Turkey

Turkey,officially theRepublic of Türkiye,is a country mainly located inAnatoliainWest Asia, with a relatively small part calledEast ThraceinSoutheast Europe. It borders theBlack Seato the north;Georgia,Armenia,Azerbaijan, andIranto the east;Iraq,Syria, and theMediterranean Seato the south; and theAegean Sea,Greece, andBulgariato the west. Turkey is home to over 85 million people;most are ethnicTurks, while ethnicKurdsare thelargest ethnic minority.Officiallya secular state, Turkey hasa Muslim-majoritypopulation.Ankarais Turkey's capital andsecond-largest city.Istanbulis its largest city and economic center. Other major cities includeİzmir,Bursa, andAntalya.
First inhabited by modern humans during theLate Paleolithic,present-day Turkey was home tovarious ancient peoples.TheHattianswere assimilated by theHittitesand otherAnatolian peoples.Classical Anatoliatransitioned into culturalHellenizationafterAlexander the Great'sconquests, and laterRomanizationduring theRomanandByzantineeras.TheSeljuk Turksbegan migrating into Anatolia in the 11th century, starting theTurkificationprocess.The SeljukSultanate of Rumruled Anatolia until theMongol invasionin 1243, when it disintegrated intoTurkish principalities.Beginning in 1299, theOttomansunited the principalities andexpanded.Mehmed IIconqueredConstantinople (modern-day Istanbul) in 1453. During the reigns ofSelim IandSuleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire became aglobal power.
From 1789 onwards, the empire saw major changes,reforms, centralization, andrising nationalismwhileits territory declined.Ottoman entry into World War Iwas followed by defeat andpartitioning. The end of Ottoman Empire was accompanied by mass displacement and large-scale loss of human life.TheTurkish War of Independenceresulted in theabolition of the sultanateand the signing of theTreaty of Lausanne. Turkey emerged as a more homogenousnation state.The Republicwas proclaimedon 29 October 1923, modelled onthe reformsinitiated by the country's first president,Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Turkeyremained neutral during most of World War II, but was involved in theKorean War. Several military interventions interfered with the transition to a multi-party system.
Turkey is anupper-middle-incomeandemerging country;its economyis the world's17th-largest by nominaland12th-largest by PPP-adjusted GDP. It is aunitarypresidentialrepublic. Turkey is a founding member of theOECD,G20, andOrganization of Turkic States. With a geopolitically significant location, Turkey is anemerging powerand an early member ofNATO.An EU candidate, Turkey is part of theEU Customs Union,CoE,OIC, andTURKSOY.
Turkey has coastal plains,a high central plateau, and various mountain ranges;its climateis temperate with harsher conditions in the interior.Home to threebiodiversity hotspots, Turkey is prone tofrequent earthquakesandis highly vulnerable to climate change.Turkey hasa universal healthcare system, growingaccess to education, and increasing levels ofinnovativeness.It is a leadingTV contentexporter.With numerous UNESCOWorld Heritagesites andintangible cultural heritageinscriptions, anda rich and diverse cuisine, Turkey is thefifth most visited countryin the world.
Turchia, meaning "the land of the Turks", had begun to be used in European texts forAnatoliaby the end of the 12th century.As a word inTurkic languages,Turkmay mean "strong, strength, ripe" or "flourishing, in full strength".It may also mean ripe as in for a fruit or "in the prime of life, young, and vigorous" for a person.As anethnonym, the etymology is still unknown.In addition to usage in languages such as Chinese in the 6th century,the earliest mention ofTurk(𐱅𐰇𐰺𐰜,türü̲k̲; or𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚,türk/tẄrk) in Turkic languages comes from theSecond Turkic Khaganate.
InByzantinesources in the 10th century, the nameTourkiawas used for defining two medieval states:Hungary(Western Tourkia); andKhazaria(Eastern Tourkia).TheMamluk Sultanate, with its ruling elite of Turkic origin, was called the "State of the Turks" (Dawlat at-Turk, orDawlat al-Atrāk, orDawlat-at-Turkiyya).Turkestan, also meaning the "land of the Turks", was used for a historic region inCentral Asia.
Middle Englishusage ofTurkyeorTurkeyeis found inThe Book of the Duchess(written in 1369–1372) to refer to Anatolia or theOttoman Empire.The modern spellingTurkeydates back to at least 1719.Thebird called turkeywas named as such due to trade ofguineafowlfrom Turkey to England.The nameTurkeyhas been used in international treaties referring to the Ottoman Empire.With theTreaty of Alexandropol, the nameTürkiyeentered international documents for the first time. In the treaty signed withAfghanistanin 1921, the expressionDevlet-i Âliyye-i Türkiyye("Sublime Turkish State") was used, likened to theOttoman Empire's name.
In December 2021, PresidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğancalled for expanded official usage ofTürkiye, saying thatTürkiye"represents and expresses the culture, civilization, and values of the Turkish nation in the best way".In May 2022, the Turkish government requested theUnited Nationsand other international organizations to useTürkiyeofficially in English; the UN agreed.
Present-day Turkey has been inhabited bymodern humanssince thelate Paleolithicperiod and contains some of the world's oldestNeolithicsites.Göbekli Tepeis close to 12,000 years old.Parts ofAnatoliainclude theFertile Crescent, anorigin of agriculture.Other important Anatolian Neolithic sites includeÇatalhöyükandAlaca Höyük.Neolithic Anatolian farmers differed genetically from farmers inIranandJordan Valley.These early Anatolian farmers alsomigrated into Europe, starting around 9,000 years ago.Troy's earliest layers go back to around 4500 BC.
Anatolia's historical records start withclay tabletsfrom approximately around 2000 BC that were found in modern-dayKültepe.These tablets belonged to anAssyrian trade colony.The languages in Anatolia at that time included Hattian, Hurrian,Hittite,Luwian, andPalaic.Hattianwas a language indigenous to Anatolia, with no known modern-day connections.Hurrian languagewas used in northernSyria.Hittite, Palaic, and Luwian languages were "the oldest writtenIndo-European languages",forming theAnatolian sub-group.
Hattianrulers were gradually replaced byHittiterulers.The Hittite kingdom was a large kingdom in Central Anatolia, with its capital ofHattusa.It co-existed in Anatolia withPalaiansandLuwians, approximately between 1700 and 1200 BC.As the Hittite kingdom was disintegrating, further waves of Indo-European peoples migrated from southeastern Europe, which was followed by warfare.TheThracianswere also present in modern-dayTurkish Thrace.It is not known if theTrojan Waris based on historical events.Troy's Late Bronze Agelayers matches most withIliad's story.
Around 750 BC,Phrygiahad been established, with its two centers inGordiumand modern-dayKayseri.Phrygiansspoke an Indo-European language, which was closer toGreekthan Anatolian languages.Phrygians shared Anatolia withNeo-HittitesandUrartu. Luwian-speakers were probably the majority in various Anatolian Neo-Hittite states.Urartians spoke a non-Indo-European language and their capital was aroundLake Van.Urartu and Phrygia fell in seventh century BC.They were replaced byCarians,LyciansandLydians.These three cultures "can be considered a reassertion of the ancient, indigenous culture of the Hattian cities of Anatolia".
Before 1200 BC, there were four Greek-speaking settlements in Anatolia, includingMiletus.Around 1000 BC,Greeks started migratingto the west coast of Anatolia. These eastern Greek settlements played a vital role in shaping the Archaic Greek civilization;importantcitiesincludedMiletus,Ephesus,Halicarnassus,Smyrna(nowİzmir) andByzantium(nowIstanbul), the latter founded by colonists fromMegarain the seventh century BCE.These settlements were grouped asAeolis,Ionia, andDoris, after the specific Greek groups that settled them.Further Greek colonization in Anatolia was led by Miletus andMegarain 750–480 BC.The Greek cities along the Aegean prospered with trade, and saw remarkable scientific and scholarly accomplishments.ThalesandAnaximanderfrom Miletus founded theIonian School of philosophy, thereby laying the foundations ofrationalismandWestern philosophy.
Cyrusattacked eastern Anatolia in 547 BC, andAchaemenid Empireeventuallyexpanded into western Anatolia.In the east, theArmenian provincewas part of the Achaemenid Empire.Following theGreco-Persian Wars, the Greek city-states of the Anatolian Aegean coast regained independence, but most of the interior stayed part of the Achaemenid Empire.Two of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World, theTemple of Artemisin Ephesus, and theMausoleum of Halicarnassus, were located in Anatolia.
Following the victories of Alexander in334 BCand333 BC, the Achaemenid Empire collapsed and Anatolia became part of theMacedonian Empire.This led to increasing cultural homogeneity andHellenizationof the Anatolian interior,which met resistance in some places.Following Alexander's death, theSeleucidsruled large parts of Anatolia, while native Anatolian states emerged in the Marmara and Black Sea areas. In eastern Anatolia,the kingdom of Armeniaappeared. In third century BC,Celtsinvaded central Anatolia and continued as a major ethnic group in the area for around 200 years. They were known as theGalatians.
WhenPergamonrequested assistance in its conflict with the Seleucids,Romeintervened in Anatolia in the second century BC. Without an heir, Pergamum's king left the kingdom to Rome, which was annexed asprovince of Asia. Roman influence grew in Anatolia afterwards.FollowingAsiatic Vespersmassacre, andMithridatic WarswithPontus, Rome emerged victorious. Around the 1st century BC,Rome expanded into parts of Pontus and Bithynia, while turning rest of Anatolian states into Roman satellites.Severalconflicts with Parthians ensued, with peace and wars alternating.
According toActs of the Apostles, early Christian Church had significant growth in Anatolia because ofSt Paul's efforts. Letters from St. Paul in Anatolia comprise theoldest Christian literature.Under Roman authority,ecumenical councilssuch asCouncil of Nicaea (Iznik)in 325 served as a guide for developing "orthodox expressions of basic Christian teachings".
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of theRoman Empirecentered inConstantinopleduringLate Antiquityand theMiddle Ages. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused thefall of the Westin the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until thefall of Constantinopleto theOttoman Empirein 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in theMediterranean world. The termByzantine Empirewas only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves asRomans. Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome toByzantium, theadoption of Christianity as the state religion, and the predominance ofGreekinstead ofLatin, modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlierRoman Empireand the laterByzantine Empire.
In the early Byzantine Empire period, the Anatolian coastal areas were Greek speaking. In addition to natives, interior Anatolia had diverse groups such asGoths,Celts,PersiansandJews. Interior Anatolia had been "heavily Hellenized".Anatolian languageseventually became extinct afterHellenizationof Anatolia.
According to historians and linguists, theProto-Turkic languageoriginated in Central-East Asia.Initially, Proto-Turkic speakerswere potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later becamenomadicpastoralists.Early and medievalTurkic groupsexhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such asIranic,Mongolic,Tocharian,Uralic, andYeniseianpeoples.During the 9th and 10th centuries CE,the Oghuzwere a Turkic group that lived in theCaspianandAralsteppes.Partly due to pressure from theKipchaks, the Oghuz migrated intoIranandTransoxiana.They mixed with Iranic-speaking groups in the area and converted toIslam.Oghuz Turks were also known as Turkmen orTurkoman.
The ruling family ofthe Seljuksoriginated from theKınıkbranch of the Oghuz Turks.In 1040, the Seljuks defeated theGhaznavidsat theBattle of Dandanaqanand established theSeljuk EmpireinGreater Khorasan.Baghdad, theAbbasid Caliphate's capital and center ofthe Islamic world, was taken by Seljuks in 1055.Given the roleKhurasanitraditions played in art, culture, and political traditions in the empire, the Seljuk period is described as a mixture of "Turkish, Persian and Islamic influences".In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating intomedieval Armeniaand Anatolia.At the time, Anatolia was a diverse and largely Greek-speaking region after previously beingHellenized.
The Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines at theBattle of Manzikertin 1071, and later establishedthe Seljuk Sultanate of Rum.During this period, there were alsoTurkish principalitiessuch asDanishmendids.Seljuk arrival started theTurkificationprocess in Anatolia;there were Turkic/Turkish migrations, intermarriages, and conversions into Islam.The shift took several centuries and happened gradually.Members ofIslamic mysticismorders, such asMevlevi Order, played a role in theIslamizationof the diverse people of Anatolia.Seljuk expansion was one of the reasons for theCrusades.In 13th century, there was a second significant wave of Turkic migration, as people fledMongolexpansion.Seljuk sultanate was defeated by the Mongols at theBattle of Köse Dağin 1243 and disappeared by the beginning of the 14th century. It was replaced by various Turkish principalities.
Based aroundSöğüt,Ottoman Beylikwas founded byOsman Iin the early 14th century.According to Ottoman chroniclers, Osman descended from theKayıtribe of theOghuz Turks.Ottomans started annexing the nearby Turkish beyliks (principalities) in Anatolia and expanded into theBalkans.Mehmed IIcompleted Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire bycapturing its capital, Constantinople, on 29 May 1453.Selim Iunited Anatolia under Ottoman rule.Turkification continued as Ottomans mixed with various indigenous people in Anatolia and the Balkans.
The Ottoman Empire was a global power during the reigns ofSelim IandSuleiman the Magnificent.In the 16th and 17th centuries,Sephardic Jewsmoved into Ottoman Empire following theirexpulsionfrom Spain.From the second half of the 18th century onwards, theOttoman Empire began to decline. TheTanzimatreforms, initiated byMahmud IIin 1839, aimed to modernize the Ottoman state in line with the progress that had been made in Western Europe. TheOttoman constitution of 1876was the first among Muslim states, but wasshort-lived.
As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially after theOttoman economic crisis and defaultin 1875which led to uprisings in the Balkan provinces that culminated in theRusso-Turkish War (1877–1878). The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to arise in nationalist sentiment among its various subject peoples, leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as theHamidian massacresofArmenians, which claimed up to 300,000 lives.Ottoman territories in Europe (Rumelia) were lost in theFirst Balkan War(1912–1913).Ottomans managed to recover some territory in Europe, such asEdirne, in theSecond Balkan War(1913).
In the 19th and early 20th centuries,persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contractionandin the Russian Empireresulted in estimated 5 million deaths,with the casualties including Turks.Five to seven or seven to nine millionrefugeesmigrated into modern-day Turkey from theBalkans,Caucasus,Crimea, andMediterraneanislands,shifting the center of the Ottoman Empire to Anatolia.In addition to a small number of Jews, the refugees were overwhelmingly Muslim; they were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, such asCircassiansandCrimean Tatars.Paul Mojzeshas called the Balkan Wars an "unrecognized genocide", where multiple sides were both victims and perpetrators.Circassian refugees included the survivors of theCircassian genocide.
Following the1913 coup d'état, theThree Pashastook control of the Ottoman government. The Ottoman Empire enteredWorld War Ion the side of theCentral Powersand was ultimately defeated.During the war, the empire's Armenian subjects weredeported to Syriaas part of theArmenian genocide. As a result, an estimated 600,000to more than 1 million,or up to 1.5 millionArmenianswere killed. The Turkish government hasrefused to acknowledgethe events as genocide and states that Armenians were only"relocated" from the eastern war zone.Genocidal campaignswere also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as theAssyriansandGreeks.Following theArmistice of Mudrosin 1918, the victoriousAllied Powerssought thepartition of the Ottoman Empirethrough the 1920Treaty of Sèvres.
Theoccupation of Istanbul(1918) andİzmir(1919) by theAlliesin the aftermath of World War I initiated theTurkish National Movement. Under the leadership ofMustafa Kemal Pasha, a military commander who had distinguished himself during theBattle of Gallipoli, theTurkish War of Independence(1919–1923) was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of theTreaty of Sèvres(1920).
TheTurkish Provisional GovernmentinAnkara, which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on23 April 1920, started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. The Ankara Government engaged in armed and diplomatic struggle. In 1921–1923, the Armenian, Greek, French, and British armies had been expelled.The military advance and diplomatic success of the Ankara Government resulted in the signing of theArmistice of Mudanyaon 11 October 1922. On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years ofmonarchicalOttoman rule.
TheTreaty of Lausanneof 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres,led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new Turkish state as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire. On 4 October 1923, the Allied occupation of Turkey ended with the withdrawal of the last Allied troops fromIstanbul. The Turkish Republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital.TheLausanne Conventionstipulated apopulation exchange between Greece and Turkey.
Mustafa Kemal became the republic's firstpresidentand introducedmany reforms. The reforms aimed to transform the oldreligion-based and multi-communalOttoman monarchy into a Turkishnation statethat would be governed as aparliamentary republicunder asecular constitution.Women gained the right to vote nationally in 1934.With theSurname Law, theTurkish Parliamentbestowed upon Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" (Father Turk).Atatürk's reforms caused discontent in someKurdishandZazatribes leading to theSheikh Said rebellionin 1925and theDersim rebellionin 1937.
İsmet İnönübecame the country's second president following Atatürk's death in 1938. In 1939, theRepublic of Hatayvoted in favor of joining Turkey with a referendum. Turkeyremained neutralduring almost all ofWorld War II,but entered the war on the side of theAllieson23 February 1945.Later that year, Turkey became acharter memberof the United Nations.In 1950 Turkey became a member of theCouncil of Europe. After fighting as part of theUNforces in theKorean War, Turkey joinedNATOin 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into theMediterranean.
Military coups or memorandums, which happened in1960,1971,1980, and1997, complicated Turkey's transition to a democraticmultiparty system.Between 1960 and the end of the 20th century, the prominent leaders in Turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories wereSüleyman Demirel,Bülent EcevitandTurgut Özal.PKK started a "campaign of terrorist attacks on civilian and military targets" in the 1980s.It is designated as aterrorist organizationby Turkey,the United States,and the European Union.Tansu Çillerbecame the first female prime minister of Turkey in 1993. Turkey applied for full membership of theEECin 1987, joined theEuropean Union Customs Unionin 1995 and startedaccession negotiationswith theEuropean Unionin 2005.Customs Union had an important impact on the Turkish manufacturing sector.
In 2014, prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan won Turkey's first directpresidential election.On 15 July 2016, anunsuccessful coup attempttried to oust the government.According to the Turkish government, there are 13,251 arrested or convicted people in jail as of 2024, related to the 2016 coup attempt.With areferendum in 2017, the parliamentary republic was replaced by anexecutive presidential system. The office of the prime minister was abolished, and its powers and duties were transferred to the president. On the referendum day, while the voting was still underway, theSupreme Electoral Councillifted a rule that required each ballot to have an official stamp.The opposition parties claimed that as many as 2.5 millionballots without a stampwere accepted as valid.
Turkey has aunitarystructure in terms of public administration, and the provinces are subordinate to thecentral governmentinAnkara. In province centers the government is represented by the province governors (vali) and in towns by the governors (kaymakam). Other senior public officials are also appointed by the central government, except for the mayors (belediye başkanı) who are elected by the constituents.Turkish municipalities have local legislative bodies (belediye meclisi) for decision-making on municipal issues.
Turkey is subdivided into 81provinces(ilorvilayet) for administrative purposes. Each province is divided intodistricts(ilçe), for a total of 973 districts.Turkey is also subdivided into 7regions(bölge) and 21 subregions for geographic, demographic and economic measurements, surveys and classifications; this does not refer to an administrative division.
Turkey is apresidential republicwithin amulti-party system.Thecurrent constitutionwasadopted in 1982.In the Turkish unitary system, citizens are subject tothree levels of government: national, provincial, and local. Thelocal government's duties are commonly split betweenmunicipal governmentsand districts, in which the executive and legislative officials are elected by aplurality voteof citizens by district.The government comprises three branches: first is thelegislativebranch, which isGrand National Assembly of Turkey;second is theexecutivebranch, which is thePresident of Turkey;and third is thejudicialbranch, which includes theConstitutional Court, 
theCourt of CassationandCourt of Jurisdictional Disputes.
The Parliament has 600 seats, distributed among the provincesproportionally to the population. The Parliament and the president serve a five-year terms, with elections on the same day. The president iselectedbydirect voteand cannot run for re-election after two terms, unless the parliament calls early presidential elections during the second term.The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 members, elected for single 12-year terms. They are obliged to retire when they are over the age of 65.Turkish politics have become increasingly associated withdemocratic backsliding, being described as acompetitive authoritariansystem.
Elections in Turkey are held for six functions of government:presidential(national), parliamentary (national),municipality mayors(local), district mayors (local), provincial ormunicipal council members(local), andmuhtars(local).Referendumsare also held occasionally. Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has theright to voteand stand as a candidate at elections.Universal suffragefor both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1934.In Turkey,turnout ratesof both local and general elections are high compared to many other countries, which usually stands higher than 80%.PresidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğanis currently serving as thehead of stateandhead of government.Özgür Özelis theMain Opposition Leader. The lastparliamentaryandpresidentialelections were in 2023.
The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing ofpolitical partiesthat it deemsanti-secularor having ties toterrorism, or ban their existence altogether.Theelectoral thresholdfor political parties at national level is seven percent of the votes.Smaller parties can avoid the electoral threshold by forming an alliance with other parties.Independent candidatesare not subject to an electoral threshold.
On the right side of the Turkishpolitical spectrum, parties like theDemocrat Party,Justice Party,Motherland Party, andJustice and Development Partybecame the most popular political parties in Turkey, winning numerous elections. Turkishright-wingparties are more likely to embrace the principles of political ideologies such asconservatism,nationalismorIslamism.On the left side of the spectrum, parties like theRepublican People's Party,Social Democratic Populist PartyandDemocratic Left Partyonce enjoyed the largest electoral success.Left-wingparties are more likely to embrace the principles ofsocialism,Kemalismorsecularism.
With the founding of the Republic, Turkey adopted acivil lawlegal system, replacingSharia-derivedOttoman law. TheCivil Code, adopted in 1926, was based on theSwiss Civil Codeof 1907 and theSwiss Code of Obligationsof 1911. Although it underwent a number of changes in 2002, it retains much of the basis of the original Code. TheCriminal Code, originally based on theItalian Criminal Code, was replaced in 2005 by a Code with principles similar to theGerman Penal Codeand German law generally.Administrative lawis based on the French equivalent andprocedural lawgenerally shows the influence of the Swiss, German and French legal systems.Islamic principles do not play a part in the legal system.
Law enforcement in Turkeyis carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of theMinistry of Internal Affairs. These agencies are theGeneral Directorate of Security, theGendarmerie General Commandand theCoast Guard Command.In the years of government by the Justice and Development Party and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey, because of political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors and in their pursuit of public duty.
Turkey's constant foreign policy goal is to pursue its national interests. These interests are mainly growing the economy, and maintaining security frominternal terroristand external threats.After the establishment of the Republic,Atatürkandİnönüfollowed the "peace at home, peace in the world" principle until theCold War's start.Followingthreats from the Soviet Union, Turkey sought toally with the United Statesand joinedNATOin 1952.Overall, Turkey aims for good relations withCentral Asia, theCaucasus, Russia, theMiddle East, and Iran. With the West, Turkey also aims to keep its arrangements.By trading with the east and joining the EU, Turkey pursues economic growth.Turkey joined theEuropean Union Customs Unionin 1995,butits EU accession talksare frozen as of 2024.
Turkey has been called an emerging power,amiddle power,and aregional power.Turkey has sought closer relations with the Central Asian Turkic states after the breakup of the Soviet Union.Closerrelations with Azerbaijan, a culturally close country, was achieved.Turkey is a founding member of theInternational Organization of Turkic CultureandOrganization of Turkic States.It is also a member ofOrganization for Security and Cooperation in Europe,Council of Europe, andOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation.
Following theArab Spring, Turkey had problems with countries such as United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt.Relations with these countries have improved since then.The exception is Syria, with which Turkey had cut its relations after the start of theSyrian civil war.There are disputeswith Greece over maritime boundariesandwith Cyprus.
In 2018, the Turkish military and the Turkish-backed forces began anoperation in Syriaaimed at ousting US-backedYPG(which Turkey considers to be an offshoot of the outlawedPKK)from the enclave ofAfrin.Turkey has also conducted airstrikes inIraqi Kurdistan, which was criticized by Iraq for violating its sovereignty and killing civilians.Diplomatic relations with Israelwere damaged after theGaza flotilla raid,normalized in 2016,and cut again following theIsraeli invasion of the Gaza Strip.In 2024, Turkey stopped trading with Israel.
TheTurkish Armed Forcesare responsible for defense against foreign threats. While the Commander-in-Chief is the President,General Staff,Air Force,Naval Force, andLand Forceusually report to the Minister of National Defence.TheGendarmerie General Commandand theCoast Guard Commandare under the jurisdiction of theMinistry of the Interior.Military service is requiredfor 6–12 months for men,which is reduced to one month after paying a fee.Turkey does not recognizeconscientious objectionand does not offer acivilian alternativeto military service.
Turkey has thesecond-largest standing military forcein NATO, after theUnited States, with an estimated strength of 890,700 military personnel as of February 2022.As part of thenuclear sharingpolicy of NATO, Turkey hosts approximately 20 United StatesB61 nuclear bombsat theIncirlik Air Base.The Turkish Armed Forces have a relatively substantial military presence abroad,withmilitary basesinAlbania,Iraq,Qatar,andSomalia.The country also maintains a force of36,000 troopsinNorthern Cyprussince 1974.
Turkey has participated in international missions under the United Nations and NATOsince the Korean War, includingpeacekeepingmissions inSomalia,Yugoslaviaand theHorn of Africa. It supportedcoalition forcesin theFirst Gulf War, contributed military personnel to theInternational Security Assistance Forcein Afghanistan, and remains active inKosovo Force,EurocorpsandEU Battlegroups.As of 2016, Turkey has assistedPeshmergaforces in northernIraqand theSomali Armed Forceswith security and training.
Article 2 of the Turkish Constitution includes references to upholding the rule of law and human rights.In the 2000s, legal changes were made for public use of and teaching in the Kurdish language. This included opening aKurdish-language national TV channel. Various "openings" were made to address concerns of minorities such asAlevi,ethnic Kurds, andethnic Romani people.Sentences for violence against women were strengthened.
In 2013,widespread protestserupted, sparked by a plan to demolishGezi Parkbut soon growing into general anti-government dissent.On 20 May 2016, the Turkish parliament stripped almost a quarter of its members of immunity from prosecution, including 101 deputies from the pro-KurdishHDPand the main oppositionCHPparty.According to theCommittee to Protect Journalists, there are 13 jailed journalists in Turkey.In its 2023 report, theEuropean Commissioncriticized how democratic institutions in Turkey operate.The criticism was rejected by Turkey.As of 2023, Turkey was the country with the highest number ofEuropean Court of Human Rightscases.
Prior to 1858, Ottoman Empire had "a lenient legal accommodation of same-sex intimacy". When prosecuted, the punishment was monetary fines. In 1858, the 1810 French Penal Code was adopted by the Ottomans, which had no penalties for same-sex intimacy that is private.Under the Republic, same sex acts have never been criminalized.However, LGBT people in Turkey face discrimination, harassment and even violence.In a survey conducted in 2016, 33% of respondents said that LGBT people should have equal rights, which increased to 45% in 2020. Another survey in 2018 found that the proportion of people who would not want a homosexual neighbor decreased from 55% in 2018 to 47% in 2019.
When the annualIstanbul Pridewas inaugurated in 2003, Turkey became the first Muslim-majority country to hold a gay pride march.Since 2015, parades atTaksim Squareandİstiklal Avenuehave been denied government permission, citing security concerns, but hundreds of people have defied the ban each year.The bans were criticized.
Turkey covers an area of 783,562 square kilometres (302,535 square miles).WithTurkish straitsandSea of Marmarain between, Turkey bridgesWestern AsiaandSoutheastern Europe.Turkey's Asian side covers 97% of its surface, and is often calledAnatolia.Another definition of Anatolia's eastern boundary is an imprecise line from theBlack SeatoGulf of Iskenderun.Eastern Thrace, Turkey's European side, includes around 10% of the population and covers 3% of the surface area.The country is encircled by seas on three sides: theAegean Seato the west, the Black Sea to the north and theMediterranean Seato the south.Turkey is bordered by Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran to the east.To the south, it's bordered by Syria and Iraq.To the north, its Thracian area is bordered by Greece and Bulgaria.
Turkey is divided into "seven major regions":Marmara,Aegean,Central Anatolia,Black Sea,Eastern Anatolia,Southeastern Anatoliaand theMediterranean.As a general trend, the inlandAnatolian Plateaubecomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.Mountain ranges includeKöroğluandPonticmountain ranges to the north, and theTaurus Mountainsto the south. TheLakes Regioncontains some of the largest lakes in Turkey such asLake BeyşehirandLake Eğirdir.
Geographers have used the eastern Anatolian plateau, Iranian plateau, andArmenian plateauterms to refer to the mountainous area around whereArabianandEurasiantectonic plates merge. The eastern Anatolian plateau and Armenian plateau definitions largely overlap.TheEastern Anatolia RegioncontainsMount Ararat, Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,854 feet),andLake Van, the largest lake in the country.Eastern Turkey is home to the sources of rivers such as theEuphrates,TigrisandAras. TheSoutheastern Anatolia Regionincludes the northern plains ofUpper Mesopotamia.
Earthquakeshappen frequently in Turkey.Almost the entire population lives in areas with varying seismic risk levels, with around 70% in highest or second-highest seismic areas.Anatolian plateis bordered byNorth Anatolian Faultzone to the north;East Anatolian Faultzone and Bitlis–Zagros collision zone to the east;Hellenicand Cyprus subduction zones to the south; andAegean extensional zoneto the west.After1999 İzmitand1999 Düzceearthquakes, North Anatolian Fault zone activity "is considered to be one of the most dangerous natural hazards in Turkey".2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakeswere the deadliest in contemporary Turkish history.Turkey is sometimes unfavorably compared toChile, a country with a similardevelopmental levelthat is more successful withearthquake preparedness.
Turkey's position at the crossroads of the land, sea and air routes between the threeOld Worldcontinents and the variety of the habitats across its geographical regions have produced considerable species diversity and a vibrant ecosystem.Out of the 36biodiversity hotspotsin the world, Turkey includes 3 of them.These are theMediterranean,Irano-Anatolian, andCaucasushotspots.
Theforests of Turkeyare home to theTurkey oak. The most commonly found species of the genusPlatanus(plane)is theorientalis. TheTurkish pine (Pinus brutia)is mostly found in Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries. Several wild species oftulipare native to Anatolia, and the flower was firstintroduced to Western Europewith species taken from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
There are40 national parks, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such asGallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park,Mount Nemrut National Park,Ancient Troy National Park,Ölüdeniz Nature ParkandPolonezköy Nature Park.TheNorthern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forestsis anecoregionwhich covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, while theCaucasus mixed forestsextend across the eastern end of the range. The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as theEurasian sparrowhawk,golden eagle,eastern imperial eagle,lesser spotted eagle,Caucasian black grouse,red-fronted serin, andwallcreeper.
TheAnatolian leopardis still found in very small numbers in the northeastern and southeastern regions of Turkey.TheEurasian lynx, theEuropean wildcatand thecaracalare otherfelidspecies which are found in the forests of Turkey. TheCaspian tiger, now extinct, lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until the latter half of the 20th century.Renowned domestic animals from Ankara include theAngora cat,Angora rabbitandAngora goat; and fromVan ProvincetheVan cat. The national dog breeds are theKangal(Anatolian Shepherd),MalaklıandAkbaş.
The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas have atemperateMediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters.The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea have a temperateoceanic climatewith warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters.The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the most precipitation and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year.The eastern part of the Black Sea coast averages 2,200 millimetres (87 in) annually which is the highest precipitation in the country.The coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters.
Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter but usually melts in no more than a few days.However, snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea.Winters on the Anatolian plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of −30 to −40 °C (−22 to −40 °F) do occur in northeastern Anatolia, and snow may lie on the ground for at least 120 days of the year, and during the entire year on the summits of the highest mountains. In central Anatolia the temperatures can drop below −20 °C (−4 °F) with the mountains being even colder. Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian Plateau acontinental climatewith sharply contrasting seasons.
Due to socioeconomic, climatic, and geographic factors, Turkey is highlyvulnerable to climate change.This applies to nine out of ten climate vulnerability dimensions, such as "average annual risk to wellbeing".OECDmedian is two out of ten.Inclusive and swift growth is needed for decreasing vulnerability.Turkey aims to achievenet zero emissionsby 2053.Accomplishing climate goals would require large investments, but would also result in net economic benefits, broadly due to reduced imports of fuel and due to better health from lowering air pollution.
Turkey is anupper-middle-income country and anemerging market.A founding member of theOECDandG20, it is the17th-largest economy by nominaland the12th-largest economybyPPP-adjusted GDP in the world.It is classified amongnewly industrialized countries.Servicesaccount for the majority of GDP, whereas industry accounts for more than 30%.Agriculture contributes about 7%.According toIMFestimates, Turkey's GDP per capita by PPP is $40,283 in 2024, while its nominal GDP per capita is $15,666.Foreign direct investmentin Turkey peaked at $22.05 billion in 2007 and dropped to $13.09 billion in 2022.Potential growth is weakened by long-lasting structural and macro obstacles, such as slow rates of productivity growth and high inflation.
Turkey has a diversified economy; main industries include automobiles, electronics, textiles, construction, steel, mining, and food processing.It is amajor agricultural producer.Turkey ranks8th in crude steel production, and13th in motor vehicle production, ship building (bytonnage), and annual industrial robot installation in the world.Turkish automative companiesincludeTEMSA,Otokar,BMCandTogg. Togg is the first all-electric vehicle company of Turkey.Arçelik,Vestel, andBekoare major manufacturers of consumer electronics.Arçelik is one of the largest producers of household goods in the world.In 2022, Turkey ranked second in the world in terms of the number of international contractors in the top 250 list.It is also the fifth largest in the world in terms of textile exports.Turkish Airlinesis one of thelargest airlines in the world.
Between 2007 and 2021, the share of population below the PPP-$6.85 per dayinternational poverty thresholddeclined from 20% to 7.6%.In 2023, 13.9% of the population was below the national at-risk-of-poverty rate.In 2021, 34% of the population were at risk of poverty or social exclusion, usingEurostatdefinition.Unemployment in Turkey was 10.4% in 2022.In 2021, it was estimated that 47% of total disposable income was received by the top 20% of income earners, while the lowest 20% received only 6%.
Tourism accounts for about 8% of Turkey's GDP.In 2022, Turkeyranked fifth in the worldin the number of international tourist arrivals with 50.5 million foreign tourists.Turkey has21 UNESCO World Heritage Sitesand84 World Heritage Sites in tentative list. Turkey is home to 519Blue Flag beaches, third most in the world.According toEuromonitor Internationalreport, Istanbul is the most visited city in the world, with more than 20.2 million foreign visitors in 2023.Antalya has surpassedParisandNew Yorkto become the fourth most visited city in the world, with more than 16.5 million foreign visitors.
Turkey is the16th largest electricity producerin the world.Turkey's energy generationcapacity increased significantly, withelectricity generation from renewable sourcestripling in the past decade.It produced 43.8% ofits electricityfrom such sources in 2019.Turkey is also thefourth-largest producerofgeothermal powerin the world.Turkey's first nuclear power station,Akkuyu, will increase diversification of its energy mix.When it comes tototal final consumption, fossil fuels still play a large role, accounting for 73%.A major reason ofTurkey's greenhouse gas emissionsis thelarge proportion of coalin the energy system.As of 2017, while the government had invested in low carbon energy transition,fossil fuels were still subsidized.By 2053, Turkey aims to havenet zero emissions.
Turkey has made security of its energy supply a top priority, given its heavy reliance on gas and oil imports.Turkey's main energy supply sources areRussia, West Asia, and Central Asia.Gas productionbegan in 2023 in the recently discoveredSakarya gas field. When fully operational, it will supply about 30% of the natural gas needed domestically.Turkey aims to become a hub for regional energy transportation.Several oil and gas pipelines span the country, including theBlue Stream,TurkStream, andBaku-Tbilisi-Ceyhanpipelines.
As of 2023, Turkey has 3,726 kilometers ofcontrolled-access highwaysand 29,373 kilometers ofdivided highways.Multiple bridges and tunnels connect Asian and European sides of Turkey; theÇanakkale 1915 Bridgeon theDardanellesstrait is thelongest suspension bridge in the world.MarmarayandEurasiatunnels under theBosporusconnect both sides of Istanbul.TheOsman Gazi Bridgeconnects the northern and southern shores of theGulf of İzmit.
Turkish State Railwaysoperates both conventional and high speed trains, with the government expanding both.High-speed raillines include theAnkara-Istanbul,Ankara-Konya, andAnkara-Sivasroutes.Istanbul Metrois the largest subway network in the country with around 704 million annual ridership in 2019.There are115 airportsas of 2024.Istanbul Airportis one of thetop 10 busiest airportsin the world. Turkey aims to become a transportation hub.It is part of various routes that connect Asia and Europe, includingthe Middle Corridor.In 2024, Turkey, Iraq, UAE, and Qatar signed an agreement to link Iraqi port facilities to Turkey via road and rail connections.
Turkey's spending onresearch and developmentas a share of GDP has risen from 0.47% in 2000 to 1.40% in 2021.Turkey ranks 16th in the worldin terms of article output in scientific and technical journals, and 35th inNature Index.Turkish patent office ranks 21st worldwide in overall patent applications, and 3rd in industrial design applications. Vast majority of applicants to the Turkish patent office are Turkish residents. In all patent offices globally,Turkish residents rank 21st for overall patent applications.In 2024, Turkey ranked 37th in the world and 3rd among its upper-middle income group in theGlobal Innovation Index.
TÜBİTAKis one of the main agencies for funding and carrying out research.Turkey's space programplans to develop anational satellite launch system, and to improve capabilities in space exploration, astronomy, and satellite communication.Under theGöktürkProgram,Turkish Space Systems, Integration and Test Centerwas built.Turkey's first communication satellite manufactured domestically,Türksat 6A, will be launched in 2024.As part of a plannedparticle acceleratorcenter, an electron accelerator called TARLA became operational in 2024.An Antarctic research stationis planned onHorseshoe Island.
Turkey is considered a significant power inunmanned aerial vehicles.Aselsan,Turkish Aerospace Industries,Roketsan, and Asfat are among the top 100 defense companies in the world.Turkish defense companies spend a significant portion of their budgets for research and development.Aselsan also invests in research inquantum technology.
According to theAddress-Based Population Recording System, the country's population was 85,372,377 in 2023, excluding Syrians under temporary protection.93% lived inprovince and district centers.People within the 15–64 and 0–14 age groups corresponded to 68.3% and 21.4% of the total population, respectively. Those aged 65 years or older made up 10.2%.Between 1950 and 2020, Turkey's population more than quadrupled from 20.9 million to 83.6 million;however, the population growth rate was 0.1% in 2023.In 2023, thetotal fertility ratewas 1.51 children per woman,below the replacement rate of 2.10 per woman.In a 2018 health survey, the ideal children number was 2.8 children per woman, rising to 3 per married woman.
Article 66 of theTurkish Constitutiondefines aTurkas anyone who is a citizen.It is estimated that there are at least 47 ethnic groups represented in Turkey.Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available because census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity after the1965 Turkish census.According tothe World Factbook, 70–75% of the country's citizens are ethnic Turks.Based on a survey,KONDA's estimation was 76% in 2006, with 78% of adult citizens self-identifying their ethnic background asTurk.In 2021, 77% of adult citizens identified as such in a survey.
Kurdsare the largest ethnic minority.Their exact numbers remain disputed,with estimates ranging from 12 to 20% of the population.According to a 1990 study, Kurds made up around 12% of the population.The Kurds make up a majority in the provinces ofAğrı,Batman,Bingöl,Bitlis,Diyarbakır,Hakkari,Iğdır,Mardin,Muş,Siirt,Şırnak,TunceliandVan; a near majority inŞanlıurfa(47%); and a large minority inKars(20%).In addition, internal migration has resulted inKurdish diasporacommunities in all of the major cities in central and western Turkey. In Istanbul, there are an estimated three million Kurds, making it the city with the largest Kurdish population in the world.19% of adult citizens identified as ethnic Kurds in a survey in 2021.Some people have multiple ethnic identities, such as both Turk and Kurd.In 2006, an estimated 2.7 million ethnic Turks and Kurds were related from interethnic marriages.
According to the World Factbook, non-Kurdish ethnic minorities are 7–12% of the population.In 2006, KONDA estimated that non-Kurdish and non-Zaza ethnic minorities constituted 8.2% of the population; these were people that gave general descriptions such as Turkish citizen, people withother Turkic backgrounds,Arabs, and others.In 2021, 4% of adult citizens identified as non-ethnic Turk or non-ethnic Kurd in a survey.According to the Constitutional Court, there are only four officially recognizedminorities in Turkey: the three non-Muslim minorities recognized in theTreaty of Lausanne(Armenians,Greeks, andJews) and theBulgarians.In 2013, the Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court ruled that the minority provisions of the Lausanne Treaty should also apply toAssyrians in Turkeyand theSyriac language.Other unrecognized ethnic groups includeAlbanians,Bosniaks,Circassians,Georgians,Laz,Pomaks, andRoma.
Theofficial languageisTurkish, which is the most widely spokenTurkic languagein the world.It is spoken by 85%to 90%of the population as afirst language. Kurdish speakers are the largest linguistic minority.A survey estimated 13% of the population speak Kurdish or Zaza as a first language.Other minority languages include Arabic,Caucasian languages, andGagauz.Thelinguistic rightsof the officially recognized minorities arede jurerecognized and protected forArmenian,Bulgarian,Greek,Hebrew,andSyriac.There are multipleendangered languages in Turkey.
Excluding Syrians under temporary protection, there were 1,570,543 foreign citizens in Turkey in 2023.Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and the Kurdish areas of Iran during theGulf Warin 1991.Turkey's migrant crisisin the 2010s and early 2020s resulted in the influx of millions of refugees and immigrants.Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world as of April 2020.TheDisaster and Emergency Management Presidencymanages the refugee crisis in Turkey. Before the start of theSyrian civil warin 2011, the estimated number ofArabs in Turkeyvaried from 1 million to more than 2 million.
In November 2020, there were 3.6 millionSyrian refugeesin Turkey;these included otherethnic groups of Syria, such asSyrian KurdsandSyrian Turkmens.As of August 2023, the number these refugees was estimated to be 3.3 million. The number of Syrians had decreased by about 200,000 people since the beginning of the year.The government has granted citizenship to 238 thousand Syrians by November 2023.As of May 2023, approximately 96,000 Ukrainianrefugees of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukrainehave sought refuge in Turkey.In 2022, nearly 100,000 Russian citizens migrated to Turkey, becoming the first in the list of foreigners who moved to Turkey, meaning an increase of more than 218% from 2021.
Turkey is asecular statewith no officialstate religion; the constitution provides forfreedom of religionandconscience.According to theCIA World Factbook, Muslims constitute 99.8% of the population, most of them beingSunni.Based on a survey,KONDA's estimate for Muslims was 99.4% in 2006.According toMinority Rights Group International, estimates of share ofAleviare between 10% and 40% of the population.KONDA's estimate was 5% in 2006.4% of adult citizens identified as Alevi in a survey in 2021, while 88% identified as Sunni.
The percentage of non-Muslims in modern-day Turkey was 19.1% in 1914, but fell to 2.5% in 1927.Currently, non-Muslims constitute 0.2% of the population according to the World Factbook.In 2006, KONDA's estimate was 0.18% for people with non-Islam religions.Some of the non-Muslim communities are Armenians,Assyrians, Bulgarian Orthodox,Catholics,Greeks, Jews, andProtestants.Sources estimate that theChristian population in Turkeyranges between 180,000 and 320,000.Turkey hasthe largest Jewish communityamong the Muslim-majority countries.Currently, there are 439 churches and synagogues in Turkey.
In 2006, KONDA's estimate was 0.47% for those with no religion.According to KONDA, share of adult citizens who identified as unbeliever increased from 2% in 2011 to 6% in 2021.A 2020 Gezici Araştırma poll found that 28.5% of theGeneration Zidentify as irreligious.
In the past 20 years, Turkey has improved quality of education and has made significant progress in increasing education access.From 2011 to 2021, improvements in education access include "one of the largest increases in educational attainment for 25-34 year-olds at upper secondary non-tertiary or tertiary education",  and quadrupling of pre-school institutions.PISAresults suggest improvements in education quality.There is still a gap with OECD countries. Significant challenges include differences in student outcomes from different schools, differences between rural and urban areas, pre-primary education access, and arrival of students who are Syrian refugees.
TheMinistry of National Educationis responsible for pre-tertiary education.Compulsory education is free at public schools and lasts 12 years, divided into three parts.There are 208universities in Turkey.Students are placed to universities based on theirYKSresults and their preferences, by theMeasuring, Selection and Placement Center.All state and private universities are under the control of theHigher Education Board(Turkish:Yükseköğretim Kurulu, YÖK). Since 2016, the president of Turkey directly appoints all rectors of all state and private universities.
According to the 2024Times Higher Education ranking, the top universities wereKoç University,Middle East Technical University,Sabancı University, andIstanbul Technical University.According toAcademic Ranking of World Universities, the top ones wereIstanbul University,University of Health Sciences (Turkey), andHacettepe University.Turkey is a member of theErasmus+Programme.Turkey has become a hub for foreign students in recent years, with 795,962 foreign students in 2016.In 2021Türkiye Scholarships, a government-funded program, received 165,000 applications from prospective students in 178 countries.
TheMinistry of Healthhas run a universal public healthcare system since 2003.Known as Universal Health Insurance (Genel Sağlık Sigortası), it is funded by a tax surcharge on employers, currently at 5%.Public-sector funding covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures.Despite the universal health care, total expenditure on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the lowest among OECD countries at 6.3% of GDP, compared to the OECD average of 9.3%.There are many private hospitals in the country.The government planned several hospital complexes, known as city hospitals, to be constructed since 2013.Turkey is one of the top 10 destinations forhealth tourism.
Average life expectancy is 78.6 years (75.9 for males and 81.3 for females), compared with the EU average of 81 years.Turkey has high rates ofobesity, with 29.5% of its adult population having abody mass index(BMI) value of 30 or above.Air pollution is a major causeof early death.
In the 19th century, Turkish identity was debated in theOttoman Empire, with three main views: Turkism, Islamism and Westernism.In addition to Europe or Islam, Turkish culture was also influenced by Anatolia's native cultures.After the establishment of the republic,Kemalismemphasized Turkish culture, attempted to make "Islam a matter of personal conviction", and pursued modernization.Currently, Turkey has various local cultures. Things such as music,folk dance, orkebapvariety may be used to identify a local area. Turkey also has a national culture, such as national sports leagues, music bands, film stars, and trends in fashion.Turkey is home to21 UNESCO World Heritagesites and31 UNESCO intangible cultural heritageinscriptions.
Turkish literaturegoes back more than a thousand years. The Seljuk and Ottoman periods include numerous works of literature and poetry. Turkic tales and poetry from Central Asia were also kept alive.Tales of Dede Korkutis an example of theoral narrativetradition.Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, from the 11th century, contains Turkish linguistic information and poetry.Yunus Emre, influenced byRumi, was one of the most important writers of Anatolian Turkish poetry. OttomanDivanpoetry used "refined diction" and complex vocabulary. It includedSufi mysticism, romanticism, and formal elements.
Beginning in the 19th century, Ottoman literature was influenced by the West. New genres, such as novels and journalistic style, were introduced.Aşk-ı Memnu, written byHalid Ziya Uşaklıgil, was the "first truly refined Turkish novel".Fatma Aliye Topuz, the first female Turkish novelist, wrote fiction. After the proclamation of the republic in 1923,Atatürk instituted reformssuch as thelanguage reformandalphabet reform. Since then, Turkish literature reflected the socioeconomic conditions in Turkey with increasing variety. "Village Novel" genre appeared in the mid-1950s, which talked about difficulties faced from poverty.An example isMemed, My HawkbyYaşar Kemal, which wasTurkey's first Nobel Prize in Literature nominee in 1973.Orhan Pamukwon the2006 Nobel Prize in Literature.
Turkey has four "major theatrical traditions": "folk theatre, popular theatre, court theater, and Western theater." Turkish folk theatre goes back thousands of years and has survived among rural communities. Popular theatre includes plays by live actors, puppet andshadowplays, andstorytelling performances. An example for shadow play isKaragöz and Hacivat. Court theatre was the refined version of popular theatre. Beginning in the 19th century, Western theatre tradition started appearing in Turkey. Following the establishment of Turkish Republic, a state conservatory and the State Theatre Company were formed.
Turkey's visual arts scene can be categorized into two, as "decorative" and "fine" arts. Fine arts, orgüzel sanatlar, includes sculpture andpainting. Turkish artists in these areas have gained global recognition. Photography, fashion design, graphic arts, and graphic design are some of the other areas Turkish artists are known for in the world. The inaugural contemporary Turkish art sale bySotheby's Londonwas in 2009.Istanbul Modernand theIstanbul Biennialare examples of art galleries or exhibitions of contemporary Turkish art. Turkey has also seen a resurgence of traditional arts. This includes Ottoman-era traditional arts, such asceramicsandcarpets. Textile and carpet design, glass and ceramics,calligraphy,paper marbling (ebru)are some of the art forms for which modern-day Turkish artists are recognized as leaders in the Islamic world.
Although classifying genres of Turkish music can be problematic, three broad categories can be considered. These are  "Turkish folk music", "Turkish art music", and multiple popular music styles. These Popular music styles includearabesque, pop, andAnatolian rock.
The resurging popularity of pop music gave rise to several international Turkish pop stars such asAjda Pekkan,Sezen Aksu,Erol Evgin,MFÖ,Tarkan,Sertab Erener,Teoman,Kenan Doğulu,Levent YükselandHande Yener.Internationally acclaimed Turkishjazzandbluesmusicians and composers includeAhmet Ertegun(founder and president ofAtlantic Records),Nükhet Ruacanand Kerem Görsev.
Turkey is home to numerousNeolithicsettlements, such asÇatalhöyük.From theBronze Age, important architectural remnants includeAlaca Höyükand the2nd layer of Troy.There are various examples ofAncient GreekandAncient Romanarchitectures, especially in the Aegean region.Byzantine architecturedates back to the 4th century AD. Its best example isHagia Sophia. Byzantine architectural style continued to develop after theconquest of Istanbul, such asByzantine Revival architecture.DuringSeljuk Sultanate of RumandTurkish principalitiesperiod, a distinct architecture emerged, which incorporated Byzantine andArmenianarchitectures with architectural styles found inWest AsiaandCentral Asia.Seljuk architectureoften used stones and bricks, and produced numerouscaravanserais,madrasasandmausoleums.
Ottoman architectureemerged in northwest Anatolia and Thrace.Early Ottoman architecturemixed "traditional Anatolian Islamic architecture with local building materials and techniques".Following the conquest of Istanbul,classical Ottoman architectureemerged in the 16th and 17th centuries.The most important architect of the classical period isMimar Sinan, whose major works include theŞehzade Mosque,Süleymaniye Mosque, andSelimiye Mosque.Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was influenced by European elements, resulting in development ofOttoman baroque style.European influence continued in the 19th century; examples include works ofBalyan familysuch asneo-BaroquestyleDolmabahçe Palace.The last period of Ottoman architecture consists of theFirst National Architectural Movement, including works ofVedat TekandMimar Kemaleddin.
Since 1918, Turkish architecture can be divided into three parts. From 1918 to 1950, the first one includes the First National Architectural Movement period, which transitioned intomodernist architecture. Modernist and monumental buildings were preferred for public buildings, whereas "Turkish house" typevernacular architectureinfluenced private houses. From 1950 to 1980, the second part includes urbanization, modernization, and internationalization. For residential housing, "reinforced concrete, slab-block, medium-rise apartments" became prevalent. Since 1980, the third part is defined by consumer habits and international trends, such as shopping malls and office towers. Luxury residences with "Turkish house style" have been in demand.In the 21st century,urban renewalprojects have become a trend.Resilience against natural disasters such as earthquakes is one of the main goals for urban renewal projects.Around one-third of Turkey's building stock, corresponding to 6.7 million units, were assessed risky and needing urban renewal.
Turkey has a diverse and rich cuisine, varying geographically.Turkish cuisine has been influenced by Anatolian,Mediterranean,Iranian,Central Asian, andEast Asiancuisines.Turkish and Ottoman cuisine have also influenced others.Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, from the 11th century, documents "the ancient lineage of much of present-day Turkish cuisine".Güveç,Bulgur, andBörekare some of the earliest recorded examples of Turkish cuisine. Even thoughkebabas a word comes fromPersian, Turkic people had been familiar with using skewers to cook meat. Turkish cuisine can be distinguished by its various kinds of kebabs. Similarly,pilafdishes were influenced by Turkish cuisine. Further information about cuisine during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods comes from the works ofRumiandEvliya Çelebi. The latter describes "food-related guilds of Istanbul".
Food staples in Turkey includebreadandyogurt. Some of bread varieties arelavashandpide(a type ofpitabread).Ayranis a drink made of yoghurt. In western parts of Turkey,olive oilis used. Grains include wheat, maize, barley, oats, and millet. Beans, chickpeas, nuts, aubergines, and lamb are some of the commonly used ingredients.Doner kebab, originally from Turkey, is marinated lamb slices cooked vertically.Seafood includesanchovyand others.Dolmavarieties andmantıare made by stuffing vegetables or pasta.Sarmais made by rolling edible leaf over the filling.Yahnidishes are vegetable stews.Turkey is one of the countries with themezetradition.Honey,pekmez, dried fruit, or fruit are used for sweetening.Filois an originally Turkishdoughthat is used to makebaklava.Turkish delightis a "delicate but gummy jelly".
The most popular sport isassociation football.Galatasaraywon theUEFA CupandUEFA Super Cupin 2000.TheTurkey national football teamwon the bronze medal at the2002 FIFA World Cup, the2003 FIFA Confederations CupandUEFA Euro 2008.
Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular.Themen's national basketball teamandwomen's national basketball teamhave been successful.Anadolu Efes S.K.is the most successful Turkish basketball club in international competitions.Fenerbahçereached the final of theEuroLeaguein three consecutive seasons (2015–2016,2016–2017and2017–2018), becoming the European champions in 2017.
The final of the2013–14 EuroLeague Womenbasketball championship was played between two Turkish teams,GalatasarayandFenerbahçe, and won by Galatasaray.Fenerbahçe won the2023 FIBA Europe SuperCup Womenafter two consecutive Euroleague wins in the2022–23and2023–24seasons.
Thewomen's national volleyball teamhas won several medals.Women's volleyball clubs, namelyVakıfBank S.K.,FenerbahçeandEczacıbaşı, have won numerous European championship titles and medals.
The traditional national sport of Turkey has beenyağlı güreş(oilwrestling) since Ottoman times.Edirne Province has hosted the annualKırkpınaroil wrestling tournament since 1361, making it the oldest continuously held sporting competition in the world.In the 19th and early 20th centuries, oil wrestling champions such asKoca Yusuf,Nurullah HasanandKızılcıklı Mahmutacquired international fame in Europe and North America by winning world heavyweight wrestling championship titles. International wrestling styles governed byFILAsuch asfreestyle wrestlingandGreco-Roman wrestlingare also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team.
Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitablenational cinemaand a rapid growth ofbroadbandInternet use constitute a vibrant media industry in Turkey.The majority of the TV audiences are shared among public broadcasterTRTand the network-style channels such asKanal D,Show TV,ATVandStar TV. Thebroadcast mediahave a very high penetration assatellite dishesandcablesystems are widely available.TheRadio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK)is the government body overseeing the broadcast media.By circulation, themost popular newspapersarePosta,Hürriyet,Sözcü,SabahandHabertürk.
Filiz Akın,Fatma Girik,Hülya Koçyiğit, andTürkan Şorayrepresent their period of Turkish cinema.Turkish directors likeMetin Erksan,Nuri Bilge Ceylan,Yılmaz Güney,Zeki DemirkubuzandFerzan Özpetekwon numerous international awards such as thePalme d'OrandGolden Bear.Turkish television dramasare increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and are among the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations.After sweeping theMiddle East's television market over the past decade, Turkish shows have aired in more than a dozenSouthandCentral Americancountries in 2016.Turkey is today the world's second largest exporter of television series.
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