Arabs

TheArabs(Arabic:عَرَب,DIN 31635:ʿarab,Arabic:[ˈʕɑ.rɑb];sg.عَرَبِيٌّ‎,ʿarabiyyun,pronounced[ʕɑ.rɑˈbɪj.jʊn]), also known as theArab people, are anethnic groupmainly inhabiting theArab worldinWest AsiaandNorth Africa. A significantArab diasporais present in various parts of the world.
Arabs have been in theFertile Crescentfor thousands of years.In the 9th century BCE, theAssyriansmade written references to Arabs as inhabitants of theLevant,Mesopotamia, andArabia.Throughout theAncient Near East, Arabs established influential civilizations starting from 3000 BCE onwards, such asDilmun,Gerrha, andMagan, playing a vital role in trade between Mesopotamia, and theMediterranean.Other prominent tribes includeMidian,ʿĀd, andThamudmentioned in theBibleandQuran. Later, in 900 BCE, theQedaritesenjoyed close relations with the nearbyCanaaniteandAramaeanstates, and their territory extended fromLower Egyptto the Southern Levant.From 1200 BCE to 110 BCE, powerful kingdoms emerged such asSaba,Lihyan,Minaean,Qataban,Hadhramaut,Awsan, andHomeriteemerged in Arabia.According to theAbrahamictradition, Arabs are descendants ofAbrahamthrough his sonIshmael.
Duringclassical antiquity, theNabataeansestablished theirkingdomwithPetraas the capital in 300 BCE,by 271 CE, thePalmyrene Empirewith the capitalPalmyra, led by QueenZenobia, encompassed theSyria Palaestina,Arabia Petraea,Egypt, and large parts ofAnatolia.The ArabItureansinhabitedLebanon,Syria, and northern Palestine (Galilee) during theHellenisticand Roman periods.TheOsroeneandHatranwere Arab kingdoms inUpper Mesopotamiaaround 200 CE.In 164 CE, theSasaniansrecognized the Arabs as "Arbayistan", meaning "land of the Arabs,"as they were part ofAdiabenein upper Mesopotamia.The ArabEmesenesruled by 46 BCEEmesa(Homs),Syria.Duringlate antiquity, theTanukhids,Salihids,Lakhmids,Kinda, andGhassanidswere dominant Arab tribes in the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Arabia, they predominantly embracedChristianity.
During theMiddle Ages,Islamfostered a vast Arab union, leading to significantArab migrations to the Maghreb,the Levant, and neighbouring territories under the rule of Arab empires such as theRashidun,Umayyad,Abbasid, andFatimid, ultimately leading to the decline of theByzantineandSasanianempires. At its peak,Arab territoriesstretched fromsouthernFranceto westernChina, forming one ofhistory's largest empires.TheGreat Arab Revoltin the early 20th century aided indismantlingtheOttoman Empire, ultimately leading to the formation of theArab Leagueon 22 March 1945, with itsCharterendorsing the principle of a "unified Arab homeland".
Arabs fromMoroccotoIraqshare a common bond based on ethnicity,language,culture,history,identity,ancestry,nationalism,geography,unity, andpolitics,which give the region a distinct identity and distinguish it from other parts of theMuslim world.They also have their own customs,literature,music,dance,media,food,clothing, society,sports,architecture,artand,mythology.Arabs have significantly influenced and contributed tohuman progressin many fields, includingscience,technology,philosophy,ethics,literature,politics,business,art,music,comedy, theatre,cinema,architecture,food,medicine, andreligion.Before Islam, most Arabs followedpolytheisticSemitic religion, while sometribesadoptedJudaismorChristianityand a few individuals, known as thehanifs, followed a form ofmonotheism.Currently, around 93% of Arabs areMuslims, while the rest are mainlyArab Christians, as well as Arab groups ofDruzeandBaháʼís.
The earliest documented use of the wordArabin reference to a people appears in theKurkh Monoliths, anAkkadian-languagerecord of theAssyrian conquest of Aram(9th century BCE). The Monoliths used the term to refer toBedouinsof theArabian PeninsulaunderKing Gindibu, who fought as part of a coalition opposed toAssyria.
The related wordʾaʿrābis used to refer to Bedouins today, in contrast toʿArabwhich refers to Arabs in general.Both terms are mentioned around 40 times in pre-IslamicSabaeaninscriptions. The termʿarab('Arab') occurs also in the titles of theHimyarite kingsfrom the time of'Abu Karab Asaduntil MadiKarib Ya'fur. According to Sabaean grammar, the termʾaʿrābis derived from the termʿarab. The term is also mentioned inQuranicverses, referring to people who were living inMadinaand it might be a south Arabianloanwordinto Quranic language.
The oldest surviving indication of an Arab national identity is an inscription made in an archaic form of Arabic in 328 CE using theNabataean alphabet, which refers toImru' al-Qays ibn 'Amras 'King of all the Arabs'.Herodotusrefers to the Arabs in the Sinai, southern Palestine, and thefrankincense region(Southern Arabia). Other Ancient-Greek historians likeAgatharchides,Diodorus SiculusandStrabomention Arabs living inMesopotamia(along theEuphrates), in Egypt (the Sinai and the Red Sea), southern Jordan (theNabataeans), theSyrian steppeand in eastern Arabia (the people ofGerrha). Inscriptions dating to the 6th century BCE in Yemen include the term 'Arab'.
The most popular Arab account holds that the wordArabcame from aneponymousfather namedYa'rub, who was supposedly the first to speak Arabic.Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdanihad another view; he states that Arabs were calledgharab('westerners') byMesopotamiansbecause Bedouins originally resided to the west of Mesopotamia; the term was then corrupted intoArab.
Yet another view is held byal-Masudithat the wordArabwas initially applied to theIshmaelitesof theArabahvalley. In Biblical etymology,Arab(Hebrew:arvi) comes from the desert origin of the Bedouins it originally described (aravameans 'wilderness').
The rootʿ-r-bhas several additional meanings in Semitic languages—including 'west, sunset', 'desert', 'mingle', 'mixed', 'merchant' and 'raven'—and are "comprehensible" with all of these having varying degrees of relevance to the emergence of the name. It is also possible that some forms weremetatheticalfromʿ-B-R, 'moving around' (Arabic:ʿ-B-R, 'traverse') and hence, it is alleged, 'nomadic'.
Arabic is a Semitic language that belongs to theAfroasiatic language family. The majority of scholars accept the "Arabian peninsula" has long been accepted as the originalUrheimat(linguistic homeland) of theSemitic languages.with some scholars investigating if its origins are in theLevant.Theancient Semitic-speaking peopleslived in theancient Near East, including the Levant, Mesopotamia, and the Arabian Peninsula from the 3rd millennium BCE to the end of antiquity.Proto-Semiticlikely reached the Arabian Peninsula by the 4th millennium BCE, and its daughter languages spread outward from there,whileOld Arabicbegan to differentiate from Central Semitic by the start of the 1st millennium BCE.Central Semiticis a branch of the Semitic language includes Arabic,Aramaic,Canaanite,Phoenician,Hebrewand others.The origins of Proto-Semitic may lie in the Arabian Peninsula, with the language spreading from there to other regions. This theory proposes that Semitic peoples reached Mesopotamia and other areas from the deserts to the west, such as theAkkadianswho entered Mesopotamia around the late 4th millennium BCE.The origins of Semitic peoples are thought to include various regionsMesopotamia, the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula, andNorth Africa. Some view that Semitic may have originated in the Levant around 3800 BCE and subsequently spread to the Horn of Africa around 800 BCE from Arabia, as well as to North Africa.
According to Arab–Islamic–Jewishtraditions,Ishmael, the son of Abraham andHagarwas "father of the Arabs".Ishmael was considered the ancestor of the Islamic prophetMuhammad, the founder ofIslam. The tribes of Central West Arabia called themselves the "people of Abraham and the offspring of Ishmael."Ibn Khaldun, an Arab scholar in the 8th century, described the Arabs as having Ishmaelite origins.
TheQuranmentions thatIbrahim(Abraham) and his wifeHajar(Hagar) bore apropheticchild named Ishmael, who was gifted byGoda favor above other nations.Ibrahim and Ishmael built theKaabain Mecca, which was originally constructed byAdam.According to theSamaritanbookAsaṭīr:"And after the death of Abraham, Ishmael reigned twenty-seven years; And all the children ofNebaotruled for one year in the lifetime of Ishmael; And for thirty years after his death from theriver of Egyptto the riverEuphrates; and they builtMecca."TheTargum Onkelosannotates (Genesis 25:16), describing the extent of their settlements: The Ishmaelites lived from Hindekaia (India) to Chalutsa (possibly in Arabia), by the side ofMizraim(Egypt), and from the area around Arthur (Assyria) up towards the north. This description suggests that the Ishmaelites were a widely dispersed group with a presence across a significant portion of the ancient Near East.
The nomads of Arabia have been spreading through the desert fringes of theFertile Crescentsince at least 3000 BCE, but the first known reference to the Arabs as a distinct group is from an Assyrian scribe recording a battle in 853 BCE.The history of the Arabs during the pre-Islamic period in various regions, including Arabia, Levant, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. The Arabs were mentioned by their neighbors, such asAssyrianandBabylonianRoyal Inscriptions from 9th to 6th century BCE.There are also records fromSargon's reignthat mention sellers of iron to people called Arabs in Ḫuzaza inBabylon, causing Sargon to prohibit such trade out of fear that the Arabs might use the resource to manufacture weapons against the Assyrian army. The history of the Arabs in relation to the Bible shows that they were a significant part of the region and played a role in the lives of the Israelites. The study asserts that the Arab nation is an ancient and significant entity; however, it highlights that the Arabs lacked a collective awareness of their unity. They did not inscribe their identity as Arabs or assert exclusive ownership over specific territories.
Magan,Midian, andʿĀdare all ancient tribes or civilizations that are mentioned in Arabic literature and have roots in the Arabia. Magan (Arabic:مِجَانُ,Majan), known for its production of copper and other metals, the region was an important trading center in ancient times and is mentioned in theQur'anas a place whereMusa(Moses) traveled during his lifetime.Midian (Arabic:مَدْيَن,Madyan), on the other hand, was a region located in the northwestern part of the Arabia, the people of Midian arementioned in the Qur'anas having worshiped idols and having been punished by God for their disobedience.Mosesalso lived in Midian for a time, where he married and worked as a shepherd. ʿĀd (Arabic:عَادَ,ʿĀd), as mentioned earlier, was an ancient tribe that lived in the southern Arabia, the tribe was known for its wealth, power, and advanced technology, but they were ultimately destroyed by a powerful windstorm as punishment for their disobedience toGod.ʿĀd is regarded as one of the original Arab tribes.The historianHerodotusprovided extensive information about Arabia, describing thespices,terrain,folklore,trade,clothing, andweaponsof the Arabs. In his third book, he mentioned the Arabs as a force to be reckoned with in the north of the Arabian Peninsula just beforeCambyses' campaign against Egypt. Other Greek and Latin authors who wrote about Arabia includeTheophrastus,Strabo,Diodorus Siculus, andPliny the Elder. The Jewish historianFlavius Josephuswrote about the Arabs and their king, mentioning their relationship withCleopatra, the queen of Egypt. The tribute paid by the Arab king to Cleopatra was collected byHerod, the king of the Jews, but the Arab king later became slow in his payments and refused to pay without further deductions.Geshem the Arabwas an Arab man who opposedNehemiahin the Hebrew Bible (Neh.2:19,6:1). He was likely the chief of the Arab tribe "Gushamu" and have been a powerful ruler with influence stretching from northern Arabia to Judah. The Arabs and theSamaritansmade efforts to hinder Nehemiah's rebuilding of thewalls of Jerusalem.
The term "Saracens" was a term used in the early centuries, both inGreekandLatinwritings, to refer to the "Arabs" who lived in and near what was designated by theRomansasArabia Petraea(Levant) andArabia Deserta(Arabia).The Christians ofIberiaused the termMoorto describe all the Arabs and Muslims of that time. Arabs of Medina referred to the nomadic tribes of the deserts as the A'raab, and considered themselves sedentary, but were aware of their close racial bonds.Hagarenesis a term widely used by earlySyriac,Greek, andArmenianto describe the early Arab conquerors of Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt, refers to the descendants of Hagar, who bore a son named Ishmael to Abraham in the Old Testament. In the Bible, the Hagarenes referred to as "Ishmaelites" or "Arabs."TheArab conquestsin the 7th century was a sudden and dramatic conquest led by Arab armies, which quickly conquered much of the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. It was a significant moment forIslam, which saw itself as the successor of Judaism and Christianity.
Limited local historical coverage of these civilizations means that archaeological evidence, foreign accounts and Arab oral traditions are largely relied on to reconstruct this period. Prominent civilizations at the time included,Dilmuncivilization was an important trading centrewhich at the height of its power controlled theArabian Gulftrading routes.TheSumeriansregarded Dilmun asholy land.Dilmun is regarded as one of the oldest ancient civilizations in theMiddle East.which arose around the 4th millennium BCE and lasted to 538 BCE.Gerrhawas an ancient city ofEastern Arabia, on the west side of the Gulf, Gerrha was the center of an Arab kingdom from approximately 650 BCE to circa CE 300.Thamud, which arose around the 1st millennium BCE and lasted to about 300 CE. From the beginning of the first millennium BCE,Proto-Arabic, orAncient North Arabian, texts give a clearer picture of the Arabs' emergence. The earliest are written in variants ofepigraphicsouth Arabianmusnadscript, including the 8th century BCEHasaeaninscriptions of eastern Saudi Arabia, theThamudictexts found throughout the Arabian Peninsula andSinai.
TheQedariteswere a largelynomadicancient Arab tribal confederation centred in theWādī Sirḥānin theSyrian Desert. They were known for theirnomadiclifestyle and for their role in the caravan trade that linked the Arabian Peninsula with theMediterraneanworld. The Qedarites gradually expanded their territory over the course of the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, and by the 6th century BCE, they had consolidated into a kingdom that covered a large area in northern Arabia, southern Palestine, and theSinai Peninsula. The Qedarites were influential in theancient Near East, and their kingdom played a significant role in the political and economic affairs of the region for several centuries.
Sheba(Arabic:سَبَأٌSaba) is kingdom mentioned in theHebrew Bible(Old Testament) and theQuran, though Sabaean was a South Arabian languaged and not an Arabic one. Sheba features inJewish,Muslim, andChristiantraditions, whose lineage goes back toQahtanson ofHud, one of the ancestors of the Arabs,Sheba was mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions and in the writings ofGreekandRomanwriters.One of the ancient written references that also spoke of Sheba is the Old Testament, which stated that the people of Sheba supplied Syria and Egypt with incense, especially frankincense, and exported gold and precious stones to them.
Sabaeansare mentioned several times in theHebrew Bible. In theQuran,they are described as eitherSabaʾ(سَبَأ, not to be confused withṢābiʾ,صَابِئ),or asQawmTubbaʿ(Arabic:قَوْم تُبَّع,lit.'People of Tubbaʿ').They were known for their prosperous trade and agricultural economy, which was based on the cultivation of frankincense and myrrh. These highly valued aromatic resins were exported to Egypt, Greece, andRome, making the Sabaeans wealthy and powerful, they also traded in spices, textiles, and other luxury goods. TheMaʾrib Damwas one of the greatest engineering achievements of the ancient world, and it provided water for the city ofMaʾriband the surrounding agricultural lands.
Lihyanalso called Dadān or Dedan was a powerful and highly organized ancient Arab kingdom that played a vital cultural and economic role in the north-western region of theArabian Peninsulaand usedDadaniticlanguage.The Lihyanites were known for their advanced organization and governance, and they played a significant role in the cultural and economic life of the region. The kingdom was centered around the city of Dedan (modern-dayAl Ula), and it controlled a large territory that extended fromYathribin the south to parts of the Levant in the north.The Arab genealogies consider the Banu Lihyan to beIshmaelites, and usedDadaniticlanguage.
TheKingdom of Ma'inwas an ancient Arab kingdom with a hereditary monarchy system and a focus onagricultureandtrade.Proposed dates range from the 15th century BCE to the 1st century CE Its history has been recorded through inscriptions and classical Greek and Roman books, although the exact start and end dates of the kingdom are still debated. The Ma'in people had a local governance system with councils called "Mazood," and each city had its own temple that housed one or more gods. They also adopted thePhoenician alphabetand used it to write their language. The kingdom eventually fell to theArab Sabaeanpeople.
Qataban was an ancient kingdom located in theSouth Arabia, which existed from the early 1st millennium BCE till the late 1st or 2nd centuries CE.It developed into a centralized state in the 6th century BCE with two co-kings ruling poles.Qataban expanded its territory, including the conquest of Ma'in and successful campaigns against the Sabaeans.It challenged the supremacy of the Sabaeans in the region and waged a successful war against Hadramawt in the 3rd century BCE.Qataban's power declined in the following centuries, leading to its annexation by Hadramawt andḤimyarin the 1st century CE.
TheKingdom of Hadhramautit was known for its richcultural heritage, as well as its strategic location along importanttrade routesthat connected theMiddle East,South Asia, andEast Africa.The Kingdom was established around the 3rd century BCE, and it reached its peak during the 2nd century CE, when it controlled much of the southern Arabian Peninsula. The kingdom was known for its impressivearchitecture, particularly its distinctive towers, which were used as watchtowers, defensive structures, and homes for wealthy families.The people of Hadhramaut were skilled in agriculture, especially in growing frankincense and myrrh. They had a strong maritime culture and traded with India, East Africa, and Southeast Asia.Although the kingdom declined in the 4th century, Hadhramaut remained a cultural and economic center. Its legacy can still be seen today.
The ancientKingdom of Awsān(8th–7th century BCE) was indeed one of the most important small kingdoms ofSouth Arabia, and its capital Ḥajar Yaḥirr was a significant center of trade and commerce in the ancient world. The destruction of the city in the 7th century BCE by the king and Mukarrib of Saba' Karab El Watar is a significant event in the history of South Arabia. The victory of the Sabaeans over Awsān is also a testament to the military might and strategic prowess of the Sabaeans, who were one of the most powerful and influential kingdoms in the region.
TheHimyarite Kingdomor Himyar, was an ancient kingdom that existed from around the 2nd century BCE to the 6th century CE. It was centered in thecity of Zafar, which is located in present-day Yemen. The Himyarites were an Arab people who spoke aSouth Arabian languageand were known for their prowess in trade and seafaring,they controlled thesouthern part of Arabiaand had a prosperous economy based on agriculture, commerce, and maritime trade, they were skilled in irrigation and terracing, which allowed them to cultivate crops in the arid environment. The Himyarites converted toJudaismin the 4th century CE, and their rulers became known as the "Kings of the Jews", this conversion was likely influenced by their trade connections with the Jewish communities of the Red Sea region and the Levant, however, the Himyarites also tolerated other religions, includingChristianityand the local pagan religions.
TheNabataeanswere nomadic Arabs who settled in a territory centred around their capital of Petra in what is now Jordan.Their early inscriptions were inAramaic, but gradually switched to Arabic, and since they had writing, it was they who made the first inscriptions in Arabic. TheNabataean alphabetwas adopted by Arabs to the south, and evolved into modern Arabic script around the 4th century. This is attested bySafaiticinscriptions (beginning in the 1st century BCE) and the many Arabic personal names inNabataeaninscriptions. From about the 2nd century BCE, a few inscriptions fromQaryat al-Fawreveal a dialect no longer consideredproto-Arabic, butpre-classical Arabic. FiveSyriacinscriptions mentioning Arabs have been found atSumatar Harabesi, one of which dates to the 2nd century CE.
Arabs are first recorded inPalmyrain the late first millennium BCE.The soldiers of thesheikhZabdibel, who aided the Seleucids in the battle of Raphia (217 BCE), were described as Arabs; Zabdibel and his men were not actually identified as Palmyrenes in the texts, but the name "Zabdibel" is a Palmyrene name leading to the conclusion that the sheikh hailed from Palmyra.After theBattle of Edessain 260 CE. Valerian's capture by the Sassanian kingShapur Iwas a significant blow to Rome, and it left the empire vulnerable to further attacks.Zenobiawas able to capture most of the Near East, including Egypt and parts of Asia Minor. However, their empire was short-lived, asAurelianwas able to defeat the Palmyrenes and recover the lost territories. The Palmyrenes were helped by their Arab allies, but Aurelian was also able to leverage his own alliances to defeat Zenobia and her army. Ultimately, the Palmyrene Empire lasted only a few years, but it had a significant impact on the history of the Roman Empire and the Near East.
Most scholars identify theItureansas an Arab people who inhabited the region of Iturea,emerged as a prominent power in the region after the decline of the Seleucid Empire in the 2nd century BCE, from their base aroundMount Lebanonand theBeqaa Valley, they came to dominate vast stretches ofSyrian territory,and appear to have penetrated into northern parts ofPalestineas far as theGalilee.Tanukhidswere anArab tribal confederationthat lived in the central and eastern Arabian Peninsula during the late ancient and early medieval periods. As mentioned earlier, they were a branch of theRabi'ah tribe, which was one of the largest Arab tribes in the pre-Islamic period. They were known for their military prowess and played a significant role in the early Islamic period, fighting in battles against the Byzantine and Sassanian empires and contributing to the expansion of the Arab empire.
TheOsroene Arabs, also known as theAbgarids,were in possession of the city ofEdessain theancient Near Eastfor a significant period of time. Edessa was located in the region of Osroene, which was an ancient kingdom that existed from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. They established a dynasty known as the Abgarids, which ruled Edessa for several centuries. The most famous ruler of thedynastywasAbgar V, who is said to have corresponded withJesus Christand is believed to have converted toChristianity.The Abgarids played an important role in the early history of Christianity in the region, and Edessa became a center of Christian learning andscholarship.TheKingdom of Hatrawas an ancient city located in the region ofMesopotamia, it was founded in the 2nd or 3rd century BCE and flourished as a major center of trade and culture during theParthian Empire. The rulers of Hatra were known as the Arsacid dynasty, which was a branch of the Parthian ruling family. However, in the 2nd century CE, the Arab tribe ofBanu Tanukhseized control ofHatraand established their own dynasty. The Arab rulers of Hatra assumed the title of "malka," which means king in Arabic, and they often referred to themselves as the "King of the Arabs."
The Osroeni and Hatrans were part of several Arab groups or communities in upper Mesopotamia, which also included the Arabs ofAdiabenewhich was an ancientkingdomin northernMesopotamia, its chief city wasArbela(Arba-ilu), where Mar Uqba had a school, or the neighboring Hazzah, by which name the later Arabs also called Arbela.This Arab presence in upper Mesopotamia was acknowledged by theSasanians, who called the regionArbayistan, meaning "land of the Arabs", is first attested as a province in theKa'ba-ye Zartosht inscriptionof the second SasanianKing of Kings,Shapur I(r.240–270),which was erected inc.262.TheEmesenewere a dynasty of Arab priest-kings that ruled the city ofEmesa(modern-dayHoms, Syria) in theRoman province of Syriafrom the 1st century CE to the 3rd century CE. The dynasty is notable for producing a number of high priests of the godEl-Gabal, who were also influential inRoman politicsand culture. The first ruler of the Emesene dynasty wasSampsiceramus I, who came to power in 64 CE. He was succeeded by his son,Iamblichus, who was followed by his own son,Sampsiceramus II. Under Sampsiceramus II, Emesa became a client kingdom of theRoman Empire, and the dynasty became more closely tied to Roman political and cultural traditions.
TheGhassanids,LakhmidsandKinditeswere the last major migration of pre-Islamic Arabs out of Yemen to the north. The Ghassanids increased the Semitic presence in then-HellenizedSyria, the majority of Semites were Aramaic peoples. They mainly settled in theHauranregion and spread to modernLebanon,PalestineandJordan. Greeks and Romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Romans called Yemen "Arabia Felix".The Romans called the vassal nomadic states within theRoman EmpireArabia Petraea, after the city ofPetra, and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and eastArabia Magna.
TheLakhmidsas a dynasty inherited their power from theTanukhids, the mid Tigris region around their capitalAl-Hira. They ended up allying with theSassanidsagainst the Ghassanids and theByzantine Empire. The Lakhmids contested control of the Central Arabian tribes with the Kindites with the Lakhmids eventually destroying theKingdom of Kindain 540 after the fall of their main allyHimyar. ThePersianSassanids dissolved the Lakhmid dynasty in 602, being under puppet kings, then under their direct control.The Kindites migrated from Yemen along with the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, but were turned back in Bahrain by the Abdul QaisRabi'atribe. They returned to Yemen and allied themselves with the Himyarites who installed them as a vassal kingdom that ruled Central Arabia from "Qaryah Dhat Kahl" (the present-day called Qaryat al-Faw). They ruled much of the Northern/Central Arabian peninsula, until they were destroyed by the Lakhmid kingAl-Mundhir, and his son'Amr.
TheGhassanidswere an Arab tribe in the Levant in the early third century. According to Arab genealogical tradition, they were considered a branch of theAzd tribe. They fought alongside theByzantinesagainst theSasaniansand Arab Lakhmids. Most Ghassanids were Christians, converting toChristianityin the first few centuries, and some merged with Hellenized Christian communities. After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, few Ghassanids became Muslims, and most remained Christian and joined Melkite and Syriac communities within what is now Jordan, Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon.TheSalihidswere Arab foederati in the 5th century, were ardent Christians, and their period is less documented than the preceding and succeeding periods due to a scarcity of sources. Most references to the Salihids in Arabic sources derive from the work ofHisham ibn al-Kalbi, with theTarikh of Ya'qubiconsidered valuable for determining the Salihids' fall and the terms of their foedus with the Byzantines.
During theMiddle Ages, Arab civilization flourished and the Arabs made significant contributions to the fields ofscience,mathematics,medicine,philosophy, andliterature, with the rise of great cities likeBaghdad,Cairo, andCordoba, they became centers of learning, attracting scholars, scientists, and intellectuals.Arabs forged many empires and dynasties, most notably, the Rashidun Empire, the Umayyad Empire, the Abbasid Empire, the Fatimid Empire, among others. These empires were characterized by their expansion, scientific achievements, and cultural flourishing, extended fromSpainto India.The region was vibrant and dynamic during the Middle Ages and left a lasting impact on the world.
Therise of Islambegan whenMuhammadand his followers migrated fromMeccatoMedinain an event known as theHijra. Muhammad spent the last ten years of his life engaged in a series of battles to establish and expand the Muslim community. From 622 to 632, he led the Muslims in a state of war against the Meccans.During this period, the Arabs conquered the region ofBasra, and under the leadership ofUmar, they established a base and built a mosque there. Another conquest wasMidian, but due to its harsh environment, the settlers eventually moved toKufa. Umar successfully defeated rebellions by various Arab tribes, bringing stability to the entire Arabian peninsula and unifying it. Under the leadership ofUthman, the Arab empire expanded through theconquest of Persia, with the capture of Fars in 650 and parts ofKhorasanin 651.Theconquest of Armeniaalso began in the 640s. During this time, the Rashidun Empire extended its rule over the entireSassanid Empireand more than two-thirds of theEastern Roman Empire. However, the reign ofAli ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph, was marred by theFirst Fitna, or the First Islamic Civil War, which lasted throughout his rule. After a peace treaty withHassan ibn Aliand the suppression of earlyKharijitedisturbances,Muawiyah Ibecame the Caliph.This marked a significant transition in leadership.
After the death ofMuhammadin 632,Rashidun armieslaunched campaigns of conquest, establishing theCaliphate, or Islamic Empire, one of thelargest empires in history. It was larger and lasted longer than the previous Arab empireTanukhidsofQueen Mawiaor the ArabPalmyrene Empire. The Rashidun state was a completely new state and unlike the Arab kingdoms of its century such as theHimyarite,LakhmidsorGhassanids.
During the Rashidun era, the Arab community expanded rapidly, conquering many territories and establishing a vast Arab empire, which is marked by the reign of the first four caliphs, or leaders, of the Arab community.These caliphs areAbu Bakr,Umar,UthmanandAli, who are collectively known as the Rashidun, meaning "rightly guided." The Rashidun era is significant in Arab and Islamic history as it marks the beginning of the Arab empire and thespread of Islambeyond the Arabian Peninsula. During this time, the Arab community faced numerous challenges, including internal divisions and external threats from neighboring empires.
Under the leadership of Abu Bakr, the Arab community successfully quelled arebellionby some tribes who refused to payZakat, or Islamic charity. During the reign of Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Arab empire expanded significantly, conquering territories such as Egypt,Syria, andIraq. The reign of Uthman ibn Affan was marked by internal dissent and rebellion, which ultimately led to his assassination. Ali, the cousin and son-in-law ofMuhammad, succeeded Uthman as caliph but faced opposition from some members of the Islamic community who believed he was not rightfully appointed.Despite these challenges, the Rashidun era is remembered as a time of great progress and achievement in Arab and Islamic history. The caliphs established a system of governance that emphasizedjusticeand equality for all members of the Islamic community. They also oversaw the compilation of the Quran into a single text and spread Arabic teachings and principles throughout the empire. Overall, the Rashidun era played a crucial role in shaping Arab history and continues to be revered by Muslims worldwide as a period of exemplary leadership and guidance.
In 661, the Rashidun Caliphate fell into the hands of theUmayyad dynastyandDamascuswas established as the empire's capital. The Umayyads were proud of their Arab identity and sponsored the poetry and culture of pre-Islamic Arabia. They established garrison towns atRamla,Raqqa,Basra,Kufa,MosulandSamarra, all of which developed into major cities.CaliphAbd al-Malikestablished Arabic as the Caliphate's official language in 686.CaliphUmar IIstrove to resolve the conflict when he came to power in 717, demanding that all Muslims be treated as equals, but his intended reforms did not take effect, as he died after only three years of rule. By now, discontent with the Umayyads swept the region and an uprising occurred in which theAbbasidscame to power and moved the capital toBaghdad.
Umayyads expanded their Empire westwards capturing North Africa from the Byzantines. Before the Arab conquest, North Africa was conquered or settled by various people includingPunics, Vandals and Romans. After theAbbasid Revolution, the Umayyads lost most of their territories with the exception of Iberia.
Their last holding became known as theEmirate of Córdoba. It was not until the rule of the grandson of the founder of this new emirate that the state entered a new phase as theCaliphate of Córdoba. This new state was characterized by an expansion of trade, culture and knowledge, and saw the construction of masterpieces ofal-Andalusarchitecture and the library ofAl-Ḥakam IIwhich housed over 400,000 volumes. With the collapse of the Umayyad state in 1031 CE,Al-Andaluswas divided intosmall kingdoms.
The Abbasids were the descendants ofAbbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the sameBanu Hashimclan. The Abbasids led a revolt against the Umayyads and defeated them in theBattle of the Zabeffectively ending their rule in all parts of the Empire with the exception of al-Andalus. In 762, the second Abbasid Caliphal-Mansurfounded the city ofBaghdadand declared it the capital of the Caliphate. Unlike the Umayyads, the Abbasids had the support of non-Arab subjects.TheIslamic Golden Agewas inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital fromDamascusto the newly founded city ofBaghdad. The Abbasids were influenced by theQuranicinjunctions andhadithsuch as "The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge.
During this period the Arab Empire became an intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the "House of Wisdom" in Baghdad. Rival dynasties such as theFatimidsofEgyptand theUmayyadsof al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such asCairoandCórdobarivalingBaghdad.The Abbasids ruled for 200 years before they lost their central control whenWilayasbegan to fracture in the 10th century; afterwards, in the 1190s, there was a revival of their power, which was ended by theMongols, whoconquered Baghdadin 1258 and killed the CaliphAl-Musta'sim. Members of the Abbasid royal family escaped the massacre and resorted to Cairo, which had broken from the Abbasid rule two years earlier; theMamlukgenerals taking the political side of the kingdom while Abbasid Caliphs were engaged in civil activities and continued patronizing science, arts and literature.
The Fatimid caliphate was founded byal-Mahdi Billah, a descendant ofFatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, the Fatimid Caliphate was aShiathat existed from 909 to 1171 CE. The empire was based in North Africa, with its capital inCairo, and at its height, it controlled a vast territory that included parts of modern-dayEgypt,Libya,Tunisia,Algeria,Morocco,Syria, andPalestine. The Fatimid state took shape among theKutama, in the West of the North African littoral, in Algeria, in 909 conqueringRaqqada, theAghlabidcapital. In 921 the Fatimids established the Tunisian city ofMahdiaas their new capital. In 948 they shifted their capital toAl-Mansuriya, nearKairouanin Tunisia, and in 969 they conquered Egypt and established Cairo as the capital of their caliphate.
The Fatimids were known for their religious tolerance and intellectual achievements, they established a network of universities and libraries that became centers of learning in theIslamic world. They also promoted the arts, architecture, and literature, which flourished under their patronage. One of the most notable achievements of the Fatimids was the construction of theAl-Azhar MosqueandAl-Azhar Universityin Cairo. Founded in 970 CE, it is one of the oldest universities in the world and remains an important center of Islamic learning to this day. The Fatimids also had a significant impact on the development ofIslamic theologyandjurisprudence. They were known for their support of Shia Islam and their promotion of theIsmailibranch of Shia Islam. Despite their many achievements, the Fatimids faced numerous challenges during their reign. They were constantly at war with neighboring empires, including the Abbasid Caliphate and theByzantine Empire. They also faced internal conflicts and rebellions, which weakened their empire over time. In 1171 CE, the Fatimid Caliphate was conquered by theAyyubid dynasty, led bySaladin. Although the Fatimid dynasty came to an end, its legacy continued to influence Arab-Islamic culture and society for centuries to come.
From 1517 to 1918, The Ottomans defeated theMamluk Sultanatein Cairo, and ended the Abbasid Caliphate in the battles ofMarj DabiqandRidaniya. They entered theLevantand Egypt as conquerors, and brought down the Abbasid caliphate after it lasted for many centuries. In 1911, Arab intellectuals and politicians from throughout the Levant formed al-Fatat ("theYoung Arab Society"), a small Arab nationalist club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of theArab nationto the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted theArab Congress of 1913in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world.However, as the Ottoman authorities cracked down on the organization's activities and members, al-Fatat went underground and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces.
TheArab Revoltwas a military uprising of Arab forces against the Ottoman Empire during World War I, began in 1916, led bySherif Hussein bin Ali, the goal of the revolt was to gain independence for the Arab lands under Ottoman rule and to create a unified Arab state. The revolt was sparked by a number of factors, including the Arab desire for greater autonomy within the Ottoman Empire, resentment towards Ottoman policies, and the influence of Arab nationalist movements. The Arab Revolt was a significant factor in the eventualdefeat of the Ottoman Empire. The revolt helped to weaken Ottoman military power and tie up Ottoman forces that could have been deployed elsewhere. It also helped to increase support for Arab independence and nationalism, which would have a lasting impact on the region in the years to come.The Empire's defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by theAllied Powersin theaftermath of World War I, theSykes–Picot Agreementhad a significant impact on the Arab world and its people. The agreement divided the Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire into zones of control for France and Britain, ignoring the aspirations of the Arab people for independence and self-determination.
The Golden Age of Arab Civilization known as the "Islamic Golden Age", traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century.The period is traditionally said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due toSiege of Baghdadin 1258.During this time,Arab scholarsmade significant contributions to fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. These advancements had a profound impact on European scholars during theRenaissance.
The Arabs shared its knowledge and ideas withEurope, including translations of Arabic texts.These translations had a significant impact onculture of Europe, leading to the transformation of many philosophical disciplines in themedieval Latin world. Additionally, the Arabs made original innovations in various fields, including the arts,agriculture,alchemy,music, andpottery, andtraditional star namessuch asAldebaran, scientific terms likealchemy(whence alsochemistry),algebra,algorithm, etc. and names of commodities such assugar,camphor,cotton,coffee, etc.
From the medieval scholars of theRenaissance of the 12th century, who had focused on studyingGreekandArabicworks of natural sciences, philosophy, and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts. Arab logician, most notablyAverroes, had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conqueredEgyptand theLevant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West intoIberiaandSicily, which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. From the 11th to the 13th century, many schools dedicated to the translation of philosophical and scientific works fromClassical ArabictoMedieval Latinwere established in Iberia, most notably theToledo School of Translators. This work of translation from Arab culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history.
During theTimurid Renaissancespanning the late 14th, the 15th, and the early 16th centuries, there was a significant exchange of ideas, art, and knowledge between different cultures and civilizations. Arab scholars, artists, and intellectuals played a role in this cultural exchange, contributing to the overall intellectual atmosphere of the time. They participated in various fields, including literature, art, science, and philosophy.In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, theArab Renaissancewas a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged. The term "Nahda" means "awakening" or "renaissance" in Arabic, and refers to a period of renewed interest in Arabic language, literature, and culture.
The modern period inArab historyrefers to the time period from the late 19th century to the present day. During this time, theArab worldexperienced significantpolitical,economic, and social changes. One of the most significant events of the modern period was the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the end of Ottoman rule led to the emergence of newnation-statesin the Arab world.
Sharif Hussein was supposed, in the event of the success of the Arab revolution and the victory of theAllies in World War I, to be able to establish an independent Arab state consisting of the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent, including Iraq and the Levant. He aimed to become "King of the Arabs" in this state, however, the Arab revolution only succeeded in achieving some of its objectives, including theindependence of the Hejazand the recognition of Sharif Hussein as its king by the Allies.
Arab nationalismemerged as a major movement in the early 20th century, with many Arab intellectuals, artists, and political leaders seeking to promote unity and independence for the Arab world.This movement gained momentum afterWorld War II, leading to the formation of the Arab League and the creation of several new Arab states.Pan-Arabismthat emerged in the early 20th century and aimed to unite all Arabs into a singlenationor state. It emphasized on a sharedancestry, culture, history, language and identityand sought to create a sense of pan-Arab identity and solidarity.
The roots of pan-Arabism can be traced back to theArab Renaissanceor Al-Nahda movement of the late 19th century, which saw a revival of Arab culture, literature, and intellectual thought. The movement emphasized the importance of Arab unity and the need to resist colonialism and foreign domination. One of the key figures in the development of pan-Arabism was the Egyptian statesman and intellectual,Gamal Abdel Nasser, who led the1952 revolutionin Egypt and became the country's president in 1954. Nasser promoted pan-Arabism as a means of strengthening Arab solidarity and resisting Western imperialism. He also supported the idea ofArab socialism, which sought to combine pan-Arabism with socialist principles. Similar attempts were made by otherArab leaders, such asHafez al-Assad,Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr,Faisal I of Iraq,Muammar Gaddafi,Saddam Hussein,Gaafar NimeiryandAnwar Sadat.
Many proposed unions aimed to create aunified Arabentity that would promote cooperation and integration among Arab countries. However, the initiatives faced numerous challenges and obstacles, including political divisions, regional conflicts, and economic disparities.TheUnited Arab Republic(UAR) was a political union formed between Egypt and Syria in 1958, with the goal of creating a federal structure that would allow each member state to retain its identity and institutions. However, by 1961, Syria had withdrawn from the UAR due to political differences, and Egypt continued to call itself the UAR until 1971, when it became theArab Republic of Egypt. In the same year the UAR was formed, another proposed political union, theArab Federation, was established betweenJordanandIraq, but it collapsed after only six months due to tensions with the UAR and the14 July Revolution. A confederation called theUnited Arab States, which included the UAR and theMutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen, was also created in 1958 but dissolved in 1961.Later attempts to create a political and economic union among Arab countries included theFederation of Arab Republics, which was formed by Egypt,Libya, and Syria in the 1970s but dissolved after five years due to political and economic challenges. Muammar Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, also proposed theArab Islamic Republicwith Tunisia, aiming to includeAlgeriaandMorocco,instead theArab Maghreb Unionwas formed in 1989.
During the latter half of the 20th century, many Arab countries experienced political upheaval and conflicts, including, revolutions. TheArab-Israeli conflictremains a major issue in the region, and has resulted in ongoing tensions and periodic outbreaks of violence. In recent years, the Arab world has faced new challenges, including economic and social inequalities, demographic changes, and the impact ofglobalization.TheArab Springwas a series of pro-democracy uprisings and protests that swept across several countries in the Arab world in 2010 and 2011. The uprisings were sparked by a combination of political, economic, and social grievances and called for democratic reforms and an end to authoritarian rule. While the protests resulted in the downfall of some long-time authoritarian leaders, they also led to ongoing conflicts and political instability in other countries.
Arab identity is defined independently ofreligiousidentity, and pre-dates thespread of Islam, with historically attestedArab Christiankingdoms andArab Jewish tribes. Today, however, most Arabs are Muslim, with a minority adhering to other faiths, largelyChristianity, but alsoDruzeandBaháʼí.Paternal descent has traditionally been considered the main source of affiliation in theArab worldwhen it comes to membership into anethnic grouporclan.
Arab identity is shaped by a range of factors, including ancestry, history, language, customs, and traditions.Arab identity has been shaped by a rich history that includes the rise and fall ofempires,colonization, and political turmoil. Despite the challenges faced by Arab communities, their shared cultural heritage has helped to maintain a sense of unity and pride in their identity.Today, Arab identity continues to evolve as Arab communities navigate complex political, social, and economic landscapes. Despite this, the Arab identity remains an important aspect of the cultural and historical fabric of the Arab world, and continues to be celebrated and preserved bycommunities around the world.
Arab tribes are prevalent in the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia, Levant, Egypt, Maghreb, the Sudan region and Horn Africa.
The Arabs of theLevantare traditionally divided intoQays and Yaman tribes. The distinction between Qays and Yaman dates back to the pre-Islamic era and was based on tribal affiliations and geographic locations.; they includeBanu Kalb,Kinda,Ghassanids, andLakhmids.The Qays were made up of tribes such asBanu Kilab,Banu Tayy,Banu Hanifa, andBanu Tamim, among others. The Yaman, on the other hand, were composed of tribes such asBanu Hashim,Banu Makhzum,Banu Umayya, andBanu Zuhra, among others.
There are also many Arab tribes indigenous to Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Iran, including from well before theArab conquest of Persiain 633 CE.The largest group ofIranian Arabsare theAhwazi Arabs, includingBanu Ka'b,Bani Turufand theMusha'sha'iyyahsect. Smaller groups are theKhamsehnomads inFars provinceand theArabs in Khorasan.
As a result of the centuries-longArab migration to the Maghreb, various Arab tribes (includingBanu Hilal,Banu SulaymandMaqil) also settled in the Maghreb and formed the sub-tribes which exist to present-day. TheBanu Hilalspent almost a century inEgyptbefore moving toLibya,TunisiaandAlgeria, and another century later moved toMorocco.
According to Arab traditions, tribes are divided into different divisions called Arab skulls, which are described in the traditional custom of strength, abundance, victory, and honor. A number of them branched out, which later became independent tribes (sub-tribes). The majority of Arab tribes are descended from these major tribes.
They are:
The total number of Arabs living in theArab nationsis estimated at 366 million by theCIA Factbook(as of 2014). The estimated number of Arabs in countries outside the Arab League is estimated at 17.5 million, yielding a total of close to 384 million. The Arab world stretches around 13,000,000 square kilometres (5,000,000 sq mi), from theAtlantic Oceanin the west to theArabian Seain the east and from theMediterranean Seain the north to theHorn of Africaand theIndian Oceanin the southeast.
Arab diasporarefers to descendants of theArabimmigrantswho, voluntarily or as refugees, emigrated from their native lands in non-Arab countries, primarily inEast Africa,South America,Europe,North America, Australia and parts ofSouth Asia,Southeast Asia, theCaribbean, andWest Africa. According to theInternational Organization for Migration, there are 13 million first-generation Arab migrants in the world, of which 5.8 million reside in Arab countries. Arab expatriates contribute to the circulation of financial and human capital in the region and thus significantly promote regional development. In 2009, Arab countries received a total of US$35.1 billion inremittancein-flows and remittances sent toJordan,EgyptandLebanonfrom other Arab countries are 40 to 190 per cent higher than trade revenues between these and other Arab countries.The 250,000 strong Lebanese community inWest Africais the largest non-African group in the region.Arab traders have long operated inSoutheast Asiaand along theEast Africa'sSwahili coast.Zanzibarwas once ruled byOmaniArabs.Most of the prominentIndonesians,Malaysians, andSingaporeansof Arab descent areHadhrami peoplewith origins in southern Arabia in theHadramawtcoastal region.
There are millions ofArabs living in Europe, mostly concentrated inFrance(about 6,000,000 in 2005). MostArabs in Franceare from theMaghrebbut some also come from theMashreqareas of the Arab world. Arabs in France form the second largestethnic groupafterFrench people.InItaly, Arabs first arrived on the southern island ofSicilyin the 9th century. The largest modern societies on the island from the Arab world are Tunisians and Moroccans, who make up 10.9% and 8% respectively of the foreign population of Sicily, which in itself constitutes 3.9% of the island's total population.The modernArab population of Spainnumbers 1,800,000,and there have been Arabs inSpainsince the early 8th century when theMuslim conquest of Hispaniacreated the state of Al-Andalus.InGermanythe Arab population numbers over 1,401,950.in the United Kingdom between 366,769and 500,000,and inGreecebetween 250,000 and 750,000). In addition, Greece is home to people from Arab countries who have the status of refugees (e.g.refugees of the Syrian civil war).In theNetherlands180,000,and inDenmark121,000. Other countries are also home to Arab populations, includingNorway,Austria,Bulgaria,Switzerland,North Macedonia,RomaniaandSerbia.As of late 2015,Turkeyhad a total population of 78.7 million, withSyrian refugeesaccounting for 3.1% of that figure based on conservative estimates. Demographics indicated that the country previously had 1,500,000to 2,000,000 Arab residents,Turkey's Arab populationis now 4.5 to 5.1% of the total population, or approximately 4–5 million people.
Arab immigration to the United Statesbegan in significant numbers during the 1880s, and today, an estimated 2 million Americans trace their roots to an Arab background according the Census Bureau.Arab Americansare found in every state, but more than two thirds of them live in just ten states, and one-third live inLos Angeles,Detroit, andNew York Cityspecifically.Most Arab Americans were born in the US, and nearly 82% of US-based Arabs are citizens.
Arab immigrants began to arrive in Canada in small numbers in 1882. Theirimmigrationwas relatively limited until 1945, after which time it increased progressively, particularly in the 1960s and thereafter.According to the website "Who areArab Canadians",Montreal, the Canadian city with the largest Arab population, has approximately 267,000 Arab inhabitants.
Latin Americahas the largest Arab population outside of theArab World.Latin America is home to anywhere from 17–25 to 30 million people of Arab descent, which is more than any other diaspora region in the world.TheBrazilianand Lebanese governments claim there are 7 millionBrazilians of Lebanese descent.Also, the Brazilian government claims there are 4 millionBrazilians of Syrian descent.Other large Arab communities includesArgentina(about 3,500,000)
The interethnic marriage in the Arab community, regardless of religious affiliation, is very high; most community members have only one parent who has Arab ethnicity.Colombia(over 3,200,000),Venezuela(over 1,600,000),Mexico(over 1,100,000),Chile(over 800,000),andCentral America, particularlyEl Salvador, andHonduras(between 150,000 and 200,000).Arab Haitians(257,000) a large number of whom live in thecapitalare more often than not, concentrated in financial areas where the majority of them establish businesses.
In 1728, a Russian officer described a group of Arab nomads who populated theCaspianshores ofMughan(in present-dayAzerbaijan).It is believed that these groups migrated to theSouth Caucasusin the 16th century.The 1888 edition ofEncyclopædia Britannicaalso mentioned a certain number of Arabs populating theBaku Governorateof theRussian Empire.They retained anArabic dialectat least into the mid-19th century,there are nearly 30 settlements still holding the nameArab(for example,Arabgadim,Arabojaghy,Arab-Yengija, etc.). From the time of the Arab conquest of theSouth Caucasus, continuous small-scale Arab migration from various parts of the Arab world occurred inDagestan. The majority of these lived in the village of Darvag, to the north-west ofDerbent. The latest of these accounts dates to the 1930s.Most Arab communities in southern Dagestan underwent linguisticTurkicisation, thus nowadays Darvag is a majority-Azerivillage.
According to theHistory of Ibn Khaldun, the Arabs that were once inCentral Asiahave been either killed or have fled the Tatar invasion of the region.However, today many people in Central Asia identify as Arabs. MostArabs of Central Asiaare fully integrated into local populations, and sometimes call themselves the same as locals (for example,Tajiks,Uzbeks) but they use special titles to show their Arab origin such asSayyid,KhojaorSiddiqui.
There are only two communities in India which claim Arab descent, theChaushof theDeccanregion and theChavuseofGujarat.These groups are largely descended fromHadhramimigrants who settled in these two regions in the 18th century. However, neither community still speaks Arabic, although the Chaush have seen re-immigration toEastern Arabiaand thus a re-adoption of Arabic.InSouth Asia, where Arab ancestry is considered prestigious, some communities have origin myths that claim Arab ancestry. Several communities following theShafi'i madhab(in contrast to otherSouth Asian Muslimswho follow theHanafi madhab) claim descent from Arab traders like theKonkani Muslimsof theKonkan region, theMappillaofKerala, and theLabbaiandMarakkarofTamil Naduand a few Christian groups in India that claim and have Arab roots are situated in the state ofKerala.South AsianIraqi biradrimay have records of their ancestors who migrated from Iraq in historical documents. TheSri Lankan Moorsare the third largest ethnic group inSri Lanka, constituting 9.2% of the country's total population.Some sources trace the ancestry of the Sri LankanMoorsto Arab traders who settled in Sri Lanka at some time between the 8th and 15th centuries.There are about 118,866Arab-IndonesiansofHadramidescent in the 2010 Indonesian census.
Afro-Arabsare individuals and groups fromAfricawho are of partial Arab descent. Most Afro-Arabs inhabit theSwahili Coastin theAfrican Great Lakesregion, although some can also be found in parts of the Arab world.Large numbers of Arabs migrated toWest Africa, particularlyCôte d'Ivoire(home to over 100,000 Lebanese),Senegal(roughly 30,000 Lebanese),Sierra Leone(roughly 10,000 Lebanese today; about 30,000 prior to the outbreak ofcivil warin 1991),Liberia, andNigeria.Since the end of the civil war in 2002,Lebanesetraders have become re-established in Sierra Leone.The Arabs of Chad occupy northern Cameroon and Nigeria (where they are sometimes known as Shuwa), and extend as a belt across Chad and into Sudan, where they are called theBaggaragrouping ofArabethnic groups inhabiting the portion of Africa'sSahel. There are 171,000 inCameroon, 150,000 inNiger), and 107,000 in theCentral African Republic.
Arabs are mostly Muslims with aSunnimajority and aShiaminority, one exception being theIbadis, who predominate inOman.Arab Christiansgenerally followEastern Churchessuch as theGreek OrthodoxandGreek Catholicchurches, though a minority ofProtestant Churchfollowers also exists.There are also Arab communities consisting ofDruzeandBaháʼís.Historically, there were also sizeable populations ofArab Jewsaround the Arab World.
Before the coming of Islam, most Arabs followed a pagan religion with a number of deities, includingHubal,Wadd,Allāt,Manat, andUzza. A few individuals, thehanifs, had apparently rejectedpolytheismin favor ofmonotheismunaffiliated with any particular religion. Some tribes had converted to Christianity or Judaism. The most prominent Arab Christian kingdoms were theGhassanidandLakhmidkingdoms.When theHimyariteking converted toJudaismin the late 4th century,the elites of the other prominent Arab kingdom, theKindites, being Himyirite vassals, apparently also converted (at least partly). With the expansion of Islam, polytheistic Arabs were rapidlyIslamized, and polytheistic traditions gradually disappeared.
Today, Sunni Islam dominates in most areas, vastly so in Levant, North Africa, West Africa and the Horn of Africa. Shia Islam is dominant inBahrainand southernIraqwhile northern Iraq is mostly Sunni. Substantial Shia populations exist inLebanon,Yemen,Kuwait,Saudi Arabia,northernSyriaand Al-Batinah Region inOman. There are small numbers ofIbadiandnon-denominational Muslimstoo.TheDruzecommunity is concentrated in Levant.
Christianity had a prominent presence Inpre-Islamic Arabiaamong several Arab communities, including theBahrani peopleofEastern Arabia, theChristian community of Najran, in parts ofYemen, and among certain northern Arabian tribes such as theGhassanids,Lakhmids,Taghlib,Banu Amela,Banu Judham,TanukhidsandTayy. In the early Christian centuries, Arabia was sometimes known asArabia heretica, due to its being "well known as a breeding-ground for heterodox interpretations of Christianity."Christians make up 5.5% of the population of Western Asia and North Africa.In Lebanon, Christians number about 40.5% of the population.In Syria, Christians make up 10% of the population.Christians in Palestinemake up 8% and 0.7% of the populations, respectively.In Egypt, Christians number about 10% of the population. In Iraq, Christians constitute 0.1% of the population.
In Israel, Arab Christians constitute 2.1% (roughly 9% of the Arab population).Arab Christians make up 8% of the population ofJordan.MostNorthandSouth AmericanArabs are Christian,so are about half of the Arabs in Australia who come particularly from Lebanon, Syria and Palestine. One well known member of this religious and ethnic community isSaint Abo, martyr and the patron saint ofTbilisi,Georgia.Arab Christians also live in holy Christian cities such asNazareth,Bethlehemand theChristian Quarterof theOld City of Jerusalemand many other villages with holy Christian sites.
Arab culture is shaped by a long and rich history that spans thousands of years, from theAtlantic Oceanin the west to theArabian Seain the east, and from theMediterranean Seain the north to the Horn of Africa and the Indian Ocean in the southeast. The various religions the Arabs have adopted throughouttheir historyand the various empires and kingdoms that have ruled and took lead of the Arabic civilization have contributed to theethnogenesisand formation of modern Arab culture.Language,literature,gastronomy,art,architecture,music,spirituality,philosophyandmysticismare all part of the cultural heritage of the Arabs.
Arabicis aSemitic languageof theAfro-Asiatic family.The first evidence for the emergence of the language appears in military accounts from 853 BCE. Today it has developed widely used as alingua francafor more than 500 million people. It is also aliturgicallanguage for 1.7 billionMuslims.Arabic is one of sixofficial languages of the United Nations,and is revered inIslamas the language of theQuran.
Arabic has two main registers.Classical Arabicis the form of theArabiclanguage used in literary texts fromUmayyadand Abbasid times (7th to 9th centuries). It is based on the medieval dialects ofArab tribes.Modern Standard Arabic(MSA) is the direct descendant used today throughout the Arab world in writing and in formal speaking, for example, prepared speeches, some radio broadcasts, and non-entertainment content,while thelexisandstylisticsofModern Standard Arabicare different fromClassical Arabic. There are also various regional dialects of colloquial spoken Arabic that both vary greatly from both each other and from the formal written and spoken forms of Arabic.
Arabic mythologycomprises the ancient beliefs of the Arabs. Prior to Islam the Kaaba of Mecca was covered in symbols representing the myriad demons, djinn, demigods, or simply tribal gods and other assorted deities which represented the polytheistic culture of pre-Islamic. It has been inferred from this plurality an exceptionally broad context in which mythology could flourish.
The most popular beasts and demons of Arabian mythology areBahamut,Dandan,Falak,Ghoul,Hinn,Jinn,Karkadann,Marid,Nasnas,Qareen,Roc,Shadhavar,Werehyenaand other assorted creatures which represented the profoundlypolytheisticenvironment of pre-Islamic.
The most prominent symbol of Arabian mythology is theJinnor genie.Jinns are supernatural beings that can be good or evil.They are not purely spiritual, but are also physical in nature, being able to interact in a tactile manner with people and objects and likewise be acted upon. Thejinn, humans, andangelsmake up the knownsapientcreations ofGod.
Ghoulsalso feature in the mythology as amonsterorevil spiritassociated with graveyards and consuming human flesh.In Arabic folklore, ghouls belonged to a diabolic class of jinn and were said to be the offspring of Iblīs, the prince of darkness in Islam. They were capable of constantly changing form, but always retaineddonkey's hooves.
TheQuran, the mainholy bookofIslam, had a significant influence on the Arabic language, and marked the beginning of Arabic literature. Muslims believe it was transcribed in the Arabic dialect of theQuraysh, the tribe ofMuhammad.As Islam spread, the Quran had the effect of unifying and standardizing Arabic.
Not only is the Quran the first work of any significant length written in the language, but it also has a far more complicated structure than the earlier literary works with its 114suwar(chapters) which contain 6,236ayat(verses). It containsinjunctions,narratives,homilies,parables, direct addresses from God, instructions and even comments on how the Quran will be received and understood. It is also admired for its layers of metaphor as well as its clarity, a feature which is mentioned inAn-Nahl, the 16th surah.
Al-Jahiz(born 776, inBasra– December 868/January 869) was an Arab prose writer and author of works of literature,Mu'tazilitheology, and politico-religious polemics. A leading scholar in the Abbasid Caliphate, his canon includes two hundred books on various subjects, includingArabic grammar,zoology, poetry, lexicography, andrhetoric. Of his writings, only thirty books survive. Al-Jāḥiẓ was also one of the first Arabian writers to suggest a complete overhaul of the language's grammatical system, though this would not be undertaken until his fellow linguistIbn Maḍāʾtook up the matter two hundred years later.
There is a small remnant ofpre-Islamic poetry, but Arabic literature predominantly emerges in theMiddle Ages, during theGolden Age of Islam.Imru' al-Qaiswas a king and poet in the 6th century, he was the last king ofKindite. He is among the finest Arabic poetry to date, as well sometimes considered the father ofArabic poetry.Kitab al-AghanibyAbul-Farajwas called by the 14th-century historianIbn Khaldunthe register of the Arabs.Literary Arabicis derived fromClassical Arabic, based on the language of the Quran as it was analyzed byArabic grammariansbeginning in the 8th century.
A large portion of Arabic literature before the 20th century is in the form ofpoetry, and even prose from this period is either filled with snippets of poetry or is in the form ofsajor rhymed prose.Theghazalor love poem had a long history being at times tender and chaste and at other times rather explicit.In theSufitradition the love poem would take on a wider,mysticalandreligiousimportance.
Arabic epic literaturewas much less common than poetry, and presumably originates in oral tradition, written down from the 14th century or so.Maqamaorrhymed proseis intermediate between poetry andprose, and also between fiction and non-fiction.Maqamawas an incredibly popular form of Arabic literature, being one of the few forms which continued to be written during the decline of Arabic in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Arabic literature andculturedeclined significantly after the 13th century, to the benefit ofTurkishandPersian. A modern revival took place beginning in the 19th century, alongsideresistance against Ottoman rule. The literary revival is known asal-Nahdain Arabic, and was centered inEgyptandLebanon. Two distinct trends can be found in thenahdaperiod of revival.
The first was a neo-classical movement which sought to rediscover the literary traditions of the past, and was influenced by traditional literary genres—such as themaqama—and works likeOne Thousand and One Nights. In contrast, a modernist movement began by translating Western modernist works—primarily novels—into Arabic.A tradition ofmodern Arabic poetrywas established by writers such asFrancis Marrash,Ahmad ShawqiandHafiz Ibrahim. Iraqi poetBadr Shakir al-Sayyabis considered to be the originator of free verse inArabic poetry.
Arab cuisineis largely divided intoKhaleeji cuisine,Levantine cuisineandMaghrebi cuisine.Arab cuisine has influenced other cuisines various cultures, includingOttoman,Persian, andAndalusian.
It is characterized by a variety of herbs and spices, includingcumin,coriander,cinnamon,sumac,za'atar,cardamom,mint,saffron,sesame,thymeturmericandparsley.Arab cuisine is also known for its sweets and desserts, such asKnafeh,Baklava,Halva, andQatayef.Arabic coffee, or qahwa, is a traditional drink that is served with dates.
Arabic arthas taken various forms, including, among other things,jewelry,textilesandarchitecture.Arabic script has also traditionally been heavily embellished with often colorfulArabic calligraphy, with one notable and widely used example beingKufic script.Arabic miniatures (Arabic: الْمُنَمْنَمَات الْعَرَبِيَّة,Al-Munamnamāt al-ʿArabīyah) are smallpaintingsonpaper, usually book or manuscript illustrations but also sometimes separate artworks that occupy entire pages. The earliest example dates from around 690 CE, with a flourishing of the art from between 1000 and 1200 CE in the Abbasid caliphate. The art form went through several stages of evolution while witnessing the fall and rise of severalArab caliphates.
Arab miniaturists got totally assimilated and subsequently disappeared due to theOttomanoccupation of the Arab world. Nearly all forms of Islamic miniatures (Persian miniatures,Ottoman miniaturesandMughal miniatures) owe their existences to Arabic miniatures, as Arab patrons were the first to demand the production of illuminated manuscripts in the Caliphate, it was not until the 14th century that the artistic skill reached the non-Arab regions of the Caliphate.
Despite the considerable changes in Arabic miniature style and technique, even during their last decades, the earlyUmayyadArab influence could still be noticed. Arabic miniature artists includeIsmail al-Jazari, who illustrated his ownBook of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices.
The Abbasid artist,Yahya Al-Wasiti, who probably lived inBaghdadin the late Abbasid era (12th to 13th-centuries), was one of the pre-eminent exponents of the Baghdad school. In the period 1236–1237, he transcribed and illustrated the bookMaqamat(also known as theAssembliesor theSessions), a series of anecdotes of social satire written byAl-Hariri of Basra.The narrative concerns the travels of a middle-aged man as he uses his charm and eloquence to swindle his way across the Arabic world.
With most surviving Arabicmanuscriptsin western museums,Arabic miniatures occupy very little space in modern Arab culture.Arabesqueis a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines,often combined with other elements. Another definition is "Foliate ornament, typically using leaves, derived from stylisedhalf-palmettes, which were combined with spiralling stems".It usually consists of a single design which can be 'tiled' or seamlessly repeated as many times as desired.
The Arab world is home to around 8%ofUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites(List of World Heritage Sites in the Arab states). The oldest examples of architecture include those ofpre-Islamic Arabia,as well asNabataean architecturethat developed in the ancientkingdom of the Nabataeans, a nomadic Arab tribe that controlled a significant portion of theMiddle Eastfrom the 4th century BCE to the 2nd century CE.The Nabataeans were known for their skill in carving out elaborate buildings, tombs, and other structures from the sandstone cliffs of the region. One of the most famous examples of Nabataean architecture is the city ofPetra, which is located in modern-dayJordan, was the capital of the Nabataean kingdom and is renowned for its impressive rock-cut architecture.
Prior to the start of theArab conquests, Arab tribal client states, theLakhmidsandGhassanids, were located on the borders of the Sassanid and Byzantine empires and were exposed to the cultural and architectural influences of both.They most likely played a significant role in transmitting and adapting the architectural traditions of these two empires to the later Arab Islamic dynasties.
The Arab empire expanded rapidly, and with it, came a diverse range of architectural influences. One of the most notable architectural achievements of the Arab Empire is theGreat Mosque of Damascusin Syria, which was built in the early 8th century, was constructed on the site of a Christian basilica and incorporated elements of Byzantine and Roman architecture, such as arches, columns, and intricate mosaics. Another important architectural is theAl-Aqsa MosqueinJerusalem, which was built in the late 7th century. The mosque features an impressive dome and a large prayer hall, as well as intricate geometric patterns and calligraphy on the walls.
Arabic music, while independent and flourishing in the 2010s, has a long history of interaction with many other regional musical styles and genres. It is an amalgam of the music of the Arab people in the Arabian Peninsula and the music of all the peoples that make up the Arab world today.Pre-Islamic Arab music was similar to that of Ancient Middle Eastern music. Most historians agree that there existed distinct forms of music in theArabian peninsulain the pre-Islamic period between the 5th and 7th century CE.Arab poetsof that "Jahili poets", meaning "the poets of the period of ignorance"—used to recite poems with a high notes.It was believed thatJinnsrevealed poems to poets and music to musicians.By the 11th century, Islamic Iberia had become a center for the manufacture of instruments. These goods spread gradually throughoutFrance, influencing Frenchtroubadours, and eventually reaching the rest ofEurope. The English wordslute,rebec, andnakerare derived from Arabicoud,rabab, andnaqareh.
A number ofmusical instrumentsused inclassical musicare believed to have been derived from Arabic musical instruments: thelutewas derived from theOud, therebec(ancestor ofviolin) from theMaghreb rebab, theguitarfromqitara, which in turn was derived from the PersianTar,nakerfromnaqareh,adufefromal-duff,albokafromal-buq,anafilfromal-nafir, exabeba fromal-shabbaba(flute), atabal (bass drum) fromal-tabl, atambal fromal-tinbal,thebalaban, thecastanetfromkasatan,sonajas de azófarfromsunuj al-sufr, theconical borewind instruments,the xelami from thesulamiorfistula(flute ormusical pipe),theshawmanddulzainafrom thereed instrumentszamrandal-zurna,thegaitafrom theghaita,rackettfromiraqyaoriraqiyya,geige(violin) fromghichak,and thetheorbofrom thetarab.
During the 1950s and the 1960s, Arabic music began to take on a more Western tone – artistsUmm Kulthum,Abdel Halim Hafez, andShadiaalong with composersMohamed Abd al-WahabandBaligh Hamdipioneered the use of western instruments in Egyptian music. By the 1970s several other singers had followed suit and a strand ofArabic popwas born. Arabic pop usually consists of Western styled songs with Arabic instruments and lyrics. Melodies are often a mix between Eastern and Western. Beginning in the mid-1980s,Lydia Canaan, musicalpioneerwidely regarded as the first rock star of theMiddle East
Arab polytheismwas the dominant religion inpre-Islamic Arabia.Godsandgoddesses, includingHubaland the goddessesal-Lāt,Al-'UzzáandManāt, were worshipped at local shrines, such as theKaabainMecca, whilst Arabs in the south, in what is today's Yemen, worshipped various gods, some of which represented the Sun or Moon. Different theorieshave been proposedregarding the role ofAllahin Meccan religion.Many of the physical descriptions of the pre-Islamic gods are traced toidols, especially near the Kaaba, which is said to have contained up to 360 of them.Until about the fourth century, almost all Arabs practised polytheistic religions.Although significantJewishand Christian minorities developed,polytheismremained the dominant belief system in pre-Islamic Arabia.
The religious beliefs and practices of the nomadicbedouinwere distinct from those of the settled tribes of towns such asMecca.Nomadic religious belief systems and practices are believed to have includedfetishism,totemismandveneration of the deadbut were connected principally with immediate concerns and problems and did not consider largerphilosophicalquestions such as the afterlife.Settled urban Arabs, on the other hand, are thought to have believed in a more complexpantheonof deities.While the Meccans and the other settled inhabitants of theHejazworshipped their gods at permanent shrines in towns and oases, the bedouin practised their religion on the move.
Most notable Arab gods and goddesses:'Amm,A'ra,Abgal,Allah,Al-Lat,Al-Qaum,Almaqah,Anbay,ʿAṯtar,Basamum,Dhu l-Khalasa,Dushara,Haukim,Hubal,Isāf and Nā'ila,Manaf,Manāt,Nasr,Nuha,Quzah,Ruda,Sa'd,Shams, Samas,Syn,Suwa',Ta'lab,Theandrios,al-'Uzzá,Wadd,Ya'uq,Yaghūth,Yatha,Aglibol,Astarte,Atargatis,Baalshamin,Bēl,Bes,Ēl, Ilāh,Inanna/Ishtar,Malakbel,Nabū, Nebo,Nergal,Yarhibol.
The philosophical thought in the Arab world is heavily influenced by Arabic Philosophy. Schools of Arabic/Islamic thought includeAvicennismandAverroism. The first great Arab thinker in the Islamic tradition is widely regarded to beal-Kindi(801–873 A.D.), aNeo-Platonicphilosopher,mathematicianandscientistwho lived inKufaandBaghdad(modern dayIraq). After being appointed by theAbbasid Caliphsto translateGreekscientific andphilosophicaltexts intoArabic, he wrote a number of original treatises of his own on a range of subjects, frommetaphysicsandethicstomathematicsandpharmacology.
Much of hisphilosophicaloutput focuses ontheologicalsubjects such as the nature ofGod, thesoulandpropheticknowledge. Doctrines of the Arabic philosophers of the 9th–12th century who influenced medievalScholasticismin Europe. The Arabic tradition combinesAristotelianismandNeoplatonismwith other ideas introduced throughIslam. Influential thinkers include the non-Arabsal-FarabiandAvicenna. The Arabic philosophic literature was translated intoHebrewandLatin, this contributed to the development of modern European philosophy. The Arabic tradition was developed byMoses MaimonidesandIbn Khaldun.
Arabic science underwent considerable development during theMiddle Ages(8th to 13th centuries CE), asource of knowledge that later spread throughout Medieval Europeand greatly influenced both medical practice and education. The language of recorded science wasArabic. Scientific treatises were composed by thinkers originating from across theMuslim world. These accomplishments occurred afterMuhammadunited the Arab tribes and the spread of Islam beyond the Arabian peninsula.
Within a century after Muhammed's death (632 CE), an empire ruled by Arabs was established. It encompassed a large part of the planet, stretching from southern Europe toNorth AfricatoCentral Asiaand on to India. In 711 CE, Arab Muslims invaded southern Spain;al-Andaluswas a center of Arabic scientific accomplishment. Soon after, Sicily too joined the greater Islamic world. Another center emerged inBaghdadfrom the Abbasids, who ruled part of theIslamic worldduring a historic period later characterized as the "Golden Age" (~750 to 1258 CE).
This era can be identified as the years between 692 and 945,and ended when the caliphate was marginalized by local Muslim rulers in Baghdad – its traditional seat of power. From 945 onward until thesacking of Baghdadby theMongolsin 1258, the Caliph continued on as a figurehead, with power devolving more to local subordinates.The pious scholars of Islam, men and women collectively known as theulama, were the most influential element of society in the fields ofSharialaw, speculative thought and theology.Arabic scientific achievement is not as yet fully understood, but is very large.These achievements encompass a wide range of subject areas, especiallymathematics,astronomy, andmedicine.Other subjects of scientific inquiry includedphysics,alchemy and chemistry,cosmology,ophthalmology,geography and cartography,sociology, andpsychology.
Al-Battaniwas an astronomer, astrologer and mathematician of theIslamic Golden Age. His work is considered instrumental in the development of science and astronomy. One of Al-Battani's best-known achievements in astronomy was the determination of the solar year as being 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds which is only 2 minutes and 22 seconds off.Inmathematics, al-Battānī produced a number oftrigonometricalrelationships.Al-Zahrawi, regarded by many as the greatest surgeon of theMiddle Ages.His surgical treatise "De chirurgia" is the first illustrated surgical guide ever written. It remained the primary source for surgical procedures and instruments in Europe for the next 500 years.The book helped lay the foundation to establishsurgeryas a scientific discipline independent frommedicine, earning al-Zahrawi his name as one of the founders of this field.
Other notable Arabic contributions include among other things: the pioneering oforganic chemistrybyJābir ibn Hayyān,establishing the science ofcryptologyandcryptanalysisbyal-Kindi,the development ofanalytic geometrybyIbn al-Haytham,who has been described as the "world's first true scientist",the discovery of thepulmonary circulationbyIbn al-Nafis,the discovery of theitch miteparasite byIbn Zuhr,the first use ofirrational numbersas an algebraic objects byAbū Kāmil,the first use of the positionaldecimal fractionsbyal-Uqlidisi,the development of theArabic numeralsand an earlyalgebraic symbolismin theMaghreb,theThabit numberandThābit theorembyThābit ibn Qurra,the discovery of several newtrigonometric identitiesbyIbn Yunusandal-Battani,themathematical proofforCeva's theorembyIbn Hűd,the invention of theequatoriumbyal-Zarqali,the discovery of thephysical reactionbyAvempace,the identification of more than 200 newplantsbyIbn al-BaitartheArab Agricultural Revolution, and theTabula Rogeriana, which was the most accurate world map in pre-modern times byal-Idrisi.
Several universities and educational institutions of the Arab world such as theUniversity of Al Quaraouiyine,Al Azhar University, andAl Zaytuna Universityare considered to be the oldest in the world. Founded byFatima al Fihriin 859 as a mosque, the University of Al Quaraouiyine inFezis the oldest existing, continually operating and the firstdegreeawarding educational institution in the world according toUNESCOandGuinness World Recordsand is sometimes referred to as the oldest university.
There are many scientificArabic loanwordsin Western European languages, includingEnglish, mostly via Old French.This includestraditional star namessuch asAldebaran, scientific terms likealchemy(whence alsochemistry),algebra,algorithm,alcohol,alkali,cipher,zenith, etc.
UnderOttoman rule, cultural life and science in the Arab world declined. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Arabs who have won important science prizes includeAhmed ZewailandElias Corey(Nobel Prize),Michael DeBakeyandAlim Benabid(Lasker Award),Omar M. Yaghi(Wolf Prize),Huda Zoghbi(Shaw Prize),Zaha Hadid(Pritzker Prize), andMichael Atiyah(bothFields MedalandAbel Prize).Rachid Yazamiwas one of the co-inventors of thelithium-ion battery,andTony Fadellwas important in the development of theiPodand theiPhone.
Arab theatre is a rich and diverse cultural form that encompasses a wide range of styles, genres, and historical influences. Its roots in the pre-Islamic era, when poetry, storytelling, and musical performances were the main forms of artistic expressionIt refers to theatrical performances that are created by Arab playwrights, actors, and directors. The roots of Arab theatre can be traced back to ancientArabic poetryand storytelling, which often incorporated music and dance. In theearly Arabic period, storytelling evolved into a more formalized art form that was performed in public gatherings and festivals.
During theIslamic Golden Agein the 8th and 9th centuries, the city ofBaghdademerged as a hub of intellectual and artistic activity, including theatre. The court of the Abbasid Caliphate was home to many influential playwrights and performers, who helped to develop and popularize theatre throughout the Islamic world. Arab theatre has a long tradition of incorporating comedy and satire into its performances, often using humor to address social and political issues.
Arab theatre encompasses a wide range of dramatic genres, including tragedy, melodrama, and historical plays. Many Arab playwrights have used drama to address contemporary issues, the role ofwomen in Arab society, and the challenges facing young people in the modern world. In recent decades, many Arab theatre artists have pushed the boundaries of the form, experimenting with new styles and techniques. This has led to the emergence of a vibrant contemporary theatre scene in many Arab countries, with innovative productions and performances that challenge traditional notions of Arab identity and culture.
Arab fashion and design have a rich history and cultural significance that spans centuries, each with its unique fashion and design traditions. One of the most notable aspects of Arab fashion is the use of luxuriousfabricsand intricateembroidery. Traditional garments, such as theAbayaandThobe, are often made from high-quality fabrics likesilk,satin,brocade, and are embellished with intricate embroidery and beading.In recent years, Arab fashion has gained global recognition, with designers likeElie Saab,Zuhair Murad, andReem Acrashowcasing their designs on international runways.
These designers incorporate traditional Arab design elements into their collections, such as ornate patterns, luxurious fabrics, and intricate embellishments. In addition to fashion, Arab design is also characterized by its intricate geometricpatterns,calligraphy, and use of vibrant colors. Arabic art and architecture, with their intricate geometric patterns and motifs, have influenced Arab design for centuries.Arab designers also incorporate traditional motifs, such as the paisley and thearabesque, into their work. Overall, Arab fashion elements are rooted in the rich cultural heritage of the Arab world and continue to inspire designers today.
Arabic weddingshave changed greatly in the past 100 years. Original traditional Arabic weddings are supposed to be very similar to modern-dayBedouinweddings and rural weddings, and they are in some cases unique from one region to another, even within the same country. The practice ofmarryingof relatives is a common feature ofArab culture.
In the Arab world today between 40% and 50% of all marriages areconsanguineousor between close family members, though these figures may vary among Arab nations.InEgypt, around 40% of the populationmarry a cousin. A 1992 survey inJordanfound that 32% were married to a first cousin; a further 17.3% were married to more distant relatives.67% of marriages inSaudi Arabiaare between close relatives as are 54% of all marriages inKuwait, whereas 18% of allLebanesewere betweenblood relatives.Due to the actions ofMuhammadand theRightly Guided Caliphs, marriage between cousins is explicitly allowed inIslamand theQuranitself does not discourage or forbid the practice.Nevertheless, opinions vary on whether thephenomenonshould be seen as exclusively based on Islamic practices as a 1992 study among Arabs in Jordan did not show significant differences betweenChristian ArabsorMuslim Arabswhen comparing the occurrence ofconsanguinity.
Arabs are genetically diverse, arising from admixture with indigenous peoples of pre-Islamic Middle East and North Africa, following the Islamic expansion.Genetic ancestry components related to the Arabian Peninsula display an increasing frequency pattern from west to east over North Africa. A similar frequency pattern exist acrossnortheastern Africawith decreasing genetic affinities to groups of the Arabian Peninsula along theNile river valleyacrossSudanandSouth Sudanthe more they go south.Thisgenetic clineof admixture is dated to the time ofArab expansion and immigration to the Maghreband northeast Africa.Genetic research has indicated that Palestinian Arabs andJewsshare common genetic ancestry and are closely related.According to a 2016 study, indigenous Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula are direct descendants of the first Eurasian populations established byOut of Africa migrations. They are also very distant from contemporary Eurasians although there is signal of European admixture.