Jewish cuisine

Jewish cuisinerefers to the worldwide cooking traditions of theJewish people. During its evolution over the course of many centuries, it has been shaped byJewish dietary laws(kashrut),Jewish festivals and holidays, and traditions centred aroundShabbat. Jewish cuisine is influenced by the economics, agriculture, and culinary traditions of the many countries where Jewish communities have settled and varies widely throughout the entire world.
The history of Jewish cuisine begins with thecuisine of the ancient Israelites. As theJewish diasporagrew, different styles of Jewish cooking developed. The distinctive styles in Jewish cuisine vary according to each community across theAshkenazi,Sephardi, andMizrahidiaspora groupings; there are also notable dishes within the culinary traditions of the standalone significant Jewish diaspora communities fromGreece,Iran, andYemen.
Since the establishment of theState of Israelin 1948, and particularly since the late 1970s, a nascent Israeli "fusion cuisine" has developed.Israeli cuisinehas adapted a multitude of elements, overlapping techniques and ingredients from the many culinary traditions of the Jewish diaspora.
The laws of keepingkosher(kashrut) have influenced Jewish cooking by prescribing what foods are permitted and how food must be prepared. The word kosher is usually translated as "proper".
Certain foods, notablypork,shellfishand almost allinsectsare forbidden; meat and dairy cannot be eaten together in one dish and a certain period of time must elapse before dairy food can be eaten following a meat dish. The length of time depends on a specificminhag(tradition). It is most common to wait six hours but some groups wait three or one.Meat must beritually slaughteredandsaltedto remove all traces of blood.
Observant Jews will eat only meat or poultry that is certifiedkosher. The meat has to have been slaughtered by ashochet(ritual slaughterer) in accordance with Jewish law and must be entirely drained of blood. Before it is cooked, it is soaked in water for half an hour, then placed on a perforated board, sprinkled with coarse salt (which draws out the blood) and left to sit for one hour. At the end of this time, the salt is washed off and the meat is ready for cooking.
Today, kosher meats purchased from a butcher or supermarket have already undergone thekosheringprocess as described in the previous paragraph and no additional soaking or salting is required.
According tokashrut, meat and poultry must not be eaten with dairy products, nor may they be eaten from plates or with utensils that have been used with dairy products. Therefore, Jews who strictly observekashrutdivide their kitchens into different sections for meat and for dairy, with separate ovens, plates and utensils (or as much as is reasonable, given financial and space constraints; there are procedures tokasherutensils that have touched dairy to allow their use for meat).
As a result, butter, milk and cream are not used in preparing dishes made with meat or intended to be served together with meat. Oil,parevemargarine, renderedchicken fat(often calledschmaltzin the Ashkenazi tradition), or non-dairy cream substitutes are used instead.
Despite religious prohibitions, some foods not generally considered kosher have made their way into traditional Jewish cuisine;sturgeon, which was consumed by European Jews at least as far back as the 19th century, is one example.
The hearty cuisine ofAshkenazi Jewswas based on centuries of living in the cold climate of Central andEastern Europe, whereas the lighter, "sunnier" cuisine ofSephardi Jewswas influenced by life in the Mediterranean region.
Each Jewish community has its traditional dishes, often revolving around specialties from their home country. InSpainandPortugal,olivesare a common ingredient and many foods are fried in oil. The idea of frying fish in the stereotypicallyBritishfish and chips, for example, was introduced to Britain by Sephardic Jewish immigrants.InGermany, stews were popular. The Jews ofNetherlandsspecialized in pickles,herring,butter cakesandbolas(jamrolls). InPoland, Jews made various kinds of stuffed and stewed fish along withmatza ballsoup orlokshennoodles. InNorth Africa, Jews atecouscousandtagine.
Thus, a traditionalShabbatmeal for Ashkenazi Jews might include stuffed vine leaves, roast beef, pot roast, or chicken, carrotstzimmesand potatoes. A traditional Shabbat meal for Sephardi Jews would focus more on salads,couscousand other Middle-Eastern specialties.
The daily diet of the average ancient Israelite consisted mainly of bread, cooked grains and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. The bread eaten until the end of the Israelite monarchy was mostly made from barley flour.
During theSecond Temple era, bread made from wheat flour became predominant.A variety of breads was produced. Probably most common were unleavened flat loaves calledugahorkikkar.Another type was a thin wafer, known as arakik.A thicker loaf, known ashallah,was made with the best-quality flour, usually for ritual purposes. Bread was sometimes enriched by the addition of flour from legumes (Ezekiel 4:9).
The Mishna (Hallah2:2) mentions bread dough made with fruit juice instead of water to sweeten the bread. The Israelites also sometimes added fennel and cumin to bread dough for flavor and dipped their bread in vinegar (Ruth 2:14), olive oil, or sesame oil for extra flavor.
Vegetables played a smaller, but significant role in the diet. Legumes and vegetables were typically eaten instews. Stews made of lentils or beans were common and they were cooked with onion, garlic, and leeks for flavor. Fresh legumes were also roasted, or dried and stored for extended periods, then cooked in a soup or a stew. Vegetables were also eaten uncooked with bread. Lentils were the most important of the legumes and were used to make pottages and soups, as well as fried lentil cakes calledashishim.
The Israelites drankgoatandsheep's milkwhen it was available in the spring and summer and ate butter and cheese. They also ate honey, both from bees anddate honey.
Figs and grapes were the fruits most commonly eaten, while dates, pomegranates, almonds, and other fruits and nuts were eaten more occasionally.
Wine was the most popular beverage and sometimes other fermented beverages were produced.
Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely by most Israelites and reserved for special occasions, such as celebrations, festival meals, or sacrificial feasts. The wealthy ate meat more frequently and hadbeef,venison, andvealavailable to them.
Olives were used primarily for their oil, which was used raw and to cook meat and stews.Game(usually deer and gazelle), birds, eggs, and fish were also eaten, depending on availability.Meat was typically prepared in broths or stews, and sometimes roasted. For long-term storage, meat was smoked, dried, or salted.
Porridgeandgruelwere made from ground grain, water, salt, and butter. This mixture also formed the basis for cakes, to which oil, calledshemen, and fruits were sometimes added before baking.
Most food was eaten fresh and in season. Fruits and vegetables had to be eaten as they ripened and before they spoiled.
People had to contend with periodic episodes of hunger and famine. Producing enough food required hard and well-timed labor and theclimatic conditionsresulted in unpredictable harvests and the need to store as much food as possible. Thus, grapes were made into raisins and wine, olives were made into oil, figs, beans and lentils were dried and grains were stored for use throughout the year.
As fresh milk tended to spoil quickly, the Israelites stored milk in skin containers that caused it to curdle quickly and drank it as thick sour milk which they calledlaban.
The Israelites ate a variety of fresh and saltwater fish, according to both archaeological and textual evidence.Remains of freshwater fish from theYarkonandJordanrivers and theSea of Galileehave been found in excavations, and includeSt. Peter’s fishandmouthbreeders. Saltwater fish discovered in excavations includesea bream,grouper,meager, andgray mullet. Most of these come from theMediterranean Sea, but in the later Iron Age period, some are from theRed Sea.Although theTorahprohibits the consumption of fish without fins or scales, archeological evidence indicates that many Israelites flouted or were unaware of these restrictions and ate non-kosher seafood, mostlycatfishbut alsoshark,eel, andray, and that religious restrictions on seafood began to be observed more strictly starting in the first century CE.
Descriptions of typical Israelite meals appear in the Bible. TheBook of Samueldescribed the rationsAbigailbrought toDavid's group: bread loaves, wine, butchered sheep, parched grain, raisins, and fig cakes.TheBook of Ruthdescribed a typical light breakfast: bread dipped in vinegar and parched or roasted grain.
The cuisine maintained many consistent traits based on the main products available from the early Israelite period until theRoman period, even though new foods became available during this extended time. For example,ricewas introduced during thePersian era.
During theHellenistic period, as trade with theNabateansincreased, more spices became available, at least for those who could afford them and more Mediterranean fish were imported into the cities. During the Roman period,sugar canewas introduced.
The symbolic food of the ancient Israelites continued to be important amongJewsafter the destruction of theSecond Templein 70 CE and the beginning of theJewish diaspora.
Bread, wine and olive oil were seen as direct links to the three main crops of ancient Israel—wheat, grapes and olives. In the Bible, this trio is described as representing thedivineresponse to human needs (Hosea 2:23–24) and, particularly, the need for the seasonal rains vital for the successful cultivation of these three crops. (Deuteronomy 11:13–14).
The significance of wine, bread and oil is indicated by their incorporation intoJewish religiousritual, with the blessings over wine and bread forShabbatand holiday meals and at religious ceremonies such asweddingsand the lighting of Shabbat and festival lights with olive oil.
Modern Jewish cooking originated in the various communities of theJewish diaspora, and modern Jewish cuisine bears little resemblance to what the ancient Israelites ate. However, a few dishes that originated in ancient Israel survive to the present day. Notably among them ischolent, orhamin, a stew traditionally eaten on Shabbat that issimmeredfor 12 hours in a way that conforms with Shabbat restrictions. It dates to at least theSecond Temple period. Various diaspora communities created their own variations of the dish based on their local climate and available ingredients, which are eaten today.
Other foods dating to the ancient Israelites includepastels, or Shabbat meat pies, andcharoset, a sweet fruit and nut paste eaten at thePassover Seder.
Bread was a staple food and as in the Bible, the meal is designated by the simple term "to eat bread", so the rabbinical law ordains that the blessing pronounced upon bread covers everything else except wine and dessert. Bread was made not only from wheat, but also from barley, rice, millet, lentils, etc.
Many kinds of fruit were eaten. There was a custom to eat apples duringShavuot,while specific fruit and herbs were eaten on holidays and special occasions such asRosh Hashana. Children received nuts and roasted ears of grain especially on the evening of Passover. Olives were so common that they were used as a measure (zayit).
Meat was eaten only on special occasions, onShabbatand at feasts. The pious kept fine cattle for Shabbat (Beẓah 16a), but various other kinds of dishes, relishes and spices were also on the table. Deer, also, furnished meat, as did pheasant, chickens and pigeons.
Fermented fish sauce was an important article of commerce, being called "garum" among the Jews, as among the Greeks and Romans. Plinysays expressly of a "garum castimoniale" (i.e.,koshergarum) that it was prepared according to Jewish law. A specific type of locust was eaten. Eggs were so commonly eaten that the quantity of an egg was used as a measure.
The devastation of theBar-Kokhba revoltgreatly reduced the variety of the local diet. In its aftermath, the amount of imported goods declined and vegetables became a luxury. The typical meal consisted of a slice of bread dipped in olive oil, a soup orgruelof legumes, and fruits, especially figs. OnShabbat, a small amount of fish and vegetables were eaten.
While pork was prohibited by Jewish laws as described underkashrut, the refusal to eat pork only became central to Jewish identity while under Roman rule. Pork consumption during the Roman period increased and became closely affiliated with Romans not only as a common cuisine but also as a frequently sacrificed animal. Jordan Rosenblum has argued that by not consuming pork, Jews maintained their sense of particularity and even held a silent revolt against the Roman Empire.
The first dish was a pickled starter to stimulate the appetite,followed by the main meal, which ended with a dessert, called in Greekθάργημα.Afiḳomenis used in the same sense. Tidbits (parperet) were eaten before and after the meal (Ber. vi. 6).
Wine was flavored with myrrhor with honey and pepper, the mixture being calledconditum. There was vinegar wine,wine from Amanus and Cilicia,red wine from Saron, Ethiopian wine,and black wine.Certain wines were considered good for the stomach, others not.There was beer from Egypt calledzythos(Pes. iii. 1) and beer made from a thornSpina regia.
Emphasis was placed on drinking with the meal as eating without drinking (any liquid) causes stomach trouble.
The Jews were so widely scattered in theMiddle Agesthat it is difficult to give a connected account of their mode of living as to food. In Arabic countries the author of theHalakhot Gedolotknew some dishes that appear to have been specific Jewish foods, e.g.,paspag,which was, perhaps, biscuit.
According to theSiddur Amram,the well-known "ḥaroset" is made in those countries from a mixture of herbs, flour and honey (Arabic,"ḥalikah").
Maimonides, in his "Sefer Refu'ot",mentions dishes that are good for health. He recommends bread baked from wheat that is not too new, nor too old, nor too fine,further, the meat of the kid, sheep and chicken and the yolks of eggs. Goats' and cows' milk is good, nor are cheese and butter harmful. Honey is good for old people; fish with solid white flesh meat is wholesome; so also are wine anddried fruits. Fresh fruits, however, are unwholesome, and he does not recommend garlic or onions.
There is detailed information about Italian Jewish cookery in the bookMassechet Purim. It discusses pies, chestnuts, turtledoves, pancakes, small tarts, gingerbread, ragouts, venison, roast goose, chicken, stuffed pigeons, ducks, pheasants, partridges, quails, macaroons and salad. These were considered luxuries.
The oppressed medieval Jews enjoyed large meals only on Shabbat, festivals, circumcisions and weddings. For example, the Jews ofRhodes, according to a letter of Ovadiah Bartinura, 1488, lived on herbs and vegetables only, never tasting meat or wine.InEgypt, however, meat, fish and cheese were obtainable,inGaza, grapes, fruit and wine.Cold dishes are still relished in the East. Generally, only one dish was eaten, with fresh bread daily.
Some Jewish dishes frequently mentioned inYiddish literaturefrom the 12th century onward arebrätzel,lokshen,pasteten,fladen,beleg.
Barschtorborschtis aUkrainianbeet soup,best known are theberkesorbarches(challah) eaten on Shabbat,andshalet(cholent),which Heine commemorates,and which the Spanish Jews calledani(hamin). Shabbat pudding,kiglorkugelin Yiddish, is also well known.
In the United States, in particular, Jewish cooking (and the cookbooks that recorded and guided it) evolved in ways that illuminate changes in the role of Jewish women and the Jewish home.
Jewish cuisine has also played a big part in shaping the restaurant scene in the West, in particular in the UK and US.Israeli cuisinein particular has become a niche food trend in the UK, with Israeli restaurants now opening up sister restaurants in London and beyond.
In the 1930s there were four Jewish bakeries inMinneapoliswithin a few blocks of each other bakingbagelsand other fresh breads. Jewish families purchasedchallahloaves for their Sabbath meal at one North Side bakery. There were two kosher meat markets and fourJewish delicatessens, one of which began distribution for what would becomeSara Leefrozencheesecakes. The delis sold sandwiches likecorned beefandsalami.
InChicagoJewish immigrants from eastern Europe ate a type ofoatmealcereal calledkrupnikthat sometimes had barley, potatoes and fat added, and milk when it was available.Orthodox Jewscontinued to observekashrut. Sweatshop laborers carriedbagels,knishandherringto work.
Jewish cuisines vary widely depending on their regions of origin, but they tend to be broadly categorized intoSephardi(Iberian and North African),Mizrahi(Middle Eastern and Central Asian) andAshkenazi(Eastern, Western and Central European) families.
Still, there is significant overlap between the different cuisines, as Jews have often migrated great distances and as different regions where Jews have settled (e.g. Southeastern Europe) have been influenced by different cultures over time. For example, Balkan Jewish cuisine contains both Ashkenazi/European and Sephardic-Turkish influences, as this part of Europe (up to the borders of present-day Austria and Poland) was for a time part of the Ottoman Empire.
Since the rise of Ashkenazi Jewish migration to 19th-century Palestine and the establishment of the State of Israel, increased contact between Ashkenazi, Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews has led to a rising importance of Middle-Eastern and Mediterranean cuisine amongst Jews of all backgrounds.
While Ashkenazi cuisine as it is known today is largely based within the context ofAmerican-Jewishand Ashkenazi-Israeli food, much of the culinary tradition of Ashkenazi Jews springs from Central, Western and Eastern Europe, and a good part of that from China. Jordan Paper writes:-
After having been expelled from Western Europe in the Middle Ages, Jews were forced to live in poverty and thus were limited in terms of ingredients. Dishes were made with fewer components; they were not heavily spiced and ingredients that were more flavorful had to be used sparingly. This is often why some dishes in Ashkenazic cuisine are known for being blander than dishes in Sephardic or Mizrahi cuisine.
The cuisine is based largely on ingredients that were affordable for the historically poor Ashkenazi Jewish communities of Europe, often composed of ingredients that were readily available in Europe and which were perceived to be less desirable and rarely used by their gentile neighbors, such as brisket, chicken liver, and artichokes, among other ingredients.
As Ashkenazi Jews were typically forbidden to grow crops in their home countries in Europe, their cuisine reflects that and there are less vegetable-focused dishes in their cuisine compared to their Sephardi and Mizrahi counterparts.
Meat is ritually slaughtered in theshechitaprocess, and is soaked and salted. Meat dishes are a prominent feature ofShabbat, festival, and celebratory meals. Braised meats such as brisket feature heavily, as do root vegetables such as potatoes, carrots, and parsnips which are used in such dishes aslatkes,matzo ball soup, andtzimmes.
Cooked, stuffed and baked vegetables such as stuffed cabbage are central to the cuisine. Due to the lack of availability of olive oil and other fats traditionally used in Jewish cooking, fat from leftover chicken and goose skins (gribenes) calledschmaltzis traditionally used infleishig(meat) dishes, while butter is traditionally used inmilchig(dairy) dishes.
With kosher meat not always available, fish became an important staple of the Jewish diet. In Eastern Europe it was sometimes especially reserved forShabbat. As fish is not considered meat by the culinary definition nor in the Judaic context, it is consumed by many observant Jews who consider to be permissible to eat fish with milk and other dairy products. However, within various Jewish communities there are different rules regarding fish and dairy.For instance, manySephardimdo not mix fish with milk or any other kind of dairy product.Similarly, theChabad-Hasidiccustom is not to consume fish together with specificallymilk; however, it is permissible to eat fish and otherdairy products(ex; butter, cheese, cream)at the same time.
Even though fish isparve, when they are served at the same meal,Orthodox Jewswill eat them during separate courses and wash (or replace) the dishes in between.Gefilte fishandloxare popular inAshkenazicuisine.
Though the combination of dairy and fish is generally acceptable, fish is the only parve food that the Talmud places restrictions on when it is being baked/eaten alongside meat. Talmudic reasoning for not eating meat and fish together originates from health and sanitary concerns rather than holy obligations.Unlike with milk and meat, it is kosher to eat fish and meat at the same meal as long as they're baked separately, they're served on separate plates as separate courses, the same utensils aren't shared, and between courses the mouth is thoroughly cleansed with a beverage and the palate is neutralized with a different food.
Gefilte fish(from Yiddish געפֿילטע פֿישgefilte fish, "stuffed fish") was traditionally made by skinning the fish steaks, usuallyGerman or French carp, de-boning the flesh, mincing it and sometimes mixing with finely chopped browned onions (3:1), eggs, salt or pepper and vegetable oil. The fish skin and head were then stuffed with the mixture and poached.The religious reason for a boneless fish dish for the Sabbath is the prohibition of separating bones from food while eating [the prohibition ofborer, separating]
A more common commercially packaged product found today is the "Polish" gefilte fish patties or balls, similar toquenelles, where sugar is added to the broth, resulting in a slightly sweet taste.Strictly speaking they are the fish filling, rather than the complete filled fish.This method of serving evolved from the tradition of removing the stuffing from the skin,rather than portioning the entire fish into slices before serving.
While traditionally made withcarporwhitefishand sometimes pike, gefilte fish may also be made from any large fish:cod,haddock, orhakein the United Kingdom.
The combination ofsmoked salmon, or whitefish withbagelsandcream cheeseis a traditional breakfast or brunch inAmerican Jewish cuisine, made famous atNew York Cityappetizing storesandJewish dairy restaurants, andkosher styleJewish delis.
Vorschmack orgehakte hering(chopped herring), a popular appetizer on Shabbat, is made by chopping skinned, bonedherringswith hard-boiledeggs, sometimesonions,apples,sugarorpepperand a dash ofvinegar.
A number of soups are characteristicallyAshkenazi, one of the most common of which ischicken souptraditionally served on Shabbat, holidays and special occasions.
The soup may be served with noodles (lokshenin Yiddish). It is often served withshkedei marak(lit. "soup almonds", croutons popular in Israel), calledmandlenormandlachin Yiddish. Other popular ingredients arekreplach(dumplings) and matza balls(kneidlach)– a mixture of matza meal, eggs, water, and pepper or salt. Some reservekneidlachforPassoverandkreplachfor other special occasions.
In the preparation of a number of soups, neither meat nor fat is used. Such soups formed the food of the poor classes. An expression among Jews of Eastern Europe,soup mit nisht(soup with nothing), owes its origin to soups of this kind.
Soups such asborshtwere considered a staple inUkraine. Soups likekrupnikwere made of barley, potatoes and fat. This was the staple food of the poor students of theyeshivot; in richer families, meat was added to this soup.
At weddings, "golden" chicken soup was often served. The reason for its name is probably the yellow circles of moltenchicken fatfloating on its surface. Today, chicken soup is widely referred to (not just among Jews) in jest as "Jewish penicillin", and hailed as a cure for the common cold.
There are a number of sour soups in the borscht category. One iskrautor cabbage borscht, made by cooking together cabbage, meat, bones, onions, raisins, sour salt (citric acid), sugar and sometimes tomatoes.
Beet borsht is served hot or cold. In the cold version, a beaten egg yolk may be added before serving and each bowl topped with a dollop of sour cream. This last process is calledfarweissen(to make white).
The dough ofchallah(calledbarkhesin Western Yiddish) is often shaped into forms having symbolical meanings; thus onRosh Hashanahrings and coins are imitated, indicating "May the new year be as round and complete as these"; for Hosha'na Rabbah, bread is baked in the form of a key, meaning "May the door of heaven open to admit our prayers." Challah bread is most commonly braided or made in round roll shapes.
Thehamentash, a triangular cookie or turnover filled with fruit preserves (lekvar) or honey and blackpoppy seedpaste, is eaten on theFeast of Purim. It is said to be shaped like the ears ofHamanthe tyrant. Themohn kihelis a circular or rectangular wafer sprinkled with poppy seed.Pirushkes, or turnovers, are little cakes fried in honey or dipped in molasses after they are baked.Strudelis served for dessert.Kugelsare prepared from rice, noodles or mashed potatoes.
In Eastern Europe, the Jews baked black (proster, or "ordinary") bread, white bread andchallah. The most common form is the twist (koilitchorkidkefrom theRomanianwordîncolăciwhich means "to twist"). Thekoilitchis oval in form and about one and a half feet in length. On special occasions, such as weddings, thekoilitchis increased to a length of about two and a half feet.
Thebagel, which originated inPoland, is a popularAshkenazifood and became widespread in theUnited States.
Gebratenes(roasted meat), chopped meat andessig-fleisch(vinegar meat) are favorite meat recipes. Theessigor, as it is sometimes called,honigorsauerbraten, is made by adding to meat which has been partially roasted with some sugar, bay leaves, pepper, raisins, salt and a little vinegar.Knishis a snack food consisting of a meat or potato filling covered with dough that is either baked or grilled.
A popular dish amongAshkenazim, as amongst most Eastern-Europeans, ispierogi(which are related to but distinct fromkreplach), often filled with minced beef.Kishkais a popular Ashkenazi dish traditionally made of stuffing of flour or matza meal,schmaltzand spices.
The rendered fat of chickens, known asschmaltz, is sometimes kept in readiness for cooking use when needed.Gribenesor "scraps", also calledgriven,the cracklings left from the rendering process were one of the favorite foods in Eastern Europe.Schmaltzis eaten spread on bread.
A spread ofchopped liver, prepared with onions and often includinggribenes, is a popular appetizer, side dish, or snack, especially among Jews on the eastern coast of North America. It is usually served with rye bread or crackers.Brisketis also a popular Ashkenazi dish of braised beef brisket.
Holishkes, stuffed cabbage, also known as thecabbage roll, is also a European Jewish dish that emerged from more impoverished times for Jews. Because having a live cow was more valuable than to eat meat in the Middle Ages, Jews used fillers such as breadcrumbs and vegetables to mix with ground beef. This gave the effect of more meat being stuffed into the cabbage leaves.
Teiglach, traditionally served onRosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year, consists of little balls of dough (about the size of a marble) drenched in a honey syrup.Ingberlachare ginger candies shaped into small sticks or rectangles.
In Europe, jellies and preserves made from fruit juice were used as pastry filling or served with tea. Among the poor, jelly was reserved for invalids, hence the practice of reciting the Yiddish sayingAlevay zol men dos nit darfn(May we not have occasion to use it) before storing it away.
Flodni, a layered sweet pastry consisting of apples, walnuts, currants and poppy seeds, were a staple ofHungarian Jewishbakeries prior toWorld War II.
Because it was easy to prepare, made from inexpensive ingredients and contained no dairy products,compotebecame a staple dessert in Jewish households throughout Europe and was considered part of Jewish cuisine.
Tzimmesconsists generally of cooked vegetables or fruits, sometimes with meat added. The most popular vegetable is the carrot (mehren tzimmes), which is sliced. Turnips were also used fortzimmes, particularly in Lithuania. In southern Russia, Galicia and Romaniatzimmeswas made of pears, apples, figs, prunes or plums (floymn tzimmes).
Kreplach, similar to Russianpelmeni, areravioli-like dumplings made from flour and eggs mixed into a dough, rolled into sheets, cut into squares and then filled with finely chopped, seasoned meat or cheese. They are most often served in soup, but may be fried.Kreplechare eaten on various holidays, among themPurimandHosha'na Rabbah.
The exact distinction between traditionalSephardicandMizrahi cuisinescan be difficult to make, due to the intermingling of the Sephardi diaspora and the Mizrahi Jews with whom they came in contact.
As a general rule, however, both types reflect the food of the local non-Jewish population that each group lived amongst. The need to preservekashrutdoes lead to a few significant changes (most notably, the use ofolive oilinstead of animal fat is often considered to be a legacy of Jewish residency in an area, due to the fact that olive oil may be eaten with milk, unlike animal fat).
Despite this, Sephardic and Ashkenazic concepts of kosher differ; perhaps the most notable difference being thatrice, a major staple of the Sephardic diet, is considered kosher forPassoveramong Sephardim but it is forbidden askitniyotby most Ashkenazim.
Sephardi cuisine emphasizes salads, stuffed vegetables and vine leaves, olive oil, lentils, fresh and dried fruits, herbs and nuts, and chickpeas. Meat dishes often make use of lamb or ground beef. Fresh lemon juice is added to many soups and sauces.
Many meat and rice dishes incorporate dried fruits such as apricots, prunes and raisins. Pine nuts are used as a garnish. Mizrahi cuisine is based largely on fresh ingredients, as marketing was done in the local souq.
Meat is ritually slaughtered in theshechitaprocess, and is soaked and salted. Meat dishes are a prominent feature ofShabbat, festival, and celebratory meals.
Cooked, stuffed and baked vegetables are central to the cuisine, as are various kinds of beans, chickpeas, lentils and burghul (cracked wheat). Rice takes the place of potatoes.
Coming from the Mediterranean and "sunny" climes,Mizrahicuisine is often light, with an emphasis on salads, stuffed vegetables and vine leaves, olive oil, lentils, fresh and dried fruits, herbs and nuts, and chickpeas. Meat dishes often make use of lamb or ground beef. Fresh lemon juice is added to many soups and sauces.
Many meat and rice dishes incorporate dried fruits such as apricots, prunes and raisins. Pine nuts are used as a garnish. Pomegranate juice is a staple of Persian Jewish cooking.Kubbeh, a meat-stuffed bulgur dumpling, features in the cooking of many Mizrahi communities. It is served in the cooking broth, as a kind of soup.
Sephardiccuisine in particular is known for its considerable use of vegetables unavailable to theAshkenazimof Europe, includingspinach,artichokes,pine nutsand (in more modern times)squash.
The cooking style is largely Middle Eastern, with significant admixtures of Spanish, Italian and North African flavors. The most popular Sephardic and Mizrahi dishes includemalawach,jachnun,sabich,mofletta,meorav yerushalmi, andkubaneh.  Popular condiments includeskhugandamba.MizrahiJewish cuisine has many unique dishes that were eaten by Jews in Iraq, Eastern Turkey, Iran and Yemen.
Good food is an important part of themitzvahofoneg Shabbat("enjoying Shabbat"), hence much of Jewish cuisine revolves aroundShabbat.
As observant Jews do not cook on Shabbat, various techniques were developed to provide for a hot meal on Shabbat day.
One such dish ischolentorchamin, a slow-cooked meat stew with many variations. The ingredients are placed in a pot and put up to boil before lighting the candles on Friday evening. Then the pot is placed on a hotplate, traditionalblech(thin tin sheet used to cover the flames and on which the pot is placed), or in a slow oven and left to simmer until the following day.
Cholentemerged in ancient Judea, possibly as far back as theSecond Temple period. Over the centuries, as Jewish diaspora communities developed, they created variations of the dish based on the local climate and available ingredients.
A prominent feature of Shabbat cookery is the preparation of twists of bread, known aschallotor (in southern Germany,AustriaandHungary) "barches". They are often covered with seeds to representmanna, which fell in a double portion on the sixth day.
Another Shabbat dish iscalf's foot jelly, calledp'tshaoršaltienain Lithuania andgalarita,galer,galleh, orfisnogein Poland. Beef or calf bones are put up to boil with water, seasonings, garlic and onions for a long time. It is then allowed to cool. The broth then jells into a semi-solid mass, which is served in cubes.
Drelies,a similar dish originating in south Russia and Galicia is mixed withsoft-boiled eggsand vinegar when removed from the oven and served hot. In Romania it is calledpiftie, in Serbiapihtije; it is served cold, with garlic, hard-boiled eggs and vinegar sauce or mustard creme and considered a traditional dish in the winter season.
Kugelis another Shabbat favorite, particularlylokshen kugel,a sweet baked noodle pudding, often with raisins and spices. Non-sweet kugels may be made of potatoes, carrots or a combination of vegetables.
Among the Jewish communities of Libya, Italy and a number of other communities in the Mediterranean basin, they used to prepare a rich selection of desserts that can be prepared even on Pesach without the need for leaven so that it can be served both on Pesach and on the day of Passover, which was spoken by the Sephardic Jews and the Mizrahi Jews on the day of Mimona, which is also considered a holiday. Among these foods are theabambar,buca de dama.
Traditional noodles—lokshen—are made from a dough of flour and eggs rolled into sheets and then cut into long strips. If the dough is cut into small squares, it becomesfarfel.Bothlokshenandfarfelare usually boiled and served with soup.
OnRosh Hashanah, theJewishNew Year, several symbolic foods calledsimanimare prepared and eaten for a variety of different reasons, each unique to the dish. All of the ingredients within the dishes arekosher, which means they follow the laws ofkashrut, the Hebrew word for correct.
The majority of the dishes are sweetened to represent a prayer for a sweet (pleasant) new year. Such sweet dishes includeapplesthat are either baked or covered inhoney,lekach(honey cake) andmakroudh(a pastry that is filled with dates and covered with honey).
Dates, symbolizing the end,can also be eaten by themselves to encourage the enemies to meet their end. The value of the date can be traced back to biblical times, when thepalm dateis mentioned multiple times within theBibleitself, but also with how valuable dates were as anexport.
Pomegranateseeds are eaten for a year of many blessings, because there are many seeds inside of a single pomegranate. Specifically, there are thought to be 613 seeds inside of a pomegranate, each one representing one of theTorah's613 commandments.
The traditional value placed on pomegranates and their consumption is derived from their mention in theBiblewhen its discovery by one of Moses's spies concluded that there was fertility in the land of the unknown.
Challahbread is baked into a round, circular shape that is meant to represent the cyclical nature of life and the crown.It is also sweetened with either honey or a combination of cinnamon and sugar instead of being dipped into the usualkoshersalt.
Tzimmes, a side dish composed traditionally of sweetened carrots or yams, are served to symbolize prosperity, because of the double meaning ofYiddishwordmeren, which represents "to multiply" and "carrot".
Additional symbolic foods include:
Yom Kippuris a fast day. The pre-fast meal, calledseuda hamafseket, usually consists of foods that are digested slowly and are not highly spiced, to make fasting easier and prevent thirst.
OnSukkotmeals are eaten outside in thesukkah, a thatched hut built specially for the holiday. Often fresh fruits are eaten also, which are woven into the roof of the thatched hut.
It is customary to eat foods fried in oil to celebrateHanukkah. Eating dairy products was a custom in medieval times.
PassovercelebratesThe Exodusfrom Egypt where it is said the Jewish people left so quickly, there was no time for theirbreadto rise.Commemorating this event, Jews eatmatzaand abstain from bread, cakes and other foods made with yeast and leavening agents. In modern times, rabbinical authorities permit the use of chemical leavening, such as baking powder.
Matza is a staple food during the holiday and used as an ingredient of many Passover dishes.Kneidlach(matza ball) soup is traditional. Fish is coated with matza meal before frying and cakes and puddings are made with potato starch and matza meal.
Jewish cooks use both matza meal andpotato starchfor pastries during Passover. Whisked whole eggs or egg whites are frequently used to make pastries without leavening agents, such as angel and sponge cakes (potato starch replacing cake flour) and coconut and almondmacaroons.
Passover foods vary distinctly betweenSephardicandAshkenaziccommunities. Ashkenazim exclude rice, while it is served by Sephardim. Matza is traditionally prepared from water and flour only, but there are other varieties, such as egg matza, which may also contain fruit juice.
At theseder, it is customary in some communities, particularly among strictly Orthodox Jews, to use handmadeshmura matza, which has undergone particularly strictkashrutsupervision.
The exclusion of leaven from the home has forced Jewish cooks to be creative, producing a wide variety of Passover dishes that use matza meal andpotatoas thickeners.Potato flouris largely used in cakes along with finely ground matza meal and nuts.
Popular Ashkenazi dishes arematza brei(crumbled matza with grated onion, fried with scrambled egg),matza latkes(pancakes) andchremslach(also calledcrimselorgresjelies,matza meal fritters). Winedmatza kugels(pudding) have been introduced into modern Jewish cooking.
For thickening soups and sauces at Passover fine matza meal or potato flour is used instead of flour, for frying fish or cutlets a coating of matza meal and egg, and for stuffing potatoes instead of soaked bread.
"Noodles" may be made by making pancakes with beaten eggs and matza meal which, when cooked, are rolled up and cut into strips. They may be dropped intosoupbefore serving.Matza kleys(dumplings) are small balls made from suet mixed with chopped fried onions, chopped parsley, beaten egg and seasonings, dropped into soup and cooked.
Wine is also an important part of Passover meals. Traditionally, a Passover seder is served with four cups of wine or grape juice, to be consumed along with various parts of the seder.Kosher wineis typically consumed for Passover.
Dairy foods are traditionally eaten onShavuot.
Tisha B'avis a fast day, preceded by nine days when Jews traditionally do not eat meat, except onShabbat. Thus dairy and vegetarian dishes are prepared during this time of year.
The meal before the fast (theseudat mafseket) also consists of dairy foods and usually contains dishes made from lentils and eggs, both ancient Jewish symbols of mourning.SomeAshkenaziJews eat hard-boiled eggs sprinkled with "ashes" (pepper) to symbolize mourning.