Byzantine Empire

TheByzantine Empire, also known as theEastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of theRoman Empirecentred onConstantinopleduringlate antiquityand theMiddle Ages. Having survived the conditions that led to thefall of the Western Roman Empirein the 5th centuryAD, it endured until thefall of Constantinopleto theOttoman Empirein 1453. Throughout much of its history, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in theMediterranean world. The term 'Byzantine Empire' was coined only after its demise; its citizens called the polity the 'Roman Empire' and themselves 'Romans'.
During the early centuries of the Roman Empire, the western provinces wereLatinised, but the eastern parts kept theirHellenistic culture.Constantine I(r.324–337) legalisedChristianityand moved the capital to Constantinople.Theodosius I(r. 379–395) made Christianity thestate religionand Greek gradually replaced Latin for official use. The empire adopted a defensive strategy and, throughout its remaining history, experienced recurring cycles of decline and recovery.
It reached its greatest extent during the reign ofJustinian I(r. 527–565), who briefly reconquered much of Italy and the westernMediterranean coast. Theplague emerged, and adevastating war with Persiadrained the empire's resources. TheArab conquestsled to the loss of the empire's richest provinces—EgyptandSyria—to theRashidun Caliphate. In 698, Africawas lostto theUmayyad Caliphate, but the empire stabilised under theIsaurian dynasty. It expanded once more under theMacedonian dynasty, experiencinga two-century-long renaissance. Thereafter, periods of civil war and Seljuk incursion resulted in the loss of most ofAsia Minor. The empire recovered during theKomnenian restoration, and Constantinople remained the largest and wealthiest city in Europe until the 13th century.
The empire was largely dismantled in 1204, following thesack of Constantinopleduring theFourth Crusade; its former territorieswere then dividedinto competing Greekrump statesandLatin realms. Despite the eventualrecovery of Constantinoplein 1261, the reconstituted empire wielded only regional power during its final two centuries. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans ina series of warsfought in the 14th and 15th centuries. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 brought the empire to an end, but its history and legacy remain topics of debate to this day.
The inhabitants of the empire, now generally termedByzantines, thought of themselves asRomans(Romaioi). Their Islamic neighbours similarly called their empire the "land of the Romans" (Bilād al-Rūm), while the people of medieval Western Europe preferred to call them "Greeks" (Graeci), as they regarded themselves as being the true inheritors of Roman identity.The adjective "Byzantine", derived fromByzantion(Byzantiumin Latin), the name of the Greek settlementConstantinoplewas established on, was only used to describe the inhabitants of the city; it did not refer to the empire, calledRomanía("Romanland") by its citizens.
Following the empire's fall,early modernscholars referred to it by many names, including the "Empire of Constantinople", the "Empire of the Greeks", the "Eastern Empire", the "Late Empire", the "Low Empire", and the "Roman Empire".The increasing use of "Byzantine" and "Byzantine Empire" started with the 15th-century historianLaonikos Chalkokondyles, whose works were widely propagated byHieronymus Wolf. "Byzantine" was used adjectivally alongside terms such as "Empire of the Greeks" until the 19th century.It is now the primary term, used to refer to all aspects of the empire; some modern historians believe it should not be used because it was originally a prejudicial and inaccurate term.
Given the significant overlap in historiographicalperiodisationsof "Roman history", "late antiquity", and "Byzantine history", there is no consensus on a "foundation date" for the Byzantine Empire, or even if one existed. The growth of the study of "late antiquity" has led to some historians setting a start date in the seventh or eighth centuries.Others believe a "new empire" began during changes inc.300AD.Some others likeJonathan Shepardconsider these starting points to be too early or too late, and argue that the empire beganc.500.Geoffrey Greatrex believes that it is impossible to precisely date the foundation of the Byzantine Empire.
Between the 3rd and 1st centuriesBC, theRoman Republicestablishedhegemonyover theeastern Mediterranean, whileits governmentdeveloped into the one-person rule ofan emperor. TheRoman Empireenjoyed a period ofrelative stabilityuntilthe 3rd century AD, when external threats and internal instabilities caused it to splinter, as regional armies acclaimed their generals as "soldier-emperors".One of these,Diocletian(r.284–305), recognised that the state was too big to be ruled by a single person and attempted to address this by instituting aTetrarchy, a rule of four, dividing the empire into eastern and western halves. Although the Tetrarchy system quickly failed, the division of the empire proved an enduring concept.
Diocletian's reforms significantly altered governmental structure, reach and taxation, and these reforms had the effect of downgrading the first capital,Rome.Constantine I(r. 306–337) consolidated complete power in 324. Over the next six years, he rebuilt the city of Byzantium as a newcapital, renaming it Constantinople. Rome was further from the important eastern provinces and in a less strategically important location; it was not esteemed by the "soldier-emperors" who ruled from the frontiers or by the empire's population who,having been granted citizenship, considered themselves to be Roman.Constantine extensively reformed the empire's military and civil administration and instituted thegold solidusas a stable currency.He favouredChristianity, whichhe had converted toin 312.
Constantine's dynasty foughta lengthy conflictagainstSasanid Persiaand ended in 363 with the death of his son-in-lawJulian.The reign of the shortValentinianic dynasty, marked bywars against barbarians, religious debates, and anti-corruption campaigns, ended in the East with the death ofValensat theBattle of Adrianoplein 378.
Valens's successor,Theodosius I(r. 379–395), restored political stability in the east by allowing theGothsto settle in Roman territory;he also twice intervened in the western half, defeating the usurpersMagnus MaximusandEugeniusin 388 and 394 respectively.Heactively condemned paganism, confirmed the primacy ofNicene ChristianityoverArianism, and establishedChristianity as the Roman state religion.He was the last emperor to rule both the western and eastern halves of the empire;after his death, the West was destabilised by a succession of "soldier-emperors", unlike the East, where administrators continued to hold power.Theodosius II(r. 408–450) largely left the rule of the East to officials such asAnthemius, who constructed theTheodosian Wallsto defend Constantinople, now firmly entrenched as Rome's capital.
Theodosius' reign was marked by the theological dispute overNestorianism(a doctrine eventually deemedheretical), and by the formulation of theCodex Theodosianuslegal code.It also saw the arrival ofAttila'sHuns, who ravaged theBalkansand exacted a largetributefrom the empire; Attila switched his attention to therapidly-deteriorating western empire, and his people fractured after his death in 453.AfterLeo I(r. 457–474) failed in his468 attempt to reconquerthe West, the warlordOdoacerdeposedRomulus Augustulusin 476, killed his titular successorJulius Neposin 480, and the office of western emperor was abolished.
Through a combination of fortune, cultural factors, and political decisions, the Eastern Empire never experienced rebellious barbarian vassals or rule by barbarian warlords—the problems which ensured the downfall of the West.Zeno(r. 474–491) convinced the problematicOstrogothkingTheodoricto take control of Italy from Odoacer; dying when the empire was at peace, he was succeeded byAnastasius I(r. 491–518).His belief inmonophysitismbrought occasional issues, but Anastasius was a capable administrator and instituted successful financial reforms including the abolition of thechrysargyron tax. He was the first emperor since Diocletian who did not face any serious problems affecting the empire during his reign.
The reign ofJustinian Iwas a watershed in Byzantine history.Following his accession in 527, the legal code was rewritten as theCorpus Juris Civilisand Justinian produced extensive legislation on provincial administration;he reasserted imperial control over religion and morality through purges of non-Christians and "deviants";and having ruthlessly subduedthe 532 Nika revolthe rebuilt much of Constantinople, including the originalHagia Sophia.Justinian I took advantage of political instability in Italy to attempt the reconquest of lost western territories. TheVandal Kingdomin North Africawas subjugated in 534by the generalBelisarius, whothen invaded Italy; theOstrogothic Kingdomwas destroyed in 554.
In the 540s, Justinian began to suffer reversals on multiple fronts. Capitalising on Constantinople's preoccupation with the West,Khosrow Iof the Sasanian Empire invaded Byzantine territory and sackedAntiochin 540.The emperor's internal reforms and policies began to falter, anda devastating plaguekilled a large proportion of the population and severely reduced the empire's social and financial stability.The most difficult period of the Ostrogothic war, against their kingTotila, came during this decade, while divisions among Justinian's advisors undercut the administration's response.He also did not fully heal the divisions inChalcedonian Christianity, as theSecond Council of Constantinoplefailed to make a real difference.Justinian died in 565; his reign was more successful than any other Byzantine emperor, yet he left his empire under serious strain.
Financially and territorially overextended,Justin II(r.565–578) was soon at war on many fronts. Fearing the aggressiveAvars, theLombardsconquered much of northern Italy by 572.TheSasanian wars restartedin the same year, and continued until the emperorMauriceemerged victorious in 591; by this time, the Avars andSlavs had repeatedly invaded the Balkans, causing great instability.Mauricecampaigned extensively in the regionduring the 590s, and although he re-established Byzantine control up to theDanube, he pushed his troops too far in 602—they mutinied, proclaimed an officer namedPhocasas emperor, and executed Maurice.The Sasanians seized their moment andreopened hostilities; Phocas was unable to cope and soon faceda major rebellionled byHeraclius. Phocas lost Constantinople in 610 and was executed; this destructive civil war accelerated the empire's decline.
UnderKhosrow II, the Sassanids occupied theLevantand Egypt and advanced into Asia Minor, while Byzantine control of Italy weakened, and the Avars and Slavs raided in the Balkans.Although Heraclius repelleda siege of Constantinoplein 626 anddefeated the Sassanidsin 627, this was apyrrhic victory.TheArab conquestssoon saw theconquest of the Levant,Egypt, andthe Sassanid Empireby the newly-formed ArabicRashidun Caliphate.By Heraclius' death in 641, the empire had been severely reduced economically and territorially—the loss of the wealthy eastern provinces had deprived Constantinople of three-quarters of its revenue.
The next seventy-five years are poorly documented.Arab raids into Asia Minorbegan almost immediately, and the Byzantines responded by holding fortified centres and avoiding battle wherever possible; although Anatolia was invaded annually, it avoided permanent Arab occupation.The outbreak of theFirst Fitnain 656 gave Byzantium breathing space, which it used wisely: some order was restored in the Balkans byConstans II(r. 641–668),and the administrative reorganisation implemented by him known as the "theme system", which allocated troops to defend specific provinces.Constantine IV(r. 668–685) repelled the Arab efforts tocapture Constantinople in the 670susingGreek fire,but suffereda reversalagainst theBulgars, who soon establishedan empire in the northern Balkans.Nevertheless, he and Constans had done enough to secure the empire's position, especially as theUmayyad Caliphatewas undergoinganother civil war.
Justinian IIsought to build on the stability established by his father Constantine, but was overthrown in 695 after attempting to exact too much from his subjects; over the next twenty-two years, there were six more rebellions duringan era of political instability.The reconstituted caliphate sought to break Byzantium by taking Constantinople, but the newly crownedLeo IIIrepelled the 717–718 siege, the first major setback of the Muslim conquests.
Leo and his sonConstantine V(r.741–775), two of the most capable Byzantine emperors, withstood continued Arab attacks, civil unrest, and natural disasters, and reestablished the state as a major regional power.Leo's reign produced theEcloga, a new code of law to succeed that of Justinian I.He also continued to reform the theme system in order to lead offensive campaigns against the Muslims, culminating ina decisive victory in 740.Constantine overcame an early civil war against his brother-in-lawArtabasdos, made peace with the newAbbasid Caliphate,campaigned successfullyagainst the Bulgars, and continued to make administrative and military reforms.Due to both emperors' support for theByzantine Iconoclasm, where the use ofreligious iconswas banned, they were later vilified by Byzantine historians;Constantine's reign also saw the loss ofRavennato theLombards, and the beginning of a split from theRoman papacy.
In 780, EmpressIreneassumed power as regent for her sonConstantine VI.Although she was a capable administrator who temporarily resolved the iconoclasm controversy,the empire was destabilised by her conflict with her son. The Bulgars and Abbasids inflicted numerous defeats on the Byzantine armies, and the papacy crownedCharlemagneas Roman emperor in 800.In 802, the unpopular Irene was overthrown byNikephoros I; he reformed the empire's administration but diedin battle against the Bulgarsin 811.Military defeats and societal disorder, especially the resurgence of iconoclasm, characterised the next eighteen years.
Stability was somewhat restored during the reign ofTheophilos(r. 829–842). He capitalised on economic growth to complete construction programmes, including rebuilding thesea walls of Constantinople, overhaul provincial governance, and wage inconclusive campaigns against the Abbasids.After his death, his empressTheodora, ruling on behalf of her sonMichael III, permanently extinguished the iconoclastic movement;the empire prospered under their sometimes-fraught rule. Michael was posthumously vilified by historians loyal to the dynasty of his successorBasil I, who had him assassinated in 867 and was credited with his predecessor's achievements.
Basil I (r.867–886) continued Michael's policies.His armies campaigned with mixed results in Italy butdefeatedthePaulicians of Tephrike.His successorLeo VI(r. 886–912)compiled and propagated a huge number of written works. These included theBasilika, a Greek translation of Justinian I's legal code incorporating over 100 new laws created by Leo; theTactica, a military treatise; and theBook of the Eparch, a manual on Constantinople's trading regulations.In non-literary contexts Leo was less successful: the empirelost in Sicilyandagainst the Bulgarians,and he provoked theological scandal by marrying four times in an attempt to father a legitimate heir.
The early reign of this heir,Constantine VII, was tumultuous, as his motherZoe, his uncleAlexander, the patriarchNicholas, the powerfulSimeon I of Bulgaria, and other influential figures jockeyed for power.In 920, the admiralRomanos Iused his fleet to secure power, crowning himself and demoting Constantine to the position of junior co-emperor.His reign, marked bythe end of the war against Bulgariaand successes in the east under the generalJohn Kourkouas, ended in 944 due to the machinations of his sons, whom Constantine then usurped.Constantine's ineffectual sole rule has often been construed asthe zenith of Byzantine learning, but the works compiled were largely intended to legitimise and glorify the emperor'sMacedonian dynasty.His son and successordied young; under two soldier-emperors,Nikephoros II(r. 963–969) andJohn I Tzimiskes(r. 969–976), the army claimed numerous military successes, including theconquest of CiliciaandAntioch, and asensational victory against Bulgaria and the Kievan Rus'in 971. John in particular was an astute administrator who reformed military structures and implemented effective fiscal policies.
After John's death, Constantine VII's grandsonsBasil IIandConstantine VIIIruled jointly for half a century, although the latter exercised no real power.Their early reign was occupied by conflicts against two prominent generals,Bardas SklerosandBardas Phokas, which ended in 989 after the former's death and the latter's submission, and a power struggle against the eunuchBasileios, who was dismissed in 985.Basil, who never married or had children, subsequently refused to delegate any authority: he sidelined the military establishment by taking personal command of the army and promoting officers loyal to him.His reign witnessedthe decades-long campaign against Bulgaria, which ended in total Byzantine victory at theBattle of Kleidionin 1018.Diplomatic efforts, critical for this success,also contributed to theannexation of several Georgian provincesin the 1020s and coexistence with the newFatimid Caliphate.When he died in 1025, Basil's empire stretched from the Danube and Sicily in the west to theEuphratesin the east; his swift expansion was unaccompanied by administrative reforms.
After Constantine VIII's death in 1028, his daughters, the empressesZoe(r. 1028–1052) andTheodora(r. 1042–1056), held the keys to power: four emperors (Romanos III,Michael IV,Michael V, andConstantine IX) ruled only because of their connection to Zoe, whileMichael VI(r. 1056–1057) was selected by Theodora.This political instability, regular budget deficits, a series of expensive military failures, and other problems connected to over-extension led to substantial issues in the empire;its strategic focus moved from maintaining its hegemony to prioritising defence.
The empire soon came under sustained assault on three fronts, from theSeljuk Turks in the east, thePecheneg nomadsin the north, and theNormans in the west. The Byzantine army struggled to confront these enemies, who did not organise themselves as traditional states, and were thus untroubled by defeats in set-piece battles.In 1071Bari, the last remaining Byzantine settlement in Italy, wascaptured by the Normans, while the Seljuks won a decisive victory at theBattle of Manzikert, taking the emperorRomanos IV Diogenesprisoner.The latter event sparked a decade-long civil war, and as a result the Seljuks took possession of Anatolia up to theSea of Marmara.
One prominent general,Alexios I, usurped the throne in 1081. In contrast to the prior turmoil, the three reigns of Alexios (r.1081–1118), his sonJohn II(r. 1118–1143), and his grandsonManuel I(r. 1143–1180) lasted a century andrestored the empire's regional authorityfor the final time.Alexios immediately faced the Normans underRobert Guiscardandrepelled them through warfare and diplomacy.He then targeted the Pechenegs anddecisively defeated them in 1091with help from theCumans, who were in turn defeated three years later.Finally, looking to recover Asia Minor from the Seljuks, he approachedPope Urban IIfor helpc.1095. He did not anticipate the scale of western Christendom's response—theFirst Crusadeled to the recapture of western Anatolia, although Alexios and its leaders soon fell out.The rest of his reign was spentdealing with the Normansand Seljuks, establishing a new, loyal aristocracy to ensure stability, and carrying out fiscal and ecclesiastical reforms.
Alexios' concentration of power in the hands of hisKomnenos dynastymeant the most serious political threats came from within the imperial family—before his coronation, John II had to overcomehis mother Ireneandhis sister Anna, and the primary threat during his reign washis brother Isaac.John campaigned annually and extensively—he fought the Pechenegs in 1122, theHungarians in the late 1120s, and the Seljuks throughout his reign, waginglarge campaigns in Syriain his final years—but he did not achieve large territorial gains.In 1138, John raised the imperial standard over the CrusaderPrincipality of Antiochto intimidate the city into allying with the Byzantines, but did not attack, fearing that it would provoke western Christendom to respond.
Manuel I used his father's overflowing imperial treasury in pursuit of his ambitions, and also to secure the empire's position in an increasingly multilateral geopolitical landscape.Through a combination ofdiplomacy and bribery, he cultivated a ring of allies and clients around the empire: the Turks of theSultanate of Rum, theKingdom of Hungary, theCilician Armenians, Balkan princes, Italian and Dalmatian cities, and most importantly Antioch and theCrusader States, marryingone of their princessesin 1161.Manuel averted the threat of war during the tumultuous passage of theSecond Crusadethrough Byzantine territories in 1147, but the campaign's failure was blamed on the Byzantines by western contemporaries.He was less successful militarily: an invasion ofSicilywas decisively defeated byKing William Iin 1156, leading to tensions withFrederick Barbarossa, the Holy Roman Emperor;two decades later, an invasion of Anatolia was resoundingly defeated at theBattle of Myriokephalon.
Manuel's death left the empire rudderless and it soon came under intense pressure.His sonAlexios IIwas too young to rule, and his troubled regency was overthrown by his uncleAndronikos I Komnenos: he was replaced byIsaac IIin 1185.Centrifugal forces swirled at the borders as ambitious rulers seized their chance: Hungary and the Turks captured Byzantine territories,an exiled Komnenian princeseized Cyprus; and most injuriously,a revolt in 1185caused the foundation of aresurrected Bulgarian state.Relations with the West deteriorated further after Constantinople allied withSaladin, the vanquisher of theThird Crusade, whose leaders also fought against Byzantium as they passed through its territory.In 1195, Isaac II was deposed by his brotherAlexios III; this quarrel proved fatal.
TheFourth Crusadewas originally intended to targetEgypt, but amid strategic difficulties, Isaac II's sonAlexios Angelosconvinced the crusaders to restore his father to the throne in exchange for a huge tribute.Theyattacked Constantinople in 1203, reinstating Isaac II and his son to the throne. The new rulers swiftly grew unpopular and were deposed byAlexios V, an event used by the crusaders as a pretext tosack the city in April 1204, ransacking the wealth it had accumulated over nine centuries.
Byzantine territories fragmented into competing political entities. The crusaders crownedBaldwin Ias the ruler of a newLatin Empirein Constantinople; it soon suffereda crushing defeatagainst the Bulgarians in 1205. It also failed to expand west or east, where three Greek successor states had formed: theEmpire of Nicaeaand theEmpire of Trebizondin Asia Minor, and theDespotate of Epiruson the Adriatic. The Venetians acquired many ports and islands, and thePrincipality of Achaeaemerged in southern Greece.Trebizondlostthe key port ofSinopein 1214 and thereafter was unable to affect matters away from the southeastern Black Sea.For a time, it seemed that Epirus was the one most likely to reclaim Constantinople from the Latins, and its rulerTheodore Doukascrowned himself emperor, but he suffered a critical defeat at theBattle of Klokotnitsain 1230, and Epirote power waned.
Nicaea, ruled by theLaskarid dynastyand composed of a mixture of Byzantine refugees and native Greeks, blocked the Latins and the Seljuks of Rum from expanding east and west respectively.John III(r.1221–1254) was a very capable emperor.Hisprotectionisteconomic policies strongly encouraged Nicaeanself-sufficiency,and he made many diplomatic treaties, especially afterMongolarmiesravaged Bulgariaanddefeated Rumbetween 1237 and 1243. This chaos was an opportunity for John, and he fought many successful campaigns against the states disrupted by theMongol invasions.Soon after his death,his grandsonwas usurped byMichael VIII, founder of thePalaiologos dynasty, whorecaptured Constantinoplein 1261.
Michael desired to restore the empire's glory through a rebuilding programme in Constantinople, clever diplomatic alliances, and expansionist wars in Europe.He staved off the threateningCharles I of Anjoufirst by recognising papal primacy and certain Catholic doctrines at the 1274Second Council of Lyon, and then by aiding theSicilian Vespersagainst Charles in 1282.However, his religious concessions were despised by most of the populace, and were repudiated by his successorAndronikos II(r.1282–1328).He and his grandsonAndronikos III(r.1328–1341) led several campaigns to restore imperial influence, succeeding in Epirus and Thessaly. They also made several critical mistakes, including dismissing the fleet in 1285, hiring the mercenaryCatalan Company, who turned on the Byzantines, in the 1300s, and fighting each other between 1320 and 1328.A disastrous civil war between 1341 and 1354 caused long-term economic difficulties, while theOttoman Turksgradually expanded.
The diminished and weak Byzantine state only survived for another century through effective diplomacy and fortunately-timed external events.The Ottomans gradually subjugated Anatolia and simultaneously expanded into Europe from 1354, takingPhilippopolisin 1363,Adrianopolisin 1369, andThessalonicain 1387.Emperors were crowned and deposed at the whim of the Venetians, Genoese, and Ottomans.AfterManuel II(r.1391–1425) refused to pay homage to SultanBayezid Iin 1394,Constantinople was besiegeduntil the rampaging warlordTimurdecisivelydefeated Bayezidin 1402, with the city perilously close to surrender.
Manuel II oversaw two decades of peace while theOttomans convulsed in civil war.In 1421, his unsuccessful backing of the claimantMustafa Çelebiled to arenewed Turkish assault.AlthoughJohn VIII(r.1425–1448) reconciled with the Catholic West at theCouncil of Florence, his empire steadily diminished.In 1452, SultanMehmed IIresolved to capture Constantinople, and laid siege early the following year. On 29 May 1453,the city was captured, the last emperor,Constantine XI, died in battle, and the Byzantine Empire ended.
Thepatriarchinaugurated emperors from 457 onwards, while the crowds of Constantinople proclaimed their support, thus legitimising their rule.Thesenateoriginally had its own identity but was really just a ceremonial body within the imperial court.The reign of Phocas (r.602–610) was the first military coup after the 3rd century, and he was one of 43 emperors violently removed from power.From Heraclius' accession in 610 till 1453, a total of nine dynasties ruled the empire. During this time, for only 30 of the 843 years were the reigning emperors unrelated by blood or kinship, largely due to the practice of co-emperorship.
Diocletian and Constantine's 4th-century reforms reorganised the empires'provincesinto over-archingDiocesesand then,Praetorian prefecture, separating the army from the civil administration.After the 7th century, the prefectures were abandoned and in the 9th century the provinces were divided into administrative units calledthemata, governed soley by a military commander (strategos).
During the early empire, cities had been a collection of self-governing communities with central government and church representatives, whereas the emperor focused on defense and foreign relations.The Arab destruction primarily changed this due to constant war and their regular raids, with a decline in city councils. Through his legal reforms, Leo VI (r. 886–912) centralised power, formally ending city councils' rights and the legislative authority of the senate.
Roman laworiginated with theTwelve Tablesand evolved primarily through the annualPraetorian Edictand the opinions of educated specialists known asJurists.Hadrian (r.117–138) made the Praetorian Edict permanent and established a rule where a legal point jurists unanimously agreed on became law.Over time, conflicting legal sources caused confusion about what the law should be.Efforts to address this included two private collections of imperial constitutions compiled during Diocletian's reign (284–305), theGregorianusand theHermogenianus(r. 284–305).
Theodosius II (r. 402–450) formalised Roman law by appointing five jurists as principal authorities and compiling legislation issued since Constantine’s reign into theCodex Theodosianus.This process culminated in theCorpus Juris Civilisunder Justinian I (r. 527–565), who commissioned a complete standardisation of imperial decrees since Hadrian's time and resolved conflicting legal opinions.The result became the definitive legal authority. This body of law coveredcivil mattersand alsopublic law, including imperial power and administrative organisation.After 534, Justinian issued theNovellae (New Laws)in Greek, which marked a transition from Roman to Byzantine law. Legal historian Bernard Stolte distinguishes Roman law as this because Western Europe inherited law through the Latin texts of theCorpus Juris Civilisonly.
Zachary Chitwood argues that theCorpus Juris Civiliswas largely inaccessible in Latin, particularly in the provinces.Following the 7th-century Arab conquests, people began questioning the development and application of law, leading to stronger ties between law and Christianity.This context influenced Leo III (r. 717–741) to develop theEcloga, which placed an emphasis on humanity.The Ecloga inspired practical legal texts like theFarmers' Law, Seamen's Law,andSoldiers' Law, which Chitwood suggests were used daily in the provinces as companions to theCorpus Juris Civilis.During the Macedonian dynasty, efforts to reform law began with the publication of theProcheironand theEisagoge, which aimed to define the emperor's power under prevailing laws, and to replace theEclogadue to its association withiconoclasm.Leo VI (r. 886–912) completed acomplete codificationof Roman law in Greek through theBasilika, a work of 60 books which became the foundation of Byzantine law.In 1345, Constantine Harmenopoulos compiled theHexabiblos, a six-volume law book derived from various Byzantine legal sources.
In the 5th century the East was fielding five armies of 20,000 each in two army branches: stationary frontier units (limitanei) and mobile forces (comitatenses).The historianAnthony Kaldellisargues that the fiscally stretched empire could only handle one major enemy at a time in the 6th century.The Arab conquests between 634 and 642 led to significant changes, transforming the 4th-7th centuries field forces into provincial militia-like units which had a core of professional soldiers.The state moved the burden of supporting the armies onto local populations and during Leo VI (r.886–912) wove them into the tax system, where provinces became military regions known asthemata.Despite many challenges, the historianWarren Treadgoldstates that the field forces of the East between 284 and 602 were the best in the western world, and the historian Anthony Kaldellis believes that they were the best in the empire's history during the conquest period of theMacedonian dynasty(r. 867–1056).
The military structure diversified to incorporate militia-like soldiers tied to regions, professional thematic forces (tourmai), and imperial units mostly based in Constantinople (tagmata).Foreign mercenaries were also increasingly used, including the better-knowntagmaregiment, theVarangians, who guarded the emperor.The defence-oriented thematic militias were gradually replaced by more specialised offensive field armies, which could also counter the generals who rebelled against the emperor.When the empire was expanding, the state began to commute thematic military service for cash payments: in the 10th century, there were 6,000 Varangians, another 3,000 foreign mercenaries and when including paid and unpaid citizen soldiers, the army on paper was 140,000 (an expeditionary force was 15,000 soldiers and field armies seldom were more than 40,000).
The thematic forces faded into insignificance—the government relied on thetagmata, mercenaries and allies instead—and this led to a neglect of defensive capability.Mercenary armies further fuelled political divisions and civil wars; these led to a collapse in the Empire's defence, and resulted in significant losses of territories such as Italy and the Anatolian heartland in the 11th century.Major military and fiscal reforms under the emperors of the Komnenian dynasty after 1081 re-established a modest-sized, adequately compensated and competent army.The costs were not sustainable and the structural weaknesses of the Komnenian approach—namely, the reliance on fiscal exemptions calledpronoia—unravelled after the end of the reign of Manuel I (r. 1143–1180).
The navy dominated the eastern Mediterranean and was also active on the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmara, and the Aegean.Imperial naval forces were restructured to challenge Arab naval dominance in the 7th century, and ceded their own dominance to theVenetiansandGenoansin the 11th century.The navy's patrols, as well as the chains of watchtowers and fire signals which warned inhabitants of threats, created the coastal defence for the empire. The patrolling was the responsibility of three themes:Cibirriote,Aegean Sea,Samosand an imperial fleet manned by mercenaries like the Norsemen and the Russians, who became the Varangians.
A new type of war galley, thedromon, appeared early in the 6th century.Thechelandia, which appeared during the reign ofJustinian II(r.685–711), could transport cavalry.These galleys were oar-drivenbiremeswithlateensails. They were designed for coastal navigation, and could operate for up to four days at a time.Starting from the 670s, they could be armed withGreek fire.Basil I(r. 867–886) developed professional marines to use against Muslim pirates.The dromon was the most advanced galley on the Mediterranean, until in the 10th century the galeai was developed.
The rulers of theEmpire of Nicaeawho retook the capital, and thePalaiologoswho ruled until 1453, built on the Komnenian foundation. They initially had four types of military units—the Thelematarii (volunteer soldiers),Gasmouloiand the Southern Peloponnese Tzacones/Lakones (marines), and Proselontes/Prosalentai (oarsmen). Like their predecessors, they could not bear the expenditure required for a standing army, instead relying largely on mercenaries and fiscal exemptions topronoiars, who provided a small force of mostly cavalry.The fleet was disbanded in 1284 and attempts were made to build it back later, but theGenoesesabotaged the effort.The historianJohn Haldonwrites that over time, the distinction between field troops and garrison units eventually disappeared as resources were strained.The frequent civil wars, now increasingly instigated by foreigners such as the Serbs and Turks to win concessions, further drained the empire. The emperors became dependent on mercenaries to keep control, at the same time dealing with the impact of theBlack Death.The strategy of employing mercenary Turks to fight civil wars was repeatedly used by emperors and always led to the same outcome: subordination to the Turks.
Diplomacy is often regarded as one of the empire's lasting contributions to European history, particularly in preserving civilisation in Eastern Europe.This reputation stems from its aggressive treaty negotiations, alliances with the enemies of its adversaries, and strategic partnerships.For instance, the Empire supported the Turks against the Persians during thePerso-Turkic War (627–629)and exploited tensions between theUmayyads in Spainand theAghlabids in Sicily.Diplomacy frequently involved long-term embassies, hosting foreign royals as political pawns, and deliberately displaying wealth and power to ensure such impressions spread widely.Other diplomatic strategies included political marriages, granting titles, bribery, persuasion, and intelligence gathering.TheBureau of Barbarians, established in the 4th century, is considered one of the earliest foreign intelligence agencies.
Diplomacy after the reign of Theodosius I (r.379–395) shifted significantly from the more conquest-focused policies of theRoman Republic, instead emphasizing peace as a strategic necessity.Even in the 6th century, when the empire had greater resources and fewer threats, the enormous costs of defence, agricultural self-reliance, and aggressive neighbours made avoiding war a priority.Between the 4th and 8th centuries, diplomats capitalised on the empire's reputation as theOrbis Romanusand its administrative sophistication to influence new settlements on former Roman territories.Byzantine diplomacy often drew fledgling states into dependency, creating a network of inter-state relations (theoikouménē) dominated by the Empire and leveraging Christianity to strengthen these ties.This network emphasised treaty-making, integrating new rulers into the "family of kings," and assimilating values, institutions, and attitudes.These practices have even been referred to as creating a "Byzantine Caliphate", where religion re-framed the civilised-versus-barbarian dichotomy in classical times.By contrast, diplomatic relations with Muslim states focused primarily on war-related issues, such as negotiating hostages or preventing hostilities.
Peace and survival, rather than conquest, were central objectives. Historians describe this approach as "defensive imperialism", which evolved between the 9th and 10th centuries to include halting and reversing Muslim advances, cultivating alliances with Armenians and Rus, and subjugating the Bulgarians.Diplomatic relations with Western states became more challenging after 752–753 and particularly during the Crusades, as shifts in the balance of power undermined the Empire's dominance and its use of theLimitrophesystem.By the 11th century, the Empire adopted a principle of diplomatic equality, with the emperor taking a direct part in negotiations.
After recovering Constantinople in 1261, the empire maintained its influence as a great power in the 13th and 14th centuries, despite its declining strength. This success is attributed to its efficient statecraft and strategic use of the Constantinople patriarch.
As many as 27 million people lived in the empire at its peak in 540, but this fell to 12 million by 800.Although plague and territorial losses to Arab Muslim invaders weakened the empire, it eventually recovered and by the near end of theMacedonian dynastyin 1025, the population is estimated to have been as high as 18 million.A few decades after the recapture of Constantinople in 1282, the empire's population was in the range of 3–5 million; by 1312, the number had dropped to 2 million.By the time the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, there were only 50,000 people in the city, one-tenth of its population in its prime.
Education was voluntary and required financial means, so the most literate people were often those associated with the church.Primary education focused on teaching foundational subjects like reading, writing, and arithmetic whereas secondary school focused on thetriviumandquadriviumas their curriculum.TheImperial University of Constantinoplewas formed in 425, and refounded in 1046 as a centre for law.
During the 3rd century, 10–15% of the population was enslaved (numbering around 3 million in the east).Youval Rotman calls the changes to slavery during this period "different degrees of unfreedom".Previous roles fulfilled by slaves became high-demand free market professions (like tutors), and the state encouraged thecoloni, tenants bound to the land, as a new legal category between freemen and slaves.From 294 the enslavement of children was progressively forbidden;Honorius(r.393–423) began freeing enslaved prisoners of war, and from the 9th century, emperors freed the slaves of conquered people.Christianity as an institution had no direct impact, but by the 6th century it was a bishop's duty to ransom Christians, there were established limits on trading them, and state policies prohibited the enslavement of Christians; these changes shaped Byzantine slave-holding from the 8th century onwards.Non-Christians could still be enslaved, and prices remained stable until 1300, when prices for adult slaves, particularly women, started rising.
Agriculture was the main basis of taxation and the state sought to bind everyone to land for productivity.Most land holdings were small and medium-sized lots around villages, and family farms were the primary source of agriculture.Thecoloni,sometimes called proto-serfs, were free citizens, though historians continue to debate their exact status.
TheEklogelaws of 741 made marriage a Christian institution and no longer a private contract, where it evolved alongside the increased rights of slaves and the change in power relations.Marriage was considered an institution required to sustain the population, transfer property rights, and support the elderly of the family; the EmpressTheodorahad also said it was needed to restrict sexualhedonism.Women usually married between the ages of 15 and 20, and the average family had two children.Divorce could be done by mutual consent but was restricted over time, for example, only being allowed if a married person was joining a convent.
Inheritance rights were well developed, including for all women.The historian Anthony Kaldellis suggests that these rights may have been what prevented the emergence of large properties and a hereditary nobility capable of intimidating the state.The prevalence of widows (estimated at 20%) meant women often controlled family assets as heads of households and businesses, contributing to the rise of some empresses to power.Women played significant roles as taxpayers, landowners, and petitioners, often seeking the resolution of property disputes in court.
Women had the same socio-economic status as men, but faced legal discrimination and limitations in economic opportunities and vocations.Prohibited from serving as soldiers or holding political office, and restricted from serving asdeaconessesin the Church from the 7th century onwards, women were mostly assigned labour-intensive household responsibilities.They worked in the food and textile industries, as medical staff, in public baths, in retail, and were practising members of artisan guilds.They also worked in entertainment, tavern keeping, and prostitution, a class where some saints and empresses may have originated from.Prostitution was widespread, and attempts were made to limit it, especially during Justinian's reign under the influence of Theodora.Women participated in public life, engaging in social events and protests.Women's rights were better in the empire than in comparable societies. Western European and American women took until the 19th century to surpass them.
LatinandGreekwere the primary languages of the late Roman Empire, with the former prevalent in the west and the latter in the east.Although Latin was historically important in the military, legal system, and government, its use declined in Byzantine territories from 400 AD.Greek had begun to replace it even in those functions by the time ofJustinian I, who may have tried to arrest Latin's decline. Its extinction in the east was thereafter inevitable.A similar process of linguisticHellenizationoccurred in Asia Minor, whose inhabitants had mostly abandoned their indigenous languages for Greek by early Byzantine times.Still, much of the population of Justinian's multi-ethnic empire would have known neither Latin nor Greek, especially in rural areas—their languages includedArmenianinthat people's homelands,Aramaicdialects such asSyriacin Mesopotamia and the Levant,Copticin Egypt,Phoenicianon the Levant coast and inCarthage, andBerberin rural North Africa.
The empire lost its ethnic diversity in the struggles which followed Justinian's reign and it was overwhelmingly Greek-speaking by the 8th century.During this troubled period, classicalAttic Greek—one of thelinguistic registersthe Byzantine Greeks inherited—fell out of use, while theeveryday vernacularregisters were still used.As the empire gained some stablity from the 9th century onwards, and especially after theKomnenian restoration, Attic Greek came back into fashion for written works. In a phenomenon calleddiglossia, the gap between vernacular spoken Greek, which was rarely written in published works, and literary registers only spoken in formal contexts, became very wide.
During thePalaiologan period, although classically-written works remained the normal style, Western-inspired writers began to use more vernacular elements, especially forromancesor near-contemporary histories. One example is theChronicle of the Morea, probably written by a French immigrant who was ignorant of formal Greek literature and who incorporated spoken Greek into his work.All such written vernacular was in verse form, becoming the ancestor ofmodern Greekpoetry, while prose remained classically-written.
The empire's geographic and maritime advantages reduced the costs of transporting goods and facilitated trade, making it a key driver of economic growth from antiquity and through the post-classical period.Infrastructure, including roads, public buildings, and the legal system, supported trade and other economic activities.Regions like Asia Minor, the Aegean islands, Egypt, the Levant, and Africa thrived as mature economic centres despite political challenges and military insecurities.From the mid-6th century onward, plagues, invasions, and wars caused populations and economies to decline, leading to the collapse of the ancient economy.Major cities like Constantinople, Antioch,Alexandria, andThessalonikicontinued to support substantial populations exceeding 100,000, while the countryside transitioned into fortified settlements.These rural areas developed into hamlets and villages, reflecting an economic shift between historical periods towards more efficient land use.
Low population density prompted emperors to encourage migration and resettlement, stimulating agriculture and demographic growth.By the 9th century, the economy began to revive, marked by increased agricultural production and urban expansion.Advances in science, technical knowledge, and literacy gave the empire a competitive edge over its neighbours.The 11th and 12th centuries witnessed consistent and rapid population growth, marking the peak of this revival.Italian merchants, particularly the Venetians, Genoese, and Pisans, took control of international trade, thus reducing the influence of native merchants.The political system grew increasingly extractive and authoritarian, contributing to the empire's collapse in 1204.
The fall of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 destroyed centuries of its wealth.Large landholdings were confiscated, and the empire fragmented into smaller rump states ruled by competing factions, making governance inefficient and increasing the costs of doing business.The state gradually lost control over trade practices, price regulations, the outflow of precious metals, and possibly even the minting of coins.Italian merchants further dominated trade as the events of 1204 opened the Black Sea to Western merchants, permanently altering the empire's fortunes.Farmers and manufacturers increasingly produced goods for local use and were affected by the insecurity of constant warfare.Despite these challenges, the empire's mixed economy (characterised by state interventions, public works, and market liberalisation)remained a model of medieval economic adaptability, even as it deteriorated under external pressures.
Historical evidence of Byzantine dress is scant. It is known that the court had a distinguishable dress, and that ordinary men and women observed certain conventions of clothing.Fashion trends started in the provinces, and not in the capital, which was more conservative.The imperial dress was centred around theloros,tzangiaand crown, which represented the empire and the court.Thelorosderived from thetrabea triumphalis, a ceremonial toga worn by consuls. It was more prominent in the early empire, indicating a continuation of the traditions of the Roman Empire.Historian Jennifer Ball suggests that thechlamyscloak, which originated in the military, was similar to a modern-day business suit and an evolution of thepaludamentumcloak worn by aristocratic men, including the emperor during the early empire.In the middle empire, dresses replaced the tunic for women.The late empire saw the larger influence on Byzantine dress of non-Greek cultures like the Italians (Genoese and Venetians), Turks (Ottomans), and the Bulgarians.
Feasting was a major part of Byzantine culture and included the use of clean tables and forks. Modern Italian standards of gastronomy are likely to have been influenced by this era.Foods common to both Byzantium and the modern world are, among others, a cured meat calledpaston,baklava,Fetacheese, salt roe similar to the modernboutargue, black sea caviar, fermentedfish sauce,tiropita,dolmades, and the souptrachanas.Fruits likeaubergines(eggplants) and oranges, unknown from classical times, were added to Byzantine diets.There were famed medieval sweet wines such as theMalvasiafromMonemvasia, theCommandaria, and the eponymousRumney winewhich were drunk, as weremillet beer(known asboza) andretsina.
Chariot raceswere held from the early era until 1204, becoming one of the world's longest continuous sporting events.Mimes, thepantomimeand some wild animal shows were prominent until the 6th century.Because Christian bishops and pagan philosophers did not like these activities, the state's funding for them ceased, leading to their decline and a move to private entertainment and sporting.A Persian version of polo introduced by the Crusaders calledTzykanionwas played by the nobility and urban aristocracy in major cities during the middle and late eras, as was the sport of jousting introduced from the West.Over time,game boardsliketavlibecame increasingly popular.
Thegranting of citizenshipto all free Roman men in 212 made society more uniform, especially in religious practices.Christianity, bolstered byConstantine's support, began shaping all aspects of life.Subsequent emperors encouraged conversion and enacted laws in the late 4th century to restrict pagan activities.In 529,Justinianenforced conversions, specifically targetingpolytheists.The state's confiscation of pagan treasures, diversion of funds, and legal discrimination led to the decline of paganism; this further led to the end of schools of philosophy and theAncient Olympics.Debates in Christianity increasingly relied on Greek, and this led to the emergent church becoming dependent on branches ofHellenic thoughtsuch asNeoplatonism.Despite the transition, the historian Anthony Kaldellis views Christianity as "bringing no economic, social, or political changes to the state other than being more deeply integrated into it".
When the Roman state in the West collapsed politically, cultural differences began to divide the Christian churches of the East and West.Internal disputes within the Eastern churches led to the migration of monastic communities to Rome, exacerbating tensions between Rome and Constantinople.These disputes,particularly in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean, eventually split the church into three branches:Chalcedonian, Monophysite (Coptic), andNestorian.The Chalcedonian group maintained dominance within the empire's territories, while the Monophysite and Nestorian branches largely fell under Muslim rule in the 7th century.
Eastern patriarchs frequently sought the Papacy's mediation in doctrinal and practical matters, but the pope's authority was not universally acknowledged, even in nearby regions like Northern Italy.By 600, the Slavic settlement of the Balkans disrupted communication between Rome and Constantinople, further widening the divide.The Arab and Lombard invasions, and the increasedFrankishpresence, deepened this estrangement and intensified disputes over jurisdiction and authority between the two spiritual centres.Differences in ritual and theology, such as the use ofunleavened breadand theFilioque clause, as well as divergences in ecclesiology—plenitudo potestatisversus the authority ofEcumenical Councils—and issues of mutual respect, contributed to the separation of Western Christianity from Eastern Christianity.This separation began by 597 and culminated in 1054 during theEast–West Schism.
In 1439, a proposed reunion between the Eastern and Western churches faced Eastern resistance, delaying its official publication in Constantinople until 1452.This agreement was overturned the following year by theFall of Constantinopleto the Ottoman Turks in 1453.The conquest of 1453 marked the destruction of the Church as the central institution of the Christian empire established by Constantine, isolating Greek-speaking Orthodoxy from the West and restricting its influence for nearly 150 years.Despite this, the Church survived in an altered form, and the spiritual and cultural influence of the Eastern Church, Constantinople, andMount Athosthe monastic peninsula has endured.
Subjects inByzantine artwere primarilyChristianand typically non-naturalistic in their representation.Emerging from both theearliest ChristianandLate Antique art,many early examples were lost amid theRoman Persecution; the fragmented mosaics of the 3rd-centuryDura-Europos churchare a unique exception.SuchByzantine mosaics, known for theirgold groundstyle, became a hallmark of the empire, displaying both secular and sacred themes in diverse places, including churches (Basilica of San Vitale), the circus (Hippodrome of Constantinople), and theGreat Palace of Constantinople.The early 6th-century reign of Justinian I saw systemic developments:religious artcame to dominate, and once-popular public marble and bronzemonumental sculpturefell out of favour due topaganassociations.Justinian commissioned the monumentalHagia Sophiachurch, and its influential elements became architectural hallmarks for the empire: the immense size, largedome, innovative use ofpendentivesand highly decorative interior were imitated as far north as theCathedral of Saint SophiainNovgorodand theSaint Sophia CathedralinKyiv.The Hagia Sophia's creators, the engineer-architectsIsidore of MiletusandAnthemius of Tralles, are uniquely esteemed;most Byzantine artists were unrecorded and typically deemed to have little importance.
Smaller-scale art flourished throughout the entire Byzantine period: costlyivory carvings—often as diptychs (Barberini ivory) or triptychs (Harbaville Triptych)—featured imperial commemorations or religious scenes and were particularly valued, as weremetalworkandenamels.Other costly objects includedilluminated manuscripts, which were lavishly illustrated for a wide range of texts, andsilks, often dyed in the prizedimperial purple; both became highly popular in Western Europe.The rise of small, portableiconpaintings, used for both public and private religious worship, grew increasingly controversial.During two periods ofByzantine Iconoclasm(726–843), possibly influenced byIslamic prohibitions on religious images,icons were suppressed and enormous amounts of figurative religious art was destroyed.Iconoclastscondemned their use, likening them to paganidolatryand ascribing recentUmayyad defeatsasdivine retributionfor their use.Iconophileseventually prevailed, maintaining their essential use forveneration, considered distinct fromworship, and found precedent ingospelreferences.
Post-iconoclast Macedonian art(867–1056) saw acultural renaissance, and many artworks from this period survive.Subjects and styles became standardised, particularlycross-in-squarechurches, and already-existing frontality andsymmetryevolved into a dominant artistic aesthetic, observable in the smallPala d'Oroenamel and the large mosaics of theHosios Loukas,Daphni, andNea Monimonasteries.The subsequent Komnenos-Angelos periods (1081–1204) saw increased imperial patronage, alongside figurative artwork of increased emotional expression (Dead Christ and Mourners,c.1164).Byzantine artistic influence spread widely toNorman Sicily(theMadrid Skylitzes) and Venice (the mosaics ofSt Mark's Basilica).Serbian churches flourished, as three successiveschools of architecture—Raška(1170–1282),Byzantine Serbia(1282–1355), andMorava(1355–1489)—combined aRomanesqueaesthetic with increasingly voluminous decorations and domes.As smallerPalaeologan artworks(1261–1453) gainedrelicstatus in Western Europe—many looted in the 1204 Fourth Crusade—they greatly influenced theItalo-Byzantinestyle ofCimabue,Duccio, and laterGiotto; the latter is traditionally regarded by art historians as the inaugurator ofItalian Renaissance painting.
Byzantine literatureconcerns allGreek literaturefrom theMiddle Ages.Although the empire waslinguistically diverse, the vast majority of extant texts are inmedieval Greek,in twodiglossicvariants: a scholarly form based onAttic Greek, and avernacularbased onKoine Greek.Most contemporary scholars consider all medieval Greek texts to be literature,but some offer varying constraints.The literature's early period (c.330–650) was dominated by the competing cultures ofHellenism,ChristianityandPaganism.TheGreek Church Fathers—educated in an Ancient Greekrhetorictradition—sought to synthesise these influences.Important early writers includeJohn Chrysostom,Pseudo-Dionysius the AreopagiteandProcopius, all of whom aimed to reinvent older forms to fit the empire.Theologicalmiraclestories were particularly innovative and popular;theSayings of the Desert Fathers(Apophthegmata Patrum) were copied in nearly every Byzantine monastery.During theByzantine Dark Ages(c.650–800), production of literature mostly stopped, though some important theologians were active, such asMaximus the Confessor,Germanus I of ConstantinopleandJohn of Damascus.
The subsequent cultural Macedonian Renaissance (c.800–1000; the "Encyclopedism period") saw a renewed proliferation of literature and revived the earlier Hellenic-Christian synthesis.Works byHomer,Ancient Greek philosophersandtragedianswere translated, andhagiographywas heavily reorganised.After this early flowering of monastic literature, there was a dearth untilSymeon the New Theologianin the late 10th century.A new generation (c.1000–1250), including Symeon,Michael PsellosandTheodore Prodromos, rejected the Encyclopedist emphasis on order, and were interested in individual-focused ideals variously concerningmysticism,authorial voice, heroism, humour and love.This included the Hellenistic-inspiredByzantine romanceandchivalricapproaches in rhetoric, historiography and the influential epicDigenes Akritas.The empire's final centuries saw a renewal of hagiography and increased Western influence, leading to mass Greek to Latin translations.Authors such asGemistos PlethonandBessarionexemplified a new focus on humanvicesalongside the preservation of classical traditions, the latter greatly influenced theItalian Renaissance.
Byzantine musicis eclectically descended from earlyChristian plainsong,Jewish music, and a variety ofancient music; its exact connections toancient Greek musicremain uncertain.It included bothsacredandseculartraditions, but the latter is little known, whereas the former remains the central music ofEastern Orthodoxliturgy into the 21st century.The empire's church music, known as Byzantinechant, was exclusively unaccompaniedmonodicvocal music, sung in Greek.From the 8th century, chant melodies were governed by theOktōēchosframework, a set of eightmodes—echos(ἦχος;lit.'sound')—each of these provide predeterminedmotivicformulae for composition.These formulae were chosen for propertext stressand occasionally fortext painting, then collated throughcentonisationintohymnsorpsalms.
Byzantine chant was central to theByzantine Rite; the earliest music was notnotated,including early monostrophicshort hymns like thetroparion.Proto-Ekphonetic notation(9th century onwards) marked simplerecitationpatterns. TheneumaticPalaeo-Byzantine notation system emerged in the 10th century, and the Middle Byzantine "Round Notation" from the mid-12th century onwards is the first fullydiastematicscheme.Several major forms developed alongsidewell-known composers: the longkontakion(5th century onwards), popularised byRomanos the Melodist; the also-extensivekanōn(late 7th century onwards), developed byAndrew of Crete; and the shortersticheron(at least 8th century onwards), championed byKassia.By the Palaiologan period, the dominance of strict compositional rules lessened andJohn Koukouzelesled a new school favouring a moreornamental"kalophonic" style which deeply informed post-empire Neo-Byzantine music.
Secular music, often state-sponsored, was ubiquitous in daily life and featured in a variety of ceremonies, festivals, and theatre.Secular vocal music was rarely notated, and extant manuscripts date much later, suggesting the tradition was passed throughoral traditionand likelyimprovised.Prohibited for liturgical use, a wide variety of Byzantineinstrumentsflourished in secular contexts, although no notated instrumental music survives.It is uncertain to what extent instrumentalists improvised or if they doubled vocalists monophonically orheterophonically.Among the best known instruments are thehydraulic organ, used for circus and imperial court events; theancient Greek-descendedaulos, awind instrument; thetambouras, a pluckedstring instrument; and mostly popularly, theByzantine lyra.Prominent genres includedacclamationchants of laudation or salutation; the celebratoryAcritic songs; symposia instrumentalbanquets, based on ancientsymposiums; anddance music.
The scholars of the empire played a principal role in transmitting classical knowledge to theIslamic worldandRenaissance Italy, as well as producing commentaries that helped expand scientific knowledge.This medieval Greek scholarship was not only based on scientific treatises from antiquity but also drew from Islamic, Latin, and Hebrew works, which helped spearhead new developments as late as the 11th and 12th centuries.
Key people passed on important traditions that underpinned this scholarship, especially in the realms of philosophy, geometry, astronomy, and grammar.For example, the Hagia Sophia architectIsidore of Miletus(c.530), compiledArchimedes' works whichLeo the Mathematician(c.850) incorporated into formal courses, and is why theArchimedes Palimpsestis known today.John Philoponusand his critiques ofAristotelian physics, the pharmacologistPedanius Dioscorides, and Ptolematic geography and astronomy had an important influence on western science, as seen withPtolemy's influence onCopernicusand Philoponus onBonaventure,Gersonides,Buridan,OresmeandGalileo.
Military innovations included theriding stirrupwhich provided stability for mounted archers and dramatically transformed the army; a specialised type ofhorseshoe; thelateen sail, which improved a ship's responsiveness to wind; andGreek fire—an incendiary weapon capable of burning even when doused with water, first appearing around the time of theSiege of Constantinople (674–678).Inhealthcare, the empire pioneered the concept of the hospital as an institution offering medical care and the possibility of a cure for the patients, rather than merely being a place to die.
After Constantinople fell, the Ottomans quickly absorbed the remaining independent territories, including Morea in 1460, Trebizond in 1461,AcciaiuoliAthens in 1456, andGattilusiLesvos in 1462.They dismantled the Empire's political and secular institutions, leaving the impoverished Church to manage what would be later called theRum Millet, primarily as a tool for taxing its followers.As the sole sovereign Orthodox state, Russia developed theThird Rome doctrine, emphasising its cultural heritage as distinct from Western Europe, because the latter had inherited much of the empire's secular learning.TheDanubian Principalitiesbecame a haven for Orthodox Christians andPhanariotGreeks who sought to recreate a Byzantine Greek Empire.In modern Greece, members of theRum Milletincreasingly identified as Greeks, eventually leading to asuccessful war of independencein the 19th century.The modern Greek state nearly doubled its territory through the pursuit of theMegali Idea—a colonialist vision of reclaiming the former lands of the eastern empire—achieving limited success during theCrimean warbut making significant gains during theBalkan wars.
Since the 15th century, Byzantine history has been deeply politicised, woven into nationalist, colonialist, and imperialist narratives.This politicisation appears not only in Greece but also in Bulgarian, Romanian, Serbian, Hungarian, and Turkish nationalism, as well as in former French and Russian imperialist agendas.In the English-speaking world, interpretations of Byzantine history frequently surface in political debates, alongside the growing appreciation for its legacy.The complexity of this history makes it a sensitive topic, especially regarding Greece's role in Europe’s evolving sense of identity and the origin stories of many European nations.
The Byzantine Empire distinctively blended Roman political traditions, Greek literary heritage, and Christianity, creating the civilisational framework that laid the foundation for medieval Europe.The Empire preserved European civilisation by acting as a shield against forces from Eurasian Steppe people such as the Avars, Bulgars, Cumans, Huns, Pechenegs, and Turks.
The empire's legal codes significantly influenced the civil law traditions of continental Europe, Russia, Latin America, Ethiopia, and even the English-speaking common law countries; and possibly influenced Islamic legal traditions as well.It also preserved and transmitted classical learning and manuscripts, making important contributions to the intellectual revival which fuelledItalian humanism.
The Byzantine Empire played a pivotal role in shaping Christianity by supporting early Church fathers and the decisions of Church councils; developing the institution ofmonasticism; and fostering theOrthodox traditionwhich continues to define much of Eastern European identity.It was also instrumental in preserving the Greek language and is credited with developing theGlagolitic alphabet, which later evolved into theCyrillic scriptandOld Church Slavonic.These innovations provided the first literary language for the Slavs and formed the educational foundation for all Slavic nations.