Satire

Satireis agenreof thevisual,literary, andperforming arts, usually in the form offictionand less frequentlynon-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of exposing or shaming the perceived flaws of individuals, corporations, government, or society itself into improvement.Although satire is usually meant to be humorous, its greater purpose is often constructivesocial criticism, usingwitto draw attention to both particular and wider issues in society.
A prominent feature of satire is strongironyorsarcasm—"in satire, irony ismilitant", according toliterary criticNorthrop Frye—butparody,burlesque,exaggeration,juxtaposition, comparison, analogy, anddouble entendreare all frequently used in satirical speech and writing. This "militant" irony or sarcasm often professes to approve of (or at least accept as natural) the very things the satirist wishes to question.
Satire is found in many artistic forms of expression, including internet memes, literature, plays, commentary,music,film and televisionshows, and media such as lyrics.
The wordsatirecomes from theLatinwordsaturand the subsequent phraselanx satura.Saturmeant "full", but the juxtaposition withlanxshifted the meaning to "miscellany or medley": the expressionlanx saturaliterally means "a full dish of various kinds of fruits".The use of the wordlanxin this phrase, however, is disputed by B.L. Ullman.
The wordsaturaas used byQuintilian, however, was used to denote only Roman verse satire, a strict genre that imposedhexameterform, a narrower genre than what would be later intended assatire.Quintilian famously said thatsatura,that is a satire in hexameter verses, was a literary genre of wholly Roman origin (satura tota nostra est). He was aware of and commented on Greek satire, but at the time did not label it as such, although today the origin of satire is considered to beAristophanes' Old Comedy. The first critic to use the termsatirein the modern broader sense wasApuleius.
To Quintilian, the satire was a strict literary form, but the term soon escaped from the original narrow definition. Robert Elliott writes:
The wordsatirederives fromsatura, and its origin was not influenced by theGreek mythologicalfigure of thesatyr.In the 17th century, philologistIsaac Casaubonwas the first to dispute the etymology of satire from satyr, contrary to the belief up to that time.
Laughteris not an essential component of satire;in fact, there are types of satire that are not meant to be "funny" at all. Conversely, not all humour, even on such topics as politics, religion or art is necessarily "satirical", even when it uses the satirical tools of irony, parody, andburlesque.
Even light-hearted satire has a serious "after-taste": the organizers of theIg Nobel Prizedescribe this as "first make people laugh, and then make them think".
Satire andironyin some cases have been regarded as the most effective source to understand a society, the oldest form of social study.They provide the keenest insights into a group'scollective psyche, reveal its deepest values and tastes, and the society's structures of power.Some authors have regarded satire as superior to non-comic and non-artistic disciplines like history oranthropology.In a prominent example fromancient Greece, philosopherPlato, when asked by a friend for a book to understand Athenian society, referred him to the plays ofAristophanes.
Historically, satire has satisfied the popularneedtodebunkandridiculethe leading figures in politics, economy, religion and other prominent realms ofpower.Satire confrontspublic discourseand thecollective imaginary, playing as a public opinion counterweight to power (be it political, economic, religious, symbolic, or otherwise), by challenging leaders and authorities. For instance, it forces administrations to clarify, amend or establish their policies. Satire's job is to expose problems and contradictions, and it is not obligated to solve them.Karl Krausset in the history of satire a prominent example of a satirist role as confronting public discourse.
For its nature and social role, satire has enjoyed in many societies a special freedom license to mock prominent individuals and institutions.The satiric impulse, and its ritualized expressions, carry out the function of resolving social tension.Institutions like theritual clowns, by giving expression to theantisocial tendencies, represent asafety valvewhich re-establishes equilibrium and health in thecollective imaginary, which are jeopardized by therepressive aspects of society.
The state ofpolitical satirein a given society reflects the tolerance or intolerance that characterizes it,and the state ofcivil libertiesandhuman rights. Undertotalitarian regimesany criticism of a political system, and especially satire, is suppressed. A typical example is theSoviet Unionwhere thedissidents, such asAleksandr SolzhenitsynandAndrei Sakharovwere under strong pressure from the government. While satire of everyday life in theUSSRwas allowed, the most prominent satirist beingArkady Raikin, political satire existed in the form ofanecdotesthat made fun of Soviet political leaders, especiallyBrezhnev, famous for his narrow-mindedness and love for awards and decorations.
Satire is a diverse genre which is complex to classify and define, with a wide range of satiric "modes".
Satirical literature can commonly be categorized as either Horatian, Juvenalian, orMenippean.
Horatian satire, named for the Roman satiristHorace(65–8 BCE), playfully criticizes some social vice through gentle, mild, and light-hearted humour. Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) wrote Satires to gently ridicule the dominant opinions and "philosophical beliefs of ancient Rome and Greece".Rather than writing in harsh or accusing tones, he addressed issues with humor and clever mockery. Horatian satire follows this same pattern of "gently [ridiculing] the absurdities and follies of human beings".
It directs wit, exaggeration, and self-deprecating humour toward what it identifies as folly, rather than evil. Horatian satire's sympathetic tone is common in modern society.A Horatian satirist's goal is to heal the situation with smiles, rather than by anger. Horatian satire is a gentle reminder to take life less seriously and evokes a wry smile.
Juvenalian satire, named for the writings of the Roman satiristJuvenal(late first century – early second century AD), is more contemptuous and abrasive than the Horatian. Juvenal disagreed with the opinions of the public figures and institutions of the Empire and actively attacked them through his literature. "He utilized the satirical tools of exaggeration and parody to make his targets appear monstrous and incompetent".Juvenal's satire follows this same pattern of abrasively ridiculing societal structures. Juvenal also, unlike Horace, attacked public officials and governmental organizations through his satires, regarding their opinions as not just wrong, but evil.
Following in this tradition, Juvenalian satire addresses perceived social evil through scorn, outrage, and savage ridicule. This form is often pessimistic, characterized by the use of irony, sarcasm, moral indignation and personal invective, with less emphasis on humor. Strongly polarized political satire can often be classified as Juvenalian.
A Juvenal satirist's goal is generally to provoke some sort of political or societal change because he sees his opponent or object as evil or harmful.A Juvenal satirist mocks "societal structure, power, and civilization"by exaggerating the words or position of his opponent in order to jeopardize their opponent's reputation and/or power.Jonathan Swifthas been established as an author who "borrowed heavily from Juvenal's techniques in [his critique] of contemporary English society".
In thehistory of theatrethere has always been a conflict between engagement and disengagement onpoliticsand relevant issue, between satire andgrotesqueon one side, andjestwithteasingon the other.Max Eastmandefined thespectrumof satire in terms of "degrees of biting", as ranging from satire proper at the hot-end, and "kidding" at the violet-end; Eastman adopted the term kidding to denote what is just satirical in form, but is not really firing at the target.Nobel laureatesatirical playwrightDario Fopointed out the difference between satire and teasing (sfottò).Teasing is thereactionaryside of thecomic; it limits itself to a shallowparodyof physical appearance. The side-effect of teasing is that it humanizes and draws sympathy for the powerful individual towards which it is directed. Satire instead uses the comic to go against power and its oppressions, has asubversivecharacter, and amoraldimension which draws judgement against its targets.Fo formulated anoperationalcriterion to tell real satire fromsfottò, saying that real satire arouses an outraged and violent reaction, and that the more they try to stop you, the better is the job you are doing.Fo contends that, historically, people in positions of power have welcomed and encouraged good-humoured buffoonery, while modern day people in positions of power have tried to censor, ostracize and repress satire.
Teasing (sfottò) is an ancient form of simplebuffoonery, a form of comedy without satire's subversive edge. Teasing includes light and affectionate parody, good-humoured mockery, simple one-dimensional poking fun, and benign spoofs. Teasing typically consists of animpersonationof someone monkeying around with his exterior attributes,tics, physical blemishes, voice and mannerisms, quirks, way of dressing and walking, and/or the phrases he typically repeats. By contrast, teasing never touches on the core issue, never makes a serious criticism judging the target withirony; it never harms the target's conduct,ideologyand position of power; it never undermines the perception of his morality and cultural dimension.Sfottòdirected towards a powerful individual makes him appear more human and draws sympathy towards him.Hermann Göringpropagatedjestsand jokes against himself, with the aim of humanizing his image.
Types of satire can also be classified according to the topics it deals with. From the earliest times, at least since the plays ofAristophanes, the primary topics of literary satire have beenpolitics,religionandsex.This is partly because these are the most pressing problems that affect anybody living in a society, and partly because these topics are usuallytaboo.Among these, politics in the broader sense is considered the pre-eminent topic of satire.Satire which targets theclergyis a type ofpolitical satire, whilereligious satireis that which targetsreligious beliefs.Satire on sex may overlap withblue comedy,off-color humoranddick jokes.
Scatologyhas a long literary association with satire,as it is a classical mode of thegrotesque, thegrotesque bodyand the satiric grotesque.Shitplays a fundamental role in satire because it symbolizesdeath, the turd being "the ultimate dead object".The satirical comparison of individuals or institutions with humanexcrement, exposes their "inherent inertness, corruption and dead-likeness".Theritual clownsofclown societies, like among thePueblo Indians, have ceremonies withfilth-eating.In other cultures,sin-eatingis anapotropaicrite in which the sin-eater (also called filth-eater),by ingesting the food provided, takes "upon himself the sins of the departed".Satire about death overlaps withblack humorandgallows humor.
Another classification by topics is the distinction between political satire, religious satire and satire of manners.Political satire is sometimes called topical satire, satire of manners is sometimes called satire of everyday life, and religious satire is sometimes called philosophical satire.Comedy of manners, sometimes also called satire of manners, criticizes mode of life of common people; political satire aims at behavior, manners of politicians, and vices of political systems. Historically, comedy of manners, which first appeared in British theater in 1620, has uncritically accepted the social code of the upper classes.Comedy in general accepts the rules of the social game, while satire subverts them.
Another analysis of satire is the spectrum of his possibletones:wit,ridicule,irony,sarcasm,cynicism, thesardonicandinvective.
The type of humour that deals with creating laughter at the expense of the person telling the joke is called reflexive humour.Reflexive humour can take place at dual levels of directing humour at self or at the larger community the self identifies with. The audience's understanding of the context of reflexive humour is important for its receptivity and success.Satire is found not only in written literary forms. Inpreliterate culturesit manifests itself inritualand folk forms, as well as intrickstertales andoral poetry.
It appears also in graphic arts, music, sculpture, dance,cartoon strips, andgraffiti. Examples areDadasculptures,Pop Artworks, music ofGilbert and SullivanandErik Satie,punkandrock music.In modernmedia culture,stand-up comedyis an enclave in which satire can be introduced intomass media, challenging mainstream discourse.Comedy roasts, mock festivals, and stand-up comedians in nightclubs and concerts are the modern forms of ancient satiric rituals.
One of the earliest examples of what might be called satire,The Satire of the Trades,is in Egyptian writing from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The text's apparent readers are students, tired of studying. It argues that their lot as scribes is not only useful, but far superior to that of the ordinary man. Scholars such as Helckthink that the context was meant to be serious.
ThePapyrus Anastasi I(late 2nd millennium BC) contains a satirical letter which first praises the virtues of its recipient, but then mocks the reader's meagre knowledge and achievements.
The Greeks had no word for what later would be called "satire", although the terms cynicism and parody were used. Modern critics call theGreek playwrightAristophanesone of the best known early satirists: his plays are known for their critical political andsocietal commentary,particularly for thepolitical satireby which he criticized the powerfulCleon(as inThe Knights). He is also notable for the persecution he underwent.Aristophanes' plays turned upon images of filth and disease.His bawdy style was adopted by Greek dramatist-comedianMenander. His early playDrunkennesscontains an attack on the politicianCallimedon.
The oldest form of satire still in use is theMenippean satirebyMenippus of Gadara. His own writings are lost. Examples from his admirers and imitators mix seriousness and mockery in dialogues and present parodies before a background ofdiatribe. As in the case of Aristophanes plays, menippean satire turned upon images of filth and disease.
Satire, or fengci (諷刺) the way it is called in Chinese, goes back at least toConfucius, being mentioned in theBook of Odes(Shijing 詩經). It meant "to criticize by means of an ode". In the pre-Qin era it was also common for schools of thought to clarify their views through the use of short explanatory anecdotes, also called yuyan (寓言), translated as "entrusted words". These yuyan usually were brimming with satirical content. TheDaoisttextZhuangziis the first to define this concept of Yuyan. During the Qin and Han dynasty, however, the concept of yuyan mostly died out through their heavy persecution of dissent and literary circles, especially byQin Shi HuangandHan Wudi.
The first Roman to discuss satire critically wasQuintilian, who invented the term to describe the writings ofGaius Lucilius. The two most prominent and influential ancient Roman satirists areHoraceandJuvenal, who wrote during the early days of theRoman Empire. Other important satirists in ancientLatinare Gaius Lucilius andPersius.Satirein their work is much wider than in the modern sense of the word, including fantastic and highly coloured humorous writing with little or no real mocking intent. When Horace criticizedAugustus, he usedveiledironic terms. In contrast,Plinyreports that the 6th-century-BC poetHipponaxwrotesatiraethat were so cruel that the offended hanged themselves.
In the 2nd century AD,LucianwroteTrue History, a book satirizing the clearly unrealistic travelogues/adventures written byCtesias,Iambulus, andHomer. He states that he was surprised they expected people to believe their lies, and stating that he, like them, has no actual knowledge or experience, but shall now tell lies as if he did. He goes on to describe a far more obviously extreme and unrealistic tale, involving interplanetary exploration, war among alien life forms, and life inside a 200 mile long whale back in the terrestrial ocean, all intended to make obvious the fallacies of books likeIndicaandThe Odyssey.
MedievalArabic poetryincluded the satiric genrehija. Satire was introduced intoArabic prose literatureby the authorAl-Jahizin the 9th century. While dealing with serious topics in what are now known asanthropology,sociologyandpsychology, he introduced a satirical approach, "based on the premise that, however serious the subject under review, it could be made more interesting and thus achieve greater effect, if only one leavened the lump of solemnity by the insertion of a few amusing anecdotes or by the throwing out of some witty or paradoxical observations. He was well aware that, in treating of new themes in his prose works, he would have to employ a vocabulary of a nature more familiar inhija, satirical poetry."For example, in one of hiszoologicalworks, he satirized the preference for longerhuman penis size, writing: "If the length of the penis were a sign of honor, then themulewould belong to the (honorable tribe of)Quraysh". Another satirical story based on this preference was anArabian Nightstale called "Ali with the Large Member".
In the 10th century, the writerTha'alibirecorded satirical poetry written by the Arabic poets As-Salami and Abu Dulaf, with As-Salami praising Abu Dulaf'swide breadth of knowledgeand then mocking his ability in all these subjects, and with Abu Dulaf responding back and satirizing As-Salami in return.An example of Arabic political satire included another 10th-century poet Jarir satirizing Farazdaq as "a transgressor of theSharia" and later Arabic poets in turn using the term "Farazdaq-like" as a form of political satire.
The terms "comedy" and "satire" became synonymous afterAristotle'sPoeticswas translated intoArabicin themedieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon byIslamic philosophersand writers, such as Abu Bischr, his pupilAl-Farabi,Avicenna, andAverroes. Due to cultural differences, they disassociated comedy fromGreek dramaticrepresentation and instead identified it withArabic poeticthemes and forms, such ashija(satirical poetry). They viewed comedy as simply the "art of reprehension", and made no reference to light and cheerful events, or troubled beginnings and happy endings, associated with classical Greek comedy. After theLatin translations of the 12th century, the term "comedy" thus gained a new semantic meaning inMedieval literature.
Ubayd Zakaniintroduced satire inPersian literatureduring the 14th century. His work is noted for its satire and obscene verses, often political or bawdy, and often cited in debates involvinghomosexualpractices. He wrote theResaleh-ye Delgosha, as well asAkhlaq al-Ashraf("Ethics of the Aristocracy") and the famous humorous fableMasnavi Mush-O-Gorbeh(Mouse and Cat), which was a political satire. His non-satirical serious classical verses have also been regarded as very well written, in league with the other great works ofPersian literature. Between 1905 and 1911,Bibi Khatoon Astarabadiand other Iranian writers wrote notable satires.
In theEarly Middle Ages, examples of satire were the songs byGoliardsorvagantsnow best known as an anthology calledCarmina Buranaand made famous as texts of a composition by the 20th-century composerCarl Orff. Satirical poetry is believed to have been popular, although little has survived. With the advent of theHigh Middle Agesand the birth of modernvernacular literaturein the 12th century, it began to be used again, most notably byChaucer. The disrespectful manner was considered "unchristian" and ignored, except for themoral satire, which mocked misbehaviour in Christian terms. Examples areLivre des ManièresbyÉtienne de Fougères[fr](~1178), and some of Chaucer'sCanterbury Tales. Sometimesepic poetry (epos)was mocked, and even feudal society, but there was hardly a general interest in the genre.
In theHigh Middle Agesthe workReynard the Fox, written by Willem die Madoc maecte, and its translations were a popular work that satirized the class system at the time. Representing the various classes as certain anthropomorphic animals. As example, the lion in the story represents the nobility, which is portrayed as being weak and without character, but very greedy. Versions of Reynard the Fox were also popular well into the early modern period. The Dutch translationVan den vos Reynaerdeis considered a major medieval Dutch literary work. In the Dutch version De Vries argues that the animal characters represent barons who conspired against the Count of Flanders.
Directsocial commentaryvia satire returned in the 16th century, when texts such as the works ofFrançois Rabelaistackled more serious issues.
Two major satirists of Europe in theRenaissancewereGiovanni BoccaccioandFrançois Rabelais. Other examples of Renaissance satire includeTill Eulenspiegel,Reynard the Fox,Sebastian Brant'sNarrenschiff(1494),Erasmus'sMoriae Encomium(1509),Thomas More'sUtopia(1516), andCarajicomedia(1519).
TheElizabethan(i.e. 16th-century English) writers thought of satire as related to the notoriously rude, coarse and sharp satyr play. Elizabethan "satire" (typically in pamphlet form) therefore contains more straightforward abuse than subtle irony. The FrenchHuguenotIsaac Casaubonpointed out in 1605 that satire in the Roman fashion was something altogether more civilised. Casaubon discovered and published Quintilian's writing and presented the original meaning of the term (satira, not satyr), and the sense of wittiness (reflecting the "dishfull of fruits") became more important again. Seventeenth-century English satire once again aimed at the "amendment of vices" (Dryden).
In the 1590s a new wave of verse satire broke with the publication ofHall'sVirgidemiarum, six books of verse satires targeting everything from literary fads to corrupt noblemen. AlthoughDonnehad already circulated satires in manuscript, Hall's was the first real attempt in English at verse satire on the Juvenalian model.The success of his work combined with a national mood of disillusion in the last years of Elizabeth's reign triggered an avalanche of satire—much of it less conscious of classical models than Hall's — until the fashion was brought to an abrupt stop by censorship.
Another satiric genre to emerge around this time was the satiricalalmanac, withFrançois Rabelais's workPantagrueline Prognostication(1532), which mocked astrological predictions. The strategies François utilized within this work were employed by later satirical almanacs, such as thePoor Robinseries that spanned the 17th to 19th centuries.
Satire (KatakshorVyang) has played a prominent role inIndianandHindi literature, and is counted as one of the "ras" of literature in ancient books.With the commencement of printing of books in local language in the nineteenth century and especially after India's freedom, this grew.Many of the works ofTulsi Das,Kabir,Munshi Premchand,village minstrels,Hari kathasingers, poets, Dalit singers and current day stand up Indian comedians incorporate satire, usually ridiculing authoritarians, fundamentalists and incompetent people in power.In India, it has usually been used as a means of expression and an outlet for common people to express their anger against authoritarian entities.
TheAge of Enlightenment, an intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th centuries advocating rationality, produced a great revival of satire in Britain. This was fuelled by the rise of partisan politics, with the formalisation of theToryandWhigparties—and also, in 1714, by the formation of theScriblerus Club, which includedAlexander Pope,Jonathan Swift,John Gay,John Arbuthnot,Robert Harley,Thomas Parnell, andHenry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke. This club included several of the notable satirists of early-18th-century Britain. They focused their attention on Martinus Scriblerus, "an invented learned fool... whose work they attributed all that was tedious, narrow-minded, and pedantic in contemporary scholarship".In their hands astute and biting satire of institutions and individuals became a popular weapon. The turn to the 18th century was characterized by a switch from Horatian, soft, pseudo-satire, to biting "juvenal" satire.
Jonathan Swiftwas one of the greatest of Anglo-Irish satirists, and one of the first to practise modern journalistic satire. For instance, In hisA Modest ProposalSwift suggests that Irish peasants be encouraged to sell their own children as food for the rich, as a solution to the "problem" of poverty. His purpose is of course to attack indifference to the plight of the desperately poor. In his bookGulliver's Travelshe writes about the flaws in human society in general and English society in particular.John Drydenwrote an influential essay entitled "A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire"that helped fix the definition of satire in the literary world. His satiricalMac Flecknoewas written in response to a rivalry withThomas Shadwelland eventually inspiredAlexander Popeto write his satiricalDunciad.
Alexander Pope(b. May 21, 1688) was a satirist known for his Horatian satirist style and translation of theIliad. Famous throughout and after thelong 18th century, Pope died in 1744.Pope, in hisThe Rape of the Lock, is delicately chiding society in a sly but polished voice by holding up a mirror to the follies and vanities of the upper class. Pope does not actively attack the self-important pomp of the British aristocracy, but rather presents it in such a way that gives the reader a new perspective from which to easily view the actions in the story as foolish and ridiculous. A mockery of the upper class, more delicate and lyrical than brutal, Pope nonetheless is able to effectively illuminate the moral degradation of society to the public.The Rape of the Lockassimilates the masterful qualities of a heroic epic, such as theIliad, which Pope was translating at the time of writingThe Rape of the Lock. However, Pope applied these qualities satirically to a seemingly petty egotistical elitist quarrel to prove his point wryly.Other satirical works by Pope include theEpistle to Dr Arbuthnot.
Daniel Defoepursued a more journalistic type of satire, being famous for hisThe True-Born Englishmanwhich mocksxenophobicpatriotism, andThe Shortest-Way with the Dissenters—advocatingreligious tolerationby means of an ironical exaggeration of the highly intolerant attitudes of his time.
The pictorial satire ofWilliam Hogarthis a precursor to the development ofpolitical cartoonsin 18th-century England.The medium developed under the direction of its greatest exponent,James Gillrayfrom London.With his satirical works calling the king (George III), prime ministers and generals (especially Napoleon) to account, Gillray's wit and keen sense of the ridiculous made him the pre-eminentcartoonistof the era.
Ebenezer Cooke(1665–1732), author of "The Sot-Weed Factor" (1708), was among the first writers of literary satire inColonial America.Benjamin Franklin(1706–1790) and others followed, using satire to shape an emerging nation's culture through its sense of the ridiculous.
Several satiric papers competed for the public's attention in theVictorian era(1837–1901) andEdwardianperiod, such asPunch(1841) andFun(1861).
Perhaps the most enduring examples of Victorian satire, however, are to be found in theSavoy OperasofGilbert and Sullivan. In fact, inThe Yeomen of the Guard, a jester is given lines that paint a very neat picture of the method and purpose of the satirist, and might almost be taken as a statement of Gilbert's own intent:
Novelists such asCharles Dickens(1812–1870) often used passages of satiric writing in their treatment of social issues.
Continuing the tradition of Swiftian journalistic satire,Sidney Godolphin Osborne(1808–1889) was the most prominent writer of scathing "Letters to the Editor" of the LondonTimes. Famous in his day, he is now all but forgotten. His maternal grandfatherWilliam Eden, 1st Baron Aucklandwas considered to be a possible candidate for the authorship of theJuniusletters. Osborne's satire was so bitter and biting that at one point he received a public censure fromParliament's then Home Secretary SirJames Graham. Osborne wrote mostly in the Juvenalian mode over a wide range of topics mostly centered on British government's and landlords' mistreatment of poor farm workers and field laborers. He bitterly opposed theNew Poor Lawsand was passionate on the subject of the British government's botched response to theGreat Irish Famineand the mistreatment ofBritish soldiersduring theCrimean War.
A number of works of fiction during this time, influenced byEgyptomania,used the backdrop of Ancient Egypt as a device for satire. Some works, likeEdgar Allan Poe'sSome Words with a Mummy(1845) andGrant Allen'sMy New Year's Eve Among the Mummies(1878), portrayed Egyptian civilization as having already achieved many of the Victorian era's advancements (like thesteam engineandgaslamps) in an effort to satire the notion of progress.Other works, likeJane Loudon'sThe Mummy!: Or a Tale of the Twenty-Second Century, satirized Victorian curiosities with the afterlife.
Later in the nineteenth century, in the United States,Mark Twain(1835–1910) grew to become American's greatest satirist: his novelHuckleberry Finn(1884) is set in theantebellumSouth, where the moral values Twain wishes to promote are completely turned on their heads. His hero, Huck, is a rather simple but goodhearted lad who is ashamed of the "sinful temptation" that leads him to help afugitive slave. In fact his conscience, warped by the distorted moral world he has grown up in, often bothers him most when he is at his best. He is prepared to do good, believing it to be wrong.
Twain's younger contemporaryAmbrose Bierce(1842–1913) gained notoriety as acynic, pessimist and black humorist with his dark, bitterly ironic stories, many set during theAmerican Civil War, which satirized the limitations of human perception and reason. Bierce's most famous work of satire is probablyThe Devil's Dictionary(1906), in which the definitions mock cant,hypocrisyandreceived wisdom.
Karl Krausis considered the first major European satirist sinceJonathan Swift.In 20th-century literature, satire was used by English authors such asAldous Huxley(1930s) andGeorge Orwell(1940s), which under the inspiration ofZamyatin's Russian 1921 novelWe, made serious and even frightening commentaries on the dangers of the sweeping social changes taking place throughout Europe.Anatoly Lunacharskywrote 'Satire attains its greatest significance when a newly evolving class creates an ideology considerably more advanced than that of the ruling class, but has not yet developed to the point where it can conquer it. Herein lies its truly great ability to triumph, its scorn for its adversary and its hidden fear of it. Herein lies its venom, its amazing energy of hate, and quite frequently, its grief, like a black frame around glittering images. Herein lie its contradictions, and its power.'Many social critics of this same time in the United States, such asDorothy ParkerandH. L. Mencken, used satire as their main weapon, and Mencken in particular is noted for having said that "one horse-laugh is worth ten thousandsyllogisms" in the persuasion of the public to accept a criticism. NovelistSinclair Lewiswas known for his satirical stories such asMain Street(1920),Babbitt(1922),Elmer Gantry(1927; dedicated by Lewis to H. L. Mencken), andIt Can't Happen Here(1935), and his books often explored and satirized contemporary American values. The filmThe Great Dictator(1940) byCharlie Chaplinis itself a parody ofAdolf Hitler; Chaplin later declared that he would have not made the film if he had known about theconcentration camps.
ModernSovietsatire was very popular in the 1920s and 1930s. This form of satire is recognized by its level of sophistication and intelligence used, along with its own level of parody. Since there is no longer the need of survival or revolution to write about, modern Soviet satire focused on the quality of life.
In the United States 1950s, satire was introduced into Americanstand-up comedymost prominently byLenny BruceandMort Sahl.As they challenged thetaboosandconventional wisdomof the time, were ostracized by the mass media establishment assick comedians. In the same period,Paul Krassner's magazineThe Realistbegan publication, to become immensely popular during the 1960s and early 1970s among people in thecounterculture; it had articles and cartoons that were savage, biting satires of politicians such asLyndon JohnsonandRichard Nixon, theVietnam War, theCold Warand theWar on Drugs. This baton was also carried by the originalNational Lampoonmagazine, edited byDoug KenneyandHenry Beardand featuring blistering satire written byMichael O'Donoghue,P.J. O'Rourke, andTony Hendra, among others.Prominent satiric stand-up comedianGeorge Carlinacknowledged the influenceThe Realisthad in his 1970s conversion to a satiric comedian.
A more humorous brand of satire enjoyed a renaissance in the UK in the early 1960s with thesatire boom, led by comedians includingPeter Cook,Alan Bennett,Jonathan Miller, andDudley Moore, whose stage showBeyond the Fringewas a hit not only in Britain, but also in the United States. Other significant influences in 1960s British satire includeDavid Frost,Eleanor Bronand thetelevision programThat Was The Week That Was.
Joseph Heller's most famous work,Catch-22(1961), satirizes bureaucracy and the military, and is frequently cited as one of the greatest literary works of the twentieth century.Departing from traditional Hollywoodfarceandscrewball, director and comedianJerry Lewisused satire in his self-directed filmsThe Bellboy(1960),The Errand Boy(1961) andThe Patsy(1964) to comment on celebrity and the star-making machinery of Hollywood.The filmDr. Strangelove(1964) starringPeter Sellerswas a popular satire on theCold War. Sellers and the British satire boom had a direct influence on the comedy troupeMonty Python.Empiremagazine calledMonty Python's Life of Brian(1979) "an unrivalled satire on religion".
Severino "Nonoy" Marcelo's 1978 Philippineadult animatedcomedy film,Tadhana, presents a satirical, humorous and poignant view of the Philippines' history ofSpanish colonization.
Contemporary popular usage of the term "satire" is often very imprecise. While satire often usescaricatureandparody, by no means are all uses of these or other humorous devices satiric. Refer to the careful definition of satire that heads this article.The Cambridge Companion to Roman Satirealso warns of the ambiguous nature of satire:
Satire is used on many UK television programmes, particularly popular panel shows and quiz shows such asMock the Week(2005–2022) andHave I Got News for You(1990–ongoing). It is found on radio quiz shows such asThe News Quiz(1977–ongoing) andThe Now Show(1998–2024). One of the most watched UK television shows of the 1980s and early 1990s, the puppet showSpitting Imagewas a satire of theroyal family, politics, entertainment, sport andBritish cultureof the era.Court FlunkeyfromSpitting Imageis a caricature ofJames Gillray, intended as a homage to the father of political cartooning.
Created byDMA Designin 1997, satire features prominently in the British video game seriesGrand Theft Auto.Another example is theFalloutseries, namelyInterplay-developedFallout: A Post Nuclear Role Playing Game(1995).Other games utilizing satire includePostal(1997),State of Emergency(2002),Phone Story(2011), and7 Billion Humans(2018).
Trey ParkerandMatt Stone'sSouth Park(1997–ongoing) relies almost exclusively on satire to address issues in American culture, with episodes addressingracism,anti-Semitism,militant atheism,homophobia,sexism,environmentalism,corporate culture,political correctnessandanti-Catholicism, among many other issues.
Satirical web series and sites include Emmy-nominatedHonest Trailers(2012–),Internet phenomena-themedEncyclopedia Dramatica(2004–),Uncyclopedia(2005–),self-proclaimed "America's Finest News Source"The Onion(1988–).andThe Onion'sChristian conservative counterpartThe Babylon Bee(2016–).
In the United States,Stephen Colbert's television program,The Colbert Report(2005–14) is instructive in the methods of contemporary American satire; sketch comedy television showSaturday Night Liveis also known for its satirical impressions and parodies of prominent persons and politicians, among some of the most notable, their parodies of U.S. political figuresHillary Clintonand ofSarah Palin.Colbert's characteris an opinionated and self-righteous commentator who, in his TV interviews, interrupts people, points and wags his finger at them, and "unwittingly" uses a number of logical fallacies. In doing so, he demonstrates the principle of modern American political satire: the ridicule of the actions of politicians and other public figures by taking all their statements and purported beliefs to their furthest (supposedly) logical conclusion, thus revealing their perceived hypocrisy or absurdity.
In the United Kingdom, a popular modern satirist was the late SirTerry Pratchett, author of the internationally best-sellingDiscworldbook series. One of the most well-known and controversial British satirists isChris Morris, co-writer and director ofFour Lions.
In Canada, satire has become an important part of the comedy scene.Stephen Leacockwas one of the best known early Canadian satirists, and in the early 20th century, he achieved fame by targeting the attitudes of small-town life. In more recent years, Canada has had several prominent satirical television series and radio shows. Some, includingCODCO,The Royal Canadian Air Farce,This Is That, andThis Hour Has 22 Minutesdeal directly with current news stories and political figures, while others, likeHistory Bitespresent contemporary social satire in the context of events and figures in history.The Beavertonis a Canadian news satire site similar to The Onion. Canadian songwriterNancy Whiteuses music as the vehicle for her satire, and her comic folk songs are regularly played onCBC Radio.
In Hong Kong, there was a well-known AustralianKim Jong-unimpersonatorHoward Xwhom often utilised satire to show his support for Hong Kong city's pro-democracy movements and liberation of North Korea. He believed that humour is a very powerful weapon and he often made it clear that he imitates the dictator to satirize him, not to glorify him. Throughout his career as a professional impersonator, he had also worked with multiple organisations and celebrities to create parodies and to stir up conversations of politics and human rights.
Cartoonists often use satire as well as straight humour.Al Capp's satiricalcomic stripLi'l Abnerwas censored in September 1947. The controversy, as reported inTime, centred on Capp's portrayal of the US Senate. Said Edward Leech of Scripps-Howard, "We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks... boobs and undesirables."Walt Kelly'sPogowas likewise censored in 1952 over his overt satire ofSenator Joe McCarthy, caricatured in his comic strip as "Simple J. Malarky".Garry Trudeau, whosecomic stripDoonesburyfocuses on satire of the political system, and provides a trademark cynical view on national events. Trudeau exemplifies humour mixed with criticism. For example, the characterMark Slackmeyerlamented that because he was not legally married to his partner, he was deprived of the "exquisite agony" of experiencing a nasty and painful divorce like heterosexuals. This, of course, satirized the claim that gay unions would denigrate the sanctity of heterosexual marriage.
Like some literary predecessors, many recent television satires contain strong elements of parody andcaricature; for instance, the popular animated seriesThe SimpsonsandSouth Parkboth parody modern family and social life by taking their assumptions to the extreme; both have led to the creation of similar series. As well as the purely humorous effect of this sort of thing, they often strongly criticise various phenomena in politics, economic life, religion and many other aspects of society, and thus qualify as satirical. Due to their animated nature, these shows can easily use images of public figures and generally have greater freedom to do so than conventional shows using live actors.
News satireis also a very popular form of contemporary satire, appearing in as wide an array of formats as the news media itself: print (e.g.The Onion,Waterford Whispers News,Private Eye), radio (e.g.On the Hour), television (e.g.The Day Today,The Daily Show,Brass Eye) and the web (e.g.Faking News,El Koshary Today,Babylon Bee,The Beaverton,The Daily BonnetandThe Onion). Other satires are on thelist of satirists and satires.
In an interview withWikinews, Sean Mills, President ofThe Onion, said angry letters about their news parody always carried the same message. "It's whatever affects that person", said Mills. "So it's like, 'I love it when you make a joke about murder or rape, but if you talk about cancer, well my brother has cancer and that's not funny to me.' Or someone else can say, 'Cancer'shilarious, but don't talk about rape because my cousin got raped.' Those are rather extreme examples, but if it affects somebody personally, they tend to be more sensitive about it."
Satire is also gaining recognition for its value in social science research, particularly when authors are seeking to unpack complex social issues like gendered racism.
Satire is regularly used by social movements covering a range of issues to achieve strategic goals.US community organizer and author of Rules for Radicals, Saul Alinsky, stated, 'Humour is essential to a successful tactician, for the most potent weapons known to [people] are satire and ridicule.
Literary satire is usually written out of earlier satiric works,reprisingprevious conventions, commonplaces, stance, situations and tones of voice.Exaggerationis one of the most common satirical techniques.Contrarilydiminutionis also a satirical technique.
For its nature and social role, satire has enjoyed in many societies a special freedom license to mock prominent individuals and institutions.In Germany,Japan, and Italysatire is protected by the constitution.
Since satire belongs to the realm ofartand artistic expression, it benefits from broader lawfulness limits than merefreedom of informationof journalistic kind.In some countries a specific "right to satire" is recognized and its limits go beyond the "right to report" of journalism and even the "right to criticize".Satire benefits not only of the protection tofreedom of speech, but also to that toculture, and that to scientific and artistic production.
In September 2017The Juice Mediareceived an e-mail from the Australian National Symbols Officer requesting that the use of a satirical logo, called the "Coat of Harms" based on theAustralian Coat of Arms, no longer be used as they had received complaints from the members of the public.Coincidentally 5 days later a Bill was proposed toAustralian parliamentto amend theCriminal Code Act 1995.If passed, those found to be in breach of the new amendment can face 2–5 years imprisonment.
As of June 2018, the Criminal Code Amendment (Impersonating a Commonwealth Body) Bill 2017 was before theAustralian Senatewith thethird readingmoved May 10, 2018.
Descriptions of satire's biting effect on its target include 'venomous', 'cutting', 'stinging',vitriol. Because satire often combines anger and humor, as well as the fact that it addresses and calls into question many controversial issues, it can be profoundly disturbing.
Because it is essentially ironic or sarcastic, satire is often misunderstood. A typical misunderstanding is to confuse the satirist with theirpersona.
Common uncomprehending responses to satire include revulsion (accusations ofpoor taste, or that "it's just not funny" for instance) and the idea that the satirist actually does support the ideas, policies, or people being ridiculed. For instance, at the time of its publication, many people misunderstood Swift's purpose inA Modest Proposal, assuming it to be a serious recommendation of economically motivated cannibalism.Much later in history, in the weeks following9/11the American public at large found works of satire to be in bad taste and not appropriate for the social climate at the time. Some media outlets at the time, like essayistRoger Rosenblattin an editorial forTimemagazine's September 24 issue, would go so far as to claim that irony was dead.
Some critics ofMark TwainseeHuckleberry Finnasracistand offensive, missing the point that its author clearly intended it to be satire (racism being in fact only one of a number of Mark Twain's known concerns attacked inHuckleberry Finn).This same misconception was suffered by the main character of the 1960s British television comedy satireTill Death Us Do Part. The character ofAlf Garnett(played byWarren Mitchell) was created to poke fun at the kind of narrow-minded, racist,little Englanderthat Garnett represented. Instead, his character became a sort ofanti-heroto people who actually agreed with his views. (The same situation occurred withArchie Bunkerin American TV showAll in the Family, a character derived directly from Garnett.)
The Australian satirical television comedy showThe Chaser's War on Everythinghas suffered repeated attacks based on various perceived interpretations of the "target" of its attacks. The "Make a Realistic Wish Foundation" sketch (June 2009), which attacked in classical satiric fashion the heartlessness of people who are reluctant to donate tocharities, was widely interpreted as an attack on theMake a Wish Foundation, or even the terminally ill children helped by that organisation.Prime Ministerof the timeKevin Ruddstated that The Chaser team "should hang their heads in shame". He went on to say that "I didn't see that but it's been described to me. ...But having a go at kids with a terminal illness is really beyond the pale, absolutely beyond the pale."Television station management suspended the show for two weeks and reduced the third season to eight episodes.
The romantic prejudice against satire is the belief spread by theromantic movementthat satire is something unworthy of serious attention; this prejudice has held considerable influence to this day.Such prejudice extends to humour and everything that arouses laughter, which are often underestimated as frivolous and unworthy of serious study.For instance, humor is generally neglected as a topic of anthropological research and teaching.
Because satire criticises in an ironic, essentially indirect way, it frequently escapescensorshipin a way more direct criticism might not. Periodically, however, it runs into serious opposition, and people in power who perceive themselves as attacked attempt to censor it or prosecute its practitioners. In a classic example,Aristophaneswas persecuted by thedemagogueCleon.
In 1599, theArchbishop of CanterburyJohn Whitgiftand theBishop of LondonRichard Bancroft, whose offices had the function of licensing books for publication in England, issued a decree banning verse satire. The decree, now known as theBishops' Ban of 1599, ordered the burning of certain volumes of satire byJohn Marston,Thomas Middleton,Joseph Hall, and others; it also required histories and plays to be specially approved by a member of the Queen'sPrivy Council, and it prohibited the future printing of satire in verse.
The motives for the ban are obscure, particularly since some of the books banned had been licensed by the same authorities less than a year earlier. Various scholars have argued that the target was obscenity, libel, or sedition. It seems likely that lingering anxiety about theMartin Marprelatecontroversy, in which the bishops themselves had employed satirists, played a role; bothThomas NasheandGabriel Harvey, two of the key figures in that controversy, suffered a complete ban on all their works. In the event, though, the ban was little enforced, even by the licensing authority itself.
In 2005, theJyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversycaused global protests by offended Muslims and violent attacks with manyfatalitiesin theNear East. It was not the first case ofMuslimprotests against criticism in the form of satire, but the Western world was surprised by the hostility of the reaction: Any country's flag in which a newspaper chose to publish the parodies was being burnt in a Near East country, then embassies were attacked, killing 139 people in mainly four countries; politicians throughout Europe agreed that satire was an aspect of thefreedom of speech, and therefore to be a protected means of dialogue. Iran threatened to start anInternational Holocaust Cartoon Competition, which was immediately responded to by Jews with anIsraeli Anti-Semitic Cartoons Contest.
In 2006 British comedianSacha Baron CohenreleasedBorat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan, a "mockumentary" that satirized everyone, from high society to frat boys. The film was criticized by many. Although Baron Cohen is Jewish, some complained that it wasantisemitic, and the government ofKazakhstanboycotted the film. The film itself had been a reaction to a longer quarrel between the government and the comedian.
In 2008, popular South African cartoonist and satiristJonathan Shapiro(who is published under the pen name Zapiro) came under fire for depicting then-president of theANCJacob Zumain the act of undressing in preparation for the implied rape of 'Lady Justice' which is held down by Zuma loyalists.The cartoon was drawn in response to Zuma's efforts to duck corruption charges, and the controversy was heightened by the fact that Zuma was himself acquitted ofrapein May 2006. In February 2009, theSouth African Broadcasting Corporation, viewed by some opposition parties as the mouthpiece of the governing ANC,shelved a satirical TV show created by Shapiro,and in May 2009 the broadcaster pulled a documentary about political satire (featuring Shapiro among others) for the second time, hours before scheduled broadcast.
On December 29, 2009, Samsung suedMike Breen, and theKorea Timesfor $1 million, claiming criminal defamation over a satirical column published on Christmas Day, 2009.
On April 29, 2015, theUK Independence Party(UKIP) requestedKent Policeinvestigate theBBC, claiming that comments made about Party leaderNigel Farageby a panelist on the comedy showHave I Got News For Youmight hinder his chances of success in the general election (which would take place a week later), and claimed the BBC breached the Representation of the People Act.Kent Police rebuffed the request to open an investigation, and the BBC released a statement, "Britain has a proud tradition of satire, and everyone knows that the contributors onHave I Got News for Youregularly make jokes at the expense of politicians of all parties."
Satire is occasionally prophetic: the jokes precede actual events.Among the eminent examples are: