British cuisine

British cuisineconsists of the cooking traditions and practices associated with the United Kingdom, including the regional cuisines ofEngland,Scotland,Wales, andNorthern Ireland. British cuisine has its roots in the cooking traditions of the indigenousCelts, however it has been significantly influenced and shaped by subsequent waves of conquest, notably that of theRomans,Anglo-Saxons,Vikings, and theNormans; waves of migration, notably immigrants fromIndia,Bangladesh,Pakistan,Jamaicaand the widerCaribbean,China,Italy,South Africa, andEastern Europe, primarilyPoland; and exposure to increasingly globalised trade and connections to theAnglosphere, particularly theUnited States,Canada,Australia, andNew Zealand.
Traditional British cuisine has been characterised as coarse, hearty dishes relying on high quality seasonal local ingredients, paired with simple sauces to accentuate their flavour.Highlights and staples of British cuisine include theroast dinner, thefull breakfast,Shepherd's pie,Toad in the hole, andfish and chips; a highly diverse variety of both savoury and sweetpies,cakes,tarts, andpastries; foods influenced by immigrant populations such ascurryandspaghetti bolognese; traditional desserts such astrifle,scones,apple pie,sticky toffee pudding, andVictoria sponge cake; and a large variety ofcheese,beer, ale, and stout, andcider.
Modern British cuisine has tended towards a stronger focus onfast food,processed foods,takeaways, andfried food. However, in the larger cities with multicultural populations, a vibrant culinary scene exists influenced byglobal cuisine. The modern phenomenon of televisioncelebrity chefsbegan in the United Kingdom withPhilip Harben. Since then, the celebrity chef scene has produced an array of well-known British chefs who have wielded considerable influence on modern British and global cuisine, such asMarco Pierre White,Gordon Ramsay,Jamie Oliver,Heston Blumenthal,Rick Stein,Nigella Lawson,Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall, andFanny Cradock.
British cuisine has its roots in the cooking practices of the indigenousCelts.Celtic agricultureand animal breeding practices produced a wide variety of foodstuffs, such asgrain,fruit,vegetables, andcattle. Archaeological evidence ofcheeseproduction can be seen as early as 3,800 BC,whilebreadfrom cereal grains was being produced as early as 3,700 BC.Ancient Celts fermented apples to producecider, as recorded byJulius Caesarduring hisattempted invasions of Britainin 55-54 BC.
Straborecords thatCeltic Britonscultivatedmillet,herbs, androot vegetables, and practisedapicultureto producehoney. Trade with CelticGaulsin what is now modern-dayFranceand theLow Countries, as well as with theRoman Republicfollowing itsconquest of Gaul, introduced grains such aswheat,oats, andrye.Barleywas grown to produceporridgeand malt forbeer, whileflaxwas grown for itsoil.Broad beans,wild spinach,herbs, and primitiveparsnipswere the primary sources of vegetables andgreensin Celtic Britain.
According toJulius Caesar, Celtic Britons domesticatedcattle, which were symbols of status and wealth,sheepandgoatsfor their meat and milk; and, to a lesser extent, pigs forham. Caesar notes that Celts also domesticatedgeese,chickens, andhares, but it is unclear whether they were kept for food or for religious rituals due to the association with Celtic deities. Trade withRomansalso led to the import ofwine.
In 43 AD, theRoman Empireinvaded and began itsconquest of Britain, eventually encompassing all of modern-dayEngland,Wales, and parts of southernScotland. The Roman conquest brought a culinary renaissance to the island, importing many foodstuffs which were hitherto unknown to Celtic Britons, including fruits such asfigs,medlars,grapes,pears,cherries,plums,damsons,mulberries,dates,olives,vegetable marrows, andcucumbers; vegetables such ascarrots,celery,asparagus,endives,turnips,cabbages,leeks,radishes,onions,shallots, andartichokes; nuts, seeds, and pulses such assweet chestnuts,lentils,peas,pine nuts,almonds,walnuts, andsesame; and herbs and spices such asgarlic,basil,parsley,borage,chervil,thyme,common sage,sweet marjoram,summer savory,black pepper,ginger,cinnamon,rosemary,mint,coriander,chives,dill, andfennel.Produced foods such assausageswere also imported,along with new animals, includingrabbits,pheasants,peacocks,guinea fowl, and possiblyfallow deer.
Roman colonists were able togrow winein vineyards as far north asNorthamptonshireandLincolnshire, and the longevity of Roman occupation is credited as creating the wine industry in Britain.The importance ofseafoodto the Roman diet led to its increasing popularity in Britain, particularlyshellfishsuch asoysters. The quality of oysters fromColchesterin particular became prized inRomeas a delicacy.After theend of Roman rule in Britainand the subsequent collapse of theWestern Roman Empire, many of the more exotic food items, such as spices, disappeared from British cuisine until its reintroduction centuries later. After the Roman period, British cuisine predominately consisted of vegetables, cereals, and meats such as mutton.
Shortly after the end of Roman rule in Britain, the GermanicAnglo-Saxonsbegan conquering and colonising the island. The Anglo-Saxons introducedbaconto Britain during this period; rural families had their own recipes for curing and smoking bacon, while urban residents would purchase bacon frombutcherswho developed their own curing methods. Residents inLondonhad access to a particularly diverse range of bacon products from across Britain.Anglo-Saxons helped to entrenchstews,broths, andsoupsinto British cuisine, along with an early form of thecrumpet.Bread and butter became common fare, and the English in particular gained a reputation for their liberal use of melted butter as a sauce with meat and vegetables.Alewas a popular drink of choice among the nobility and peasantry alike,andmeadproduction increased around Christian monasteries.Danishand otherScandinavianinvaders during theViking Ageintroduced techniques for smoking and dryingfish.
After theNorman Conquestin 1066, the Normans reintroduced many spices and continental influences that had been lost after the departure of the Romans.Many of the modern English words for foodstuffs, such as beef, pork, mutton, gravy, jelly, mustard, onion, herb, and spice are derived fromOld Frenchwords introduced by the Normans.Though eating habits and cooking methods remained largely unchanged, pig farming intensified under the Norman dynasty.TheCrusadesand trade withArabMuslimempires introduced foods such asorangesandsugarcaneto Britain.
It was during the late 14th century that the firstcookery booksbegan to emerge, notably the English book theForme of Cury,containing recipes from the court ofRichard II.The recipes it describes are diverse and sophisticated, with a wide variety of ingredients such ascapon,pheasant,almonds,cinnamon,ginger,cloves,dates,pine nuts,saffron, andsugar. It also describes foods such asgingerbread, andsweet and soursauces.Elaborate stews such asdillegroutbecame commonly served at the coronations of English monarchs.It was during the middle ages that many staples of British cuisine began to develop, such as theapple pie,an earlycheesecake(calledsambocade),custard,mince pies,pasties,and various forms of meatpies.
The dawn of theTudor dynastyfollowing theWars of the Rosescoincided with the European discovery of theNew World, the initiation of theColumbian exchange, and globalisation of trade, which opened up Britain to a range of new foodstuffs not seen since the Roman conquest. Foods from the New World included grains such asmaize;fruits such as avocados,chili pepperschocolate,cranberries,guavas,papayas,pineapples,squashes,andtomatoes;vegetables such as potatoes,cassavas,and sweet potatoes;legumes such aspeanutsandharicot beans,spices such as vanilla;and animals, most notably turkeys.The growth of the globalspice trade, now dominated by rapidly expanding European empires, led to the re-proliferation of black pepper, nutmeg,cloves,mace, and cinnamon in British cookery.
The late 15th century saw the development of well-known alcoholic beverageScotch whisky.It was during the early 16th century that cookery books printed using theprinting pressbecame more widely available, notablyThe Boke of Cokeryprinted at the turn of the century in 1500 byRichard Pynson, andThe Good Huswifes Jewelltowards the end of the century in 1585 byThomas Dawson. Under the Tudor dynasty in England and Wales, and theStuart dynastyin Scotland, British cuisine became more refined and grew more sophisticated. Recipes began to emphasise a balance of sweet and sour flavours,butter became a key ingredient in sauces, reflecting a trend seen in France that continued in subsequent centuries,and herbs such as thyme, used only sparingly in the medieval period, began to replace spices as flavourings.
Throughout the Tudor period, fruits such as apples,gooseberries, grapes, oranges, and plums were commonly eaten.The main source of carbohydrates in British diets remainedbread, and its composition reflected one's socio-economic class: the peasantry ate bread made fromryeor coarsewheat, the emerging middle class of prosperous tenants ate a yeoman's bread made ofwholemeal, while the most expensive bread was made of whitewheatflour.Meat consumption grew rapidly throughout the 16th century as the price of meat fell, and poorer families who would have rarely enjoyed meat a century before now had wider access to it. Commoners living by rivers or along the coast ate seafood that was plentiful to the waters surrounding Britain, such ashaddock,sole, cod, oysters,whitebait, andcockles, while the wealthier classes atesturgeon, seals, crab, lobster, salmon, trout, and shrimp. Commoners ate whatever meat they could hunt, such as rabbit, blackbirds, chicken, ducks, and pigeons.
The nobility consumed fresh meat in such vast quantities that it constituted approximately 75% of their diet. For example, the quantities of meat procured for the court ofElizabeth Iin just one year included 8,200 sheep, 2,330 deer, 1,870 pigs, 1,240 oxen, 760 calves, and 53 wild boar.Piesbecame an important staple as both food and for court theatrics; thenursery rhyme"Sing a Song of Sixpence", with its lyrics "Four and Twenty blackbirds / Baked in a pie. // When the pie is opened, the birds began to sing", refers to the conceit of placing live birds under a pie crust just before serving at a banquet.Nobles ate costlier or more unusual varieties of meat, such as swans, lamb and mutton, veal, beef, heron,pheasant,partridge,quail,peafowl, geese, boar, andvenison.Royal banquets during the court ofHenry VIIIincluded unusual meats such asconger eelandporpoise.
Desserts and sweet foods grew rapidly as European demand for sugar ballooned during the 16th century. Sweets in British cuisine at this time included pastry-based foods such astarts, sweetflans, andcustards.The 16th century saw the emergence of sweet foods such as thefruit fool, most commonly made with gooseberries, sugar, andclotted cream;syllabubs, a dessert made with milk or cream, sugar, and wine,andtrifle, at the time a thickcreamflavoured withsugar,ginger, androsewater.Trifle has remained a staple of British cuisine and is a popular sweet dish today.Sconesandshortbreaddeveloped in Scotland at this time; though shortbread had been known since the 12th century, it was refined into its modern form during the reign ofMary, Queen of Scots.As trade withSoutheast Asiaincreased, widespread eating of rice became more common, though it was usually in the form of a dessert, giving rise torice puddingin Britain.
During the Stuart dynasty into the 17th century, trade with Africa, India, and China increased, largely through private interests, namely theEast India Company. Fruits such as bananas became more commonplace,however it was the introduction of tea that would have a much more profound effect on British culinary habits. Tea remained quite expensive until the 18th century, and it was only consumed by wealthier middle class individuals and those in the nobility before that time.Coffee, a drink derived from the beans of a plant native toYemen, was introduced to Europe through Italy, and became highly successful in the mid-to-late 17th century.Coffee houses sprang up across Britain; one, Oxford'sQueen's Lane Coffee House, established in 1654, is still open today as the oldest continually-serving coffee house in Europe.Owing to the growing appreciation of sweet foods in Britain, thesponge cake, which would later become a defining food of theVictorian eraandafternoon tea, had its start in the early 17th century, which mixed flour, sugar, and eggs, seasoned withaniseandcorianderseeds.The alcoholic beveragerum, produced frommolassesthroughout the Caribbean and North America, came to be associated with the BritishRoyal Navyat this time, when they captured the valuable sugar-producing island ofJamaicain 1655.
In 1707, the kingdoms of England (which included Wales) and Scotland united to form a new country, theKingdom of Great Britain. For the vast majority of the 18th century, the new British nation was ruled by theHouse of Hanoverunder theGeorgian dynasty. During this time, the British deepened their influence in India, displacing the Dutch and French as the preeminent European power in southeast Asia. Increasing British domination of global trade, cheapening of ingredients hitherto affordable only to wealthier individuals, and a burgeoning middle class led to many innovations in British cuisine, influenced by foods the British encountered in India.
The 18th century saw a revolution in English cookery books, notablyThe Compleat Housewifein 1727 byEliza SmithandThe Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easytwenty years later by writerHannah Glasse, which became a best seller for a century. Glasse's book not only heavily influenced British cuisine, but also earlyAmerican cuisine, with copies owned byBenjamin Franklin,Thomas Jefferson, andGeorge Washington.The book contains the first known recipe in English forcurry, which called for chicken to be fried in butter, groundturmeric,ginger, andpepper, then stewed with cream and lemon juice added before serving, resembling the modern dishbutter chicken.Dishes that would become staples of British cuisine well into the 21st century were first mentioned in Glasse's book, such asYorkshire pudding,burgers(called "Hamburgh sausage"),the addition ofjellyintotrifle,andpiccalilli.
Pies and other hearty snack-type foods continued to develop in variety and popularity, favoured by hunters as an easy, portable lunch. Glasse describes a "Cheshirepork pie", a pie filled with layers ofpork loinand apples, sweetened with sugar and filled withwhite wine.Thesandwich, now a global staple with countless varieties though originally referring toroast beefbetween two slices of toasted bread, and named forJohn Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, gained widespread popularity in the 18th century. Montagu reputedly ordered the food during late-night sessions ingambling houses, as it could be eaten without the need for cutlery, allowing him to continue his gambling uninterrupted.With theIndustrial Revolutionrapidly developing during the 18th century in Britain and the growth of a new, industrial urban-basedworking class, the demand for fast, portable, and inexpensive meals grew considerably, leading to the ubiquitous adoption of the sandwich.Similar foods previously reserved for the upper class also started gaining popularity with the working class in other parts of the country, such as theCornish pasty, favoured by miners in Cornish tin mines, working to fuel Britain's growing industry.Tavern-style foods which became culinary classics developed during this time, notablyWelsh rarebit, consisting of toasted bread topped with a sauce made of cheese, ale, and mustard.
Roast beefbecame an entrenched staple of British culinary identity in the 18th century, so much so that a French nickname for the British (more specifically the English) is "les Rosbifs" (the roast beefs).It was during the late 18th century that roast beef gained its association with theSunday roastdinner, a cornerstone of British cuisine. Families would place a cut of meat into the oven with root vegetables such as potatoes, turnips, and parsnips before attending theSunday church service. Upon their return, the meal would be cooked, and the juices from the roast was then used to make agravyto pour on top of the dinner.Though roast beef is most strongly associated with the traditional Sunday roast dinner, other meats are more commonly used today, such as chicken, lamb, pork, and sometimes duck, goose,gammon, turkey, or other game birds.With the Industrial Revolution increasingly mechanising food production and advancing food science, the world's first commercial bacon processing plant was opened in Wiltshire by John Harris in the 1770s. Today,Wiltshire curedbacon is prized in Britain for its quality.Amateur plant breeder Thomas Edward Knight of Downton, near Salisbury, England, developed the world's first sweet-tasting pea.
Poorer households attempting to extend the longevity of their meat stores made them into savoury batter puddings, giving rise to the classic dishToad in the hole.Originally the dish used beef and pigeon, however it is most commonly associated today with sausages, served with vegetables andonion gravy.Scouse, essentially a beef and root vegetable stew, developed along similar lines of thrift. The name, derived fromlobscouse,is the origin of the term "Scouser", a nickname for people fromLiverpool, due to the association of the dish with that city, particularly sailors.Sailors engaged in trade in Asia returned with knowledge of savoury sauces used as condiments. Eliza Smith subsequently published the first recipe forketchup, amushroomvariety which used anchovies and horseradish.British ketchup consequently used mushrooms rather than tomatoes as the primary ingredient, and was prepared extensively by British colonists in theThirteen Colonies.Chutney, a type of preservedrelishdeveloped in India, gained huge popularity in Britain, particularly with the working class who desired ever more exotic flavours in their diet.
The British penchant for sweet foods continued throughout the Georgian era. The staple ofbread and butter pudding, a baked custard-based dish made with bread, butter, currants, cream, eggs, and nutmeg, was first described in 1728 by Eliza Smith.Adapting earlier recipes of Portuguesequince paste, the Scots invented the modern form ofmarmalade; an easily spreadable fruit preserve made frombitter orange.Eccles cakes, a small flaky pastry filled with currants, emerged in the late 18th century, which still retains some popularity today particularly inManchesterandLancashire.Suet pudding, a boiled, steamed, or baked pudding of wheat flour,suet, dried fruits, and spices developed during this time, and become popular fare.
TheBritish conquest of Indialed to the acquisition of the largeIndian tea industry, resulting in tea becoming cheaper to import than coffee. The ease of tea production compared to coffeeled to tea becoming aBritish staple, spreading through all classes, becoming a prominent feature of modernBritish cultureand identity.Gin, an alcoholic beverage introduced into Britain in the latter half of the 17th century, exploded in popularity throughout the first half of the 18th century, and became extremely popular with the lower classes. Its popularity and heavy consumption was such that the British Parliament passed five major Acts to control the consumption of the drink.
Victoriaascended the throne in 1837 and ruled until 1901.The longevity of her reign helped entrench many culinary traditions and trends. For example, she developed a love of Indian chutneys and curry, and ordered curry twice a week on average. The trend became popular among the aristocracy and, in turn, spread throughout society.
Emerging social changes also influenced the growth and development of British cuisine. Writers such as American-bornElizabeth Robins Pennellhelped to re-cast cooking not as a duty, but as a valuable creative pursuit by framing cooking as a "high art practised by geniuses", encouraging upper and middle class Victorian women to express their own culinary creativity for the first time.This tied into the growth of themiddle classin Victorian Britain as wealth poured in from all over the Empire, and industrialisation spread into food production which cheapened ingredients, allowing more people to purchase goods previously reserved only for the very wealthy. Middle class women, in lieu of being able to afford servants and private cooks, began to make more elaborate dishes to impress guests at dinner parties.
Britain's rapid industrialisation and urbanisation in the 19th century impacted people of all socio-economic classes. Wealthy aristocrats began to have their evening meal later in the day, but still took lunch at midday. Consequently, shortly after Victoria's ascension to the throne, one of herladies-in-waiting,Anna Maria Russell, began to ask for tea, bread, and cake to be delivered to her room. The habit soon spread among the aristocracy, birthing a new tradition ofafternoon tea.Industrialisation helped reduce costs of ingredients thanks to mass-production, and pared-down versions of lavish meals characteristic of the upper class began to reach the middle and working class, such as thecooked full breakfast, usually composed of fried sausage or bacon, cooked eggs, assorted sides and toast, which grew in popularity during the Victorian era.
Throughout the 19th century,Iberian Jewish immigrantsin London introduced their method of coating fish in flour, and latera mix of flour and water, before frying in oil.Fish, which was plentiful, affordable, andwidely eaten on Fridays, led to the opening of the firstfish and chip shopby Eastern European Jewish immigrant Joseph Malin.Combining fried fish withchips, often served withmushy peasandtartare sauceasfish and chips, proved to be an incredibly popular and affordabletakeaway foodamong theworking class.The popularity of the dish has led to it being termed one of Britain'snational dishes.
The British staple of stewed meats further developed into more distinct dishes in the Victorian era.Lancashire hotpot, a dish served in the north-west of England around Liverpool and Manchester, consisting of a mutton or lamb stew topped with sliced potatoes and baked in a heavy pot, developed as a distinct regional dish.Like theSunday roast, Lancashire hotpot could be left to cook slowly while the family worked, making it a popular choice for the growing working class.While a slowly steamed suet pudding of stewed beef had been common in British cuisine since the 18th century,it was not until the mid-19th century that cooks began to addkidneys, forming thesteak and kidney pudding.Initially more of a regional dish, its ease of preparation and popularity led to it becoming recognised as a traditional British dish.
The continuing need for inexpensive and portable foods for the predominately industrial and urban working class, which had boosted the popularity of foods such as theCornish pastyand thesandwich, led to the popularising of thesausage roll, consisting of seasoned sausage meat wrapped in puff pastry and baked golden-brown. While meats wrapped in dough have their origin inAncient GreeceandRome, it was not until the 19th century that the sausage roll became widely available.Sausage rolls remain an indelible aspect of British culture and a widely popular snack food; the British bakery chainGreggssells approximately 140 million of them every year.
It was during this time that mass-producedcondimentsbecame available thanks to industrialised food production.Worcestershire sauce, afermentedsauce made primarily ofanchovies, vinegar,tamarind, and spices which had its roots in Ancient Romangarumandmushroom ketchup, was developed by chemistsJohn Wheeley Lea and William Henry Perrinsin the early 19th century.Today, Lea & Perrins remains the world's largest brand of Worcestershire sauce.In the early 19th century, Royal chefs producedbrown sauce, typically made of tomatoes and molasses.A.1. Saucewas first developed in Royal kitchens,however it fell out of favour in the British domestic market, though it has enjoyed enduring popularity in American cuisine as a steak sauce.HP Sauce, named after the Houses of Parliament, made from tomatoes,molasses, vinegar, and spices was introduced in the late 19th century and became so popular it is now regarded as an iconic sauce of British cuisine.
The British love of sweet foods spurred increasing innovation in the field of desserts. The world's first documented recipe for theice cream conewas published by English writerAgnes Marshall, consisting of baked almonds.Marshall is consequently considered the inventor of the ice cream cone.Battenberg cake, made by baking yellow and pink almond sponge cakes before being cut and arranged into a chequered pattern, held together by jam and covered withmarzipan, originated in the late 19th century,purpotedly named for the marriage ofPrincess Victoria,Queen Victoria'sgranddaughter, toPrince Louis of Battenbergin 1884.The first printed recipe forEton messwas published in 1893, a traditional dessert consisting of a mixture of strawberries, sweetmeringue, and whipped cream.Madeira wine, popular in England in the mid-19th century, directly influenced the development ofMadeira cake, a light sponge or butter cake traditionally flavoured with lemon,as an accompaniment to eat with the wine.Jam roly-poly, a simple dessert made of flat-rolledsuet puddingspread withjamand rolled-up, similar to aSwiss roll, then steamed or baked and served with custard first emerged in the early 19th century.Its affordability, ease of production, and popularity led to it becoming a modern British classic.
Throughout the mid 19th century, innovations in food preservation and production allowed the mass-production ofchocolateas a food, as opposed to primarily a drink.BritishQuakers, who were opposed to alcohol as a cause of moral sin, began to champion chocolate as an ethical alternative.Quakers came to establish three household chocolate brands which became worldwide names:Fry's,Rowntree's,and notably,Cadbury's,the latter of which would become the world's second-largest confectionary brand.
Asginregained popularity fears of a return to theGin Crazeled to theBeerhouse Act, which aimed to promote beer as a safer alternative and encourage the creation of controlled venues for workers in rapidly expanding industrial centres.The Act spurred a proliferation ofpublic housesand increased beer consumption. As the 19th century progressed, many establishments underwent lavish refurbishment to compete withgin palaces, and to distinguish themselves from one another, further solidifying alcohol consumption as an integral part of British culture.
Thehaute cuisineof the late Victorian era and early 20th century was heavily influenced byFrench cuisine, with groundbreaking chefs such asEscoffierrecruited by theSavoy Hotelin London.However, British cuisine for much of the 20th century was severely impacted by the effects ofrationingduring theFirstandSecond World Wars. The latter half of the First World War saw voluntary rationing, which limited the average citizen to a daily 1,680 calorie-ration of butter or margarine, sugar, tea, jam, bacon, and meat. Unlike elsewhere in Europe, bread was not rationed.During the war, average energy intake decreased by only 3%, but protein intake by 6%.Rationing after the First World War was not lifted in full until 1921, over three years after the war's end.
Rationing during the Second World War was much more significant, widespread, and tightly controlled. Rationing continued for nearly a full decade after the war, and in many aspects was even stricter than during wartime. As a result, many children of theSilentandBoomergenerations were raised without access to many previously common ingredients. For example, in 1942, many young children when questioned about bananas did not believe they were a real fruit.Bread was not rationed until after the war ended but was replaced by a "national loaf" of wholemeal which was found to be mushy and grey.Fish was not rationed, buthundreds of fishing trawlerswere requisitioned for military use by theRoyal Navyand fish supplies dropped by nearly a third compared to pre-war levels, resulting in prices rising.Owing to its popularity and morale-boostingcomfort foodqualities,fish and chipswas one of the few dishes not subject to rationing.Most alcoholic drinks except beer were scarce, and there was a ban on importing sugar for brewing.
Restaurants were initially exempt from rationing, but this policy was subsequently reversed after public outrage that "luxury" foods were being enjoyed by wealthier classes while the rest of the population were subject to tightly-controlled rationing. The government subsequently introduced new restrictions on restaurants; capping prices, limiting the serving time of meals, and limiting the ingredients that could be used.A standard weekly ration by the war's end consisted of 4oz (113g) of bacon, 8oz of sugar, 2oz of loose tea, 2oz of cheese, 2lb of marmalade (or 1lb of either preserves or sugar), 2oz of butter, 4oz of margarine, and 2oz of lard. Additionally, 12oz ofsweetswere allowed on a monthly basis.
After the war ended, rationing was kept in place, partially to help feed people in European areas whose economies had been virtually destroyed by the fighting, but also because resources were unavailable to expand food production and imports. Frequent strikes, critically by dock workers, only made the situation worse.Some people began using ration books of those who had died as a means to acquire extra food.In the years following the war, the bacon ration was cut by a quarter,and poor harvests resulted in the introduction of potato rationing,Due to theausteritymeasures that were kept in place or expanded (with the exception of the newNational Health Service) by the newLabour government, theConservativesencouraged public anger at rationing to rally support that won them the1951 election.The Conservatives formally ended all food rationing in 1954,although rationing had severely impacted the food production industry. For example, cheese production virtually ground to a halt, and some varieties of British cheese came close to disappearing altogether.
Wartime rationing and subsequent food scarcity at a time when British culinary traditions were strong likely contributed to a sharp decline of the international reputation of British cuisine.TheGood Food Guidein the 1960s described the food of the previous decade as "intolerable" due to food shortages of even simple ingredients such as butter, cream, and meat.British food as a result gained an international reputation as bland, soggy, overcooked, and visually unappealing.
Rationing helped to spur innovation in recipes as food shortages compelled creativity. The natural sweetness of carrots, a vegetable whose consumption was promoted by the government, were favoured as an alternative to sugar.Carrot cake, though it had its origins in a late 16th-century recipe,exploded in popularity across Britain.Crumble, a sweet dish of baked fruit filling topped with astreuselgrew in popularity during and after the war, due to the topping being easier and less expensive to produce compared to pastry.ThePloughman's lunch, initially a simple rustic meal of bread, cheese, beer, and pickled onions emerged in the 1950s,though it didn't achieve widespread popularity until the 1970s where it was favoured due to its simplicity, ease of preparation, and high profit margin due to it including no meat, though modern versions of the meal includepork pies.TheBakewell tart, a variant of theBakewell pudding, made of a shortcrust pastry shell beneath layers of jam,frangipane, and topped with flaked almonds developed in the 20th century.Thesticky toffee pudding, now a widely-popular dessert of amuffin-like sponge cake covered in atoffeesaucemade from cream and dark sugars, served with custard or vanilla ice cream, developed in the north-west of England, where it is seem as a regional culinary symbol.
Throughout the 1970s onwards, huge waves of migration to Britain came fromIndia,Pakistan, andBangladesh. Many of these immigrants were recruited to fulfill the labour shortages that resulted from the Second World War.British Indiansbecame a distinct ethnic identity in Britain who began to incorporate their own culinary traditions to a new market. In 1951, there were only 30,000 persons of Indian descent and 10,000 of Pakistani descent living in Britain. By the turn of the millennium in 2001, there were 1,053,411 persons of Indian descent, 747,000 of Pakistani descent, and 283,063 of Bangladeshi descent living in Britain, representing a significant portion of Britain's foreign-born or foreign descent population.Hungry for more exotic flavours that had disappeared during wartime rationing and keen to feed a diversifying clientele, Indian restaurants that had previously only catered to Indians began adapting classic Indian recipes for the British palette, and "going for an Indian" became a popular dining and takeaway option for a population recovering from the impact of war.
Coronation chicken, a dish created for the coronation ofElizabeth IIin 1953, drew on Britain's historic Indian influence, by preparing boneless chicken mixed in a curry ofcumin,turmeric, ginger, cream, and dried apricots orsultanas.The dish remains a popular sandwich filling.Chicken tikka masala, likely created by Bangladeshi chefs in the early 1960s,a dish ofchicken tikkamarinated in spiced yoghurt then roasted, served in a sauce typically made of pureed tomatoes, cream,coconut creamand amasalaspice mix, similar tobutter chicken, developed as a distinctly unique Anglo-Indian dish.Its popularity has led it to being termed a "true British national dish".A British version ofbalti cuisine, a type of curry popular in Northern India and Pakistan based on garlic, onions, turmeric, andgaram masalastir-fried in vegetable oil (as opposed togheeand simmered as in Indian cuisine)was developed inBirminghamin 1977.
British Indian dishes are largely based on theMadras currysauce, the name referring to the region of India where spices were obtained as opposed to an actual dish, and dishes are varied by modifying the base sauce.Vindaloo, for example, was adapted in British cuisine from a Portuguese dish as a spicier version of the standard "medium" restaurant curry sauce, with the addition of vinegar, potatoes, and chilli peppers, and is often the spiciest dish on British Indian menus.A poll byYouGovin 2016 found that the most popular Indian dish in Britain was thekorma(selected by 18% of respondents), followed bychicken tikka masala,jalfrezi,madras,rogan josh,biryani,balti,bhuna,dupiaza, andvindaloo.Indian cuisineis now the most popular foreign cuisine in Britain.
Like Indian food, hunger for more exotic flavours spurred the development of a distinct version ofChinese cuisinethat had been adapted for British tastes.British rule overHong Kongand theNew Territoriesbecame an integral part of international shipping routes, and many European companies enlisted Southern Chinese men as sailors, who in turn resettled in Britain.As with Indian immigrants, Britain recruited large numbers of Chinese peoples in the 1950s and 1960s to fill the labour void that had been created as a result of the war. Consequently the number of Chinese food establishments doubled, with a large portion of these catering to non-Chinese clientele.These restaurants were largely operated by Hong Kongers who had resettled in Britain.
Manyfish and chip shops, particularly in Liverpool, were operated by Chinese immigrants,which resulted incurry sauceandchips, staple foods in British chip shops, being incorporated into Anglicised Chinese food in a departure from authentic Chinese cuisine.British Chinese restaurants have developed original recipes, such ascrispy duck pancakesas a variation on peking duck;jar jow, a stir-fried dish of slicedchar siu, bamboo shoots, onions, and green peppers seasoned with chilli powder and tomato paste;andsalt and pepper chips, made of chips stir-fried withfive-spice powder, peppers, and onions.However, American-style Chinese dishes such aschop sueyandAmericanised chow meinhave become more popular, as well as increasingly authentic Chinese dishes.
British Chinese cuisine is considered a major component of British cuisine owing to its widespread popularity;in 2017, over 80% of Londoners reported having been to aChinese takeaway.By the end of the century, virtually every city, town, and village in Britain had at least one Chinese takeaway or restaurant.
Writers such asElizabeth David, who from 1950 produced evocative books beginning withA Book of Mediterranean Foodfeaturing ingredients which were then virtually impossible to find in Britain, helped increase Britain's appetite for foreign cuisine.David helped to inspireItalian cuisineto become the most popularMediterranean cuisinein Britain. While Italian restaurants had operated in Britain before the Second World War, they served generalisedhaute cuisine. It was only after the war that cheaper Italian coffee bars appeared, trading on their Italian identity and selling cheap and rustic Italian dishes such asminestronesoup,spaghetti, andpizza. From the early 1960s,trattoriarestaurants offered more elaborate dishes such aslasagneverdi al forno, which is baked lasagne coloured with spinach.PizzaExpress, now a multinational pizza restaurant chain, was founded in 1965 in London byPeter Boizot.The popularity of Italian food in Britain has led to an increasing demand for more authentic Italian cuisine, as with Indian and Chinese food.Other Mediterranean influences includeGreekmoussaka,feta, andtaramasalata,Turkishdonerandshishkebabs, andLevantinehummus.French cuisinein Britain is predominately expressed as a haute cuisine restricted to expensive restaurants, although some inexpensive Frenchbistrosoperate in Britain.From the 1980s onwards,ThaiandVietnamesecuisine began to gain popularity in Britain.
From the 1970s, as foreign holidays, increasing numbers of foreign-style restaurants, and increasing accessibility to a wider range of fresh ingredients widened the popularity of foreign cuisine, there was an increased push to recognise a distinctly unique British cuisine. TheEnglish Tourist Boardcampaigned for restaurants to include more traditional and regional British dishes on their menus. In the 1980s and particularly the 1990s, this developed into a style of cooking known as "Modern British" as an effort to construct a national cuisine for the tourist industry, reinterpreting classic British dishes and fusing them with foreign influence.
Some British dishes became more associated with a distinctly British haute cuisine such asBeef Wellington, a dish of flash-searedbeef tenderloincoated inEnglish mustard, and aduxellesof mushrooms, onions, herbs, and black pepper, sometimes bound withprosciuttoorpâté, and wrapped in either shortcrust or puff pastry, brushed with egg-wash and baked.
The modern phenomenon of television "celebrity chefs" began in Britain withPhilip HarbenandFanny Cradock, who appeared on television shows throughout the 1950s to the 1970s.Toward the end of the century in the 1980s and 1990s, with greater public access to radio and television, the phenomenon reached new heights when gaining aMichelin starincreased the profile and reputation of chefs.Marco Pierre Whitebecame the youngest chef in the world, as well as the first British chef, to achieve three Michelin stars,a record he held for 8 years,and has been dubbed as the first true celebrity chef.White's popularity made him a household name, and one of his cookbooks,White Heat,has been described as "possibly the most influential recipe book of the last 20 years".
One of White's protégés,Gordon Ramsay, achieved considerable success in London which led to the commissioning ofBoiling Point, following Ramsay'seponymous solo restaurant.Ramsay's aggressive and fiery persona contributed to his success with a wide variety of other television shows, and he consequently became one of the most influential chefs in the world.Ramsay's restaurants have earned a total of 17 Michelin stars, the third highest for a single chef in the world.
Dedicated food-related television channels and programming such as theGood Food ChannelandReady Steady Cookled to chefs such asRick Stein,Jamie Oliver,Ainsley Harriott,Gary Rhodes,Delia Smith,Nigella Lawson,Nigel Slater,Keith Floyd, andSimon Hopkinsonbecoming household names.
British cuisine has continued to evolve throughout the 21st century. Some of Britain's more classic dishes have fallen out of favour with the modern British public. A 2021 survey by Mortar Research found more than 28% of Britons had never eatentoad in the hole, and many traditional dishes and ingredients were believed to be imaginary by the following margins: 20% for toad in the hole, 18% forspotted dick, 13% forEton mess, 11% forbangers and mashandScotch eggs, and 10% forblack pudding. However, other classic foods remained popular, with 90% having eaten aCornish pastyat some point in their lives.Snack foods such as sausage rolls also remain popular, with the bakery chainGreggsselling 140 million per year.
Eating habits and recipes have been affected by risingvegetarianismandveganism; a 2021YouGovsurvey found 8% of Britons were now eating a plant-based diet, and more than a third said they were interested in becoming vegan.In 2023, government reports found that meat and fish consumption were at their lowest levels since record-keeping began in 1974.
Debora Robertson, writing inThe Daily Telegraph, argues that all aspects of British cuisine has undergone a culinary revolution, shedding the spectres of wartime rationing and post-war food scarcity, and its standards now rivals that of France.This has been reflected in the number ofMichelin starredrestaurants in Britain: the 2024 Michelin Guide awarded 9 restaurants in Britain with the coveted three stars, with six of them inLondonalone,more than any other city in the world except forParisandTokyo.In 2010,The Waterside InninBraybecame the first restaurant outside of France to retain three Michelin stars for a quarter of a century.The Fat Duck, a three-Michelin-star restaurant, also in Bray, was named the world's best restaurant in 2005.As of the 2024 guide, there are 185 restaurants in Britain with at least one Michelin star; 165 in England, 11 in Scotland, 6 in Wales, and 3 in Northern Ireland, only 75 fewer than the entirety of theUnited States.
The late 1990s and particularly the early 21st century saw a major shift in Britishpubs. While many pubs had a long tradition of serving food, owing to their historic heritage as traveller's inns, most pubs were solely drinking establishments and little emphasis was placed on food, other than simple meals such as sandwiches, and bar snacks, usuallypork scratchings,pickled eggs,crisps, and peanuts. These foods with their strong emphasis on salt, which dries out the mouth, were specifically intended to increase beer sales.By the turn of the century with the widespread introduction ofmicrowave ovensandfrozen food, the quality of food pubs served declined but variety increased, with most pubs servingsteak and ale pie,shepherd's pie,fish and chips,bangers and mash,Sunday roast,ploughman's lunch,chicken tikka masala, andpasties, as well as foods typically indicative of other cultures, such asburgers,chicken wings,lasagneandchilli con carne.
In 1991 the termgastropub, aportmanteauof "gastronomy" and "pub", was coined when David Eyre and Mike Belben took over The Eagle pub in London.Gastropubsare defined as pubs that serve high-quality food comparable with a restaurant, with a near equal emphasis on eating and drinking.Gastropubs caused a significant shift in British dining and pub culture,with the term being added toMerriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionaryin 2012,and the gastropub concept being exported overseas where it found significant popularity in the United Statesand Canada.The renewed emphasis on food quality in gastropubs has led many to be awardedMichelin stars: the gastropubThe Hand & FlowersinMarlowbecame the first pub to ever be awarded two Michelin stars.
The popularity and growth of gastropubs has been such that, in 2011,The Good Food Guidesuggested that there was no longer any need to distinguish traditional pubs from gastropubs in any meaningful way, and the term had become irrelevant.Gastropubs have attracted criticism, however, from those arguing that they havegentrifiedtraditional pubs, causing them to lose their quaint character.
In recent years, there has been a growing movement to revive traditional British bread-making. ChefMichel Roux Jrhighlighted the decline of artisanal baking in Britain, and the need to return to traditional methods. Roux has emphasised the importance of making bread with simple, natural ingredients and the benefits of supporting local, independent bakeries. He hopes that public awareness and consumer choices will help preserve this aspect of Britain's culinary heritage.
According to a 2019 survey by YouGov, the most popular British food is theYorkshire pudding, which over 85% of Brits say they like, closely followed by Sunday roasts and fish and chips. The least popular was jellied eels, which only 6% of those who had tried it liked. Scones andVictoria spongeare the most popular sweet foods, while theDeep-fried Mars baris the least popular.
Curries are a large part of British cuisine, with cooks in the United Kingdom creating curries distinct to the country.Chicken tikka masala, which comprises 15 per cent of orders in British Indian restaurants, was called "a true British national dish" by the Foreign Secretary Robin Cook in 2001.Generally,British curriesare thicker and sweeter than their Indian counterparts. Furthermore, curry sauces in Britain are interchangeable between meats, while in India different meats have non-interchangeable sauces.A key ingredient to a British curry iscurry powder, a "British concoction" of spices.
English cuisinehas distinctive attributes of its own, but also shares much with wider British cuisine, partly through the importation of ingredients and ideas fromNorth America,China, andIndiaduring the time of theBritish Empireand as a result ofpost-warimmigration. Some traditional meals, such assausages, bread andcheese, roasted and stewed meats,meatandgame pies, boiled vegetables and broths, andfreshwaterandsaltwater fishhave ancient origins. The 14th-century English cookery book, theForme of Cury, contains recipes for these, and dates from the royal court ofRichard II.
Northern Ireland's culinary heritage has its roots in the staple diet of generations of farming families—bread and potatoes.Historically, limited availability of ingredients and low levels of immigration resulted in restricted variety and relative isolation from wider international culinary influences. The 21st century has seen significant changes in local cuisine, characterised by an increase in the variety, quantity and quality ofgastropubsandrestaurants. There are currently threeMichelin starrestaurants in Northern Ireland, all of which specialise in traditional dishes made using local ingredients.
Scottish cuisine has closer links to Scandinavia and France than English cuisine has.Traditional Scottish dishes includebannocks,brose,cullen skink,Dundee cake,haggis,marmalade,porridge, andScotch broth.The cuisines of the northern islands ofOrkneyandShetlandare distinctively different from that of mainland Scotland.The nation is known forits whiskies.
Welsh cuisine in the Middle Ages was limited in range;Gerald of Wales, chaplain toHenry II, wrote after an 1188 tour that "The whole population lives almost entirely on oats and the produce of their herds, milk, cheese and butter. You must not expect a variety of dishes from a Welsh kitchen, and there are no highly-seasoned titbits to whet your appetite."
In modern times, the cuisine includes recipes for Welshlamb, and dishes such ascawl,Welsh rarebit,laverbread,Welsh cakes,bara brithandGlamorgan sausage.