Cayor

Cayor(Wolof:Kajoor;Arabic:كاجور) was from 1549 to 1876 the largest and most powerful kingdom that split off from theJolof Empirein what is nowSenegal. Cayor was located in northern and central Senegal, southeast ofWaalo, west of thekingdom of Jolof, and north ofBaoland theKingdom of Sine.
Cayor (also spelled Kayor, Kadior, Cadior, Kadjoor, Nkadyur, Kadyoor, Encalhor, among others) comes from theWolofendonymfor the inhabitants "Waadyor" meaning "people of thejoor", a fertile soil found in northern Cayor.This distinguishes the people of Cayor from their neighbors, who to the present day refer to themselves by doubling the name of their native region (Waalo-Waalo, Saloum-Saloum e.g.).
There are no written sources for the early history of Cayor, and even oral traditions are sparse. The legend ofNdiadiane Ndiaye, the firstBuurba Jolof, claims that the ruler of Cayor voluntarily submitted to him, but this is likely a later invention to celebrate the unity of the empire. Cayor certainly existed before its integration into the empire, as the kings lists preserved in oral history goes back as far as Jolof's.
Under Jolof hegemony, Cayor was ruled by a GreatLamanetraditionally elected by the other Lamanes from the Fall family of Palene Ded, who claimed descend from Ousmane Boune Afal, a companion of Mohammed, by means ofWagadou. Every year this Great Lamane would lead a large delegation to Jolof to pay tribute to theBuurbathere.
In 1549, thedamel(dammeelinWolof,often translated into European languages as "king")Dece Fu Njogu, having failed to send tribute to theBuurbaLéléfoulifak for several years, sent his sonAmary Ngone Sobel Fallto do so. Amary, aided by his uncle theTeigneofBaol, led an army to a lake called Danki, and left them there to go to theBuurba's court with a small escort. Poorly received by Léléfoulifak, he announced that his country had no need of a leader such as that. The Jolof-Jolof pursued them back to Danki, where the Cayor forces routed them and killed Léléfoulifak.
Thebattle of Dankimarked the end of the Jolof Empire's hold over Cayor. In the ensuing celebrationsDece Fu Njoguwas killed in an accident, andAmary Ngonebecame damel. His uncle died soon afterwards, and he thus became the first Damel-Teigne ruling over both Cayor and Baol.He proclaimed a new constitution for the kingdom and founded a new, more centrally located capital at Mboul. In the years after his accession Jolof invaded several times attempting to re-assert their hegemony but were defeated. They would not dare to attack Cayor again until Amary's death, after a 44-year reign.
During the height of theTubenaan movementin the late 17th century, marabouts across the region began to aspire to political power for the first time, advocating a restoration of traditional Islamic values.Futa Torowas the first to fall. In Cayor, the powerful marabout Ndiaye Sall allied with Yacine Bubu, who had recently and controversially been removed from her position aslingeerby her nephew, the Damel Detye Maram. They joined forces to overthrow him, enthroning another nephew of Yacine Bubu's, Ma Faly Gueye. Six months later, however, Gueye was caught drinking alcohol by Sall'stalibesand killed.Yacine Bubu, determined to protect the power of the royal family and prevent Sall from establishing a theocracy, convened a secret assembly of notables to reach out to Makhoredia Diouf, Buur ofSaloum, for support against the marabouts.They were successful in defeating Sall, but instability continued for years afterwards.
In 1693 the aristocracy, now threatened by the Buur of Saloum, appealed to theTeigneof neighboringBaol,Lat Sukaabe Fallfor help. He took over Cayor and declared himself theDamel-Teigne, imposing the hegemony of his maternal line, the Geej, over the previously dominant Dorobe andGuelwaarmatriclans. He also strengthened central power, coopted the marabouts with royal appointments, and frequently clashed with the French over their attempts to impose a trade monopoly on the kingdom.
During the 18th century, under the leadershup of Damel Maïsa Teindde Ouédji, Cayor annexed theKingdom of Baolbut was then embroiled in a succession dispute after his death. Baol regained its independence in 1756.During the 1750s and 60s, Cayor was repeatedly involved in wars againstWaaloandJolof, with theBuurbaruling as Damel 1759-60. The forces of theTrarza EmiratehelpedMaissa Bigué Ngoné Fallregain the throne, in return for yearly tribute and permission to raid in Cayor one month a year.
In 1776, inspired by the rise of theImamate of Futa Toro, the marabouts of Cayor again began to agitate for political power under the leadership of Malamin Sarr. Damel Amari Ngoone Ndela Kumba pre-emptively attacked, capturing Sarr's son and selling him into slavery. In response, some clerics did the same to agents of the crown. In a climactic showdown the marabouts were defeated, Sarr was killed, and many were again sold into slavery.The surviving marabouts played an important role in founding theLebourepublic on theCap-Vertpeninsula.
Soon after, theAlmamyof Futa ToroAbdul Kaderjoined with the Buurba of Jolof to avenge the clerics and re-establish his influence over Cayor. As the invading army crossed theFerlo Desert, the damel removed food stores and poisoned wells so that the exhausted Torodbe could not replenish their supplies. At the battle of Bunxoy, Amari Ngoone Ndela destroyed the Futanke force and captured Abdul Kader himself.He treated him well, as a respected religious leader, then sent him home laden with gifts after the Torodbe had elected a new almamy.
In the aftermath of this decisive victory of the old, secular order over reformist Islamists, tension continued to increase between the clerics and the nobility. During this period, contemporary writers began to refer to the ruling class as 'pagan' for the first time, although they still self-identified as Muslim.
Birima Ngoné Latir was crowneddamelin 1855, succeeding his uncle who had raised him after his father Makodou Koumba, theTeigneofBaol, had been driven into exile.
TheFrenchgovernorLouis Faidherbe, based inSaint-Louis, encouraged the clerics to rebel again. In 1859 the marabouts of the province of Ndiambour took advantage of the rumoured death of the young, weakdamelto do so. Makodou Koumba  returned from exile to help crush the rebellion.A brutal war resulted, with the reigningteigneThié Yasin Ngoné Déguèn coming to support the marabouts with the promise of becomingdamel. After winning battles at Mboul and Mekhe, and 2 years of conflict, Birima Ngoné Latir defeated the Baol-Baol army and Makodou Koumba was reinstalled asteigne. Latir died soon after, however, and Makodou left Baol to succeed his son asdamel.
Makodou faced resistance from his son's maternal side, who wanted Birima Ngoné's half-brotherLat Jorenthroned instead. Makodou defeated the opposition at Béri-Ngaraf, and Lat Jor submitted. He reneged on a treaty signed with the French to build a railroad across Cayor, so in 1861 the French invaded and replaced him with Ma-Dyodyo.Lat Jor and the nobility resented both the harsh rule of Ma-Dyodyo and the external intervention. After some initial military success in 1863, he was forced to take refuge with thealmaamiofSaloum,Maba Diakhou Ba, early the next year.
The French attempted to annex the country, but this ultimately proved unworkable.In 1868 Lat Jor and his troops returned to Cayor to regain independence. He allied withShaikh Amadou Baand defeated the French in the battle of Mekhe on July 8th, 1869.By 1871 the French accepted his restoration to the position ofdamel. Amadou Ba's meddling in Cayor, however, soon ended their partnership.Over the next few years Lat Jor tried to exert his authority over Baol and helped the French defeat and kill Amadou in 1875.
This alliance was broken in 1881 when Lat Jor began a rebellion to resist the construction of theDakartoSaint-Louisrailwayacross Cayor. Dior is reported to have told the French Governor Servatius:
"As long as I live, be assured, I shall oppose, with all my might the construction of this railway."
In 1883 Lat Jor tried to replace the powerfulFarbaDemba War Sall, who defected to Samba Laobe Fall, Lat Jor's nephew and rival claimant to the throne.With French support, Samba soon took over Cayor. He ruled for 3 years, before quarreling withAlboury Ndiaye,Bourbaof Jolof, and invading despite a treaty promising to inform the French before making war. Alboury attacked while Fall's exhausted troops were trying to set up camp, routing the Waadjor forced and wounding Fall. The French pressured thedamelto pay reparations, but he refused. At the ensuing negotiations atTivaouaneon October 6, 1886, a fight ensued and he was killed by a French lieutenant.Lat Jor died in battle soon afterwards, and the kingdom of Cayor ceased to exist as an independent, united state.
Cayor society was highly stratified. The damel and nobles (Garmi) were at the top of the hierarchy followed by free men (including villagers andmarabouts) who were known asJambur. Below theJamburwere theNyenoo, members of hereditary and endogamous castes such as metalworkers, tailors,griots, woodcarvers, etc. The lowest group of the hierarchy consisted ofDyaam, or slaves. Slaves were generally treated well and those that were owned by the kingdom often exercised military and political power, such as theFarbaDemba War Sall.
TheTyeddoclass were warriors generally recruited among the slaves of thedamel. Fiercely opposed to the strict practice of Islam advocated by the marabouts, they were renowned drinkers, brave fighters, and inveterate raiders, including within Cayor. Their depredations went a long way to creating unrest and promoting Islam among the population.Cayor peasants tended to deliberately produce less food than they could, as wealth was an invitation to raiders; when colonial rule ended the raiding, food production and exports rose dramatically.
In addition to Cayor, thedamelalso ruled over theLebouarea ofCap-Vert(where modernDakaris), and they often ruled as the "Teignes" (rulers) of the neighboring kingdom ofBaol. In 1445, Venetian travelerAlvise Cadamostoreported that the king's entourage included Berber and Arab clerics.The Khali advised the king and was the official representation of the clerical class at the court.
Traditionally the damel himself was not purely hereditary, but was designated by a 4-member council consisting of:
Thedamelnominated several other important political positions. Thelingeerwas generally the oldest woman of the ruling matrilineage, frequently the king's mother, sister, or cousin. Yacine Bubu's replacement as lingeer by her younger sister was an important catalyst for her rebellion.She controlled her own army of slave soldiers and clients, and received the tax income of a province.Thekangamwere provincial governors and ministers. Thedyamborserved as viceroy, and was agarmiand close kin to thedamel. Some villages were designated as being run by princesses calleddye.
Trans-Saharan tradersbroughtIslamto the region in the 8th century, and it rapidly became the dominant tradition among theWolof, to the point where historians can find no traces of a pre-Islamic organized religion.The practice of Islam, however, was syncreticized with local customs in much the same way that Christianity was adapted to an underlying pagan context in Europe.This has led to debate among scholars, some of whom characterize the nobility of Cayor and other Senegambian kingdoms as 'pagan' (despite their self-identification as Muslims) in opposition to a more stringently Muslimmaraboutclass. Islam was the official religion of the state and of the entire population. When Christian missionaries asked the damel for permission to prosyletize in 1848, he refused, saying that as Muslims the Wajoor already knew God; he sent them to convert theSererinstead.
Most of the marabouts in Cayor wereFulasfromFuta Toro, but integrated into the Wolof population over time.There was a clear separation between the clerical and noble classes, although nobles and freemen could join the marabout class astalibe(disciples).Lat Jor's acceptance of a marabout patron in Maba (sometimes referred to as his conversion to Islam) prompted a rapid shift away from more syncreticized Islamic practices among the inhabitants of Cayor generally.
Names and dates taken from John Stewart'sAfrican States and Rulers(1989).