Uyghurs

TheUyghurs,alternatively spelledUighurs,UygursorUigurs, are aTurkicethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region ofCentral AsiaandEast Asia. The Uyghurs are recognized as thetitular nationalityof theXinjiangUyghur Autonomous Region inNorthwest China. They are one ofChina's 55 officially recognized ethnic minorities.
The Uyghurs have traditionally inhabited a series ofoasesscattered across theTaklamakan Desertwithin theTarim Basin. These oases have historically existed as independent states or were controlled by manycivilizationsincludingChina, theMongols, theTibetans, and various Turkic polities. The Uyghurs gradually started to become Islamized in the 10th century, and most Uyghurs identified as Muslims by the 16th century. Islam has since played an important role in Uyghur culture and identity.
An estimated 80% of Xinjiang's Uyghurs still live in theTarim Basin.The rest of Xinjiang's Uyghurs mostly live inÜrümqi, the capital city ofXinjiang, which is located in the historical region ofDzungaria. The largest community of Uyghurs living outside of Xinjiang are theTaoyuan Uyghursof north-centralHunan'sTaoyuan County.Significantdiasporiccommunities of Uyghurs exist in other Turkic countries such asKazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Uzbekistanand Turkey.Smaller communities live in Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Australia, Russia and Sweden.
Since 2014,theChinese governmenthas been accused by various organizations, such asHuman Rights Watchof subjecting Uyghurs living in Xinjiang to widespread persecution, includingforced sterilizationandforced labor.Scholars estimate that at least one million Uyghurs have beenarbitrarily detainedin theXinjiang internment campssince 2017;Chinese government officials claim that these camps, created under CCP general secretaryXi Jinping'sadministration, serve the goals of ensuring adherence toChinese Communist Party(CCP) ideology, preventingseparatism, fightingterrorism, and providingvocational trainingto Uyghurs.Various scholars, human rights organizations and governments consider abuses perpetrated against the Uyghurs to amount tocrimes against humanity, or evengenocide.
In theUyghur language, theethnonymis writtenئۇيغۇرinArabic script, Уйғур inUyghur CyrillicandUyghurorUygur(as the standard Chineseromanization,GB3304–1991) inLatin;they are all pronounced as[ʔʊjˈʁʊːr].InChinese, this istranscribedintocharactersas维吾尔/維吾爾, which isromanizedinpinyinasWéiwú'ěr.
In English, the name is officially spelledUyghurby theXinjiang governmentbut also appears asUighur,UigurandUygur(these reflect the various Cyrillic spellings Уиғур, Уигур and Уйгур). The name is usually pronounced in English as/ˈwiːɡʊər,-ɡər/WEE-goor, -⁠gər(and thus may be preceded by theindefinite article"a"),although some Uyghurs advocate the use of a more native pronunciation/ˌuːiˈɡʊər/OO-ee-GOORinstead (which, in contrast, calls for the indefinite article "an").
The term's original meaning is unclear.Old Turkicinscriptions record the worduyɣur(Old Turkic:𐰆𐰖𐰍𐰆𐰺); an example is found on the Sudzi inscription, "I am khan ata ofYaglaqar, came from the Uigur land." (Old Turkic:Uyγur jerinte Yaγlaqar qan ata keltim).It is transcribed intoTangannals as回纥/回紇(Mandarin:Huíhé, but probably *[ɣuɒiɣət] inMiddle Chinese).It was used as the name of one of the Turkic polities formed inthe interim between the First and Second Göktürk Khaganates(AD630–684).TheOld History of the Five Dynastiesrecords that in 788 or 809, the Chinese acceded to a Uyghur request and emended their transcription to回鹘/回鶻(Mandarin:Huíhú, but [ɣuɒiɣuət] in Middle Chinese).
Modernetymologicalexplanations for the nameUyghurrange from derivation from the verb "follow, accommodate oneself"and adjective "non-rebellious" (i.e., from Turkicuy/uð-) to the verb meaning "wake, rouse or stir" (i.e., from Turkicoðğur-). None of these is thought to be satisfactory because the sound shift of /ð/ and /ḏ/ to /j/ does not appear to be in place by this time.The etymology therefore cannot be conclusively determined and its referent is also difficult to fix. The "Huihe" and "Huihu" seem to be a political rather than atribaldesignationor it may be one group among several others collectively known as theToquz Oghuz.The name fell out of use in the 15th century, but was reintroduced in the early 20th centuryby the SovietBolsheviksto replace the previous termsTurkandTurki.The name is currently used to refer to the settled Turkic urban dwellers and farmers of theTarim Basinwho follow traditional Central Asiansedentarypractices, distinguishable from the nomadic Turkic populations in Central Asia.
The earliest record of a Uyghur tribe appears in accounts from theNorthern Wei(4th–6th century A.D.), wherein they were named袁紇Yuanhe(<MCZS*ɦʉɐn-ɦət) and derived from a confederation named高车/高車(lit."High Carts"), read asGāochēinMandarin Chinesebut originally with the reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciation *[kɑutɕʰĭa], later known as theTiele(铁勒/鐵勒,Tiělè).Gāochēin turn has been connected to theUyghurQangqil(قاڭقىلor Қаңқил).
Throughout its history, the termUyghurhas had an increasingly expansive definition. Initially signifying only a small coalition ofTieletribes in northern China, Mongolia and theAltai Mountains, it later denoted citizenship in theUyghur Khaganate. Finally, it was expanded into an ethnicity whose ancestry originates with the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 842, causing Uyghur migration fromMongoliainto the Tarim Basin. The Uyghurs who moved to the Tarim Basin mixed with the localTocharians, and converted to the Tocharian religion, and adopted their culture of oasis agriculture.The fluid definition ofUyghurand the diverse ancestry of modern Uyghurs create confusion as to what constitutes true Uyghurethnographyandethnogenesis. Contemporary scholars consider modern Uyghurs to be the descendants of a number of peoples, including the ancient Uyghurs of Mongolia migrating into the Tarim Basin after the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate, IranicSakatribes and otherIndo-European peoplesinhabiting the Tarim Basin before the arrival of the Turkic Uyghurs.
Uyghur activists identify with theTarim mummies, remains of an ancient people inhabiting the region, but research into the genetics of ancient Tarim mummies and their links with modern Uyghurs remains problematic, both to Chinese government officials concerned with ethnic separatism and to Uyghur activists concerned the research could affect their indigenous claim.
A genomic study published in 2021 found that these early mummies had high levels ofAncient North Eurasianancestry (ANE, about 72%), with smaller admixture fromAncient Northeast Asians(ANA, about 28%), but no detectableWestern Steppe-related ancestry.They formed a genetically isolated local population that "adopted neighbouring pastoralist and agriculturalist practices, which allowed them to settle and thrive along the shifting riverine oases of the Taklamakan Desert."These mummified individuals were long suspected to have been "Proto-Tocharian-speaking pastoralists", ancestors of theTocharians, but the authors of this study found no genetic connection withIndo-European-speaking migrants, particularly theAfanasievoorBMACcultures.
The term "Uyghur" was not used to refer to a specific existing ethnicity in the 19th century: it referred to an 'ancient people'. A late-19th-century encyclopedia entitledThe Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asiasaid "the Uigur are the most ancient of Turkish tribes and formerly inhabited a part of Chinese Tartary (Xinjiang), now occupied by a mixed population of Turk, Mongol andKalmuck".Before 1921/1934,Western writers called the Turkic-speaking Muslims of the oases "Turki" and the Turkic Muslims who had migrated from the Tarim Basin toIli,ÜrümqiandDzungariain the northern portion of Xinjiang during the Qing dynasty were known as "Taranchi", meaning "farmer". The Russians and other foreigners referred to them as "Sart","Turk" or "Turki".In the early 20th century they identified themselves by different names to different peoples and in response to different inquiries: they called themselves Sarts in front of Kazakhs and Kyrgyz while they called themselves "Chantou" if asked about their identity after first identifying as a Muslim.The term "Chantou" (纏頭;Chántóu, meaning "Turban Head") was used to refer to the Turkic Muslims ofAltishahr(nowSouthern Xinjiang),including by Hui (Tungan) people.These groups of peoples often identify themselves by their originating oasis instead of an ethnicity;for example those fromKashgarmay refer to themselves as Kashgarliq orKashgari, while those fromHotanidentity themselves as "Hotani".Other Central Asians once called all the inhabitants of Xinjiang's Southern oases Kashgari,a term still used in some regions of Pakistan.The Turkic people also used "Musulman", which means "Muslim", to describe themselves.
Rian Thum explored the concepts of identity among the ancestors of the modern Uyghurs inAltishahr(the native Uyghur name for Eastern Turkestan or Southern Xinjiang) before the adoption of the name "Uyghur" in the 1930s, referring to them by the name "Altishahri" in his articleModular History: Identity Maintenance before Uyghur Nationalism. Thum indicated that Altishahri Turkis did have a sense that they were a distinctive group separate from the Turkic Andijanis to their west, the nomadic Turkic Kirghiz, the nomadic Mongol Qalmaq and the Han ChineseKhitaybefore they became known as Uyghurs. There was no single name used for their identity; various native names Altishahris used for identify were Altishahrlik (Altishahr person), yerlik (local), Turki and Musulmān (Muslim); the term Musulmān in this situation did not signify religious connotations, because the Altishahris exclude other Muslim peoples like the Kirghiz while identifying themselves as Musulmān.Dr. Laura J Newby says the sedentary Altishahri Turkic people considered themselves separate from other Turkic Muslims since at least the 19th century.
The name "Uyghur" reappeared after theSoviet Uniontook the 9th-centuryethnonymfrom theUyghur Khaganate, then reapplied it to all non-nomadic Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang.It followed western EuropeanorientalistslikeJulius Klaprothin the 19th century who revived the name and spread the use of the term to local Turkic intellectualsand a 19th-century proposal from Russian historians that modern-day Uyghurs were descended from theKingdom of QochoandKara-Khanid Khanateformed after the dissolution of the Uyghur Khaganate.Historians generally agree that the adoption of the term "Uyghur" is based on a decision from a 1921 conference inTashkent, attended by Turkic Muslims from the Tarim Basin (Xinjiang).There, "Uyghur" was chosen by them as the name of their ethnicity, although they themselves note that they were not to be confused with theUyghur Khaganateof medieval history.According to Linda Benson, the Soviets and their clientSheng Shicaiintended to foster a Uyghur nationality to divide the Muslim population of Xinjiang, whereas the various Turkic Muslim peoples preferred to identify themselves as "Turki", "East Turkestani" or "Muslim".
On the other hand, the ruling regime of China at that time, theKuomintang, grouped all Muslims, including the Turkic-speaking people of Xinjiang, into the "Hui nationality".TheQing dynastyand the Kuomintang generally referred to the sedentary oasis-dwelling Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang as "turban-headed Hui" to differentiate them from other predominantly Muslim ethnicities in China.In the 1930s, foreigners travelers in Xinjiang such asGeorge W. Hunter,Peter Fleming,Ella MaillartandSven Hedin, referred to the Turkic Muslims of the region as "Turki" in their books. Use of the term Uyghur was unknown in Xinjiang until 1934. The area governor,Sheng Shicai, came to power, adopting the Soviet ethnographic classification instead of the Kuomintang's and became the first to promulgate the official use of the term "Uyghur" to describe the Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang."Uyghur" replaced "rag-head".
Sheng Shicai's introduction of the "Uighur" name for the Turkic people of Xinjiang was criticized and rejected by Turki intellectuals such as Pan-TurkistJadidsandEast Turkestan independenceactivistsMuhammad Amin Bughra(Mehmet Emin) andMasud Sabri. They demanded the names "Türk" or "Türki" be used instead as the ethnonyms for their people. Masud Sabri viewed theHui peopleas MuslimHan Chineseand separate from his people,while Bughrain criticized Sheng for his designation of Turkic Muslims into different ethnicities which could sow disunion among Turkic Muslims.After the Communist victory, theChinese Communist Partyunder ChairmanMao Zedongcontinued the Soviet classification, using the term "Uyghur" to describe the modern ethnicity.
In current usage,Uyghurrefers to settled Turkic-speaking urban dwellers and farmers of theTarim BasinandIliwho follow traditional Central Asian sedentary practices, as distinguished from nomadic Turkic populations in Central Asia. However, Chinese government agentsdesignate as "Uyghur" certain peoples with significantly divergent histories and ancestries from the main group. These include the Lopliks ofRuoqiang Countyand theDolan people, thought to be closer to theOirat Mongolsand theKyrgyz.The use of the term Uyghur led to anachronisms when describing the history of the people.In one of his books, the term Uyghur was deliberately not used by James Millward.
Another ethnicity, theWestern YugurofGansu, identify themselves as the "Yellow Uyghur" (Sarïq Uyghur).Some scholars say the Yugurs' culture, language and religion are closer to the original culture of the original Uyghur Karakorum state than is the culture of the modern Uyghur people of Xinjiang.Linguist and ethnographer S. Robert Ramsey argues for inclusion of both the Eastern and Western Yugur and theSalaras sub-groups of the Uyghur based on similar historical roots for the Yugur and on perceived linguistic similarities for the Salar.
"Turkistani"is used as an alternate ethnonym by some Uyghurs.For example, the Uyghur diaspora in Arabia, adopted the identity "Turkistani". Some Uyghurs in Saudi Arabia adopted the Arabicnisbaof their home city, such as "Al-Kashgari" fromKashgar. Saudi-born UyghurHamza Kashgari's family originated from Kashgar.
The Uyghur population within China generally remains centered in Xinjiang region with some smaller subpopulations elsewhere in the country, such as inTaoyuan Countywhere an estimated 5,000–10,000 live.
The size of the Uyghur population, particularly in China, has been the subject of dispute. Chinese authorities place the Uyghur population within the Xinjiang region to be just over 12 million, comprising approximately half of the total regional population.As early as 2003, however, some Uyghur groups wrote that their population was being vastly undercounted by Chinese authorities, claiming that their population actually exceeded 20 million.Population disputes have continued into the present, with some activists and groups such as theWorld Uyghur CongressandUyghur American Associationclaiming that the Uyghur population ranges between 20 and 30 million.Some have even claimed that the real number of Uyghurs is actually 35 million.Scholars, however, have generally rejected these claims, with ProfessorDru C. Gladneywriting in the 2004 bookXinjiang: China's Muslim Borderlandthat there is "scant evidence" to support Uyghur claims that their population within China exceeds 20 million.
A study ofmitochondrial DNA(2004) (therefore thematrilineal genetic contribution) found the frequency of Western Eurasian-specifichaplogroupin Uyghurs to be 42.6% and East Asian haplogroup to be 57.4%.Uyghurs in Kazakhstanon the other hand were shown to have 55% European/Western Eurasian maternal mtDNA.
A study based onpaternal DNA(2005) shows West Eurasian haplogroups (J and R) in Uyghurs make up 65% to 70% and East Asian haplogroups (C, N, D and O) 30% to 35%.
One study by Xu et al. (2008), using samples from Hetian (Hotan) only, found Uyghurs have about an average of 60% European orWest Asian(Western Eurasian) ancestry and about 40%East AsianorSiberianancestry (Eastern Eurasian). From the same area, it is found that the proportion of Uyghur individuals with European/West Asian ancestry ranges individually from 40.3% to 84.3% while their East Asian/Siberian ancestry ranges individually from 15.7% to 59.7%.Further study by the same team showed an average of slightly greater European/West Asian component at 52% (ranging individually from 44.9% to 63.1%) in the Uyghur population in southern Xinjiang but only 47% (ranging individually from 30% to 55%) in the northern Uyghur population.
A different study by Li et al. (2009) used a larger sample of individuals from a wider area and found a higher East Asian component of about 70% on average, while the European/West Asian component was about 30%. Overall, Uyghur show relative more similarity to "Western East Asians" than to "Eastern East Asians". The authors also cite anthropologic studies which also estimate about 30% "Western proportions", which are in agreement with their genetic results.
A study (2013) based onautosomal DNAshows that average Uyghurs are closest to other Turkic people in Central Asia and China as well as various Chinese populations. The analysis of the diversity ofcytochrome Bfurther suggests Uyghurs are closer toChineseand Siberian populations than to variousCaucasoidgroups in West Asia or Europe. However, there is significant genetic distance between the Xinjiang's southern Uyghurs and Chinese population, but not between the northern Uyghurs and Chinese.
A Study (2016) of Uyghur males living in southern Xinjiang used high-resolution 26 Y-STR loci system high-resolution to infer the genetic relationships between the Uyghur population and European and Asian populations. The results showed the Uyghur population of southern Xinjiang exhibited a genetic admixture of Eastern Asian and European populations but with slightly closer relationship with European populations than to Eastern Asian populations.
An extensive genome study in 2017 analyzed 951 samples of Uyghurs from 14 geographical subpopulations in Xinjiang and observed a southwest and northeast differentiation in the population, partially caused by theTianshan Mountainswhich form a natural barrier, with gene flows from the east and west. The study identifies four major ancestral components that may have arisen from two earlier admixed groups: one that migrated from the west harboring a West-Eurasian component associated with European ancestry (25–37%) and a South Asian ancestry component (12–20%) and one from the east, harboring a Siberian ancestry component (15–17%) and an East Asian ancestry component (29–47%). In total, Uyghurs on average are 33.3% West Eurasian, 32.9% East Asian, 17.9% South Asian, and 16% Siberian. Western parts of Xinjiang are more West Eurasian components than East Eurasian. It suggests at least two major waves of admixture, one ~3,750 years ago coinciding with the age range of the mummies with European feature found in Xinjiang, and another occurring around 750 years ago.
A 2018 study of 206 Uyghur samples from Xinjiang, using the ancestry-informative SNP (AISNP) analysis, found that the average genetic ancestry of Uyghurs is 63.7% East Asian-related and 36.3% European-related.
The history of the Uyghur people, as with the ethnic origin of the people, is a matter of contention.Uyghur historians viewed the Uyghurs as the original inhabitants of Xinjiang with a long history. Uyghur politician and historian Muhammad Amin Bughra wrote in his bookA History of East Turkestan, stressing the Turkic aspects of his people, that the Turks have a continuous 9000-year-old history, while historianTurghun Almasincorporated discoveries of Tarim mummies to conclude that Uyghurs have over 6400 years of continuous history,and theWorld Uyghur Congressclaimed a 4,000-year history in East Turkestan.However, the official Chinese view, as documented in the white paperHistory and Development of Xinjiang, asserts that the Uyghur ethnic group formed after the collapse of theUyghur Khaganatein 840, when the local residents of the Tarim Basin and its surrounding areas were merged with migrants from the khaganate.The name "Uyghur" reappeared after the Soviet Union took the 9th-century ethnonym from the Uyghur Khaganate, then reapplied it to all non-nomadic Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang.Many contemporary western scholars, however, do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate of Mongolia. Rather, they consider them to be descendants of a number of peoples, one of them the ancient Uyghurs.
Discovery of well-preservedTarim mummiesof a people European in appearance indicates the migration of a European-looking people into the Tarim area at the beginning of theBronze Agearound 1800 BC. These people may have been ofTocharianorigin, and some have suggested them to be theYuezhimentioned in ancient Chinese texts.The Tocharians are thought to have developed from theIndo-EuropeanspeakingAfanasevo cultureof Southern Siberia (c. 3500–2500 BC).A study published in 2021 showed that the earliest Tarim Basin cultures had high levels ofAncient North Eurasianancestry, with smaller admixture fromNortheast Asians.Uyghur activist Turgun Almas claimed that Tarim mummies were Uyghurs because the earliest Uyghurs practiced shamanism and the buried mummies' orientation suggests that they had been shamanists; meanwhile, Qurban Wäli claimed words written in Kharosthi and Sogdian scripts as "Uyghur" rather than Sogdian words absorbed into Uyghur according to other linguists.
Later migrations brought peoples from the west and northwest to the Xinjiang region, probably speakers of various Iranian languages such as theSakatribes, who were closely related to the EuropeanScythiansand descended from the earlierAndronovo culture,and who may have been present in theKhotanandKashgararea in the first millennium BC, as well as theSogdianswho formed networks of trading communities across the Tarim Basin from the 4th century AD.There may also be an Indian component as the founding legend ofKhotansuggests that the city was founded by Indians fromancient Taxiladuring the reign ofAshoka.Other people in the region mentioned in ancient Chinese texts include theDinglingas well as theXiongnuwho fought for supremacy in the region against the Chinese for several hundred years. Some Uyghur nationalists also claimed descent from the Xiongnu (according to the Chinese historical text theBook of Wei, the founder of the Uyghurs was descended from a Xiongnu ruler),but the view is contested by modern Chinese scholars.
The Yuezhi were driven away by the Xiongnu but founded theKushan Empire, which exerted some influence in the Tarim Basin, whereKharosthitexts have been found inLoulan,NiyaandKhotan. Loulan and Khotan were some of the many city-states that existed in the Xinjiang region during theHan dynasty; others includeKucha,Turfan,KarasahrandKashgar. These kingdoms in the Tarim Basin came under the control of China during the Han and Tang dynasties. During theTang dynastythey were conquered and placed under the control of theProtectorate General to Pacify the West, and the Indo-European cultures of these kingdoms never recovered from Tang rule after thousands of their inhabitants were killed during the conquest.The settled population of these cities later merged with the incoming Turkic people, including the Uyghurs of Uyghur Khaganate, to form the modern Uyghurs. The Indo-EuropeanTocharian languagelater disappeared as the urban population switched to a Turkic language such as theOld Uyghur language.
The earlyTurkic peoplesdescended from agricultural communities inNortheast Asiawho moved westwards intoMongoliain the late 3rd millennium BC, where they adopted a pastoral lifestyle.By the early 1st millennium BC, these peoples had becomeequestrian nomads.In subsequent centuries, the steppe populations ofCentral Asiaappear to have been progressivelyTurkifiedbyEast Asiannomadic Turks, moving out of Mongolia.
The Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate were part of a Turkic confederation called theTiele,who lived in the valleys south ofLake Baikaland around theYenisei River. They overthrew theFirst Turkic Khaganateand established theUyghur Khaganate.
The Uyghur Khaganate lasted from 744 to 840.It was administered from the imperial capitalOrdu-Baliq, one of the biggest ancient cities built in Mongolia. In 840, following a famine and civil war, the Uyghur Khaganate was overrun by theYenisei Kirghiz, another Turkic people. As a result, the majority of tribal groups formerly under Uyghur control dispersed and moved out of Mongolia.
The Uyghurs who founded the Uyghur Khaganate dispersed after the fall of the Khaganate, to live among theKarluksand to places such asJimsar,TurpanandGansu.These Uyghurs soon founded two kingdoms and the easternmost state was theGanzhou Kingdom(870–1036) which ruled parts of Xinjiang, with its capital near present-dayZhangye, Gansu, China. The modernYugursare believed to be descendants of these Uyghurs. Ganzhou was absorbed by theWestern Xiain 1036.
The second Uyghur kingdom, theKingdom of Qochoruled a larger section of Xinjiang, also known asUyghuristanin its later period, was founded in the Turpan area with its capital in Qocho (modernGaochang) andBeshbalik. The Kingdom of Qocho lasted from the ninth to the fourteenth century and proved to be longer-lasting than any power in the region, before or since.The Uyghurs were originallyTengrists, shamanists, andManichaean, but converted to Buddhism during this period. Qocho accepted theQara Khitaias its overlord in the 1130s, and in 1209 submitted voluntarily to the risingMongol Empire. The Uyghurs of Kingdom of Qocho were allowed significant autonomy and played an important role as civil servants to theMongol Empire, but was finally destroyed by theChagatai Khanateby the end of the 14th century.
In the tenth century, theKarluks,Yagmas,Chigilsand other Turkic tribes founded theKara-Khanid KhanateinSemirechye, WesternTian Shan, andKashgariaand later conqueredTransoxiana. The Karakhanid rulers were likely to be Yaghmas who were associated with theToquz Oghuzand some historians therefore see this as a link between the Karakhanid and the Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate, although this connection is disputed by others.
The Karakhanids converted to Islam in the tenth century beginning withSultan Satuq Bughra Khan, the first Turkic dynasty to do so.Modern Uyghurs see the Muslim Karakhanids as an important part of their history; however, Islamization of the people of the Tarim Basin was a gradual process. The Indo-IranianSakaBuddhistKingdom of Khotanwas conquered by the Turkic Muslim Karakhanids from Kashgar in the early 11th century, but Uyghur Qocho remained mainly Buddhist until the 15th century, and the conversion of the Uyghur people to Islam was not completed until the 17th century.
The 12th and 13th century saw the domination by non-Muslim powers: first theKara-Khitansin the 12th century, followed by theMongolsin the 13th century. After the death ofGenghis Khanin 1227, Transoxiana and Kashgar became the domain of his second son,Chagatai Khan. TheChagatai Khanatesplit into two in the 1340s, and the area of the Chagatai Khanate where the modern Uyghurs live became part ofMoghulistan, which meant "land of the Mongols". In the 14th century, a Chagatayid khanTughluq Temürconverted to Islam, GenghisidMongol nobilitiesalso followed him to convert to Islam.His sonKhizr Khojaconquered Qocho and Turfan (the core of Uyghuristan) in the 1390s, and the Uyghurs there became largely Muslim by the beginning of the 16th century.After being converted to Islam, the descendants of the previouslyBuddhist Uyghurs in Turfanfailed to retain memory of their ancestral legacy and falsely believed that the "infidel Kalmuks" (Dzungars) were the ones who built Buddhist structures in their area.
From the late 14th through 17th centuries, the Xinjiang region became further subdivided into Moghulistan in the north,Altishahr(Kashgar and the Tarim Basin), and the Turfan area, each often ruled separately by competing Chagatayid descendants, theDughlats, and later theKhojas.
Islam was also spread by theSufis, and branches of itsNaqshbandiorder were theKhojaswho seized control of political and military affairs in the Tarim Basin and Turfan in the 17th century. The Khojas however split into two rival factions, theAqtaghlik("White Mountainers") Khojas (also called theAfaqiyya) and theQarataghlik("Black Mountainers") Khojas (also called the Ishaqiyya). The legacy of the Khojas lasted until the 19th century. The Qarataghlik Khojas seized power in Yarkand where the Chagatai Khans ruled in the Yarkent Khanate, forcing the Aqtaghlik Afaqi Khoja into exile.
In the 17th century, the BuddhistDzungar Khanategrew in power inDzungaria. TheDzungar conquest of Altishahrended the last independent Chagatai Khanate, theYarkent Khanate, after the AqtaghlikAfaq Khojasought aid from the5th Dalai Lamaand his Dzungar Buddhist followers to help him in his struggle against the Qarataghlik Khojas. The Aqtaghlik Khojas in the Tarim Basin then became vassals to the Dzungars.
The expansion of the Dzungars intoKhalkha Mongolterritory inMongoliabrought them into direct conflict withQing Chinain the late 17th century, and in the process also brought Chinese presence back into the region a thousand years after Tang China lost control of theWestern Regions.
TheDzungar–Qing Warlasted a decade. During the Dzungar conflict, two Aqtaghlik brothers, the so-called "Younger Khoja" (Chinese:霍集佔), also known as Khwāja-i Jahān, and his sibling, the Elder Khoja (Chinese:波羅尼都), also known as Burhān al-Dīn, after being appointed as vassals in the Tarim Basin by the Dzungars, first joined the Qing and rebelled against Dzungar rule until the final Qing victory over the Dzungars, then they rebelled against the Qing in theRevolt of the Altishahr Khojas(1757–1759), an action which prompted the invasion and conquest of the Tarim Basin by the Qing in 1759. The Uyghurs of Turfan and Hami such asEmin Khojawere allies of the Qing in this conflict, and these Uyghurs also helped the Qing rule the Altishahr Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin.
Thefinal campaign against the Dzungars in the 1750sended with theDzungar genocide. The Qing "final solution" of genocide to solve the problem of the Dzungar Mongols created a land devoid of Dzungars, which was followed by the Qing sponsored settlement of millions of other people in Dzungaria.In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui, Uyghur, Xibe, Daurs, Solons, Turkic Muslim Taranchis and Kazakh colonists, with one third of Xinjiang's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern area, while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.In Dzungaria, the Qing established new cities like Ürümqi and Yining.TheDzungarianbasin itself is now inhabited by many Kazakhs.The Qing therefore unified Xinjiang and changed its demographic composition as well.The crushing of the Buddhist Dzungars by the Qing led to the empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang, migration of Muslim Taranchis to northern Xinjiang, and increasing Turkic Muslim power, with Turkic Muslim culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the Qing.It was therefore argued by Henry Schwarz that "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam".
InBeijing, a community of Uyghurs was clustered around the mosque near theForbidden City, having moved to Beijing in the 18th century.
TheUsh rebellionin 1765 by Uyghurs against theManchusoccurred after several incidents of misrule and abuse that had caused considerable anger and resentment.The Manchu Emperor ordered that the Uyghur rebel town be massacred, and the men were executed and the women and children enslaved.
During theDungan Revolt (1862–1877), Andijani Uzbeks from theKhanate of KokandunderBuzurg KhanandYaqub Begexpelled Qing officials from parts of southern Xinjiang and founded an independent Kashgarian kingdom calledYettishar("Country of Seven Cities"). Under the leadership of Yaqub Beg, it includedKashgar,Yarkand,Khotan,Aksu,Kucha,Korla, andTurpan.Large Qing dynasty forces under Chinese GeneralZuo Zongtangattacked Yettishar in 1876.
After this invasion, the two regions of Dzungaria, which had been known as the Dzungar region or the Northern marches of the Tian Shan,and the Tarim Basin, which had been known as "Muslim land" or southern marches of the Tian Shan,were reorganized into a province namedXinjiang, meaning "New Territory".
In 1912, the Qing dynasty was replaced by the Republic of China. By 1920, Pan-TurkicJadidistshad become a challenge to Chinese warlord Yang Zengxin, who controlled Xinjiang. Uyghurs staged several uprisings against Chinese rule. In 1931, theKumul Rebellionerupted, leading to the establishment of an independent government in Khotan in 1932,which later led to the creation of theFirst East Turkestan Republic, officially known as the Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan. Uyghurs joined with Uzbeks, Kazakhs, and Kyrgyz and successfully declared their independence on 12 November 1933.The First East Turkestan Republic was a short-lived attempt at independence around the areas encompassing Kashgar, Yarkent, and Khotan, and it was attacked during the Qumul Rebellion by aChinese Muslim armyunderGeneral Ma ZhancangandMa Fuyuanand fell following the Battle of Kashgar (1934). The Soviets backed Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai's rule over East Turkestan/Xinjiang from 1934 to 1943. In April 1937, remnants of the First East Turkestan Republic launched an uprising known as theIslamic Rebellion in Xinjiangand briefly established an independent government, controlling areas from Atush, Kashgar, Yarkent, and even parts of Khotan, before it was crushed in October 1937, following Soviet intervention.Sheng Shicai purged 50,000 to 100,000 people, mostly Uyghurs, following this uprising.
The oppressive reign ofSheng Shicaifueled discontent by Uyghur and other Turkic peoples of the region, and Sheng expelled Soviet advisors following U.S. support for theKuomintangof theRepublic of China.This led the Soviets to capitalize on the Uyghur and other Turkic people's discontent in the region, culminating in their support of theIli Rebellionin October 1944. The Ili Rebellion resulted in the establishment of theSecond East Turkestan Republicon 12 November 1944, in the three districts of what is now theIli Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture.Several pro-KMT Uyghurs likeIsa Yusuf Alptekin, Memet Emin Bugra, and Mesut Sabri opposed theSecond East Turkestan Republicand supported the Republic of China.In the summer of 1949, the Soviets purged the thirty top leaders of the Second East Turkestan Republicand its five top officials died in a mysterious plane crash on 27 August 1949.On 13 October 1949, the People's Liberation Army entered the region and the East TurkestanNational Armywas merged into the PLA's 5th Army Corps, leading to the official end of the Second East Turkestan Republic on 22 December 1949.
Mao declared the founding of thePeople's Republic of Chinaon 1 October 1949. He turned the Second East Turkistan Republic into theIli Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, and appointedSaifuddin Azizias the region's first Communist Party governor. Many Republican loyalists fled into exile in Turkey and Western countries. The name Xinjiang was changed to Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, where Uyghurs are the largest ethnicity, mostly concentrated in the south-western Xinjiang.
TheXinjiang conflictis a separatist conflict in China's far-west province of Xinjiang, whose northern region is known asDzungariaand whose southern region (theTarim Basin) is known as East Turkestan. Uyghur separatists and independence groups claim that the Second East Turkestan Republic was illegally incorporated by China in 1949 and has since been under Chinese occupation.
Uyghur identity remains fragmented, as some support aPan-Islamicvision, exemplified by theEast Turkestan Islamic Movement, while others support aPan-Turkicvision, such as theEast Turkestan Liberation Organization. A third group which includes theUyghur American Associationsupports awestern liberalvision and hopes for a US-led intervention into Xinjiang.Some Uyghur fighters in Syria have also studiedZionismas a model for their homeland.As a result, "no Uyghur or East Turkestan group speaks for all Uyghurs", and Uyghurs in Pan-Turkic and Pan-Islamic camps have committed violence including assassinations on other Uyghurs who they think are too assimilated to Chinese society.Uyghur activists likeRebiya Kadeerhave mainly tried to garner international support for Uyghurs, including the right to demonstrate, although China's government has accused her of orchestrating the deadlyJuly 2009 Ürümqi riots.
Eric Enno Tamm's 2011 book stated that "authorities have censored Uyghur writers and 'lavished funds' on official histories that depict Chinese territorial expansion into ethnic borderlands as 'unifications (tongyi), never as conquests (zhengfu) orannexations(tunbing)' "
In 2014, the Chinese government announced a "people's war on terror". Since then, Uyghurs in Xinjiang have been affected by extensive controls and restrictions which the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Chinese government has imposed upon their religious, cultural, economic and social lives.In order toforcibly assimilatethem, the government hasarbitrarily detainedmore than an estimated one million Uyghurs ininternment camps.Human Rights Watchsays that the camps have been used to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims since 2017.
Leaked Chinese government operating procedures state that the main feature of the camps is to ensure adherence toCCP ideology, with the inmates being continuously held captive in the camps for a minimum of 12 months depending on their performance on Chinese ideology tests.The New York Timeshas reported inmates are required to "sing hymns praising the Chinese Communist Party and write 'self-criticism' essays," and that prisoners are also subjected to physical and verbal abuse by prison guards.Chinese officials have sometimes assigned to monitor the families of current inmates, and women have been detained due to actions by their sons or husbands.
Other policies have includedforced labor,suppression of Uyghurreligious practices,politicalindoctrination,severe ill-treatment,forced sterilization,forcedcontraception,andforced abortion.According to German researcherAdrian Zenz, hundreds of thousands of children have been forcibly separated from their parents and sent toboarding schools.TheAustralian Strategic Policy Instituteestimates that some sixteen thousandmosqueshave been razed or damaged since 2017.Associated Pressreported that from 2015 to 2018,birth ratesin the mostly Uyghur regions ofHotanandKashgarfell by more than 60%,compared to a decrease by 9.69% in the whole country.The allegation of Uyghur birth rates being lower than those of Han Chinese have been disputed by pundits fromPakistan Observer,Antara,andDetik.com.
The policies have drawn widespread condemnation, with some characterizing them as a genocide. In anassessment by the UN Human Rights Office, theUnited Nations(UN) stated that China's policies and actions in the Xinjiang region may becrimes against humanity, although it did not use the term genocide.The United Statesand legislatures in several countries have described the policies as a genocide. The Chinese government denies having committed human rights abuses in Xinjiang.
Around 5,000 Uyghurs live aroundTaoyuan Countyand other parts ofChangdeinHunanprovince.They are descended fromHala Bashi, a Uyghur leader fromTurpan(Kingdom of Qocho), and his Uyghur soldiers sent to Hunan by the Ming Emperor in the 14th century to crush the Miao rebels during theMiao Rebellionsin the Ming dynasty.The 1982 census recorded 4,000 Uyghurs in Hunan.They have genealogies which survive 600 years later to the present day. Genealogy keeping is a Han Chinese custom which the Hunan Uyghurs adopted. These Uyghurs were given the surname Jian by the Emperor.There is some confusion as to whether they practice Islam or not. Some say that they have assimilated with the Han and do not practice Islam anymore and only their genealogies indicate their Uyghur ancestry.Chinese news sources report that they are Muslim.
The Uyghur troops led by Hala were ordered by the Ming Emperor to crushMiaorebellions and were given titles by him. Jian is the predominant surname among the Uyghur in Changde, Hunan. Another group of Uyghur have the surname Sai.Huiand Uyghur have intermarried in the Hunan area. The Hui are descendants of Arabs and Han Chinese who intermarried and they share the Islamic religion with the Uyghur in Hunan. It is reported that they now number around 10,000 people. The Uyghurs in Changde are not very religious and eat pork. Older Uyghurs disapprove of this, especially elders at the mosques in Changde and they seek to draw them back to Islamic customs.
In addition to eating pork, the Uyghurs ofChangdeHunan practice other Han Chinese customs, like ancestor worship at graves. Some Uyghurs from Xinjiang visit the Hunan Uyghurs out of curiosity or interest. Also, the Uyghurs of Hunan do not speak theUyghur language, instead, they speak Chineseas their native language and Arabic for religious reasons at the mosque.
The ancient Uyghurs believed in many local deities. These practices gave rise toshamanismandTengrism. Uyghurs also practiced aspects ofZoroastrianismsuch asfire altars, and adoptedManichaeismas a state religion for the Uyghur Khaganate,possibly in 762 or 763. Ancient Uyghurs also practicedBuddhismafter they moved to Qocho, and some believed inChurch of the East.
People in the Western Tarim Basin region began their conversion to Islam early in the Kara-Khanid Khanate period.Some pre-Islamic practices continued under Muslim rule; for example, while the Quran dictated many rules on marriage and divorce, other pre-Islamic principles based on Zoroastrianism also helped shape the laws of the land.There had beenChristianconversions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but these were suppressed by theFirst East Turkestan Republicgovernment agents.Because of persecution, the churches were destroyed and the believers were scattered.According to the national census, 0.5% or 1,142Uyghurs in KazakhstanwereChristiansin 2009.
Modern Uyghurs are primarilyMuslimand they are the second-largest predominantly Muslim ethnicity in China after theHui.The majority of modern Uyghurs areSunnis, although additional conflicts exist between Sufi and non-Sufi religious orders.While modern Uyghurs consider Islam to be part of their identity, religious observance varies between different regions. In general, Muslims in the southern region, Kashgar in particular, are more conservative. For example, women wearing the veil (a piece of cloth covering the head completely) are more common in Kashgar than some other cities.The veil, however, has been banned in cities such asÜrümqisince 2014 after it became more popular there.
There is also a general split between the Uyghurs and the Hui Muslims in Xinjiang and they normally worship in different mosques.The Chinese government discourages religious worship among the Uyghurs,and there is evidence of thousands of Uyghur mosques including historic ones being destroyed.According to a 2020Australian Strategic Policy Institutereport, Chinese authorities since 2017 have destroyed or damaged 16,000 mosques in Xinjiang.
In the early 21st century, a new trend of Islam,Salafism, emerged in Xinjiang, mostly among the Turkic population including Uyghurs, although there are Hui Salafis. These Salafis tended to demonstratepan-Islamismand abandoned nationalism in favor of a caliphate to rule Xinjiang in the event of independence from China.Many Uyghur Salafis have allied themselves with theTurkistan Islamic Partyin response to growing repression of Uyghurs by China.
The ancient people of the Tarim Basin originally spoke different languages, such asTocharian,Saka(Khotanese), andGandhari. The Turkic people who moved into the region in the 9th century brought with them their languages, which slowly supplanted the original tongues of the local inhabitants. In the 11th century,Mahmud al-Kashgarinoted that the Uyghurs (of Qocho) spoke a pure Turkic language, but they also still spoke another language among themselves and had two different scripts. He also noted that the people of Khotan did not know Turkic well and had their own language and script (Khotanese).Writers of the Karakhanid period, Al-Kashgari andYusuf Balasagun, referred to their Turkic language asKhāqāniyya(meaning royal) or the "language of Kashgar" or simply Turkic.
The modern Uyghur language is classified under theKarlukbranch of theTurkic language family. It is closely related toÄynu,Lop,Ili TurkiandChagatay(the East Karluk languages) and slightly less closely toUzbek(which is West Karluk). The Uyghur language is anagglutinative languageand has asubject-object-verbword order. It hasvowel harmonylike other Turkic languages and has noun and verbcasesbut lacks distinction of gender forms.
Modern Uyghurs have adopted a number of scripts for their language. TheArabic script, known as theChagatay alphabet, was adopted along with Islam. This alphabet is known as Kona Yëziq (old script). Political changes in the 20th century led to numerous reforms of the scripts, for example theCyrillic-basedUyghur Cyrillic alphabet, a LatinUyghur New Scriptand later a reformedUyghur Arabic alphabet, which represents all vowels, unlike Kona Yëziq. A new Latin version, theUyghur Latin alphabet, was also devised in the 21st century.
In the 1990s, many Uyghurs in parts of Xinjiang could not speakMandarin Chinese.
The literary works of the ancient Uyghurs were mostly translations of Buddhist and Manichaean religious texts,but there were also narrative, poetic and epic works apparently original to the Uyghurs. However it is the literature of the Kara-Khanid period that is considered by modern Uyghurs to be the important part of their literary traditions. Among these are Islamic religious texts and histories ofTurkic peoples, and important works surviving from that era areKutadgu Bilig, "Wisdom of Royal Glory" byYusuf Khass Hajib(1069–70),Mahmud al-Kashgari'sDīwānu l-Luġat al-Turk, "A Dictionary of Turkic Dialects" (1072) and Ehmed Yükneki'sEtebetulheqayiq. Modern Uyghur religious literature includes theTaẕkirah, biographies of Islamic religious figures and saints.The Turki languageTadhkirah i Khwajaganwas written by M. Sadiq Kashghari.Between the 1600s and 1900s many Turki-language tazkirah manuscripts devoted to stories of local sultans, martyrs and saints were written.Perhaps the most famous and best-loved pieces of modern Uyghur literature areAbdurehim Ötkür'sIz,Oyghanghan Zimin,Zordun Sabir'sAnayurtandZiya Samedi's novelsMayimkhanandMystery of the years.
Exiled Uyghur writers and poets, such asMuyesser Abdul'ehed, use literature to highlight the issues facing their community.
Muqamis the classical musical style. The12 Muqamsare the national oral epic of the Uyghurs. The muqam system was developed among the Uyghur in northwestern China and Central Asia over approximately the last 1500 years from the Arabicmaqamatmodalsystem that has led to many musical genres among peoples ofEurasiaandNorth Africa. Uyghurs have local muqam systems named after the oasis towns ofXinjiang, such asDolan,Ili,KumulandTurpan. The most fully developed at this point is the WesternTarimregion's 12 muqams, which are now a large canon of music and songs recorded by the traditional performersTurdi AkhunandOmar Akhunamong others in the 1950s and edited into a more systematic system. Although the folk performers probably improvized their songs, as in Turkishtaksimperformances, the present institutional canon is performed as fixed compositions by ensembles.
The Uyghur Muqam of Xinjiang has been designated byUNESCOas part of the Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
Amannisa Khan, sometimes called Amanni Shahan (1526–1560), is credited with collecting and thereby preserving the Twelve Muqam.Russian scholar Pantusov writes that the Uyghurs manufactured their own musical instruments, they had 62 different kinds of musical instruments, and in every Uyghur home there used to be an instrument called a "duttar".
Uzbek composerShakhida Shaimardanovauses themes from Uyghur folk music in her compositions.
Sanamis a popular folk dance among the Uyghur people.It is commonly danced by people at weddings, festive occasions, and parties.The dance may be performed with singing and musical accompaniment. Sama is a form of group dance forNewruz(New Year) and other festivals.Other dances include the Dolan dances, Shadiyane, and Nazirkom.Some dances may alternate between singing and dancing, and Uyghur hand-drums calleddapare commonly used as accompaniment for Uyghur dances.
During the late-19th and early-20th centuries, scientific and archaeological expeditions to the region of Xinjiang'sSilk Roaddiscovered numerous cave temples, monastery ruins, and wall paintings, as well as miniatures, books, and documents. There are 77rock-cutcaves at the site. Most have rectangular spaces withround archceilings often divided into four sections, each with amuralofBuddha. The effect is of an entire ceiling covered with hundreds of Buddha murals. Some ceilings are painted with a large Buddha surrounded by other figures, including Indians,Persiansand Europeans. The quality of the murals vary with some being artistically naïve while others are masterpieces of religious art.
Historically, the education level of Old Uyghur people was higher than the other ethnicities around them. The Buddhist Uyghurs of Qocho became the civil servants of Mongol Empire and Old Uyghur Buddhists enjoyed a high status in the Mongol empire. They also introduced the writtenscriptfor theMongolian language. In the Islamic era, education was provided by the mosques andmadrassas. During the Qing era, Chinese Confucian schools were also set up in Xinjiangand in the late 19th century Christian missionary schools.
In the late nineteenth and early 20th century, schools were often located in mosques and madrassas. Mosques ran informal schools, known asmektepormaktab, attached to the mosques,Themaktabprovided most of the education and its curriculum was primarily religious and oral.Boys and girls might be taught in separate schools, some of which offered modern secular subjects in the early 20th century.In madrasas, poetry, logic, Arabic grammar andIslamic lawwere taught.In the early 20th century, theJadidistsTurkic Muslims from Russia spread new ideas on educationand popularized the identity of "Turkestani".
In more recent times, religious education is highly restricted in Xinjiang and the Chinese authority had sought to eradicate any religious school they considered illegal.Although Islamic private schools (Sino-Arabic schools (中阿學校)) have been supported and permitted by the Chinese government in Hui Muslim areas since the 1980s, this policy does not extend to schools in Xinjiang due to fear of separatism.
Beginning in the early 20th century, secular education became more widespread. Early in the communist era, Uyghurs had a choice of two separate secular school systems, one conducted in their own language and one offering instructions only in Chinese.Many Uyghurs linked the preservation of their cultural and religious identity with the language of instruction in schools and therefore preferred Uyghur language schools.However, from the mid-1980s onward, the Chinese government began to reduce teaching in Uyghur and starting mid-1990s also began to merge some schools from the two systems. By 2002,Xinjiang University, originally a bilingual institution, had ceased offering courses in the Uyghur language. From 2004 onward, the government policy has been that classes should be conducted in Chinese as much as possible and in some selected regions, instruction in Chinese began in the first grade.A special senior-secondaryboarding schoolprogram for Uyghurs, the Xinjiang Class, with course work conducted entirely in Chinese was also established in 2000.Many schools have also moved toward using mainly Chinese in the 2010s, with teaching in the Uyghur language limited to only a few hours a week.The level of educational attainment among Uyghurs is generally lower than that of the Han Chinese; this may be due to the cost of education, the lack of proficiency in the Chinese language (now the main medium of instruction) among many Uyghurs, and poorer employment prospects for Uyghur graduates due to job discrimination in favor of Han Chinese.Uyghurs in China, unlike theHuiandSalarwho are also mostly Muslim, generally do not opposecoeducation,however girls may be withdrawn from school earlier than boys.
Uyghur traditional medicine is known asUnani(طب یونانی), as historically used in theMughal Empire.SirPercy Sykesdescribed the medicine as "based on the ancient Greek theory" and mentioned how ailments and sicknesses were treated inThrough Deserts and Oases of Central Asia.Today, traditional medicine can still be found at street stands. Similar to other traditional medicine, diagnosis is usually made through checking the pulse, symptoms and disease history and then the pharmacist pounds up different dried herbs, making personalized medicines according to the prescription. Modern Uyghur medical hospitals adopted modern medical science and medicine and applied evidence-based pharmaceutical technology to traditional medicines. Historically, Uyghur medical knowledge has contributed to Chinese medicine in terms of medical treatments, medicinal materials and ingredients and symptom detection.
Uyghur food shows bothCentral AsianandChineseelements. A typical Uyghur dish ispolu(orpilaf), a dish found throughout Central Asia. In a common version of the Uyghurpolu, carrots and mutton (or chicken) are first fried in oil with onions, then rice and water are added and the whole dish is steamed. Raisins and dried apricots may also be added.Kawaplar(Uyghur:Каваплар) orchuanr(i.e.,kebabsor grilled meat) are also found here. Another common Uyghur dish isleghmen(لەغمەن,ләғмән), a noodle dish with a stir-fried topping (säy, from Chinesecai,菜) usually made from mutton and vegetables, such as tomatoes, onions, green bell peppers, chili peppers and cabbage. This dish is likely to have originated from the Chineselamian, but its flavor and preparation method are distinctively Uyghur.
Uyghur food (Uyghur Yemekliri,Уйғур Йәмәклири) is characterized bymutton,beef,camel(solelybactrian),chicken,goose,carrots,tomatoes,onions,peppers,eggplant,celery, variousdairy foodsand fruits.
A Uyghur-style breakfast consists ofteawith home-baked bread,hardened yogurt,olives,honey,raisinsandalmonds. Uyghurs like to treat guests with tea,naanand fruit before the main dishes are ready.
Sangza(ساڭزا,Саңза) are crispy friedwheat flourdough twists, a holiday specialty.Samsa(سامسا,Самса) are lambpiesbaked in a special brick oven.Youtaziis steamed multi-layer bread.Göshnan(گۆشنان,Гөшнан) are pan-grilled lamb pies.Pamirdin(Памирдин) are baked pies stuffed with lamb, carrots and onions.Shorpais lambsoup(شۇرپا,Шорпа). Other dishes includeToghach(Тоғач) (a type oftandoor bread) andTunurkawab(Тунуркаваб).Girde(Гирде) is also a very popularbagel-like bread with a hard and crispy crust that is soft inside.
A cake sold by Uyghurs is the traditional Uyghur nut cake.
Chapan, a coat, anddoppa, a type of hat for men, is commonly worn by Uyghurs. Another type of headwear, salwatelpek(salwa tälpäk, салва тәлпәк), is also worn by Uyghurs.
In the early 20th century, face covering veils with velvet caps trimmed with otter fur were worn in the streets by Turki women in public in Xinjiang as witnessed by the adventurer Ahmad Kamal in the 1930s.Travelers of the period SirPercy Sykesand Ella Sykes wrote that in Kashghar women went into the bazar "transacting business with their veils thrown back" but mullahs tried to enforce veil wearing and were "in the habit of beating those who show their face in the Great Bazar".In that period, belonging to different social statuses meant a difference in how rigorously the veil was worn.
Muslim Turkestani men traditionally cut all the hair off their head.SirAurel Steinobserved that the "Turki Muhammadan, accustomed to shelter this shaven head under a substantial fur-cap when the temperature is so low as it was just then".No hair cutting for men took place on theajuz ayyam, days of the year that were considered inauspicious.
Yengisaris famous for manufacturing Uyghur handcrafted knives.The Uyghur word for knife is pichaq (پىچاق,пичақ) and the word for knifemaking (cutler) is pichaqchiliq (پىچاقچىلىقى,пичақчилиқ).Uyghur artisan craftsmen in Yengisar are known for their knife manufacture. Uyghur men carry such knives as part of their culture to demonstrate the masculinity of the wearer,but it has also led to ethnic tension.Limitations were placed on knife vending due to concerns over terrorism and violent assaults.
Most Uyghurs are agriculturists.Cultivating crops in an arid region has made the Uyghurs excel in irrigation techniques. This includes the construction and maintenance of underground channels calledkarezthat brings water from the mountains to their fields. A few of the well-known agricultural goods include apples (especially fromGhulja), sweet melons (fromHami), and grapes fromTurpan. However, many Uyghurs are also employed in the mining, manufacturing, cotton, and petrochemical industries. Local handicrafts like rug-weaving and jade-carving are also important to the cottage industry of the Uyghurs.
Some Uyghurs have been given jobs through Chinese government affirmative action programs.Uyghurs may also have difficulty receiving non-interest loans (per Islamic beliefs).The general lack of Uyghur proficiency in Mandarin Chinese also creates a barrier to access private and public sector jobs.
Since the arrival of Islam, most Uyghurs have used "Arabic names", but traditional Uyghur names and names of other origin are still used by some.After the establishment of the Soviet Union, many Uyghurs who studied in Soviet Central Asia added Russian suffixes to Russify their surnames.Names from Russia and Europe are used in Qaramay and Ürümqi by part of the population of city-dwelling Uyghurs. Others use names with hard-to-understand etymologies, with the majority dating from the Islamic era and being of Arabic or Persian derivation.Some pre-Islamic Uyghur names are preserved inTurpanandQumul.The government has banned some two dozen Islamic names.