Cabbage

Cabbage, comprising severalcultivarsofBrassica oleracea, is a leafy green, red (purple), or white (pale green)biennial plantgrown as anannualvegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage (B. oleraceavar.oleracea), and belongs to the "cole crops" or brassicas, meaning it is closely related tobroccoliandcauliflower(var.botrytis);Brussels sprouts(var.gemmifera); andSavoy cabbage(var.sabauda).
A cabbage generally weighs between 500 and 1,000 grams (1 and 2 lb). Smooth-leafed, firm-headed green cabbages are the most common, with smooth-leafed purple cabbages and crinkle-leafed savoy cabbages of both colours being rarer. Under conditions of long sunny days, such as those found at high northern latitudes in summer, cabbages can grow quite large. As of 2012, the heaviest cabbage was 62.71 kilograms (138 lb 4 oz).  Cabbage heads are generally picked during the first year of the plant'slife cycle, but plants intended for seed are allowed to grow a second year and must be kept separate from othercole cropsto preventcross-pollination. Cabbage is prone to severalnutrient deficiencies, as well as to multiplepests, and bacterial and fungal diseases.
Cabbage was most likelydomesticatedsomewhere inEuropeinancient historybefore 1000 BC.Cabbage use in cuisinehas been documented sinceAntiquity.It was described as a table luxury in theRoman Empire.By theMiddle Ages, cabbage had become a prominent part ofEuropean cuisine, as indicated bymanuscript illuminations.New variates were introduced from theRenaissanceon, mostly byGermanic-speaking peoples.Savoy cabbagewas developed in the 16th century. By the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was popularised asstaple foodin central, northern, and Eastern Europe.It was also employed by European sailors to preventscurvyduring long ship voyages at sea. Starting in theearly modern era, cabbage was exported to theAmericas,Asia, and around the world.
They can be prepared many different ways for eating; they can bepickled,fermented(for dishes such assauerkraut,kimchi),steamed,stewed,roasted,sautéed,braised, or eatenraw. Raw cabbage is a rich source ofvitamin K,vitamin C, anddietary fiber. World production of cabbage and otherbrassicasin 2020 was 71 milliontonnes, led byChinawith 48% of the total.
Cabbageseedlingshave a thintaprootand cordate (heart-shaped)cotyledons. The first leaves produced are ovate (egg-shaped) with a lobedpetiole. Plants are40–60 centimetres (15+1⁄2–23+1⁄2inches) tall in their first year at the mature vegetative stage, and1.5–2 metres (5–6+1⁄2feet) tall when flowering in the second year.Heads average between 0.5 and 4 kilograms (1 and 8 pounds), with fast-growing, earlier-maturing varieties producing smaller heads.Most cabbages have thick, alternating leaves, with margins that range from wavy or lobed to highly dissected; some varieties have awaxy bloomon the leaves. Plants have root systems that are fibrous and shallow.About 90% of the root mass is in the upper 20–30 cm (8–12 in) of soil; somelateral rootscan penetrate up to2 m (6+1⁄2ft) deep.
Theinflorescenceis an unbranched andindeterminateterminalracememeasuring 50–100 cm (20–40 in) tall,with flowers that are yellow or white. Each flower has fourpetalsset in a perpendicular pattern, as well as foursepals, sixstamens, and asuperior ovarythat is two-celled and contains a singlestigmaandstyle. Two of the six stamens have shorter filaments. The fruit is asiliquethat opens at maturity throughdehiscenceto reveal brown or black seeds that are small and round in shape.Self-pollinationis impossible, and plants arecross-pollinatedby insects.The initial leaves form a rosette shape comprising 7 to 15 leaves, each measuring 25–35 cm (10–14 in) by 20–30 cm (8–12 in);after this, leaves with shorter petioles develop and heads form through the leaves cupping inward.
Many shapes, colors and leaf textures are found in various cultivated varieties of cabbage. Leaf types are generally divided between crinkled-leaf, loose-head savoys and smooth-leaf firm-head cabbages, while the color spectrum includes white and a range of greens and purples. Oblate, round and pointed shapes are found.
Cabbage has beenselectively bredfor head weight andmorphologicalcharacteristics, frost hardiness, fast growth and storage ability. The appearance of the cabbage head has been given importance in selective breeding, with varieties being chosen for shape, color, firmness and other physical characteristics.Breedingobjectives are now focused on increasing resistance to various insects and diseases and improving the nutritional content of cabbage.Scientific research into thegenetic modificationofB. oleraceacrops, including cabbage, has included European Union and United States explorations of greater insect andherbicideresistance.
There are severalGuinness Book of World Recordsentries related to cabbage. These include the heaviest cabbage, at 62.71 kg (138 lb 4 oz),heaviest red cabbage, at 31.6 kilograms (69 lb 11 oz),longestcabbage roll, at 19.54 m (64 ft),and the largest cabbage dish, at 2,960 kg (6,526 lb).
Cabbage (Brassica oleraceaorB. oleraceavar.capitata,var.tuba, var.sabaudaor var.acephala)is a member of the genusBrassicaand the mustard familyBrassicaceae. Several othercruciferous vegetables(sometimes known ascole crops) arecultivarsofB. oleracea, includingbroccoli,collard greens,brussels sprouts,kohlrabiandsprouting broccoli. All of these developed from the wild cabbageB. oleraceavar.oleracea, also calledcolewortor field cabbage. This original speciesevolvedover thousands of years into those seen today, asselectionresulted in cultivars having different characteristics, such as large heads for cabbage, large leaves forkaleand thick stems with flower buds for broccoli.
"Cabbage" was originally used to refer to multiple forms ofB. oleracea, including those with loose or non-existent heads.A related species,Brassica rapa, is commonly named Chinese, napa or celery cabbage, and has many of the same uses.It is also a part of common names for several unrelated species. These include cabbage bark or cabbage tree (a member of the genusAndira) and cabbage palms, which include several genera ofpalmssuch asMauritia,Roystonea oleracea,AcrocomiaandEuterpe oenocarpus.
The original family name of brassicas wasCruciferae, which derived from the flower petal pattern thought by medieval Europeans to resemble acrucifix.The wordbrassicaderives frombresic, aCelticword for cabbage.The varietalepithetcapitatais derived from theLatinword for 'having a head'.
Many European and Asiatic names for cabbage are derived from theCelto-Slavicrootcaporkap, meaning "head".Thelate Middle Englishwordcabbagederives from the wordcaboche("head"), from thePicard dialectofOld French. This in turn is a variant of the Old Frenchcaboce.
Although cabbage has an extensive history,it is difficult to trace its exact origins owing to the many varieties of leafy greens classified as "brassicas".A possible wild ancestor of cabbage,Brassica oleracea, originally found in Britain and continental Europe, is tolerant of salt but not encroachment by other plants and consequently inhabits rocky cliffs in cool damp coastal habitats,retaining water and nutrients in its slightly thickened, turgid leaves. However, genetic analysis is consistent withferalorigin of this population, deriving from plants escaped from field and gardens.According to thetriangle of Utheory of the evolution and relationships betweenBrassicaspecies,B. oleraceaand other closely related kale vegetables (cabbages, kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and cauliflower) represent one of three ancestral lines from which all other brassicas originated.
Cabbage was probably domesticated later in history thanNear Easterncrops such aslentilsandsummer wheat. Because of the wide range of crops developed from the wildB. oleracea, multiple broadly contemporaneous domestications of cabbage may have occurred throughout Europe. Nonheading cabbages and kale were probably the first to be domesticated, before 1000 BC,perhaps by theCeltsof central and western Europe,although recent linguistic and genetic evidence enforces a Mediterranean origin of cultivated brassicas.
While unidentified brassicas were part of the highly conservative unchangingMesopotamiangarden repertory,it is believed that the ancient Egyptians did not cultivate cabbage,which is not native to the Nile valley, though the wordshaw'tinPapyrus Harrisof the time ofRamesses IIIhas been interpreted as "cabbage".The ancient Greeks had some varieties of cabbage, as mentioned byTheophrastus, although whether they were more closely related to today's cabbage or to one of the otherBrassicacrops is unknown.The headed cabbage variety was known to the Greeks askrambeand to the Romans asbrassicaorolus;the open, leafy variety (kale) was known in Greek asraphanosand in Latin ascaulis.Ptolemaic Egyptiansknew thecole cropsasgramb, under the influence of Greekkrambe, which had been a familiar plant to the Macedonian antecedents of the Ptolemies.By early Roman times, Egyptian artisans and children were eating cabbage andturnipsamong a wide variety of other vegetables andpulses.
Chrysippus of Cnidoswrote a treatise on cabbage, which Pliny knew,but it has not survived. The Greeks were convinced that cabbages andgrapevineswere inimical, and that cabbage planted too near the vine would impart its unwelcome odor to the grapes; this Mediterranean sense of antipathy survives today.
Brassicawas considered by some Romans a table luxury,althoughLucullusconsidered it unfit for the senatorial table.The more traditionalistCato the Elder, espousing a simple Republican life, ate his cabbage cooked or raw and dressed with vinegar; he said it surpassed all other vegetables, and approvingly distinguished three varieties; he also gave directions for its medicinal use, which extended to the cabbage-eater's urine, in which infants might be rinsed.Pliny the Elderlisted seven varieties, includingPompeiicabbage,Cumaecabbage andSabelliancabbage.
According to Pliny, the Pompeii cabbage, which could not stand cold, is "taller, and has a thick stock near the root, but grows thicker between the leaves, these being scantier and narrower, but their tenderness is a valuable quality".The Pompeii cabbage was also mentioned byColumellainDe Re Rustica.Apiciusgives several recipes forcauliculi, tender cabbage shoots. The Greeks and Romans claimed medicinal usages for their cabbage varieties that included relief fromgout, headaches and the symptoms ofpoisonous mushroomingestion.
The antipathy towards the vine made it seem that eating cabbage would enable one to avoid drunkenness.Cabbage continued to figure in themateria medicaof antiquity as well as at table: in the first century ADDioscoridesmentions two kinds of coleworts with medical uses, the cultivated and the wild,and his opinions continued to be paraphrased inherbalsright through the 17th century.
At the end of Antiquity cabbage is mentioned inDe observatione ciborum("On the Observance of Foods") byAnthimus, a Greek doctor at the court ofTheodoric the Great. Cabbage appears among vegetables directed to be cultivated in theCapitulare de villis, composed in 771–800 AD, that guided the governance of the royal estates ofCharlemagne.
In Britain, the Anglo-Saxons cultivatedcawel.When round-headed cabbages appeared in 14th-century England they were calledcabachesandcaboches, words drawn fromOld Frenchand applied at first to refer to the ball of unopened leaves,the contemporaneous recipe that commences "Take cabbages and quarter them, and seethe them in good broth",also suggests the tightly headed cabbage.
Manuscript illuminationsshow the prominence of cabbage in the cuisine of theHigh Middle Ages,and cabbage seeds feature among the seed list of purchases for the use ofKing John II of Francewhen captive in England in 1360,but cabbages were also a familiar staple of the poor: in the lean year of 1420 the "Bourgeois of Paris" noted that "poor people ate no bread, nothing but cabbages and turnips and such dishes, without any bread or salt".French naturalistJean Ruelmade what is considered the first explicit mention of head cabbage in his 1536 botanical treatiseDe Natura Stirpium, referring to it ascapucos coles("head-coles").
In Istanbul, SultanSelim IIIpenned a tongue-in-cheek ode to cabbage: without cabbage, the halva feast was not complete.In India, cabbage was one of several vegetable crops introduced by colonizing traders from Portugal, who established trade routes from the 14th to 17th centuries.Carl Peter Thunbergreported that cabbage was not yet known in Japan in 1775.
Many cabbage varieties—including some still commonly grown—were introduced in Germany, France, and theLow Countries.During the 16th century, German gardeners developed thesavoy cabbage.During the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was a foodstaplein such countries as Germany, England, Ireland and Russia, and pickled cabbage was frequently eaten.Sauerkrautwas used by Dutch, Scandinavian and German sailors to preventscurvyduring long ship voyages.
Jacques Cartierfirst brought cabbage to the Americas in 1541–42, and it was probably planted by the early English colonists, despite the lack of written evidence of its existence there until the mid-17th century. By the 18th century, it was commonly planted by both colonists and nativeAmerican Indians.Cabbage seeds traveled to Australia in 1788 with theFirst Fleet, and were planted the same year onNorfolk Island. It became a favorite vegetable of Australians by the 1830s and was frequently seen at theSydney Markets.InBrno, Czech Republic there is an open-air market named after cabbage which has been in operation since 1325, theZelný trh.
Cabbage is generally grown for its densely leaved heads, produced during the first year of its biennial cycle. Plants perform best when grown in well-drained soil in a location that receives full sun. Different varieties prefer different soil types, ranging from lighter sand to heavier clay, but all prefer fertile ground with apHbetween 6.0 and 6.8.For optimal growth, there must be adequate levels ofnitrogenin the soil, especially during the early head formation stage, and sufficientphosphorusandpotassiumduring the early stages of expansion of the outer leaves.
Temperatures between 4 and 24 °C (39 and 75 °F) prompt the best growth, and extended periods of higher or lower temperatures may result in prematurebolting(flowering).Flowering induced by periods of low temperatures (a process calledvernalization) only occurs if the plant is past the juvenile period. The transition from a juvenile to adult state happens when the stem diameter is about6 mm (1⁄4in). Vernalization allows the plant to grow to an adequate size before flowering. In certain climates, cabbage can be planted at the beginning of the cold period and survive until a later warm period without being induced to flower, a practice that was common in the eastern US.
Plants are generally started in protected locations early in the growing season before beingtransplantedoutside, although some are seeded directly into the ground from which they will be harvested.Seedlings typically emerge in about 4–6 days from seeds planted13 mm (1⁄2in) deep at a soil temperature between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F).Growers normally place plants 30 to 61 cm (12 to 24 in) apart.Closer spacing reduces the resources available to each plant (especially the amount of light) and increases the time taken to reach maturity.
Some varieties of cabbage have been developed for ornamental use; these are generally called "flowering cabbage". They do not produce heads and feature purple or green outer leaves surrounding an inner grouping of smaller leaves in white, red, or pink.Early varieties of cabbage take about 70 days from planting to reach maturity, while late varieties take about 120 days.
Cabbages are mature when they are firm and solid to the touch. They are harvested by cutting the stalk just below the bottom leaves with a blade. The outer leaves are trimmed, and any diseased, damaged, or necrotic leaves are removed.Delays in harvest can result in the head splitting as a result of expansion of the inner leaves and continued stem growth.
When being grown for seed, cabbages must be isolated from otherB. oleraceasubspecies, including the wild varieties, by0.8 to 1.6 km (1⁄2to 1 mi) to prevent cross-pollination. OtherBrassicaspecies, such asB. rapa,B. juncea,B. nigra,B. napusandRaphanus sativus, do not readily cross-pollinate.
There are severalcultivar groupsof cabbage, each including many cultivars:
Some sources only delineate three cultivars: savoy, red and white, with spring greens and green cabbage being subsumed under the last.
Due to its high level of nutrient requirements, cabbage is prone tonutrient deficiencies, includingboron,calcium,phosphorusandpotassium.There are several physiological disorders that can affect the postharvest appearance of cabbage. Internal tip burn occurs when the margins of inside leaves turn brown, but the outer leaves look normal. Necrotic spot is where there are oval sunken spots a few millimeters across that are often grouped around the midrib. In pepper spot, tiny black spots occur on the areas between the veins, which can increase during storage.
Fungal diseases includewirestem, which causes weak or dying transplants;Fusariumyellows, which result in stunted and twisted plants with yellow leaves; andblackleg(seeLeptosphaeria maculans), which leads to sunken areas on stems and gray-brown spotted leaves.The fungiAlternaria brassicaeandA. brassicicolacause dark leaf spots in affected plants. They are both seedborne and airborne, and typically propagate from spores in infected plant debris left on the soil surface for up to twelve weeks after harvest.Rhizoctonia solanicauses the post-emergence disease wirestem, resulting in killed seedlings ("damping-off"), root rot or stunted growth and smaller heads.
One of the most common bacterial diseases to affect cabbage isblack rot, caused byXanthomonas campestris, which causeschloroticandnecroticlesions that start at the leaf margins, andwiltingof plants.Clubroot, caused by the soilborneslime mold-like organismPlasmodiophora brassicae, results in swollen, club-like roots.Downy mildew, a parasitic disease caused by theoomycetePeronospora parasitica,produces pale leaves with white, brownish or olivemildewon the lower leaf surfaces; this is often confused with the fungal diseasepowdery mildew.
Pests includeroot-knot nematodesandcabbage maggots, which produce stunted and wilted plants with yellow leaves;aphids, which induce stunted plants with curled and yellow leaves;harlequin cabbage bugs, which cause white and yellow leaves;thrips, which lead to leaves with white-bronze spots;striped flea beetles, which riddle leaves with small holes; andcaterpillars, which leave behind large, ragged holes in leaves.The caterpillar stage of the "small cabbage white butterfly" (Pieris rapae), commonly known in the United States as the "imported cabbage worm", is a major cabbage pest in most countries.
The large white butterfly (Pieris brassicae) is prevalent in eastern European countries. The diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) and the cabbage moth (Mamestra brassicae) thrive in the higher summer temperatures of continental Europe, where they cause considerable damage to cabbage crops.The mustard leaf beetle (Phaedon cochleariae), is a common pest of cabbage plants.The mustard leaf beetle will often choose to feed on cabbage over their natural host plants as cabbage is more abundant in palatable compounds such as glucosinolates that encourage higher consumption.The cabbage looper (Trichoplusia ni) is infamous in North America for its voracious appetite and for producing frass that contaminates plants.In India, the diamondback moth has caused losses up to 90 percent in crops that were not treated with insecticide.Destructive soil insects such as the cabbage root fly (Delia radicum) has larvae can burrow into the part of plant consumed by humans.
Planting near other members of the cabbage family, or where these plants have been placed in previous years, can prompt the spread of pests and disease.Excessive water and excessive heat can also cause cultivation problems.
Factors that contribute to reduced head weight include: growth in the compacted soils that result fromno-till farmingpractices, drought,waterlogging, insect and disease incidence, and shading and nutrient stress caused by weeds.
In 2020, world production of cabbages (combined with other brassicas) was 71 milliontonnes, led by China with 48% of the world total (table). Other substantial producers were India, Russia, and South Korea.
When overcooked, toxichydrogen sulfidegas is produced.
Excessive consumption of cabbage may lead to increasedintestinal gaswhich causesbloatingandflatulencedue to thetrisaccharideraffinose, which the humansmall intestinecannotdigest, but is digested by bacteria in thelarge intestine.
Cabbage has been linked to outbreaks of somefood-borne illnesses, includingListeria monocytogenesandClostridium botulinum. The latter toxin has been traced to pre-made, packaged coleslaw mixes, while the spores were found on whole cabbages that were otherwise acceptable in appearance.Shigellaspecies are able to survive in shredded cabbage.Two outbreaks ofE. coliin the United States have been linked to cabbage consumption. Biological risk assessments have concluded that there is the potential for further outbreaks linked to uncooked cabbage, due to contamination at many stages of the growing, harvesting and packaging processes. Contaminants from water, humans, animals and soil have the potential to be transferred to cabbage, and from there to the end consumer.
Whilst not a toxic vegetable in its natural state, an increase in intestinal gas can lead to the death of many small animals like rabbits due to gastrointestinal stasis.
Cabbage and othercruciferous vegetablescontain small amounts ofthiocyanate, a compound associated withgoiterformation wheniodineintake is deficient.
The characteristic flavor of cabbage is caused byglucosinolates, a class ofsulfur-containingglucosides. Although found throughout the plant, these compounds are concentrated in the highest quantities in the seeds; lesser quantities are found in young vegetative tissue, and they decrease as the tissue ages.Cooked cabbage is often criticized for its pungent, unpleasant odor and taste. These develop when cabbage is overcooked and hydrogen sulfide gas is produced.
Cabbage consumption varies widely around the world: Russia has the highest annual per capita consumption at 20 kg (44 lb), followed by Belgium at 4.7 kg (10 lb 6 oz) and the Netherlands at 4.0 kg (8 lb 13 oz). Americans consume 3.9 kg (8.6 lb) annually per capita.
Raw cabbage is 92% water, 6%carbohydrates, 1%protein, and contains negligiblefat. In a 100-gram reference amount, raw cabbage is a rich source ofvitamin Candvitamin K, containing 44% and 72%, respectively, of theDaily Value(DV).Cabbage is also a moderate source (10–19% DV) ofvitamin B6andfolate, with no other nutrients having significant content per 100-gram serving.
Cabbages sold for market are generally smaller, and different varieties are used for those sold immediately upon harvest and those stored before sale. Those used for processing, especially sauerkraut, are larger and have a lower percentage of water.Both hand and mechanical harvesting are used, and hand-harvesting is generally used for cabbages destined for market sales. In commercial-scale operations, hand-harvested cabbages are trimmed, sorted, and packed directly in the field to increase efficiency.
Vacuum coolingrapidly refrigerates the vegetable, allowing for earlier shipping and a fresher product. Cabbage can be stored the longest at −1 to 2 °C (30 to 36 °F) with a humidity of 90–100%; these conditions will result in up to six months of longevity. When stored under less ideal conditions, cabbage can still last up to four months.
Cabbage is prepared and consumed in many ways. The simplest options include eating the vegetable raw orsteamingit, though many cuisines pickle,stew,sautéeorbraisecabbage.Pickling is a common way of preserving cabbage, creating dishes such assauerkrautandkimchi,although kimchi is more often made fromNapa cabbage.Savoy cabbages are usually used in salads, while smooth-leaf types are utilized for both market sales and processing.Tofuand cabbage is a staple of Chinese cooking,while the British dishbubble and squeakis made primarily with leftoverpotatoand boiled cabbage and eaten with cold meat.
In Poland, cabbage is one of the main food crops, and it features prominently inPolish cuisine. It is frequently eaten, either cooked or as sauerkraut, as a side dish or as an ingredient in such dishes asbigos(cabbage, sauerkraut, meat, and wild mushrooms, among other ingredients)gołąbki(stuffed cabbage) andpierogi(filled dumplings). Other eastern European countries, such as Hungary and Romania, also have traditional dishes that feature cabbage as a main ingredient.In India and Ethiopia, cabbage is often included in spicy salads and braises.In the United States, cabbage is used primarily for the production ofcoleslaw, followed by market use and sauerkraut production.
Basic researchon cabbagephytochemicalsis ongoing to discern if certain cabbage compounds may affect health or have potential for anti-disease effects, such assulforaphaneand otherglucosinolates.Studies on cruciferous vegetables, including cabbage, include whether they may lower the risk againstcolon cancer.Cabbage is a source ofindole-3-carbinol, a chemical underbasic researchfor its possible properties.
In addition to its usual purpose as an edible vegetable, cabbage has been used historically inherbalism. TheAncient Greeksrecommended consuming the vegetable as alaxative,and used cabbage juice as an antidote formushroom poisoning,for eyesalves, and forlinimentsfor bruises.The ancient Roman,Pliny the Elder, described both culinary and medicinal properties of the vegetable.Ancient Egyptiansate cooked cabbage at the beginning of meals to reduce the intoxicating effects of wine.This traditional usage persisted in European literature until the mid-20th century.
The supposed cooling properties of the leaves were used in Britain as a treatment fortrench footin World War I, and ascompressesforulcersandbreast abscesses. Other medicinal uses recorded in Europeanfolk medicineinclude treatments forrheumatism,sore throat,hoarseness,colic, andmelancholy.Both mashed cabbage and cabbage juice have been used inpoulticesto removeboilsand treatwarts,pneumonia,appendicitis, and ulcers.