Amaranth

Amaranthusis acosmopolitangroup of more than 50 species which make up thegenusofannualor short-livedperennial plantscollectively known asamaranths. Some of the better known names include "prostrate pigweed" and "love lies bleeding".Some amaranth species are cultivated asleaf vegetables,pseudocereals, andornamental plants.
Catkin-likecymesof densely-packedflowersgrow in summer or fall.Amaranth varies in flower, leaf, and stem color with a range of strikingpigmentsfrom the spectrum of maroon to crimson and can grow longitudinally from 1 to 2.5 metres (3 to 8 feet) tall with a cylindrical,succulent, fibrous stem that is hollow with grooves andbracteoleswhen mature.There are approximately 75 species in the genus, 10 of which aredioeciousand native to North America, and the remaining 65 aremonoeciousspecies that areendemicto every continent (except Antarctica) from tropical lowlands to the Himalayas.Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genusCelosia.Amaranth grainis collected from the genus. The leaves of some species are also eaten.
Amaranthuscomes from the name of this plant inAncient Greek,Ancient Greek:ἀμάραντος,romanized:amárantos, "amaranth, immortal", noun formed from the privative prefixAncient Greek:ἀ-,romanized:a-, "without", and the verbAncient Greek:μαραίνω,romanized:maraínō, "to consume, to exhaust".Indeed, the amaranth has a reputation for not withering, with in particular itscalicewhich remains persistent, and for this reason, represents a symbol ofimmortality.Some species are used in dry bouquets.
The formamaranthus(with H), comes from an erroneous association with the Greek etymonanthos(lat.-anthus) meaning'flower', found in the name of many plants (agapanthus, for example).
Its denominations in the languages of the peoples cultivating it since ancient times inAmericaarehuauhtliinNahuatl,kiwicha,ataĉoinQuechua,tezorxtesinMaya,ahparieinPurépecha,wa'veinHuichol, andgueguiinTarahumara.
Amaranth is aherbaceous plantorshrubthat is either annual orperennialacross the genus.Flowers vary interspecifically from the presence of 3 or 5tepalsandstamens, whereas a 7-poratepollen grain structure remains consistent across the family.Species across the genus contain concentric rings ofvascular bundles, and fix carbon efficiently with aC4 photosyntheticpathway.Leaves are approximately6.5–15 centimetres (2+1⁄2–6 inches) and of oval or elliptical shape that are either opposite or alternate across species, although most leaves are whole and simple with entire margins.
Amaranth has a primary root with deeper spreading secondary fibrous root structures.Inflorescencesare in the form a largepaniclethat varies from terminal to axial, color, and sex. The tassel of fluorescence is either erect or bent and varies in width and length between species. Flowers are radially symmetric and either bisexual or unisexual with very small, bristlyperianthand pointybracts.Species in this genus are eithermonecious(e.g.A. hybridus,) ordioecious(e.g.A. palmeri).Fruits are in the form of capsules referred to as aunilocularpixdiothat opens at maturity.The top (operculum) of the unilocular pixdio releases the urn that contains the seed.Seeds are circular form from 1 to 1.5 millimeters in diameter and range in color with a shiny, smooth seed coat.The panicle is harvested 200 days after cultivation with approximately 1,000 to 3,000 seeds harvested per gram.
Amaranth grain containsphytochemicalsthat are not defined as nutrients and may beantinutrientfactors, such aspolyphenols,saponins,tannins, andoxalates. These compounds are reduced in content and antinutrient effect by cooking.
Amaranthusshows a wide variety of morphological diversity among and even within certain species.Amaranthusis part of the Amaranthaceae that is part of the larger grouping of the Carophyllales.Although the family (Amaranthaceae) is distinctive, thegenushas few distinguishing characters among the 75 species present across six continents.This complicatestaxonomyandAmaranthushas generally been considered among systematists as a "difficult" genus and to hybridize often.
In 1955, Sauer classified the genus into two subgenera, differentiating only between monoecious and dioecious species:Acnida(L.) Aellen ex K.R. Robertson andAmaranthus.Although this classification was widely accepted, further infrageneric classification was (and still is) needed to differentiate this widely diverse group. Mosyakin and Robertson 1996 later divided into three subgenera: Acnida, Amaranthus, and Albersia.The support for the addition of the subdivision Albersia because of itsindehiscentfruits coupled with three elliptic to lineartepalsto be exclusive characters to members of this subgenus. The classification of these groups are further supported with a combination of  floral characters, reproductive strategies, geographic distribution, and molecular evidence.
The phylogenies ofAmaranthususingmaximum parsimonyandBayesiananalysis ofnuclearandchloroplastgenessuggest fivecladeswithin the genus: Diecious / Pumilus, Hybris, Galapagos, Eurasian/ South African, Australian (ESA), ESA + South American.
Amaranthusincludes three recognised subgenera and 75 species, although species numbers are questionable due tohybridisationand species concepts.Infrageneric classification focuses on inflorescence, flower characters and whether a species is monoecious/dioecious, as in the Sauer (1955) suggested classification.Bracteole morphology present on the stem is used for taxonomic classification of Amaranth. Wild species have longer bracteoles compared to cultivated species.A modified infrageneric classification ofAmaranthusincludes three subgenera:Acnida,Amaranthus, andAlbersia, with the taxonomy further differentiated by sections within each of the subgenera.
There is near certainty thatA. hypochondriacusis the common ancestor to the cultivated grain species, however the later series of domestication to follow remains unclear. There has been opposing hypotheses of a single as opposed to multiple domestication events of the three grain species.There is evidence of phylogenetic and geographical support for clear groupings that indicate separate domestication events in South America and Central America.A. hybridusmay derive from South America, whereasA. caudatus,A. hypochondriacus, andA. quentiensisare native to Central and North America.
Species include:
"Amaranth" derives fromGreekἀμάραντος(amárantos), "unfading", with the Greek word for "flower",ἄνθος(ánthos), factoring into the word's development asamaranth, the unfading flower.Amarantis an archaic variant. The name was first applied to the relatedCelosia(AmaranthusandCelosiashare long-lasting dried flowers), asAmaranthusplants were not yet known in Europe.
Amaranth weed species have an extended period of germination, rapid growth, and high rates of seed production,and have been causing problems for farmers since the mid-1990s. This is partially due to the reduction intillage, reduction in herbicidal use and the evolution of herbicidal resistance in several species where herbicides have been applied more often.The following 9 species ofAmaranthusare considered invasive and noxious weeds in the U.S. and Canada:A. albus,A. blitoides,A. hybridus,A. palmeri,A. powellii,A. retroflexus,A. spinosus,A. tuberculatus, andA. viridis.
A new herbicide-resistant strain ofA. palmerihas appeared; it isglyphosate-resistant and so cannot be killed by herbicides using the chemical. Also, this plant can survive in tough conditions. The speciesAmaranthus palmeri(Palmer amaranth) causes the greatest reduction insoybeanyields and has the potential to reduce yields by 17-68% in field experiments.Palmer amaranth is among the "top five most troublesome weeds" in the southeast of the United States and has already evolved resistances todinitroanilineherbicides andacetolactate synthase inhibitors.This makes the proper identification ofAmaranthusspecies at the seedling stage essential for agriculturalists. Proper weed control needs to be applied before the species successfully colonizes in the crop field and causes significant yield reductions.
An evolutionary lineage of around 90 species within the genus has acquired theC4carbon fixationpathway, which increases their photosynthetic efficiency. This probably occurred in theMiocene.
All parts of the plant are considered edible,though some may have sharp spines that need to be removed before consumption.Amaranth is high inoxalates, but this may be partially offset by its high calcium content.
Uncookedamaranth grainby weight is 12% water, 65%carbohydrates(including 7%dietary fiber), 14%protein, and 7%fat(table). A100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving of uncooked amaranth grain provides 1,550 kilojoules (371 kilocalories) offood energy, and is a rich source (20% or more of theDaily Value, DV) ofprotein,dietary fiber,pantothenic acid,vitamin B6,folate, and severaldietary minerals(table). Uncooked amaranth is particularly rich inmanganese(159% DV),phosphorus(80% DV),magnesium(70% DV),iron(59% DV), andselenium(34% DV). Amaranth has a high oxalate content.
Cooking decreases its nutritional value substantially across all nutrients, with only dietary minerals remaining at moderate levels.Cooked amaranth leaves are a rich source ofvitamin A,vitamin C,calcium, and manganese, with moderate levels of folate, iron, magnesium, andpotassium.Amaranth does not containgluten.
The native range of the genus is cosmopolitan.In pre-Hispanic times, amaranth was cultivated by the Aztec and their tributary communities in a quantity very similar to maize.Known to theAztecsashuāuhtli,amaranth is thought to have represented up to 80% of their energy consumption before theSpanish conquest.Another important use of amaranth throughoutMesoamericawas in ritual drinks and foods. To this day,amaranth grainsare toasted much like popcorn and mixed withhoney,molasses, orchocolateto make a treat calledalegría, meaning "joy" in Spanish.
While all species are believed to be native to the Americas, several have been cultivated and introduced to warm regions worldwide. Amaranth's cosmopolitan distribution makes it one of many plants providing evidence ofpre-Columbian oceanic contact.The earliest archeological evidence for amaranth in the Old World was found in an excavation in Narhan, India, dated to 1000–800 BCE.
Because of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, its palatability, ease of cooking, and a protein that is particularly well-suited to human nutritional needs, interest in amaranth seeds (especiallyA. cruentusandA. hypochondriacus) revived in the 1970s. It was recovered in Mexico from wild varietiesand is now commercially cultivated. It is a popular snack in Mexico, sometimes mixed with chocolate or puffed rice, and its use has spread to Europe and other parts of North America.
Several species are raised for amaranth "grain" in Asia and the Americas. Amaranth and its relativequinoaare consideredpseudocerealsbecause of their similarities to cereals in flavor and cooking. The spread ofAmaranthusis of a joint effort of human expansion, adaptation, and fertilization strategies. Grain amaranth has been used for food by humans in several ways. The grain can be ground into a flour for use like other grain flours. It can be popped like popcorn, or flaked like oatmeal.
Seeds of Amaranth grain have been found inAntofagasta de la Sierra Department,Catamarca, Argentina in the southernPunadesert of the north of Argentina dating from 4,500 years ago, with evidence suggesting earlier use.Archeological evidence of seeds fromA. hypochondriacusandA. cruentusfound in a cave inTehuacán, Mexico, suggests amaranth was part of Aztec civilization in the 1400s.
Ancient amaranth grains still used include the three speciesAmaranthus caudatus,A. cruentus, andA. hypochondriacus.Evidence fromsingle-nucleotide polymorphismsandchromosome structuresupportsA. hypochondriacusas the common ancestor of the three grain species.
It has been proposed as an inexpensive native crop that could be cultivated by indigenous people in rural areas for several reasons:
In the United States, the amaranth crop is mostly used for seed production. Most amaranth in American food products starts as a ground flour, blended with wheat or other flours to create cereals, crackers, cookies, bread or other baked products. Despite utilization studies showing that amaranth can be blended with other flours at levels above 50% without affecting functional properties or taste, most commercial products use amaranth only as a minor portion of their ingredients despite them being marketed as "amaranth" products.
Amaranth species are cultivated and consumed as aleaf vegetablein many parts of the world. Four species ofAmaranthusare documented as cultivated vegetables in eastern Asia:Amaranthus cruentus,Amaranthus blitum,Amaranthus dubius, andAmaranthus tricolor.
In Indonesia and Malaysia, leaf amaranth is calledbayam(although the word has since been loaned to refer tospinach, in a different genus). In the Philippines, theIlocanoword for the plant iskalunay; theTagalogword for the plant iskilitisorkulitis.
InUttar PradeshandBiharin India, it is calledchaulaiand is a popular red leafy vegetable (referred to in the class of vegetable preparations calledlaalsaag). It is calledchuain Kumaun area of Uttarakhand, where it is a popular red-green vegetable. InKarnatakain India, it is calledharive soppu(ಹರಿವೆ ಸೊಪ್ಪು). It is used to prepare curries such ashulee, palya, majjigay-hulee, and so on. In Kerala, it is calledcheeraand is consumed by stir-frying the leaves with spices and red chili peppers to make a dish calledcheerathoran. In Tamil Nadu, it is calledmulaikkiraand is regularly consumed as a favourite dish, where the greens are steamed and mashed with light seasoning of salt, red chili pepper, and cumin. It is calledkeerai masial. In the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and other Telugu speaking regions of the country, this leaf is called as "Thotakura" and is cooked as a standalone curry, added as a part of mix leafy vegetable curry or added in preparation of a populardalcalledthotakura pappu(తోటకూర పప్పు) in (Telugu). In Maharashtra, it is calledshravani maathand is available in both red and white colour. In Orissa, it is calledkhada saga, it is used to preparesaga bhaja, in which the leaf is fried with chili and onions. InWest Bengal, the green variant is calledNotey Shaak(নটে শাক) and the red variant is calledLaal Shaak(লাল শাক).
In China, the leaves and stems are used as a stir-fry vegetable, or in soups. In Vietnam, it is calledrau dềnand is used to makesoup. Two species are popular as edible vegetable in Vietnam:dền đỏ(Amaranthus tricolor) anddền cơmordền trắng(Amaranthus viridis).
A traditional food plant in Africa, amaranth has the potential to improve nutrition, boostfood security, foster rural development and support sustainable land care.
In Bantu regions of Uganda and western Kenya, it is known asdoodoorlitoto.It is also known among theKalenjinas adroughtcrop (chepkerta). InLingala(spoken in the Congo), it is known aslɛngalɛngaorbítɛkutɛku.In Nigeria, it is a common vegetable and goes with all Nigerian starch dishes. It is known inYorubaasshoko, a short form ofshokoyokoto(meaning "make the husband fat"), orarowo jeja(meaning "we have money left over for fish"). In Botswana, it is referred to asmorugand cooked as a staple green vegetable.
In Greece, purple amaranth (Amaranthus blitum) is a popular dish calledβλήτα,vlitaorvleeta. It is boiled, then served with olive oil and lemon juice like a salad, sometimes alongside fried fish. Greeks stop harvesting the plant (which also grows wild) when it starts to bloom at the end of August.
In Brazil, green amaranth was, and to a degree still is, often considered an invasive species as all other species of amaranth (except the generally importedA. caudatuscultivar), though some have traditionally appreciated it as a leaf vegetable, under the names ofcaruruorbredo, which is consumed cooked, generally accompanying the staple food,rice and beans.
In the Caribbean, the leaves are calledbhajiin Trinidad andcallalooin Jamaica, and are sautéed with onions, garlic, and tomatoes, or sometimes used in a soup called pepperpot soup.
Making up about 5% of the totalfatty acidsof amaranth,squaleneis extracted as a vegetable-based alternative to the more expensiveshark oilfor use indietary supplementsandcosmetics.
The flowers of the 'Hopi Red Dye' amaranth were used by theHopi(a tribe in the western United States) as the source of a deep reddye. Also a synthetic dye was named "amaranth" for its similarity in color to the natural amaranthpigmentsknown asbetalains. This synthetic dye is also known as Red No. 2 in North America and E123 in the European Union.
The genus also contains several well-known ornamental plants, such asAmaranthus caudatus(love-lies-bleeding), a vigorous,hardyannual with dark purplishflowerscrowded in handsome drooping spikes. Another Indian annual,A. hypochondriacus(prince's feather), has deeply veined, lance-shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and deep crimson flowers densely packed on erect spikes.
Amaranths are recorded as food plants for someLepidoptera(butterflyandmoth) species including thenutmeg mothand various case-bearer moths of the genusColeophora:C. amaranthella,C. enchorda(feeds exclusively onAmaranthus),C. immortalis(feeds exclusively onAmaranthus),C. lineapulvella, andC. versurella(recorded onA. spinosus).
Diego Durándescribed the festivities for the Aztec godHuitzilopochtli. The Aztec month ofPanquetzaliztli(7 December to 26 December) was dedicated toHuitzilopochtli. People decorated their homes and trees with paper flags; ritual races, processions, dances, songs, prayers, and finallyhuman sacrificeswere held. This was one of the more important Aztec festivals, and the people prepared for the whole month. They fasted or ate very little; a statue of the god was made out of amaranth seeds and honey, and at the end of the month, it was cut into small pieces so everybody could eat a piece of the god. After the Spanish conquest, cultivation of amaranth was outlawed, while some of the festivities were subsumed into the Christmas celebration.
Amaranth is associated with longevity and, poetically, with death and immortality.Amaranth garlands were used in the mourning ofAchilles.
John Milton'sParadise Lostportrays a showy amaranth in theGarden of Eden, "remov'd from Heav'n" when it blossoms because the flowers "shade the fountain of life".He describes amaranth as "immortal" in reference to the flowers that generally do not wither and retain bright reddish tones of color, even when deceased; referred to in one species as "love-lies-bleeding."