st being most free.In 2016, Mongolia was ranked 60th out of 180.
According to 2014 Asian Development Bank survey, 80% of Mongolians cited television as their main source of information.
The main national festival isNaadam, which has been organized for centuries and takes place over three days in the summer, consisting of three Mongolian traditional sports, archery, cross-country horse-racing, and wrestling, traditionally recognized as the Three Manly Games of Naadam. In modern-day Mongolia, Naadam is held from July 11 to 13 in the honor of the anniversaries of the National Democratic Revolution and foundation of the Great Mongol State.
Another very popular activity called Shagaa is the "flicking" of sheep ankle bones at a target several feet away, using a flicking motion of the finger to send the small bone flying at targets and trying to knock the target bones off the platform. At Naadam, this contest is popular among older Mongolians.
Horse ridingis especially central to Mongolian culture. The long-distance races that are showcased during Naadam festivals are one aspect of this, as is the popularity of trick riding. One example of trick riding is the legend that the Mongolian military heroDamdin Sükhbaatarscattered coins on the ground and then picked them up while riding a horse at full gallop.
Mongolian wrestlingis the most popular of all Mongol sports. It is the highlight of the Three Manly Games of Naadam. Historians claim that Mongol-style wrestling originated some seven thousand years ago. Hundreds of wrestlers from different cities and aimags around the country take part in the national wrestling competition.
Other sports such as basketball,weightlifting,powerlifting, association football, athletics, gymnastics, table tennis,jujutsu,karate,aikido,kickboxing, andmixed martial artshave become popular in Mongolia. More Mongolian table tennis players are competing internationally.
Freestyle wrestlinghas been practised since 1958 in Mongolia.Mongolian freestyle wrestlers have won the first and the most Olympic medals of Mongolia.
Naidangiin Tüvshinbayarwon Mongolia's first ever Olympic gold medal in the men's 100-kilogram class of judo.
Amateur boxinghas been practised in Mongolia since 1948.The Mongolian Olympic boxing national team was founded in 1960. The Communist government of Mongolia banned boxing from 1964 to 1967 but the government soon ended the ban.Professional boxingbegan in Mongolia in the 1990s.
Mongolia national basketball teamenjoyed some success recently, especially at theEast Asian Games.
Association football is also played in Mongolia. TheMongolia national football teambegan playing national games again during the 1990s; but has not yet qualified for a major international tournament. TheMongolia Premier Leagueis the top domestic competition.
Several Mongolian women have excelled inpistol shooting:Otryadyn Gündegmaais a silver medalist of the 2008 Olympic Games,Munkhbayar Dorjsurenis a double world champion and Olympic bronze medal winner (now representing Germany), whileTsogbadrakhyn Mönkhzulis, as of May 2007, ranked third in the world in the25-metre pistolevent.
MongoliansumowrestlerDolgorsürengiin Dagvadorjwon 25 top division tournament championships, placing him fourth on theall-time list. In January 2015,Mönkhbatyn Davaajargaltook his 33rd top division championship, giving him the most in the history of sumo.
Bandyis the only sport in which Mongolia has finished higher than third place at theAsian Winter Games, which happened in2011whenthe national teamcaptured the silver medal. It led to being chosen as the best Mongolian sports team of 2011.Mongolia won the bronze medal of the B division at the2017 Bandy World Championshipafter which the thenPresident of Mongolia,Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, held a reception for the team.
Ulaanbataar holds an annual marathon in June. 2015 was the sixth marathon that has been organized by Ar Mongol. The race starts at Sukhbataar Square and is always open to residents and runners who come especially for this event.
Mongolia holds other traditional festivals throughout the year. TheGolden Eagle Festival, held annually, draws about 400 eagle hunters on horseback, including the travelerМөнхбаярт Батсайхан(Mönkhbayart Batsaikhan), to compete with their birds.TheIce Festivaland theThousand Camel Festivalare amongst many other traditional Mongolian festivals.