Egyptian pyramids

TheEgyptian pyramidsare ancient masonry structures located inEgypt. Sources cite at least 118 identified "Egyptian"pyramids.Approximately80 pyramidswere built within theKingdom of Kush, now located in the modern country ofSudan. Of those located in modern Egypt, most were built as tombs for the country'spharaohsand their consorts during theOldandMiddle Kingdomperiods.
The earliest known Egyptian pyramids are found atSaqqara, northwest ofMemphis, although at least one step-pyramid-like structure has been found at Saqqara, dating to theFirst Dynasty: Mastaba 3808, which has been attributed to the reign of PharaohAnedjib, with inscriptions, and other archaeological remains of the period, suggesting there may have been others.The otherwise earliest among these is thePyramid of Djoserbuiltc.2630–2610BCEduring theThird Dynasty.This pyramid and its surrounding complex are generally considered to be the world's oldest monumental structures constructed ofdressed masonry.
The most famous Egyptian pyramids are those found atGiza, on the outskirts ofCairo. Several of theGiza pyramidsare counted among the largest structures ever built.ThePyramid of Khufuis the largest Egyptian pyramid and the last of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient Worldstill in existence, despite being the oldest by about 2,000 years.
The name for a pyramid in Egyptian ismyr, written with the symbol𓉴(O24in the Gardner Sign List).Myris preceded by three other signs used as phonetics. The meaning ofmyris unclear, as it only self-references the built object itself. By comparison, some similar architectural terms become compound words, such as the word for 'temple' (per-ka) becoming a compound of the words for 'house' and 'soul'. By graphical analysis,myruses the same sign, O24, asbenben. Thebenbenis the mound of existence that arose out of the abyss, known asnunin the Egyptian creation myth. The relationship betweenmyrandbenbenis further linked by the capstone architectural element of pyramids and obelisks, which was namedbenbenet, the feminine form ofbenben.
Preceded by assumed earlier sites in the EasternSahara,tumuliwith megalithic monuments developed as early as 4700 BCE in the Saharan region ofNiger.Fekri Hassan(2002) indicates that the megalithic monuments in the Saharan region of Niger and the Eastern Sahara may have served as antecedents for the mastabas and pyramids ofancient Egypt.DuringPredynastic Egypt, tumuli were present at various locations (e.g.,Naqada,Helwan).
From the time of theEarly Dynastic Period(c. 3150–2686 BCE), Egyptians with sufficient means were buried in bench-like structures known asmastabas.At Saqqara, Mastaba 3808, dating from the latter part of the 1st Dynasty, was discovered to contain a large, independently built step-pyramid-like structure enclosed within the outer palace facade mastaba. Archaeological remains and inscriptions suggest there may have been other similar structures dating to this period.
The first historically documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed by Egyptologists to the 3rd Dynasty pharaohDjoser. Although Egyptologists often credit his vizierImhotepas its architect, the dynastic Egyptians themselves, contemporaneously or in numerous later dynastic writings about the character, did not credit him with either designing Djoser's pyramid or the invention of stone architecture.ThePyramid of Djoserwas first built as a square mastaba-like structure, which as a rule were known to otherwise be rectangular, and was expanded several times by way of a series of accretion layers, to produce the stepped pyramid structure we see today.Egyptologists believe this design served as a gigantic stairway by which the soul of the deceased pharaoh could ascend to the heavens.
Though other pyramids were attempted in the 3rd Dynasty after Djoser, it was the4th Dynasty, transitioning from thestep pyramidto true pyramid shape, which gave rise to the great pyramids ofMeidum,Dahshur, and Giza. The last pharaoh of the 4th Dynasty,Shepseskaf, did not build a pyramid and beginning in the5th Dynasty; for various reasons, the massive scale and precision of construction decreased significantly leaving these later pyramids smaller, less well-built, and often hastily constructed. By the end of the6th Dynasty, pyramid building had largely ended and it was not until the Middle Kingdom that large pyramids were built again, though instead of stone,mudbrickwas the main construction material.
Long after the end of Egypt's own pyramid-building period, a burst of pyramid-building occurred in what is present-daySudan, after much of Egypt came under the rule of theKingdom of Kush, which was then based atNapata. Napatan rule, known as the25th Dynasty, lasted from 750 BCE to 664 BCE. The Meroitic period of Kushite history, when the kingdom was centered onMeroë, (approximately in the period between 300 BCE and 300 CE), experienced a full-blownpyramid-building revival, which saw about 180 Egyptian-inspired indigenous royal pyramid-tombs constructed in the vicinity of the kingdom's capital cities.
Al-Aziz Uthman(1171–1198), the second Ayyubid Sultan of Egypt, tried to destroy the Giza pyramid complex. He gave up after only damaging thePyramid of Menkaurebecause the task proved too large.
The shape of Egyptian pyramids is thought to represent theprimordial moundfrom which the Egyptians believed the earth was created. The shape of a pyramid is also thought to be representative of the descending rays of the sun, and most pyramids were faced with polished, highly reflective white limestone, in order to give them a brilliant appearance when viewed from a distance. Pyramids were often also named in ways that referred to solar luminescence. For example, the formal name of theBent PyramidatDahshurwasThe Southern Shining Pyramid, andthat of Senusret IIatEl LahunwasSenusret Shines.
While it is generally agreed that pyramids were burial monuments, there is continued disagreement on the particular theological principles that might have given rise to them. One suggestion is that they were designed as a type of "resurrection machine."
The Egyptians believed thedark areaof thenight skyaround which the starsappear to revolvewas the physical gateway into the heavens. One of the narrow shafts that extend from the main burial chamber through the entire body of the Great Pyramid points directly towardsthe centerof this part of the sky. This suggests the pyramid may have been designed to serve as a means to magically launch the deceased pharaoh's soul directly into the abode of the gods.
All Egyptian pyramids were built on the west bank of the Nile, which, as the site of thesetting sun, was associated with the realm of the dead inEgyptian mythology.
In 1842,Karl Richard Lepsiusproduced the first modern list of pyramids—now known as theLepsius list of pyramids—in which he counted 67. A great many more have since been discovered. At least 118 Egyptian pyramids have been identified.The location ofPyramid 29which Lepsius called the "Headless Pyramid", was lost for a second time when the structure was buried by desert sands after Lepsius's survey. It was found again only during an archaeological dig conducted in 2008.
Many pyramids are in a poor state of preservation or buried by desert sands. If visible at all, they may appear as little more than mounds of rubble. As a consequence, archaeologists are continuing to identify and study previously unknown pyramid structures.
The most recent pyramid to be discovered was that of Neith, a wife ofTeti.
All of Egypt's pyramids, except the small Third Dynasty pyramid atZawyet el-Maiyitin, are sited on the west bank of theNile, and most are grouped together in a number of pyramid fields. The most important of these are listed geographically, from north to south, below.
Abu Rawash is the site of Egypt's most northerly pyramid (other than the ruins of Lepsius pyramid number one),the mostly ruinedPyramid of Djedefre, son and successor ofKhufu. Originally it was thought that this pyramid had never been completed, but the current archaeological consensus is that not only was it completed, but that it was originally about the same size as thePyramid of Menkaure, which would have placed it among the half-dozen or so largest pyramids in Egypt.
Its location adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy source of stone. Quarrying, which began in Roman times, has left little apart from about fifteen courses of stone superimposed upon the natural hillock that formed part of the pyramid's core. A small adjacent satellite pyramid is in a better state of preservation.
TheGiza Plateauis the location of thePyramid of Khufu(also known as the "Great Pyramid" and the "Pyramid of Cheops"), the somewhat smallerPyramid of Khafre(or Chephren), the relatively modest-sizedPyramid of Menkaure(or Mykerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite edifices known as "Queen's pyramids", and theGreat Sphinx of Giza. Of the three, only Khafre's pyramid retains part of its original polished limestone casing, near its apex. This pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction—it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume.
The Giza pyramid complex has been a popular tourist destination since antiquity and was popularized in Hellenistic times when the Great Pyramid was listed byAntipater of Sidonas one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World. Today it is the only one of those wonders still in existence.
This site, halfway between Giza andAbusir, is the location for two unfinished Old Kingdom pyramids. The northern structure's owner is believed to be pharaohNebka, while the southern structure, known as theLayer Pyramid, may be attributable to the Third Dynasty pharaohKhaba, a close successor ofSekhemkhet. If this attribution is correct, Khaba's short reign could explain the seemingly unfinished state of this step pyramid. Today it stands around 17 m (56 ft) high; had it been completed, it is likely to have exceeded 40 m (130 ft).
There are a total of fourteen pyramids at this site, which served as the main royal necropolis during theFifth Dynasty. The quality of construction of the Abusir pyramids is inferior to those of the Fourth Dynasty—perhaps signaling a decrease in royal power or a less vibrant economy. They are smaller than their predecessors and are built of low-quality local limestone.
The three major pyramids are those ofNiuserre, which is also the best-preserved,Neferirkare KakaiandSahure. The site is also home to the incompletePyramid of Neferefre. Most of the major pyramids at Abusir were built using similar construction techniques, comprising a rubble core surrounded by steps ofmudbrickswith a limestone outer casing. The largest of these Fifth Dynasty pyramids, the Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai, is believed to have been built originally as a step pyramid some 70 m (230 ft) high and then later transformed into a "true" pyramid by having its steps filled in with loose masonry.
Major pyramids located here include thePyramid of Djoser—generally identified as the world's oldest substantial monumental structure to be built of dressed stone—thePyramid of Userkaf, thePyramid of Tetiand thePyramid of Merikare, dating to theFirst Intermediate Period of Egypt. Also at Saqqara is thePyramid of Unas, which retains a pyramid causeway that is one of the best-preserved in Egypt. Together with the pyramid of Userkaf, this pyramid was the subject of one of the earliest known restoration attempts, conducted byKhaemweset, a son ofRamesses II.Saqqara is also the location of the incomplete step pyramid of Djoser's successorSekhemkhet, known as theBuried Pyramid. Archaeologists believe that had this pyramid been completed, it would have been larger than Djoser's.
South of the main pyramid field at Saqqara is a second collection of later, smaller pyramids, including those ofPepi I,Djedkare Isesi,Merenre,Pepi IIandIbi. Most of these are in a poor state of preservation.
TheFourth DynastypharaohShepseskafeither did not share an interest in or have the capacity to undertake pyramid construction like his predecessors. His tomb, which is also sited at south Saqqara, was instead built as an unusually large mastaba and offering temple complex. It is commonly known as theMastabat al-Fir’aun.
A previously unknown pyramid was discovered in north Saqqara in late 2008. Believed to be the tomb of Teti's mother, it currently stands approximately 5 m (16 ft) high, although the original height was closer to 14 m (46 ft).
This area is arguably the most important pyramid field in Egypt outside Giza and Saqqara, although until 1996 the site was inaccessible due to its location within a military base and was relatively unknown outside archaeological circles.
The southern Pyramid ofSneferu, commonly known as theBent Pyramid, is believed to be the first Egyptian pyramid intended by its builders to be a "true" smooth-sided pyramid from the outset; the earlierpyramid at Meidumhad smooth sides in its finished state, but it was conceived and built as a step pyramid, before having its steps filled in and concealed beneath a smooth outer casing of dressed stone. As a true smooth-sided structure, the Bent Pyramid was only a partial success—albeit a unique, visually imposing one; it is also the only major Egyptian pyramid to retain a significant proportion of its original smooth outer limestone casing intact. As such it serves as the best contemporary example of how the ancient Egyptians intended their pyramids to look. Several kilometres to the north of the Bent Pyramid is the last—and most successful—of the three pyramids constructed during the reign of Sneferu; theRed Pyramidis the world's first successfully completed smooth-sided pyramid. The structure is also the third-largest pyramid in Egypt, after the pyramids of Khufu and Khafra at Giza.
Also at Dahshur is one of two pyramids built byAmenemhat III, known as theBlack Pyramid, as well as a number of small, mostly ruined subsidiary pyramids.
Located to the south of Dahshur, severalmudbrickpyramids were built in this area in the lateMiddle Kingdom, perhaps forAmenemhat IVandSobekneferu.
Two major pyramids are known to have been built at Lisht: those ofAmenemhat Iand his son,Senusret I. The latter is surrounded by the ruins of ten smaller subsidiary pyramids. One of these subsidiary pyramids is known to be that of Amenemhat's cousin, Khaba II.The site which is in the vicinity of the oasis of theFaiyum, midway between Dahshur and Meidum, and about 100 kilometres south of Cairo, is believed to be in the vicinity of the ancient city ofItjtawy(the precise location of which remains unknown), which served as the capital of Egypt during theTwelfth Dynasty.
The pyramid atMeidumis one of three constructed during the reign ofSneferu, and is believed by some to have been started by that pharaoh's father and predecessor,Huni. However, that attribution is uncertain, as no record of Huni's name has been found at the site. It was constructed as astep pyramidand then later converted into the first "true" smooth-sided pyramid, when the steps were filled in and an outer casing added. The pyramid suffered several catastrophic collapses in ancient and medieval times. Medieval Arab writers described it as having seven steps, although today only the three uppermost of these remain, giving the structure its odd, tower-like appearance. The hill on which the pyramid is situated is not a natural landscape feature, it is the small mountain of debris created when the lower courses and outer casing of the pyramid gave way.
Amenemhat IIIwas the last powerful ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty, and the pyramid he built at Hawara, near the Faiyum, is believed to post-date the so-called "Black Pyramid" built by the same ruler at Dahshur. It is the Hawara pyramid that is believed to have been Amenemhet's final resting place.
ThePyramid of Senusret IIatEl Lahunis the southernmost royal-tomb pyramid structure in Egypt. Its builders reduced the amount of work necessary to construct it by using as its foundation and core a 12-meter-high natural limestone hill.
Piye, the king of Kush who became the first ruler of theTwenty-fifth Dynasty, built a pyramid at El-Kurru. He was the first Egyptian pharaoh to be buried in a pyramid in centuries.
Taharqa, a Kushite ruler of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, built his pyramid at Nuri. It was the largest in the area (North Sudan).
The following table lays out the chronology of the construction of most of the major pyramids mentioned here. Each pyramid is identified through the pharaoh who ordered it built, his approximate reign, and its location.
Constructing the pyramids involved moving huge quantities of stone. While most blocks came from nearby quarries, special stones were transported on great barges from distant locations, for instance white limestone fromTuraand granite fromAswan.
In 2013, papyri, namedDiary of Merer, were discovered at an ancient Egyptian harbor at the Red Sea coast. They are logbooks written over 4,500 years ago by an official with the titleinspector, who documented the transport of white limestone from the Tura quarries, along the Nile River, to the Great Pyramid of Giza, the tomb of the Pharaoh Khufu.
It is possible that quarried blocks were then transported to the construction site by wooden sleds, with sand in front of the sled wetted to reducefriction. Droplets of water created bridges between the grains of sand, helping them stick together.Workers cut the stones close to the construction site, as indicated by the numerous finds of cutting tools. The finished blocks were placed on the pre-prepared foundations.The foundations were levelled using a rough square level, water trenches and experienced surveyors.
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