Inferno (Dante)

Inferno(Italian:[iɱˈfɛrno];Italianfor 'Hell') is the first part of Italian writerDante Alighieri's 14th-centurynarrative poemThe Divine Comedy, followed byPurgatorioandParadiso. TheInfernodescribes the journey of a fictionalised version of Dante himself throughHell, guided by theancient RomanpoetVirgil. In the poem, Hell is depicted as nine concentric circles of torment located within the Earth; it is the "realm[...] of those who have rejected spiritual values by yielding to bestial appetites or violence, or by perverting their human intellect to fraud or malice against their fellowmen".As anallegory, theDivine Comedyrepresents the journey of the soul towardGod, with theInfernodescribing the recognition and rejection of sin.
The poem begins on the night ofMaundy Thursdayon March 24 (or April 7), 1300, shortly before the dawn ofGood Friday.The narrator, Dante himself, is 35 years old, and thus "midway in the journey of our life" (Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita)– half of the biblical lifespan of 70 (Psalm89:10 in theVulgate; numbered asPsalm 90:10 in theKing James Bible). The poet finds himself lost in a darkwood(selva oscura),astray from the "straight way" (diritta via,also translatable as 'right way') of salvation. He sets out to climb directly up a small mountain, but his way is blocked by three beasts he cannot evade: alonza(usually rendered as 'leopard' or 'leopon'),aleone(lion), and alupa(she-wolf). The three beasts, taken fromJeremiah5:6,are thought to symbolize the three kinds of sin that bring the unrepentant soul into one of the three major divisions of Hell. According toJohn Ciardi, these areincontinence(the she-wolf);violenceand bestiality (the lion); andfraudand malice (the leopard).
It is now dawn ofGood Friday, April 8, with the sun rising inAries. The beasts drive him back despairing into the darkness of error, a "lower place" (basso loco)where the sun is silent (l sol tace).However, Dante is rescued by a figure who announces that he was bornsub Iulio(i.e., in the time ofJulius Caesar) and lived underAugustus: it is the shade of the Roman poetVirgil, author of theAeneid, aLatin epicwhich also featured a journey throughthe underworld.
On the evening of Good Friday, Dante hesitates as he follows Virgil; Virgil explains that he has been sent byBeatrice, the symbol of Divine Love. Beatrice had been moved to aid Dante by theVirgin Mary(symbolic of compassion) andSaint Lucia(symbolic of illuminating Grace).Rachel, symbolic of the contemplative life, also appears in the heavenly scene recounted by Virgil. The two of them then begin their journey to theunderworld.
Feeling uncertain of his worthiness for the journey, Dante reflects on the paths of Aeneas and Paul, who were granted access to the realms of the afterlife, and doubts his own capability to undertake such a passage (Inf. 2.10-36).
Dante passes through the gate of Hell, which bears an inscription ending with the phrase "Lasciate ogne speranza, voi ch'intrate",most frequently translated as "Abandon all hope, ye who enter here".Dante and his guide hear the anguished screams of the Uncommitted. These are the souls of people who in life took no sides; the opportunists who were for neither good nor evil, but instead were merely concerned with themselves. Among these Dante recognises a figure who made the "great refusal", implied to bePope Celestine V, whose "cowardice (in selfish terror for his own welfare) served as the door through which so much evil entered the Church".Mixed with them are outcasts who took no side in theRebellion of Angels. These souls are forever unclassified; they are neither in Hell nor out of it, but reside on the shores of theAcheron. Naked and futile, they race around through the mist in eternal pursuit of an elusive, wavering banner (symbolic of their pursuit of ever-shiftingself-interest) while relentlessly chased by swarms ofwaspsandhornets, who continually sting them.Loathsomemaggotsand worms at the sinners' feet drink the putrid mixture of blood, pus, and tears that flows down their bodies, symbolising the sting of their guiltyconscienceand the repugnance of sin. This may also be seen as a reflection of the spiritual stagnation in which they lived.
After passing through the vestibule, Dante and Virgil reach the ferry that will take them across the river Acheron and to Hell proper. The ferry is piloted byCharon, who does not want to let Dante enter, for he is a living being. Virgil forces Charon to take him by declaring,Vuolsi così colà dove si puote / ciò che si vuole("It is so willed there where is power to do / That which is willed"),referring to the fact that Dante is on his journey on divine grounds. The wailing and blasphemy of the damned souls entering Charon's boat contrast with the joyful singing of the blessed souls arriving by ferry in thePurgatorio. The passage across the Acheron, however, is undescribed, since Dante faints and does not awaken until they reach the other side.
Virgil proceeds to guide Dante through the nine circles of Hell. The circles areconcentric, representing a gradual increase inwickedness, and culminating at the centre of the earth, whereSatanis held in bondage. The sinners of each circle are punished foreternityin a fashion fitting their crimes: each punishment is acontrapasso, a symbolic instance ofpoetic justice. For example, later in the poem, Dante and Virgil encounterfortune-tellerswho must walk forward with their heads on backward, unable to see what is ahead, because they tried to see the future through forbidden means. Such acontrapasso"functions not merely as a form ofdivine revenge, but rather as the fulfilment of a destinyfreely chosenby each soul during his or her life".People who sinned, but prayed for forgiveness before their deaths are found not in Hell but inPurgatory, where they labour to become free of their sins. Those in Hell are people who tried to justify their sins and are unrepentant.
Dante's Hell is structurally based on the ideas ofAristotle, but with "certain Christian symbolisms, exceptions, and misconstructions of Aristotle's text",and a further supplement from Cicero'sDe Officiis.Virgil reminds Dante (the character) of "Those pages where the Ethics tells of three / Conditions contrary to Heaven's will and rule / Incontinence, vice, and brute bestiality".Cicero, for his part, had divided sins betweenviolenceandfraud.By conflating Cicero's violence with Aristotle's bestiality, and his fraud with malice or vice, Dante the poet obtained three major categories of sin, as symbolized by the three beasts that Dante encounters in Canto I: these areIncontinence, Violence/Bestiality, and Fraud/Malice.Sinners punished for incontinence (also known as wantonness) – the lustful, the gluttonous, the hoarders and wasters, and the wrathful and sullen – all demonstrated weakness in controlling their appetites, desires, and natural urges; according to Aristotle'sEthics, incontinence is less condemnable than malice or bestiality, and therefore these sinners are located in four circles of Upper Hell (Circles 2–5). These sinners endure lesser torments than do those consigned to Lower Hell, located within the walls of theCity of Dis, for committing acts of violence and fraud – the latter of which involves, as Dorothy L. Sayers writes, "abuse of the specifically human faculty of reason".The deeper levels are organised into one circle for violence (Circle 7) and two circles for fraud (Circles 8 and 9). As a Christian, Dante adds Circle 1 (Limbo) to Upper Hell and Circle 6 (Heresy) to Lower Hell, making 9 Circles in total; incorporating the Vestibule of the Futile, this leads to Hell containing 10 main divisions.This "9+1=10" structure is also found within thePurgatorioandParadiso. Lower Hell is further subdivided: Circle 7 (Violence) is divided into three rings, Circle 8 (Fraud) is divided into tenbolge, and Circle 9 (Treachery) is divided into four regions. Thus, Hell contains 24 divisions in total.
Dante awakens to find that he has crossed the Acheron, and Virgil leads him to the first circle of the abyss,Limbo, where Virgil himself resides. The first circle contains theunbaptisedand thevirtuous pagans, who, although not sinful enough to warrant damnation, did not accept Christ. Dorothy L. Sayers writes, "After those who refused choice come those without opportunity of choice. They could not, that is, choose Christ; they could, and did, choose human virtue, and for that they have their reward."Limbo shares many characteristics with theAsphodel Meadows, and thus, the guiltless damned are punished by living in a deficient form of Heaven. Without baptism ("the portal of the faith that you embrace")they lacked the hope for something greater than rational minds can conceive. When Dante asked if anyone has ever left Limbo, Virgil states that he sawJesus("a Mighty One") descend into Limbo and takeAdam,Abel,Noah,Moses,Abraham,David,Rachel, and others (seeLimbo of the Patriarchs) into his all-forgiving arms and transport them to Heaven as the first human souls to be saved. The event, known as theHarrowing of Hell, supposedly occurred around AD 33 or 34.
Dante encounters the poetsHomer,Horace,Ovid, andLucan, who include him in their number and make him "sixth in that high company".They reach the base of a greatCastle– the dwelling place of the wisest men of antiquity – surrounded by seven gates, and a flowing brook. After passing through the seven gates, the group comes to an exquisite green meadow and Dante encounters the inhabitants of the Citadel. These include figures associated with the Trojans and their descendants (the Romans):Electra(mother of Troy's founderDardanus),Hector,Aeneas,Julius Caesarin his role asRomangeneral ("in his armor, falcon-eyed"),Camilla,Penthesilea(Queen of theAmazons), KingLatinusand his daughter,Lavinia,Lucius Junius Brutus(who overthrewTarquinto found theRoman Republic),Lucretia,Julia,Marcia, andCornelia Africana. Dante also seesSaladin, aMuslimmilitary leader known for his battle against theCrusaders, as well as his generous, chivalrous, and merciful conduct.
Dante next encounters a group of philosophers, includingAristotlewithSocratesandPlatoat his side, as well asDemocritus, "Diogenes" (eitherDiogenes the CynicorDiogenes of Apollonia),Anaxagoras,Thales,Empedocles,Heraclitus, and "Zeno" (eitherZeno of EleaorZeno of Citium). He sees the scientistDioscorides, the mythical Greek poetsOrpheusandLinus, and Roman statesmenMarcus Tullius CiceroandSeneca. Dante sees the Alexandrian geometerEuclidandPtolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer and geographer, as well as the physiciansHippocratesandGalen. He also encountersAvicenna, a Persian polymath, andAverroes, amedieval Andalusianpolymath known for his commentaries on Aristotle's works. Dante and Virgil depart from the four other poets and continue their journey.
Although Dante implies that all virtuous non-Christians find themselves here, he later encounters two (Cato of UticaandStatius) in Purgatory and two (TrajanandRipheus) in Heaven. InPurgatorioXXII, Virgil names several additional inhabitants of Limbo who were not mentioned in theInferno.
Dante and Virgil leave Limbo and enter the Second Circle – the first of the circles of Incontinence – where the punishments of Hell proper begin. It is described as "a part where no thing gleams".They find their way hindered by the serpentineMinos, who judges all of those condemned for active, deliberately willed sin to one of the lower circles. At this point in Inferno, every soul is required to confess all of their sins to Minos, after which Minos sentences each soul to its torment by wrapping his tail around himself a number of times corresponding to the circle of Hell to which the soul must go. The role of Minos here is a combination of his classical role as condemner and unjust judge of the underworld and the role of classicalRhadamanthus, interrogator and confessor of the underworld.This mandatory confession makes it so every soul verbalises and sanctions their own ranking amongst the condemned since these confessions are the sole grounds for their placement in hell.Dante is not forced to make this confession; instead, Virgil rebukes Minos, and he and Dante continue on.
In the second circle of Hell are those overcome bylust. These "carnal malefactors"are condemned for allowing their appetites to sway their reason. These souls are buffeted back and forth by the terrible winds of a violent storm, without rest. This symbolises the power of lust to blow needlessly and aimlessly: "as the lovers drifted into self-indulgence and were carried away by their passions, so now they drift for ever. The bright, voluptuous sin is now seen as it is – a howling darkness of helpless discomfort."Since lust involves mutual indulgence and is not, therefore, completely self-centred, Dante deems it the least heinous of the sins and its punishment is the most benign within Hell proper.The "ruined slope"in this circle is thought to be a reference to the earthquake that occurred after the death of Christ.
In this circle, Dante seesSemiramis,Dido,Cleopatra,Helen of Troy,Paris,Achilles,Tristan, and many others who were overcome by sexual love during their life. Due to the presence of so many rulers among the lustful, the fifth Canto of Inferno has been called the "canto of the queens".Dante comes acrossFrancesca da Rimini, who married the deformedGiovanni Malatesta(also known as "Gianciotto") for political purposes but fell in love with his younger brotherPaolo Malatesta; the two began to carry on anadulterousaffair. Sometime between 1283 and 1286, Giovanni surprised them together in Francesca's bedroom and violently stabbed them both to death. Francesca explains:
Francesca further reports that she and Paolo yielded to their love when reading the story of the adultery betweenLancelotandGuineverein the Old French romanceLancelot du Lac. Francesca says,"Galeotto fu 'l libro e chi lo scrisse".The wordGaleottomeans 'pander', but is also the Italian term forGallehaut, who acted as an intermediary between Lancelot and Guinevere, encouraging them on to love. John Ciardi renders line 137 as "That book, and he who wrote it, was a pander."Inspired by Dante, authorGiovanni Boccaccioinvoked the namePrencipe Galeottoin the alternative title toThe Decameron, a 14th-century collection of novellas. Ultimately, Francesca never makes a full confession to Dante. Rather than admit to her and Paolo's sins, the very reasons they reside in this circle of hell, she consistently takes an erroneously passive role in the adulterous affair. The English poetJohn Keats, in his sonnet "On a Dream", imagines what Dante does not write, the point of view of Paolo:
As he did at the end of Canto III, Dante – overcome by pity and anguish – describes his swoon: "I fainted, as if I had met my death. / And then I fell as a dead body falls".
In the third circle, thegluttonouswallow in a vile, putrid slush produced by a ceaseless, foul, icy rain – "a great storm of putrefaction"– as punishment for subjecting their reason to a voracious appetite.Cerberus(described asil gran vermo, literally 'the great worm', line 22), the monstrous three-headed beast of Hell, ravenously guards the gluttons lying in the freezing mire, mauling and flaying them with his claws as they howl like dogs. Virgil obtains safe passage past the monster by filling its three mouths with mud.
Dorothy L. Sayers writes that "the surrender to sin which began with mutual indulgence leads by an imperceptible degradation to solitary self-indulgence".The gluttons grovel in the mud by themselves, sightless and heedless of their neighbors, symbolising the cold, selfish, and empty sensuality of their lives.Just as lust has revealed its true nature in the winds of the previous circle, here the slush reveals the true nature of sensuality – which includes not only overindulgence in food and drink, but also other kinds of addiction.
In this circle, Dante converses with a Florentine contemporary identified asCiacco, which means 'hog'.A character with the same nickname later appears inThe DecameronofGiovanni Boccaccio, where his gluttonous behaviour is clearly portrayed.Ciacco speaks to Dante regarding strife in Florence between the "White" and "Black"Guelphs, which developed after the Guelph/Ghibelline strife ended with the complete defeat of the Ghibellines. In the first of several politicalpropheciesin theInferno, Ciacco "predicts" the expulsion of the White Guelphs (Dante's party) from Florence by the Black Guelphs, aided byPope Boniface VIII, which marked the start of Dante'slong exile from the city. These events occurred in 1302, prior to when the poem was written but in the future at Easter time of 1300, the time in which the poem is set.
The Fourth Circle is guarded by a figure Dante names asPluto: this isPlutus, the deity of wealth in classical mythology. Although the two are often conflated, he is a distinct figure fromPluto(Dis), the classical ruler of the underworld.At the start of Canto VII, he menaces Virgil and Dante with the cryptic phrasePape Satàn, pape Satàn aleppe, but Virgil protects Dante from him.
Those whose attitude toward material goods deviated from the appropriatemeanare punished in the fourth circle. They include theavariciousor miserly (including many "clergymen, and popes and cardinals"),whohoardedpossessions, and theprodigal, whosquanderedthem. The hoarders and spendthriftsjoust, using great weights as weapons that they push with their chests:
Relating this sin of incontinence to the two that preceded it (lust and gluttony), Dorothy L. Sayers writes, "Mutual indulgence has already declined into selfish appetite; now, that appetite becomes aware of the incompatible and equally selfish appetites of other people. Indifference becomes mutual antagonism, imaged here by the antagonism between hoarding and squandering."The contrast between these two groups leads Virgil to discourse on the nature ofFortune, who raises nations to greatness and later plunges them into poverty, as she shifts, "those empty goods from nation unto nation, clan to clan".This speech fills what would otherwise be a gap in the poem, since both groups are so absorbed in their activity that Virgil tells Dante that it would be pointless to try to speak to them – indeed, they have lost their individuality and been rendered "unrecognizable".
In the swampy, stinking waters of the riverStyx– the Fifth Circle – the activelywrathfulfight each other viciously on the surface of the slime, while the sullen (the passively wrathful) lie beneath the water, withdrawn, "into a black sulkiness which can find no joy in God or man or the universe".At the surface of the foul Stygian marsh, Dorothy L. Sayers writes, "the active hatreds rend and snarl at one another; at the bottom, the sullen hatreds lie gurgling, unable even to express themselves for the rage that chokes them".As the last circle of Incontinence, the "savage self-frustration" of the Fifth Circle marks the end of "that which had its tender and romantic beginnings in the dalliance of indulged passion".
Phlegyasreluctantly transports Dante and Virgil across the Styx in hisskiff. On the way they are accosted byFilippo Argenti, aBlack Guelphfrom the prominent Adimari family. Little is known about Argenti, althoughGiovanni Boccacciodescribes an incident in which he lost his temper; early commentators state that Argenti's brother seized some of Dante's property after his exile from Florence.Just as Argenti enabled the seizing of Dante's property, he himself is "seized" by all the other wrathful souls.
When Dante responds "In weeping and in grieving, accursed spirit, may you long remain,"Virgil blesses him with words used to describe Christ himself (Luke11:27).In a literal sense, this reflects the fact that souls in Hell are eternally fixed in the state they have chosen, but allegorically, it reflects Dante's beginning awareness of his own sin.
In the distance, Dante perceives high towers that resemble fiery redmosques. Virgil informs him that they are approaching theCity of Dis. Dis, itself surrounded by the Stygian marsh, contains Lower Hell within its walls.Dis is one of the names ofPluto, the classical king of the underworld, in addition to being the name of the realm. The walls of Dis are guarded byfallen angels. Virgil is unable to convince them to let Dante and him enter.
Dante is threatened by theFuries(consisting ofAlecto,Megaera, andTisiphone) andMedusa. Anangelsent from Heaven secures entry for the poets, opening the gate by touching it with a wand, and rebukes those who opposed Dante. Allegorically, this reveals the fact that the poem is beginning to deal with sins thatphilosophyandhumanismcannot fully understand. Virgil also mentions to Dante howErichthosent him to the lowest circle of Hell to bring back a spirit from there.
In the sixth circle,heretics, such asEpicurusandhis followers(who say "the soul dies with the body")are trapped in flaming tombs. Dante holds discourse with a pair of Epicurian Florentines in one of the tombs:Farinata degli Uberti, a famousGhibellineleader (following theBattle of Montapertiin September 1260, Farinata strongly protested the proposed destruction of Florence at the meeting of the victorious Ghibellines; he died in 1264 and was posthumously condemned for heresy in 1283); andCavalcante de' Cavalcanti, aGuelphwho was the father of Dante's friend and fellow poet,Guido Cavalcanti. The political affiliation of these two men allows for a further discussion of Florentine politics. In response to a question from Dante about the "prophecy" he has received, Farinata explains that what the souls in Hellknowof life on earth comes from seeing the future, not from any observation of the present. Consequently, when "the portal of the future has been shut",it will no longer be possible for them to know anything. Farinata explains that also crammed within the tomb areEmperor Frederick II, commonly reputed to be an Epicurean, andOttaviano degli Ubaldini, whom Dante refers to asil Cardinale.
Dante reads an inscription on one of the tombs indicating it belongs toPope Anastasius II– although some modern scholars hold that Dante erred in the verse mentioning Anastasius ("Anastasio papa guardo, / lo qual trasseFotinde la via dritta", lines 8–9), confusing the pope with the Byzantine emperor of the time,Anastasius I.Pausing for a moment before the steep descent to the foul-smelling seventh circle, Virgil explains the geography and rationale of Lower Hell, in which the sins of violence (or bestiality) and fraud (or malice) are punished. In his explanation, Virgil refers to theNicomachean Ethicsand thePhysicsofAristotle, with medieval interpretations. Virgil asserts that there are only two legitimate sources of wealth: natural resources ("Nature") and human labour and activity ("Art").Usury, to be punished in the next circle, is therefore an offence against both; it is a kind of blasphemy, since it is an act of violence against Art, which is the child of Nature, and Nature derives from God.
Virgil then indicates the time through his unexplained awareness of the stars' positions. The "Wain", theGreat Bear, now lies in the northwest overCaurus(the northwest wind). The constellationPisces(the Fish) is just appearing over the horizon: it is the zodiacal sign precedingAries(the Ram). Canto I notes that the sun is in Aries, and since the twelve zodiac signs rise at two-hour intervals, it must now be about two hours prior to sunrise: 4:00a.m. onHoly Saturday, April 9.
The Seventh Circle, divided into three rings, houses the Violent. Dante and Virgil descend a jumble of rocks that had once formed a cliff to reach the Seventh Circle from the Sixth Circle, having first to evade theMinotaur(L'infamia di Creti, "the infamy ofCrete", line 12); at the sight of them, the Minotaur gnaws his flesh. Virgil assures the monster that Dante is not its hated enemy,Theseus. This causes the Minotaur to charge them as Dante and Virgil swiftly enter the seventh circle. Virgil explains the presence of shattered stones around them: they resulted from the great earthquake that shook the earth at the moment of Christ's death (Matthew27:51),at the time of the Harrowing of Hell. Ruins resulting from the same shock were previously seen at the beginning of Upper Hell (the entrance of theSecond Circle, Canto V).
Protected by the powers of the boiling rivulet, Dante and Virgil progress across the burning plain. They pass a roving group of Sodomites, and Dante, to his surprise, recognizesBrunetto Latini. Dante addresses Brunetto with deep and sorrowful affection, "paying him the highest tribute offered to any sinner in theInferno",thus refuting suggestions that Dante only placed his enemies in Hell.Dante has great respect for Brunetto and feels spiritual indebtedness to him and his works ("you taught me how man makes himself eternal; / and while I live, my gratitude for that / must always be apparent in my words");Brunetto prophesies Dante's bad treatment by the Florentines. He also identifies other sodomites, includingPriscian,Francesco d'Accorso, and BishopAndrea de' Mozzi.
The Poets begin to hear the waterfall that plunges over the Great Cliff into the Eighth Circle when three shades break from their company and greet them. They areIacopo Rusticucci, Guido Guerra, and Tegghiaio Aldobrandi – all Florentines much admired by Dante. Rusticucci blames his "savage wife" for his torments. The sinners ask for news of Florence, and Dante laments the current state of the city. At the top of the falls, at Virgil's order, Dante removes a cord from about his waist and Virgil drops it over the edge; as if in answer, a large, distorted shape swims up through the filthy air of the abyss.
The creature isGeryon, the Monster of Fraud; Virgil announces that they must fly down from the cliff on the monster's back. Dante goes alone to examine the Usurers: he does not recognize them, but each has aheraldic deviceemblazoned on a leather purse around his neck ("On these their streaming eyes appeared to feast").The coats of arms indicate that they came from prominent Florentine families; they indicate the presence ofCatello di Rosso Gianfigliazzi,Ciappo Ubriachi, the PaduanReginaldo degli Scrovegni(who predicts that his fellow PaduanVitaliano di Iacopo Vitalianiwill join him here), andGiovanni di Buiamonte. Dante then rejoins Virgil and, both mounted atop Geryon's back, the two begin their descent from the great cliff in the Eighth Circle: the Hell of the Fraudulent and Malicious.
Geryon, the winged monster who allows Dante and Virgil to descend a vast cliff to reach the Eighth Circle, was traditionally represented as a giant with three heads and three conjoined bodies.Dante's Geryon, meanwhile, is an image of fraud,combining human, bestial, and reptilian elements: Geryon is a "monster with the general shape of awyvernbut with the tail of ascorpion, hairy arms, a gaudily-marked reptilian body, and the face of a just and honest man".The pleasant human face on this grotesque body evokes the insincere fraudster whose intentions "behind the face" are all monstrous, cold-blooded, and stinging with poison.
Dante now finds himself in the Eighth Circle, calledMalebolge("Evil ditches"): the upper half of the Hell of the Fraudulent and Malicious. The Eighth Circle is a large funnel of stone shaped like anamphitheatrearound which run a series of ten deep, narrow, concentric ditches or trenches calledbolge(singular:bolgia). Within these ditches are punished those guilty of Simple Fraud. From the foot of the Great Cliff to the Well (which forms the neck of the funnel) are large spurs of rock, like umbrella ribs or spokes, which serve as bridges over the ten ditches. Dorothy L. Sayers writes that the Malebolge is "the image of the City in corruption: the progressive disintegration of every social relationship, personal and public. Sexuality, ecclesiastical and civil office, language, ownership, counsel, authority, psychic influence, and material interdependence – all the media of the community's interchange are perverted and falsified".
One of the grafters, an unidentified Navarrese (identified by early commentators asCiampolo), is seized by the demons, and Virgil questions him. The sinner speaks of his fellow grafters, Friar Gomita (a corrupt friar inGalluraeventually hanged byNino Visconti– seePurgatorioVIII – for accepting bribes to let prisoners escape) andMichele Zanche(a corrupt Vicar of Logodoro under KingEnzo of Sardinia). He offers to lure some of his fellow sufferers into the hands of the demons, and when his plan is accepted he escapes back into the pitch.Alichinoand Calcabrina start a brawl in mid-air and fall into the pitch themselves, and Barbariccia organizes a rescue party. Dante and Virgil take advantage of the confusion to slip away.
Vanni hurls an obscenity at God and the serpents swarm over him. The centaurCacusarrives to punish him; he has a fire-breathingdragonon his shoulders and snakes covering his equine back. (In Roman mythology, Cacus, the monstrous, fire-breathing son ofVulcan, was killed byHerculesfor raiding the hero's cattle; inAeneidVIII, 193–267, Virgil did not describe him as a centaur). Dante then meets five noble thieves of Florence and observes their various transformations. Agnello Brunelleschi, in human form, is merged with the six-legged serpent that is Cianfa Donati. A figure named Buoso (perhaps either Buoso degli Abati or Buoso Donati, the latter of whom is mentioned inInfernoXXX.44) first appears as a man, but exchanges forms with Francesco de' Cavalcanti, who bites Buoso in the form of a four-footed serpent. Puccio Sciancato remains unchanged for the time being.
Dante is approached byGuido da Montefeltro, head of the Ghibellines ofRomagna, asking for news of his country. Dante replies with a tragic summary of the current state of the cities of Romagna. Guido then recounts his life: he advisedPope Boniface VIIIto offer a false amnesty to theColonna family, who, in 1297, had walled themselves inside the castle ofPalestrinain the Lateran. When the Colonna accepted the terms and left the castle, the Pope razed it to the ground and left them without a refuge. Guido describes howSt. Francis, founder of theFranciscanorder, came to take his soul to Heaven, only to have a demon assert prior claim. Although Boniface hadabsolvedGuido in advance for his evil advice, the demon points out the invalidity: absolution requirescontrition, and a man cannot be contrite for a sin at the same time that he is intending to commit it.
Suddenly, two spirits –Gianni Schicchi de' CavalcantiandMyrrha, both punished asImposters(Falsifiers of Persons) – run rabid through the pit. Schicchi sinks his teeth into the neck of an alchemist, Capocchio, and drags him away like prey. Griffolino explains how Myrrha disguised herself to commitincestwith her fatherKing Cinyras, while Schicchi impersonated the dead Buoso Donati to dictate a will giving himself several profitable bequests. Dante then encounters Master Adam of Brescia, one of theCounterfeiters(Falsifiers of Money): for manufacturing Florentineflorinsof 21 (rather than 24)carat gold, he was burned at the stake in 1281. He is punished by a loathsomedropsy-like disease, which gives him abloated stomach, prevents him from moving, and an eternal, unbearablethirst. Master Adam points out two sinners of the fourth class, thePerjurers(Falsifiers of Words). These arePotiphar's wife(punished for her false accusation ofJosephinGenesis39:7–19) andSinon, the Achaean spy who lied to the Trojans to convince them to take the Trojan Horse into their city (AeneidII, 57–194); Sinon is here rather than inBolgia8 because his advice was false as well as evil. Both suffer from a burningfever. Master Adam and Sinon exchange abuse, which Dante watches until he is rebuked by Virgil. As a result of his shame and repentance, Dante is forgiven by his guide. Sayers remarks that the descent through Malebolge "began with the sale of the sexual relationship, and went on to the sale of Church and State; now, the very money is itself corrupted, every affirmation has become perjury, and every identity a lie"so that every aspect of social interaction has been progressively destroyed.
Dante and Virgil approach the Central Well, at the bottom of which lies the Ninth and final Circle of Hell. Theclassicaland biblicalGiants– who perhaps symbolise pride and other spiritual flaws lying behind acts oftreachery– stand perpetual guard inside the well-pit, their legs embedded in the banks of the Ninth Circle while their upper halves rise above the rim and are visible from the Malebolge.Dante initially mistakes them for great towers of a city. Among the Giants, Virgil identifiesNimrod(who tried to build theTower of Babel; he shouts out the unintelligibleRaphèl mai amècche zabì almi);Ephialtes(who with his brother Otus tried to stormOlympusduring theGigantomachy; he has his arms chained up) andBriareus(who Dante claimed had challenged the gods); andTityosandTyphon, who insulted Jupiter. Also here isAntaeus, who did not join in the rebellion against the Olympian gods and therefore is not chained. At Virgil's persuasion, Antaeus takes the poets in his palm and lowers them gently to the final level of Hell.
At the base of the well, Dante finds himself within a large frozen lake:Cocytus, the Ninth Circle of Hell. Trapped in the ice, each according to his guilt, are punished sinners guilty of treachery against those with whom they had special relationships. The lake of ice is divided into four concentric rings (or "rounds") of traitors corresponding, in order of seriousness, to betrayal of family ties, betrayal of community ties, betrayal of guests, and betrayal oflords. This is in contrast to the popular image of Hell as fiery; as Ciardi writes, "The treacheries of these souls were denials of love (which is God) and of all human warmth. Only the remorseless dead centre of the ice will serve to express their natures. As they denied God's love, so are they furthest removed from the light and warmth of His Sun. As they denied all human ties, so are they bound only by the unyielding ice."This final, deepest level of hell is reserved for traitors, betrayers and oathbreakers (its most famous inmate isJudas Iscariot).
In the very centre of Hell, condemned for committing the ultimate sin (personal treachery against God), is theDevil, referred to by Virgil asDis(the Roman god of the underworld; the name "Dis" was often used forPlutoin antiquity, such as in Virgil'sAeneid). The arch-traitor,Lucifer, was once held by God to be fairest of the angels before his pride led him to rebel against God, resulting in his expulsion from Heaven. Lucifer is a giant, terrifying beast trapped waist-deep in the ice, fixed and suffering. He has three faces, each a different colour: one red (the middle), one a pale yellow (the right), and one black (the left):
Dorothy L. Sayers notes that Satan's three faces are thought by some to suggest his control over the threehuman races: black for the African (the race ofHam), yellow for the Asiatic (the race ofShem), and red for the Europeans (the race ofJapheth).All interpretations recognise that the three faces represent a fundamental perversion of theTrinity: Satan is impotent, ignorant, and full of hate, in contrast to theall-powerful,all-knowing, andall-lovingnature of God.Lucifer retains his six wings but these are now dark,bat-like, and futile: the icy wind that emanates from the beating of Lucifer's wings only further ensures his imprisonment in the frozen lake. He weeps from his six eyes, and his tears mix with bloody froth and pus as they pour down his three chins. Each face has a mouth that chews eternally on a prominent traitor.Marcus Junius BrutusandGaius Cassius Longinusdangle with their feet in the left and right mouths, respectively, for their involvement in theassassination of Julius Caesar(44 BC) – an act which, to Dante, represented the destruction of a unified Italy and the killing of the man who was divinely appointed to govern the world.In the central, most vicious mouth isJudas Iscariot, theapostlewho betrayed Christ. Judas is receiving the most horrifying torture of the three traitors: his head is gnawed inside Lucifer's mouth while his back is forever flayed and shredded by Lucifer's claws. According to Dorothy L. Sayers, "Just as Judas figures treason against God, so Brutus and Cassius figure treason against Man-in-Society; or we may say that we have here the images of treason against the Divine and the Secular government of the world."
At about 6:00p.m. on Saturday, Virgil and Dante begin their escape from Hell by clambering down Satan's ragged fur, feet-first. When they reach Satan's genitalia, the poets pass through thecentre of the universeandof gravityfrom the Northern Hemisphere of land to the Southern Hemisphere of water. When Virgil changes direction and begins to climb "upward" towards the surface of the Earth at theantipodes, Dante, in his confusion, initially believes they are returning to Hell. Virgil indicates that the time is halfway between thecanonical hoursofPrime(6:00a.m.) andTerce(9:00a.m.)—that is, 7:30a.m. of the same Holy Saturday which was just about to end. Dante is confused as to how, after about an hour and a half of climbing, it is now apparently morning. Virgil explains that it is as a result of passing through the Earth's centre into the Southern Hemisphere, which is twelve hours ahead ofJerusalem, the central city of the Northern Hemisphere (where, therefore, it is currently 7:30p.m.).
Virgil goes on to explain how the Southern Hemisphere was once covered with dry land, but the land recoiled in horror to the north when Lucifer fell from Heaven and was replaced by the ocean. Meanwhile, the inner rock Lucifer displaced as he plunged into the centre of the earth rushed upwards to the surface of the Southern Hemisphere to avoid contact with him, forming theMountain of Purgatory. This mountain – the only land mass in the waters of the Southern Hemisphere – rises above the surface at a point directly opposite Jerusalem. The poets then ascend a narrow chasm of rock through the "space contained between the floor formed by theconvexside of Cocytus and the underside of the earth above,"moving in opposition toLethe, the river of oblivion, which flows down from the summit of Mount Purgatory. The poets finally emerge just before dawn on the morning ofEaster Sunday(March 27 or April 10, 1300) beneath a sky studded with stars.