Seppuku

Seppuku(切腹,lit.'cutting [the] belly'), also calledharakiri(腹切り,lit.'abdomen/belly cutting', a native Japanesekun reading), is a form of Japanese ritualisticsuicidebydisembowelment. It was originally reserved forsamuraiin theircode of honour, but was also practised by other Japanese people during theShōwa era(particularly officers near the end ofWorld War II) to restore honour for themselves or for their families.
As a samurai practice,seppukuwas used voluntarily by samurai to die with honour rather than fall into the hands of their enemies (and likely be tortured), as a form ofcapital punishmentfor samurai who had committed serious offences, or performed because they had brought shame to themselves.The ceremonial disembowelment, which is usually part of a more elaborate ritual and performed in front of spectators, consists of plunging a short blade, traditionally atantō, into the belly and drawing the blade from left to right, slicing the belly open.If the cut is deep enough, it can sever theabdominal aorta, causing death by rapidexsanguination.
Seppukuoccurred in 1177 byMinamoto Tametomo.Minamoto fought in theHōgen war; after being defeated, he was exiled toŌshima,later deciding to try to take over the island. Due to this, Minamoto's enemies sent troops to suppress his rebellion.As he was on the losing end, he committedseppukuin 1177.The ritual ofseppukuwas more concretely established when, in the early years of theGenpei war,Minamoto Yorimasacommittedseppukuafter composing a poem.
Seppukuwas used by warriors to avoid falling into enemy hands and to attenuate shame and avoid possible torture.Samurai could also be ordered by theirdaimyō(feudallords) to carry outseppuku. Later, disgraced warriors were sometimes allowed to carry outseppukurather than be executed in the normal manner.The most common form ofseppukufor men was composed of cutting open the abdomen, followed by extending the neck for an assistant to sever thespinal cord. It was the assistant's job todecapitatethe samurai in one swing; otherwise, it would bring great shame to the assistant and his family. Those who did not belong to the samurai caste were never ordered or expected to carry outseppuku. Samurai could generally carry out the act only with permission.
Sometimes adaimyōwas called upon to performseppukuas the basis of a peace agreement. This weakened the defeated clan so that resistance effectively ceased.Toyotomi Hideyoshiused an enemy's suicide in this way on several occasions, the most dramatic of which effectively ended a dynasty ofdaimyōs. When theHōjō clanweredefeated at Odawarain 1590, Hideyoshi insisted on the suicide of the retireddaimyōHōjō Ujimasaand the exile of his sonUjinao. With this act of suicide, the most powerfuldaimyōfamily in eastern Japan was completely defeated.
The termseppukuis derived from the twoSino-Japaneserootssetsu切("to cut", fromMiddle Chinesetset; compareMandarinqiēandCantonesechit) andfuku腹("belly", from MCpjuwk; compare Mandarinfùand Cantonesefūk). It is also known asharakiri(腹切り, "cutting the stomach";often misspelled or mispronounced "hiri-kiri" or "hari-kari" by American English speakers).Harakiriis written with the same kanji asseppuku, but in reverse order with anokurigana. In Japanese, the more formalseppuku, a Chineseon'yomireading, is typically used in writing, whileharakiri, a nativekun'yomireading, is used in speech. As Ross notes,
Whileharakirirefers to the act of disemboweling oneself,seppukurefers to the ritual and usually would involve decapitation after the act as a sign of mercy.
The practice of performingseppukuat the death of one's master, known asoibara(追腹 or 追い腹, the kun'yomi or Japanese reading) ortsuifuku(追腹, the on'yomi or Chinese reading), follows a similar ritual.
The wordjigai(自害)means "suicide" in Japanese. The modern word for suicide isjisatsu(自殺); related words includejiketsu(自決),jijin(自尽)andjijin(自刃).In some popular western texts, such as martial arts magazines, the term is associated with the suicide of samurai wives.The term was introduced into English byLafcadio Hearnin hisJapan: An Attempt at Interpretation,an understanding which has since been translated into Japanese.Joshua S. Mostow notes that Hearn misunderstood the termjigaito be the female equivalent ofseppuku.Mostow's context is analysis ofGiacomo Puccini'sMadame Butterflyand the original Cio-Cio San story byJohn Luther Long. Though both Long's story and Puccini's opera predate Hearn's use of the termjigai, the term has been used in relation to westernJaponisme, which is the influence of Japanese culture on the western arts.
The practice of seppuku was not standardized until the 17th century.  In the 12th and 13th centuries, such as with the seppuku of Minamoto no Yorimasa, the practice of akaishakuninhad not yet emerged; thus, the rite was considered far more painful. The defining characteristic was plunging either thetachi(longsword),wakizashi(shortsword) ortantō(knife) into the gut and slicing the abdomen horizontally. In the absence of akaishakunin, the samurai would then remove the blade and stab himself in the throat, or fall onto the blade from a standing position with it positioned against his heart.
During theEdo period(1600–1867), carrying out seppuku came to involve an elaborate, detailed ritual. This was usually performed in front of spectators if it was planned, as opposed to one performed on a battlefield. A samurai was bathed in cold water (to prevent excessive bleeding), dressed in a whitekimonocalled theshiro-shōzoku(白装束), and served his favorite foods for alast meal. When he had finished, the knife and cloth were placed on asanboand given to the warrior. Dressed ceremonially, with his sword placed in front of him and sometimes seated on special clothes, the warrior would prepare for death by writing adeath poem. He would probably consume a ceremonial drink ofsakeand would also give his attendant a cup meant for sake.
With his selectedkaishakuninstanding by, he would open his kimono, take up histantō– held by the blade with a cloth wrapped around so that it would not cut his hand and cause him to lose his grip – and plunge it into his abdomen, making a left-to-right cut. Thekaishakuninwould then performkaishaku,a cut in which the warrior was partially decapitated. The maneuver should be done in the manners ofdakikubi(lit.'embraced head'), in which a slight band of flesh is left attaching the head to the body so that the head can dangle in front as if embraced. Because of the precision necessary for such a maneuver, the kaishakunin was a skilled swordsman. The principal and the kaishakunin agreed in advance when the latter was to make his cut. Usually, dakikubi would occur as soon as the dagger was plunged into the abdomen.
Over time, the process became so highly ritualized that as soon as the samurai reached for his blade, the kaishakunin would strike. Eventually, even the blade became unnecessary and the samurai could reach for something symbolic like a fan, and this alone would trigger the killing stroke from his kaishakunin. A fan was likely used when the samurai was too old to use a blade or in situations where it was too dangerous to give him a weapon.
This elaborate ritual evolved after seppuku had ceased being mainly a battlefield or wartime practice and became apara-judicial institution. The kaishakunin was usually, but not always, a friend. If a defeated warrior had fought honourably and well, an opponent who wanted to salute his bravery would volunteer to act as his kaishakunin.
In theHagakure,Yamamoto Tsunetomowrote:
A specialized form of seppuku in feudal times was known askanshi(諫死,lit.'remonstration death or death of understanding'), in which a retainer would commit suicide in protest of a lord's decision. The retainer would make one deep, horizontal cut into his abdomen, then quickly bandage the wound. After this, the person would then appear before his lord, give a speech in which he announced the protest of the lord's action, then reveal his mortal wound. This is not to be confused withfunshi(憤死,lit.'indignation death'), which is any suicide made to protest or state dissatisfaction.
Some samurai chose to perform a considerably more taxing form ofseppukuknown asjūmonji giri(十文字切り,lit.'cross-shaped cut'), in which there is nokaishakuninto put a quick end to the samurai's suffering. It involves a second and more painful vertical cut on the belly. A samurai performingjūmonji giriwas expected to bear his suffering quietly until he bled to death, dying with his hands over his face.
Female ritual suicide (incorrectly referred to in some English sources asjigai) was practiced by the wives of samurai who had performedseppukuor brought dishonour.
Some women belonging to samurai families died by suicide by cutting the arteries of the neck with one stroke, using a knife such as atantōorkaiken.The main purpose was to achieve a quick and certain death in order to avoid capture or rape.Before dying, a woman would often tie her knees together so her body would be found in a "dignified" pose, despite the convulsions of death.Invading armies would often enter homes to find the lady of the house seated alone, facing away from the door. On approaching her, they would find that she had ended her life long before they reached her.
Stephen R. Turnbullprovides extensive evidence for the practice of female ritual suicide, notably of samurai wives, in pre-modern Japan. One of the largest mass suicides was the 25 April 1185 final defeat ofTaira no Tomomori.The wife of Onodera Junai, one of theForty-seven Ronin, is a notable example of a wife followingseppukuof a samurai husband.A large number of "honour suicides" marked the defeat of the Aizu clan in theBoshin Warof 1869, leading into theMeiji era. For example, in the family ofSaigō Tanomo, who survived, a total of twenty-two female honour suicides are recorded among one extended family.
Voluntary death bydrowningwas a common form of ritual or honour suicide.The religious context of thirty-threeJōdo Shinshūadherents at the funeral of Abbot Jitsunyo in 1525 was faith inAmida Buddhaand belief in rebirth in hisPure Land, but maleseppukudid not have a specifically religious context.By way of contrast, the religious beliefs ofHosokawa Gracia, the Christian wife ofdaimyōHosokawa Tadaoki, prevented her from dying by suicide.
While voluntaryseppukuis the best known form,in practice, the most common form ofseppuku wasobligatoryseppuku, used as a form ofcapital punishmentfor disgraced samurai, especially for those who committed a serious offense such as rape, robbery, corruption, unprovoked murder, or treason.The samurai were generally told of their offense in full and given a set time for them to commitseppuku, usually before sunset on a given day. On occasion, if the sentenced individuals were uncooperative,seppukucould be carried out by an executioner, or more often, the actual execution was carried out solely by decapitation while retaining only the trappings ofseppuku; even thetantōlaid out in front of the uncooperative offender could be replaced with a fan (to prevent uncooperative offenders from using thetantōas a weapon against the observers or the executioner). This form of involuntaryseppukuwas considered shameful and undignified.Unlike voluntaryseppuku,seppukucarried out as capital punishment by executioners did not necessarily absolve or pardon the offender's family of the crime. Depending on the severity of the crime, all or part of the property of the condemned could be confiscated, andthe family would be punishedby being stripped of rank, sold into long-term servitude, or executed.
Seppukuwas considered the most honourable capital punishment apportioned to samurai.Zanshu(斬首)andsarashikubi(晒し首), decapitation followed by a display of the head, was considered harsher and was reserved for samurai who committed greater crimes. The harshest punishments, usually involving death by torturous methods likekamayude(釜茹で)(death by boiling), were reserved for commoner offenders.
Forcedseppukucame to be known as "conferred death" over time as it was used for punishment of criminal samurai.
On February 15, 1868, eleven French sailors of theDupleixentered the town of Sakaiwithout official permission. Their presence caused panic among the residents. Security forces were dispatched to turn the sailors back to their ship, but a fight broke out and the sailors were shot dead. Upon the protest of the French representative, financial compensation was paid, and those responsible were sentenced to death. CaptainAbel-Nicolas Bergasse du Petit-Thouarswas present to observe the execution. As each samurai committed ritual disembowelment, the violent act shocked the captain, and he requested a pardon, as a result of which nine of the samurai were spared. This incident was dramatized in a famous short story, "Sakai Jiken", byMori Ōgai.
In the 1860s, the British Ambassador to Japan,Bertram Freeman-Mitford (Lord Redesdale), lived within sight ofSengaku-jiwhere the Forty-seven Ronin are buried. In his bookTales of Old Japan, he describes a man who had come to the graves to kill himself:
Mitford also describes his friend's eyewitness account of aseppuku:
During theMeiji Restoration, theTokugawa shogun'saide performed seppuku:
In his bookTales of Old Japan, Mitford describes witnessing a hara-kiri:
Seppukuas judicial punishment was abolished in 1873, shortly after theMeiji Restoration, but voluntaryseppukudid not completely die out.Dozens of people are known to have committedseppukusince then,includingGeneral Nogi Maresukeand his wife on the death ofEmperor Meijiin 1912, and numerous soldiers and civilians who chose to die rather than surrender at the end ofWorld War II.The practice had been widely praised in army propaganda, which featured a soldier captured by the Chinese in theShanghai Incident(1932) who returned to the site of his capture to performseppuku.In 1944,Hideyoshi Obata, aLieutenant Generalin theImperial Japanese Army, committed seppuku inYigo, Guamfollowing the Allied victory over the Japanese in theSecond Battle of Guam.Obata was posthumously promoted to the rank of general. Many other high-ranking military officials of Imperial Japan would go on to commitseppukutoward the latter half of World War II in 1944 and 1945,as the tide of the war turned against the Japanese, and it became clear that a Japanese victory of the war was not achievable.
In 1970, authorYukio Mishimaand one of his followers performed publicseppukuat theJapan Self-Defense Forcesheadquarters following an unsuccessful attempt to incite the armed forces to stage acoup d'état.Mishima performedseppukuin the office of General Kanetoshi Mashita.Hiskaishakunin, a 25-year-old man namedMasakatsu Morita, tried three times to ritually behead Mishima but failed, and his head was finally severed byHiroyasu Koga, a formerkendochampion.Morita then attempted to performseppukuhimself,but when his own cuts were too shallow to be fatal, he gave the signal and was beheaded by Koga.
List of notableseppukucases in chronological order.
The story of theforty-seven rōnin(Chūshingura), who commit mass seppuku after avenging their lord, has inspired numerous works of Japanese art includingbunrakupuppet plays,kabukiplays and at least six film adaptations, as well as the Hollywood movie47 Ronin.
The expected honour suicide of the samurai wife is frequently referenced in Japanese literature and film, such as inTaikoby Eiji Yoshikawa,Humanity and Paper Balloons,andRashomon.
InPuccini's 1904 operaMadame Butterfly, wronged child-bride Cio-Cio-san commits seppuku in the final moments of the opera, after hearing that the father of her child—although he has finally returned to Japan, much to her initial delight—had in the meantime married an American lady and has come to take her child away from her.
Seppukuis referenced and described multiple times in the 1975James Clavellnovel,Shōgun; its subsequent 1980 miniseriesShōgunbrought the term and the concept to mainstream Western attention. The2024 adaptationalso follows suit in this vein, in greater graphic detail.