Indigenous cuisine of the Americas

Indigenous cuisine of the Americasincludes allcuisinesandfoodpractices of theIndigenous peoples of the Americas. Contemporary Native peoples retain a varied culture of traditional foods, along with the addition of some post-contact foods that have become customary and even iconic of present-day Indigenous American social gatherings (for example,frybread). Foods likecornbread,turkey,cranberry,blueberry,hominy, andmushhave been adopted into the cuisine of the broader United States population from Native American cultures.
In other cases, documents from the early periods of Indigenous American contact with European, African, and Asian peoples have allowed the recovery and revitalization of Indigenous food practices that had formerly passed out of popularity.
The most important Indigenous American crops have generally includedIndian corn(ormaize, from theTaínoname for the plant), beans, squash, pumpkins, sunflowers, wild rice, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, peanuts, avocados, papayas, potatoes and chocolate.
Indigenous cuisine of the Americas uses domesticated and wild native ingredients.As the Americas cover a large range ofbiomes, and there are more than 574 currentlyfederally recognizedNative American tribes in the US alone, Indigenous cuisine can vary significantly by region and culture.For example, North American Native cuisine differs fromSouthwesternandMexican cuisinein its simplicity and directness of flavor.
Country food, in Canada, refers to thetraditional dietsof theIndigenous peoples in Canada(known in Canada asFirst Nations,Metis, andInuit), especially in remotenorthern regionswhereWestern foodis an expensive import, andtraditional foodsare still relied upon.
The Government of theNorthwest Territoriesestimated in 2015 that nearly half of Northwest Territories residents in smaller communities relied on country food for 75% of their meat and fish intake; in larger communities, the percentage was lower, with the lowest percentage relying on country foods (4%) being inYellowknife, the capital and only "large community".
The most common country foods in the Northwest Territories area include mammals and birds (caribou, moose, ducks, geese, seals, hare, grouse, ptarmigan), fish (lake trout, char,inconnu, whitefish, pike,burbot) and berries (blueberries, cranberries, blackberries, cloudberries).
In the easternCanadian Arctic, Inuit consumea dietof foods that are fished, hunted, and gathered locally. This may includecaribou,walrus,ringed seal,bearded seal,beluga whale,polar bear,berries, andfireweed.
The cultural value attached to certain game species, and certain parts, varies.  For example, in theJames Bayregion, a 1982 study found that beluga whale meat was principally used as dog food, whereas the blubber, ormuktukwas a "valued delicacy".Value also varies by age, with Inuit preferring younger ring seals, and often using the older ones for dog food.
Contaminants in country foods are a public health concern in Northern Canada; volunteers are tested to track the spread of industrial chemicals from emitters (usually in the South) into the northern food web via the air and water.
In 2017, the Government of the Northwest Territories committed to using country foods in the soon-to-open Stanton Territorial Hospital, despite the challenges of obtaining, inspecting, and preparing sufficient quantities of wild game and plants.
InSouthern Canada, wild foods (especially meats) are relatively rare in restaurants, due towildlife conservationrules against selling hunted meat, as well as strictmeat inspection rules. There is acultural dividebetweenrural and remotecommunities that rely on wild foods, and urban Canadians (the majority), who have little or no experience with them.
The essential staple foods of theIndigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlandshave traditionally been corn (also known as maize),beans, andsquash, known as "The Three Sisters" because they were planted interdependently: the beans grew up the tall stalks of the corn, while the squash spread out at the base of the three plants and provided protection and support for the root systems.
Maple syrupis another essential food staple of the Eastern Woodlands peoples.  Tree sap is collected from sugar maple trees during the beginning of springtime when the nights are still cold.Birch bark containers are used in the process of making maple syrup, maple cakes, maple sugar, and maple taffy.  When the sap is boiled to a certain temperature, different variations of maple food products are created. When the sap starts to thicken, it can be poured into the snow to make taffy.
Since the first colonists ofNew Englandhad to adapt their foods to the local crops and resources, the Native influences ofSouthern New England Algonquian cuisineform a significant part ofNew England cuisinewith dishes such ascornbread,succotashandJohnnycakesand ingredients such ascorn,cranberriesand local species ofclamstill enjoyed in the region today.
TheWabanakitribal nations and other eastern woodlands peoples have madenut milkandinfant formulamade from nuts and cornmeal,while the Cherokee nation madeKanuchisoup from hickory nuts.
Southeastern Native Americanculture has contributed to the formation ofSouthern cuisinefrom its origins through the present day. From Southeastern Native American culture came one of the main staples of the Southern diet:corn(maize), either ground into meal or limed with an alkaline salt to makehominy, using a Native American technique known asnixtamalization.Corn is used to make all kinds of dishes such as the familiarcornbreadand grits.
Though a less important staple,potatoeswere also adopted from Native American cuisine and have been used in many ways similar to corn. Native Americans introduced the first non-Native American Southerners to many other vegetables still familiar on southern tables.Squash,pumpkin, many types ofbeans, many types ofpeppers, andsassafrasall came to the settlers via Indigenous peoples. The VirginiaAlgonquianwordpawcohiccorameanshickory-nut meat or anut milkdrink made from it.
Manyfruitsare available in this region.Muscadines,blackberries,raspberries, and many other wild berries were part of Southern Native Americans' diet.
Southeastern Native Americans traditionally supplement their diets with meat from hunting native game.Venisonis a vital staple meat, due to the abundance ofwhite-tailed deerin the region.Rabbits,squirrels,opossums, andraccoonsare also common. Although it may have been secondary to game hunting, fishing is also an important food source; many peoples lived near rivers and other consistent sources of fish.Indigenous fishing methods in the Southeast include shooting with arrows, spearing orgigging, trapping withweirsor dams, poisoning withfish toxins, bare-handnoodling, andnetting. Fish were often roasted, while small or very bony fish were stewed for use in soup.
Livestock, adopted from Europeans, in the form ofhogsandcattle, are also kept. Aside from the more commonly consumed parts of the animal, it is traditional to also eat organ meats such asliver,brains, andintestines. Many of the early settlers were taught Southeastern Native American cooking methods.
Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and Canadian Prairies orPlains Indianshave historically relied heavily onAmerican bison(American buffalo) as a staple food source. One traditional method of preparation is to cut the meat into thin slices then dry it, either over a slow fire or in the hot sun, until it is hard and brittle. In this form it can last for months, making it a main ingredient to be combined with other foods, or eaten on its own.
One such use could bepemmican, a concentrated mixture of fat and protein, and fruits such ascranberries,Saskatoon berries,blueberries,cherries,chokecherries, andcurrantsare sometimes added.  Many parts of the bison were utilized and prepared in numerous ways, including: "boiled meat, tripe soup perhaps thickened with brains, roasted intestines, jerked/smoked meat, and raw kidneys, liver, tongue sprinkled with gall or bile were eaten immediately after a kill."
The animals that Great Plains Indians consumed, like bison, deer, and antelope, were grazing animals. Due to this, they were high inomega-3fatty acids, an essential acid that many diets lack.
When asked to state traditional staple foods, a group of Plains elders identified prairie turnips (Pediomelum esculentum, syn.Psoralea esculenta), called timpsula or tin'psila in the Lakota language group; fruits (chokecherries,June berries,plums,blueberries,cranberries,strawberries,buffalo berries,gooseberries);potatoes;squash; dried meats (venison,buffalo,jack rabbit, andprairie chicken); andwild riceas being these staple foods.
"We landed at a Watlala village 200 men of Flatheads of 25 houses 50 canoes built of Straw, we were treated verry kindly by them, they gave us round root near the size of a hens egg roasted which they call Wap-to (wapato) to eate . . . . which they roasted in the embers until they became Soft"
—William Clark, Lewis and Clark Expedition
Wapato (Sagittaria latifolia) has a number of varieties and is found growing in damp marsh area around ponds, lakes, rivers, and streams.  The edible rhizomes were gathered and could be roasted in the embers of a fire, or dried, ground and the meal pressed into a cake which "served well as bread" as noted by Meriwether Lewis of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.  They are known today as broadleaf arrowhead, arrowhead, duckroot, or duck-potato.
In thePacific Northwest, traditional diets include salmon and other fish, seafood, mushrooms, berries, roots and tubers, and meats such as deer, duck, and rabbit.
In contrast to the Easterners, the Northwestern peoples are traditionally hunter-gatherers, primarily. The generally mild climate led to the development of an economy based on year-round abundant food supplies, rather than having to rely upon seasonal agriculture. Yet, Native American tribes of California still relied on storing food for winter seasons, which included "nuts, seeds, and dried meat and fish".Since animals migrated, vegetation is seasonal, and also weather needs to be taken into account.
In what is now California,acornscan be ground into a flour that has at times served as the principal foodstuff for about 75 percent of the population,and dried meats can be prepared during the dry season.It seems that acorns and other nuts took priority among indigenous tribes because of the archaeological evidence of "mortars and pestles".Grinding acorns requires a lot of resources and time to gather and process them. Which implies an area where location is more permanent. When it came to gathering acorns it took everyone in the tribe because within weeks they would become mature. There was communal participation when it came to obtaining food. Soups and bread were made from the grinding of acorns.
California like other parts of the states, and across the world goes through seasonal stages. Indigenous tribes along the California region were able to use "over 500 species of plants and animals for food".Before contact with indigenous tribes and colonizers, there were vast resources for subsistence that were diverse among varying regions of California.
Archaeological methods suggest the use of flames and cutting materials altered bones from rodents.The presence of rodent bones in Quiroste archaeological sites suggests that the Quiroste people ate rodents. The abundance of rodents may have made them a convenient food source.
Deer and seal bones are also found in indigenous communities.This means that the diet is varied, as seals are found near the coast and deer are found further inland. Indigenous tribes that were closer to inland would consume land-based animals, and those closer to the coast would consume more marine-based animals.
Other evidence is through the use of screening that found anchovies to be a source of food for indigenous people.This is a valuable discovery because anchovies are difficult to come by due to their fragile bones. Indigenous cuisine is not limited to salmon as a primary source of protein.
Indigenous tribes were consuming the meat of shellfish with the implication of "bi-pitted cobbles".As cuisine differs between regions so do the tools used for obtaining those proteins. In this case, the meat of shellfish required stone tools to crack open the shells. Which can lead to eating more shellfish-based cuisines.
The consumption of marrow from animal bones is evident from archaeological analyses of "hand axes made from andesitic and quartzitic cobbles".Obtaining bone marrow from an animal requires both time and resources, as it is located in the center of the bone and requires extra effort to extract. When food requires extra effort to obtain, it is given more value.
The destruction of Native California was done by the missionaries taking over the indigenous land and clearing the environment for their own cultural foodways.This caused some indigenous tribes to become dependent on missionaries for survival.  Archaeological evidence shows that some indigenous tribes were eating cattle because of the reliance they had on missionaries.
Although some tribes relied on the food from missionaries, they still hunted for their own food from the evidence of birds found that know to migrate to the area seasonally.Although they were fed by missionaries, they required more food. That's when their own ways of foodways came into play for hunting and preparing the food they captured.
As previously mentioned there was a large variety of food available in California. However native tribes living along the confines of missionaries were only able to gather "wheat, maize, barley, and peach".That's if the surrounding areas were equipped to grow them.
Food not only played an important role in subsistence but also an important role in ceremonies especially to mourn someone's death.Foods not only play an important role in survival but maintain cultural costumes and traditions going for personal and generational knowledge.
The preparation for making atole was done by toasting the wheat before it was granulated.
While indigenous food may appear to be a thing of the past, there are still indigenous people who are keeping their traditions alive through modern cuisine. Crystal Wahpepah sees her kitchen as a way to promote indigenous "food sovereignty and the reclamation of ancestral knowledge".
Ancestral Puebloansof the present-day Four Corners region of the United States, comprisingArizona,Colorado,New Mexico, andUtah, initially practiced subsistence agriculture by cultivatingmaize,beans,squash,sunflower seeds, andpine nutsfrom thepinyon pine, and game meat includingvenisonandcuniculture, and freshwater fish such asRio Grande cutthroat troutandrainbow troutare also traditional foods in the region.
Ancestral Puebloans are also known for their basketry and pottery, indicating both an agricultural surplus that needed to be carried and stored, and clay pot cooking. Grinding stones have been used to grind maize into meal for cooking. Archaeological digs indicate a very early domestication ofturkeysfor food.
New Mexican cuisineis heavily rooted in bothPuebloandHispanofood traditions, and is a prevalent cuisine in the American Southwest, especially inNew Mexico.
The 2002Foods of the Southwest Indian Nationswon aJames Beard Award, the first Native American cookbook so honored.Publishers had told the author,Lois Ellen Frank, that there was no such thing as Native American cuisine.
Alaska Nativecuisine consists of nutrient-dense foods such as seal, fish (salmon), and moose.  Along with these, berries (huckleberries) and bird eggs are traditionally consumed by Alaska Natives.
Seal, walruses, and polar bears are the large game that Alaska Natives hunt. Smaller game includes whitefish,Arctic char,Arctic hare, and ptarmigan.
Due to weather, edible plants like berries are only available to be consumed in the summer, so people have a diet very high in fat and protein, but low in carbohydrates.
The game that is hunted is also used for clothing. The intestines of large mammals are used to make waterproof clothing and caribou fur is used to make warm clothing.
This region comprises the cultures of theArawaks, theCaribs, and theCiboney. TheTaínoof theGreater Antilleswere the firstNew Worldpeople to encounter Columbus. Prior to European contact, these groups foraged, hunted, and fished. The Taíno cultivatedcassava,sweet potato,maize,beans,squash,pineapple,peanut, andpeppers. Today these cultural groups have mostly assimilated into the surrounding population, but their culinary legacy lives on.
The pre-conquestcuisine of theIndigenous peoplesofMesoamericamade a major contribution to shaping modern-dayMexican cuisine,Belizean cuisine,Salvadoran cuisine,Honduran cuisine,Guatemalan cuisine. The cultures involved included theAztec,Maya,Olmec,Pipiland many more (see theList of pre-Columbian civilizations).
This currently includes recipes known from theQuechua,AymaraandNazcaof theAndes.
The earliest utensils, including bowls, knives, spoons, grinders, and griddles, were made from all kinds of materials, such as rock and animal bone. Gourds were also initially cultivated, hollowed, and dried to be used as bowls, spoons, ladles, and storage containers.
Many Indigenous cultures also developed elaborate ceramics for making bowls and cooking pots, and basketry for making containers. Nobility in the Andean and Mesoamerican civilizations were even known to have utensils and vessels smelted from gold, silver, copper, or other minerals.