Narcissus (plant)

Narcissusis agenusof predominantly spring floweringperennialplants of the amaryllis family,Amaryllidaceae. Various common names includingdaffodil,narcissus(pluralnarcissi), andjonquil, are used to describe some or all members of the genus.Narcissushas conspicuous flowers with six petal-liketepalssurmounted by a cup- or trumpet-shapedcorona. The flowers are generally white andyellow(also orange or pink in garden varieties), with either uniform or contrasting coloured tepals and corona.
Narcissiwere well known inancient civilisation, both medicinally and botanically, but were formally described byLinnaeusin hisSpecies Plantarum(1753). The genus is generally considered to have about ten sections with approximately 36 species. The number of species has varied, depending on how they are classified, due to similarity between species andhybridisation. The genus arose some time in the LateOligoceneto EarlyMioceneepochs, in theIberian peninsulaand adjacent areas of southwest Europe. The exact origin of the nameNarcissusis unknown, but it is often linked to a Greek word (ancient Greek ναρκῶ narkō, "to make numb") and the myth of theyouth of that namewho fell in love with his own reflection. In some versions of the story, Narcissus is turned in to a flower by the Gods after his death. The English word "daffodil" appears to be derived from "asphodel", with which it was commonly compared.
The species are native to meadows and woods in southern Europe and North Africa with acentre of diversityin the Western Mediterranean, particularly theIberian Peninsula. Both wild and cultivated plants have naturalised widely, and were introduced into the Far East prior to the tenth century. Narcissi tend to be long-lived bulbs, which propagate by division, but are also insect-pollinated. Known pests, diseases and disorders include viruses, fungi, the larvae of flies,mitesandnematodes. SomeNarcissusspecies have become extinct, while others are threatened by increasing urbanisation andtourism.
Historical accounts suggest narcissi have been cultivated from the earliest times, but became increasingly popular in Europe after the 16th century and by the late 19th century were an important commercial crop centred primarily in theNetherlands. Today narcissi are popular as cut flowers and as ornamental plants in private and publicgardens. The long history of breeding has resulted in thousands of differentcultivars. For horticultural purposes, narcissi are classified into divisions, covering a wide range of shapes and colours. Like other members of their family, narcissi produce a number of differentalkaloids, which provide some protection for the plant, but may be poisonous if accidentally ingested. This property has been exploited for medicinal use in traditional healing and has resulted in the production ofgalantaminefor the treatment ofAlzheimer's dementia. Long celebrated in art and literature, narcissi are associated with a number of themes in different cultures, ranging from death to good fortune, and as symbols of spring.
The daffodil is the national flower ofWalesand the symbol of cancer charities in many countries. The appearance of wild flowers in spring is associated with festivals in many places.
Narcissusis a genus ofperennialherbaceousbulbiferousgeophytes, which die back after flowering to an underground storage bulb. They regrow in the following year from brown-skinned ovoidbulbswith pronounced necks, and reach heights of 5–80 centimetres (2.0–31.5 in) depending on the species. Dwarf species such asN. asturiensishave a maximum height of 5–8 centimetres (2.0–3.1 in), whileNarcissus tazettamay grow as tall as 80 centimetres (31 in).
The plants arescapose, having a single central leafless hollow flowerstem(scape). Several green or blue-green, narrow, strap-shaped leaves arise from the bulb. The plant stem usually bears a solitary flower, but occasionally a cluster of flowers (umbel). The flowers, which are usually conspicuous and white or yellow, sometimes both or rarely green, consist of aperianthof three parts. Closest to the stem (proximal) is afloral tubeabove theovary, then an outer ring composed of sixtepals(undifferentiated sepals and petals), and a central disc to conical shapedcorona. The flowers may hang down (pendant), or be erect. There are sixpollenbearingstamenssurrounding a centralstyle. Theovaryis inferior (below the floral parts) consisting of three chambers (trilocular). Thefruitconsists of a drycapsulethat splits (dehisces) releasing numerous blackseeds.
The bulb lies dormant after the leaves and flower stem die back and has contractilerootsthat pull it down further into the soil. The flower stem and leaves form in the bulb, to emerge the following season. Most species are dormant from summer to late winter, flowering in the spring, though a few species are autumn flowering.
The pale brown-skinnedovoidtunicatebulbshave a membranous tunic and a corky stem (base or basal) plate from which arise theadventitiousroot hairsin a ring around the edge, which grow up to 40 mm in length. Above the stem plate is the storage organ consisting of bulb scales, surrounding the previous flower stalk and the terminalbud. The scales are of two types, true storage organs and the bases of the foliage leaves. These have a thicker tip and a scar from where the leaf lamina became detached. The innermost leaf scale is semicircular only partly enveloping the flower stalk (semisheathed).(see Hanks Fig 1.3). The bulb may contain a number of branched bulb units, each with two to three true scales and two to three leaf bases. Each bulb unit has a life of about four years.
Once the leaves die back in summer, the roots also wither. After some years, the roots shorten, pulling the bulbs deeper into the ground (contractile roots). The bulbs develop from the inside, pushing the older layers outwards which become brown and dry, forming an outer shell, the tunic or skin. Up to 60 layers have been counted in some wild species. While the plant appears dormant above the ground the flower stalk which will start to grow in the following spring, develops within the bulb surrounded by two to three deciduous leaves and their sheaths. The flower stem lies in theaxilof the second true leaf.
The single leaflessplant stemor scape, appearing from early to late spring depending on the species, bears from 1 to 20 blooms.Stem shape depends on the species, some are highly compressed with a visible seam, while others are rounded. The stems are upright and located at the centre of the leaves. In a few species such asN. hedraeanthusthe stem is oblique. The stem is hollow in the upper portion but towards the bulb is more solid and filled with a spongy material.
Narcissusplants have one to several basalleaveswhich are linear, ligulate or strap-shaped (long and narrow), sometimeschannelledadaxiallytosemiterete, and may (pedicellate) or may not (sessile) have apetiolestalk.The leaves are flat and broad to cylindrical at the base and arise from the bulb.The emerging plant generally has two leaves, but the mature plant usually three, rarely four, and they are covered with acutincontainingcuticle, giving them a waxy appearance. Leaf colour is light green to blue-green. In the mature plant, the leaves extend higher than the flower stem, but in some species, the leaves are low-hanging. The leaf base is encased in a colorless sheath. After flowering, the leaves turn yellow and die back once theseed pod(fruit) is ripe.
Jonquils usually have dark green, round, rush-like leaves.
Theinflorescenceis scapose, the singlestemor scape bearing either a solitary flower or forming anumbelwith up to 20 blooms.Species bearing a solitary flower include sectionBulbocodiumand most of sectionPseudonarcissus.Umbellatespecies have a fleshyracemoseinflorescence(unbranched, with short floral stalks) with 2 to 15 or 20 flowers, such asN. papyraceus(see illustration, left) andN. tazetta(seeTable I).The flower arrangement on the inflorescence may be either with (pedicellate) or without (sessile) floral stalks.
Prior to opening, the flower buds are enveloped and protected in a thin dry papery or membranous (scarious)spathe. Thespatheconsists of a singularbractthat is ribbed, and which remains wrapped around the base of the open flower. As the bud grows, the spathe splits longitudinally.Bracteolesare small or absent.
TheflowersofNarcissusarehermaphroditic(bisexual),have three parts (tripartite), and are sometimesfragrant(seeFragrances).The flower symmetry isactinomorphic(radial) to slightly zygomorphic (bilateral) due to declinate-ascendingstamens(curving downwards, then bent up at the tip).Narcissusflowers are characterised by their, usually conspicuous,corona(trumpet).
The three major floral parts (in all species exceptN. cavanillesiiin which the corona is virtually absent -Table I: SectionTapeinanthus) are;
All three parts may be considered to be components of theperianth(perigon, perigonium). Theperiantharises above the apex of the inferiorovary, its base forming the hypanthialfloral tube.
The floral tube is formed by fusion of the basal segments of the tepals (proximally connate). Its shape is from an inverted cone (obconic) to funnel-shaped (funneliform) or cylindrical, and is surmounted by the more distal corona. Floral tubes can range from long and narrow sectionsApodanthiandJonquillato rudimentary (N. cavanillesii).
Surrounding the floral tube and corona andreflexed(bent back) from the rest of the perianth are the six spreading tepals or floral leaves, in two whorls which may be distally ascending, reflexed (folded back), or lanceolate. Like manymonocotyledons, the perianth is homochlamydeous, which is undifferentiated into separate calyx (sepals) and corolla (petals), but rather has six tepals. The three outer tepal segments may be consideredsepals, and the three inner segmentspetals. The transition point between the floral tube and the corona is marked by the insertion of the free tepals on the fused perianth.
The corona, or paracorolla, is variously described as bell-shaped (funneliform, trumpet), bowl-shaped (cupular, crateriform, cup-shaped) or disc-shaped with margins that are often frilled, and is free from the stamens. Rarely is the corona a simple callose (hardened, thickened) ring. The corona is formed during floral development as a tubular outgrowth from stamens which fuse into a tubular structure, the anthers becoming reduced. At its base, the fragrances which attract pollinators are formed. All species produce nectar at the top of the ovary.Coronal morphology varies from the tiny pigmented disk ofN. serotinus(seeTable I) or the rudimentary structure inN. cavanillesiito the elongated trumpets of sectionPseudonarcissus(trumpet daffodils, Table I).
While the perianth may point forwards, in some species such asN. cyclamineusit is folded back (reflexed, see illustration, left), while in some other species such asN. bulbocodium(Table I), it is reduced to a few barely visible pointed segments with a prominent corona.
The colour of the perianth is white, yellow or bicoloured, with the exception of the night floweringN. viridifloruswhich is green. In addition the corona ofN. poeticushas a red crenulate margin (seeTable I).Flower diameter varies from 12 mm (N. bulbocodium) to over 125 mm (N. nobilis=N. pseudonarcissussubsp.nobilis).
Flower orientation varies from pendent or deflexed (hanging down) as inN. triandrus(see illustration, left), through declinate-ascendant as inN. alpestris=N. pseudonarcissussubsp.moschatus, horizontal (patent, spreading) such asN. gaditanusorN. poeticus, erect as inN. cavanillesii,N. serotinusandN. rupicola(Table I), or intermediate between these positions (erecto-patent).
The flowers ofNarcissusdemonstrate exceptional floral diversity and sexualpolymorphism,primarily by corona size and floral tube length, associated withpollinatorgroups (see for instance Figs. 1 and 2 in Graham and Barrett). Barrett and Harder (2005) describe three separate floral patterns;
The predominant patterns are the 'daffodil' and 'paperwhite' forms, while the "triandrus" form is less common. Each corresponds to a different group of pollinators (SeePollination).
The "daffodil" form, which includes sectionsPseudonarcissusandBulbocodium, has a relatively short, broad or highly funnelform tube (funnel-like), which grades into an elongated corona, which is large and funnelform, forming a broad, cylindrical or trumpet-shaped perianth. SectionPseudonarcissusconsists of relatively large flowers with a corolla length of around 50 mm, generally solitary but rarely in inflorescences of 2–4 flowers. They have wide greenish floral tubes with funnel-shaped bright yellow coronas. The six tepals sometimes differ in colour from the corona and may be cream coloured to pale yellow.
The "paperwhite" form, including sectionsJonquilla,ApodanthiandNarcissus, has a relatively long, narrow tube and a short, shallow, flaring corona. The flower is horizontal and fragrant.
The "triandrus" form is seen in only two species,N. albimarginatus(a Moroccan endemic) andN. triandrus. It combines features of both the "daffodil" and "paperwhite" forms, with a well-developed, long, narrow tube and an extended bell-shaped corona of almost equal length. The flowers are pendent.
There are sixstamensin one to two rows (whorls), with the filaments separate from the corona, attached at the throat or base of the tube (epipetalous), often of two separate lengths, straight or declinate-ascending (curving downwards, then upwards). The anthers are basifixed (attached at their base).
Theovaryis inferior (below the floral parts) andtrilocular(three chambered) and there is apistilwith a minutely three lobedstigmaand filiform (thread like)style, which is often exserted (extending beyond the tube).
The fruit consists of dehiscentloculicidalcapsules(splitting between the locules) that areellipsoidtosubglobose(almost spherical) in shape and are papery to leathery in texture.
The fruit contains numerous subgloboseseedswhich are round and swollen with a hard coat, sometimes with an attachedelaiosome. Thetestais blackand thepericarpdry.
Most species have 12ovulesand 36 seeds, although some species such asN. bulbocodiumhave more, up to a maximum of 60. Seeds take five to six weeks to mature. The seeds of sectionsJonquillaandBulbocodiumare wedge-shaped and matte black, while those of other sections are ovate and glossy black. A gust of wind or contact with a passing animal is sufficient todispersethe mature seeds.
Chromosomenumbers include 2n=14, 22, 26, with numerousaneuploidandpolyploidderivatives. The basic chromosome number is 7, with the exception ofN. tazetta,N. elegansandN. broussonetiiin which it is 10 or 11; this subgenus (Hermione) was in fact characterised by this characteristic. Polyploid species includeN. papyraceus(4x=22) andN. dubius(6x=50).
As with all Amarylidaceae genera,Narcissuscontains uniqueisoquinolinealkaloids. The first alkaloid to be identified waslycorine, fromN. pseudonarcissusin 1877. These are considered a protective adaptation and are utilised in the classification of species. Nearly 100 alkaloids have been identified in the genus, about a third of all known Amaryllidaceae alkaloids, although not all species have been tested. Of the nine alkaloidringtypes identified in the family,Narcissusspecies most commonly demonstrate the presence of alkaloids from within the Lycorine (lycorine, galanthine, pluviine) andHomolycorine(homolycorine, lycorenine) groups. Hemanthamine, tazettine,narciclasine, montanine andgalantaminealkaloids are also represented. The alkaloid profile of any plant varies with time, location, and developmental stage.Narcissusalso containfructansand low molecular weightglucomannanin the leaves and plant stems.
Fragrancesare predominantlymonoterpeneisoprenoids, with a small amount ofbenzenoids, althoughN. jonquillahas both equally represented. Another exception isN. cuatrecasasiiwhich produces mainly fatty acid derivatives. The basic monoterpene precursor isgeranyl pyrophosphate, and the commonest monoterpenes arelimonene,myrcene, andtrans-β-ocimene. Most benzenoids are non-methoxylated, while a few species containmethoxylatedforms (ethers),e.g.N. bujei. Other ingredient includeindole, isopentenoids and very small amounts ofsesquiterpenes. Fragrance patterns can be correlated withpollinators, and fall into three main groups (seePollination).
The genusNarcissuswas well known to theancient Greeks and Romans. InGreekliteratureTheophrastusandDioscoridesdescribedνάρκισσος, probably referring toN. poeticus, although the exact species mentioned in classical literature cannot be accurately established.Pliny the Elderlater introduced theLatinformnarcissus.These early writers were as much interested in the plant's possible medicinal properties as they were in its botanical features and their accounts remained influential until at least theRenaissance(see alsoAntiquity). Mediaeval and Renaissance writers includeAlbert MagnusandWilliam Turner, but it remained toLinnaeusto formally describe and nameNarcissusas a genus in hisSpecies Plantarum(1753) at which time there were six known species.
De Jussieu(1789) groupedNarcissusinto a "family",which he called Narcissi.This was renamed Amaryllideae byJaume Saint-Hilairein 1805,corresponding to the modernAmaryllidaceae. For a while,Narcissuswas considered part ofLiliaceae(as in the illustration seen here ofNarcissus candidissimus),but then the Amaryllidaceae were split off from it.
Various authors have adopted either narrow (e.g.Haworth,Salisbury) or wide (e.g.Herbert,Spach) interpretations of the genus.The narrow view treated many of the species as separate genera.Over time, the wider view prevailed with a major monograph on the genus being published byBaker(1875).One of the more controversial genera wasTapeinanthus,but today it is included inNarcissus.
The eventual position ofNarcissuswithin theAmaryllidaceaefamilyonly became settled in this century with the advent ofphylogenetic analysisand theAngiosperm Phylogeny Groupsystem.Within Amaryllidaceae thegenusNarcissusbelongs to theNarcisseaetribe, one of 13 within theAmaryllidoideaesubfamily.It is one of twosistercladescorresponding to genera in the Narcisseae,being distinguished fromSternbergiaby the presence of aparaperigonium,and ismonophyletic.
The infrageneric phylogeny ofNarcissusstill remains relatively unsettled,the taxonomy having proved complex and difficult to resolve,due to the diversity of the wild species, the ease with which naturalhybridizationoccurs, and extensive cultivation and breeding accompanied by escape and naturalisation.Consequently, the number of accepted species has varied widely.
De Candolle, in the first systematic taxonomy ofNarcissus, arranged the species into named groups, and those names have largely endured for the various subdivisions since and bear his name as their authority.The situation was confused by the inclusion of many unknown or garden varieties, and it was not until the work of Baker that the wild species were all grouped as sections under one genus,Narcissus.
A common classification system has been that of Fernandesbased oncytology, as modified by Blanchard (1990)andMathew(2002).Another is that of Meyer (1966).Fernandes proposed twosubgenerabased on basal chromosome numbers, and then subdivided these into tensectionsas did Blanchard.
Other authors (e.g. Webb) prioritised morphology over genetics, abandoning subgenera, although Blanchard's system has been one of the most influential. While infrageneric groupings withinNarcissushave been relatively constant, their status (genera, subgenera, sections, subsections, series, species) has not.The most cited system is that of theRoyal Horticultural Society(RHS) which simply lists ten sections. Three of these aremonotypic(contain only one species), while two others contain only two species. Most species are placed in sectionPseudonarcissus.Many of these subdivisions correspond roughly to the popular names for daffodil types,e.g.Trumpet Daffodils, Tazettas, Pheasant's Eyes, Hoop Petticoats, Jonquils.
The mosthierarchicalsystem is that of Mathew, illustrated here -
Thephylogenetic analysisof Graham and Barrett (2004) supported the infrageneric division ofNarcissusinto twocladescorresponding to Fernandes' subgenera, but did not support monophyly of all sections.A later extended analysis byRønstedet al.(2008) with additional taxa confirmed this pattern.
A large molecular analysis byZonneveld(2008) sought to reduce some of theparaphylyidentified by Graham and Barrett. This led to a revision of the sectional structure.While Graham and Barrett (2004)had determined that subgenusHermionewas monophyletic, Santos-Gallyet al.(2011)did not. If two species excluded in the former study are removed from the analysis, the studies are in agreement, the species in question instead forming a clade with subgenusNarcissus. Some so-called nothosections have been proposed, to accommodate natural ('ancient') hybrids (nothospecies).
Estimates of the number of species inNarcissushave varied widely, from anywhere between 16 and almost 160,even in the modern era. Linnaeus originally included six species in 1753, by 1784 there were fourteenby 1819 sixteen,and by 1831Adrian Haworthhad described 150 species.
Much of the variation lies in the definition ofspecies. Thus, a very wide view of each species, such as Webb'sresults in few species, while a very narrow view such as that of Fernandesresults in a larger number.Another factor is the status ofhybrids, with a distinction between "ancient hybrids" and "recent hybrids". The term "ancient hybrid" refers to hybrids found growing over a large area, and therefore now considered as separate species, while "recent hybrid" refers to solitary plants found amongst their parents, with a more restricted range.
Fernandes (1951) originally accepted 22 species,Webb (1980) 27.By 1968, Fernandes had 63 species,Blanchard (1990) 65 species,and Erhardt (1993) 66.In 2006 theRoyal Horticultural Society's (RHS)International Daffodil Register and Classified Listlisted 87 species, while Zonneveld's genetic study (2008) resulted in only 36.As of September 2014, theWorld Checklist of Selected Plant Familiesaccepts 52 species, along with at least 60 hybrids,while the RHS has 81 accepted names in its October 2014 list.
Within theNarcisseae,Narcissus(western Mediterranean) diverged fromSternbergia(Eurasia) some time in theLate OligocenetoEarly Mioceneeras, around 29.3–18.1Ma. Later, the genus divided into the two subgenera (HermioneandNarcissus) between 27.4 and 16.1 Ma. The divisions between the sections ofHermionethen took place during the Miocene period 19.9–7.8 Ma.Narcissusappears to have arisen in the area of the Iberian peninsula, southern France and northwestern Italy. SubgenusHermionein turn arose in the southwestern Mediterranean and Northwest Africa.
The derivation of the Latinnarcissusis from Greekνάρκισσοςnarkissos.According toPlutarchnarkissoshas been connected because of the plant's narcotic properties, withnarkē"numbness";it may also be connected with hell.On the other hand, its etymology is considered to be clearlyPre-GreekbyBeekes.
It is frequently linked to the myth ofNarcissus, who became so obsessed with his own reflection in water that he drowned and the narcissus plant sprang from where he died. There is no evidence for the flower being named after Narcissus.Narcissus poeticus, which grows in Greece, has a fragrance that has been described as intoxicating.Plinywrote that the plant was named for its fragrance (ναρκάωnarkao, "I grow numb" ), rather than Narcissus.Furthermore, there were accounts of narcissi growing long before the story of Narcissus appeared (seeGreek culture).It has also been suggested that narcissi bending over streams represent the youth admiring his reflection.Linnaeus used the Latin name "narcissus" for the plant but was preceded by others such asMatthias de l'Obel(1591)andClusius(1576).The name Narcissus was not uncommon for men in Roman times.
The plural form of the common name "narcissus" has been the cause of some confusion. Dictionaries list "narcissi", "narcissuses" and "narcissus".However, texts on usage such as Garnerand Fowlerstate that "narcissi" is the preferred form. The common name narcissus should not be capitalised.
The name "daffodil" is derived from "affodell", a variant ofasphodel.The narcissus was frequently referred to as the asphodel(seeAntiquity). Asphodel in turn appears to come from the Greek "asphodelos" (Ancient Greek:ἀσφόδελος).The reason for the introduction of the initial "d" is not known.From at least the 16th century, "daffadown dilly" and "daffydowndilly" have appeared as alternative names.Other names include "Lent lily".
TheHokkienname forNarcissus,chúi-sian, can be literally translated as "water fairy", wherechúi(水) refers to water andsian(仙) refers toimmortals. It is theofficial provincial flowerofFujian.
Although the familyAmaryllidaceaeare predominantly tropical or subtropical as a whole,Narcissusoccurs primarily inMediterranean region, with acentre of diversityin theIberian Peninsula(SpainandPortugal).A few species extend the range intosouthern France,Italy, theBalkans(N. poeticus,N. serotinus,N. tazetta), and theEastern Mediterranean(N. serotinus)includingIsrael(N. tazetta).The occurrence ofN. tazettain western and centralAsiaas well asEast Asiaare consideredintroductions, albeit ancient(seeEastern cultures). While the exact northern limit of the natural range is unknown, the occurrences of wildN. pseudonarcissusinGreat Britain, middle and northern Europe are similarly considered ancient introductions.
While the Amaryllidaceae are not native to North America,Narcissusgrows well in USDAhardiness zones3B through 10, which encompass most of the United States and Canada.
N. elegansoccurs on the Northwest African Coast (MoroccoandLibya), as well as the coastline ofCorsica,SardiniaandItaly, andN. bulbocodiumbetweenTangierandAlgiersand Tangier toMarrakech, but also on the Iberian Peninsula.N. serotinusis found along the entire Mediterranean coast.N. tazettaoccurs as far east asIranandKashmir. Since this is one of the oldest species found in cultivation, it is likely to have been introduced into Kashmir.N. poeticusandN. pseudonarcissushave the largest distribution ranges.N. poeticusranges from thePyreneesalong theRomanian Carpathiansto theBlack Seaand along theDalmatian coasttoGreece.N. pseudonarcissusranges from the Iberian Peninsula, via theVosges Mountainsto northernFranceandBelgium, and theUnited Kingdomwhere there are still wild stocks in SouthernScotland. The only occurrence inLuxembourgis located near Lellingen, in the municipality ofKiischpelt. InGermanyit is found mainly in the nature reserve atPerlenbach-Fuhrtsbachtaland theEifel National Park, where in the spring atMonschauthe meadows are teeming with yellow blooms.One of the most easterly occurrences can be found atMisselbergnearNassauon theLahn.
However, unlike the above examples, most species have very restrictedendemicrangeswhich may overlap resulting in natural hybrids.For instance in the vicinity of thePortuguesecity ofPortowhere bothN. pseudonarcissusandN. triandrusoccur there are found various intersections of the two species while in a small area along part of the Portuguese Mondego river are found intersectional hybrids betweenN. scaberulusandN. triandrus.
Thebiogeographydemonstrates aphylogeneticassociation, for instance subgenusHermionehaving a lowland distribution, but subgenusNarcissussectionApodanthibeingmontaneand restricted to Morocco, Spain and Portugal. The remaining sections within subgenusNarcissusinclude both lowland and mountain habitats.SectionPseudonarcissus, although widely naturalised, is endemic to theBaetic Rangesof the southeastern Iberian Peninsula.
Their native habitats are very varied, with different elevations,bioclimatic areasand substrates,being found predominantly in open spaces ranging from lowmarshesto rocky hillsides andmontanepastures, and includinggrassland,scrub,woods,river banksandrocky crevices.Although requirements vary, overall there is a preference foracidicsoils, although some species will grow onlimestone.Narcissus scaberuluswill grow ongranitesoils where it is moist in the growing season but dry in the summer, whileNarcissus dubiusthrives best in regions with hot and dry summers.
ThePseudonarcissusgroup in their natural habitat prefers humid situations such as stream margins, springs, wet pastures, clearings of forests or shrublands with humid soils, and moist hillsides. These habitats tend to be discontinuous in the Mediterranean mountains, producing discrete isolated populations.InGermany, which has relatively little limestone,Narcissus pseudonarcissusgrows in small groups on open mountain meadows or in mixed forests offir,beech,oak,alder,ashandbirchtrees with well-drained soil.
Narcissusare long-lived perennial geophytes with winter-growing and summer-dormant bulbsthat are mainly synanthous (leaves and flowers appearing at the same time).While most species flower in late winter to spring, five species are autumn flowering (N. broussonetii,N. cavanillesii,N. elegans,N. serotinus,N. viridiflorus).By contrast, these species are hysteranthous (leaves appear after flowering).
Flower longevity varies by species and conditions, ranging from 5–20 days.After flowering leaf and rootsenescencesets in, and the plant appears to be 'dormant' until the next spring, conserving moisture. However, the dormant period is also one of considerable activity within the bulbprimordia. It is also a period during which the plant bulb may be susceptible to predators (see§ Pests and diseases, below). Like many bulb plants fromtemperateregions, a period of exposure to cold is necessary before spring growth can begin. This protects the plant from growth during winter when intense cold may damage it. Warmer spring temperatures then initiate growth from the bulb. Early spring growth confers a number of advantages, including relative lack of competition for pollinators, and lack ofdeciduousshading.The exception to requiring cold temperatures to initiate flowering isN. tazetta.
Plants may spread clonally through the production of daughter bulbs and division, producing clumps.Narcissus specieshybridisereadily, although the fertility of the offspring will depend on the parental relationship.
The flowers areinsect-pollinated, the majorpollinatorsbeingbees,butterflies,flies, andhawkmoths, while the highly scented night-floweringN. viridiflorusis pollinated bycrepuscularmoths. Pollination mechanisms fall into three groups corresponding to floral morphology (seeDescription - Flowers).
Allogamy(outcrossing) on the whole is enforced through a late-acting (ovarian)self-incompatibilitysystem, but some species such asN. dubiusandN. longispathusare self-compatible producing mixtures of selfed andoutcrossedseeds.
Diseases ofNarcissusare of concern because of the economic consequences of losses in commercial cultivation. Pests include viruses, bacteria, and fungi as well as arthropods and gastropods. For control of pests, seeCommercial uses.
Aphidssuch asMacrosiphum euphorbiaecan transmitviraldiseases which affect the colour and shape of the leaves, as cannematodes.Up to twenty-five viruses have been described as being able to infect narcissi.These include theNarcissus common latent virus(NCLV,Narcissus mottling-associated virus),Narcissus latent virus(NLV,Narcissus mild mottle virus) which causes green mottling near leaf tips,Narcissus degeneration virus(NDV),Narcissus late season yellows virus(NLSYV) which occurs after flowering, streaking the leaves and stems,Narcissus mosaic virus,Narcissus yellow stripe virus(NYSV,Narcissus yellow streak virus),Narcissus tip necrosis virus(NTNV) which produces necrosis of leaf tips after floweringandNarcissus white streak virus(NWSV).
Less host specific viruses includeRaspberry ringspot virus,Nerine latent virus(NeLV) =Narcissus symptomless virus,Arabis mosaic virus(ArMV),Broad Bean Wilt Viruses(BBWV)Cucumber mosaic virus(CMV),Tomato black ring virus(TBRV),Tomato ringspot virus(TomRSV) andTobacco rattle virus(TRV).
Of these viruses the most serious and prevalent are NDV, NYSV and NWSV.NDV is associated withchloroticleaf striping inN. tazetta.Infection with NYSV produces light or grayish-green, or yellow stripes or mottles on the upper two-thirds of the leaf, which may be roughened or twisted. The flowers which may be smaller than usual may also be streaked or blotched. NWSV produces greenish-purple streaking on the leaves and stem turning white to yellow, and premature senescence reducing bulb size and yield.These viruses are primarily diseases of commercial nurseries. The growth inhibition caused by viral infection can cause substantial economic damage.
Bacterialdisease is uncommon inNarcissusbut includesPseudomonas(bacterial streak) andPectobacterium carotovorumsp.carotovorum(bacterial soft rot).
More problematic for non-commercial plants is thefungus,Fusarium oxysporumf. sp.narcissi, which causes basal rot (rotting of the bulbs and yellowing of the leaves). This is the most serious disease ofNarcissus. Since the fungus can remain in the soil for many years it is necessary to remove infected plants immediately, and to avoid planting further narcissi at that spot for a further five years. Not all species and cultivars are equally susceptible. Relatively resistant forms includeN. triandrus,N. tazettaandN. jonquilla.
Another fungus which attacks the bulbs, causing narcissus smoulder, isBotrytis narcissicola(Sclerotinia narcissicola) and other species ofBotrytis, includingBotrytis cinerea,particularly if improperly stored. Copper sulfate is used to combat the disease, and infected bulbs are burned. Blue mould rot of bulbs may be caused by infection with species ofPenicillium, if they have become damaged either through mechanical injury or infestation by mites (see below).Species ofRhizopus(e.g.Rhizopus stolonifer,Rhizopus nigricans) cause bulb soft rotandSclerotinia bulborum, black slime disease.A combination of bothPeyronellaea curtisii(Stagonosporopsis curtisii) andBotrytis narcissicolacauses neck rot in the bulbs.
Fungi affecting the roots includeNectria radicicola(Cylindrocarpon destructans), a cause of root rotandRosellinia necatrixcausing white root rot,while others affect root and bulb, such asAspergillus niger(black mold), and species ofTrichoderma, includingT. virideandT. harzianum(=T. narcissi) responsible for green mold.
Other fungi affect the remainder of the plant. AnotherBotrytisfungus,Botrytis polyblastis(Sclerotinia polyblastis) causes brown spots on the flower buds and stems (narcissus fire), especially in damp weather and is a threat to the cut flower industry.Ramularia vallisumbrosaeis a leaf spot fungus found in warmer climates, causing narcissus white mould disease.Peyronellaea curtisii, the Narcissus leaf scorch, also affects the leavesas does itssynanamorph,Phoma narcissi(leaf tip blight).Aecidium narcissicausesrustlesions on leaves and stems.
Arthropodsthat areNarcissuspests includeinsectssuch as three species offlythat have larvae that attack the plants, the narcissus bulb flyMerodon equestris, and two species ofhoverflies, the lesser bulb fliesEumerus tuberculatusandEumerus strigatus. The flies lay their eggs at the end of June in the ground around the narcissi, a single female fly being able to lay up to fifty eggs. The hatchinglarvaethen burrow through the soil towards the bulbs and consume their interiors. They then overwinter in the empty bulb shell, emerging in April topupatein the soil, from which the adult fly emerges in May.The larvae of somemothssuch asKorscheltellus lupulina(the common swift moth) attackNarcissusbulbs.
Other arthropods includeMitessuch asSteneotarsonemus laticeps(Bulb scale mite),RhizoglyphusandHistiostomainfest mainly stored bulbs and multiply particularly at high ambient temperature, but do not attack planted bulbs.
Planted bulbs are susceptible tonematodes, the most serious of which isDitylenchus dipsaci(Narcissus eelworm), the main cause of basal plate diseasein which the leaves turn yellow and become misshapen. Infested bulbs have to be destroyed; where infestation is heavy avoiding planting further narcissi for another five years.Other nematodes includeAphelenchoides subtenuis, which penetrates the roots causing basal plate diseaseandPratylenchus penetrans(lesion nematode) the main cause of root rot in narcissi.Other nematodes such as thelongodorids(Longidorusspp. or needle nematodes andXiphinemaspp. or dagger nematodes) and the stubby-root nematodes ortrichodorids(Paratrichodorusspp. andTrichodorusspp.) can also act as vectors of virus diseases, such as TBRV and TomRSV, in addition to causing stunting of the roots.
Gastropodssuch assnailsandslugsalso cause damage to growth.
Many of the smallest species have become extinct, requiring vigilance in the conservation of the wild species.Narcissi are increasingly under threat by over-collection and threats to their natural habitats by urban development and tourism.N. cyclamineushas been considered to be either extinct or exceedingly rarebut is not currently considered endangered, and is protected.TheIUCNRed Listdescribes five species as 'Endangered' (Narcissus alcaracensis,Narcissus bujei,Narcissus longispathus,Narcissus nevadensis,Narcissus radinganorum). In 1999 three species were considered endangered, five as vulnerable and six as rare.
In response, a number of species have been granted protected species status and protected areas (meadows) have been established such as theNegraşi Daffodil MeadowinRomania, orKempley Daffodil Meadowin theUK. These areas often hostdaffodil festivalsin the spring.
Of all the flowering plants, the bulbous have been the most popular for cultivation.Of these, narcissi are one of the most important spring flowering bulb plants in the world.Indigenousin Europe, the wild populations of the parent species had been known sinceantiquity. Narcissi have been cultivated from at least as early as the sixteenth century in theNetherlands, when large numbers of bulbs where imported from the field, particularlyNarcissus hispanicus, which soon became nearly extinct in its native habitat of France and Spain, though still found in the southern part of that country.The only large-scale production at that time related to the double narcissus "Van Sion" and cultivars ofN. tazettaimported in 1557.
Cultivation is also documented in Britain at this time,although contemporary accounts show it was well known as a favourite garden and wild flower long before that and was used in makinggarlands.This was a period when the development of exotic formal gardens and parks was becoming popular, particularly in what is known as the "Oriental period" (1560–1620). In hisHortus Medicus(1588), the first catalogue of a German garden's plants,Joachim Camerarius the Youngerstates that nine different types of daffodils were represented in his garden inNuremberg.After his death in 1598, his plants were moved byBasilius Beslerto the gardens they had designed atWillibaldsburg, the bishop's palace atEichstätt, Upper Bavaria. That garden is described in Besler'sHortus Eystettensis(1613) by which time there were 43 different types present.Another German source at this time wasPeter Laurembergwho gives an account of the species known to him and their cultivation in hisApparatus plantarius: de plantis bulbosis et de plantis tuberosis(1632).
WhileShakespeare's daffodil is the wild or true English daffodil (N. pseudonarcissus),many other species were introduced, some of which escaped and naturalised, particularlyN. biflorus(a hybrid) inDevonand the west of England.Gerard, in his extensive discussion of daffodils, both wild and cultivated ("bastard daffodils") described twenty four species in London gardens (1597),("we have them all and every one of them in our London gardens, in great abundance", p. 114).
In the early seventeenth century,Parkinsonhelped to ensure the popularity of the daffodil as a cultivated plantby describing a hundred different varieties in hisParadisus Terrestris(1629),and introducing the great double yellow Spanish daffodil (Pseudonarcissus aureus Hispanicus flore plenoor Parkinson's Daffodil, see illustration) to England.
Although not achieving the sensationalism oftulips, daffodils and narcissi have been much celebrated in art and literature (see§ Art, below). The largest demand for narcissi bulbs were large trumpet daffodils,N. poeticusandN. bulbocodium, andIstanbulbecame important in the shipping of bulbs to western Europe. By the earlybaroqueperiod both tulips and narcissi were an important component of the spring garden. By 1739 a Dutch nursery catalogue listed 50 different varieties. In 1757Hillgave an account of the history and cultivation of the daffodil in his edited version of the works ofThomas Hale, writing "The garden does not afford, in its Kind, a prettier plant than this; nor do we know one that has been so early, or so honorably mention'd by all Kinds of Writers" (see illustration).Interest grew further when varieties that could be grown indoors became available, primarily the bunch flowered (multiple flower heads)N. tazetta(Polyanthus Narcissus).However interest varied by country. Maddock (1792) does not include narcissi in his list of the eight most important cultivated flowering plants in England,whereas in the Netherlands van Kampen (1760) stated thatN. tazetta(Narcisse à bouquet) is the fifth most important – "Le Narcisse à bouquet est la premiere fleur, après les Jacinthes, les Tulipes les Renoncules, et les Anemones, (dont nous avons déja parlé,) qui merite nôtre attention".SimilarlyPhilip Miller, in hisGardeners Dictionary(1731–1768) refers to cultivation in Holland, Flanders and France, but not England,because it was too difficult, a similar observation was made bySir James Justiceat this time.However, for most species ofNarcissusLauremberg'sdictumMagna cura non indigent Narcissiwas much cited.
Narcissi became an importanthorticulturalcrop in Western Europe in the latter part of the nineteenth century, beginning in England between 1835 and 1855 and the end of the century in the Netherlands.By the beginning of the twentieth century 50 million bulbs ofN. Tazetta"Paperwhite" were being exported annually from the Netherlands to the United States. With the production oftriploidssuch as "Golden Spur", in the late nineteenth century, and in the beginning of the twentieth century, tetraploids like "King Alfred" (1899), the industry was well established, with trumpet daffodils dominating the market.TheRoyal Horticultural Societyhas been an important factor in promoting narcissi, holding the first Daffodil Conference in 1884,while theDaffodil Society, the first organisation dedicated to the cultivation of narcissi was founded in Birmingham in 1898. Other countries followed and theAmerican Daffodil Societywhich was founded in 1954 publishesThe Daffodil Journalquarterly, a leading trade publication.
Narcissi are now popular asornamental plantsfor gardens, parks and ascut flowers, providing colour from the end of winter to the beginning of summer intemperateregions. They are one of the most popular spring flowersand one of the major ornamental spring flowering bulb crops, being produced both for their bulbs and cut flowers, though cultivation of private and public spaces is greater than the area of commercial production.Over a century of breeding has resulted in thousands of varieties andcultivarsbeing available from both general and specialist suppliers.They are normally sold as dry bulbs to be planted in late summer and autumn. They are one of the most economically important ornamental plants.Plant breedershave developed some daffodils with double, triple, or ambiguously multiple rows and layers of segments.Many of the breeding programs have concentrated on the corona (trumpet or cup), in terms of its length, shape, and colour, and the surrounding perianthor even as in varieties derived fromN. poeticusa very reduced form.
While some wild narcissi are specific in terms of their ecological requirements, most garden varieties are relatively tolerant of soil conditions,however very wet soils and clay soils may benefit from the addition of sand to improve drainage.The optimum soil is a neutral to slightly acidpHof 6.5–7.0.
Bulbs offered for sale are referred to as either 'round' or 'double nose'. Round bulbs are circular in cross section and produce a single flower stem, while double nose bulbs have more than one bulb stem attached at the base and produce two or more flower stems, but bulbs with more than two stems are unusual.Planted narcissi bulbs produce daughter bulbs in the axil of the bulb scales, leading to the dying off the exterior scales.To prevent planted bulbs forming more and more small bulbs, they can be dug up every 5–7 years, and the daughters separated and replanted separately, provided that a piece of the basal plate, where the rootlets are formed, is preserved. For daffodils to flower at the end of the winter or early spring, bulbs are planted inautumn(September–November). This plant does well in ordinary soil but flourishes best in rich soil. Daffodils like the sun but also accept partial shade exposure.
Narcissi are well suited for planting under small thickets of trees, where they can be grouped as 6–12 bulbs.They also grow well in perennial borders,especially in association withday lilieswhich begin to form their leaves as the narcissi flowers are fading.A number of wild species and hybrids such as "Dutch Master", "Golden Harvest", "Carlton", "Kings Court" and "Yellow Sun" naturalise well in lawns,but it is important not to mow the lawn till the leaves start to fade, since they are essential for nourishing the bulb for the next flowering season.BlueScillaandMuscariwhich also naturalise well in lawns and flower at the same time as narcissus, make an attractive contrast to the yellow flowers of the latter. Unliketulips, narcissi bulbs are not attractive to rodents and are sometimes planted near tree roots in orchards to protect them.
The commonest form of commercial propagation is bytwin-scaling, in which the bulbs are cut into many small pieces but with the two scales still connected by a small fragment of the basal plate. The fragments are disinfected and placed in nutrient media. Some 25–35 new plants can be produced from a single bulb after four years.Micropropagationmethods are not used for commercial production but are used for establishing commercial stock.
For commercial use, varieties with a minimum stem length of 30 centimetres (12 in) are sought, making them ideal for cut flowers. Florists require blooms that only open when they reach the retail outlet. For garden plants the objectives are to continually expand the colour palette and to produce hardy forms, and there is a particular demand for miniature varieties. The cultivars so produced tend to be larger and more robust than the wild types.The main species used in breeding areN. bulbocodium,N. cyclamineus,N. jonquilla,N. poeticus,N. pseudonarcissus,N. serotinusandN. tazetta.
Narcissus pseudonarcissusgave rise to trumpetcultivarswith coloured tepals and corona, while its subspeciesN. pseudonarcissussubsp.bicolorwas used for white tepaled varieties. To produce large cupped varieties,N. pseudonarcissuswascrossedwithN. poeticus, and to produce small cupped varieties back crossed withN. poeticus. Multiheaded varieties, often called "Poetaz" are mainly hybrids ofN. poeticusandN. tazetta.
For horticultural purposes, allNarcissuscultivars are split into 13 divisions as first described by Kington (1998),forthe Royal Horticultural Society(RHS),based partly upon flower form (shape and length of corona), number of flowers per stem, flowering period and partly upon genetic background. Division 13, which includes wild daffodils, is the exception to this scheme.The classification is a useful tool for planning planting. Most commercially available narcissi come from Divisions 1 (Trumpet), 2 (Large cupped) and 8 (Tazetta).
Growers register new daffodil cultivars by name and colour with the Royal Horticultural Society, which is the international registration authority for the genus.TheirInternational Daffodil Registeris regularly updated with supplements available onlineand is searchable.The most recent supplement (2014) is the sixth (the fifth was published in 2012).More than 27,000 names were registered as of 2008,and the number has continued to grow. Registered daffodils are given a division number andcolour codesuch as 5 W-W ("Thalia").In horticultural usage it is common to also find an unofficial Division 14: Miniatures, which although drawn from the other 13 divisions, have their miniature size in common.Over 140 varieties have gained theRoyal Horticultural Society'sAward of Garden Merit(SeeList of Award of Garden Merit narcissus).
Daffodil breeding has introduced a wide range of colours, in both the outer perianth tepal segment and the inner corona. In the registry, daffodils are coded by the colours of each of these two parts. Thus "Geranium", Tazetta (Division 8) as illustrated here with a white outer perianth and orange corona is classified as8 W-O.
AllNarcissusspecies contain thealkaloidpoisonlycorine, mostly in the bulb but also in the leaves.Members of the monocot subfamilyAmaryllidoideaepresent a unique type of alkaloids, the norbelladine alkaloids, which are4-methylcatecholderivatives combined withtyrosine. They are responsible for the poisonous properties of a number of the species. Over 200 different chemical structures of these compounds are known, of which 79 or more are known fromNarcissusalone.
The toxic effects of ingestingNarcissusproducts for both humans and animals (such as cattle, goats, pigs, and cats) have long been recognised and they have been used in suicide attempts. Ingestion ofN. pseudonarcissusorN. jonquillais followed bysalivation, acute abdominal pains,nausea,vomiting, anddiarrhea, then neurological and cardiac events, includingtrembling,convulsions, andparalysis. Death may result if large quantities are consumed.
The toxicity ofNarcissusvaries with species,N. poeticusbeing more toxic thanN. pseudonarcissus, for instance. The distribution of toxins within the plant also varies, for instance, there is a five times higher concentration of alkaloid in the stem ofN. papyraceusthan in the bulb, making it dangerous to herbivores more likely to consume the stem than the bulb, and is part of the plant's defence mechanisms. The distribution of alkaloids within tissues may also reflect defence against parasites.The bulbs can also be toxic to other nearby plants, including roses, rice, and cabbages, inhibiting growth.For instance placing cut flowers in a vase alongside other flowers shortens the life of the latter.
Many cases of poisoning or death have occurred when narcissi bulbs have been mistaken forleeksoronionsand cooked and eaten. Recovery is usually complete in a few hours without any specific intervention. In more severe cases involving ingestion of large quantities of bulbs,activated carbon, salts andlaxativesmay be required, and for severe symptoms intravenousatropineandemeticsorstomach pumpingmay be indicated. However, ingestion of large quantities accidentally is unusual because of a strong unpleasant taste. When narcissi were compared with a number of other plants not normally consumed by animals, narcissi were the most repellent, specificallyN. pseudonarcissus. Consequently, narcissus alkaloids have been used as repellents and may also discourage fungi, molds, and bacteria.
On 1 May 2009, a number of schoolchildren fell ill at Gorseland Primary School inMartlesham Heath, Suffolk, England, after a daffodil bulb was added to soup during a cookery class.
One of the most commondermatitisproblems for flower pickers, packers, florists, and gardeners, "daffodil itch", involves dryness, fissures, scaling, anderythemain the hands, often accompanied bysubungualhyperkeratosis(thickening of the skin beneath the nails). It is blamed on exposure tocalcium oxalate,chelidonic acidor alkaloids such aslycorinein the sap, either due to a direct irritant effect or an allergic reaction.It has long been recognised that some cultivars provoke dermatitis more readily than others.N. pseudonarcissusand thecultivars"Actaea", "Camparelle", "Gloriosa", "Grande Monarque", "Ornatus", "Princeps" and "Scilly White" are known to do so.
If bulb extracts come into contact with wounds, both central nervous system and cardiac symptoms may result. The scent can also cause toxic reactions such as headaches and vomiting fromN. bulbocodium.
Despite the lethal potential ofNarcissusalkaloids, they have been used for centuries astraditional medicinesfor a variety of complaints, including cancer. Plants thought to beN. poeticusandN. tazettaare described in the Bible in the treatment for what is thought to be cancer.In theClassical GreekworldHippocrates(ca. B.C. 460–370) recommended a pessary prepared from narcissus oil foruterine tumors, a practice continued byPedanius Dioscorides(ca. A.D. 40–90) andSoranus of Ephesus(A.D. 98–138) in the first and second centuries A.D., while theRomanPliny the Elder(A.D. 23–79), advocatedtopicaluse.The bulbs ofN. poeticuscontain theantineoplasticagent narciclasine. This usage is also found in laterArabian, North African, Central American andChinesemedicine during theMiddle Ages.In ChinaN. tazettavar. chinensis was grown as an ornamental plant but the bulbs were applied topically to tumors in traditional folk medicine. These bulbs contain pretazettine, an active antitumor compound.
Narcissusproducts have received a variety of other uses. The Roman physicianAulus Cornelius Celsuslisted narcissus root inDe Medicinaamongmedical herbs, described asemollient, erodent, and "powerful to disperse whatever has collected in any part of the body". N. tazetta bulbs were used in Turkey as a remedy for abscesses in the belief they wereantiphlogisticandanalgesic. Other uses include the application to wounds, strains, painful joints, and various local ailments as anointmentcalled 'Narcissimum'. Powdered flowers have also been used medically, as anemetic, adecongestantand for the relief ofdysentery, in the form of a syrup orinfusion. The French used the flowers as anantispasmodic, the Arabs the oil forbaldnessand also anaphrodisiac. In the eighteenth century the IrishherbalofJohn K'Eoghrecommended pounding the roots in honey for use on burns, bruises,dislocationsandfreckles, and for drawing out thorns and splinters.N. tazettabulbs have also been used forcontraception, while the flowers have been recommended forhysteriaandepilepsy.In the traditional Japanese medicine ofkampo, wounds were treated with narcissus root andwheat flour paste;the plant, however, does not appear in the modernkampo herb list.
There is also a long history of the use ofNarcissusas astimulantand to inducetrancelike states andhallucinations.Sophoclesreferred to the narcissus as the "Chaplet of the infernal Gods",a statement frequently wrongly attributed toSocrates(seeAntiquity).
Extracts ofNarcissushave demonstrated a number of potentially useful biological properties includingantiviral,prophage induction,antibacterial,antifungal,antimalarial,insecticidal,cytotoxic,antitumor,antimitotic,antiplatelet,hypotensive,emetic,acetylcholine esterase inhibitory,antifertility,antinociceptive,chronotropic,pheromone,plant growth inhibitor, andallelopathic.Anethanolextract ofNarcissusbulbs was found effective in one mouse model ofnociception, para-benzoquinoneinduced abdominal constriction, but not in another, the hot plate test.Most of these properties are due to alkaloids, but some are also due tomannose-binding lectins. The most-studied alkaloids in this group aregalantamine(galanthamine),lycorine, narciclasine, and pretazettine.
It is likely that the traditional use of narcissi for the treatment of cancer was due to the presence of isocarbostyril constituents such asnarciclasine,pancratistatinand their congeners.N. poeticuscontains about 0.12g of narciclasine per kg of fresh bulbs.
Acetylcholine esterase inhibition has attracted the most interest as a possible therapeutic intervention, with activity varying by a thousandfold between species, and the greatest activity seen in those that contain galantamine or epinorgalanthamine.
Therodentrepellant properties ofNarcissusalkaloids have been utilised in horticulture to protect more vulnerable bulbs.
Of all the alkaloids, only galantamine has made it to therapeutic use in humans, as the druggalantamineforAlzheimer'sdisease. Galantamine is an acetylcholine esterase inhibitor which crosses theblood brain barrierand is active within thecentral nervous system.Daffodils are grown commercially nearBreconin Powys, Wales, to produce galantamine.
Throughout history the scent of narcissi has been an important ingredient ofperfumes, a quality that comes fromessential oilsrather than alkaloids.Narcissi are also an importanthorticulturalcrop,and source ofcut flowers(floriculture).
TheNetherlands, which is the most important source of flower bulbs worldwide is also a major centre of narcissus production. Of 16,700 hectares (ha) under cultivation for flower bulbs, narcissi account for about 1,800 hectares. In the 1990s narcissus bulb production was at 260 million, sixth in size aftertulips,gladioli,irises,crocusesandliliesand in 2012 it was ranked third.About two-thirds of the area under cultivation is dedicated to about 20 of the most popular varieties. In the 2009/2010 season, 470 cultivars were produced on 1578 ha. By far the largest area cultivated is for the miniature'Tête-à-Tête', followed at some distance by 'Carlton'. The largest production cultivars are shown in Table II.
"Carlton" and "Ice Follies" (Division 2: Large cup) have a long history of cultivation, together with "Dutch Master" and "Golden Harvest" (1: yellow). "Carlton" and "Golden Harvest" were introduced in 1927, and "Ice Follies" in 1953. "Carlton", with over 9 billion bulbs (350 000 tons), is among the more numerous individual plants produced in the world.The other major areas of production are theUnited States,Israelwhich exported 25 millionN. tazettacultivar bulbs in 2003,and theUnited Kingdom.
In the United Kingdom a total of 4100 ha were planted with bulbs, of which 3800 ha were Narcissi, the UK's most important bulb crop, much of which is for export,making this the largest global production centre, about half of the total production area. While some of the production is for forcing, most is for dry bulb production. Bulb production and forcing occurs in the East, while production in the south west is mainly for outdoor flower production.Thefarm gate valuewas estimated at £10m in 2007.
Production of both bulbs and cut flowers takes place in open fields in beds or ridges, often in the same field, allowing adaptation to changing market conditions. Narcissi grow best in mild maritime climates. Compared to the United Kingdom, the harsher winters in the Netherlands require covering the fields with straw for protection. Areas with higher rainfall and temperatures are more susceptible todiseasesthat attack crops. Production is based on a 1 (UK) or 2 (Netherlands) year cycle. Optimal soilpHis 6.0–7.5. Prior to planting disinfection by hot water takes place, such as immersion at 44.4 °C for three hours.
Bulbs are harvested for market in the summer, sorted, stored for 2–3 weeks, and then further disinfected by a hot (43.5 °C) bath. This eliminates infestations by narcissus fly and nematodes. The bulbs are then dried at a high temperature, and then stored at 15.5 °C.The initiation of new flower development in the bulb takes place in late spring before the bulbs are lifted, and is completed by mid summer while the bulbs are in storage. The optimal temperature for initiation is 20 °C followed by cooling to 13 °C.
Traditionally, sales took place in the daffodil fields prior to harvesting the bulbs, but today sales are handled by Marketing Boards although still before harvesting. In the Netherlands there are special exhibition gardens for major buyers to view flowers and order bulbs, some larger ones may have more than a thousand narcissus varieties on display. While individuals can visit these gardens they cannot buy bulbs atretail, which are only available atwholesale, usually at a minimum of severalhundredweight. The most famous display is atKeukenhof, although only about 100 narcissus varieties are on display there.
There is also a market for forced blooms, both as cut flowers and potted flowers through the winter from Christmas to Easter, the long season requiring special preparation by growers.
Forcut flowers, bulbs larger than 12 cm in size are preferred. To bloom in December, bulbs are harvested in June to July, dried, stored for four days at 34 °C, two weeks at 30 and two weeks at 17–20 °C and then placed in cold storage for precooling at 9 degrees for about 15–16 weeks. The bulbs are then planted in light compost in crates in agreenhousefor forcing at 13 °C–15 °C and the blooms appear in 19–30 days.
For potted flowers a lower temperature is used for precooling (5 °C for 15 weeks), followed by 16 °C–18 °C in a greenhouse. For later blooming (mid- and late-forcing), bulbs are harvested in July to August and the higher temperatures are omitted, being stored a 17–20 °C after harvesting and placed in cold storage at 9 °C in September for 17–18 (cut flowers) or 14–16 (potted flowers) weeks. The bulbs can then be planted in cold frames, and then forced in a greenhouse according to requirements.N. tazettaand its cultivars are an exception to this rule, requiring no cold period. Often harvested in October, bulbs are lifted in May and dried and heated to 30 °C for three weeks, then stored at 25 °C for 12 weeks and planted. Flowering can be delayed by storing at 5 °C–10 °C.
The daffodil is thenational flowerofWales, associated withSaint David's Day(March 1). The narcissus is also a national flower symbolising the new year orNowruzin theKurdish culture.
In the West the narcissus is perceived as a symbol of vanity, in the East as a symbol of wealth and good fortune (see§ Eastern cultures, below), while inPersian literature, the narcissus is a symbol of beautiful eyes.
In western countries the daffodil is also associated with spring festivals such asLentand its successorEaster. In Germany the wild narcissus,N. pseudonarcissus, is known as theOsterglockeor "Easter bell." In the United Kingdom the daffodil is sometimes referred to as the Lenten lily.
Although prized as an ornamental flower, some people consider narcissi unlucky, because they hang their heads implying misfortune.White narcissi, such asN triandrus"Thalia", are especially associated with death, and have been called grave flowers.In Ancient Greece narcissi were planted near tombs, andRobert Herrickdescribes them as portents of death, an association which also appears in the myth ofPersephoneand theunderworld(see§ Art, below).
The decorative use of narcissi dates as far back asancient Egyptiantombs, andfrescoesatPompeii.They are mentioned in the King James Version of the Bibleas theRose of Sharonand make frequent appearances in classical literature.
The narcissus appears in twoGraeco-Romanmyths, that of the youthNarcissuswho was turned into the flower of that name, and of the GoddessPersephonesnatchedinto theUnderworldby the godHadeswhile picking the flowers. The narcissus is considered sacred to both Hades and Persephone,and grows along the banks of the riverStyxin the underworld.
The Greek poetStasinosmentioned them in theCypriaamongst the flowers of Cyprus.The legend of Persephone comes to us mainly in the seventh century BCHomeric HymnTo Demeter,where the author describes the narcissus, and its role as a lure to trap the young Persephone. The flower, she recounts to her mother was the last flower she reached for before being seized.
Other Greek authors making reference to the narcissus includeSophoclesandPlutarch. Sophocles, inOedipus at Colonusutilises narcissus in a symbolic manner, implying fertility,allying it with the cults ofDemeterand her daughterKore (Persephone),and by extension, a symbol of death.Jebbcomments that it isthe flower of imminent deathwith its fragrance being narcotic, emphasised by its pale white colour. Just as Persephone reaching for the flower heralded her doom, the youth Narcissus gazing at his own reflection portended his own death.Plutarch refers to this in hisSymposiacsas numbing the nerves causing a heaviness in the limbs.He refers to Sophocles' "crown of the great Goddesses", which is the source of the English phrase "Chapletof the infernal Gods" incorrectly attributed toSocrates.
A passage byMoschus, describes fragrant narcissi.Homerin hisOdysseydescribed the underworld as havingElysianmeadows carpeted with flowers, thought to be narcissus, as described byTheophrastus.A similar account is provided byLuciandescribing the flowers in the underworld.The myth of the youth Narcissus is also taken up byPausanias. He believed that the myth of Persephone long antedated that of Narcissus, and hence discounted the idea the flower was named after the youth.
Virgil, the first knownRomanwriter to refer to the narcissus, does so in several places, for instance twice in theGeorgics.Virgil refers to the cup shaped corona of the narcissus flower, allegedly containing the tears of the self-loving youthNarcissus.Miltonmakes a similar analogy "And Daffodillies fill their Cups with Tears".Virgil also mentions narcissi three times in theEclogues.
The poetOvidalso dealt with the mythology of the narcissus. In hisMetamorphoses, he recounts the story of the youth Narcissus who, after his death, is turned into the flower,and it is also mentioned in Book 5 of his poemFasti.This theme of metamorphosis was broader than justNarcissus; for instance seecrocus,laurelandhyacinth.
Although there is no clear evidence that the flower's name derives directly from the Greek myth, this link between the flower and the myth became firmly part of western culture. The narcissus or daffodil is the most loved of all English plants,and appears frequently in English literature. Many English writers have referred to the cultural and symbolic importance ofNarcissus). No flower has received more poetic description except theroseand thelily, with poems by authors fromJohn Gower,Shakespeare, Milton (seeRoman culture, above),Wordsworth,ShelleyandKeats. Frequently the poems deal with self-love derived from Ovid's account.Gower's reference to the yellow flower of the legend has been assumed to be the daffodil orNarcissus,though as with all references in the older literature to the flower that sprang from the youth's death, there is room for some debate as to the exact species of flower indicated, some preferringCrocus.Spenser announces the coming of the Daffodil inAprillof hisShepheardes Calender(1579).
Shakespeare,who frequently uses flower imagery,refers to daffodils twice inThe Winter's Taleand alsoThe Two Noble Kinsmen.Robert Herrickalludes to their association with death in a number of poems.Among the Englishromantic movementwriters none is better known thanWilliam Wordsworth's short 1804 poemI Wandered Lonely as a Cloudwhich has become linked in the popular mind with the daffodils that form its main image.Wordsworth also included the daffodil in other poems.Yet the description given of daffodils by his sister,Dorothyis just as poetic, if not more so,just that her poetry was prose and appears almost an unconscious imitation of the first section of the HomericHymn to Demeter(seeGreek culture, above).Among their contemporaries, Keats refers to daffodils among those things capable of bringing "joy for ever".
More recentlyA. E. Housman, using one of the daffodil's more symbolic names (seeSymbols), wroteThe Lent LilyinA Shropshire Lad, describing the traditional Easter death of the daffodil.
InBlack Narcissus,Rumer Goddendescribes the disorientation of English nuns in the IndianHimalayas, and gives the plant name an unexpected twist, alluding both tonarcissismand the effect of the perfumeNarcisse Noir(Caron) on others. The novel was later adapted into the1947 British film of the same name. The narcissus also appears in German literature such as that ofPaul Gerhardt.
In the visual arts, narcissi are depicted in three different contexts, mythological (Narcissus, Persephone), floral art, or landscapes. The Narcissus story has been popular with painters and the youth is frequently depicted with flowers to indicate this association.The Persephone theme is also typified by Waterhouse in hisNarcissus, the floralmotifbyvan Scoreland the landscape byVan Gogh'sUndergrowth.
Narcissi first started to appear in western art in thelate Middle Ages, inpanel paintings, particularly those depictingcrucifixion. For instance that of the Westfälischer Meister in Köln in theWallraf-Richartz-Museum,Cologne,where daffodils symbolise not only death but also hope in theresurrection, because they are perennial and bloom atEaster.
InChinese cultureNarcissus tazettasubsp.chinensis(Chinese sacred lilies), which can be grown indoors, is widely used as an ornamental plant.It was probably introduced to China by Arab traders travelling theSilk Roadprior to theSong dynastyfor medicinal use.Spring-flowering, they became associated withChinese New Year, signifying good fortune, prosperity and good luckand there are many legends in Chinese culture associated withNarcissus.In contrast to the West, narcissi have not played a significant part inChinese Gardenart,however,Zhao Mengjianin theSouthern Song dynastywas noted for his portrayal of narcissi.Narcissus bulb carving and cultivation has become an art akin to Japanesebonsai. The Japanese novelNarcissucontains many references to the narcissus, where the main characters set out for the famed narcissus fields onAwaji Island.
Narcissi are one of the most popular garden plants inIslamic culture.Prior to theArab conquest of Persia, the Persian rulerKhosrau I(r.531–579) is said to have not been able to tolerate them at feasts because they reminded him of eyes, an association that persists to this day.ThePersianphraseنرگس شهلا(narges-e šahlâ, literally "a reddish-blue narcissus")is a well-known metonymy for the "eye(s) of a mistress"in the classical poetries of the Persian,Urdu,Ottoman Turkish,AzerbaijaniandChagatailanguages; to this day also the vernacular names of some narcissus cultivars (for example,Shahla-ye ShirazandShahla-ye Kazerun).As described by the poetGhalib(1797–1869), "God has given the eye of the narcissus the power of seeing".The eye imagery is also found in a number of poems byAbu Nuwas.Another poet who refers to narcissi, isRumi. Even the prophetMohammedis said to have praised the narcissus,though some of thesayingsthat were cited as proof are considered "weak" records.
The word "daffodil" has beenused widelyin popular culture, from Dutch cars (DAF Daffodil) to films (Daffodils) to slurs against homosexuals and cross-dressers (as in the filmJ. Edgar, when Hoover's mother explains why real-life cross-dresser Barton Pinkuswas called "Daffy" (short for "Daffodil" and the equivalent of apansy), and admonishes, "I'd rather have a dead son than a daffodil for a son".
In some areas where narcissi are prevalent, their blooming in spring is celebrated in festivals. For instance, the slopes aroundMontreux, Switzerland and its associatedrivieracome alive with blooms each May (May Snow) at the annual Narcissi Festival.Festivals are also held in many other countries.
Various cancer charities around the world, such as theAmerican Cancer Society,Cancer Society,Cancer Council,Irish Cancer Society,andMarie Curiein the UKuse the daffodil as a fundraising symbol on "Daffodil Days".