Calabria

Calabriais aregioninSouthern Italy. It is a peninsula bordered byBasilicatato the north, theIonian Seato the east, theStrait of Messinato the southwest, which separates it fromSicily, and theTyrrhenian Seato the west. It has almost 2 million residents across a total area of 15,222 km(5,877 sq mi).Catanzarois the region's capital.
Calabria is the birthplace of thename of Italy,given to it by theAncient Greekswho settled in this land starting from the8th century BC. They established the first cities, mainly on the coast, asGreek colonies. During this period Calabria was the heart ofMagna Graecia, home of key figures in history such asPythagoras,HerodotusandMilo.
In Roman times, it was part of theRegio III Lucania et Bruttii, a region ofAugustan Italy. After theGothic War, it became and remained for five centuries aByzantinedominion, fully recovering itsGreekcharacter.Cenobitismflourished, with the rise throughout the peninsula of numerous churches, hermitages and monasteries in whichBasilian monkswere dedicated to transcription. The Byzantines introduced the art ofsilkin Calabria and made it the main silk production area inEurope. In the 11th century, theNorman conqueststarted a slow process of Latinization.
In Calabria there are three historical ethnolinguistics minorities: theGrecanici, speakingCalabrian Greek; theArbëreshë people; and theOccitansofGuardia Piemontese. This extraordinary linguistic diversity makes the region an object of study for linguists from all over the world.
Calabria is famous for its crystal clear sea waters and is dotted with ancient villages, castles and archaeological parks. Three national parks are found in the region: thePollino National Park(which is the largest in Italy), theSila National Parkand theAspromonte National Park.
Starting in the third century BC, the nameCalabriawas originally given to the Adriatic coast of theSalentopeninsula in modernApulia.In the late first century BC this name came to extend to the entirety of the Salento, when theRomanemperorAugustusdivided Italy into regions. The whole region of Apulia received the nameRegio II Apulia et Calabria. By this time modern Calabria was still known asBruttium, after theBruttianswho inhabited the region. Later in the seventh century AD, theByzantine Empirecreated the Duchy of Calabria from the Salento and theIonianpart of Bruttium. Even though the Calabrian part of the duchy was conquered by theLombardsduring the eighth and ninth centuries AD, the Byzantines continued to use the nameCalabriafor their remaining territory in Bruttium.
Originally the Greeks usedItaloito indicate the native population of modern Calabria, which according to some ancient Greek writers was derived from a legendary king of the Oenotri,Italus.
Over time the Greeks started to useItaloifor the rest of the southern Italian peninsula as well. After the Roman conquest of the region, the name was used for the entire Italian peninsula and eventually the Alpine region too.
The region is generally known as the "toe" of theItalian Peninsula, and is a long and narrow peninsula which stretches from north to south for 248 km (154 mi), with a maximum width of 110 km (68 mi). Some 42% of Calabria's area, corresponding to 15,080 km, is mountainous, 49% is hilly, while plains occupy only 9% of the region's territory. It is surrounded by theIonianandTyrrhenianseas. It is separated fromSicilyby theStrait of Messina, where the narrowest point betweenCapo Peloroin Sicily andPunta Pezzoin Calabria is only 3.2 km (2 mi).
Three mountain ranges are present:Pollino,La Sila, andAspromonte, each with its own flora and fauna. ThePollino Mountainsin the north of the region are rugged and form a natural barrier separating Calabria from the rest of Italy. Parts of the area are heavily wooded, while others are vast, wind-swept plateaus with little vegetation. These mountains are home to a rareBosnian Pinevariety and are included in thePollino National Park, which is the largest national park in Italy, covering 1,925.65 square kilometres.
La Sila, which has been referred to as the "Great Wood of Italy",is a vast mountainous plateau about 1,200 m (3,900 ft)above sea leveland stretches for nearly 2,000 km(770 sq mi) along the central part of Calabria. The highest point isBotte Donato, which reaches 1,928 m (6,325 ft). The area boasts numerous lakes and dense coniferous forests. La Sila also has some of the tallest trees in Italy which are called the "Giants of the Sila" and can reach up to 40 m (130 ft) in height.The Sila National Park is also known to have the purest air in Europe.
TheAspromontemassif forms the southernmost tip of the Italian peninsula bordered by the sea on three sides. This unique mountainous structure reaches its highest point at Montalto, at 1,995 m (6,545 ft), and is full of wide, man-made terraces that slope down toward the sea.
Most of the lower terrain in Calabria has been agricultural for centuries, and exhibits indigenous scrubland as well as introduced plants such as theprickly pear cactus. The lowest slopes are rich in vineyards and orchards of citrus fruit, including theDiamante citron. Further up, olives and chestnut trees appear while in the higher regions there are often dense forests of oak, pine, beech and fir trees.
Calabria's climate is influenced by the sea and mountains. TheMediterranean climateis typical of the coastal areas with considerable differences in temperature and rainfall between the seasons, with an average low of 8 °C (46 °F) during the winter months and an average high of 30 °C (86 °F) during the summer months. Mountain areas have a typical mountainous climate with frequent snow during winter. The erratic behavior of the Tyrrhenian Sea can bring heavy rainfall on the western slopes of the region, while hot air from Africa makes the east coast of Calabria dry and warm. The mountains that run along the region also influence the climate and temperature of the region. The east coast is much warmer and has wider temperature ranges than the west coast. The geography of the region causes more rain to fall along the west coast than that of the east coast, which occurs mainly during winter and autumn and less during the summer months.
Below are the two extremes of climate in Calabria, the warm mediterranean subtype on the coastline and the highland climate of Monte Scuro.
Calabria is commonly considered part of the "Calabrian Arc", an arc-shaped geographic domain extending from the southern part of theBasilicataRegion to the northeast ofSicily, and including thePeloritano Mountains(although some authors extend this domain fromNaplesin the north toPalermoin the southwest). The Calabrian area shows basement (crystalline and metamorphic rocks) ofPaleozoicand younger ages, covered by (mostly Upper)Neogenesediments. Studies have revealed that these rocks comprise the upper part of a pile of thrust sheets which dominate theApenninesand the SicilianMaghrebides.
TheNeogeneevolution of the Central Mediterranean system is dominated by the migration of the Calabrian Arc to the southeast, overriding the African Plate and its promontories.) The main tectonic elements of the Calabrian Arc are the southern Apennines fold-and-thrust belt, the "Calabria-Peloritani", or simply Calabrian block and the Sicilian Maghrebides fold-and-thrust belt. The foreland area is formed by theApuliaPlatform, which is part of theAdriaticPlate, and theRagusaorIbleanPlatform, which is an extension of the African Plate. These platforms are separated by theIonian Basin. TheTyrrhenianoceanized basin is regarded as theback-arc basin. Thissubductionsystem therefore shows the southern plates of African affinity subducting below the northern plates of European affinity.
The geology of Calabria has been studied for more than a century.The earlier works were mainly dedicated to the evolution of the basement rocks of the area. The Neogene sedimentary successions were merely regarded as "post-orogenic" infill of "neo-tectonic" tensional features. In the course of time, however, a shift can be observed in the temporal significance of these terms, from post-Eoceneto post-EarlyMioceneto post-middlePleistocene.
The region is seismically active and is generally ascribed to the re-establishment of an equilibrium after the latest (mid-Pleistocene) deformation phase. Some authors believe that the subduction process is still ongoing, which is a matter of debate.
Calabria has one of the oldest records of human presence in Italy, which date back to around 700,000 BC when a type ofHomo erectusevolved leaving traces around coastal areas.During thePaleolithicperiod Stone Age humans created the "Bos Primigenius", a figure of a bull on a cliff which dates back around 12,000 years in theRomito Cavein the town ofPapasidero. When the Neolithic period came the first villages were founded around 3,500 BC.
Around 1500 BC a tribe called theOenotri("vine-cultivators"), settled in the region.Ancient sources state they wereGreekswho were led to the region by their king,Oenotrus. However it is believed they were an ancient Italic people who spoke an Italic language.During the eighth and seventh centuries BC, Greek settlers founded many colonies (settlements) on the coast of southern Italy. In Calabria they founded Chone (Pallagorio), Cosentia (Cosenza), Clampetia (Amantea),Scyllaeum(Scilla),Sybaris(Sibari),Hipponion(Vibo Valentia),Locri Epizephyrii(Locri),Kaulon(Monasterace),Krimisa(Cirò Marina),Kroton(Crotone),Laüs(comuneofSanta Maria del Cedro),Medma(Rosarno),Metauros(Gioia Tauro),Petelia(Strongoli),Rhégion(Reggio Calabria),Scylletium(Borgia),Temesa(Campora San Giovanni),Terina(Nocera Terinese),Pandosia(Acri) andThurii, (Thurio,comuneofCorigliano Calabro).
Rhegion was the birthplace of one of the famednine lyric poets,Ibycusand Metauros was the birthplace of another,Stesichorus, who was amongst the first lyric poets of the western world. Kroton spawned many victors during the ancient Olympics and other Panhellenic Games. Amongst the most famous wereMilo of Croton, who won six wrestling events in six Olympics in a row, along with seven events in the Pythian Games, nine events in the Nemean Games and ten events in the Isthmian Games and alsoAstylos of Croton, who won six running events in three Olympics in a row.ThroughAlcmaeon of Croton(a philosopher and medical theorist) andPythagoras(a mathematician and philosopher), who moved to Kroton in 530 BC, the city became a renowned center of philosophy, science and medicine. The Greeks ofSybariscreated "Intellectual Property."TheSybaritesfounded at least 20 other colonies, including Poseidonia (Paestumin Latin, on theTyrrheniancoast of Lucania),Laüs(on the border with Lucania) andScidrus(on the Lucanian coast in theGulf of Taranto).Locriwas renowned for being the town whereZaleucuscreated the first Western Greek law, the "Locrian Code"and the birthplace of ancient epigrammist and poetNossis.
The Greek cities of Calabria came under pressure from theLucanianswho conquered the north of Calabria and pushed further south, taking over part of the interior, probably after they defeated theThuriansnear Laus in 390 BC. A few decades later theBruttiitook advantage of the weakening of the Greek cites caused by wars between them and took over Hipponium,Terinaand Thurii. The Bruttii helped the Lucanians fightAlexander of Epirus(334–32 BC), who had come to the aid ofTarentum(inApulia), which was also pressured by the Lucanians. After this,Agathocles of Syracuseravaged the coast of Calabria with his fleet, took Hipponium and forced the Bruttii into unfavourable peace terms. However, they soon seized Hipponium again. After Agathloces' death in 289 BC the Lucanians and Bruttii pushed into the territory of Thurii and ravaged it. The city sent envoys to Rome to ask for help in 285 BC and 282 BC. On the second occasion, the Romans sent forces to garrison the city. This was part of the episode which sparked the Pyrrhic war.
At the beginning of the 3rd century BC the cities of southern Italy, which had been allies of the Samnites, were still independentbut inevitably came into conflict as a result of Rome's continuous expansionas their expansion in central and northern Italy had not been sufficient to provide new arable lands they needed.
During the Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC) the Lucanians and Bruttii sided with Pyrrhus and provided contingents which fought with his army.
After Pyrrhus was eventually defeated, to avoid Roman revenge the Bruttii submitted willingly and gave up half of the Sila, a mountainous plateau valuable for its pitch and timber.Rome subjugated southern Italy by means of treaties with the cities.
During the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) the Bruttii allied withHannibal, who sentHanno, one of his commanders, to Calabria. Hanno marched towardCapua(in Campania) with Bruttian soldiers to take them to Hannibal's headquarters there twice, but he was defeated on both occasions. When his campaign in Italy came to a dead end, Hannibal took refuge in Calabria, whose steep mountains provided protection against the Roman legions. He set up his headquarters in Kroton and stayed there for four years until he was recalled to Carthage. The Romans fought a battle with him near Kroton, but its details are unknown. Many Calabrian cities surrendered to the Romansand Calabria was put under a military commander.
Nearly a decade after the war, the Romans set up colonies in Calabria: at Tempsa and Kroton (Croto in Latin) in 194 BC, Copiae in the territory of Thurii (Thurium in Latin) in 193 BC, and Vibo Valentia in the territory of Hipponion in 192 BC.
Starting in the third century BC, the nameCalabriawas given to the Adriatic coast of theSalentopeninsula in modernApulia.In the late first century BC this name came to extend to the entirety of the Salento, when theRomanemperorAugustusdivided Italy into regions and modern Calabria was known as Regio III Lucania et Bruttii.
After sacking Rome in 410, Alaric I (King of the Visigoths) went to Calabria with the intention of sailing to Africa. He contracted malaria and died in Cosentia (Cosenza), probably of fever. Legend has it that he along with the treasure of Rome were buried under the bed of the River Busento.
With the fall of the western part of the Roman Empire in 476, Italy was taken over by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer and later became part of theOstrogothic Kingdomin 489. The Ostrogothic kings ruled officially as Magistri Militum of the Byzantine Emperors and all government and administrative positions were held by the Romans, while all primary laws were legislated by the Byzantine Emperor. Therefore, during the sixth century, under the Ostrogoths' rule, Romans could still be at the center of government and cultural life, such as the RomanCassiodoruswho, like Boethius and Symmachus, emerged as one of the most prominent men of his time. He was an administrator, politician, scholar and historian who was born in Scylletium (near Catanzaro). He spent most of his career trying to bridge the divides of East and West, Greek and Latin cultures, Romans and Goths, and official Christianity andArian Christianity, which was the form of Christianity of the Ostrogoths and which had earlier been banned. He set up hisVivarium (monastery)in Scylletium. He oversaw the collation of three editions of the Bible in Latin. Seeing the practicality of uniting all the books of the Bible in one volume, he was the first who produced Latin Bibles in single volumes.The most well-known of them was theCodex Grandiorwhich was the ancestor of all modern western Bibles.
Cassiodorus was at the heart of the administration of the Ostrogothic kingdom. Theodoric made him quaestor sacri palatii (quaestor of the sacred palace, the senior legal authority) in 507, governor of Lucania and Bruttium, consul in 514 and magister officiorum (master of offices, one of the most senior administrative officials) in 523. He was praetorian prefect (chief minister) under the successors of Theodoric: under Athalaric (Theodoric's grandson, reigned 526–34) in 533 and, between 535 and 537, under Theodahad (Theodoric's nephew, reigned 534–36) and Witiges (Theodoric's grandson-in-law, reigned, 536–40).The major works of Cassiodorus, besides the mentioned bibles, were the Historia Gothorum, a history of the Goths, the Variae and account of his administrative career and the Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum, an introduction to the study of the sacred scriptures and the liberal arts which was very influential in the Middle Ages.
Byzantine(Eastern Roman) Emperor Justinian I, retook Italy from the Ostrogoths between 535 and 556. They soon lost much of Italy to theLombardsbetween 568 and 590, but retained the south for around 500 years until 1059–1071, where they thrived and where the Greek language was the official and vernacular language. In Calabria and towns such asStiloandRossanoandSan Demetrio Coroneachieved great religious status. From the 7th Century many monasteries were built in the Amendolea and Stilaro Valleys and Stilo was the destination of hermits and Basilian monks. Many Byzantine churches are still seen in the region. The 10th-century church in Rossano, together with the "twin" church of Sant'Adriano in San Demetrio Corone (foundation 955, rebuilt by theNormanson the, still, visible foundations of the previous Byzantine church), are considered between the best preserved Byzantine churches in Italy. They were both built by St.Nilus the Youngeras a retreat for the monks who lived in the tufa grottos underneath. The present name of Calabria comes from the duchy of Calabria.
Around the year 800,Saracensbegan invading the shores of Calabria, attempting to wrest control of the area from the Byzantines. This group ofArabshad already been successfulin Sicilyand knew that Calabria was another key spot. The people of Calabria retreated into the mountains for safety. Although the Arabs never really got a stronghold on the whole of Calabria, they did control some villages while enhancing trade relations with the eastern world.In 918, Saracens capturedReggio(which was renamedRivà), holding many of its inhabitants to ransom or keeping them prisoners as slaves.It is during this time of Arab invasions that many staples of today's Calabrian cuisine came into fashion:Citrusfruits andeggplantsfor example. Exotic spices such as cloves and nutmeg were also introduced.
Under the Byzantine dominion, between the end of the 9th and the beginning of the 10th century, Calabria was one of the first regions of Italy to introduce silk production to Europe.
According to André Guillou,mulberry treesfor the production of raw silk were introduced to southern Italy by the Byzantines at the end of the ninth century.
Around 1050 the theme of Calabria had 24,000, mulberry trees cultivated for their foliage, and their number tended to expand.
At the beginning of the tenth century (c.903),the city of Catanzaro was occupied by the MuslimSaracens, who founded anemirateand took the Arab name of قطنصار – Qaṭanṣār. An Arab presence is evidenced by findings at an eighth-century necropolis which had items with Arabic inscriptions. Around the year 1050, Catanzaro rebelled against Saracen dominance and returned to a brief period of Byzantine control.
In the 1060s theNormans, under the leadership ofRobert Guiscard's brother,Roger I of Sicily, established a presence in thisborderland, and organized a government modeled on the Eastern Roman Empire and was run by the local magnates of Calabria. Of note is that the Normans established their presence here, in southern Italy (namely Calabria), 6 years prior to their conquest of England, (seeThe Battle of Hastings). The purpose of this strategic presence in Calabria was to lay the foundations for the Crusades 30 years later, and for the creation of two Kingdoms: the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and the Kingdom of Sicily. Ships would sail from Calabria to the Holy Land. This made Calabria one of the richest regions in Europe as princes from the noble families of England, France and other regions, constructed secondary residences and palaces here, on their way to the Holy Land. Guiscard's sonBohemond, who was born inSan Marco Argentano, would be one of the leaders in the first crusade. Of particular note is theVia Francigena, an ancient pilgrim route that goes from Canterbury to Rome and southern Italy, reaching Calabria, Basilicata and Apulia, where the crusaders lived, prayed and trained, respectively.
In 1098,Roger I of Sicilywas named the equivalent of an apostolic legate byPope Urban II. His sonRoger II of Sicilylater became the firstKing of Sicilyand formed what would become theKingdom of Sicily, which lasted nearly 700 years. Under the Normans southern Italy was united as one region and started a feudal system of land ownership in which the Normans were made lords of the land while peasants performed all the work on the land.
In 1147, Roger II of Sicily attackedCorinthandThebes, two important centers of Byzantine silk production, capturing the weavers and their equipment and establishing his own silkworks in Calabria,thereby causing the Norman silk industry to flourish.
In 1194,Frederick II, took control of the region, after inheriting the Kingdom from his motherConstance, Queen of Sicily. He created a kingdom that blended cultures, philosophy and customs and would build several castles, while fortifying existing ones which the Normans previously constructed. After the death of Frederick II in 1250, Calabria was controlled by theCapetian House of Anjou, under the rule ofCharles d’Anjouafter being granted the crown of the Sicilian Kingdom byPope Clement IV. In 1282, under Charles d’Anjou, Calabria became a domain of the newly createdKingdom of Naples, and no longer of the Kingdom of Sicily, after he lost Sicily due to the rebellion of theSicilian Vespers.During the 14th century, would emergeBarlaam of Seminarawho would bePetrarch's Greek teacher and his discipleLeonzio Pilato, who would translate Homer's works forGiovanni Boccaccio.
While the cultivation ofmulberrywas moving first steps innorthern Italy, silk made in Calabria reached the peak of 50% of the whole Italian/European production. As the cultivation of mulberry was difficult in Northern and Continental Europe, merchants and operators used to purchase in Calabria raw materials to finish the products and resell them for a better price. TheGenoesesilk artisans used fine Calabrian silk for the production of velvets.In particular, the silk ofCatanzarosupplied almost all of Europe and was sold in a large market fair to Spanish,Venetian,Genoese,Florentineand Dutch merchants.
Catanzaro became the lace capital of Europe with a large silkworm breeding facility that produced all the laces and linens used in theVatican. The city was known for its fabrication of silks, velvets, damasks and brocades.
In the 15th century,Catanzarowas exporting both its silk cloth and its technical skills to neighbouringSicily. By the middle of the century, silk spinning was taking place in Catanzaro, on a large scale.
In 1442, the Aragonese took control underAlfonso V of Aragonwho became ruler under theCrown of Aragon. In 1501 Calabria came under the control ofFerdinand II of Aragon, whose wife Queen Isabella of Castille is famed for sponsoring the first voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492. Calabria suffered greatly under Aragonese rule with heavy taxes, feuding landlords, starvation and sickness. After a brief period in the early 1700s under the Austrian Habsburgs, Calabria came into the control of the Spanish Bourbons in 1735.It was during the 16th century that Calabria would contribute to modern world history with the creation of theGregorian calendarby the Calabrian doctor and astronomerLuigi Lilio.
In 1466, KingLouis XIdecided to develop a national silk industry inLyonand called a large number of Italian workers, mainly from Calabria. The fame of the master weavers of Catanzaro spread throughout France and they were invited to Lyon to teach the techniques of weaving.In 1470, one of these weavers, known in France as Jean Le Calabrais, invented the first prototype of aJacquard-type loom.He introduced a new kind of machine which was able to work the yarns faster and more precisely. Over the years, improvements to the loom were ongoing.
Charles V of Spainformally recognized the growth of the silk industry ofCatanzaroin 1519 by allowing the city to establish a consulate of the silk craft, charged with regulating and check in the various stages of a production that flourished throughout the sixteenth century. At the moment of the creation of its guild, the city declared that it had over 500looms. By 1660, when the town had about 16,000 inhabitants, its silk industry kept 1,000 looms, and at least 5,000 people, busy. The silk textiles ofCatanzarowere not only sold at thekingdom's markets, they were also exported to Venice, France, Spain and England.
In the 16th century, Calabria was characterized by a strong demographic and economic development, mainly due to the increasing demand of silk products and the simultaneous growth of prices, and became one of the most important Mediterranean markets for silk.
In 1563 philosopher and natural scientistBernardino Telesiowrote "On the Nature of Things according to their Own Principles" and pioneered early modern empiricism. He would also influence the works of Francis Bacon, René Descartes, Giordano Bruno, Tommaso Campanella and Thomas Hobbes.In 1602 philosopher and poetTommaso Campanellawrote his most famous work, "The City of the Sun" and would later defend Galileo Galilei during his first trial with his work "A Defense of Galileo", which was written in 1616 and published in 1622.In 1613 philosopher and economistAntonio Serrawrote "A Short Treatise on the Wealth and Poverty of Nations" and was a pioneer in the Mercantilist tradition.
During the 17th century, silk production in Calabria begin to suffer by the strong competition of new-raising competitors in Italian Peninsula and Europe (France), but also the increasing import from Ottoman Empire and Persia.
Foundation of the historical Italo-Albanian College and Library in 1732byPope Clement XIItransferred from San Benedetto Ullano toSan Demetrio Coronein 1794.
In 1783, a series ofearthquakes across Calabriacaused around 50,000 deaths and much damage to property, so that many of the buildings in the region were rebuilt after this date.
At the end of the 18th century, the French took control and in 1808 Napoleon Bonaparte gave the Kingdom of Naples to his brother-in-lawJoachim Murat. Murat controlled the kingdom until the return of the Bourbons in 1815. The population of Calabria in 1844 was 1,074,558.
Calabria experienced a series of peasant revolts as part of the EuropeanRevolutions of 1848. This set the stage for the eventual unification with the rest of Italy in 1861, when theKingdom of Napleswas brought into the union byGiuseppe Garibaldi. The unification was orchestrated by Great Britain in an attempt to nationalize the production of sulfur from the two volcanoes located in Naples and Sicily respectively. TheAspromontewas the scene of a famous battle of the unification of Italy. During the late 19th or early 20th century, pianist and composerAlfonso Rendanoinvented the "Third Pedal",which augmented the interpretative resources of the piano.
The ancient Greek colonies from Naples and to the south, had been completelyLatinized, but from the fifth century AD onward Greeks had once again emigrated there when pressed out of their homeland by invasions. This Greek Diaspora allowed the ancient Greek dialects to continue in southern Italy, much in the same way that the Italian Diaspora allowed long-lost dialects from Italy to thrive in countries where Italians emigrated to. Greek texts were also valued in monasteries and places of learning. However it wasCharlemagnein the 8th century, who made Latin the 'official' language of study and communication for Europe. For the sake of uniformity, he supplanted much of the Greek spoken, read or taught in Europe. It was through language (Latin) and education (Latin texts) that Charlemagne united Europe.
During the 13th century a French chronicler who traveled through Calabria stated that "the peasants of Calabria spoke nothing but Greek" given he had traveled to areas where Greek was still available. But the educated classes spoke Italian. Indeed, formal Italian has been taught in schools throughout Italy for nearly two centuries, causing the ancient languages and dialects to continually disappear, much to the chagrin of the cultural community. These lost dialects continue to thrive to this day in North America and Australia, places where Italians emigrated to, on account of theDiaspora.
On 19 August 1860, Calabria was invaded from Sicily byGiuseppe Garibaldiand his Redshirts as part of theExpedition of the Thousand.Through King Francesco II of Naples had dispatched 16,000 soldiers to stop the Redshirts, who numbered about 3,500, after a token battle at Reggio Calabria won by the Redshirts, all resistance ceased and Garibaldi was welcomed as a liberator from the oppressive rule of the Bourbons wherever he went in Calabria.Calabria together with the rest of the Kingdom of Naples was incorporated in 1861 into the Kingdom of Italy. Garibaldi planned to complete theRisorgimentoby invading Rome, still ruled by the pope protected by a French garrison, and began with semi-official encouragement to raise an army.Subsequently, King Victor Emmanuel II decided the possibility of war with France was too dangerous, and on 29 August 1862 Garibaldi's base in the Calabrian town ofAspromontewas attacked by theRegio Esercito.TheBattle of Aspromonteended with the Redshirts defeated with several being executed after surrendering while Garibaldi was badly wounded.
In the newly unified Kingdom of Italy, there were significant differences in level of economic development between theNord(north) of Italy and theMezzogiorno(the south of Italy). Calabria together with the rest of theMezzogiornowas neglected under the Kingdom of Italy with the general feeling in Rome being that the region was hopelessly backward and poor. In the late 19th century about 70% of the population of theMezzogiornowere illiterate as the government never invested in education for the south.Owing to theRoman Question, until 1903 the Roman Catholic Church had prohibited on the pain of excommunication Catholic men from voting in Italian elections (Italian women were not granted the right to vote until 1946).As the devoutly Catholic population of Calabria tended to boycott elections, the deputies who were elected from the region were the products of the clientistic system, representing the interests of the land-owning aristocracy. In common with the deputies from other regions of theMezzogiorno, they voted against more money for education under the grounds that an educated population would demand changes that would threaten the power of the traditional elite.Owing to a weak state, society in Calabria came to be dominated in the late 19th century by an organized crime group known as'Ndranghetawhich, like the Mafia in Sicily and the Camorra in Campania, formed a "parallel state" that co-existed alongside the Italian state.Between 1901 and 1914 Calabrians began emigrating in large numbers, mostly for North America and South America, with the peak year being 1905 with 62,690.
On 28 December 1908, Calabria together with Sicily was devastated by anearthquake and then by a tsunamicaused by the earthquake, causing about 80,000 deaths.Within hours of the disaster, ships of theBritishand Russian navies had arrived on the coast to assist the survivors, but it took theRegia Marinatwo days to send a relief expedition from Naples.The bumbling and ineffectual response of the Italian authorities to the disaster caused by feuding officials who did not wish to co-operate with each other contributed to the high death toll as it took weeks for aid to reach some villages and caused much resentment in Calabria.To offset widespread criticism that the northern-dominated government in Rome did not care about the people of Calabria, KingVictor Emmanuel IIIpersonally took over the relief operation and toured the destroyed villages of Calabria, which won the House of Savoy a measure of popularity in the region.Most notably, after the king took charge of the relief efforts, the feuding between officials ceased and relief aid was delivered with considerably more efficiency, winning Victor Emmanuel the gratitude of the Calabrians.
Fascism was not popular in Calabria. In December 1924 when a false rumor spread inReggio CalabriathatBenito Mussolinihad resigned as Prime Minister because of the Matteotti affair, joyous celebrations took place in the city that lasted all night.In the morning, the people of Reggio Calabria learned that Mussolini was still prime minister, but several Fascist officials were dismissed for not suppressing the celebrations. The landed aristocracy and gentry of Calabria, through generally not ideologically committed to Fascism, saw the Fascist regime as a force for order and social stability, and supported the dictatorship.Likewise, the prefects and the policemen of Calabria were conservatives who saw themselves as serving King Victor Emmanuel III first and Mussolini second, but supported Fascism as preferable to Socialism and Communism and persecuted anti-Fascists.Traditional elites in Calabria joined the Fascist Party to pursue their own interests, and local branches of Fascist Party were characterized by much jostling for power and influence between elite families.Under the Fascist regime, several concentration camps were built in Calabria and used to imprison foreigners whose presence in Italy was considered undesirable, such as Chinese immigrants and foreignJews(though notItalian Jews) together with members of theRomaniminority, whose nomadic lifestyle was viewed as anti-social.The camps which operated from 1938 to 1943 were not death camps, and the majority of those imprisoned survived, but conditions were harsh for the imprisoned.
On 3 September 1943, British andCanadiantroops of the British 8th Army landed in Calabria inOperation Baytown, marking the first time that the Allies landed on the mainland of Italy.However, the landings in Calabria were a feint and the main Allied blow came on 8 September 1943 with the landing of the American 5th Army atSalernoin Campania that was intended to cut off Axis forces in theMezzogiorno.The Germans anticipated that the Allies would land at Salerno, and as a consequence, there was relatively little fighting in Calabria.The Italian troops in Calabria mostly surrendered to the advancing 5th British Division and the 1st Canadian Division while there were relatively few German forces in the region to oppose their advance.The main obstacle to the advancing Anglo-Canadian troops turned out to be the trail of destruction left by German combat engineers who systematically blew up bridges and destroyed roads and railroads as the Wehrmacht retreated north.On the same day the Americans landed at Salerno, GeneralDwight Eisenhowerannounced on the radio theArmistice of Cassibilethat had been signed on 3 September, and with the announcement of the armistice all Italian resistance ceased.The Germans committed most of their forces in theMezzogiornoto the Battle of Salerno with the aim of driving the Allies back into the sea and pulled their remaining forces out of Calabria to send them to Salerno.Under the Allied occupation, some Fascists in Calabria waged a terrorist struggle on behalf of the Salo republic, though significantly many of the Fascists tended to be from well-off families concerned about the possibility of social reforms that might weaken their power and only a minority such as Prince Valerio Pignatelli were ideological Fascists.In June 1944, celebrations in Reggio Calabria over the news of the liberation of Rome were disturbed by local Fascists.
The British historian Jonathan Dunnage wrote that there was an "institutional continuity" between the civil servants of the Liberal, Fascist and post-Fascist eras in Calabria as each change of regime saw the bureaucrats of the region adjust to whatever regime was in power in Rome and there was no purge of civil servants either after 1922 or 1943.The "institutional continuity" of the bureaucracy of Calabria were committed to preserving the social structure.On 2 June 1946 referendum Calabria, like the rest of theMezzogiorno, voted solidly to retain the monarchy. The clientistic political system in Calabria under which elite families handed out patronage to their supporters and used violence against their opponents, which was the prevailing norm in the Liberal and Fascist eras continued after 1945.During the Second World War, the already low living standards of Calabria declined further and the region was notorious as one of the most violent and lawless areas of Italy.Attempts by the peasants of Calabria to take over the land owned by the elite were usually resisted by the authorities. On 28 October 1949 in Melissa the police opened fire on peasants who had seized the land of a local baron, killing three men who were shot in the back as they attempted to flee.Between 1949 and 1966 another wave of migration took place with the peak year of migration being 1957 with some 38, 090 Calabrians leaving that year.
Under the First Republic, starting in the 1960s, investment plans were launched under which Italian state sponsored industrialisation and attempted to improve the infrastructure of Calabria by building modern roads, railroads, ports, etc.The plan was a notable failure with the infrastructure projects going wildly over-budget and taking far longer to complete then scheduled; for an example, construction started on the A3 highway in 1964 intended to link Reggio Calabria to Salerno, which was as of 2016 still unfinished.The failure to complete the A3 highway after 52 years of effort is regarded as a scandal in Italy, and many parts of Calabria were described as an "industrial graveyard" full of the closed down steel mills and chemical plants that all went bankrupt.From July 1970 to February 1971 theReggio revolttook place as the decision to make Catanzaro instead of Reggio the regional capital prompted massive protests.The compromise decision to make Catanzaro the executive capital and Reggio the administrative capital has led to a bloated and inefficient administration.The high unemployment rate in Calabria has led to extensive migration and Calabria's biggest export has been its own people as Calabrians have moved to either other parts of Italy and abroad, especially to the United States, Canada and Argentina, to seek a better life.In 2016, it was estimated that 18% of the people born in Calabria were living abroad.
The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Calabria is subdivided as follows: service industry (28.94%), financial activities and real estate (21.09%), trade, tourism, transportation and communication (19.39%), taxation (11.49%), manufacturing (8.77%), construction (6.19%) and agriculture (4.13%). GDP per capita is 2.34 times less and unemployment is 4 times higher than inLombardy.Calabria's economy is still based mainly on agriculture.
The economy of the region is strongly affected by the presence of the'Ndrangheta(the localMafiasyndicate).
Calabria is agriculturally rich, with the Italy's second highest number oforganic farmersafterSicily.
Thered onionofTropeais cultivated during summer period on the Tyrrhenian coast of central Calabria.It has been awarded with theprotected geographical indication(PGI).
Theolive treerepresents 29.6% of utilized agricultural area (UAA) and approximately 70% of tree crops.Olive tree cultivation extends from coastal lowland areas to hilly and lower mountainous areas.
The region is the second-highest forolive oilproductionwith Carolea, Ogliarola, and Saracena olives as the main regional varieties.
In Calabria, there are 3PDOoils: "Bruzio" in the province ofCosenza, "Lametia" in the area ofLamezia Termeand the more recent "Alto Crotonese".In addition to DOP oils there are alsoPGIoils. The production area of "Olio di Calabria" PGI includes the entire territory of the Calabria region. The production is made exclusively from indigenous olives.
Calabria produces about a quarter of Italy'scitrus fruit.The contribution of this region to growing citrus fruit in Italy can be attributed mainly toclementines,oranges,mandarinsandlemons. Calabria is by far the country's most important clementine-growing region, which account for about 62% (16,164 ha) of the Italian surface dedicated to its cultivation and 69% (437,800 tons) of the total production.Clementina di Calabria is the PGI variety grown in the Calabria region.Alsochinottois cultivated and used to producecarbonated soft drinkwith thesame name.
Minor fruits such asbergamotandcitronand lemon-citron hybrids are found exclusively in Calabria. The south coast of the region produces 90% of the world's bergamots, with a huge industry built around the extraction of bergamot oil.According to Harvard Atlas of Economic Complexity, last year with Italian net export of bergamot oil was 2009 in value of $253,000, after that between 2010 and 2018 was no export of it.TheBergamot orangehas been intensively cultivated since the 18th century,but only in the coastal area nearby toReggio, where geological and weather conditions are optimal. TheChabadHasidic dynasty have a preference to takecitrons("Etrog") from this region for theSukkotfestival.
There is special researchExperimental Station for the Industry of the Essential oils and Citrus productsinReggio di Calabria.
Theprovince of Cosenzarepresents an important area forfigsgrowing belonging to cultivar "Dottato" that is used to produce the quality-branded dried figs "Fichi di Cosenza" PDO (protected designation of origin).Theanona cherimoya, a plant of tropical origin cultivated in Europe only inReggio di Calabriaand Spain.
In theprovince of Catanzaro, betweenSan FloroandCortale,the ancient tradition ofsericultureis still kept alive, thanks to young generations.
Calabria is the largest producer ofporcini mushroomsin Italy, thanks to the heavily wooded forests of the mountains ranges ofPollino,Sila,SerreandAspromonte.Chestnutproduction is also widespread in the Calabrian mountains.But not onlyporcini mushrooms, there is other popularred pine mushroom or rosito.
Peachesand nectarines from Calabria have greatly improved in terms of flavour, quality, safety and service. A part of the production is sold on the domestic market, mainly to retailers. The remaining is exported to Northern Europe, mainlyScandinaviaand Germany.
The region boasts a very ancient tradition in the cultivation and production ofliquorice. The eighty percent of the national production is concentrated in this region.
Calabria has long coast and produce some distinctive fish products:
Food and textile industries are the most developed and vibrant. Within the industrial sector, manufacturing contributes to a gross value added of 7.2%. In the manufacturing sector the main branches are foodstuff, beverage and tobacco with a contribution to the sector very close to the national average.Over the recent decades some petrochemical, engineering and chemical industries have emerged, within the areas ofCrotone,Vibo ValentiaandReggio Calabria.
The province of Catanzaro boasts a great tradition in the textile manufacturing, especially silk. Recently, several young people have given new life to this activity, developing green and sustainable economy projects. In fact, among the municipalities ofGirifalco,San FloroandCortale,sericultureis still practiced, the breeding ofsilkwormscombined with the cultivation ofmulberry trees.
TirioloandBadolatoare known above all for the manufacturing of the "vancale", the typical Calabrian shawl, made ofwoolor silk, worn by women in ancient times on traditional costumes during the dance oftarantella, or as an ornamental decoration of the houses.
Typical in Tiriolo is also the manufacturing of carpets,linenandbroomfibers,bobbin lacemaking,embroidery, preciousceramics, furnishing objects and artistic sculptures. The artistic production of weaving is also active in other centers such as inPlataniaandPetrizziwhere oncehempfibers were also produced.
InSoveria Mannelli, Lanificio Leo,the oldest textile factory in Calabria founded in 1873, is still active. The factory still retains majestic and evocative tools dating back to the late nineteenth century.
The traditional production of artistic ceramics dating back to theMagna Graeciaperiod is handed down in the ancient towns ofSquillaceandSeminara.
The small town ofSerrastretta, a green village in the woods of Presila, is known for its wood production, in particular for its chairs characterized by a very originalstraw.
There is a plant ofHitachi Rail ItalyinReggio di Calabria, which manufacturesrailcarsof regional trains such asVivalto.
Tourism in Calabria has increased over the years. The main tourist attractions are the coastline and the mountains. The coastline alternates between rugged cliffs and sandy beaches, and is sparsely interrupted by development when compared to other European seaside destinations. The sea around Calabria is clear, and there is a good level of tourist accommodation. The poetGabriele D'Annunziocalled the coast facing Sicily near Reggio Calabria "... the most beautiful kilometer in Italy" (il più bel chilometro d'Italia).The primary mountain tourist draws areAspromonteandLa Sila, with its national park and lakes. Some other prominent destinations include:
Calabria attracts year-round tourism, offering both summer and winter activities, in addition to its cultural, historical, artistic heritage, it has an abundance of protected natural habitats and 'green' zones. The 485 mi (781 km) of its coast make Calabria a tourist destination during the summer. The low industrial development and the lack of major cities in much of its territory have allowed the maintenance of indigenous marine life.
The most sought-after seaside destinations are:Tropea,Pizzo Calabro,Capo Vaticano,Reggio Calabria,Soverato,Scilla,Scalea,Sellia Marina,Montepaone,Montauro, Copanello (comuneofStaletti),Tonnara di Palmi,Diamante,Paola,Fiumefreddo Bruzio,Amantea,Praia a Mare,Belvedere Marittimo,Roseto Capo Spulico,Corigliano Calabro,Cirò Marina,Amendolara,Roccella Ionica,Bagnara Calabra,Nicotera,Cariati,Zambrone,Isola di Capo Rizzuto, Caminia (comuneofStaletti),Siderno,Parghelia,RicadiandSan Nicola Arcella.
In addition to the coastal tourist destinations, the interior of Calabria is rich in history, traditions, art and culture. Cosenza is among the most important cultural cities of Calabria, with a rich historical and artistic patrimony. Medieval castles, towers, churches, monasteries and other French castles and structures from the Norman to the Aragonese periods are common elements in both the interior and coastline of Calabria.
The mountains offer skiing and other winter activities:Sila,PollinoandAspromonteare three national parks that offer facilities for winter sports, especially in the towns of Camigliatello (comuneofSpezzano della Sila), Lorica (comuneofSan Giovanni in Fiore),Gambarie.
Calabria has many small and picturesque villages, 15 of them have been selected byI Borghi più belli d'Italia(English:The most beautiful Villages of Italy),a non-profit private association of small Italian towns of strong historical and artistic interest,that was founded on the initiative of the Tourism Council of the National Association of Italian Municipalities.
The unemployment rate stood at20.1%in 2020 and was the highest in Italy and one of the highest inside the European Union.
The region is served by three heavily used roads: two national highways along the coasts (the SS18 betweenNaplesand Reggio Calabria and the SS106 between Reggio Calabria andTaranto) and theA2 motorway,which linksSalernoto Reggio Calabria, passing byCosenzaalong the old inland route.Building this motorwaytook 55 years and was extremely over budget due to organized crime infiltration.
The main road infrastructures can be classified into two separate groups, the first including the road infrastructures that cross the whole of Calabria from north to south:
The second group includes the roads, which run through the region from the Tyrrhenian coast to the Ionian coast (west-east) .
There is high-speed rail on Calabria's Tyrrhenian Coast with theFrecciargento(Silver Arrow) offering a route from Rome to Reggio Calabria. There are also many ferries connecting Calabria with Sicily through theStrait of Sicilywith the main one being fromVilla San Giovannito Messina.
The main Calabrian ports are inGioia Tauroand inReggio Calabria.
Theport of Gioia Taurohas seven loading docks with an extension of 4,646 m (15,243 ft); it is the largest in Italy and the eighth largestcontainer portin Europe, with a 2018 throughput of 4.0 millionTEUsfrom more than 3,000 ships. In a 2006 report, Italian investigators estimated that 80% of Europe'scocainearrived fromColombiavia Gioia Tauro's docks. The port is also involved in theillegal arms trafficking. These activities are controlled by the 'Ndranghetacriminal syndicate.
Theport of Reggiois equipped with five loading docks of a length of 1,530 m (5,020 ft).
Other ports:
Calabria has the two highest bridges in Italy:
Plans for a bridge linking Sicily to Calabria have been discussed since 1865. Throughout the last decade, plans were developed for a road and rail link to the mainland via what would be the world's longestsuspension bridge, theStrait of Messina Bridge. Planning for the project has experienced several false starts over the past few decades. On 6 March 2009,Silvio Berlusconi's government declared that the construction works for the Messina Bridge would begin on 23 December 2009, and announced a pledge of €1.3 billion as a contribution to the bridge's total cost, estimated at €6.1 billion.The plan has been criticized by environmental associations and some local Sicilians and Calabrians, concerned with its environmental impact, economic sustainability and even possible infiltrations by organized crime.
The following is a list of Calabrian municipalities with a population of over 20,000:
Calabria is divided into five provinces:
Although the official national language of Calabria has been Standard Italian since before unification in 1861, Calabria has dialects that have been spoken in the region for centuries. The Calabrian language is a direct derivative of Latin. Most linguists divide the variousdialectsinto two different language groups. In the northern area of the region,the Calabrian dialects are considered part of theNeapolitan languageand are grouped as Northern Calabrian. In the rest of the region, the Calabrian dialects are often grouped as Central and Southern Calabrian, and are considered part of theSicilian language. However, inGuardia Piemontese, as well as some quarters of Reggio Calabria, a variety ofOccitancalledGardiolcan also be found. In addition, since Calabria was once ruled by the French and Spanish, some Calabrian dialects exhibit Spanish and French influences.
Another important linguistic minority, in the nine towns ofBovesìain the province ofReggio Calabria, speaks a derivative ofancient GreekcalledGrecanico, a remnant ofByzantinerule and ancientMagna Graecia.
The majority of Calabrians areRoman Catholic. Historically, Calabrians wereGreek Orthodox, and in 732 the dioceses of southern Italy were even moved to the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople. There are also communities ofEvangelicalsin the region.Calabria has also been called "The Land of Saints" as the region was the birthplace of many saints spanning nearly 2,000 years.The most famous saint in Calabria and also the patron saint of the region is St.Francis of Paola. Calabria also has another patron saint called SaintBruno of Colognewho was the founder of theCarthusianOrder. Saint Bruno would build the charterhouse ofSerra San Bruno, a town which bears his name, in 1095 and later die there in 1101.
Even though it is currently a very small community, there has been a long history of the presence ofJews in Calabria. The Jews have had a presence in the region for at least 1600 years and possibly as much as 2300 years. Calabrian Jews have had notably influence on many areas of Jewish life and culture. Although virtually identical to the Jews of Sicily, the Jews of Calabria are considered a distinct Jewish population due to historical and geographic considerations. There is a small community of ItalianAnusimwho have resumed the Jewish faith.
It is important to highlight the presence of Calabrians inRenaissance humanismand in theRenaissance. Indeed, the Hellenistics in this period frequently came from Calabria maybe because of the Greek influence. The rediscovery of Ancient Greek was very difficult because this language had been almost forgotten. In this period the presence of Calabrian humanists or refugees from Constantinople was fundamental. The study of Ancient Greek, in this period, was mainly a work of two monks of the monastery ofSeminara:Barlaam,bishop of Gerace, and his disciple,Leonzio Pilato.Leonzio Pilato, in particular, was a Calabrian born nearReggio Calabria. He was an important teacher of Ancient Greek and translator, and he helpedGiovanni Boccaccioin the translations ofHomer's works.
The cuisine is a typical southern ItalianMediterranean cuisinewith a balance between meat-based dishes (pork, lamb, goat), vegetables (especiallyeggplant), and fish. Pasta (as in central Italy and the rest of southern Italy) is also very important in Calabria. In contrast to most other Italian regions, Calabrians have traditionally placed an emphasis on the preservation of their food and packing vegetables and meats inolive oil, and on making sausages and cold cuts (soppressata,'nduja,capocollo). Along the coast fish is cured, especiallyswordfish,sardines(sardelle rosamarina) andcod(baccalà). Local desserts are typically fried, honey-sweetened pastries such ascudduraci, nacatole,scalilleorscalidde, or bakedbiscotti-type treats such asnzudda.
Some local specialties includecaciocavallocheese,cipolla rossa di Tropea(red onion),frìttuliandcurcùci(fried pork),liquorice(liquirizia),lagane e cicciari(a pasta dish withchickpeas),pecorino crotonese(sheep cheese), andpignolata.
In ancient times Calabria was referred to asEnotria(fromAncient GreekΟἰνωτρία,Oenotria, 'land of wine'). According toancient Greektradition,Οἴνωτρος(Oenotrus), the youngest of the sons ofLycaon, was theeponymof Oenotria.Some vineyards have origins dating back to the ancient Greek colonists. The best knownDOCwines areCirò(province of Crotone) andDonnici(province of Cosenza). 3% of the total annual production qualifies as DOC. Important grape varieties are the redGaglioppoand whiteGreco. Many producers are resurrecting local, ancient grape varieties which have been around for as long as 3000 years.
The most popular sport in Calabria isfootball.  In the2023-2024 Serie Bseason, Calabria hosts 2 out of 20 teams:Cosenza Calcioand Catanzaro. Other big teams of the region are Crotone and Vibonese, who are playing in the2023-2024 Serie C.
Viola Reggio Calabriais an Italian professionalbasketballclub based inReggio Calabria, Calabria.
At its heyday the club was renowned for discovering talented players who would go on to play at the highest level, for example three former players took part in the2004 Olympicsfinal.
Viola still plays the PalaCalafiore (full name: Palasport Francesco Calafiore in dedication to a local sports journalist) , it is the biggest arena in Calabria and the seventh-largest in Italy, with more than 8,500 seats (also known as the PalaPentimele, from the Pentimele neighbourhood it is situated in).Viola won also 3 Campionato di Legadue 1984-1985 1988-89 1991-92.Joe Bryantplayed for 1 season ('86–'87) in Viola with him lived in Reggio his sonKobe Bryant,Manu Ginóbiliplayed for 2 seasons ('98–'00) in Viola.
There are 3 public universities in the region of Calabria
There is also the privateUniversity for Foreigners "Dante Alighieri" in Reggio Calabria.
The health service in Calabria is organized into four main public hospitals and thirty secondary ones, and there are numerous private hospital facilities. Because of their debts, since 2009 they were administered by an extraordinary commissioner. It has been seen as an unavoidable step to return to an ordinary and cost-effective administration at a regional level, as it is provided by the Italian Constitution.
The four main public hospitals are