Mon people

TheMon(Mon:ဂကူမန်listen; Thai Mon: ဂကူမည်;Burmese:မွန်လူမျိုး‌,pronounced[mʊ̀ɰ̃lùmjó];Thai:มอญ,pronounced[mɔ̄ːn]listen) are anethnic groupwho inhabitLower Myanmar'sMon State,Kayin State,Kayah State,Tanintharyi Region,Bago Region, theIrrawaddy Delta, and several areas inThailand(mostly inPathum Thani province,Phra PradaengandNong Ya Plong).The native language isMon, which belongs to theMonicbranch of theAustroasiaticlanguage family and shares a common origin with theNyah Kur language, which is spoken by thepeople of the same namethat live inNortheastern Thailand. A number of languages in Mainland Southeast Asia are influenced by the Mon language, which is also in turn influenced by those languages.
The Mon were one of the earliest to reside inSoutheast Asia, and were responsible for the spread ofTheravadaBuddhisminMainland Southeast Asia.The civilizations founded by the Mon were some of the earliest in Thailandas well as MyanmarandLaos. The Mon are regarded as a large exporter of Southeast Asian culture.Historically, many cities inMyanmar,Thailand, andLaostoday, includingYangon,Pathum Thani,Lamphun,LampangandVientianewere founded either by the Mon people or Mon rulers.
Nowadays, the Mon are a majorethnic group in Myanmarand a minorethnic group in Thailand.The Mons from Myanmar are called Burmese Mon or Myanmar Mon. The Mons from Thailand are referred as Thai Raman or Thai Mon.The Mon dialects of Thailand and Myanmar aremutually intelligible.
The Mon have been referred to by different names by different groups throughout history. During the pre-colonial era, the Burmese called themTalaing(တလိုင်း), which was adopted by theBritishduring the colonial era. The term "Peguan" was also used by Europeans whenPeguwas the capital ofLower Myanmar.
The use of "Talaing" has been found on inscriptions dating back to the 11th century,but it is now considered a pejorative term and is no longer widely used, except in the context of specific historical terms, such as the eponymous song genre in theMahagita, the corpus of Burmese classical songs.The etymology of Talaing is debated; it may be derived from Mon, or is a reference toTelingaorKalinga, a geographic region in southeast India.During the 12th century, the term acquired a derogatory connotation within the Mon community, when it became used by the Mon as a disparaging epithet for the mixed offspring of Mon women and foreign men.
The term "Mon" (speltမန်in Mon andမွန်in Burmese), which is synonymous with the Burmese word for 'noble,'was likely derived from Old Mon "rmeñ" by way of Middle Mon "rman" (ရာမန်).The ethnonym "rmeñ" was first recorded in theKyanzittha’sNew Palace Inscription of AD 1102 in Myanmar. Derivatives of this ethnonym have been found in 6th to 10th-century Old Khmer and 11th-century Javanese inscriptions.The geographic termRāmaññadesa, which now refers to the Mon heartland on the Burmese coast, was coined by KingDhammazediin 1479.
The Mon of Myanmar are divided into three sub-groups based on their ancestral region in Lower Myanmar, includingMon Nya(မန်ည;/mònɲaˀ)fromPathein(the Irrawaddy Delta) in the west,Mon Tang(မန်ဒိုင်;/mòntàŋ/) inBagoin the central region, andMon Teh(မန်ဒ;/mòntɛ̀ˀ/) atMottamain the southeast.
The Mon people, who descended fromProto-Austroasiaticpeople, are believed to have migrated from theYangtze Kiangvalley in Southern China to Southeast Asia between 3,000 and 2,000 BCE, along theMekong,Salween,Sittaung,Irrawaddy,PingandChao Phayarivers.They eventually settled in locations including as far south asMalaya.Along the way, they brought with them the practice of riverine agriculture, including the cultivation ofwet rice.Modern linguistic research bySidwell(2021) suggests that the locus of Proto-Austroasiatic people was in theRed River Deltaarea ofNorthern Vietnam, around 4,000-4,500 years before present.
The Mon are believed to have been one of the earliest peoples ofMainland Southeast Asia.They established some of the earliest civilizations in the region, includingDvaravatiin Central Thailand, which spread its culture into Northeastern Thailand, Sri Gotapura in Central Laos (modern Sikhottabong, Vientiane Prefecture),theHariphunchai Kingdomin Northern Thailand, and theThaton Kingdomin Lower Myanmar.The Mon were the first to receiveTheravada Buddhistmissionaries fromSri Lanka, in contrast to theirHinducontemporaries such as Cham peoples.They adopted thePallava script, and the oldest form of theMon scriptwas discovered in a cave in modern-daySaraburi, dating back to around 550 CE.Although no remains have been found from the Thaton Kingdom, it is widely mentioned in Bamar and Lanna chronicles.
According to the Northern Thai Chronicles, the city ofLavo(modern Lopburi) was founded by Phaya Kalavarnadishraj in 648 CE. He reportedly came from Takkasila, which is assumed to be the city ofTakorNakhon Chai Si.Another historical figure, Phaya Kakabatr, is believed to have also come from Takkasila and established theChula Sakaratera in 638 CE,which was used by the Siamese and Burmese until the 19th century. Phaya Kalavarnadishraj, the son of Phaya Kakabatr, founded Lavo a decade later. By the late 7th century, Lavo had expanded to the north. The legendary QueenCamadevi, who was said to be a daughter of a Lavo king, according to the Northern Thai ChronicleCāmadevivaṃsa, came to rule as the first queen ofHariphunchai(modern Lamphun) around 750-800 CE.A few years later, her son Prince Anantayot founded Khelang Nakhon (modernLampang), playing a significant role in the history of the Hariphunchai Kingdom.
After the year 1000 CE, the Dvaravati Mon people faced constant pressure fromTaimigrations from the north andKhmerinvasions from the east.Many Dvaravati Mons fled to join other Mon civilizations in the present-day Lower Myanmar, while their descendants, theNyah Kur people, still reside in Northeastern Thailand. Despite the pressure from theNorthern Thai people, the Hariphunchai kingdom managed to survive as a Mon outpost in Northern Thailand.
In 1057 CE, KingAnawrahtaof thePagan Kingdomconquered theThaton Kingdomof the Mon people in Lower Burma.The Mon culture and script had a significant influence on theBamar, bringing the Mons under Bamar control for the first time. Despite this, the Mon remained a majority in Lower Burma.
On one hand, the Hariphunchai Kingdom of the Mon prospered during the reign of King Aditayaraj in the early twelfth century. He is said to have fought wars withSuryavarman IIofAngkorbetween 1113 and 1150 CEand constructed theHariphunchai stupa
In 1289,Mangraialso known asMengraiwas visited by merchants from the Mon kingdom ofHaripunchai. Hearing of the wealth of that kingdom, he determined to conquer it, against the advice of his counselors.As it was thought impossible to take the city by force, Mangrai sent a merchant named Ai Fa as amoleto gain the confidence of its Phaya Yi Ba. In time, Ai Fa became the Chief Minister and managed to undermine the King's authority.In 1292, taking advantage of discontent among the people, Mangrai defeated the Mon kingdom of Haripunchai and added it to hiskingdom.Phaya Yi Ba, the last king of Hariphunchai, was forced to flee south toLampang.A few years later, Phaya Yi Ba's son, King Boek ofLampang, attackedChiang Maiwith a large army. King Mangrai and his second son, Prince Khram, led the defence against the Lampang army. Prince Khram defeated King Boek in personal combat on elephant-back at Khua Mung, a village near Lamphun. King Boek fled by way of the Doi Khun Tan mountain range between Lamphun and Lampang, but he was caught and executed.King Mangrai's troops occupied the city of Lampang, and Phaya Yi Ba was made to flee further south, this time toPhitsanulok. The Mon culture was integrated intoLan Na culture. The Lan Na adopted the Mon script and religion.
In 1287, the collapse of thePagan Kingdomcreated a power vacuum.Wareru, who was born to a Mon mother and aTaifather inDonwunVillage in the Thaton District,went toSukhothaifor trade and later eloped with the daughter of the king.He established himself as king of the Mon inMartaban(present-dayMottama),and later moved the capital toPegu. HisHanthawaddy Kingdom, which existed from 1287 to 1539, was a period of prosperity and power for the Mon.
In the mid-14th century, KingBinnya Uruled over the Mon kingdom and successfully defended against an invasion by Lan Na. Despite losing control over theTenasserim region, he was able to re-establish his capital at Pegu.After his death in 1384, KingRazadarit, Binnya U's son, took over and formed an alliance with the kingdom ofArakan.King Razadarit was known for his administration skills and successfully repelling invasions from theAva Kingdomduring his reign. He made significant contributions to theShwedagon Pagodaand is considered one of the most celebrated Mon kings in history,with his reign lasting from 1384 to 1421.
After King Razadarit's death, there were brief disputes over the succession in Pegu. Eventually, King Razadarit was succeeded by his daughter, QueenShin Sawbu, in 1453. Queen Shin Sawbu, was a skilled politician and maintained harmony between rival kingdoms. She is remembered for her good nature, renovation of the Shwedagon Pagoda, and construction of important monasteries, such as theKyaikmarawnearMoulmein.
KingDhammazedi, who succeeded Queen Shin Sawbu in 1470, was a just and wise ruler. He is remembered for his generosity, having donated a significant amount of gold to the Shwedagon Pagoda, as well as for building important temples in the vicinity of Pegu, including the Shwegugyi Pagoda.
In the early sixteenth century, the Bamar regained their momentum atTaungoo, leading to the fall of Hanthawaddy to KingTabinshwehtiin 1539. This was after a devastating attack on Lower Burma, in which the northern army overran the Irrawaddy Delta and captured Pegu. The siege of Pegu lasted four years and involvedPortuguesemercenaries fighting on both sides. The History of Kings attributes Tabinshwehti's success, in part, to the decadence of the Mon king, Dhammazedi's heir.
As a result of the fall of Pegu, large numbers of Mon refugees fled toAyutthaya, where the Mon aristocracy joined the court and exercised considerable influence. Meanwhile, back in Burma, the fall of Martaban in 1541 was accompanied by massacre and pillage on a large scale, as was the capture of the old Pyu capital of Prome the following year. This marked the first time, since before the Mongol invasions, that most of Lower and Central Burma was under the control of a Bamar monarch. King Tabinshwehti, founder of the new Toungoo dynasty, celebrated by decorating the Shwedagon and other pagodas with huge amounts of plundered gold.
Although Tabinshwehti's made efforts to win over the Mon people, the Bamar monarch consistently emphasized his claim to Bamar nationality and sovereignty. Nevertheless, Tabinshwehti was relatively more tolerant than later Toungoo kings who outlawed the Mon language and persecuted the Mon people.
Following Tabinshwehti's coronation in 1546, Ayutthaya launched several raids on Lower Burma, including the successful capture ofTavoyin 1548. With the Toungoo dynasty in disarray after Tabinshwehti's death in 1550, the Mon launched another bid for independence under the leadership of the legendary Mon rebel, theSmim Htaw. The Smim Htaw managed to capture the ancient settlement of Dagon and drive the Burmese from Pegu, but a series of intra-Mon disputes allowed Tabinshwehti's general,Bayinnaung, to recapture the city.
Despite Bayinnaung allowing the Mon people to rule over townships and villages and accept them into the military, he did not grant them the right of nationalself-determination, and therefore the Mon became subservient to the Bamar. Significant Mon uprisings took place during Bayinnaung's reign, including in 1551 and 1564 when the royal palace at Pegu was destroyed.
Following the death of King Bayinnaung, his successor KingNandainstituted oppressive policies against the Mon people, leading to the Mon chiefs Phaya Kiat and Phaya Ram attempting to assassinateNaresuanofPhitsanulokin 1584. However, they learned that Naresuan was not responsible for the policies and instead joined his campaigns against the Toungoo court.
In the 17th century, the Bamar kingAnaukpetlunlaunched a counter-attack against the Mon rebels and captured their stronghold at Syriam. Eventually, the Mon lands were retaken, and the capital was moved to Pegu. An unsuccessful Mon uprising occurred in Martaban in 1661, which led to the pursuit of fleeing Mon refugees into Ayutthaya via theThree Pagodas Pass.
In the early eighteenth century, the power of the Bamar declined rapidly. The Mon rebels joined forces with the GweShanto restore their former Hanthawaddy Kingdom, and in 1740, a monk with Taungoo royal lineage was made king of Pegu.Binnya Dalasucceeded him in 1747, and withFrenchsupport, the Mon established an independent kingdom called theRestored Hanthawaddy Kingdom. However, the kingdom fell to Bamar KingAlaungpayain 1757, who invaded and devastated the kingdom, resulting in the deaths of tens of thousands of Mon civilians, including learned Monmonks, pregnant women, and children. The victorious Bamar soldiers massacred over 3,000 Mon monks in the capital city alone.During theKonbaung dynastyof Burma, the Mon people experienced harsh rule and massacres that led to a significant migration to Siam and Lanna. In addition to facing widespread violence and persecution, the Mon rebelled multiple times, including atDagonduring the reign ofHsinbyushin, resulting in the destruction of the city. In 1814, the Mon rebelled again, but were harshly put down yet again. These uprisings played a major role in the large wave of Mon migration from Burma to Siam.
On the one hand in Siam side, after the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, two descendants of Mon aristocrats who moved to Siam in 1584;Phraya PichaiandPhraya Chakribecame the left and right-hand man of KingTaksinof Thonburi, and they largely helped Taksin's campaigns in the liberation of Siam fromBurmeseoccupation and reuniting Siam.King Taksin himself also was aSino-Mon descent and his maternal grandmother was a sister to chief of Siam's Mon community.
After the collapse of Taksin'sThonburi Kingdom, Phraya Chakri founded theChakri dynastyand ascended the throne in 1782 as Rama I. Rama I was born to Thongdi, a leading Mon nobleman serving the royal court in Ayutthaya in 1737.Rama I's queen consortAmarindrawas born to a wealthy Mon family who migrated to Siam in the earlier times. Rama I foundedBangkok Cityand moved the capital from Thonburi to Bangkok. When a huge wave of Mon migrations from Burma (now Myanmar) to Siam (now Thailand) happened in 1814, his grandson, the PrinceMongkut(later Rama IV) proceeded to welcome the Mon himself at theSiam-Burma border.
The Mon in Thailand settled mainly in certain areas ofCentral Thailand, such asPak KretinNonthaburi,Phra PradaenginSamut PrakanandBan Pong, among other minor Mon settlements. Mon communities built their ownBuddhist temples.Over time, the Mons were effectively integrated into Siamese society and culture, although maintaining some of their traditions and identity.
Burma was conquered by theBritishin a series of wars. After theSecond Anglo-Burmese Warin 1852, the Mon territories in Burma were completely under the control of the British. The British aided the Mons to free themselves from the rule of the Bamar monarchy. Under Bamar rule, the Mon people had been massacred after they lost their kingdom and many sought asylum in the Thai Kingdom. The British conquest of Burma allowed the Mon people to survive in Southern Burma.
In 1947,Mon National Daywas established to commemorate the founding ofHanthawady, the last Mon Kingdom which was centered in Pegu. The holiday is observed on the full moon of the 11th month of the Mon lunar calendar, except inPhrapadaeng, Thailand where it coincides with theSongkranfestival.
The Mon soon became anti-colonialists. Following the grant of independence to Burma in 1948, they sought self-determination.U Nu, the firstPrime Minister of Burmarefused the Mon self-determination. Mon separatist groups have risen in revolt against the central Burmese government on a number of occasions, initially under the Mon People's Front and from 1962 through theNew Mon State Party(NMSP). TheBSSP-led government established a partially autonomousMon Statein 1974 out of portions ofTenasserimandPeguregions. Resistance continued until 1995 when NMSP and rulingSLORCagreed a cease-fire and, in 1996, the Mon Unity League was founded.
Nowadays, the Mon are a majorethnic group in Myanmarand a minorethnic group in Thailand.The Mons from Myanmar are called Burmese Mon or Myanmar Mon. The Mons from Thailand are referred as Thai Raman or Thai Mon.A recent study shows that there is a close genetic relationship betweencentral Thaiand Mon people in Thailand, who migrated from southern Myanmar.
Due to the post-independenceinternal conflict in Myanmar, many ethnic Mon from conflict zones have migrated to theFirst World countriesvia the refugee camps along the Thai-Myanmar borders and in Malaysia. The Myanmar Mon refugee communities can be found in theUnited States(the largest community being inFort Wayne, Indianaand the second largest beingAkron, Ohio),Australia,Canada,Norway,Denmark,Finland,Sweden, and theNetherlands.
TheMon languageis part of theMonicgroup of theAustroasiatic languages(also known as Mon–Khmer language family), closely related to theNyah Kur languageand more distantly related toKhmerandVietnamese. The writing system is based onIndic scripts. The Mon language is one of the earliest documented vernacular languages of Mainland Southeast Asia.
Many languages in the region have been influenced by the Mon language.Tai Tham alphabetandBurmese alphabetare adaptations of theMon script. Tai Tham alphabet is primarily used forNorthern Thai language,Tai Lue language,Khün languageandLaoTham language. The Burmese alphabet is used forBurmese language,Shan language,S'gaw Karen languageand other languages.
Historically, the Tai adopted the Mon alphabet, which the Tai developed into their own writing systems as theTai Tham alphabet, for theThai Yuanpeople in the northern Thailand.
Although Thai adopted more features from theOld Khmer alphabetthan from the Mon, plenty of vocabulary inThai languagetoday were derived from the Mon language.Burmese has derived and borrowed vocabulary from the Mon language, especially related to administration, architecture, cloth, cuisine and flowers.
Nowadays, the Mon language is recognised as an indigenous language in bothMyanmarandThailand. Due to the fall in number of Mon language speakers in the recent decades, Mon was classified as a "vulnerable" language inUNESCO's 2010Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger.
The language has an estimated 800,000 Thousand - 1,000,000 Million speakers
The symbol of the Mon people is thehongsa(Mon:ဟံသာ,[hɔŋsa]), a mythological water bird that is often illustrated as a swan. It is commonly known by its Burmese name,hintha(Burmese:ဟင်္သာ,IPA:[hɪ́ɰ̃θà]) or itsThainame:hong(หงส์). The hongsa is the state symbol of Myanmar'sBago RegionandMon State, two historical Mon strongholds. Also, the hongsa is the city symbol of Thailand'sPak Kret City, a historical Mon settlement area.
Mon culture and traditional heritages includes spiritual dances, musical instruments such as thekyamor "crocodile xylophone", thela gyan hsainggong chime, thesaungharp and a flat stringed instrument. Mon dances are usually played in a formal theater or sometimes in an informal district of any village. The dances are followed by background music using a circular set of tuned drums and claps, crocodile xylophone, gongs, flute, flat guitar, harp, violin, etc.
The Mon people in Thailand have been producing pottery for over 200 years. Their ancestors settled inKoh KretandNakhon Sawan, using their pottery making skills to earn a living in both places. The area is known for its high-quality clay and the Mon pottery, including containers and decorative items, is a symbol of their heritage and expertise. The pottery is made of porous earthenware in light orange to red color and features unique designs inspired by nature. Despite technological advancements, the Mon continue to preserve this traditional handicraft.
Floral umbrellas have a long history in Mon culture, dating back to ancient times. In fact, inscriptions have been discovered in northern Thailand that mention the use of umbrellas andpalm-leaf manuscriptsin Mon religious ceremonies during theHariphunchai Kingdom, which lasted from the 7th to the 13th century.Today, floral umbrellas are still used in various ceremonies and festivals throughout Mon communities, such as weddings, ordinations, and temple fairs, and remain an important part of Mon cultural heritage.
Mon literature is a rich collection of works created by the Mon people in Myanmar and Thailand, including chronicles, poems, songs, folktales, and religious texts. "Lik Smin Asah" is a legendary tale about the establishment of the city of Pegu, "Sangada" is a well-known Mon folktale that has been adapted into Thai and Laotian literature as "Sangsinchay", and "Rājādhirāj" or "Razadarit" is a chronicle of the Mon king translated into Burmese as "Razadarit Ayedawbon" and into Thai as "Rachathirat." Mon literature is considered important cultural heritage in Myanmar and Thailand. These works are highly valued for their cultural and historical significance.
The Mon people have a mix of spiritual beliefs andTheravada Buddhismas their religion, with a majority of them practicing the mixture. Before Buddhism, three traditional beliefs were followed in the Mon Kingdom, including belief in Kalok (spirits), Isi (holy hermits), andHinduism. The Mon people traditionally believed in various types of Kaloks (spirits), including family/clan kalok, guardian kalok of the house, town, village, farms, forest, and mountain. Kalok is considered to be a spirit, demon, or immaterial being that can take on a visible form.
Festivals celebrating Mon culture are an important part of the Mon community in Myanmar and Thailand. One such festival is the Loi Hamod Festival, which has its roots in the Hariphunchai era and is believed to be the precursor to the Loi Krathong Festival. While the festival is still observed in some Mon communities inLamphun Province, it is now referred to as "Jong Gring", which is derived from other Mon cultural practices and means "Loi Krathong". However, the Jong Gring tradition of Mon people in Lamphun is different from the general Loi Krathong festival, as it resembles the ancient "Loi Hamod" tradition of Mon people in Hariphunchai, which involves offering food, both fresh and dried, and lighting some lanterns and small krathongs.
Another traditional Mon festival is the Luknoo Festival, which marks the end of the monsoon season and the beginning of the new year. It involves the launch of homemade rockets, food offerings to spirits, and cultural activities such as music, dance, and games. The festival is an important part of Mon culture and helps to connect with the community, preserve traditions, and bring good luck for the coming year.
The Mon Floating Boat Festival is another traditional festival celebrated during the Mon New Year. It features boat races, music, dance, feasting, releasing lanterns, and gift exchanging. The festival brings the Mon community together to make offerings for peace and prosperity.
The Hae Hang Hong Tong Ta Khab Festival, also known as the Tawai Tong Ta Khab Festival, is an important tradition of the Mon people in Thailand, primarily inPathum Thani,Pak Kret, andPhra Pradaeng. The festival is held during the Songkran festival and features a parade of flags that move towards the Hongsa Pole to offer tribute to the Buddha. Prior to the festival, the flags are prepared through the collective efforts of many individuals who come together to sew and decorate them.
During theSongkranfestival in Thailand, the Mon residents ofPhra Pradaeng Districthost unique Mon traditional ceremonies and folklore performances.These festivals and traditions are a testament to the rich cultural heritage of the Mon people and serve as an important way to pass down their history and customs to future generations.
Mon women wear traditional shawl-likeSbai, known asYat Tootin Mon language, diagonally over the chest covering one shoulder with one end dropping behind the back. This tradition distinguished Mon women from other 134 ethnic groups in Myanmar. Archaeological evidence from theDvaravatiera portrays that Dvaravati ladies wearing what seems to be a piece ofSbaihanging from their shoulder.Mon people of Myanmar and Thailand today are the descendants ofDvaravati.
Mon men in Myanmar wear clothes similar to the Bamars. Those living in Thailand have adoptedThaistyle garments. It seems that Mon clothing has been shaped through its dynastic traditions as well as external influences.
Thanakais a yellowish-white cosmetic paste made from ground bark that is widely used in Myanmar, particularly by the Mon people. It is applied to the face, arms and legs as a form of sun protection and to beautify the skin. Thanaka has been a part of Mon culture for centuries and remains an important part of traditional beauty and skincare practices in the country.
Mon cuisines and culinary traditions have had significant influences on theBurmese cuisineandCentral Thai cuisinetoday. Some of dishes that are now popular in Myanmar (Burma) and Thailand were originally Mon dishes. For example,Htamanè(ထမနဲ) in Myanmar, andKhanom chinandKhao chaein Thailand. A traditional Mon dish served with rice soaked with cool candle-and-jasmine-scented water is consumed by the Mon people during the Thingyan (Songkran) Festival in the summer. In Thailand, the dish is known as Khao chae (ข้าวแช่) and was considered "royal cuisine".As the dish is served during Thingyan as part of theirmerit-making, it is known asThingyan rice(သင်္ကြန်ထမင်း) in Myanmar today.Like Cambodian, Lao, Thai and Vietnamese cuisine,fermented fish seasoningare used in Mon cuisine.
Many games in both Myanmar and Thailand were Mon origins. Among them, Len Saba (lit.'saba tossing game';Mon:ဝိုင်မ်ဟနဂ်;Burmese:ဂုံညင်းဒိုး), Lor Kon Krok (Rolling a Mortar Bottom) and Mon Son Pa (Mon Hides a Cloth) are the most famous Mon traditional children games and are recognised asIntangible cultural heritagebyUNESCO.