Normandy

Normandy(French:Normandie;Norman:NormaundieorNouormandie)is a geographical and cultural region in northwestern Europe, roughly coextensive with the historicalDuchy of Normandy.
Normandy comprisesmainland Normandy(a part of France) and insular Normandy (mostly the BritishChannel Islands). It covers 30,627 square kilometres (11,825 sq mi).Its population in 2017 was 3,499,280. The inhabitants of Normandy are known asNormans;the region is the historic homeland of theNorman language. Large settlements includeRouen,Caen,Le HavreandCherbourg.
The cultural region of Normandy is roughly similar to the historical Duchy of Normandy, which includes small areas now part of the departments ofMayenneandSarthe. The Channel Islands (French:Îles Anglo-Normandes) are also historically part of Normandy; they cover 194 square kilometres (75 sq mi)and comprise twobailiwicks:GuernseyandJersey, which are British Crown Dependencies.
Normandy's name comes from the settlement of the territory byVikings("Northmen") starting in the 9th century, and confirmed by treaty in the 10th century between KingCharles III of Franceand the VikingjarlRollo. For almost 150 years following theNorman conquest of Englandin 1066, Normandy and England were linked by having the same person reign as bothDuke of NormandyandKing of England.
Archaeological finds, such ascave paintings, prove that humans were present in the region in prehistoric times. Normandy also has manymegalithic monuments.
Celts(also known asBelgaeandGauls) have populated Normandy since at least theBronze Age. WhenJulius Caesarinvaded Gaul (58–50 BC), there were nine different Celtic tribes living in this part of Gaul.
TheRomanisationof this region partly included in theGallia Celticaand in theGallia Belgica(the Seine being more or less the limit between them) was achieved by the usual methods:Roman roadsand a policy of urbanisation.Classicistsmention manyGallo-Romanvillasand archeology found their traces in the past 30 years. In theLate Roman Empirea new province was created and calledLugdunensis Secunda, it sketched the laterecclesiastical province of Rouen, with theMetropolis civitas Rotomagensium(Rouen),Civitas Baiocassium(Augustodorum, Bayeux),Civitas Abrincatum(Ingena, Avranches),Civitas Ebroicorum(Mediolanum, Évreux),Civitas Saiorum(Sées),Civitas Lexoviorum(Noviomagus, Lisieux / Lieuvin) andCivitas Constantia(Coutances).
In the late 3rd century AD, Germanic raids devastated "Lugdunensis Secunda", as the modern area of Normandy was known at the time. The Romans built a system of coastal defences known asSaxon Shoreon both sides of the English Channel. Coastal settlements were raided bySaxonpirates that finally settled mainly in theBessinregion.Modern archeology reveals their presence in different Merovingian cemeteries excavated east of Caen.Christianity also began to enter the area during this period and Rouen already had a metropolitan bishop by the 4th century. The ecclesiastical province of Rouen was based on the frame of the RomanLugdunensis Secunda, whose limits corresponded almost exactly to the futureduchyof Normandy. In 406,Germanic tribesbegan invading from the east, followed by dispersed settlements mainly in thePays de Bray,Pays de CauxandVexin. As early as 487, the area between the riversSommeandLoirecame under the control of theFrankishlordClovis.
Vikingsstarted to raid along the river Seine during the middle of the 9th century. As early as 841, a Viking fleet appeared at the mouth of the Seine, the principal route by which they entered the kingdom.After attacking and destroying monasteries, including one atJumièges, they took advantage of the power vacuum created by the disintegration ofCharlemagne's empire to take Northern France. Thefiefdom of Normandywas created for the Viking leaderHrólfr, known inMedieval LatinasRollo. Rollo hadbesieged Parisbut in 911 enteredvassalageto the king of theWest Franks,Charles the Simple, through theTreaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for hishomageandfealty, Rollo legally gained the territory that he and his Viking allies had previously conquered. The name "Normandy" reflects Rollo's Viking ("Norseman") origins.
The descendants ofRolloand his followers created an aristocracy that step by step adopted the localGallo-Romance language, intermarried with the area's native Gallo-Frankish inhabitants, and adopted Christianity. Nevertheless, the first generations of Scandinavian and Anglo-Scandinavian settlers brought slaves, mainly from theBritish Isles, and often turned the women intofrilla, a Scandinavian tradition which became known asmore Danico, medieval Latin meaning "Danish marriage". The first counts of Rouen and the dukes of Normandy had concubines too. While very little archeological excavations about the Vikings were done in Normandy, theNorman toponymyretains a large Scandinavian and Anglo-Scandinavian heritage, due to a constant use ofOld Norseduring four or five generations in certain parts of Normandy.
They then became theNormans– aNorman French-speaking mixture of Norsemen and indigenous Gallo-Franks.
Rollo's descendantWilliambecame king of England in 1066 after defeatingHarold Godwinson, the last of theAnglo-Saxon kings, at theBattle of Hastings, while retaining thefiefdomof Normandy for himself and his descendants.
Aside from the conquest of England and the subsequent invasions of Wales and Ireland, the Normans expanded into other areas. Norman families, such as that ofTancred of Hauteville,Rainulf DrengotandGuimond de Moulinsplayed important parts in theconquest of southern Italyand theCrusades.
TheDrengotlineage, de Hauteville's sonsWilliam Iron Arm,Drogo, andHumphrey,Robert GuiscardandRoger the Great Countprogressively claimed territories in southern Italy until founding theKingdom of Sicilyin 1130. They also carved out a place for themselves and their descendants in theCrusader statesofAsia Minorand theHoly Land.
The 14th-century explorerJean de Béthencourtestablished akingdomin theCanary Islandsin 1404. He received the title King of the Canary Islands from PopeInnocent VIIbut recognizedHenry III of Castileas his overlord, who had provided him with military and financial aid during the conquest.
In 1204, during the reign ofJohn, King of England, mainland Normandy was captured from the English by the forces ofPhilip II of France, ending some 293 years of relative Norman independence from the French crown. Insular Normandy (the Channel Islands) remained under control of the English, though still attached to the ecclesiastical province of Rouen. In the 1259Treaty of Paris,Henry III of Englandrecognized the legitimacy of the French possession of mainland Normandy. His successors, however, often fought to regain control of their ancient fiefdom.
TheCharte aux Normandsgranted byLouis X of Francein 1315 (and later re-confirmed in 1339) – like the analogousMagna Cartagranted in England in the aftermath of 1204 – guaranteed the liberties and privileges of the province of Normandy.
Normandy was devastated by various civil wars and theHundred Years' War. Between 1419 and 1450, the English controlled all of Normandy apart fromMont-Saint-Michel, and made Rouen the seat of their power in France. Normandy ultimately saw its population decline by three quarters as a result of the various conflicts which took place in the region during the late Middle Ages.Afterwards, prosperity returned to Normandy until theWars of Religion. When many Norman towns (Alençon, Rouen,Caen,Coutances,Bayeux) joined theProtestant Reformation, battles ensued throughout the province. In the Channel Islands, a period ofCalvinismfollowing the Reformation was suppressed whenAnglicanismwas imposed following theStuart Restoration.
Samuel de Champlainleft the port ofHonfleurin 1604 and foundedAcadia. Four years later, he founded the City of Québec. From then onwards, Normans engaged in a policy of expansion in North America. They continued the exploration of the New World:René-Robert Cavelier de La Salletravelled in the area of theGreat Lakes, then on theMississippi River.Pierre Le Moyne d'Ibervilleand his brotherLemoyne de BienvillefoundedLouisiana,Biloxi, Mobile and New Orleans. Territories located between Québec and theMississippi Deltawere opened up to establishCanadaandLouisiana. Colonists from Normandy were among the most active inNew France, comprisingAcadia, Canada, and Louisiana.
Honfleur andLe Havrewere two of the principalslave tradeports of France.
Although agriculture remained important, industries such as weaving, metallurgy, sugar refining, ceramics, and shipbuilding were introduced and developed.
In the 1780s, the economic crisis and the crisis of theAncien Régimestruck Normandy as well as other parts of the nation, leading to theFrench Revolution. Bad harvests, technical progress and the effects of theEden Agreementsigned in 1786 affected employment and the economy of the province. Normans laboured under a heavy fiscal burden.
In 1790, the five departments of Normandy replaced the former province.
On 13 July 1793, the NormanCharlotte CordayassassinatedJean-Paul Marat.
The Normans reacted little to the many political upheavals which characterized the 19th century. Overall, they warily accepted the changes of régime (First French Empire,Bourbon Restoration,July Monarchy,French Second Republic,Second French Empire,French Third Republic).
Following theFrench Revolutionary Warsand theNapoleonic Wars(1792–1815), there was an economic revival that included the mechanization of textile manufacturing and the introduction of the first trains.
Also, with seaside tourism in the 19th century came the advent of the first beach resorts.
During the Second World War, following thearmistice of 22 June 1940, continental Normandy was part of theGerman occupied zone of France. The Channel Islands wereoccupied by German forcesbetween 30 June 1940 and 9 May 1945. The town ofDieppewas the site of the unsuccessfulDieppe RaidbyAlliedforces.
The Allies coordinated a massive build-up of troops and supplies to support a large-scale invasion of Normandy in theD-Day landingson 6 June 1944 under the code nameOperation Overlord. German forces dug into fortified emplacements above the beaches.Caen,Cherbourg,Carentan,Falaiseand other Norman towns endured many casualties in theBattle of Normandy, which continued until the closing of the so-calledFalaise gapbetweenChamboisandMont Ormel. The liberation ofLe Havrefollowed. This was a significant turning point in the war in western Europe and led to the restoration of the French Republic.
The remainder of Normandy was liberated by Allied forces only on 9 May 1945 at the end of the war, when theChannel Island occupationeffectively ended.
Despite the renunciation of the Duke of Normandy title byHenry III of Englandin the 1259Treaty of Paris,and the extinction of the duchy itself in modern-day, republican France, in theChannel Islandsthemonarch of the United Kingdom(whether a king or queen) is regardless still sometimes informally referred to by the title "Duke of Normandy".
The historical Duchy of Normandy was a formerly independent duchy occupying the lower Seine area, thePays de Cauxand the region to the west through thePays d'Augeas far as theCotentin Peninsulaand Channel Islands.
Western Normandy belongs to theArmorican Massif, while most of the region lies in theParis Basin. France's oldest rocks are exposed in Jobourg, on theCotentinpeninsula.The region is bounded to the north and west by theEnglish Channel. There are granite cliffs in the west and limestone cliffs in the east. There are also long stretches of beach in the centre of the region. Thebocagetypical of the western areas caused problems for the invading forces in theBattle of Normandy. A notable feature of the landscape is created by themeandersof the Seine as it approaches its estuary.
The highest point is the Signal d'Écouves (417 m), in the Armorican Massif.
Normandy is sparsely forested:12.8% of the territory is wooded, compared to a French average of 23.6%, although the proportion varies between the departments. Eure has the most cover, at 21%, while Manche has the least, at 4%, a characteristic shared with the Channel Islands.
TheChannel Islandsare considered culturally and historically a part of Normandy. However, they are BritishCrown Dependencies, and are not part of the modern Frenchadministrative region of Normandy.
Although the British surrendered claims to mainland Normandy, France, and other French possessions in 1801, the monarch of the United Kingdom retains the title Duke of Normandy in respect to the Channel Islands.The Channel Islands (except forChausey) remainCrown Dependenciesof theBritish Crownin the present era. Thus theLoyal Toastin the Channel Islands isLe Roi, notre Duc("The King, our Duke"). The British monarch is understood tonotbe the Duke with regards to mainland Normandy described herein, by virtue of theTreaty of Paris of 1259, the surrender of French possessions in 1801, and the belief that the rights of succession to that title are subject toSalic Lawwhich excludes inheritance through female heirs.
Rivers in Normandy include:
And many coastal rivers:
The modern region ofNormandywas created by the territorial reform of French Regions in 2014 by the merger ofLower Normandy, andUpper Normandy. The new region took effect on 1 January 2016, after theregional elections in December 2015.
TheRegional Councilhas 102 members who are elected under a system ofproportional representation. The executive consists of a president and vice-presidents.Hervé Morinfrom the Centre party was elected president of the council in January 2016.
The Channel Islands are not part of French territory, but are instead BritishCrown Dependencies. They are self-governing, each having its own parliament, government and legal system. The head of state of both territories isCharles IIIand each have an appointedLieutenant-Governor.
TheBailiwick of Guernseycomprises three separate jurisdictions:Guernsey,AlderneyandSark. Administratively, Herm forms part ofGuernsey.
Much of Normandy is predominantly agricultural in character, with cattle breeding the most important sector (although in decline from the peak levels of the 1970s and 1980s). Thebocageis a patchwork of small fields with high hedges, typical of western areas. Areas near theSeine(the formerUpper Normandyregion) contain a higher concentration of industry. Normandy is a significantcider-producing region, and also producescalvados, a distilled cider orapple brandy. Other activities of economic importance are dairy produce,flax(60% of production in France),horse breeding(including two French national stud farms), fishing, seafood, and tourism. The region contains three Frenchnuclear power stations.
There is also easy access to and from the UK using the ports ofCherbourg,Caen(Ouistreham),Le HavreandDieppe.Jersey and Guernsey are often considered to be tax havens, due to having large financial services sectors and low tax rates.
In January 2006 the population of French Normandy (including the part ofPerchewhich lies inside theOrnedépartementbut excluding theChannel Islands) was estimated at 3,260,000 with an average population density of 109 inhabitants per km, just under the French national average, but rising to 147 forUpper Normandy. The population of the Channel Islands is estimated around 174,000 (2021).
The main cities (population given from the 1999 census) are Rouen (518,316 in the metropolitan area), the capital since 2016 of the province and formerly of Upper Normandy;Caen(420,000 in the metropolitan area) and formerly the capital of Lower Normandy;Le Havre(296,773 in the metropolitan area); andCherbourg(117,855 in the metropolitan area).
The traditional provincialflag of Normandy,gules, two leopards passant or, is used in the region and its predecessors. The three-leopard version (known in the Norman language asles treis cats, "the three cats") is used by some associations and individuals, especially those who support cultural links with the Channel Islands and England. Jersey and Guernsey use three leopards in their national symbols. The leopards represents the strength and courage Normandy has towards the neighbouring provinces.
The unofficial anthem of the region is the song "Ma Normandie".
The Norman language, including its insular variationsJèrriaisandGuernésiais, is aregional language, spoken by a minority of the population on the continent and the islands, with a concentration in the Cotentin Peninsula in the far west (theCotentinaisdialect), and in thePays de Cauxin the East (theCauchois dialect).
Many words and place names demonstrate theOld EnglishandNorse(Anglo-Scandinavian) influence in thisOïl language; for example, words :mauve(seagull),fifotte(starfish),hâ(catshark),mucre(humid, wet),(é)griller(slide, slip),fale(throat), etc. place-names :-bec(stream),-fleur(river),-hou(island),-tot(homestead),-dal/-dalle(valley),Hogue/Hougue(hill, mound),-lon/-londe(grove, wood),-vy/-vic(bay, cove),-mare(pond),-beuf(booth, cabin), etc.French is the onlyofficial languagein continental Normandy and English is also an official language in the Channel Islands.
Architecturally, Norman cathedrals, abbeys (such as theAbbey of Bec) and castles characterise the former duchy in a way that mirrors the similar pattern ofNorman architecturein England following theNorman Conquestof 1066.
Domestic architecture in upper Normandy is typified byhalf-timberedbuildings that also recall vernacular English architecture, although the farm enclosures of the more harshly landscaped Pays de Caux are a more idiosyncratic response to socio-economic and climatic imperatives. Much urban architectural heritage was destroyed during the Battle of Normandy in 1944 – post-war urban reconstruction, such as in Le Havre and Saint-Lô, could be said to demonstrate both the virtues and vices ofmodernistandbrutalisttrends of the 1950s and 1960s. Le Havre, the city rebuilt byAuguste Perret, was added to Unesco's World Heritage List in 2005.
Vernacular architecturein lower Normandy takes its form fromgranite, the predominant local building material. The Channel Islands also share this influence –Chauseywas for many years a source of quarried granite, including that used for the construction ofMont Saint-Michel.
The south part ofBagnoles-de-l'Orneis filled with bourgeois villas inBelle Époquestyle with polychrome façades, bow windows and unique roofing. This area, built between 1886 and 1914, has an authentic "Bagnolese" style and is typical of high-society country vacation of the time. The Chapel of Saint Germanus (Chapelle Saint-Germain) atQuerquevillewith itstrefoilfloorplan incorporates elements of one of the earliest surviving places of Christian worship in the Cotentin – perhaps second only to the Gallo-Roman baptistry atPort-Bail. It is dedicated toGermanus of Normandy.
Parts of Normandy consist of rolling countryside typified by pasture for dairy cattle and apple orchards. A wide range of dairy products are produced and exported. Norman cheeses includeCamembert,Livarot,Pont l'Évêque,Brillat-Savarin,Neufchâtel,Petit SuisseandBoursin.Normandy butter and Normandy cream are lavishly used in gastronomic specialties.JerseyandGuernsey cattleare famous cattle breeds worldwide, especially to North America.
Turbot and oysters from the Cotentin Peninsula are major delicacies throughout France. Normandy is the chiefoyster-cultivating, scallop-exporting, and mussel-raising region in France.
Normandy is a majorcider-producing region (very little wine is produced).Perryis also produced, but in less significant quantities. Apple brandy, of which the most famous variety iscalvados, is also popular. The mealtimetrou normand, or "Norman hole", is a pause between meal courses in which diners partake of a glassful of calvados in order to improve the appetite and make room for the next course, and this is still observed in many homes and restaurants.Pommeauis anapéritifproduced by blending unfermented cider and apple brandy. Another aperitif is thekirnormand, a measure ofcrème de cassistopped up with cider.Bénédictineis produced inFécamp.
Other regional specialities includetripes à la mode de Caen,andouillesandandouillettes,salade cauchoise, salt meadow (pré salé) lamb, seafood (mussels,scallops, lobsters, mackerel...), andteurgoule(spiced rice pudding).
Normandy dishes include ducklingà la rouennaise, sautéed chickenyvetois, and gooseen daube. Rabbit is cooked withmorels, orà la havraise(stuffed with truffled pigs' trotters). Other dishes are sheep's trottersà la rouennaise, casseroled veal, larded calf's liver braised with carrots, and veal (or turkey) in cream and mushrooms.
Normandy is also noted for its pastries. Normandy turns outdouillons(pears baked in pastry),craquelins,roulettesin Rouen,fouacesin Caen,falluesinLisieux,sablésin Lisieux. It is the birthplace ofbrioches(especially those fromÉvreuxandGisors). Confectionery of the region includes Rouen apple sugar, Isigny caramels,Bayeuxmint chews, Falaise berlingots,Le Havremarzipans,Argentancroquettes, and Rouenmacaroons.
Normandy is the native land ofTaillevent, cook of the kings of FranceCharles VandCharles VI. He wrote the earliest French cookery book namedLe Viandier.Confiture de laitwas also made in Normandy around the 14th century.
The dukes of Normandy commissioned and inspired epic literature to record and legitimise their rule.Wace,Orderic VitalisandStephen of Rouenwere among those who wrote in the service of the dukes. After the division of 1204, French literature provided the model for the development of literature in Normandy.Olivier Basselinwrote of the Vaux de Vire, the origin of literaryvaudeville. Notable Norman writers includeJean Marot,Rémy Belleau,Guy de Maupassant,Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly,Gustave Flaubert,Octave Mirbeau, andRemy de Gourmont, andAlexis de Tocqueville. The Corneille brothers,PierreandThomas, born in Rouen, were great figures of French classical literature.
David Ferrand (1591–1660) in hisMuse Normandeestablished a landmark of Norman language literature. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the workers and merchants of Rouen established a tradition of polemical and satirical literature in a form of language called theparler purin. At the end of the 18th century and beginning of the 19th century, a new movement arose in the Channel Islands, led by writers such asGeorge Métivier, which sparked a literary renaissance on the Norman mainland. In exile in Jersey and then Guernsey,Victor Hugotook an interest in the vernacular literature.Les Travailleurs de la meris a well-known novel by Hugo set in the Channel Islands. The boom in insular literature in the early 19th century encouraged production especially in La Hague and around Cherbourg, where Alfred Rossel, Louis Beuve andCôtis-Capelbecame active. The typical medium for literary expression in Norman has traditionally been newspaper columns and almanacs. The novelZabethby André Louis which appeared in 1969 was the first novel published in Norman.
Normandy has a rich tradition of painting and gave to France some of its most important artists.
In the 17th century, some major French painters were Normans likeNicolas Poussin, born inLes AndelysandJean Jouvenet.
Romanticismdrew painters to the Channel coasts of Normandy.Richard Parkes BoningtonandJ. M. W. Turnercrossed the Channel from Great Britain, attracted by the light and landscapes.Théodore Géricault, a native of Rouen, was a notable figure in the Romantic movement, its famousRadeau de la Médusebeing considered come the breakthrough of pictorial romanticism in France when it was officially presented at theSalon of 1819. The competing Realist tendency was represented byJean-François Millet, a native of La Hague. The landscape painterEugène Boudin, born in Honfleur, was a determining influence on the impressionists and was highly considered by Monet.
Breaking away from the more formalised and classical themes of the early part of the 19th century, Impressionist painters preferred to paint outdoors, in natural light, and to concentrate on landscapes, towns and scenes of daily life.
Leader of the movement and father of modern painting,Claude Monetis one of the best known Impressionists and a major character in Normandy's artistic heritage. Hishouse and gardensatGivernyare one of the region's major tourist sites, much visited for their beauty and their water lilies, as well as for their importance to Monet's artistic inspiration. Normandy was at the heart of his creation, from the paintings of Rouen's cathedral to the famous depictions of the cliffs atÉtretat, the beach and port atFécampand the sunrise atLe Havre. It wasImpression, Sunrise, Monet's painting of Le Havre, that led to the movement being dubbedImpressionism. After Monet, all the mainavant-gardepainters of the 1870s and 1880s came to Normandy to paint its landscapes and its changing lights, concentrating along the Seine valley and the Norman coast.
Landscapes and scenes of daily life were also immortalised on canvas by artists that have included :William Turner,Gustave Courbet, the Honfleur born Eugène Boudin,Camille Pissarro,Alfred Sisley,Auguste Renoir,Gustave Caillebotte,Eugène Chigot,Paul Gauguin,Georges Seurat,Paul Signac,Pierre Bonnard,Georges BraqueandPablo Picasso. While Monet's work adorns galleries and collections all over the world, a remarkable quantity of Impressionist works can be found in galleries throughout Normandy, such as theMuseum of Fine Artsin Rouen, the Musée Eugène Boudin inHonfleuror theAndré Malraux MuseuminLe Havre.
Maurice Denis, one of the leaders and theoricists of theNabismovement in the 1890s, was a native of Granville, in the department of Manche.Marie-Thérèse Auffray, anexpressionistpainter and member of the French resistance during WWII, lived and painted in the village ofÉchauffour.
TheSociété Normande de Peinture Modernewas founded in 1909 byPierre Dumont,Robert Antoine Pinchon, Yvonne Barbier and Eugène Tirvert. Among members wereRaoul Dufy, a native of Le Havre,Albert Marquet,Francis PicabiaandMaurice Utrillo. Also in this movement were the Duchamp brothers,Jacques VillonandMarcel Duchamp, considered one of the father of modern art, also natives of Normandy.Jean Dubuffet, one of the leading French artist of the 1940s and the 1950s was born in Le Havre.
Christian missionaries implantedmonastic communitiesin the territory in the 5th and 6th centuries. Some of these missionaries came from across theChannel. The influence ofCeltic Christianitycan still be found in theCotentin. By the terms of the treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, Rollo, a Viking pagan, accepted Christianity and was baptised. The Duchy of Normandy was therefore formally a Christian state from its foundation. The cathedrals of Normandy have exerted influence down the centuries in matters of both faith and politics.King Henry IIof England didpenanceat the cathedral ofAvrancheson 21 May 1172 and was absolved from the censures incurred by the assassination ofThomas Becket.Mont Saint-Michelis a historicpilgrimagesite.
Normandy does not have one generally agreedpatron saint, although this title has been ascribed to SaintMichael, and toSaint Ouen. Many saints have been revered in Normandy down the centuries, including:
Since the1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State, there is no established church in mainland Normandy. In theChannel Islands, theChurch of Englandis theestablished church.