Catalan language

Catalan(català) is aWestern Romance language. It is the official language ofAndorra,and an official language of threeautonomous communitiesin easternSpain:Catalonia, theBalearic Islandsand theValencian Community, where it is calledValencian(valencià). It has semi-official status in theItaliancomuneofAlghero,and it is spoken in thePyrénées-Orientalesdepartment ofFranceand in two further areas in eastern Spain: theeastern stripofAragonand the Carche area in theRegion of Murcia. The Catalan-speaking territories are often called thePaïsos Catalansor "Catalan Countries".
The language evolved fromVulgar Latinin the Middle Ages around the easternPyrenees. Nineteenth-century Spain saw aCatalan literary revival,culminating in the early 1900s.
The wordCatalanis derived from the territorial name ofCatalonia, itself of disputed etymology. The main theory suggests thatCatalunya(Latin:Gathia Launia) derives from the nameGothiaorGauthia('Land of theGoths'), since the origins of the Catalan counts, lords and people were found in theMarch of Gothia, whenceGothland>Gothlandia>Gothalania>Cataloniatheoretically derived.
In English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century asCatelaner, followed in the 15th century asCatellain(fromMiddle French). It is attested a language name since at least 1652. The wordCatalancan be pronounced in English as/ˈkætələn,-æn/KAT-ə-lən, -⁠lanor/ˌkætəˈlæn/KAT-ə-LAN.
Theendonymis pronounced[kətəˈla]in the Eastern Catalan dialects, and[kataˈla]in the Western dialects. In theValencian CommunityandCarche, the termvalencià[valensiˈa]is frequently used instead. Thus, the name "Valencian", although often employed for referring to the varieties specific to the Valencian Community and Carche, is also used by Valencians as a name for the language as a whole,synonymous with "Catalan".Both uses of the term have their respective entries in the dictionaries by theAcadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua(AVL)and theInstitut d'Estudis Catalans(IEC).(See alsostatus of Valencianbelow).
By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved fromVulgar Latinon both sides of the eastern end of thePyrenees, as well as the territories of the Roman province ofHispania Tarraconensisto the south.From the 8th century onwards the Catalan counts extended their territory southwards and westwards at the expense of theMuslims, bringing their language with them.This process was given definitive impetus with the separation of theCounty of Barcelonafrom theCarolingian Empirein 988.
In the 11th century, documents written inmacaronic Latinbegin to show Catalan elements,with texts written almost completely in Romance appearing by 1080.Old Catalan shared many features withGallo-Romance, diverging fromOld Occitanbetween the 11th and 14th centuries.
During the 11th and 12th centuries the Catalan rulers expanded southward to theEbro river,and in the 13th century they conquered the lands that would become the Kingdoms ofValenciaand theMajorca.The city ofAlgheroinSardiniawas repopulated with Catalan speakers in the 14th century. The language also reachedMurcia, which became Spanish-speaking in the 15th century.
In theLow Middle Ages, Catalan went through a golden age, reaching a peak of maturity and cultural richness.Examples include the work of Majorcan polymathRamon Llull(1232–1315), the Four Great Chronicles (13th–14th centuries), and the Valencian school of poetry culminating inAusiàs March(1397–1459).By the 15th century, the city ofValenciahad become the sociocultural center of theCrown of Aragon, and Catalan was present all over theMediterraneanworld.During this period, the Royal Chancery propagated a highly standardized language.Catalan was widely used as an official language in Sicily until the 15th century, and in Sardinia until the 17th.During this period, the language was what Costa Carreras terms "one of the 'great languages' of medieval Europe".
Martorell's novel of chivalryTirant lo Blanc(1490) shows a transition from Medieval to Renaissance values, something that can also be seen inMetge's work.The first book produced with movable type in theIberian Peninsulawas printed in Catalan.
With the union of the crowns ofCastilleandAragonin 1479, the Spanish kings ruled over different kingdoms, each with its own cultural, linguistic and political particularities, and they had to swear by thelawsof each territory before the respectiveparliaments. But after theWar of the Spanish Succession, Spain became anabsolute monarchyunderPhilip V, which led to the assimilation of theCrown of Aragonby theCrown of Castilethrough theNueva Planta decrees, as a first step in the creation of the Spanishnation-state; as in other contemporary European states, this meant the imposition of the political and cultural characteristics of the dominant groups.Since the political unification of 1714, Spanish assimilation policies towards national minorities have been a constant.
The process of assimilation began with secret instructions to the corregidores of the Catalan territory: they "will take the utmost care to introduce the Castilian language, for which purpose he will give the most temperate and disguised measures so that the effect is achieved, without the care being noticed".From there, actions in the service of assimilation, discreet or aggressive, were continued, and reached to the last detail, such as, in 1799, the Royal Certificate forbidding anyone to "represent, sing and dance pieces that were not in Spanish".The use ofSpanishgradually became more prestigiousand marked the start of the decline of Catalan.Starting in the 16th century, Catalan literature came under the influence of Spanish, and the nobles, part of the urban and literary classes becamebilingual.
With theTreaty of the Pyrenees(1659),Spainceded thenorthern part of CataloniatoFrance, and soon thereafter thelocal Catalan varietiescame under the influence ofFrench, which in 1700 became the sole official language of the region.
Shortly after theFrench Revolution(1789), theFrench First Republicprohibited official use of, and enacted discriminating policies against, the regional languages of France, such as Catalan,Alsatian,Breton,Occitan,Flemish, andBasque.
After the French colony ofAlgeriawas established in 1830, many Catalan-speaking settlers moved there. People from the Spanishprovince of Alicantesettled aroundOran, while those fromFrench CataloniaandMenorcamigrated toAlgiers.
By 1911, there were around 100,000 speakers ofPatuet,as their speech was called.After the Algerian declaration of independence in 1962, almost all thePied-NoirCatalan speakers fled to Northern Cataloniaor Alicante.
The French government only recognizes French as an official language. Nevertheless, on 10 December 2007, the thenGeneral Council of the Pyrénées-Orientalesofficially recognized Catalan as one of the départment's languagesand seeks to further promote it in public life and education.
In 1807, the Statistics Office of the French Ministry of the Interior asked theprefectsfor an official survey on the limits of theFrench language. The survey found that inRoussillon, almost only Catalan was spoken, and since Napoleon wanted to incorporate Catalonia into France, as happened in 1812, theconsulinBarcelonawas also asked. He declared that Catalan "is taught in schools, it is printed and spoken, not only among the lower class, but also among people of first quality, also in social gatherings, as in visits and congresses", indicating that it was spoken everywhere "with the exception of the royal courts". He also indicated that Catalan was spoken "in the Kingdom of Valencia, in the islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, Sardinia, Corsica and much of Sicily, in the Vall d "Aran and Cerdaña".
The defeat of the pro-Habsburg coalition in theWar of Spanish Succession(1714) initiated a series oflawswhich, among other centralizing measures, imposed the use ofSpanishin legal documentation all over Spain. Because of this, use of the Catalan language declined into the 18th century.
However, the 19th century saw a Catalan literary revival (Renaixença), which has continued up to the present day.This period starts withAribau'sOde to the Homeland(1833); followed in the second half of the 19th century, and the early 20th by the work ofVerdaguer(poetry),Oller(realist novel), andGuimerà(drama).In the 19th century, the region ofCarche, in theprovince of Murciawas repopulated with Valencian speakers.Catalan spelling was standardized in 1913 and the language became official during theSecond Spanish Republic(1931–1939). The Second Spanish Republic saw a brief period of tolerance, with most restrictions against Catalan lifted.TheGeneralitat(the autonomous government of Catalonia, established during the Republic in 1931) made a normal use of Catalan in its administration and put efforts to promote it at the social level, including in schools and theUniversity of Barcelona.
The Catalan language and culture were still vibrant during theSpanish Civil War(1936–1939), but were crushed at an unprecedented level throughout the subsequent decades due toFrancoist dictatorship(1939–1975), which abolished the official status of Catalan and imposed the use of Spanish in schools and in public administration in all ofSpain, while banning the use of Catalan in them.Between 1939 and 1943 newspapers and book printing in Catalan almost disappeared.Francisco Franco's desire for a homogeneous Spanish population resonated with some Catalans in favor of his regime, primarily members of the upper class, who began to reject the use of Catalan. Despite all of these hardships, Catalan continued to be used privately within households, and it was able to survive Franco's dictatorship. At the end ofWorld War II, however, some of the harsh measures began to be lifted and, while Spanish language remained the sole promoted one, limited number of Catalan literature began to be tolerated. Several prominent Catalan authors resisted the suppression through literature.Private initiative contests were created to reward works in Catalan, among themJoan Martorellprize (1947),Víctor Catalàprize (1953)Carles Ribaaward (1950), or theHonor Award of Catalan Letters(1969).The first Catalan-language TV show was broadcast in 1964.At the same time, oppression of the Catalan language and identity was carried out in schools, through governmental bodies, and in religious centers.
In addition to the loss of prestige for Catalan and its prohibition in schools, migration during the 1950s intoCataloniafrom other parts of Spain also contributed to the diminished use of the language. These migrants were often unaware of the existence of Catalan, and thus felt no need to learn or use it.Cataloniawas the economic powerhouse of Spain, so these migrations continued to occur from all corners of the country. Employment opportunities were reduced for those who were notbilingual.Daily newspapers remained exclusively in Spanish until after Franco's death, when the first one in Catalan since the end of the Civil War,Avui, began to be published in 1976.
Since theSpanish transition to democracy(1975–1982), Catalan has been institutionalized as an official language, language of education, and language of mass media; all of which have contributed to its increased prestige.InCatalonia, there is an unparalleled largebilingualEuropeannon-statelinguistic community.The teaching of Catalan is mandatory in all schools,but it is possible to use Spanish for studying in the public education system of Catalonia in two situations—if the teacher assigned to a class chooses to use Spanish, or during the learning process of one or more recently arrived immigrant students.There is also some intergenerational shift towards Catalan.
More recently, several Spanish political forces have tried to increase the use of Spanish in the Catalan educational system.As a result, in May 2022 the Spanish Supreme Court urged the Catalan regional government to enforce a measure by which 25% of all lessons must be taught in Spanish.
According to theStatistical Institute of Catalonia, in 2013 the Catalan language is the second most commonly used in Catalonia, afterSpanish, as a native or self-defining language: 7% of the population self-identifies with both Catalan and Spanish equally, 36.4% with Catalan and 47.5% only Spanish.In 2003 the same studies concluded no language preference for self-identification within the population above 15 years old: 5% self-identified with both languages, 44.3% with Catalan and 47.5% with Spanish.To promote use of Catalan, theGeneralitat de Catalunya(Catalonia's official Autonomous government) spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories, with entities such asConsorci per a la Normalització Lingüística(Consortium for Linguistic Normalization).
InAndorra, Catalan has always been the sole official language.Since the promulgation of the1993 constitution, several policies favoring Catalan have been enforced, such as Catalan medium education.
On the other hand, there are severallanguage shiftprocesses currently taking place. In theNorthern Cataloniaarea of France, Catalan has followed the same trend as the other minority languages of France, with most of its native speakers being 60 or older (as of 2004).Catalan is studied as a foreign language by 30% of the primary education students, and by 15% of the secondary.The cultural associationLa Bressolapromotes a network of community-run schools engaged in Catalan language immersion programs.
InAlicante province, Catalan is being replaced bySpanishand inAlgherobyItalian.There is also well ingraineddiglossiain theValencian Community,Ibiza, and to a lesser extent, in the rest of theBalearic islands.
During the 20th century many Catalans emigrated or went into exile toVenezuela,Mexico,Cuba,Argentina, and other South American countries. They formed a large number of Catalan colonies that today continue to maintain the Catalan language.They also founded many Catalan casals (associations).
One classification of Catalan is given byPèire Bèc:
However, the ascription of Catalan to theOccitano-Romancebranch ofGallo-Romance languagesis not shared by all linguists and philologists, particularly among Spanish ones, such asRamón Menéndez Pidal.
Catalan bears varying degrees of similarity to the linguistic varieties subsumed under the cover termOccitan language(see alsodifferences between Occitan and CatalanandGallo-Romance languages). Thus, as it should be expected from closely related languages, Catalan today shares many traits with other Romance languages.
Some include Catalan in Occitan, as thelinguistic distancebetween this language and some Occitan dialects (such as theGascon dialect) is similar to the distance among different Occitan dialects. Catalan was considered a dialect of Occitan until the end of the 19th centuryand still today remains its closest relative.
Catalan shares many traits with the other neighboringRomance languages(Occitan, French,Italian,Sardinianas well as Spanish and Portuguese among others).However, despite being spoken mostly on theIberian Peninsula, Catalan has marked differences with theIberian Romancegroup (SpanishandPortuguese) in terms ofpronunciation, grammar, and especially vocabulary; it shows instead its closest affinity with languages native to France and northern Italy, particularlyOccitanand to a lesser extentGallo-Romance(Franco-Provençal,French,Gallo-Italian).
According toEthnologue, the lexical similarity between Catalan and other Romance languages is: 87% with Italian; 85% with Portuguese and Spanish; 76% withLadinandRomansh; 75% with Sardinian; and 73% with Romanian.
During much of its history, and especially during theFrancoist dictatorship(1939–1975), the Catalan language was ridiculed as a mere dialect ofSpanish.This view, based on political and ideological considerations, has no linguistic validity.Spanish and Catalan have important differences in their sound systems, lexicon, and grammatical features, placing the language in features closer toOccitan(andFrench).
There is evidence that, at least from the 2nd century AD, the vocabulary and phonology of RomanTarraconensiswas different from the rest of Roman Hispania.Differentiation arose generally because Spanish,Asturian, and Galician-Portuguese share certain peripheral archaisms (Spanishhervir, Asturian and Portuguesefervervs. Catalanbullir, Occitanbolir"to boil") and innovatory regionalisms (Spanishnovillo, Asturiannuvielluvs. Catalantorell, Occitantaurèl"bullock"), while Catalan has a shared history with the Western Romance innovative core, especially Occitan.
Like all Romance languages, Catalan has a handful of native words which are unique to it, or rare elsewhere. These include:
TheGothicsuperstrate produced different outcomes in Spanish and Catalan. For example, Catalanfang"mud" androstir"to roast", of Germanic origin, contrast with Spanishlodoandasar, of Latin origin; whereas Catalanfilosa"spinning wheel" andtempla"temple", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanishruecaandsien, of Germanic origin.
The same happens withArabicloanwords. Thus, Catalanalfàbia"large earthenware jar" andrajola"tile", of Arabic origin, contrast with Spanishtinajaandteja, of Latin origin; whereas Catalanoli"oil" andoliva"olive", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanishaceiteandaceituna.However, the Arabic element is generally much more prevalent in Spanish.
Situated between two large linguistic blocks (Iberian Romance and Gallo-Romance), Catalan has many unique lexical choices, such asenyorar"to miss somebody",apaivagar"to calm somebody down", andrebutjar"reject".
Traditionally Catalan-speaking territories are sometimes called thePaïsos Catalans(Catalan Countries), a denomination based on cultural affinity and common heritage, that has also had a subsequent political interpretation but no official status. Various interpretations of the term may include some or all of these regions.
The number of people known to be fluent in Catalan varies depending on the sources used. A 2004 study did not count the total number of speakers, but estimated a total of 9–9.5 million by matching the percentage of speakers to the population of each area where Catalan is spoken.The web site of theGeneralitat de Catalunyaestimated that as of 2004 there were 9,118,882 speakers of Catalan.These figures only reflect potential speakers; today it is the native language of only 35.6% of the Catalan population.According toEthnologue, Catalan had 4.1 millionnative speakersand 5.1 millionsecond-language speakersin 2021.
According to a 2011 study the total number of Catalan speakers was over 9.8 million, with 5.9 million residing in Catalonia. More than half of them spoke Catalan as a second language, with native speakers being about 4.4 million of those (more than 2.8 in Catalonia).Very few Catalanmonoglotsexist; virtually all of the Catalan speakers in Spain arebilingualspeakers of Catalan and Spanish, with 99.7% of Catalan speakers in Catalonia able to speak Spanish and 99.9% able to understand it.
InRoussillon, only a minority of French Catalans speak Catalan nowadays, with French being the majority language for the inhabitants after a continued process oflanguage shift. According to a 2019 survey by the Catalan government, 31.5% of the inhabitants of Catalonia predominantly spoke Catalan at home whereas 52.7% spoke Spanish, 2.8% both Catalan and Spanish and 10.8% other languages.
Spanishwas the most spoken language in Barcelona (according to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013) and it is understood almost universally. According to 2013 census, Catalan was also very commonly spoken in the city of 1,501,262: it was understood by 95% of the population, while 72.3% over the age of two could speak it (1,137,816), 79% could read it (1,246.555), and 53% could write it (835,080).The share of Barcelona residents who could speak it (72.3%)was lower than that of the overall Catalan population, of whom 81.2% over the age of 15 spoke the language. Knowledge of Catalan has increased significantly in recent decades thanks to alanguage immersioneducational system. An important social characteristic of the Catalan language is that all the areas where it is spoken are bilingual in practice: together with French in Roussillon, with Italian in Alghero, with Spanish and French in Andorra, and with Spanish in the rest of the territories.
(% of the population 15 years old and older).
(% of the population 15 years old and older).
Catalan phonology varies by dialect. Notable features include:
In contrast to other Romance languages, Catalan has manymonosyllabicwords, and these may end in a wide variety of consonants, including someconsonant clusters.Additionally, Catalan hasfinal obstruent devoicing, which gives rise to an abundance of such couplets asamic("male friend") vs.amiga("female friend").
Central Catalanpronunciation is considered to be standard for the language.The descriptions below are mostly representative of this variety.For the differences in pronunciation between the different dialects, see the section onpronunciation of dialectsin this article.
Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system ofVulgar Latin, with seven stressed phonemes:/a,ɛ,e,i,ɔ,o,u/, a common feature inWestern Romance, with the exception ofSpanish.Balearicalso has instances of stressed/ə/.Dialects differ in the different degrees ofvowel reduction,and the incidence of the pair/ɛ,e/.
InCentral Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to three:/a,e,ɛ/>[ə];/o,ɔ,u/>[u];/i/remains distinct.The other dialects have different vowel reduction processes (see the sectionpronunciation of dialectsin this article).
The consonant system of Catalan is rather conservative.
Catalan shares features with neighboring Romance languages (Occitan,Italian,Sardinian,French,Spanish).
In contrast with other Romance languages, Catalan has manymonosyllabicwords; and those ending in a wide variety of consonants and someconsonant clusters.Also, Catalan hasfinal obstruent devoicing, thus featuring many couplets likeamic('male friend') vs.amiga('female friend').
Catalansociolinguisticsstudies the situation of Catalan in the world and the different varieties that this language presents. It is a subdiscipline of Catalanphilologyand other affine studies and has as an objective to analyze the relation between the Catalan language, the speakers and the close reality (including the one of other languages in contact).
The dialects of the Catalan language feature a relative uniformity, especially when compared to other Romance languages;both in terms ofvocabulary,semantics,syntax,morphology, andphonology.Mutual intelligibility between dialects is very high,estimates ranging from 90% to 95%.The only exception is the isolated idiosyncraticAlgherese dialect.
Catalan is split in two major dialectal blocks: Eastern and Western.The main difference lies in the treatment of unstressedaande; which have merged to/ə/in Eastern dialects, but which remain distinct as/a/and/e/in Western dialects.There are a few other differences in pronunciation, verbal morphology, and vocabulary.
Western Catalan comprises the two dialects ofNorth-Western CatalanandValencian; the Eastern block comprises four dialects:Central Catalan,Balearic,Roussillonese, andAlgherese.Each dialect can be further subdivided in several subdialects. The terms "Catalan" and "Valencian" (respectively used inCataloniaand theValencian Community) refer to two varieties of the same language.There are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, theInstitute of Catalan Studiesin Catalonia and theValencian Academy of the Languagein the Valencian Community.
Central Catalan is considered the standard pronunciation of the language and has the largest number of speakers.It is spoken in the densely populated regions of theBarcelona province, the eastern half of the province of Tarragona, and most of the province of Girona.
Catalan has an inflectional grammar. Nouns have twogenders(masculine, feminine), and twonumbers(singular, plural). Pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected forcaseandpoliteness, and can be combined in very complex ways. Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected forperson,number,tense,aspect,mood, andgender. In terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages.
Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system ofVulgar Latin, with seven stressed phonemes:/a,ɛ,e,i,ɔ,o,u/, a common feature inWestern Romance, exceptSpanish.Balearichas also instances of stressed/ə/.Dialects differ in the different degrees ofvowel reduction,and the incidence of the pair/ɛe/.
InEastern Catalan(except Majorcan), unstressed vowels reduce to three:/a,e,ɛ/>[ə];/o,ɔ,u/>[u];/i/remains distinct.There are a few instances of unreduced[e],[o]in some words.Algheresehas lowered[ə]to[a].
In Majorcan, unstressed vowels reduce to four:/a,e,ɛ/follow the Eastern Catalan reduction pattern; however/o,ɔ/reduce to[o], with/u/remaining distinct, as in Western Catalan.
InWestern Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to five:/e,ɛ/>[e];/o,ɔ/>[o];/a,u,i/remain distinct.This reduction pattern, inherited fromProto-Romance, is also found inItalianandPortuguese.Some Western dialects present further reduction or vowel harmony in some cases.
Central, Western, and Balearic differ in the lexical incidence of stressed/e/and/ɛ/.Usually, words with/ɛ/in Central Catalan correspond to/ə/in Balearic and/e/in Western Catalan.Words with/e/in Balearic almost always have/e/in Central and Western Catalan as well.As a result, Central Catalan has a much higher incidence of/ɛ/.
Catalan dialects are characterized byfinal-obstruent devoicing,lenitionandvoicing assimilation. Additionally, many dialects contrast tworhotics(/r,ɾ/) and twolaterals((/l,ʎ/).
Most Catalan dialects are also renowned by the usage ofdark l(i.e.velarizationof/l/→[ɫ]), which is especially noticeable in syllablefinalposition, in comparison to neighbouring languages, such as Spanish, Italian and French (that lack this pronunciation).
There is dialectal variation in regard to:
Western Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is-ein verbs of the 1st conjugation and -∅ in verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations in most of the Valencian Community, or-oin all verb conjugations in the Northern Valencian Community and Western Catalonia.E.g.parle,tem,sent(Valencian);parlo,temo,sento(North-Western Catalan).
Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is-o,-i, or -∅ in all conjugations.E.g.parlo(Central),parl(Balearic), andparli(Northern), all meaning ('I speak').
Western Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are-isc/-esc,-ix,-ixen,-isca/-esca.
Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are-eixo,-eix,-eixen,-eixi.
Western Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, maintenance of/n/of medieval plurals inproparoxytonewords.E.g.hòmens'men',jóvens'youth'.
Eastern Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, loss of/n/of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words.E.g.homes'men',joves'youth' (Ibicencan, however, follows the model of Western Catalan in this case).
Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices.Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usuallyCentral Catalanacts as an innovative element.
Standard Catalan, virtually accepted by all speakers,is mostly based on Eastern Catalan,which is the most widely used dialect. Nevertheless, the standards of the Valencian Community and the Balearics admit alternative forms, mostly traditional ones, which are not current in eastern Catalonia.
The most notable difference between both standards is some tonic⟨e⟩accentuation, for instance:francès, anglès(IEC) –francés, anglés(AVL). Nevertheless, AVL's standard keeps the grave accent⟨è⟩, while pronouncing it as/e/rather than/ɛ/, in some words such as:què('what'), orValència. Other divergences include the use of⟨tl⟩(AVL) in some words instead of⟨tll⟩like inametla/ametlla('almond'),espatla/espatlla('back'), the use of elided demonstratives (este'this',eixe'that') in the same level as reinforced ones (aquest, aqueix) or the use of many verbal forms common in Valencian, and some of these common in the rest of Western Catalan too, such as subjunctive mood or inchoative conjugation in-ix-at the same level as-eix-or the priority use of-emorpheme in 1st person singular in present indicative (-arverbs):jo compreinstead ofjo compro('I buy').
In the Balearic Islands, IEC's standard is used but adapted for the Balearic dialect by theUniversity of the Balearic Islands's philological section. In this way, for instance, IEC says it is correct writingcantamas much ascantem('we sing'), but the university says that the priority form in the Balearic Islands must becantamin all fields. Another feature of the Balearic standard is the non-ending in the 1st person singular present indicative:jo compr('I buy'),jo tem('I fear'),jo dorm('I sleep').
In Alghero, the IEC has adapted its standard to theAlgheresedialect. In this standard one can find, among other features: the definite articleloinstead ofel, special possessive pronouns and determinantsla mia('mine'),lo sou/la sua('his/her'),lo tou/la tua('yours'), and so on, the use of-v-/v/in the imperfect tense in all conjugations:cantava,creixiva,llegiva; the use of many archaic words, usual words in Algherese:mancoinstead ofmenys('less'),calqui uinstead ofalgú('someone'),qual/qualainstead ofquin/quina('which'), and so on; and the adaptation ofweak pronouns. In 1999, Catalan (Algherese dialect) was among the twelve minority languages officially recognized as Italy's "historical linguistic minorities" by the Italian State under Law No. 482/1999.
In 2011,theAragonesegovernment passed a decree approving the statutes of a new language regulator of Catalan inLa Franja(the so-called Catalan-speaking areas of Aragon) as originally provided for by Law 10/2009.The new entity, designated asInstitut Aragonès del Català, shall allow a facultative education in Catalan and a standardization of the Catalan language inLa Franja.
Valencian is classified as aWesterndialect, along with theNorth-Westernvarieties spoken in Western Catalonia (provinces ofLleidaand the western half ofTarragona).Central Catalan has 90% to 95% inherent intelligibility for speakers of Valencian.
Linguists, including Valencian scholars, deal with Catalan and Valencian as the same language. The official regulating body of the language of the Valencian Community, theValencian Academy of Language(Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, AVL) declares the linguistic unity between Valencian and Catalan varieties.
The AVL, created by the Valencian parliament, is in charge of dictating the official rules governing the use of Valencian, and its standard is based on the Norms of Castelló (Normes de Castelló). Currently, everyone who writes in Valencian uses this standard, except the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), which uses an independent standard for Valencian.
Despite the position of the official organizations, an opinion poll carried out between 2001 and 2004showed that the majority of the Valencian people consider Valencian different from Catalan. This position is promoted by people who do not use Valencian regularly.Furthermore, the data indicates that younger generations educated in Valencian are much less likely to hold these views. A minority of Valencian scholars active in fields other than linguistics defends the position of the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), which uses for Valencian a standard independent from Catalan.
This clash of opinions has sparked much controversy. For example, during the drafting of theEuropean Constitutionin 2004, the Spanish government supplied theEUwith translations of the text intoBasque,Galician, Catalan, and Valencian, but the latter two were identical.
Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices.Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usuallyCentral Catalanacts as an innovative element.
Literary Catalan allows the use of words from different dialects, except those of very restricted use.However, from the 19th century onwards, there has been a tendency towards favoring words of Northern dialects to the detriment of others.
Like other languages, Catalan has a large list of loanwords from Greek and Latin. This process started very early, and one can find such examples inRamon Llull's work.In the 14th and 15th centuries Catalan had a far greater number of Greco-Latin loanwords than other Romance languages, as is attested for example inRoís de Corella's writings.The incorporation of learned, or "bookish" words from its own ancestor language,Latin, into Catalan is arguably another form of lexical borrowing through the influence ofwritten languageand the liturgical language of the Church. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period, most literate Catalan speakers were also literate in Latin; and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Catalan.
The process ofmorphological derivationin Catalan follows the same principles as the otherRomance languages,whereinflectionis common. Many times, several affixes are appended to a preexisting lexeme, and some sound alternations can occur, for exampleelèctric[əˈlɛktrik]("electrical") vs.electricitat[ələktrisiˈtat].Prefixesare usually appended to verbs, as inpreveure("foresee").
There is greater regularity in the process ofword-compounding, where one can find compounded words formed much like those in English.
Catalan uses theLatin script, with some added symbols and digraphs.TheCatalan orthographyis systematic and largely phonologically based.Standardization of Catalan was among the topics discussed during the First International Congress of the Catalan Language, held in Barcelona October 1906. Subsequently, the Philological Section of theInstitut d'Estudis Catalans(IEC, founded in 1911) published theNormes ortogràfiquesin 1913 under the direction ofAntoni Maria AlcoverandPompeu Fabra. In 1932, Valencian writers and intellectuals gathered inCastelló de la Planato make a formal adoption of the so-calledNormes de Castelló, a set of guidelines following Pompeu Fabra's Catalan language norms.
The grammar of Catalan is similar to otherRomance languages. Features include:
Ingender inflection, the most notable feature is (compared toPortuguese,SpanishorItalian), the loss of the typicalmasculinesuffix-o. Thus, the alternance of-o/-a, has been replaced byø/-a.There are only a few exceptions, such asminso/minsa("scarce").Many not completely predictable morphological alternations may occur, such as:
Catalan has fewsuppletivecouplets, like Italian and Spanish, and unlike French. Thus, Catalan hasnoi/noia("boy"/"girl") andgall/gallina("cock"/"hen"), whereas French hasgarçon/filleandcoq/poule.
There is a tendency to abandon traditionally gender-invariable adjectives in favor of marked ones, something prevalent inOccitanand French. Thus, one can findbullent/bullenta("boiling") in contrast with traditionalbullent/bullent.
As in the other Western Romance languages, the main plural expression is the suffix-s, which may create morphological alternations similar to the ones found in gender inflection, albeit more rarely.The most important one is the addition of-o-before certain consonant groups, aphoneticphenomenon that does not affect feminine forms:el pols/els polsos("the pulse"/"the pulses") vs.la pols/les pols("the dust"/"the dusts").
The inflection of determinatives is complex, specially because of the high number of elisions, but is similar to the neighboring languages.Catalan has more contractions of preposition + article thanSpanish, such asdels("of + the [plural]"), but not as many asItalian(which hassul,col,nel, etc.).
Central Catalan has abandoned almost completely unstressed possessives (mon, etc.) in favor of constructions of article + stressed forms (el meu, etc.), a feature shared with Italian.
The morphology of Catalan personal pronouns is complex, especially in unstressed forms, which are numerous (13 distinct forms, compared to 11 in Spanish or 9 in Italian).Features include the gender-neutralhoand the great degree of freedom when combining different unstressed pronouns (65 combinations).
Catalan pronouns exhibitT–V distinction, like all other Romance languages (and most European languages, but not Modern English). This feature implies the use of a different set of second person pronouns for formality.
This flexibility allows Catalan to useextrapositionextensively, much more than French or Spanish. Thus, Catalan can havem'hi recomanaren("they recommended me to him"), whereas in French one must sayils m'ont recommandé à lui, and Spanishme recomendaron a él.This allows the placement of almost any nominal term as a sentencetopic, without having to use so often thepassive voice(as in French or English), or identifying thedirect objectwith apreposition(as in Spanish).
Like all the Romance languages, Catalan verbal inflection is more complex than the nominal.Suffixationis omnipresent, whereas morphological alternations play a secondary role.Vowel alternances are active, as well as infixation and suppletion. However, these are not as productive as in Spanish, and are mostly restricted to irregular verbs.
The Catalan verbal system is basically common to all Western Romance, except that most dialects have replaced the synthetic indicative perfect with a periphrastic form ofanar("to go") + infinitive.
Catalan verbs are traditionally divided into three conjugations, with vowel themes-a-,-e-,-i-, the last two being split into two subtypes. However, this division is mostly theoretical.Only the first conjugation is nowadays productive (with about 3500 common verbs), whereas the third (the subtype ofservir, with about 700 common verbs) is semiproductive. The verbs of the second conjugation are fewer than 100, and it is not possible to create new ones, except by compounding.
The grammar of Catalan follows the general pattern of Western Romance languages. The primaryword orderissubject–verb–object.However, word order is very flexible. Commonly, verb-subject constructions are used to achieve a semantic effect. The sentence "The train has arrived" could be translated asHa arribat el trenorEl tren ha arribat. Both sentences mean "the train has arrived", but the former puts a focus on the train, while the latter puts a focus on the arrival. This subtle distinction is described as "what you might say while waiting in the station" versus "what you might say on the train".
In Spain, every person officially has two surnames, one of which is the father's first surname and the other is the mother's first surname.The law contemplates the possibility of joining both surnames with the Catalan conjunctioni("and").
Selected textfromManuel de Pedrolo's 1970 novelUn amor fora ciutat("A love affair outside the city").
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