Istria

Istria(/ˈɪstriə/IST-ree-ə;CroatianandSlovene:Istra;ItalianandVenetian:Istria;Istriot:Eîstria;Istro-Romanian:Istria;Latin:Histria;Ancient Greek:Ἱστρία) is the largestpeninsulawithin theAdriatic Sea. Located at the top of the Adriatic between theGulf of Triesteand theKvarner Gulf, the peninsula is shared by three countries: Croatia,Slovenia, andItaly,90% of its area being part of Croatia.Most of Croatian Istria is part ofIstria County.
The geographical features of Istria include theUčka/Monte Maggioremountain range, which is the highest portion of theĆićarija/Cicceria mountain range; the riversDragonja/Dragogna,Mirna/Quieto,Pazinčica, andRaša; and theLim/Canale di Leme bay and valley. Istria lies in three countries: Croatia, Slovenia and Italy. By far the largest portion (90%) lies in Croatia. "Croatian Istria" is divided into two counties, the larger beingIstria Countyin western Croatia. Important towns in Istria County includePula/Pola,Poreč/Parenzo,Rovinj/Rovigno,Pazin/Pisino,Labin/Albona,Umag/Umago,Motovun/Montona,Buzet/Pinguente, andBuje/Buie. Smaller towns in Istria County includeVišnjan/Visignano,Roč/Rozzo, andHum/Colmo.
The northwestern part of Istria lies in Slovenia: it is known asSlovenian Istria, and includes the coastal municipalities ofPiran/Pirano,Izola/Isola, andKoper/Capodistria. It also includes theKarsticmunicipality ofHrpelje-Kozina/Erpelle-Cosina.
Northwards of Slovenian Istria, there is a tiny portion of the peninsula that lies in Italy.This smallest portion of Istria consists of thecomunesofMuggia/Milje andSan Dorligo della Valle/Dolina with Santa Croce (Trieste) lying farthest to the north.
The ancient region ofHistriaextended over a much wider area, including the wholeKarst Plateauwith the southern edges of theVipava Valley/Vipacco Valley, the southwestern portions of modernInner CarniolawithPostojna/Postumia andIlirska Bistrica/Bisterza, and the ItalianProvince of Trieste, but not theLiburniancoast which was already part ofIllyricum.
The name Istria (Ἰστρία) is derived from the river Ister (Ἴστρος) (modernDanube), because the Greeks erroneously believed, early in their travels around the Mediterranean, that a branch of the Danube flowed into the Adriatic Sea in that area. In addition, the Greeks called the inhabitants of the area Histri (Ἴστροι); if this was their native name, it may have initially led the Greeks to assume a connection with the river Ister.
The name is derived from theHistri(Ancient Greek:Ἱστρών έθνος) tribes, whichStraborefers to as living in the region and who are credited as being the builders of the hillfort settlements (castellieri). The Histri are classified in some sources as a "Venetic"Illyriantribe with certain linguistic differences from other Illyrians.TheRomansdescribed the Histri as a fierce tribe of pirates, protected by the difficult navigation of their rocky coasts. It took two military campaigns for the Romans to finally subdue them in 177 BC. The region was then called together with the Venetian part the X. Roman Region of "Venetia et Histria", the ancient definition of the northeastern border of Italy.Dante Alighierirefers to it as well, the eastern border of Italy per ancient definition is the riverArsia. The eastern side of this river was settled by people whose culture was different from Histrians. Earlier influence of theIapodeswas attested there, while at some time between the 4th and 1st century BC theLiburniansextended their territory and it became a part ofLiburnia.On the northern side, Histria extended much further north and included the Italian city of Trieste.
Some scholars speculate that the names Histri and Istria are related to the Latin name Hister, orDanube(especially its lower course). Ancient folktales reported —inaccurately— that the Danube split in two or "bifurcated" and came to the sea nearTriesteas well as at theBlack Sea. The story of the "bifurcation of the Danube" is part of theArgonautlegend. There is also a suspected link (but no historical documentation in support of it) to the commune ofIstriain Constanța, Romania which is named after the ancient cityHistria, named after River Hister.
In theEarly Middle Ages, Istria was conquered and occupied by the Goths. Ostrogoth coins were found in Istria, as well as the remains of some buildings. South ofPorečthere are the remains of the church of Sv. Petar, erected in the 5th century (with a baptistery added later), which reportedly served the Arian eastern Goths ruling Istria.Most notably, the Goths usedIstrian stoneto build their best known monument, theMausoleum of TheodoricinRavenna. In the following centuries, the peninsula was attacked and conquered by theLombards, often in conjunction with the Slavs, such as in 601.However, the extent to which the Lombards occupied Istria is a matter of debate. After the Goths, Istria became part of theExarchate of Ravenna.Gulfaris, who served the Byzantines but was of Lombard descent, is reported as its dux in 599.
Pope Gregory Iin 600 wrote to bishop ofSalonaMaximus in which he expresses concern about arrival of theSlavs,"Et quidem de Sclavorum gente, quae vobis valde imminet, et affligor vehementer et conturbor. Affligor in his quae jam in vobis patior; conturbor, quia per Istriae aditum jam ad Italiam intrare coeperunt"(And as for the people of the Slavs who are really approaching you, I am very depressed and confused. I am depressed because I sympathize with you, confused because they over the Istria began to enter the Italy).Some ancient reporters, including Pope Gregory, who were unaware of the importance of theAvarsin the Balkans, used the terms "Slavs" to refer to the Avars or the Avaro-Slavs.
After the fall of theWestern Roman Empire, the region was pillaged by theGoths, theEastern Roman Empire, and the Avars.
The firstAvaro-Slavic invasion of Istriawas recorded in 599. Another major incursion occurred around 600–602, in which all of Istria was devastated with fire and rapine. This was followed by the 611 invasion, the most devastating for the peninsula. It remains unclear when and how the first Slavic settlement occurred. Traces of early Slavic incursions and settlement are scarce.A few Avar findings have been discovered on the Istrian territory, chiefly aroundNesactium.By 642 the Slavs were settled in the peninsula, as indicated by the mission of an abbot Martin, sent byPope John IVto rescue captives held by the pagans in Istria andDalmatia.
After the barbaric invasions, the western part of Istria was annexed to theLombardKingdom in 751, and then annexed to the Frankish kingdom byPepin of Italyin 789.  In 804, thePlacitum of Rizianowas held in the Parish of Rižan (Latin:Risanum), which was a meeting between the representatives of Istrian towns and castles and the deputies ofCharlemagneand his son Pepin. The report about this judicial diet illustrates the changes accompanying the transfer of power from the Eastern Roman Empire to theCarolingian Empireand the discontent of the local residents.
Afterwards it was successively controlled by the dukes ofCarantania,Merania,Bavariaand by thepatriarch of Aquileia, before it became the territory of theRepublic of Venicein 1267. The medievalCroatian kingdomheld only the far eastern part of Istria (the border was near the riverRaša), but they lost it to theHoly Roman Empirein the late 11th century.
UnderPietro II Candiano, who wasDoge of Venicebetween 932 and 939, Istrian cities signed an act of devotion to the Venetian rule. OnAscension Dayin 1000, a powerful fleet sailed from Venice to resolve the problem of the Narentine pirates.The fleet visited all the main Istrian and Dalmatian cities, whose citizens, exhausted by the wars between the Croatian kingSvetislavand his brotherCresimir, swore an oath of fidelity to Venice.In 1145, the cities of Pula,KoperandIzolarose against theRepublic of Venicebut were defeated, and were since further controlled by Venice.During the 13th century, the Patriarchate's rule weakened and the towns kept surrendering to Venice –Porečin 1267,Umagin 1269,Novigradin 1270,Sveti Lovrečin 1271,Motovunin 1278, Kopar in 1279, andPiranandRovinjin 1283.Venice gradually dominated the whole coastal area of western Istria and the area toPlominon the eastern part of the peninsula.The wealthier coastal towns cultivated increasingly strong economic relationships with Venice and by 1348 were eventually incorporated into its territory, while their inland counterparts fell under the sway of the weaker Patriarchate of Aquileia, which became part of theHabsburg Empirein 1374.
On 15 February 1267, Parenzo was formally incorporated with the Venetian state.Other coastal towns followed shortly thereafter.Bajamonte Tiepolowas sent away from Venice in 1310, to start a new life in Istria after his downfall. A description of the 16th-century Istria with a precise map was prepared by the Italian geographerPietro Coppo. A copy of the map inscribed in stone can now be seen in the Pietro Coppo Park in the center of the town ofIzolain southwesternSlovenia.
During the history of the coexistence of Slavic and Roman communities in Istria, the Slavs mostly lived in the interior, while the coast was Roman.
The Inner part of Istria around Mitterburg (Pazin) had been part of theHoly Roman Empirefor centuries, and more specifically part of thedomains of the Austrian Habsburgssince the 14th century. In 1797, with theTreaty of Campo Formio, the Venetian parts of the peninsula also passed to the Habsburg monarchy which became theAustrian Empirein 1804.
The French victory of 1809 compelled Austria to cede a portion of its South Slav lands to France. Napoleon combined Istira,Carniola, westernCarinthia, Gorica (Gorizia),Triesteand parts of Croatia, Dalmatia, and Dubrovnik to form theIllyrian Provinces.The Code Napoléon was introduced, and roads and schools were constructed. Local citizens were given administrative posts, and native languages were used to conduct official business.This sparked theIllyrian Movementfor the cultural and linguistic unification of South Slavic lands.From the Middle Ages to the 19th century, Italian and Slavic communities in Istria had lived peacefully side by side because they did not know the national identification, given that they generically defined themselves as "Istrians" of "Romance" or "Slavic" culture.
After this seven-year period, the Austrian Empire regained Istria, which became part of the constituentKingdom of Illyria. This kingdom was broken up in 1849, after which Istria formed part ofAustrian Littoral, also known as the "Küstenland", which also included the city of Trieste and thePrincely County of Gorizia and Gradiscauntil 1918. At that time the borders of Istria included part of what is now Italian Venezia-Giulia and parts of modern-day Slovenia and Croatia, but not the city of Trieste.
ManyIstrian Italianslooked with sympathy towards theRisorgimentomovement that fought for the unification of Italy.However, after theThird Italian War of Independence(1866), when theVenetoandFriuliregions were ceded by theAustriansto the newly formedKingdom Italy, Istria remained part of theAustro-Hungarian Empire, together with other Italian-speaking areas on the eastern Adriatic. This triggered the gradual rise ofItalian irredentismamong many Italians in Istria, who demanded the unification of Istria with Italy. The Italians in Istria supported the ItalianRisorgimento: as a consequence, the Austrians saw the Italians as enemies and favored the Slav communities of Istria,fostering the nascent nationalism of Slovenes and Croats.
During the meeting of the Council of Ministers of 12 November 1866, EmperorFranz Joseph I of Austriaoutlined a wide-ranging project aimed at theGermanizationorSlavizationof the areas of the empire with an Italian presence:
Although a member of theCentral Powers, Italy remained neutral at the start of WWI, and soon launched secret negotiations withthe Triple Entente, bargaining to participate in the war on its side, in exchange for significant territorial gains.To get Italy to join the war, the secret1915 Treaty of Londonthe Entente promised Italy Istria and parts ofDalmatia,South Tyrol, the GreekDodecanese Islands, parts of Albania and Turkey, plus more territory for Italy's North Africa colonies.
After the war, Italy annexed Istria. Istria's political and economic importance declined under Italian rule, and after the fascist takeover of Italy in 1922 the Italian government began a campaign of forcedItalianization. In 1926, the use of Slavic languages in schools and government was banned, even Slavic family names were Italianized to suit the fascist authorities.Slavic newspapers and libraries were closed, all Slavic cultural, sporting, business and political associations were banned. As a result, 100,000 Slavic-speakers left Italian-annexed areas in an exodus, moving mostly to Yugoslavia.
The organizationTIGR, founded in 1927 by young Slovene liberal nationalists fromGorizia regionandTriesteand regarded as the first armedantifascistresistance group in Europesoon penetrated into Slovene and Croatian-speaking parts of Istria.
In World War II, Istria became a battleground of competing ethnic and political groups. Istrian nationalist groups which were pro-fascist and pro-Allied and Yugoslav-supported pro-communist groups fought with each other and the Italian army. After the German withdrawal in 1945, Yugoslav partisans gained the upper hand and began a violent purge of real or suspected opponents in an "orgy of revenge".
After the end ofWorld War II, Istria was ceded toYugoslavia, except for a small part in the northwest corner that formed Zone B of the provisionally independentFree Territory of Trieste; Zone B was under Yugoslav administration and after thede factodissolution of the Free Territory in 1954 it was also incorporated into Yugoslavia. Only the small town ofMuggia, nearTrieste, being part of Zone A remained with Italy.
The events of the period are visible inPula. The city, located on the southernmost tip of the Istrian peninsula, had anIstrian Italianmajority. Between December 1946 and September 1947, a large proportion of the city's inhabitants wereforced to emigrate to Italy.Most of them left in the immediate aftermath of the signing of theParis Peace Treatyon February 10, 1947 which granted Pula and the greater part of Istria to Yugoslavia.
The division of Istria between Croatia and Slovenia runs on the former republic borders, which were not precisely defined in the former Yugoslavia.Various points of contention remain unresolved between the two countriesregarding the precise line of the border.
It became an international boundary with the independence of both countries from Yugoslavia in 1991. SinceCroatia's first multi-party elections in 1990, theIstrian regionalistpartyIstrian Democratic Assembly(IDS-DDI,Istarski demokratski sabororDieta democratica istriana) has consistently received a majority of the vote and maintained through the 1990s a position often contrary to the government inZagreb, led by the then nationalistic partyCroatian Democratic Union(HDZ,Hrvatska demokratska zajednica), with regards to decentralization in Croatia and certain facets ofregionalautonomy.
However, that changed in 2000 when the IDS formed with five other parties a left-centre coalition government, led by theSocial Democratic Party of Croatia(SDP,Socijaldemokratska Partija Hrvatske). After the reformed HDZ won the Croatian parliamentary elections in late 2003 and formed a minority government, the IDS has cooperated with the state government on many projects, both local (inIstria County) and national. Since Slovenia's accession to theEuropean Unionand theSchengen Area, customs and immigration checks have been abolished at the Italian-Slovenian border.
The region has traditionally been ethnically mixed. UnderAustrian rulein the 19th century it included a large population ofItalians,Croats, andSlovenesas well as someIstro-Romanians,Serbs,andMontenegrins; however, official statistics in those times did not show those nationalities as they do today.
The Croatian word for the Istrians isIstrani, orIstrijani, the latter being in the localChakavian dialect. The termIstraniis also used in Slovenia. The Italian word for the Istrians isIstrianiand today the Italian minority is organized in many towns.The Istrian county in Croatia is bilingual, as are large parts of Slovenian Istria. Every citizen has the right to speak either Italian or Croatian (Slovene in Slovenian Istria and Italian in the town of Koper/Capodistria, Piran/Pirano, Portorož/Portorose, and Izola/Isola d'Istria) in public administration or in court. Furthermore, Istria is a supranational European Region that includes Italian, Slovenian and Croatian Istria.
The 2001 population census in Croatia counted 23 languages spoken by the people of Istria.In 2021 Census show that 76.40% are Croats, Italians were 5.01%, 2.96% were Serbs, 2.48% Bosniaks, 1.05% were Albanians, while regionally declared were 5.13%.
The data for Slovenian Istria is not as neatly organized, but the 2002 Slovenian census indicates that the four Istrian municipalities (Izola/Isola d'Istria,Piran/Pirano,Koper/Capodistria, Ankaran/Ancarano) had a total of 56,482 Slovenes, 6,426 Croats, and 2,800 Italians.
The small town ofPerojhas had a unique history which exemplifies the multi-ethnic complexity of the history of the region, as do some villages on both sides of the Učka that are still identified with the Istro-Romanian people which theUNESCORedbook of Endangered Languages calls "the smallest ethnic group in Europe".
There are some claims,Istrian Italianswere more than 50% of the total population of Istria for centuries,while making up about a third of the population in 1900.With its strategic position at the southern tip of the peninsula and good harbor Pula was the primary base of the Austrian Navy.
A limited tension with the Austrian state did not in fact stop the rise of the use of the Italian language, in the second part of the 19th century, when the population of predominantly Italian-speaking towns in Istria had a significant rise: in the part of Istria that eventually became part of Croatia, the first Austrian census from 1846 found 34 thousand Italian speakers, alongside 120 thousand Croatian speakers (in the Austrian censuses, the ethnic composition of the population was not surveyed, only the main "language of use" of a person). By 1910, the proportion changed significantly: there were 108 thousand Italian speakers and 134 thousand Croatian speakers.Vanni D'Alessio notes (2008), the Austrian surveys of the language of use "overestimated the diffusion of the socially dominant languages of the empire...  The capacity of assimilation of the Italian language suggests that amongst those who declared themselves Italian speakers in Istria, there were people whose mother tongue was different." D'Alessio notes even members of the Austrian state bureaucracy and the members of their families with the German mother tongue tended to use Italian, after living in Istrian small towns long enough. The Poles, Czechs and Slovenes and Croats tended to join the "Slav" social group.
Discussions about Istrian ethnicity often use the words "Italian", "Croatian", and "Slovene" to describe the character of the Istrian people. However these terms are best understood as "national affiliations" that may exist in combination with or independently of linguistic, cultural and historical attributes. In the Istrian context, for example, the word "Italian" can just as easily refer toautochthonousspeakers of theVenetian languagewhose antecedents in the region extend before the inception of theVenetian Republicor to theIstriot languagethe oldest spoken language in Istria, dated back to the Romans, today spoken in the southwest of Istria. It can also refer to Istrian Croats who adopted the veneer ofItalian cultureas they moved from rural to urban areas, or from the farms into the bourgeoisie.
Similarly, national powers claim Istrian Croats according to local language, so that speakers ofČakavianandŠtokaviandialects ofCroatianare considered to be Croatians while speakers of other dialects may be considered to be Slovene. As with other regions, the local dialects of the Croatian communities vary greatly across close distances. The Istrian Croatian and Italian vernaculars had both developed for many generations before being divided as they are today. This meant that Croats/Slovenes on the one side and Venetians/other Italians on the other side yielded to each other culturally while simultaneously distancing themselves from members of their ethnic groups living farther away.
Another important Istrian community are theIstro-Romaniansin the south and north of the Učka mountain range of Istria. A smallAlbaniancommunity, which until the late 19th century spoke theIstrian Albaniandialect is also present in the peninsula.
According to Austro-Hungarian censuses, which recorded language instead of ethnicity, the composition of Istria (i.e. theHabsburg Margraviate of Istria)was as follows (in thousands):
The cuisine of Istria is influenced byItalian cuisine, given the historical presence of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians), influence that has eased after theIstrian–Dalmatian exodus.For example, the influence of Italian cuisine on Croatian dishes can be seen in thepršut(similar to Italianprosciutto) and on the preparation of homemade pasta.Traditional dishes of Italian origin also include gnocchi (njoki), risotto (rižot), focaccia (pogača), polenta (palenta), andbrudet.Slovenian dishes of Italian origin arenjoki(similar to Italiangnocchi),rizota(the Slovenian version ofrisotto) andzilkrofi(similar to Italianravioli).
TheIstrian stew(Italian:Jota;Croatian:Istarska jota;Slovene:Jota) is asoupmade withbeansandsauerkrautor sourturnip,potatoes,bacon, andspare ribs, known in the northernAdriaticregions.Under the namejota,it is typical and especially popular inTriesteand its province (where it is considered to be the prime example of Triestine food), in the Istrian peninsula, in the province ofGorizia, in the wholeSlovenian Littoral, in theRijekaarea, and inFriuli, especially in some of its peripheral areas (the highland region ofCarnia, the Torre and Natisone river valleys, orSlavia Veneta). The stew, based on etymology, most likely originated in Friuli before spreading east and south.
Istrian identity, also known as Istrianity,Istrianismor Istrianness,is theregionalistidentity developed by the inhabitants of the part of Istria located inCroatia. Istria is the biggest peninsula in theAdriatic Seaand a multiethnic region divided between Croatia,ItalyandSlovenia.ItaliansandSloveneslive in both the Italian and Slovene parts (which make up 1% and 9% of the territory of Istria, respectively), while in the Croatian part (90% of the region), there areCroats, Italians,Istro-RomaniansandIstriot-speakers, as well as some non-native minorities. Most of Croatian Istria is located in theIstria Countyof the country. Istria is theregion of Croatiawhere regionalist sentiment is the strongest.
In the2011 Croatian census, 25,203people of the Istria County, constituting 12% of its population, declared themselves to be Istrian before any other nationality, making it the most abundant one in the county after Croatian. People also declared an Istrian identity in thePrimorje-Gorski Kotar County, the county where the rest of Croatian Istria is located,therefore making the number of people declaring an Istrian identity in Croatia a total of 25,409.Most of these people in these counties were ethnic Croats, but there were also Istro-Romanians declaring themselves as Istrian.Later, the2021 Croatian censussaw a decrease on Istrian self-designation, as 10,025 inhabitants of the Istria County used it.
It has been proposed that Istria gain greater autonomy within a moredecentralizedCroatia. Examples of supporters of this include several members of theIstrian Democratic Assembly(IDS), such as its former presidentBoris Miletićor the IDS deputy Emil Daus.
This list includes towns and municipalities of Istria with populations estimated to be higher than 8,000 people.
45°15′40″N13°54′16″E﻿ / ﻿45.26111°N 13.90444°E﻿ /45.26111; 13.90444