Pearl millet

Pearl millet(Cenchrus americanus, commonly known as the synonymPennisetum  glaucum) is the most widely grown type ofmillet. It has been grown inAfricaand theIndian subcontinentsince prehistoric times. The center of diversity, and suggested area ofdomestication, for the crop is in theSahelzone ofWest Africa.Recent archaeobotanical research has confirmed the presence of domesticated pearl millet on the Sahel zone of northernMalibetween 2500 and 2000 BC.2023 was theInternational Year of Millets, declared by theUnited Nations General Assemblyin 2021.
Pearl millet hasovoidgrains of3–4 millimetres (1⁄8–5⁄32in) length, the largest kernels of all varieties of millet (not includingsorghum). These can be nearly white, pale yellow, brown, grey, slate blue or purple. The 1000-seed weight can be anything from 2.5 to 14 g with a mean of 8 g.
The height of the plant ranges from 0.5–4 metres (1 ft 8 in – 13 ft 1 in).
Also known as 'Bajra' inHindiandUrdu, Kodo in Nepali language,'Sajje' inKannada, 'Kambu' inTamil, 'Sajjalu' inTelugu, 'Bajeer' inKumaoni, 'Bajri' inGujaratiand 'Maiwa' inHausa, 'Mexoeira' inMozambique,'Baajri' inMarathi, 'Za' in theDagbani languageof Ghana, 'Zuk' inTyapof Nigeria, 'Mawele' inSwahili, 'Mwere' inMeru languageof Kenya, 'Mahangu' inKwanyamaof Namibia. Sona in Fur Language of Darfur, Sudan, kasab " قصب" in the Libyan Arabic dialect, and draa "درع" in the Tunisian Arabic dialect
Pearl millet is well adapted to growing areas characterized bydrought, low soil fertility, low moisture, and high temperature. It performs well in soils with high salinity or low pH. Because of its tolerance to difficult growing conditions, it can be grown in areas where othercerealcrops, such asmaizeorwheat, would not survive. Pearl millet is a summer annual crop well-suited for double cropping and rotations. The grain and forage are valuable as food and feed resources in Africa, Russia, India and China.
Today, pearl millet is grown on over 260,000 square kilometres (100,000 sq mi) of land worldwide. It accounts for about 50% of the total world production of millets.
World production of millets has been stable during the 1980s. According to FAO, 39.4 million hectares (97 million acres) of millet were planted in 1987 with an average production of only 704 kilograms per hectare (628 lb/acre).
Pearl millet varieties from the world collection probably have more variation in physical characteristics than any other millet.Kernel shape has different classifications: obovate, hexagonal,lanceolate, globular and elliptical. In Africa, pearl millet is classified as either globular or lanceolate and hexagonal. Most of the millets are very similar to each other in basic structures, although there are some very specific differences.
The composition of varietyChangaraof pearl millet can be affected by both environment and genetics. Pearl millet usually has higher protein and fat contents than sorghum or other millets because the kernel is a nakedcaryopsis.
Values are expressed on a dry matter basis.
Pearl millet is commonly used to makebhakriflatbread. It is also boiled to make aTamilporridge calledkamban choruorkamban koozh.
InRajasthani cuisinebajre ki khatti rabdiis a traditional dish made with pearl millet flour andyogurt. It is usually made in summers to be served along with meals.
Flatbreadsmade of pearl millet flour, known asbajhar jimaaniorbajre ki roti(बाजरे की रोटी) inPunjab,RajasthanandHaryana, bajrichi bhakri (बाजरीची भाकरी) inMaharashtraand bajra no rotlo (બાજરા નો રોટલો) inGujarat, India, are served with various types ofkadhiandbhaajiin meals. Bajhar ji maani prepared in Tharparkar, Sindh is served with various types of kadhi and bhaaji.
In Namibia, pearl millet flour is used to makeOshifima, a staple food in northern part of Namibia.
Indiais the largest producer of pearl millet. India began growing pearl millet between 1500 and 1100 BCE.It is currently unknown how it made its way to India,but it likely arrived originally from across Africa, and via the Red Sea during Indus Valley Trade networks.Rajasthan is the highest-producing state in India. The first hybrid of pearl millet developed in India in 1965 is called the HB1.
Sajje is the local name of the pearl millet inKarnatakaand is mostly grown in the semiarid districts of North Karnataka. Sajje is milled and used for making flatbread called 'sajje rotti' and is eaten with yennegai (stuffedbrinjal) andyogurt.
Kambuis the Tamil name of pearl millet and is a common food across theIndian stateof Tamil Nadu. It is the second important food for Tamil people consumed predominantly in the hot humid summer months from February through May every year. It is made into agrueland consumed along withbuttermilkor consumed asdosaoridly.
Pearl millet is calledbajrainNorthern Indianstates. There was a time when pearl millets along withfinger milletsandsorghumwere the staple food crops in these states but it reduced to a mere cattle fodder crop after theGreen Revolutionin the 1960s.
The second largest producer of pearl millet and the first to start cultivation, Africa has been successful in bringing back this lostcrop.
Pearl millet is an important food across theSahelregion of Africa. It is a main staple (along withsorghum) in a large region of northernNigeria,Niger,MaliandBurkina Faso. In Nigeria it is usually grown as anintercropwith sorghum andcowpea, the different growth habits, growth period and drought vulnerability of the three crops maximising total productivity and minimising the risk of total crop failure. It is often ground into a flour, rolled into large balls, parboiled, liquefied into a watery paste using fermented milk, and then consumed as a beverage. This beverage, called "fura" in Hausa, is a popular drink in northern Nigeria and southern Niger. Pearl millet is a food widely used inBorno stateand its surrounding states, it is the most widely grown and harvested crop. There are many products that are obtained from the processing of the crop.
InNamibia, pearl millet is locally known as "mahangu" and is grown mainly in the north of that country, where it is thestaple food. In the dry, unpredictable climate of this area it grows better than alternatives such asmaize. The regions in which this crop is produced are: Zambezi, Kavango East, Kavango West, Ohangwena, Omusati, Oshana, Oshikoto, and; in parts of the Otjozondjupa region, in the Tsumkwe area.
Mahangu is usually made into aporridgecalled "oshifima" (or "oshithima"), orfermentedto make a drink called "ontaku" or "oshikundu".
Traditionally, the mahangu is pounded with heavy pieces of wood in a 'pounding area'. The floor of the pounding area is covered with a concrete-like coating made from the material oftermitemounds. As a result, some sand and grit gets into the pounded mahangu, so products like oshifima are usually swallowed without chewing.After pounding,winnowingmay be used to remove thechaff.
Some industrial grain processing facilities now exist, such as those operated byNamib Mills. Efforts are also being made to develop smaller scale processing usingfood extrusionand other methods. In a food extruder, the mahangu is milled into a paste before being forced through metaldie. Products made this way include breakfast cereals, includingpuffed grainsandporridge, pasta shapes, and "rice".Pearl millet is also a vital feedstock for cattle, goats and chickens which can also be explored as an enterprise.
Recently more productive varieties of pearl millet have been introduced, enabling farmers to increase production considerably.
To combat the problem of micronutrient malnutrition in Africa and Asia, a study of serving iron-biofortifiedpearl millets which is bred conventionally withoutgenetic modificationto a control group is proved to have higher level of iron absorbance by the group.
Around 1000 pearl millet genotypes (including 31 wild genotypes) have been sequenced, identifying the genetic diversity of this staple crop and aiding breeding to select for particular characteristics. A reference genotype of pearl millet (Tift 23D2B1-P1-P5) has been fully sequenced, which holds around 38,579 genes. Some of these genes are for waxbiosynthesis, which is known to be involved in tolerance to abiotic stresses in pearl millet.The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics is evaluating crop wild relatives and will introgress abiotic tolerant traits into cultivated genotypes and make them available for pearl millet improvement.
A 2015 study provided agenetic map.
Insect pests includeAnoecia corni,An. cornicola,Anoecia fulviabdominalis,An. vagans,Aphis gossypii,Forda hirsuta,F. orientalis,Geoica utricularia,Hysteroneura setariae,Melanaphis sacchari,Protaphis middletonii,Rhopalosiphum maidis,R. rufiabdominale,Schizaphis graminum,Sipha elegans,Sipha maydis,Sitobion avenae,Sit. leelamaniae,Sit. pauliani,Tetraneura africana,Tetraneura basui,Tetraneura fusiformis, andT. yezoensis.
The larvae of several insect species, primarily belonging to the ordersColeoptera,Lepidoptera,Diptera, andHemiptera, as well asOrthopteraadults, are persistent pearl millet pests in theSahel.The following pest species are reported for northern Mali.
Grasshoppers that frequently attack millets in theDogon countryof Mali areOedaleus senegalensis,Kraussaria angulifera,Cataloipus cymbiferus, andDiabolocatantops axillaris.
In northern Ghana,Poophilus costalis(spittle bug) is reported as a millet pest, as well asDysdercus volkeri,Heliocheilus albipunctella,Coniesta ignefusalis, and caterpillars ofAmsacta moloneyiandHelicoverpa armigera.
In northern Nigeria, heavy infestations ofHycleusspecies, includingHycleus terminatus(syn.Mylabris afzelli),Hycleus fimbriatus(syn.Mylabris fimbriatus),Hycleus hermanniae(syn.Coryna hermanniae), andHycleus chevrolati(syn.Coryna chevrolati), have affected early plantings of pearl millet crops.
In South India, pests include the shoot flyAtherigona approximata.
In North America, regular pests include the chinch bugBlissus leucopterus.