Korean Seon

SeonorSŏn Buddhism(Korean:선;Hanja:禪;Korean pronunciation:[sʌn]) is the Korean name forChan Buddhism, a branch ofMahāyāna Buddhismcommonly known in English asZen Buddhism. Seon is theSino-Koreanpronunciation of Chan (Chinese:禪;pinyin:chán) an abbreviation of 禪那 (chánnà), which is a Chinese transliteration of the Sanskrit word ofdhyāna("meditation"). Seon Buddhism, represented chiefly by theJogyeandTaegoorders, is the most common type of Buddhism found in Korea.
A main characteristic of Seon Buddhism is the use of the method of meditation,Ganhwa Seon. A Korean monk,Jinulaccepted partially a meditative method of Chan Buddhism in 1205. In Chan Buddhism,hwadu(화두;話頭) is a delivery of realising a natural state of the Awakening. Jinul addressed a doctrine of Sagyo Yiepseon (사교입선;捨敎入禪) that monks should live an inborn life after learning and forgetting all creeds and theories. Within the doctrine of Jinul,hwaduis the witnessing of truthful meaning in everyday life.
During theGoryeodynastyJinulstrongly influenced Korean Buddhism. He was the first monk to be appointed a national teacher and advisor by the king, having written a book presenting the Seon tradition from theSongdynasty.And this Seon tradition preserved well to this day, afterTaego Boubrought his Dharma transmission to Goryeo.
TheJoseondynasty suppressed Buddhism in favour ofConfucianism. In spite of the suppression,Hyujeongwrote about the three religions (Seon Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism) in the Joseon dynasty from Seon point of view. He also succeeded to the Dharma transmission. During theJapanese invasions of Korea (1592–98), Hyujeong andYujeongcommanded guerrilla units of monks and took part in diplomacy.
Under annexation byJapanmost monks were forced to marry - this lasted about 40 years until the act of purification.During those times, masters likeGyoengheoandMangongkept Dharma transmission alive.
21st century, the few left this Dharma transmission. "남진제 북송담'(南眞際 北松潭) (Jinje to the south, Songdam to the north)."is well-known phrase in Korean seon tradition these days. Others areSeungsahn,Daewon.
Chan was transmitted intoUnified Silla(668–935).Beomnang (法朗, Pŏmnang, Peomnang) , who studied with the Fourth PatriarchDayi Daoxin, was the first to bring the teachings to Korea.Beomnang transmitted his teachings to Sinhaeng (神行), who also traveled to China. Sinhaeng studied with Puji (651–739), a successor ofYuquan Shenxiu, the head of theEast Mountain Teachingof Chan.Seon was further popularized by Doui (道義) at the beginning of the ninth century.
Seon was gradually further transmitted into Korea, as Korean monks of predominantlyHwaeomandYogacarabackgroundbegan to travel to China to study theHongzhou schoolofMazu Daoyiand his successorsand theRinzai schoolofLinji Yixuan. Mazu's successors had numerous Korean students, some of whom returned to Korea and established their own schools at various mountain monasteries with their leading disciples.
Initially, the number of these schools was fixed at nine. Seon was termed thenine mountain schools" at the time.Eight of these were of the lineage of Mazu Daoyi (馬祖道一), as they were established through connection with either him or one of his eminent disciples.The one exception was the Sumi-san school founded by Yieom (利嚴), which had developed from theCaodong school.
Toǔi (道義 Doui), who studied withZhizangandBaizhang Huaihaiis regarded as the first patriarch of Korean Seon. He founded the Kaji Mountain school (迦智山 Gaji san school). The Nine mountain Schools adopted the nameJogye Orderin 826.The first record of the Nine Mountains school dates from 1084.
By the eleventh century Seon Buddhism became established in Korea. It distinguished itself from the existing Five Schoolsand their scriptural emphasis.Tension developed between the new meditational schools and the previously existing scholastic schools, which were described by the termgyo, meaning "learning" or "study".Efforts were needed to attain mutual understanding and rapprochement between Seon and these scholastic schools.
The most important figure of Goryeo-era Seon was Jinul, who established a reform movement in Korea. In his time, the sangha was in a crisis of external appearance and internal issues of doctrine. Buddhism was seen as infected by secular tendencies and involvements, such as fortune-telling and the offering of prayers and rituals for success in secular endeavors. This perceived corruption was seen to create a profusion of monks and nuns with questionable motives. Therefore, the correction, revival, and improvement of the quality of Buddhism were prominent issues for Buddhist leaders of the period.
Jinul sought to establish a new movement within Korean Seon, which he called the "samādhiandprajñāsociety". Its goal was to establish a new community of disciplined, pure-minded practitioners deep in the mountains. He eventually accomplished this mission with the founding of theSonggwangsaatJogyesanas a new center of pure practice.
Jinul's works are characterized by a thorough analysis and reformulation of the methodologies of Seon study and practice. He laid an equal emphasis on doctrinal teaching and Seon practice.One major issue that had long fermented in Chan, and which received special focus from Jinul, was the relationship between "gradual" and "sudden" methods in practice and enlightenment.Drawing upon various Chinese treatments of this topic, most importantly those byGuifeng ZongmiandDahui Zonggao, Jinul created Pojo Seon,a "sudden enlightenment followed by gradual practice" dictum, which he outlined in a few relatively concise and accessible texts.Jinul incorporated Dahui Zonggao'sgwanhwa(觀話;guān huà, "observing the critical phrase") into his practice.This form of meditation is the main method taught in Korean Seon today.
Jinul's philosophical resolution of the Seon-Gyo conflict brought a deep and lasting effect on Korean Buddhism.
Jinul's successor, Chin’gak Hyesim (혜심/慧諶) further emphasized the hwadu (Ch. huatou, "word head" or "critical phrase") practice. He collected 1,125 gongans in hisSŏnmun yŏmsongjip("The Collection of Verses and Cases", 1226). Hyesim encouraged male practitioners to practice hwadu, whereas women's Buddhist practice was limited to chanting and sūtra-readings.
It was during the time of Jinul that theJogye Order, a Seon sect, became the predominant form of Korean Buddhism, a status it still holds.Taego Boustudied theLinji schoolin China and returned to unite the Nine Mountain Schools.
There would be a series of important Seon teachers during the next several centuries, such asHyegeun(혜근;慧勤),Taego Bou,GihwaandHyujeong, who continued to develop the basic mold of Korean meditational Buddhism established by Jinul.
At the end of Goryeo and during Joseon the Jogye Order was combined with the scholarly schools. It lost influence under the ruling class, which embraced neo-Confucianism.Buddhism was gradually suppressed for the next 500 years. The number of temples was reduced, restrictions on membership in thesanghawere installed, and Buddhist monks and nuns were literally chased into the mountains, forbidden to mix with society. Joseon Buddhism was first condensed to Seon and Gyo. Eventually, these were further reduced to the single school of Seon.
Giwha wrote an important treatise in defense of Buddhism, theHyeonjeong non. In the tradition of earlier philosophers, he appliedEssence-FunctionandHwaeom(sa-sa mu-ae,"mutual interpenetration of phenomena").
During Joseon, the number of Buddhist monasteries dropped from several hundred to a mere thirty-six. Limits were placed on the number of clergy, land area, and ages for entering the sangha. When the final restrictions were in place, monks and nuns were prohibited from entering the cities. Buddhist funerals, and even begging, were outlawed. A few rulers temporarily lifted the more suppressive regulations. The most noteworthy of these was theQueen Munjeong. The queen had deep respect for the monkBou(보우, 普雨), and installed him as the head of the Seon school.
Buddhist monks helped in repelling theJapanese invasions of Korea (1592–98). Monks were organized into guerrilla units, which enjoyed some instrumental successes. The "righteous monk" (義士;uisa) movement was led byHyujeong, a Seon master and the author of a number of important religious texts. The presence of the monks' army was a critical factor in the eventual expulsion of the Japanese invaders.
Seosan made efforts toward the unification of Buddhist doctrinal study and practice. He was strongly influenced by Wonhyo, Jinul, and Giwha. He is considered the central figure in the revival of Joseon Buddhism, and most major streams of modern Korean Seon trace their lineages back to him through one of his four main disciples:Yujeong; Eongi, Taeneung and Ilseon, all four of whom were lieutenants to Seosan during the war with Japan.
Buddhism during the three centuries, from the time of Seosan down to the next Japanese incursion into Korea in the late nineteenth century, did not change very much. The Buddhism of the late Joseon Kingdom saw a revival ofHwaeomstudies. There was also a revival ofPure Land Buddhism.
With theKorean Empirestarted theGwangmu Reform, a modernisation of Korea. The Korean Empire ended in 1910, when Korea wasannexed by Japan.
Korean monks travelled to Japan for the scholarly study of Buddhism, where they were influenced by Japanese scholars who introduced western ideas into their studies. Via those Korean monks western ideas were also introduced in Korean Buddhism, and a bifurcation developed between monks and scholars.
After the Second World War the United Nations developed plans for a trusteeship administration, the Soviet Union administering the peninsulanorthof the38th paralleland the United States administering thesouth. The politics of the Cold War resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate governments, North Korea and South Korea.
Since the middle of the 20th centuryChristianityhas competed with Buddhism in South Korea,while religious practice has been suppressed in North Korea.
Seon continues to be practiced in Korea today at a number of major monastic centers, as well as being taught atDongguk University, which has a major of studies in this religion. The largest Buddhist denomination is theJogye Order.
In the 1980s a debate arose about"sudden" versus "gradual" enlightenment".SinceJinulKorean Seon was based on the integration of practice and scholarly study in the slogan "sudden enlightenment, gradual cultivation". The modern Korean Seon masterSeongcheolrevived the slogan "sudden enlightenment, sudden cultivation", ascribed toHuineng.The last three Supreme Patriarchs of the Jogye Order have a stance in this debate that is in accordance withSeongcheol.
Stuart Lachs observes that Korean Sŏn places less stress on the figure of the teacher than does Japanese Zen, which is more hierarchical. In Korean Sŏn, the role ofpangjang,the equivalent ofroshi, is an elected position with an initial ten year term limit. Pangjangs can also be recalled by a vote. Lachs feels this model is instructive, as it would remove much of the hierarchy and idealization of the teacher so prevalent in American Zen centers, which follow more the Japanese style.
According to Robert Buswell, in Korean Sŏn, the "master-student relationship is not nearly as formal and restrictive as we might suspect from most Western accounts of the Zen tradition. [...] Few [monks] develop a deep personal rapport with a single teacher. A monk's affinities are really more with his fellow meditation monks, rather than with a specific master. [...] In this way, Buddhist thought and practice is kept separate from the person of the master; a monk learns from many teachers, but does not take any one person's version of the dharma to be definitive."
Korean Seon has been spread in the US bySeungsahn. He was a temple abbot inSeouland after living inHong KongandJapan, he moved to the US in 1972, not speaking any English. On the flight to Los Angeles, a Korean American passenger offered him a job at a laundry inProvidence, Rhode Island, which became headquarters of Seung Sahn'sKwan Um School of Zen. Shortly after arriving in Providence, he attracted students and founded theProvidence Zen Center. The Kwan Um School has more than 100 Zen centers on six continents.
Another Korean Zen teacher,Samu Sunim, foundedToronto's Zen Buddhist Temple in 1971. He is head of theBuddhist Society for Compassionate Wisdom, which has temples inAnn Arbor,Chicago,Mexico City, andNew York City.
In the early 20th century, MasterKyongho, re-energized Korean Seon. At the end of World War II, his disciple, Master Mann Gong, proclaimed that lineage Dharma should be transmitted worldwide to encourage peace through enlightenment. Consequently, his Dharma successor, Hye Ambrought lineage Dharma to the United States. Hye Am's Dharma successor, Myo Vongfounded the Western Son Academy (1976), and his Korean disciple,PohwaSunim, founded World Zen Fellowship (1994) which includes various Zen centers in the United States, such as the Potomac Zen Sangha, the Patriarchal Zen Society and the Baltimore Zen Center.