Ecosystem-based adaptation

Ecosystem-based adaptation(EBA or EbA) encompasses a broad set of approaches toadapt to climate change. They all involve themanagement of ecosystemsand their services to reduce the vulnerability of human communities to theimpacts of climate change. TheConvention on Biological Diversity(CBD) defines EBA as "the use ofbiodiversityandecosystem servicesas part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverseeffects of climate change".
EbA involves theconservation,sustainable managementandrestoration of ecosystems, such asforests,grasslands,wetlands,mangrovesorcoral reefsto reduce the harmful impacts of climate hazards including shifting patterns or levels of rainfall, changes in maximum and minimum temperatures, stronger storms, and increasingly variable climatic conditions. EbA measures can be implemented on their own or in combination with engineered approaches (such as the construction ofwater reservoirsor dykes), hybrid measures (such asartificial reefs) and approaches thatstrengthen the capacitiesof individuals and institutions to addressclimate risks(such as the introduction ofearly warning systems).
Collaborative planning between scientists, policy makers, and community members is an essential element of Ecosystem-Based Adaptation. By drawing on the expertise of outside experts and local residents alike, EbA seeks to develop unique solutions to unique problems, rather than simply replicating past projects.
EbA is nested within the broader concept ofnature-based solutionsand complements and shares common elements with a wide variety of other approaches to building the resilience ofsocial-ecological systems.These approaches include community-based adaptation,ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction,climate-smart agriculture, andgreen infrastructure, and often place emphasis on using participatory and inclusive processes andcommunity/stakeholder engagement. The concept of EbA has been promoted through international fora, including the processes of theUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)and the CBD. A number of countries make explicit references to EbA in their strategies for adaptation to climate change and theirNationally Determined Contributions(NDCs) under theParis Agreement.
While the barriers to widespread uptake of EbA by public and private sector stakeholders and decision makers are substantial, cooperation toward generating a greater understanding of the potential of EbA is well established among researchers, advocates, and practitioners from nature conservation and sustainable development groups. EbA is increasingly viewed as an effective means of addressing the linked challenges of climate change and poverty in developing countries, where many people are dependent on natural resources for their lives and livelihoods.
Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) describes a variety of approaches foradapting to climate change, all of which involvethe management of ecosystemsto reduce the vulnerability of human communities to theimpacts of climate changesuch as storm and flood damage to physical assets, coastal erosion, salinisation of freshwater resources, and loss of agricultural productivity. EbA lies at the intersection ofclimate change adaptation,socio-economic development, andbiodiversity conservation(see Figure 1).
While ecosystem services have always been used by societies, the term Ecosystem-based Adaptation was coined in 2008 by theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)and its member institutions at the UN Climate Change Convention Conference in 2008.EbA was officially defined in 2009 at the UN Convention on Biological Diversity Conference.
Healthy ecosystems provide importantecosystem servicesthat can contribute to climate change adaptation. For example, healthy mangrove ecosystems provide protection from the impacts of climate change, often for some of the world's most vulnerable people, by absorbing wave energy and storm surges, adapting to rising sea levels, and stabilizing shorelines fromerosion. EbA focuses on benefits that humans derive frombiodiversity and ecosystem servicesand how these benefits can be used for managing risk to climate change impacts. Adaptation to climate change is particularly urgent indeveloping countriesand manySmall Island Developing Statesthat are already experiencing some of the most severe impacts of climate change, have economies that are highly sensitive to disruptions, and that have lower adaptive capacity.
EbA can involve a wide range of ecosystem management activities that aim to reducethe vulnerability of people to climate change hazards(such as rising sea levels, changing rainfall patterns, and stronger storms) through using nature. For example, EbA measures include coastal habitat restoration in ecosystems such as; coral reefs, mangrove forests, and marshes to protect communities and infrastructure fromstorm surges;agroforestryto increase resilience of crops to droughts or excessive rainfall;integrated water resource managementto cope with consecutive dry days and change in rainfall patterns; and sustainable forest management interventions to stabilise slopes, prevent landslides, and regulate water flow to prevent flash flooding (see Table 1 and Figure 2).
By deploying EbA, proponents cite that many other benefits to people and nature are delivered simultaneously. These correlated benefits include improved human health,socioeconomic development,food securityandwater security,disaster risk reduction,carbon sequestration, andbiodiversity conservation. For example,restoration of ecosystemssuch as forests and coastal wetlands can contribute to food security and enhance livelihoods through the collection of non-timber forest products, maintain watershed functionality, and sequester carbon to mitigate global warming. Restoration ofmangrove ecosystemscan help increase food and livelihood security by supporting fisheries, and reduce disaster risk by decreasing wave height and strength during hurricanes and storms.
Particular ecosystems can provide a variety of specific climate change adaptation benefits (or services). The most suitable EbA measures will depend onlocal context,the health of the ecosystemandthe primary climate change hazard that needs to be addressed.The below table provides an overview of these factors, common EbA measures and intended outcomes.
Since the evolution of the concept and practice of EBA, various principles and standards have been developed to guide best practices for implementation.The guidelines adopted by the CBD build on these efforts and include a set of principles to guide planning and implementation.The principles are broadly clustered into four themes:
These principles are complemented by safeguards, which are social and environmental measures to avoid unintended consequences of EBA to people, ecosystems and biodiversity.
Standards have also been developed to help practitioners understand what interventions qualify as EBA, including the elements of helping people adapt to climate change, making active use of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and being part of an overall adaptation strategy.Challenges
Although interest in Ecosystem-based Adaptation has grown, and meta-analyses of case studies are demonstrating the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of EbA interventions,there are recognized challenges that should be addressed or considered to increase adoption of the approach. These include:
Potential limitations of ecosystem services under a changing climate.One challenge facing EbA is the identification of limits and thresholds beyond which EbA might not deliver adaptation benefits and the extent ecosystems can provide ecosystem services under a changing climate.
Difficulty in monitoring, evaluation, and establishing the evidence base for effective EbA.Confusion around what Ecosystem-based Adaptation means has led to an array of different methodologies used for assessments, and the lack of consistent and comparable quantitative measures of EbA success and failure makes it difficult to argue the case for EbA in socio-economic terms.EbA research has also relied heavily on Western scientific knowledge without due consideration of local and traditional knowledge.In addition, it can be difficult to implement a plan for monitoring and evaluation due to potentially long timescales required to observe the impacts of EbA.
Governance and institutional constraints.Because EbA is a multi-sectoral policy issue, the challenges of governing and planning are immense.This is due in part to the fact that EbA involves both the sectors that manage ecosystems and those that benefit from ecosystem services.
Economic and financial constraints.Broad macroeconomic considerations such as economic development, poverty, and access to financial capital to implement climate adaptation options are contributing factors to constraints impeding greater uptake of EbA.Public and multilateral funding for EbA projects thus far has been available through the International Climate Initiative of the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, the Global Environment Facility, the Green Climate Fund, the European Union, the Department for International Development of the Government of the United Kingdom, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency and the Danish International Development Agency, among other sources.
Social and cultural barriers.A clear factor constraining EbA is varying perceptions of risks and cultural preferences for particular types of management approaches such as cultural preferences for what a particular landscape should look like.Potential stakeholders can hold negative perceptions about particular types of EbA strategies.
Several international policy fora have acknowledged the multiple roles that ecosystems play in delivering services and addressing global challenges, including those related to climate change, natural disasters, sustainable development, and biodiversity conservation.
TheParis Agreementexplicitly recognises nature's role in helping people and societies address climate change, calling on all Parties to acknowledge "the importance of ensuring the integrity of all ecosystems, including oceans, and the protection of biodiversity, recognised by some cultures as Mother Earth"; its Articles include several references to ecosystems, natural resources and forests.
This notion has translated into high-level national intent, as revealed by comparative analyses of theNationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)submitted to theUN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)by signatories of the Paris Agreement.The UNFCCC also established the national adaptation plan (NAP) process as a way to facilitate adaptation planning inleast developed countries (LDCs)and otherdeveloping countries. Because of their lower level of development, climate change risks magnify development challenges for LDCs.
Measures and interventions applied as part of EbA are often closely linked or similar to those employed under ecosystem-baseddisaster risk reduction(Eco-DRR).The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reductionacknowledges that in order to strengthen disaster risk governance and manage disaster risk and risk reduction at global and regional levels, it is important "to promote transboundary cooperation to enable policy and planning for the implementation of ecosystem-based approaches with regard to shared resources, such as within river basins and along coastlines, to build resilience and reduce disaster risk, including epidemic and displacement risk".
TheSustainable Development Goals(SDGs) are a collection of 17 global goals set by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015. Biodiversity and ecosystems feature prominently across many of the SDGs and associated targets. They contribute directly to human well-being and development priorities. Biodiversity is at the centre of many economic activities, particularly those related to crop and livestock agriculture, forestry, and fisheries. Globally, nearly half of the human population is directly dependent on natural resources for its livelihood, and many of the most vulnerable people depend directly on biodiversity to fulfil their daily subsistence needs.Ecosystem-based Adaptation offers potential to contribute towards the implementation of numerous SDGs, including the goals related to climate adaptation (SDG 13), eliminating poverty and hunger (SDGs 1 and 2), ensuring livelihoods and economic growth (SDG 8) and life on land and life under water (SDGs 14 and 15), among others.
The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 and theAichi Biodiversity Targets, underthe Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD), aim to halt theloss of biodiversityto ensure ecosystems are resilient and continue to provide essential services. Most recently, the Conference of the Parties has adopted voluntary guidelines for the design and effective implementation of ecosystem-based approaches to adaptation and disaster risk reduction.
EbA and similar approaches have been called for in other policy frameworks, includingthe United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)and theRamsar Convention.