King Arthur

King Arthur(Welsh:Brenin Arthur,Cornish:Arthur Gernow,Breton:Roue Arzhur,French:Roi Arthur), according tolegends, was a king ofBritain.  He is afolk heroand a central figure in the medieval literary tradition known as theMatter of Britain.
In Welsh sources, Arthur is portrayed as a leader of thepost-Roman Britonsin battles against theAnglo-Saxonsin the late 5th and early 6th centuries. He first appears in two early medieval historical sources, theAnnales Cambriaeand theHistoria Brittonum, but these date to 300 years after he is supposed to have lived, and most historians who study the period do not consider him ahistorical figure.His name also occurs in earlyWelshpoetic sources such asY Gododdin.The character developed throughWelsh mythology, appearing either as a great warrior defending Britain from human and supernatural enemies or as a magical figure of folklore, sometimes associated with the Welsh otherworldAnnwn.
The legendary Arthur developed as a figure of international interest largely through the popularity ofGeoffrey of Monmouth's fanciful and imaginative 12th-centuryHistoria Regum Britanniae(History of the Kings of Britain).Geoffrey depicted Arthur as a king of Britain who defeated the Saxons and established a vast empire. Many elements and incidents that are now an integral part of the Arthurian story appear in Geoffrey'sHistoria, including Arthur's fatherUther Pendragon, the magicianMerlin, Arthur's wifeGuinevere, the swordExcalibur, Arthur's conception atTintagel, his final battle againstMordredatCamlann, and final rest inAvalon. The 12th-centuryFrench writerChrétien de Troyes, who addedLancelotand theHoly Grailto the story, began thegenreof Arthurian romance that became a significant strand ofmedieval literature. In these French stories, the narrative focus often shifts from King Arthur himself to other characters, such as variousKnights of the Round Table. The themes, events and characters of the Arthurian legend vary widely from text to text, and there is no one canonical version. Arthurian literature thrived during theMiddle Agesbut waned in the centuries that followed, until it experienced a major resurgence in the 19th century. In the 21st century, the legend continues to have prominence, not only in literature but also in adaptations for theatre, film, television, comics and other media.
King Arthur was traditionally accepted as a historic person. He was originally thought to have been an ancient British war commander, and, at least from the early 12th century, a king. There was, however, much discussion regarding his various deeds, and contemporary scholars and clerics generally refuted the popular medieval belief in his extreme longevity and future return. From the eighteenth century onwards, there has been academic debate about the historicity of Arthur.
One school of thought, citing entries in theHistoria Brittonum(History of the Britons) andAnnales Cambriae(Welsh Annals), saw Arthur as a genuine historical figure, aRomano-Britishleader who fought against the invadingAnglo-Saxonssome time in the late 5th to early 6th century.
TheHistoria Brittonum, a 9th-century Latin historical compilation attributed in some late manuscripts to a Welsh cleric calledNennius, contains the first datable mention of King Arthur, listing twelve battles that Arthur fought. These culminate in theBattle of Badon, where he is said to have single-handedly killed 960 men. Recent studies question the reliability of theHistoria Brittonum.
Archaeological evidence in theLow Countriesand what was to become England shows early Anglo-Saxon migration to Great Britain reversed between 500 and 550, which concurs with Frankish chronicles.John Davies notes this as consistent with theBritishvictory at Badon Hill, attributed to Arthur by Nennius.The monks of Glastonbury are also said to have discovered the grave of Arthur in 1180.
The other text that seems to support the case for Arthur's historical existence is the 10th-centuryAnnales Cambriae, which also link Arthur with the Battle of Badon. TheAnnalesdate this battle to 516–518, and also mention theBattle of Camlann, in which Arthur andMedraut(Mordred) were both killed, dated to 537–539. These details have often been used to bolster confidence in theHistoria's account and to confirm that Arthur really did fight at Badon.
Problems have been identified, however, with using this source to support theHistoria Brittonum's account. The latest research shows that theAnnales Cambriaewas based on a chronicle begun in the late 8th century in Wales. Additionally, the complex textual history of theAnnales Cambriaeprecludes any certainty that the Arthurian annals were added to it even that early. They were more likely added at some point in the 10th century and may never have existed in any earlier set of annals. The Badon entry probably derived from theHistoria Brittonum.
This lack of convincing early evidence is the reason many recent historians exclude Arthur from their accounts ofsub-Roman Britain. In the view of historianThomas Charles-Edwards, "at this stage of the enquiry, one can only say that there may well have been an historical Arthur [but ...] the historian can as yet say nothing of value about him".These modern admissions of ignorance are a relatively recent trend; earlier generations of historians were less sceptical. The historianJohn Morrismade the putative reign of Arthur the organising principle of his history of sub-Roman Britain and Ireland,The Age of Arthur(1973). Even so, he found little to say about a historical Arthur.
Partly in reaction to such theories, another school of thought emerged which argued that Arthur had no historical existence at all. Morris'sAge of Arthurprompted the archaeologistNowell Myresto observe that "no figure on the borderline of history and mythology has wasted more of the historian's time".Gildas's 6th-century polemicDe Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae(On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain), written within living memory of Badon, mentions the battle but does not mention Arthur.Arthur is not mentioned in theAnglo-Saxon Chronicleor named in any surviving manuscript written between 400 and 820.He is absent fromBede's early-8th-centuryEcclesiastical History of the English People, another major early source for post-Roman history that mentions Badon.The historianDavid Dumvillewrote: "I think we can dispose of him [Arthur] quite briefly. He owes his place in our history books to a 'no smoke without fire' school of thought ... The fact of the matter is that there is no historical evidence about Arthur; we must reject him from our histories and, above all, from the titles of our books."
Some scholars argue that Arthur was originally a fictional hero of folklore—or even a half-forgotten Celtic deity—who became credited with real deeds in the distant past. They cite parallels with figures such as theKentishHengist and Horsa, who may be totemic horse-gods that later became historicised. Bede ascribed to these legendary figures a historical role in the 5th-centuryAnglo-Saxon conquest of eastern Britain.It is not even certain that Arthur was considered a king in the early texts. Neither theHistorianor theAnnalescalls him "rex": the former calls him instead  "duxbellorum" (leader of wars) and "miles" (soldier).
Details of Arthur's story are mainly composed ofWelsh mythology,English folkloreand literary invention, and most modern historians writing about the period do not think that he was ahistorical figure.Because historical documents for the post-Roman period are scarce, a definitive answer to the question of Arthur's historical existence is unlikely.Sites and places have been identified as "Arthurian"since the 12th century,but archaeology can confidently reveal names only through inscriptions found in secure contexts. The so-called "Arthur stone", discovered in 1998 among the ruins atTintagel CastleinCornwallin securely dated 6th-century contexts, created a brief stir but proved irrelevant.Other inscriptional evidence for Arthur, including theGlastonbury cross, is tainted with the suggestion of forgery.
Andrew Breezeargues that Arthur was a historical character who fought other Britons in the area of the future border between England and Scotland, and claims to have identified the locations of his battles as well as the place and date of his death (in the context of theextreme weather events of 535–536),but his conclusions are disputed.Other scholars have questioned his findings, which they consider are based on coincidental resemblances between place-names.Nicholas Highamcomments that it is difficult to justify identifying Arthur as the leader in northern battles listed in theHistoria Brittonumwhile rejecting the implication in the same work that they were fought against Anglo-Saxons, and that there is no textual justification for separating Badon from the other battles.
Several historical figures have been proposed as the basis for Arthur, ranging fromLucius Artorius Castus, a Roman officer who served in Britain in the 2nd or 3rd century,to sub-Roman British rulers such asRiotamus,Ambrosius Aurelianus,and the Welsh kingsOwain Ddantgwyn,Enniaun Girt,andAthrwys ap Meurig.However, no convincing evidence for these identifications has emerged.
The origin of the Welsh name "Arthur" remains a matter of debate. The most widely accepted etymology derives it from the Romannomen gentile(family name)Artorius.Artorius itself is of obscure and contested etymology.Linguist Stephan Zimmer suggests Artorius possibly had a Celtic origin, being a Latinization of a hypothetical name*Artorījos, in turn derived from an olderpatronym*Arto-rīg-ios, meaning "son of the bear/warrior-king". This patronym is unattested, but the root,*arto-rīg, "bear/warrior-king", is the source of the Old Irish personal nameArtrí.Some scholars have suggested it is relevant to this debate that the legendary King Arthur's name only appears asArthurorArturusin early Latin Arthurian texts, never asArtōrius(though Classical Latin Artōrius became Arturius in some Vulgar Latin dialects). Others believe the origin of the nameArthur, asArtōriuswould regularly becomeArt(h)urwhen borrowed into Welsh.
Another commonly proposed derivation ofArthurfrom Welsharth"bear" +(g)wr"man" (earlier*Arto-uirosin Brittonic) is not accepted by modern scholars forphonologicalandorthographicreasons. Notably, a Brittonic compound name*Arto-uirosshould produce Old Welsh*Artgur(whereurepresents the short vowel /u/) and Middle/Modern Welsh*Arthwr, rather thanArthur(whereuis a long vowel /ʉː/). In Welsh poetry the name is always spelledArthurand is exclusively rhymed with words ending in-ur—never words ending in-wr—which confirms that the second element cannot be[g]wr"man".
An alternative theory, which has gained only limited acceptance among professional scholars, derives the name Arthur fromArcturus, the brightest star in the constellationBoötes, nearUrsa Majoror the Great Bear.Classical LatinArcturuswould also have becomeArt(h)urwhen borrowed into Welsh, and its brightness and position in the sky led people to regard it as the "guardian of the bear" (which is the meaning of the name in Ancient Greek) and the "leader" of the other stars in Boötes.
Many other theories exist, for example that the name hasMessapianorEtruscanorigins.
That Arthur never died but is awaiting his return in some remote spot, often sleeping, is a central motif connected to the Arthurian legends. Before the twelfth century there are, as in theEnglynion y Beddau, references to the absence of a grave for Arthur suggesting that he was considered immortal and not dead, but in this poem there is no indication that he was expected to return.From the early twelfth century onwards several sources report a popular belief in the return of King Arthur, although most often critically and mockingly presented.His future return is first mentioned byWilliam of Malmesburyin 1125: "But Arthur's grave is nowhere seen, whence antiquity of fables still claims that he will return."The "Miracles of St. Mary of Laon" (De miraculis sanctae Mariae Laudunensis), written by a French cleric and chronicler namedHériman of Tournaiabout 1145, but referring to events occurring in 1113, mentions theBretonandCornishbelief that Arthur still lived.
In 1191 the alleged tomb of Arthur was identified in an orchestrated discovery atGlastonbury Abbey. Whereas numerous scholars have argued that this could have been due to the Abbey wanting to stand out with an illustrious tomb,or to a desire of the Plantagenet regime to put an end to a legendary rival figure who inspired tenacious Celtic opposition to their rule,it may also have been motivated by how the Arthurian expectations were highly problematic to contemporary Christianity. The longing of the return of a mighty immortal figure returning before the end of time to re-establish his perfect rule, not only ran against basic Catholic tenets but could even threaten the quintessential focus on the longing for the return of Jesus.This was further aggravated by how the stories about Arthur sometimes invoked more emotions than biblical tales.Decades of elite critique of the popular conviction among otherwise pious Catholic Celts in Britain and Brittany had done nothing to suppress these beliefs, whereas the orchestration of Arthur's physical remains effectively eliminated the possibility of his return without overtly criticizing anyone's beliefs.After the 1191 discovery of his alleged tomb, Arthur became more of a figure of folk legends, found sleeping in various remove caves all over Britain and some other places, and at times, roaming the night as a spectre, like in theWild Hunt.
The familiar literary persona of Arthur began withGeoffrey of Monmouth's pseudo-historicalHistoria Regum Britanniae(History of the Kings of Britain), written in the 1130s. The textual sources for Arthur are usually divided into those written before Geoffrey'sHistoria(known as pre-Galfridian texts, from the Latin form of Geoffrey,Galfridus) and those written afterwards, which could not avoid his influence (Galfridian, or post-Galfridian, texts).
The earliest literary references to Arthur come from Welsh and Breton sources. There have been few attempts to define the nature and character of Arthur in the pre-Galfridian tradition as a whole, rather than in a single text or text/story-type. A 2007 academic survey led by Caitlin Green has identified three key strands to the portrayal of Arthur in this earliest material.The first is that he was a peerless warrior who functioned as the monster-hunting protector of Britain from all internal and external threats. Some of these are human threats, such as the Saxons he fights in theHistoria Brittonum, but the majority are supernatural, including giantcat-monsters, destructivedivine boars, dragons,dogheads,giants, andwitches.The second is that the pre-Galfridian Arthur was a figure of folklore (particularlytopographicoronomasticfolklore) and localised magical wonder-tales, the leader of a band of superhuman heroes who live in the wilds of the landscape.The third and final strand is that the early Welsh Arthur had a close connection with the Welsh Otherworld,Annwn. On the one hand, he launches assaults on Otherworldly fortresses in search of treasure and frees their prisoners. On the other, his warband in the earliest sources includes former pagan gods, and his wife and his possessions are clearly Otherworldly in origin.
One of the most famous Welsh poetic references to Arthur comes in the collection of heroic death-songs known asY Gododdin(The Gododdin), attributed to the 6th-century poetAneirin. One stanza from the oldest surviving manuscriptpraises the bravery of a warrior who slew 300 enemies, but says that despite this, "he was no Arthur," i.e., his feats cannot compare to Arthur.Y Gododdinis known only from a 13th-century manuscript,so it is impossible to determine whether this passage is original or a later interpolation, but John Koch's view that the passage dates from a 7th-century or earlier version is regarded as unproven; 9th- or 10th-century dates are often proposed for it.Several poems attributed toTaliesin, a poet said to have lived in the 6th century, also refer to Arthur, although these all probably date from between the 8th and 12th centuries.They include "Kadeir Teyrnon" ("The Chair of the Prince"),which refers to "Arthur the Blessed"; "Preiddeu Annwn" ("The Spoils of Annwn"),which recounts an expedition of Arthur to the Otherworld; and "Marwnat vthyr pen[dragon]" ("The Elegy of Uther Pen[dragon]"),which refers to Arthur's valour and is suggestive of a father-son relationship for Arthur and Uther that pre-dates Geoffrey of Monmouth.
Other early Welsh Arthurian texts include a poem found in theBlack Book of Carmarthen, "Pa guryv y porthaur?" ("What man is the gatekeeper?").This takes the form of a dialogue between Arthur and the gatekeeper of a fortress he wishes to enter, in which Arthur recounts the names and deeds of himself and his men, notablyCei(Kay) andBedwyr(Bedivere).
In addition to these pre-Galfridian Welsh poems and tales, Arthur appears in some other early Latin texts besides theHistoria Brittonumand theAnnales Cambriae. In particular, Arthur features in a number of well-knownvitae("Lives") of post-Romansaints, none of which are now generally considered to be reliable historical sources (the earliest probably dates from the 11th century).According to theLife of SaintGildas, written in the early 12th century byCaradoc of Llancarfan, Arthur is said to have killed Gildas's brother Hueil and to have rescued his wifeGwenhwyfarfrom Glastonbury.In theLife of SaintCadoc, written around 1100 or a little before by Lifris of Llancarfan, the saint gives protection to a man who killed three of Arthur's soldiers, and Arthur demands a herd of cattle aswergeldfor his men. Cadoc delivers them as demanded, but when Arthur takes possession of the animals, they turn into bundles of ferns.Similar incidents are described in the medieval biographies ofCarannog,Padarn, and Eufflam, probably written around the 12th century. A less legendary account of Arthur appears in theLegenda Sancti Goeznovii, which is often claimed to date from the early 11th century (although the earliest manuscript of this text dates from the 15th century and the text is now dated to the late 12th to early 13th century).Also important are the references to Arthur inWilliam of Malmesbury'sDe Gestis Regum Anglorumand Herman'sDe Miraculis Sanctae Mariae Laudunensis, which together provide the first certain evidence for a belief that Arthur was not actually dead and would at some pointreturn, a theme that is often revisited in post-Galfridian folklore.
Geoffrey of Monmouth'sHistoria Regum Britanniae, completedc.1138, contains the first narrative account of Arthur's life.This work is an imaginative and fanciful account of British kings from the legendary Trojan exileBrutusto the 7th-century Welsh kingCadwallader. Geoffrey places Arthur in the same post-Roman period as doHistoria BrittonumandAnnales Cambriae. According to Geoffrey's tale, Arthur was a descendant ofConstantine the Great.He incorporates Arthur's fatherUther Pendragon, his magician advisorMerlin, and the story of Arthur's conception, in which Uther, disguised as his enemyGorloisby Merlin's magic, sleeps with Gorlois's wifeIgerna(Igraine) atTintagel, and she conceives Arthur. On Uther's death, the fifteen-year-old Arthur succeeds him as King of Britain and fights a series of battles, similar to those in theHistoria Brittonum, culminating in the Battle of Bath. He then defeats thePictsandScotsbefore creating an Arthurian empire through his conquests of Ireland, Iceland and theOrkney Islands. After twelve years of peace, Arthur sets out to expand his empire once more, taking control of Norway, Denmark andGaul. Gaul is still held by theRoman Empirewhen it is conquered, and Arthur's victory leads to a further confrontation with Rome. Arthur and his warriors, includingKaius(Kay),Beduerus(Bedivere) andGualguanus(Gawain), defeat the Roman emperorLucius Tiberiusin Gaul but, as he prepares to march on Rome, Arthur hears that his nephewModredus(Mordred)—whom he had left in charge of Britain—has married his wifeGuenhuuara(Guinevere) and seized the throne. Arthur returns to Britain and defeats and kills Modredus on the river Camblam in Cornwall, but he is mortally wounded. He hands the crown to his kinsmanConstantineand is taken to the isle ofAvalonto be healed of his wounds, never to be seen again.
How much of this narrative was Geoffrey's own invention is open to debate. He seems to have made use of the list of Arthur's twelve battles against the Saxons found in the 9th-centuryHistoria Brittonum, along with the battle of Camlann from theAnnales Cambriaeand the idea that Arthur wasstill alive.Arthur's status as the king of all Britain seems to be borrowed from pre-Galfridian tradition, being found inCulhwch and Olwen, the Welsh Triads, and the saints' lives.Finally, Geoffrey borrowed many of the names for Arthur's possessions,close family, and companions from the pre-Galfridian Welsh tradition, including Kaius (Cei), Beduerus (Bedwyr), Guenhuuara (Gwenhwyfar), Uther (Uthyr) and perhaps also Caliburnus (Caledfwlch), the latter becomingExcaliburin subsequent Arthurian tales.However, while names, key events, and titles may have been borrowed, Brynley Roberts has argued that "the Arthurian section is Geoffrey's literary creation and it owes nothing to prior narrative."Geoffrey makes the Welsh Medraut into the villainous Modredus, but there is no trace of such a negative character for this figure in Welsh sources until the 16th century.There have been relatively few modern attempts to challenge the notion that theHistoria Regum Britanniaeis primarily Geoffrey's own work, with scholarly opinion often echoingWilliam of Newburgh's late-12th-century comment that Geoffrey "made up" his narrative, perhaps through an "inordinate love of lying".Geoffrey Asheis one dissenter from this view, believing that Geoffrey's narrative is partially derived from a lost source telling of the deeds of a 5th-century British king namedRiotamus, this figure being the original Arthur, although historians and Celticists have been reluctant to follow Ashe in his conclusions.
Whatever his sources may have been, the immense popularity of Geoffrey'sHistoria Regum Britanniaecannot be denied. Well over 200 manuscript copies of Geoffrey's Latin work are known to have survived, as well as translations into other languages.For example, 60 manuscripts are extant containing theBrut y Brenhinedd, Welsh-language versions of theHistoria, the earliest of which were created in the 13th century. The old notion that some of these Welsh versions actually underlie Geoffrey'sHistoria, advanced by antiquarians such as the 18th-century Lewis Morris, has long since been discounted in academic circles.As a result of this popularity, Geoffrey'sHistoria Regum Britanniaewas enormously influential on the later medieval development of the Arthurian legend. While it was not the only creative force behind Arthurian romance, many of its elements were borrowed and developed (e.g., Merlin and the final fate of Arthur), and it provided the historical framework into which the romancers' tales of magical and wonderful adventures were inserted.
The Welsh prose taleCulhwch and Olwen(latter half of the 12th century), included in the modernMabinogioncollection, has a much longer list of more than 200 of Arthur's men, though Cei and Bedwyr again take a central place. The story as a whole tells of Arthur helping his kinsmanCulhwchwin the hand ofOlwen, daughter ofYsbaddadenChief-Giant, by completing a series of apparently impossible tasks, including the hunt for the great semi-divine boarTwrch Trwyth. The 9th-centuryHistoria Brittonumalso refers to this tale, with the boar there named Troy(n)t.Finally, Arthur is mentioned numerous times in theWelsh Triads, a collection of short summaries of Welsh tradition and legend which are classified into groups of three linked characters or episodes to assist recall. The later manuscripts of the Triads are partly derivative from Geoffrey of Monmouth and later continental traditions, but the earliest ones show no such influence and are usually agreed to refer to pre-existing Welsh traditions. Even in these, however, Arthur's court has started to embody legendary Britain as a whole, with "Arthur's Court" sometimes substituted for "The Island of Britain" in the formula "Three XXX of the Island of Britain".While it is not clear from theHistoria Brittonumand theAnnales Cambriaethat Arthur was even considered a king, by the timeCulhwch and Olwenand the Triads were written he had becomePenteyrnedd yr Ynys hon, "Chief of the Lords of this Island", the overlord of Wales, Cornwall and the North.
During the ongoing conquest of Wales byEdward I, he attempted to make King Arthur a fundamentally English character and hero.The completion of the conquest was one of the factors that shifted storytellers away from the Welsh roots of the original tales.
The popularity of Geoffrey'sHistoriaand its other derivative works (such asWace'sRoman de Brut) gave rise to a significant numbers of new Arthurian works in continental Europe during the 12th and 13th centuries, particularly in France.It was not, however, the only Arthurian influence on the developing "Matter of Britain". There is clear evidence that Arthur and Arthurian tales were familiar on the Continent before Geoffrey's work became widely known (see for example, theModena Archivolt),and "Celtic" names and stories not found in Geoffrey'sHistoriaappear in the Arthurianromances.From the perspective of Arthur, perhaps the most significant effect of this great outpouring of new Arthurian story was on the role of the king himself: much of this 12th-century and later Arthurian literature centres less on Arthur himself than on characters such asLancelotandGuinevere,Percival,Galahad,Gawain,Ywain, andTristanandIseult. Whereas Arthur is very much at the centre of the pre-Galfridian material and Geoffrey'sHistoriaitself, in the romances he is rapidly sidelined.His character also alters significantly. In both the earliest materials and Geoffrey he is a great and ferocious warrior, who laughs as he personally slaughters witches and giants and takes a leading role in all military campaigns,whereas in the continental romances he becomes theroi fainéant, the "do-nothing king", whose "inactivity and acquiescence constituted a central flaw in his otherwise ideal society".Arthur's role in these works is frequently that of a wise, dignified, even-tempered, somewhat bland, and occasionally feeble monarch. So, he simply turns pale and silent when he learns of Lancelot's affair with Guinevere in theMort Artu, whilst inYvain, the Knight of the Lion, he is unable to stay awake after a feast and has to retire for a nap.Nonetheless, asNorris J. Lacyhas observed, whatever his faults and frailties may be in these Arthurian romances, "his prestige is never—or almost never—compromised by his personal weaknesses ... his authority and glory remain intact."
Arthur and his retinue appear in some of theLaisofMarie de France,but it was the work of another French poet,Chrétien de Troyes, that had the greatest influence with regard to the development of Arthur's character and legend.Chrétien wrote five Arthurian romances betweenc.1170and 1190.Erec and EnideandCligèsare tales of courtly love with Arthur's court as their backdrop, demonstrating the shift away from the heroic world of the Welsh and Galfridian Arthur, whileYvain, the Knight of the Lion, featuresYvainand Gawain in a supernatural adventure, with Arthur very much on the sidelines and weakened. However, the most significant for the development of the Arthurian legend areLancelot, the Knight of the Cart, which introduces Lancelot and his adulterous relationship with Arthur's queenGuinevere, extending and popularising the recurring theme of Arthur as acuckold, andPerceval, the Story of the Grail, which introduces theHoly Grailand theFisher Kingand which again sees Arthur having a much reduced role.Chrétien was thus "instrumental both in the elaboration of the Arthurian legend and in the establishment of the ideal form for the diffusion of that legend",and much of what came after him in terms of the portrayal of Arthur and his world built upon the foundations he had laid.Perceval, although unfinished, was particularly popular: four separate continuations of the poem appeared over the next half century, with the notion of the Grail and its quest being developed by other writers such asRobert de Boron, a fact that helped accelerate the decline of Arthur in continental romance.Similarly, Lancelot and his cuckolding of Arthur with Guinevere became one of the classic motifs of the Arthurian legend, although the Lancelot of the proseLancelot(c.1225) and later texts was a combination of Chrétien's character and that ofUlrich von Zatzikhoven'sLanzelet.Chrétien's work even appears to feed back into Welsh Arthurian literature, with the result that the romance Arthur began to replace the heroic, active Arthur in Welsh literary tradition.Particularly significant in this development were the three Welsh Arthurian romances, which are closely similar to those of Chrétien, albeit with some significant differences:Owain, or the Lady of the Fountainis related to Chrétien'sYvain;Geraint and Enid, toErec and Enide; andPeredur son of Efrawg, toPerceval.
Up toc.1210, continental Arthurian romance was expressed primarily through poetry; after this date the tales began to be told in prose. The most significant of these 13th-century prose romances was theVulgate Cycle(also known as the Lancelot-Grail Cycle), a series of five Middle French prose works written in the first half of that century.These works were theEstoire del Saint Grail, theEstoire de Merlin, theLancelot propre(or ProseLancelot, which made up half the entire Vulgate Cycle on its own), theQueste del Saint Graaland theMort Artu, which combine to form the first coherent version of the entire Arthurian legend. The cycle continued the trend towards reducing the role played by Arthur in his own legend, partly through the introduction of the character of Galahad and an expansion of the role of Merlin. It also made Mordred the result of anincestuous relationshipbetween Arthur and his sisterMorgause, and established the role ofCamelot, first mentioned in passing in Chrétien'sLancelot, as Arthur's primary court.This series of texts was quickly followed by thePost-Vulgate Cycle(c.1230–40), of which theSuite du Merlinis a part, which greatly reduced the importance of Lancelot's affair with Guinevere but continued to sideline Arthur, and to focus more on the Grail quest.As such, Arthur became even more of a relatively minor character in these French prose romances; in the Vulgate itself he only figures significantly in theEstoire de Merlinand theMort Artu. During this period, Arthur was made one of theNine Worthies, a group of three pagan, three Jewish and three Christian exemplars of chivalry. The Worthies were first listed inJacques de Longuyon'sVoeux du Paonin 1312, and subsequently became a common subject in literature and art.
The development of the medieval Arthurian cycle and the character of the "Arthur of romance" culminated inLe Morte d'Arthur,Thomas Malory's retelling of the entire legend in a single work in English in the late 15th century. Malory based his book—originally titledThe Whole Book of King Arthur and of His Noble Knights of the Round Table—on the various previous romance versions, in particular the Vulgate Cycle, and appears to have aimed at creating a comprehensive and authoritative collection of Arthurian stories.Perhaps as a result of this, and the fact thatLe Morte D'Arthurwas one of the earliest printed books in England, published byWilliam Caxtonin 1485, most later Arthurian works are derivative of Malory's.
The end of the Middle Ages brought with it a waning of interest in King Arthur. Although Malory's English version of the great French romances was popular, there were increasing attacks upon the truthfulness of the historical framework of the Arthurian romances – established since Geoffrey of Monmouth's time – and thus the legitimacy of the wholeMatter of Britain. So, for example, the 16th-century humanist scholarPolydore Vergilfamously rejected the claim that Arthur was the ruler of a post-Roman empire, found throughout the post-Galfridian medieval "chronicle tradition", to the horror of Welsh and English antiquarians.Social changes associated with the end of the medieval period and theRenaissancealso conspired to rob the character of Arthur and his associated legend of some of their power to enthrall audiences, with the result that 1634 saw the last printing of Malory'sLe Morte d'Arthurfor nearly 200 years.King Arthur and the Arthurian legend were not entirely abandoned, but until the early 19th century the material was taken less seriously and was often used simply as a vehicle for allegories of 17th- and 18th-century politics.ThusRichard Blackmore's epicsPrince Arthur(1695) andKing Arthur(1697) feature Arthur as an allegory for the struggles ofWilliam IIIagainstJames II.Similarly, the most popular Arthurian tale throughout this period seems to have been that ofTom Thumb, which was told first throughchapbooksand later through the political plays ofHenry Fielding; although the action is clearly set in Arthurian Britain, the treatment is humorous and Arthur appears as a primarily comedic version of his romance character.John Dryden'smasqueKing Arthuris still performed, largely thanks toHenry Purcell's music, though seldom unabridged.
In the early 19th century,medievalism,Romanticism, and theGothic Revivalreawakened interest in Arthur and the medieval romances. A new code of ethics for 19th-century gentlemen was shaped around thechivalricideals embodied in the "Arthur of romance". This renewed interest first made itself felt in 1816, when Malory'sLe Morte d'Arthurwas reprinted for the first time since 1634.Initially, the medieval Arthurian legends were of particular interest to poets, inspiring, for example,William Wordsworthto write "The Egyptian Maid" (1835), an allegory of theHoly Grail.Pre-eminent among these wasAlfred Tennyson, whose first Arthurian poem "The Lady of Shalott" was published in 1832.Arthur himself played a minor role in some of these works, following in the medieval romance tradition. Tennyson's Arthurian work reached its peak of popularity withIdylls of the King, however, which reworked the entire narrative of Arthur's life for theVictorian era. It was first published in 1859 and sold 10,000 copies within the first week.In theIdylls, Arthur became a symbol of ideal manhood who ultimately failed, through human weakness, to establish a perfect kingdom on earth.Tennyson's works prompted a large number of imitators, generated considerable public interest in the legends of Arthur and the character himself, and brought Malory's tales to a wider audience.Indeed, the first modernisation of Malory's great compilation of Arthur's tales was published in 1862, shortly afterIdyllsappeared, and there were six further editions and five competitors before the century ended.
This interest in the "Arthur of romance" and his associated stories continued through the 19th century and into the 20th, and influenced poets such asWilliam MorrisandPre-Raphaeliteartists includingEdward Burne-Jones.Even the humorous tale ofTom Thumb, which had been the primary manifestation of Arthur's legend in the 18th century, was rewritten after the publication ofIdylls. While Tom maintained his small stature and remained a figure of comic relief, his story now included more elements from the medieval Arthurian romances and Arthur is treated more seriously and historically in these new versions.The revived Arthurian romance also proved influential in the United States, with such books as Sidney Lanier'sThe Boy's King Arthur(1880) reaching wide audiences and providing inspiration forMark Twain's satireA Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court(1889).Although the 'Arthur of romance' was sometimes central to these new Arthurian works (as he was in Burne-Jones's "The Sleep of Arthur in Avalon", 1881–1898), on other occasions he reverted to his medieval status and is either marginalised or even missing entirely, withWagner's Arthurian operaParsifalproviding a notable instance of the latter.Furthermore, the revival of interest in Arthur and the Arthurian tales did not continue unabated. By the end of the 19th century, it was confined mainly to Pre-Raphaelite imitators,and it could not avoid being affected byWorld War I, which damaged the reputation of chivalry and thus interest in its medieval manifestations and Arthur as chivalric role model.The romance tradition did, however, remain sufficiently powerful to persuadeThomas Hardy,Laurence BinyonandJohn Masefieldto compose Arthurian plays,andT. S. Eliotalludes to the Arthur myth (but not Arthur) in his poemThe Waste Land, which mentions theFisher King.
In the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of the romance tradition of Arthur continued, through novels such asT. H. White'sThe Once and Future King(1958),Mary Stewart'sThe Crystal Cave(1970) and its four sequels,Thomas Berger's tragicomicArthur RexandMarion Zimmer Bradley'sThe Mists of Avalon(1982), in addition to comic strips such asPrince Valiant(from 1937 onward).Tennyson had reworked the romance tales of Arthur to suit and comment upon the issues of his day, and the same is often the case with modern treatments too. Mary Stewart's first three Arthurian novels present the wizard Merlin as the central character, rather than Arthur, andThe Crystal Caveis narrated by Merlin in the first person, whereas Bradley's tale takes a feminist approach to Arthur and his legend, in contrast to the narratives of Arthur found in medieval materials.American authors often rework the story of Arthur to be more consistent with values such as equality and democracy.InJohn Cowper Powys'sPorius: A Romance of the Dark Ages(1951), set in Wales in 499, just prior to the Saxon invasion, Arthur, the Emperor of Britain, is only a minor character, whereas Myrddin (Merlin) andNineue, Tennyson's Vivien, are major figures.Myrddin's disappearance at the end of the novel is, "in the tradition of magical hibernation when the king or mage leaves his people for some island or cave to return either at a more propitious or more dangerous time", (seeKing Arthur's messianic return).Powys's earlier novel,A Glastonbury Romance(1932) is concerned with both the Holy Grail and the legend that Arthur is buried atGlastonbury.
The romance Arthur has become popular in film and theatre as well. T. H. White's novel was adapted into theLerner and Loewestage musicalCamelot(1960) andWalt Disney's animated filmThe Sword in the Stone(1963);Camelot, with its focus on the love of Lancelot and Guinevere and thecuckoldingof Arthur, was itself made into afilm of the same namein 1967. The romance tradition of Arthur is particularly evident and in critically respected films likeRobert Bresson'sLancelot du Lac(1974),Éric Rohmer'sPerceval le Gallois(1978) andJohn Boorman'sExcalibur(1981); it is also the main source of the material used in the Arthurian spoofMonty Python and the Holy Grail(1975).
Retellings and reimaginings of the romance tradition are not the only important aspect of the modern legend of King Arthur. Attempts to portray Arthur as a genuine historical figure ofc.500, stripping away the "romance", have also emerged. As Taylor and Brewer have noted, this return to the medieval "chronicle tradition" of Geoffrey of Monmouth and theHistoria Brittonumis a recent trend which became dominant in Arthurian literature in the years following the outbreak of theSecond World War, when Arthur's legendary resistance to Germanic enemies struck a chord in Britain.Clemence Dane's series of radio plays,The Saviours(1942), used a historical Arthur to embody the spirit of heroic resistance against desperate odds, andRobert Sherriff'splayThe Long Sunset(1955) saw Arthur rallying Romano-British resistance against the Germanic invaders.This trend towards placing Arthur in a historical setting is also apparent in historical and fantasy novels published during this period.
Arthur has also been used as a model for modern-day behaviour. In the 1930s, the Order of the Fellowship of the Knights of the Round Table was formed in Britain to promote Christian ideals and Arthurian notions of medieval chivalry.In the United States, hundreds of thousands of boys and girls joined Arthurian youth groups, such as the Knights of King Arthur, in which Arthur and his legends were promoted as wholesome exemplars.However, Arthur's diffusion within modern culture goes beyond such Arthurian endeavours, with Arthurian names being regularly attached to objects, buildings, and places. As Norris J. Lacy has observed, "The popular notion of Arthur appears to be limited, not surprisingly, to a few motifs and names, but there can be no doubt of the extent to which a legend born many centuries ago is profoundly embedded in modern culture at every level."