Kurds

Kurds(Kurdish:کورد,romanized:Kurd) orKurdish peopleare anIranicethnic groupnative to the mountainous region ofKurdistaninWest Asia, which spans southeasternTurkey, northwesternIran, northernIraq, and northernSyria.There areexclavesof Kurds inCentral Anatolia,Khorasan, and theCaucasus, as well as significantKurdish diasporacommunities in the cities of western Turkey (in particular Istanbul) and Western Europe (primarilyin Germany). TheKurdish populationis estimated to be between 30 and 45 million.
Kurds speak theKurdish languagesand theZaza–Gorani languages, which belong to theWestern Iranianbranch of theIranian languages.
Kurds do not comprise a majority in any country, making them astateless people.AfterWorld War Iand the defeat of theOttoman Empire, the victoriousWestern alliesmade provision for a Kurdish state in the 1920Treaty of Sèvres. However, that treaty was not ratified. When theTreaty of Lausanneset the boundaries of modern Turkey three years later, no such provision was made, leaving Kurds with minority status in all of the new countries of Turkey, Iraq, andSyria.Recenthistory of the Kurdsincludes numerousgenocidesandrebellions, along with ongoing armed conflicts inTurkish,Iranian,Syrian, andIraqi Kurdistan. Kurds in Iraq and Syria have autonomous regions, while Kurdish movements continue to pursue greatercultural rights,autonomy, and independence throughoutGreater Kurdistan..
The exact origins of the nameKurdare unclear.The underlyingtoponymis recorded inAssyrianasQarduand inMiddle Bronze AgeSumerianasKar-da.AssyrianQardurefers to an area in the upperTigrisbasin, and it is presumably reflected in corrupted form inClassical ArabicǦūdī(جودي), re-adopted in Kurdish asCûdî.The name would be continued as the first element in the toponymCorduene, mentioned byXenophonas the tribe who opposed the retreat of theTen Thousandthrough the mountains north ofMesopotamiain the4th century BC.
There are, however, dissenting views, which do not derive the name of the Kurds fromQarduandCorduenebut opt for derivation fromCyrtii(Cyrtaei) instead.
Regardless of its possible roots in ancient toponymy, theethnonymKurdmight be derived from a termkwrt-used inMiddle Persianas a common noun to refer to 'nomads' or 'tent-dwellers', which could be applied as an attribute to anyIraniangroup with such a lifestyle.
The term gained the characteristic of an ethnonym following theMuslim conquest of Persia, as it was adopted into Arabic and gradually became associated with an amalgamation of Iranian and Iranianized tribes and groups in the region.
Sharafkhan Bidlisiin the 16th century states that there are four division of Kurds:Kurmanj,Lur,Kalhor, andGuran, each of which speak a different dialect or language variation. Paul (2008) notes that the 16th-century usage of the termKurdas recorded by Bidlisi, regardless of linguistic grouping, might still reflect an incipient Northwestern Iranian "Kurdish" ethnic identity uniting theKurmanj,Kalhur, andGuran.
Kurdish (Kurdish:Kurdîor کوردی) is a collection of related dialects spoken by the Kurds.It is mainly spoken in those parts ofIran,Iraq,SyriaandTurkeywhich compriseKurdistan.Kurdish holds official status in Iraq as a national language alongsideArabic, is recognized in Iran as a regional language, and inArmeniaas a minority language. The Kurds are recognized as a people with a distinct language by Arab geographers such asAl-Masudisince the 10th century.
Many Kurds are eitherbilingualormultilingual, speaking the language of their respective nation of origin, such as Arabic,Persian, andTurkishas asecond languagealongside their native Kurdish, while those in diaspora communities often speak three or more languages.TurkifiedandArabisedKurds often speak little or no Kurdish.
According to Mackenzie, there are few linguistic features that all Kurdish dialects have in common and that are not at the same time found in otherIranian languages.
The Kurdish dialects according to Mackenzie are classified as:
The Zaza and Gorani are ethnic Kurds,but theZaza–Gorani languagesare not classified as Kurdish.
The number of Kurds living inSouthwest Asiais estimated at between 30 and 45 million, with another one or two million living in theKurdish diaspora. Kurds comprise anywhere from 18 to 25% of the population inTurkey,15 to 20% inIraq;10% inIran;and 9% inSyria.Kurds form regional majorities in all four of these countries,viz.inTurkish Kurdistan,Iraqi Kurdistan,Iranian KurdistanandSyrian Kurdistan. The Kurds are the fourth-largestethnic group in West AsiaafterArabs,Persians, andTurks.
The total number of Kurds in 1991 was placed at 22.5 million, with 48% of this number living in Turkey, 24% in Iran, 18% in Iraq, and 4% in Syria.
Recent emigration accounts for a population of close to 1.5 million in Western countries, about half of themin Germany.
A special case are the Kurdish populations in theTranscaucasusandCentral Asia, displaced there mostly in the time of theRussian Empire, who underwent independent developments for more than a century and have developed an ethnic identity in their own right.This group's population was estimated at close to 0.4 million in 1990.
Most Kurds areSunni Muslimswho adhere to theShafiʽi school, while a significant minority adhere to theHanafischooland alsoAlevism. Moreover, many Shafi'i Kurds adhere to either one of the twoSufiordersNaqshbandiandQadiriyya.
Beside Sunni Islam,AlevismandShia Islamalso have millions of Kurdish followers.
Yazidism is amonotheisticethnic religionwith roots in a western branch of anIranic pre-Zoroastrian religion.It is based on the belief of one God who created the world and entrusted it into the care of seven Holy Beings.The leader of this heptad isTawûsê Melek, who is symbolized with apeacock.Its adherents number from 700,000 to 1 million worldwideand are indigenous to theKurdish regionsofIraq,SyriaandTurkey, with some significant, more recent communities in Russia,GeorgiaandArmeniaestablished by refugees fleeing persecution by Muslims inOttoman Empire.Yazidismshares withKurdish AlevismandYarsanismmany similar qualities that date back to the pre-Islamic era.
Yarsanism (also known as Ahl-I-Haqq, Ahl-e-Hagh or Kakai) is also one of the religions associated with Kurdistan.
Although most of the sacred Yarsan texts are in theGoraniand all of the Yarsanholy placesare located inKurdistan, followers of this religion are also found in other regions. For example, while there are more than 300,000 Yarsani in Iraqi Kurdistan, there are more than 2 million Yarsani in Iran.However, the Yarsani lack political rights in both countries.
The Iranian religion of Zoroastrianism has had a major influence on the Iranian culture, which Kurds are a part of, and has maintained some effect since the demise of the religion in the Middle Ages. The Iranian philosopher Sohrevardi drew heavily from Zoroastrian teachings.Ascribed to the teachings of the prophetZoroaster, the faith'sSupreme BeingisAhura Mazda. Leading characteristics, such asmessianism, theGolden Rule,heavenandhell, andfree willinfluenced other religious systems, includingSecond Temple Judaism,Gnosticism,Christianity, andIslam.
In 2016, the first official Zoroastrianfire templeofIraqi Kurdistanopened inSulaymaniyah. Attendees celebrated the occasion by lighting a ritual fire and beating theframe drumor 'daf'.Awat Tayib, the chief of followers of Zoroastrianism in the Kurdistan region, claimed that many were returning to Zoroastrianism but some kept it secret out of fear of reprisals from Islamists.
Although historically there have been various accounts ofKurdish Christians, most often these were in the form of individuals, and not as communities. However, in the 19th and 20th century various travel logs tell of Kurdish Christian tribes, as well as Kurdish Muslim tribes who had substantial Christian populations living amongst them. A significant number of these were allegedly originallyArmenianorAssyrian,and it has been recorded that a small number of Christian traditions have been preserved. Several Christian prayers in Kurdish have been found from earlier centuries.In recent years some Kurds from Muslim backgrounds have converted toChristianity.
Segments of the Bible were first made available in the Kurdish language in 1856 in the Kurmanji dialect. The Gospels were translated by Stepan, an Armenian employee of theAmerican Bible Societyand were published in 1857. Prominent historical Kurdish Christians include the brothersZakareand Ivane Mkhargrdzeli.
"The land of Karda" is mentioned on a Sumerian clay tablet dated to the 3rd millennium BC. This land was inhabited by "the people of Su" who dwelt in the southern regions ofLake Van; the philological connection between "Kurd" and "Karda" is uncertain, but the relationship is considered possible.Other Sumerian clay tablets referred to the people, who lived in the land of Karda, as theQarduchi(Karduchi, Karduchoi) and the Qurti.Karda/Qardu isetymologicallyrelated to theAssyriantermUrartuand theHebrewterm Ararat.However, some modern scholars do not believe that the Qarduchi are connected to Kurds.
Qarti or Qartas, who were originally settled on the mountains north ofMesopotamia, are considered as a probable ancestor of the Kurds. TheAkkadianswere attacked by nomads coming through Qartas territory at the end of 3rd millennium BC and distinguished them as theGuti, speakers of apre-Iraniclanguage isolate. They conqueredMesopotamiain 2150 BC and ruled with 21 kings until defeated by theSumeriankingUtu-hengal.
Many Kurds consider themselves descended from theMedes, an ancient Iranian people,and even use a calendar dating from 612 BC, when theAssyriancapital ofNinevehwas conquered by the Medes.The claimed Median descent is reflected in the words of theKurdish national anthem: "We are the children of the Medes andKai Khosrow."However, MacKenzie and Asatrian challenge the relation of theMedian languageto Kurdish.TheKurdish languages, on the other hand, form a subgroup of theNorthwestern Iranian languageslikeMedian.Some researchers consider the independentKardouchoias the ancestors of the Kurds,while others preferCyrtians.The termKurd, however, is first encountered in Arabic sources of the seventh century.Books from the early Islamic era, including those containing legends such as theShahnamehand theMiddle PersianKar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan, and other early Islamic sources provide early attestation of the nameKurd.The Kurds have ethnically diverse origins.
During theSassanid era, inKar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan, a short prose work written in Middle Persian,Ardashir Iis depicted as having battled the Kurds and their leader,Madig. After initially sustaining a heavy defeat, Ardashir I was successful in subjugating the Kurds.In a letter Ardashir I received from his foe,Ardavan V, which is also featured in the same work, he is referred to as being a Kurd himself.
The usage of the termKurdduring this time period most likely was a social term, designating Northwestern Iranian nomads, rather than a concrete ethnic group.
Similarly, in AD 360, the Sassanid kingShapur IImarched into theRomanprovinceZabdicene, to conquer its chief city, Bezabde, present-dayCizre. 
He found it heavily fortified, and guarded by three legions and a large body of Kurdish archers.After a long and hard-fought siege, Shapur II breached the walls, conquered the city and massacred all its defenders. Thereafter he had the strategically located city repaired, provisioned and garrisoned with his best troops.
Qadishaye, settled byKavadinSingara, were probably Kurdsand worshiped the martyrAbd al-Masih.They revolted against the Sassanids and were raiding the whole Persian territory. Later they, along with Arabs and Armenians, joined the Sassanids in their war against the Byzantines.
There is also a 7th-century text by an unidentified author, written about the legendaryChristian martyrMar Qardagh. He lived in the 4th century, during the reign of Shapur II, and during his travels is said to have encounteredMar Abdisho, a deacon and martyr, who, after having been questioned of his origins by Mar Qardagh and hisMarzobans, stated that his parents were originally from an Assyrian village called Hazza, but were driven out and subsequently settled in Tamanon, a village inthe land of the Kurds, identified as being in the region ofMount Judi.
Early Syriac sources use the termsHurdanaye, Kurdanaye, Kurdayeto refer to the Kurds. According toMichael the Syrian, Hurdanaye separated from Tayaye Arabs and sought refuge with the Byzantine EmperorTheophilus. He also mentions thePersiantroops who fought against Musa chief of Hurdanaye in the region of Qardu in 841. According toBarhebreaus, a king appeared to the Kurdanaye and they rebelled against the Arabs in 829. Michael the Syrian considered them aspagan, followers ofmahdiand adepts ofMagianism. Their mahdi called himselfChristand theHoly Ghost.
In the earlyMiddle Ages, the Kurds sporadically appear in Arabic sources, though the term was still not being used for a specific people; instead it referred to an amalgam of nomadic western Iranian tribes, who were distinct fromPersians. However, in theHigh Middle Ages, the Kurdish ethnic identity gradually materialized, as one can find clear evidence of the Kurdish ethnic identity and solidarity in texts of the 12th and 13th centuries,though, the term was also still being used in the social sense.Since 10th century, Arabic texts includingal-Masudi's works, have referred to Kurds as a distinct linguistic group.From 11th century onward, the term Kurd is explicitly defined as anethnonymand this does not suggest synonymity with the ethnographic category nomad.Al-Tabariwrote that in 639,Hormuzan, a Sasanian general originating from a noble family, battled against theIslamic invadersinKhuzestan, and called upon the Kurds to aid him in battle.However, they were defeated and brought under Islamic rule.
In 838, a Kurdish leader based in Mosul, namedMir Jafar, revolted against the CaliphAl-Mu'tasimwho sent the commander Itakh to combat him. Itakh won this war and executed many of the Kurds.Eventually, Arabs conquered the Kurdish regions and gradually converted the majority of Kurds to Islam, often incorporating them into the military, such as theHamdanidswhose dynastic family members also frequently intermarried with Kurds.
In 934, theDaylamiteBuyiddynasty was founded, and subsequently conquered most of present-day Iran and Iraq. During the time of rule of this dynasty, Kurdish chief and ruler, Badr ibn Hasanwaih, established himself as one of the most important emirs of the time.
In the 10th–12th centuries, a number ofKurdish principalitiesand dynasties were founded, ruling Kurdistan and neighbouring areas:
Due to the Turkic invasion of Anatolia and Armenia, the 11th-century Kurdish dynasties crumbled and became incorporated into the Seljuk dynasty. Kurds would hereafter be used in great numbers in the armies of theZengids.TheAyyubid dynastywas founded by Kurdish rulerSaladin,as succeeding the Zengids, the Ayyubids established themselves in 1171. Saladin led the Muslims to recapture the city ofJerusalemfrom theCrusadersat theBattle of Hattin; also frequently clashing with theAssassins. The Ayyubid dynasty lasted until 1341 when the Ayyubid sultanate fell toMongolianinvasions.
TheSafaviddynasty, established in 1501, also established its rule over Kurdish-inhabited territories. The paternal line of this family actually had Kurdish roots,tracing back toFiruz-Shah Zarrin-Kolah, a dignitary who moved from Kurdistan to Ardabil in the 11th century.TheBattle of Chaldiranin 1514 that culminated in what is nowadays Iran'sWest Azerbaijan Province, marked the start of theOttoman-Persian Warsbetween the Iranian Safavids (and successive Iranian dynasties) and theOttomans. For the next 300 years, many of the Kurds found themselves living in territories that frequently changed hands between Ottoman Turkey and Iran during the protracted series of Ottoman-Persian Wars.
The Safavid kingIsmail I(r. 1501–1524) put down a Yezidi rebellion which went on from 1506 to 1510. A century later, the year-longBattle of Dimdimtook place, wherein the Safavid kingAbbas I(r. 1588–1629) succeeded in putting down the rebellion led by the Kurdish ruler Amir Khan Lepzerin. Thereafter, many Kurds were deported toKhorasan, not only to weaken the Kurds, but also to protect the eastern border from invadingAfghanandTurkmentribes.Other forced movements and deportations of other groups were also implemented by Abbas I and his successors, most notably of theArmenians, theGeorgians, and theCircassians, who were moved en masse to and from other districts within the Persian empire.
The Kurds of Khorasan, numbering around 700,000, still use theKurmanjiKurdish dialect.Several Kurdish noblemen served the Safavids and rose to prominence, such asShaykh Ali Khan Zanganeh, who served as thegrand vizierof the SafavidshahSuleiman I(r. 1666–1694) from 1669 to 1689. Due to his efforts in reforming the declining Iranian economy, he has been called the "SafavidAmir Kabir" in modern historiography.His son,Shahqoli Khan Zanganeh, also served as a grand vizier from 1707 to 1716. Another Kurdish statesman,Ganj Ali Khan, was close friends with Abbas I, and served as governor in various provinces and was known for his loyal service.
After the fall of the Safavids, Iran fell under the control of theAfsharid Empireruled byNader Shahat its peak. After Nader's death, Iran fell into civil war, with multiple leaders trying to gain control over the country. Ultimately, it wasKarim Khan, a Laki general of theZand tribewho would come to power.
The country would flourish during Karim Khan's reign; a strong resurgence of the arts would take place, and international ties were strengthened.Karim Khan was portrayed as being a ruler who truly cared about his subjects, thereby gaining the title Vakil e-Ra'aayaa (meaning Representative of the People inPersian).Though not as powerful in its geo-political and military reach as the preceding Safavids and Afsharids or even the early Qajars, he managed to reassert Iranian hegemony over its integral territories in theCaucasus, and presided over an era of relative peace, prosperity, and tranquility. InOttoman Iraq, following theOttoman–Persian War (1775–76), Karim Khan managed to seizeBasrafor several years.
After Karim Khan's death, the dynasty would decline in favour of the rivalQajarsdue to infighting between the Khan's incompetent offspring. It was not untilLotf Ali Khan, 10 years later, that the dynasty would once again be led by an adept ruler. By this time however, the Qajars had already progressed greatly, having taken a number of Zand territories. Lotf Ali Khan made multiple successes before ultimately succumbing to the rivaling faction. Iran and all its Kurdish territories would hereby be incorporated in theQajar dynasty.
The Kurdish tribes present inBaluchistanand some of those inFarsare believed to be remnants of those that assisted and accompanied Lotf Ali Khan and Karim Khan, respectively.
When SultanSelim I, after defeating ShahIsmail Iin1514, annexedWestern Armeniaand Kurdistan, he entrusted the organisation of the conquered territories toIdris, the historian, who was a Kurd ofBitlis. He divided the territory intosanjaksor districts, and, making no attempt to interfere with the principle of heredity, installed the local chiefs as governors. He also resettled the rich pastoral country betweenErzerumandErivan, which had lain in waste since the passage ofTimur, with Kurds from theHakkariand Bohtan districts. For the next centuries, from thePeace of Amasyauntil the first half of the 19th century, several regions of the wide Kurdish homelands would be contested as well between the Ottomans and the neighbouring rival successiveIranian dynasties(Safavids,Afsharids,Qajars) in the frequentOttoman-Persian Wars.
The Ottoman centralist policies in the beginning of the 19th century aimed to remove power from the principalities and localities, which directly affected the Kurdish emirs.Bedirhan Beywas the last emir of theCizre BohtanEmirateafter initiating an uprising in 1847 against the Ottomans to protect the current structures of the Kurdish principalities. Although his uprising is not classified as a nationalist one, his children played significant roles in the emergence and the development of Kurdish nationalism through the next century.
The first modern Kurdish nationalist movement emerged in 1880 with an uprising led by a Kurdish landowner and head of the powerful Shemdinan family,Sheik Ubeydullah, who demanded political autonomy or outright independence for Kurds as well as the recognition of a Kurdistan state without interference from Turkish or Persian authorities.The uprising againstQajar Persiaand theOttoman Empirewas ultimately suppressed by the Ottomans and Ubeydullah, along with other notables, were exiled to Istanbul.
Kurdish nationalism emerged afterWorld War Iwith the dissolution of theOttoman Empire, which had historically successfully integrated (but not assimilated) the Kurds, through use of forced repression of Kurdish independence movements. Revolts did occur sporadically but only in 1880 with the uprising led bySheik Ubeydullahdid the Kurds as an ethnic group or nation make demands. Ottoman sultanAbdul Hamid II(r.1876–1909) responded with a campaign of integration by co-opting prominent Kurdish opponents to strengthen Ottoman power with offers of prestigious positions in his government. This strategy appears to have been successful, given the loyalty displayed by the KurdishHamidiyeregiments during World War I.
The Kurdish ethno-nationalist movement that emerged followingWorld War Iand the end of the Ottoman Empire in 1922 largely represented a reaction to the changes taking place in mainstream Turkey, primarily to the radicalsecularization, the centralization of authority, and to the rampantTurkish nationalismin the new Turkish Republic.
Jakob Künzler, head of a missionary hospital inUrfa, documented the large-scaleethnic cleansingof bothArmeniansand Kurds by theYoung Turks.He has given a detailed account of the deportation of Kurds fromErzurumandBitlisin the winter of 1916. The Kurds were perceived to be subversive elements who would take theRussianside in the war. In order to eliminate this threat, Young Turks embarked on a large-scale deportation of Kurds from the regions ofDjabachdjur,Palu,Musch,ErzurumandBitlis. Around 300,000 Kurds were forced to move southwards to Urfa and then westwards toAintabandMarasch. In the summer of 1917 Kurds were moved toKonyaincentral Anatolia. Through these measures, the Young Turkleadersaimed at weakening the political influence of the Kurds by deporting them from their ancestral lands and by dispersing them in small pockets of exiled communities. By the end of World War I, up to 700,000 Kurds had been forcibly deported and almost half of the displaced perished.
Some of the Kurdish groups sought self-determination and the confirmation of Kurdish autonomy in the 1920Treaty of Sèvres, but in theaftermath of World War I,Kemal Atatürkprevented such a result. Kurds backed by the United Kingdom declared independence in 1927 and established theRepublic of Ararat.Turkeysuppressed Kurdist revolts in 1925, 1930, and 1937–1938, while Iran in the 1920s suppressedSimko ShikakatLake Urmiaand Jaafar Sultan of the Hewraman region, who controlled the region betweenMarivanand north ofHalabja. A short-livedSoviet-sponsored KurdishRepublic of Mahabad(January to December 1946) existed in an area of present-day Iran.
From 1922 to 1924 in Iraq aKingdom of Kurdistanexisted. WhenBa'athistadministrators thwarted Kurdish nationalist ambitions inIraq, war broke out in the 1960s. In 1970 the Kurds rejected limited territorial self-rule within Iraq, demanding larger areas, including the oil-richKirkukregion.
During the 1920s and 1930s, several large-scale Kurdish revolts took place in Kurdistan. Following these rebellions, the area of Turkish Kurdistan was put undermartial lawand many of the Kurds were displaced. The Turkish government also encouraged resettlement ofAlbanians from KosovoandAssyriansin the region to change the make-up of the population. These events and measures led to long-lasting mutual distrust between Ankara and the Kurds.
Kurdish officers from the Iraqi army [...] were said to have approached Soviet army authorities soon after their arrival in Iran in 1941 and offered to form a Kurdish volunteer force to fight alongside the Red Army. This offer was declined.
During the relatively open government of the 1950s in Turkey, Kurds gained political office and started working within the framework of the Turkish Republic to further their interests, but this move towards integration was halted with the1960 Turkish coup d'état.The 1970s saw an evolution in Kurdish nationalism asMarxistpolitical thought influenced some in the new generation of Kurdish nationalists opposed to the localfeudalauthorities who had been a traditional source of opposition to authority; in 1978 Kurdish students would form the militant separatist organizationPKK, also known as theKurdistan Workers' Partyin English. TheKurdistan Workers' Partylater abandonedMarxism-Leninism.
Kurds are often regarded as "the largestethnic group without a state",Some researchers, such asMartin van Bruinessen,who seem to agree with the official Turkish position, argue that while some level of Kurdish cultural, social, political and ideological heterogeneity may exist, the Kurdish community has long thrived over the centuries as a generally peaceful and well-integrated part of Turkish society, with hostilities erupting only in recent years.Michael Radu, who worked for the United States'PennsylvaniaForeign Policy Research Institute, notes that demands for a Kurdish state comes primarily fromKurdish nationalists, Western human-rights activists, and European leftists.
According toCIA Factbook, Kurds formed approximately 18% of the population in Turkey (approximately 14 million) in 2008. One Western source estimates that up to 25% of the Turkish population is Kurdish (approximately 18–19 million people).Kurdish sources claim there are as many as 20 or 25 million Kurds in Turkey.In 1980,Ethnologueestimated the number ofKurdish-speakers in Turkey at around five million,when the country's population stood at 44 million.Kurds form the largest minority group in Turkey, and they have posed the most serious and persistent challenge to the official image of a homogeneous society.  Todeny an existence of Kurds, the Turkish Government used several terms. "Mountain Turks" was a term was initially used byAbdullah Alpdoğan[tr]. In 1961, in a foreword to the bookDoğu İlleri ve Varto TarihiofMehmet Şerif Fırat, the Turkish presidentCemal Gürseldeclared it of utmost importance to prove the Turkishness of the Kurds.Eastern Turk was anothereuphemismfor Kurds from 1980 onwards.Nowadays the Kurds, in Turkey, are still known under the nameEasterner(Doğulu).
Several large scale Kurdish revolts in 1925, 1930 and 1938 were suppressed by the Turkish government and more than one million Kurds were forcibly relocated between 1925 and 1938. The use of Kurdish language, dress,folklore, and names were banned and the Kurdish-inhabited areas remained undermartial lawuntil 1946.TheArarat revolt, which reached its apex in 1930, was only suppressed after a massive military campaign including destruction of many villages and their populations.By the 1970s, Kurdish leftist organizations such asKurdistan Socialist Party-Turkey(KSP-T) emerged in Turkey which were against violence and supported civil activities and participation in elections. In 1977,Mehdi Zanaa supporter of KSP-T won the mayoralty ofDiyarbakirin the local elections. At about the same time, generational fissures gave birth to two new organizations: theNational Liberation of Kurdistanand theKurdistan Workers Party.
The words "Kurds", "Kurdistan", or "Kurdish" were officially banned by the Turkish government.Following themilitary coup of 1980, the Kurdish language was officially prohibited in public and private life.Many people who spoke, published, or sang in Kurdish were arrested and imprisoned.The Kurds are still not allowed to get a primary education in their mother tongue and they do not have a right to self-determination, even though Turkey has signed theICCPR. There is ongoing discrimination against and "otherization" of Kurds in society.
TheKurdistan Workers' Partyor PKK (Kurdish:Partiya Karkerên Kurdistanê) is Kurdish militant organization which has waged an armed struggle against the Turkish state for cultural and political rights and self-determination for the Kurds.Turkey's military allies the US, the EU, andNATOlabel the PKK as a terrorist organization while theUN,Switzerland,andRussiahave refused to add the PKK to their terrorist list.Some of them have even supported the PKK.
Between 1984 and 1999, the PKK and the Turkish military engaged in open war, and much of the countryside in the southeast was depopulated, as Kurdish civilians moved from villages to bigger cities such asDiyarbakır,Van, andŞırnak, as well as to the cities of western Turkey and even to western Europe. The causes of the depopulation included mainly the Turkish state's military operations, state's political actions, Turkishdeep stateactions, the poverty of the southeast and PKK atrocities against Kurdish clans which were against them.Turkish state actions have included torture, rape,forced inscription, forced evacuation, destruction of villages, illegal arrests and executions of Kurdish civilians.
Since the 1970s, theEuropean Court of Human Rightshas condemned Turkey for the thousands of human rights abuses.The judgments are related to executions of Kurdish civilians,torturing,forced displacementssystematic destruction of villages,arbitrary arrestsmurdered and disappeared Kurdish journalists.
Leyla Zana, the first Kurdish female MP from Diyarbakir, caused an uproar inTurkish Parliamentafter adding the following sentence inKurdishto her parliamentary oath during the swearing-in ceremony in 1994: "I take this oath for the brotherhood of the Turkish and Kurdish peoples."
In March 1994, theTurkish Parliamentvoted to lift the immunity of Zana and five other KurdishDEPmembers: Hatip Dicle, Ahmet Turk, Sirri Sakik, Orhan Dogan and Selim Sadak. Zana, Dicle, Sadak and Dogan were sentenced to 15 years in jail by the Supreme Court in October 1995. Zana was awarded theSakharov Prizefor human rights by theEuropean Parliamentin 1995. She was released in 2004 amid warnings from European institutions that the continued imprisonment of the four Kurdish MPs would affect Turkey's bid to join theEU.The 2009 local elections resulted in 5.7% for Kurdish political partyDTP.
Officially protected death squads are accused of the disappearance of 3,200 Kurds and Assyrians in 1993 and 1994 in the so-called "mystery killings". Kurdish politicians, human-rights activists, journalists, teachers and other members of intelligentsia were among the victims. Virtually none of the perpetrators were investigated nor punished. Turkish government also encouraged Islamic extremist groupKurdish Hezbollahto assassinate suspected PKK members and often ordinary Kurds.Azimet Köylüoğlu, the state minister of human rights, revealed the extent of security forces' excesses in the autumn of 1994: "While acts of terrorism in other regions are done by the PKK; in Tunceli it isstate terrorism. In Tunceli, it is the state that is evacuating and burning villages. In the southeast there are two million people left homeless."
TheKurdish regionofIranhas been a part of the country since ancient times. Nearly allKurdistanwas part ofPersian Empireuntil its Western part was lost duringwarsagainst theOttoman Empire.Following thedissolution of the Ottoman Empire, at theParis Peace Conferenceof 1919 Tehran had demanded all lost territories includingTurkish Kurdistan,Mosul, and evenDiyarbakır, but demands were quickly rejected by Western powers.This area has been divided by modernTurkey,SyriaandIraq.Today, the Kurds inhabit mostly northwestern territories known asIranian Kurdistanbut also the northeastern region ofKhorasan, and constitute approximately 7–10%of Iran's overall population (6.5–7.9 million), compared to 10.6% (2 million) in 1956 and 8% (800,000) in 1850.
Unlike in other Kurdish-populated countries, there are strong ethnolinguistical and cultural ties between Kurds,Persiansand others asIranian peoples.Some modern Iranian dynasties like theSafavidsandZandsare considered to be partly of Kurdish origin.Kurdish literaturein all of its forms (Kurmanji,Sorani, andGorani) has been developed withinhistoricalIranianboundariesunder strong influence of thePersian language.The Kurds sharing much of their history with the rest of Iran is seen as reason for why Kurdish leaders in Iran do not want a separate Kurdish state.
Thegovernment of Iranhas never employed the same level of brutality against its own Kurds likeTurkeyorIraq, but it has always been implacably opposed to any suggestion of Kurdish separatism.During and shortly after theFirst World Warthe government of Iran was ineffective and had very little control over events in the country and several Kurdishtribalchiefs gained local political power, even established large confederations.At the same time waves ofnationalismfrom the disintegrating Ottoman Empire partly influenced some Kurdish chiefs in border regions to pose as Kurdish nationalist leaders.Prior to this, identity in both countries largely relied upon religion i.e.Shia Islamin the particular case of Iran.In 19th-centuryIran,Shia–Sunni animosityand the describing ofSunniKurds as an Ottomanfifth columnwas quite frequent.
During the late 1910s and early 1920s,tribal revoltled by Kurdish chieftainSimko Shikakstruck north western Iran. Although elements ofKurdish nationalismwere present in this movement, historians agree these were hardly articulate enough to justify a claim that recognition of Kurdish identity was a major issue in Simko's movement, and he had to rely heavily on conventional tribal motives.Government forces and non-Kurds were not the only ones to suffer in the attacks, theKurdish populationwas also robbed and assaulted.Rebels do not appear to have felt any sense of unity or solidarity with fellow Kurds.Kurdish insurgency and seasonal migrations in the late 1920s, along with long-running tensions between Tehran and Ankara, resulted in border clashes and even military penetrations in both Iranian and Turkish territory.Two regional powers have used Kurdish tribes as tool for own political benefits: Turkey has provided military help and refuge for anti-Iranian TurcophoneShikak rebelsin 1918–1922,while Iran did the same duringArarat rebellionagainst Turkey in 1930.Reza Shah's military victory over Kurdish andTurkictribal leaders initiated a repressive era toward non-Iranianminorities.Government's forced detribalization andsedentarizationin 1920s and 1930s resulted with many other tribal revolts in Iranian regions ofAzerbaijan,LuristanandKurdistan.In particular case of the Kurds, this repressive policies partly contributed to developingnationalismamong some tribes.
As a response to growingPan-TurkismandPan-Arabismin region which were seen as potential threats to the territorial integrity of Iran,Pan-Iranistideology has been developed in the early 1920s.Some of such groups and journals openly advocated Iranian support to the Kurdish rebellion againstTurkey.SecularPahlavi dynastyhas endorsed Iranian ethnicnationalismwhich saw the Kurds as integral part of the Iranian nation.Mohammad Reza Pahlavihas personally praised the Kurds as "pure Iranians" or "one of the most nobleIranian peoples". Another significant ideology during this period wasMarxismwhich arose among Kurds under influence ofUSSR. It culminated in theIran crisis of 1946which included a separatist attempt ofKDP-Iandcommunistgroupsto establish theSovietpuppet governmentcalledRepublic of Mahabad. It arose along withAzerbaijan People's Government, another Soviet puppet state.The state itself encompassed a very small territory, includingMahabadand the adjacent cities, unable to incorporate the southern Iranian Kurdistan which fell inside the Anglo-American zone, and unable to attract the tribes outside Mahabad itself to the nationalist cause.As a result, when the Soviets withdrew from Iran in December 1946, government forces were able to enter Mahabad unopposed.
SeveralnationalistandMarxistinsurgencies continued for decades (1967,1979,1989–96) led byKDP-IandKomalah, but those two organization have never advocated a separate Kurdish state or greater Kurdistan as did thePKKinTurkey.Still, many of dissident leaders, among othersQazi MuhammadandAbdul Rahman Ghassemlou, were executed or assassinated.DuringIran–Iraq War, Tehran has provided support for Iraqi-based Kurdish groups likeKDPorPUK, along with asylum for 1.4 million Iraqi refugees, mostlyKurds. Kurdish Marxist groups have been marginalized in Iran since thedissolution of the Soviet Union. In 2004 newinsurrectionstarted byPJAK, separatist organization affiliated with the Turkey-basedPKKand designated asterroristby Iran, Turkey and the United States.Some analysts claim PJAK do not pose any serious threat to thegovernment of Iran.Cease-fire has been established in September 2011 following the Iranian offensive on PJAK bases, but several clashes between PJAK and IRGC took place after it.Since theIranian Revolutionof 1979, accusations of "discrimination" by Western organizations and of "foreign involvement" by Iranian side have become very frequent.
Kurds have been well integrated inIranian political lifeduring reign of various governments.Kurdish liberal politicalKarim Sanjabihas served as minister of education underMohammad Mossadeghin 1952. During the reign ofMohammad Reza Pahlavisome members of parliament and high army officers were Kurds, and there was even a Kurdish Cabinet Minister.During thereign of the PahlavisKurds received many favours from the authorities, for instance to keep their land after theland reformsof 1962.In the early 2000s, presence of thirty Kurdish deputies in the 290-strongparliamenthas also helped to undermine claims of discrimination.Some of the more influential Kurdish politicians during recent years include formerfirst vice presidentMohammad Reza RahimiandMohammad Bagher Ghalibaf,Mayor of Tehranand second-placedpresidential candidatein 2013.Kurdish languageis today used more than at any other time since theRevolution, including in several newspapers and among schoolchildren.Many Iranian Kurds show no interest inKurdish nationalism,particularly Kurds of theShiafaith who sometimes even vigorously reject idea of autonomy, preferring direct rule fromTehran.The issue of Kurdish nationalism and Iranian national identity is generally only questioned in the peripheral Kurdish dominated regions where theSunnifaith is prevalent.
Kurds constitute approximately 17% of Iraq's population.They are the majority in at least three provinces in northern Iraq. Kurds also have a presence inKirkuk,Mosul,Khanaqin, andBaghdad. Around 300,000 Kurds live in the Iraqi capitalBaghdad, 50,000 in the city ofMosuland around 100,000 elsewhere in southern Iraq.
Kurds led byMustafa Barzaniwere engaged in heavy fighting against successive Iraqi regimes from 1960 to 1975. In March 1970, Iraq announced a peace plan providing for Kurdish autonomy. The plan was to be implemented in four years.However, at the same time, the Iraqi regime started an Arabization program in the oil-rich regions ofKirkukandKhanaqin.The peace agreement did not last long, and in 1974, the Iraqi government began a new offensive against the Kurds. Moreover, in March 1975, Iraq and Iran signed theAlgiers Accord, according to which Iran cut supplies to Iraqi Kurds. Iraq started another wave of Arabization by moving Arabs to the oil fields in Kurdistan, particularly those around Kirkuk.Between 1975 and 1978, 200,000 Kurds were deported to other parts of Iraq.
During theIran–Iraq Warin the 1980s, the regime implemented anti-Kurdish policies and ade factocivil war broke out. Iraq was widely condemned by the international community, but was never seriously punished for oppressive measures such as the mass murder of hundreds of thousands of civilians, the wholesale destruction of thousands of villages and the deportation of thousands of Kurds to southern and central Iraq.
The genocidal campaign, conducted between 1986 and 1989 and culminating in 1988, carried out by the Iraqi government against the Kurdish population was calledAnfal("Spoils of War"). The Anfal campaign led to destruction of over two thousand villages and killing of 182,000 Kurdish civilians.The campaign included the use of ground offensives, aerial bombing, systematic destruction of settlements, mass deportation, firing squads, and chemical attacks, including the most infamous attack on the Kurdish town ofHalabja in 1988that killed 5000 civilians instantly.
After the collapse of the Kurdish uprising in March 1991, Iraqi troops recaptured most of the Kurdish areas and 1.5 million Kurds abandoned their homes and fled to the Turkish and Iranian borders. It is estimated that close to 20,000 Kurds succumbed to death due to exhaustion, lack of food, exposure to cold and disease. On 5 April 1991,UN Security Councilpassed resolution688which condemned the repression of Iraqi Kurdish civilians and demanded that Iraq end its repressive measures and allow immediate access to international humanitarian organizations.This was the first international document (since theLeague of Nationsarbitration of Mosul in 1926) to mention Kurds by name. In mid-April, the Coalition establishedsafe havensinside Iraqi borders and prohibited Iraqi planes from flying north of 36th parallel.In October 1991, Kurdish guerrillas capturedErbilandSulaimaniyahafter a series of clashes with Iraqi troops. In late October, Iraqi government retaliated by imposing a food and fuel embargo on the Kurds and stopping to pay civil servants in the Kurdish region. The embargo, however, backfired and Kurds held parliamentary elections in May 1992 and establishedKurdistan Regional Government(KRG).
The Kurdish population welcomed the American troops in 2003 by holding celebrations and dancing in the streets.The authority of theKRGand legality of its laws and regulations were recognized in the articles 113 and 137 of the newIraqi Constitutionratified in 2005.By the beginning of 2006, the two Kurdish administrations of Erbil and Sulaimaniya were unified.On 14 August 2007, Yazidis were targeted in aseries of bombingsthat became the deadliest suicide attack since theIraq Warbegan, killing 796 civilians, wounding 1,562.
Kurds account for 9% ofSyria's population, a total of around 1.6 million people.This makes them the largest ethnic minority in the country. They are mostly concentrated in the northeast and the north, but there are also significant Kurdish populations in Aleppo and Damascus. Kurds often speak Kurdish in public, unless all those present do not. According toAmnesty International, Kurdish human rights activists are mistreated and persecuted.No political parties are allowed for any group, Kurdish or otherwise.
Techniques used to suppress the ethnic identity of Kurds inSyriainclude various bans on the use of theKurdish language, refusal to register children with Kurdish names, the replacement of Kurdish place names with new names inArabic, the prohibition of businesses that do not have Arabic names, the prohibition of Kurdish private schools, and the prohibition of books and other materials written in Kurdish.Having been denied the right to Syrian nationality, around 300,000 Kurds have been deprived of any social rights, in violation of international law.As a consequence, these Kurds are in effect trapped within Syria. In March 2011, in part to avoid further demonstrations and unrest from spreading across Syria, the Syrian government promised to tackle the issue and grant Syrian citizenship to approximately 300,000 Kurds who had been previously denied the right.
On 12 March 2004, beginning at a stadium inQamishli(a largely Kurdish city in northeastern Syria), clashes between Kurds and Syrians broke out and continued over a number of days. At least thirty people were killed and more than 160 injured. The unrest spread to other Kurdish towns along the northern border with Turkey, and then toDamascusandAleppo.
As a result ofSyrian civil war, since July 2012, Kurds were able to take control of large parts of Syrian Kurdistan from Andiwar in extreme northeast to Jindires in extreme northwest Syria. The Syrian Kurds started theRojava Revolutionin 2013.
Kurdish-inhabitedAfrin Cantonhas beenoccupiedby Turkish Armed Forces andTurkish-backed Free Syrian Armysince theTurkish military operation in Afrinin early 2018. Between 150,000 and 200,000 people were displaced due to the Turkish intervention.
In October 2019, Turkey and theSyrian Interim Governmentbegan an offensive into Kurdish-populated areas in Syria, prompting about 100,000 civilians to flee from the area fearing that Turkey would commit anethnic cleansing.
Between the 1930s and 1980s,Armeniawas a part of theSoviet Union, within which Kurds, like other ethnic groups, had the status of a protected minority. Armenian Kurds were permitted their own state-sponsored newspaper, radio broadcasts and cultural events. During the conflict inNagorno-Karabakh, many non-Yazidi Kurds were forced to leave their homes since both the Azeri and non-Yazidi Kurds were Muslim.
In 1920, two Kurdish-inhabited areas of Jewanshir (capitalKalbajar) and eastern Zangazur (capitalLachin) were combined to form theKurdistan Okrug(or "Red Kurdistan"). The period of existence of the Kurdish administrative unit was brief and did not last beyond 1929. Kurds subsequently faced many repressive measures, including deportations, imposed by theSovietgovernment. As a result of theNagorno-Karabakh conflict, many Kurdish areas have been destroyed and more than 150,000 Kurds have been deported since 1988 by separatistArmenianforces.
According to a report by theCouncil of Europe, approximately 1.3 million Kurds live inWestern Europe. The earliest immigrants were Kurds from Turkey, who settled inGermany,Austria, theBeneluxcountries, the United Kingdom,SwitzerlandandFranceduring the 1960s. Successive periods of political and social turmoil in the region during the 1980s and 1990s brought new waves of Kurdish refugees, mostly from Iran and Iraq under Saddam Hussein, came to Europe.In recent years, many Kurdish asylum seekers from both Iran and Iraq have settled in the United Kingdom (especially in the town ofDewsburyand in some northern areas ofLondon), which has sometimes caused media controversy over their right to remain.There have been tensions between Kurds and the established Muslim community in Dewsbury,which is home to very traditional mosques such as theMarkazi. Since the beginning of the turmoil in Syria many of therefugees of the Syrian Civil WarareSyrian Kurdsand as a result many of the current Syrian asylum seekers in Germany are of Kurdish descent.
There was substantial immigration of ethnic Kurds in Canada and the United States, who are mainly political refugees and immigrants seeking economic opportunity. According to a2011 Statistics Canadahousehold survey, there were 11,685 people of Kurdish ethnic background living in Canada,and according to the 2011 Census, 10,325 Canadians spoke Kurdish languages.In the United States, Kurdish immigrants started to settle in large numbers inNashvillein 1976,which is now home to the largest Kurdish community in the United States and is nicknamedLittle Kurdistan.Kurdish population in Nashville is estimated to be around 11,000.The total number of ethnic Kurds residing in the United States is estimated by theUS Census Bureauto be 20,591.Other sources claim that there are 20,000 ethnic Kurds in the United States.
Kurdish culture is a legacy from the various ancient peoples who shaped modern Kurds and their society. As most other Middle Eastern populations, a high degree of mutual influences between the Kurds and their neighbouring peoples are apparent. Therefore, in Kurdish culture elements of various other cultures are to be seen.
However, on the whole, Kurdish culture is closest to that of otherIranian peoples, in particular those who historically had the closest geographical proximity to the Kurds, such as thePersiansandLurs. Kurds, for instance, also celebrateNewroz(21 March) as New Year's Day.
A madrasa system was used before the modern era.Mele are Islamic clerics and instructors.
In general, Kurdish women's rights and equality have improved in the 20th and 21st centuries due to progressive movements within Kurdish society. However, despite the progress, Kurdish and international women's rights organizations still report problems related togender equality,forced marriages,honor killings, and in Iraq'sErbil, alsofemale genital mutilation(FGM).
The Kurds possess a rich tradition of folklore, which, until recent times, was largely transmitted by speech or song, from one generation to the next. Although some of the Kurdish writers' stories were well known throughout Kurdistan; most of the stories told and sung were only written down in the 20th and 21st centuries. Many of these are, allegedly, centuries old.
Widely varying in purpose and style, among the Kurdish folklore one will find stories about nature,anthropomorphicanimals, love, heroes and villains,mythologicalcreatures and everyday life. A number of these mythological figures can be found in other cultures, like theSimurghandKaveh the Blacksmithin the broaderIranian Mythology, and stories ofShahmaranthroughout Anatolia. Additionally, stories can be purely entertaining, or have an educational or religious aspect.
Perhaps the most widely reoccurring element is the fox, which, through cunning and shrewdness triumphs over less intelligent species, yet often also meets his demise.Another common theme in Kurdish folklore is the origin of a tribe.
Storytellers would perform in front of an audience, sometimes consisting of an entire village. People from outside the region would travel to attend their narratives, and the storytellers themselves would visit other villages to spread their tales. These would thrive especially during winter, where entertainment was hard to find as evenings had to be spent inside.
Coinciding with the heterogeneous Kurdish groupings, although certain stories and elements were commonly found throughout Kurdistan, others were unique to a specific area; depending on the region, religion or dialect. TheKurdish JewsofZakhoare perhaps the best example of this; their gifted storytellers are known to have been greatly respected throughout the region, thanks to a unique oral tradition.Other examples are the mythology of theYezidis,and the stories of the Dersim Kurds, which had a substantial Armenian influence.
During the criminalization of the Kurdish language after the coup d'état of 1980,dengbêj(singers) and çîrokbêj (tellers) were silenced, and many of the stories had become endangered. In 1991, the language was decriminalized, yet the now highly available radios and TV's had as an effect a diminished interest in traditional storytelling.However, a number of writers have made great strides in the preservation of these tales.
Kurdish weaving is renowned throughout the world, with fine specimens of both rugs and bags. The most famous Kurdish rugs arethose from the Bijar region, in the Kurdistan Province. Because of the unique way in which the Bijar rugs are woven, they are very stout and durable, hence their appellation as the 'Iron Rugs of Persia'. Exhibiting a wide variety, the Bijar rugs have patterns ranging from floral designs, medallions and animals to other ornaments. They generally have twowefts, and are very colorful in design.With an increased interest in these rugs in the last century, and a lesser need for them to be as sturdy as they were, new Bijar rugs are more refined and delicate in design.
Another well-known Kurdish rug is the Senneh rug, which is regarded as the most sophisticated of the Kurdish rugs. They are especially known for their great knot density and high-quality mountain wool.They lend their name from the region ofSanandaj. Throughout other Kurdish regions likeKermanshah,Siirt,MalatyaandBitlisrugs were also woven to great extent.
Kurdish bags are mainly known from the works of one large tribe: theJaffs, living in the border area between Iran and Iraq. These Jaff bags share the same characteristics of Kurdish rugs; very colorful, stout in design, often with medallion patterns. They were especially popular in the West during the 1920s and 1930s.
Outside of weaving and clothing, there are many other Kurdishhandicrafts, which were traditionally often crafted by nomadic Kurdish tribes. These are especially well known in Iran, most notably the crafts from theKermanshahandSanandajregions. Among these crafts are chess boards, talismans, jewelry, ornaments, weaponry, and instruments.
Kurdish blades include a distinctjambiya, with its characteristic I-shaped hilt, and oblong blade. Generally, these possess double-edged blades, reinforced with a central ridge, a wooden, leather or silver decorated scabbard, and a horn hilt, furthermore they are often still worn decoratively by older men. Swords were made as well. Most of these blades in circulation stem from the 19th century.
Another distinct form of art from Sanandaj is 'Oroosi', a type of window where stylized wooden pieces are locked into each other, rather than being glued together. These are further decorated with coloured glass, this stems from an old belief that if light passes through a combination of seven colours it helps keep the atmosphere clean.
Among Kurdish Jews a common practice was the making of talismans, which were believed to combat illnesses and protect the wearer from malevolent spirits.
Adorning the body withtattoos(deqin Kurdish) is widespread among the Kurds, even though permanent tattoos are not permissible in Sunni Islam. Therefore, these traditional tattoos are thought to derive from pre-Islamic times.
Tattoo ink is made by mixingsootwith (breast) milk and the poisonous liquid from the gall bladder of an animal. The design is drawn on the skin using a thin twig and is injected under the skin using a needle. These have a wide variety of meanings and purposes, among which are protection against evil or illnesses; beauty enhancement; and the showing of tribal affiliations.Religious symbolismis also common among both traditional and modern Kurdish tattoos. Tattoos are more prevalent among women than among men, and were generally worn on feet, the chin, foreheads and other places of the body.
The popularity of permanent, traditional tattoos has greatly diminished among newer generation of Kurds. However, modern tattoos are becoming more prevalent; and temporary tattoos are still being worn on special occasions (such ashenna, the night before a wedding) and as tribute to the cultural heritage.
Traditionally, there are three types of Kurdish classical performers:storytellers(çîrokbêj),minstrels(stranbêj), andbards(dengbêj). No specific music was associated with the Kurdish princely courts. Instead, music performed in night gatherings (şevbihêrk) is considered classical. Several musical forms are found in this genre. Many songs areepicin nature, such as the popularLawiks, heroicballadsrecounting the tales of Kurdish heroes such asSaladin.Heyransare love ballads usually expressing the melancholy of separation and unfulfilled love. One of the first Kurdish female singers to sing heyrans isChopy Fatah, whileLawjeis a form of religious music andPayizoksare songs performed during the autumn. Love songs, dance music, wedding and other celebratory songs (dîlok/narînk), erotic poetry, andwork songsare also popular.
Throughout the Middle East, there are many prominent Kurdish artists. Most famous areIbrahim Tatlises,Nizamettin Arıç,Ahmet Kayaand theKamkars. In Europe, well-known artists areDarin Zanyar,Sivan Perwer, andAzad.
The main themes ofKurdish cinemaare the poverty and hardship which ordinary Kurds have to endure. The first films featuring Kurdish culture were actually shot in Armenia. Zare, released in 1927, produced byHamo Beknazarian, details the story of Zare and her love for the shepherd Seydo, and the difficulties the two experience by the hand of the village elder.In 1948 and 1959, two documentaries were made concerning the Yezidi Kurds in Armenia. These were joint Armenian-Kurdish productions; with H. Koçaryan and Heciye Cindi teaming up forThe Kurds of Soviet Armenia,and Ereb Samilov and C. Jamharyan forKurds of Armenia.
The first critically acclaimed and famous Kurdish films were produced byYılmaz Güney. Initially a popular, award-winning actor in Turkey with the nicknameÇirkin Kral(the Ugly King, after his rough looks), he spent the later part of his career producing socio-critical and politically loaded films.Sürü(1979),Yol(1982) andDuvar(1983) are his best-known works, of which the second won Palme d'Or at theCannes Film Festivalof 1982,the most prestigious award in the world of cinema.
Another prominent Kurdish film director isBahman Qubadi. His first feature film wasA Time for Drunken Horses, released in 2000. It was critically acclaimed, and went on to win multiple awards. Other movies of his would follow this example,making him one of the best known film producers of Iran of today. Recently, he releasedRhinos Season, starringBehrouz Vossoughi,Monica BellucciandYilmaz Erdogan, detailing the tumultuous life of a Kurdish poet.
Other prominent Kurdish film directors that are critically acclaimed includeMahsun Kırmızıgül,Hiner Saleemand the aforementioned Yilmaz Erdogan. There's also been a number of films set or filmed in Kurdistan made by non-Kurdish film directors, such asThe Wind Will Carry Us,Triage,The Exorcist, andThe Market: A Tale of Trade.
The most popular sport among the Kurds is football. Because the Kurds have no independent state, they have no representative team inFIFAor theAFC; however a team representingIraqi Kurdistanhas been active in theViva World Cupsince 2008. They became runners-up in 2009 and 2010, before ultimately becoming champion in 2012.
On a national level, the Kurdish clubs of Iraq have achieved success in recent years as well, winning theIraqi Premier Leaguefour times in the last five years. Prominent clubs areErbil SC,Duhok SC,Sulaymaniyah FCandZakho FC.
In Turkey, a Kurd namedCelal Ibrahimwas one of the founders ofGalatasaray S.K.in 1905, as well as one of the original players. The most prominent Kurdish-Turkish club isDiyarbakirspor. In the diaspora, the most successful Kurdish club isDalkurd FFand the most famous player isEren Derdiyok.
Another prominent sport is wrestling. InIranian Wrestling, there are three styles originating from Kurdish regions:
Furthermore, the most accredited of the traditional Iranian wrestling styles, the Bachoukheh, derives its name from a local Khorasani Kurdish costume in which it is practised.
Kurdish medalists in the2012 Summer OlympicswereNur Tatar,Kianoush Rostamiand YezidiMisha Aloyan;who won medals intaekwondo,weightliftingandboxing, respectively.
The traditional Kurdish village has simple houses, made of mud. In most cases with flat, wooden roofs, and, if the village is built on the slope of a mountain, the roof on one house makes for the garden of the house one level higher. However, houses with a beehive-like roof, not unlike those inHarran, are also present.
Over the centuries many Kurdish architectural marvels have been erected, with varying styles. Kurdistan boasts many examples from ancient Iranian, Roman, Greek and Semitic origin, most famous of these includeBisotunandTaq-e Bostanin Kermanshah,Takht-e Soleymannear Takab,Mount Nemrudnear Adiyaman and the citadels of Erbil and Diyarbakir.
The first genuinely Kurdish examples extant were built in the 11th century. Those earliest examples consist of the MarwanidDicle Bridgein Diyarbakir, the ShadaddidMinuchir Mosquein Ani,and theHisn al Akradnear Homs.
In the 12th and 13th centuries the Ayyubid dynasty constructed many buildings throughout the Middle East, being influenced by their predecessors, the Fatimids, and their rivals, the Crusaders, whilst also developing their own techniques.Furthermore, women of the Ayyubid family took a prominent role in the patronage of new constructions.The Ayyubids' most famous works are the Halil-ur-Rahman Mosque that surrounds thePool of Sacred Fishin Urfa, theCitadel of Cairoand most parts of theCitadel of Aleppo.Another important piece of Kurdish architectural heritage from the late 12th/early 13th centuries is the Yezidi pilgrimage siteLalish, with its trademark conical roofs.
In later periods too, Kurdish rulers and their corresponding dynasties and emirates would leave their mark upon the land in the form mosques, castles and bridges, some of which have decayed, or have been (partly) destroyed in an attempt to erase the Kurdish cultural heritage, such as the White Castle of the Bohtan Emirate. Well-known examples areHosap Castleof the 17th century,Sherwana Castleof the early 18th century, and the Ellwen Bridge of Khanaqin of the 19th century.
Most famous is theIshak Pasha Palaceof Dogubeyazit, a structure with heavy influences from both Anatolian and Iranian architectural traditions. Construction of the Palace began in 1685, led by Colak Abdi Pasha, a Kurdish bey of the Ottoman Empire, but the building would not be completed until 1784, by his grandson, Ishak Pasha.Containing almost 100 rooms, including a mosque, dining rooms, dungeons and being heavily decorated by hewn-out ornaments, this Palace has the reputation as being one of the finest pieces of architecture of the Ottoman Period, and of Anatolia.
In recent years, the KRG has been responsible for the renovation of several historical structures, such as Erbil Citadel and the Mudhafaria Minaret.
A 2005 study genetically examined three different groups ofZazaandKurmanji speakers in TurkeyandKurmanji speakers in Georgia. In the study,mtDNAHV1 sequences, elevenY chromosomebi-allelic markers and 9Y-STRloci were analyzed to investigate lineage relationship among Kurdish groups. When both mtDNA and Y chromosome data are compared with those of theEuropean,Caucasian,West AsianandCentral Asian groups, it has been determined that the Kurdish groups are most closely related to West Asians and the furthest to Central Asians. Among the European and Caucasian groups, Kurds were found to be closer to Europeans than Caucasians when considering mtDNA, and the opposite was true for Y chromosome. This indicates a difference in maternal and paternal origins of Kurdish groups. According to the study, Kurdish groups in Georgia went through agenetic bottleneckwhile migrating to the Caucasus. It has also been revealed that these groups were not influenced by other Caucasian groups in terms of ancestry. Another phenomenon found in the research was that Zazas are closer to Kurdish groups rather than peoples ofNorthern Iran, where ancestralZaza languagehypothesized to be spoken before its spread toAnatolia.
11 different Y-DNA haplogroups have been identified in Kurmanji-speaking Kurds in Turkey.Haplogroup I-M170was the most prevalent with 16.1% of the samples belonging to it, followed byhaplogroups J-M172(13.8%),R1a1(12.7%),K(12.7%),E(11.5%) andF(11.5%).P1(8%),P(5.7%),R1(4.6%),G(2.3%) andC(1.1%) haplogroups were also present in lower proportions. Y-DNA haplogroup diversity were determined to be much lower among Georgian Kurds, as five haplogroups were discovered in total, where the dominant haplogroups were P1 (44%) and J-M172 (32%). The lowest Y-DNA haplogroup diversity was observed inTurkmenistan Kurdswith only 4 haplogroups in total;F(41%) and R1 (29%) were dominant in this population.