South Korea

South Korea,officially theRepublic of Korea(ROK),is a country inEast Asia. It constitutes the southern half of theKorean Peninsulaand bordersNorth Koreaalong theKorean Demilitarized Zone, with theYellow Seato the west and theSea of Japanto the east. Like North Korea, South Korea claims to be the sole legitimate government of the entire peninsula andadjacent islands. It hasa populationof 51.71 million, of which half live in theSeoul Metropolitan Area, theninth most populous metropolitan area in the world; other major cities includeBusan,Daegu, andIncheon.
The Korean Peninsula was inhabited as early as theLower Paleolithicperiod.Its first kingdomwas noted in Chinese records in the early seventh century BCE. From the mid first century BCE,variouspolitiesconsolidated into the rivalkingdomsofGoguryeo,Baekje, andSilla, with the lattermostunifying the peninsulafor the first time in the late seventh century CE. TheGoryeodynasty (918–1392) achieved lasting unification and established the basis for modernKorean identity. The subsequentJoseondynasty (1392–1897) saw the height of cultural, economic, and scientific achievement as well as prolonged peace andisolationismfrom the mid 17th century. The succeedingKorean Empire(1897–1910) soughtmodernization and reformby wasannexed in 1910into theEmpire of Japan.Japanese ruleended followingJapan's surrenderinWorld War II, after which Korea wasdivided into two zones:a northern zone, which was occupied by theSoviet Union, anda southern zone, which wasoccupiedby theUnited States. After negotiations onreunificationfailed, the southern zone became the Republic of Korea in August 1948, while the northern zone became thecommunistDemocratic People's Republic of Koreathe following month.
In 1950,a North Korean invasiontriggered theKorean War, one of the first majorproxyconflictsof theCold War, which saw extensive fighting involving theAmerican-ledUnited Nations Commandand theSoviet-backedPeople's Volunteer Armyfrom China. The war ended in 1953 with anarmisticebut nopeace treaty, leading to the ongoingKorean conflict, andleft three million Koreans dead and the economy in ruins. South Korea endured a series of dictatorships punctuated by coups, revolutions, and violent uprisings, but also experienced asoaring economyandone of the fastest rises in average GDP per capita, leading to its emergence as one of theFour Asian Tigers. TheJune Democratic Struggleof 1987ended authoritarian ruleand led to the establishment of the currentSixth Republic.
South Korea is now considered among themost advanced democraciesin continental and East Asia. Under the1987 constitution, it maintains aunitarypresidential republicwith a popularly elected unicameral legislature, theNational Assembly. South Korea is amajor non-NATO allyof the United States and is regarded as aregional powerin East Asia and anemerging powerin global affairs; itsconscription-basedarmed forcesare ranked as one of the strongest in the world and have the second highest number ofmilitary and paramilitary personnel. A highlydeveloped country,South Korea's economyis ranked fourteenth largest in the world bothby nominal GDPandPPP-adjusted GDP; it is the world'seleventh-largest exporterandseventh-largest importer.
South Korea performs well in metrics ofeducation,human development,democratic governance, andinnovation. Its citizens enjoyone of the world's longest life expectancesand access to some of thefastest Internet connection speedsanddensest high-speed railway networks. Since the turn of the 21st century, the country has been renowned for its globally influential pop culture, particularlyin music,TV dramas, andcinema, a phenomenon referred to as theKorean Wave. South Korea is a member of theOECD'sDevelopment Assistance Committee, theG20, theIPEF, and theParis Club.
The nameKoreais anexonymderived from the historical Korean kingdom nameGoryeo(Korean:고려;Hanja:高麗;MR:Koryŏ).Goryeowas the shortened name officially adopted byGoguryeoin the 5th centuryand the name of its 10th-century successor state Goryeo.Visiting Arab and Persian merchants pronounced its name as "Korea".The modern name of Korea appears in the first Portuguesemapsof 1568 by João vaz Dourado asConraiand later in the late 16th century and early 17th century asCorea(Korea) in the maps of Teixeira Albernaz of 1630.
The Kingdom of Goryeo became first known to Westerners whenAfonso de Albuquerqueconquered Malaccain 1511 and described the peoples who traded with this part of the world known by the Portuguese as theGores.Despite the coexistence of the spellingsCoreaandKoreain 19th-century publications, some Koreans believe thatImperial Japan, around the time of the Japanese occupation, intentionally standardized the spelling ofKorea, making Japan appear first alphabetically.
After Goryeo was replaced by the Kingdom ofJoseon(Korean:조선;Hanja:朝鮮;MR:Chosŏn) in 1392, Joseon became the official name for the entire territory, though it was not universally accepted. The new official name has its origin in the ancient kingdom ofGojoseon(2333 BCE). In 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the country's official name fromJoseonto theKorean Empire(Korean:대한제국;Hanja:大韓帝國;RR:Daehan Jeguk;MR:Taehan Cheguk;lit.Great Han Empire). A portion of the Korean Empire's nameDaehan(Korean:대한;Hanja:大韓;lit.Great Han) derives fromSamhan(Three Han), referring to theThree Kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula.However, the nameJoseonwas still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, even though it was no longer the official name. UnderJapanese rule, the two namesHanandJoseoncoexisted.
Following thesurrender of Japan, in 1945, the "Republic of Korea" was adopted as the legal English name for the new country. However, it is not a direct translation of the Korean name.As a result, the Korean nameDaehan Minguk(Korean:대한민국;Hanja:大韓民國;lit.Great Han Republic) is sometimes used by South Koreans as ametonymto refer to the Korean ethnicity (or "race") as a whole, rather than just the South Korean state.
The Korean Peninsula was inhabited as early as theLower Paleolithicperiod.
According to Korea'sfounding mythology, the history of Korea begins with the founding of Joseon (also known as "Gojoseon", or "Old Joseon", to differentiate it from the 14th century dynasty) in 2333 BCE by the legendaryDangun.Gojoseon was noted in Chinese records in the early 7th century.Gojoseon expanded until it controlled the northern Korean Peninsula and parts ofManchuria.Gija Joseonwas purportedly founded in the 12th century BCE, but its existence and role have been controversial in the modern era.In 108 BCE, theHan dynastydefeatedWiman Joseonand installedfour commanderiesin the northern Korean peninsula. Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades. AsLelang Commanderywas destroyed and rebuilt around this time, the place gradually moved toward Liaodong.Thus, its force was diminished and only served as a trade center until it was conquered by Goguryeo in 313.
Beginning around 300 BC, theJaponic-speakingYayoi peoplefrom the Korean Peninsula entered the Japanese islands and displaced or intermingled with the originalJōmoninhabitants.The linguistic homeland of Proto-Koreansis located somewhere in southernSiberia/Manchuria, such as theLiao Riverarea or theAmurRiver area. Proto-Koreans arrived in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC, replacing and assimilating Japonic-speakers and likely causing theYayoimigration.
During theProto–Three Kingdoms period, the states ofBuyeo,Okjeo,Dongye, andSamhanoccupied the whole Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria. From them, theThree Kingdoms of Koreaemerged:Goguryeo,Baekje, andSilla.
Goguryeo, the largest and most powerful among them, was a highly militaristic stateand competed with various Chinese dynasties during its 700 years of history. Goguryeo experienced a golden age underGwanggaeto the Greatand his sonJangsu,who both subdued Baekje and Silla during their respective reigns, achieving a brief unification of the Three Kingdoms and becoming the most dominant power on the Korean Peninsula.In addition to contesting control of the Korean Peninsula, Goguryeo had manymilitary conflictswith various Chinese dynasties, most notably theGoguryeo–Sui War, in which Goguryeo defeated a huge force said to number over a million men.
Baekje was a maritime power,sometimes called the "Phoeniciaof East Asia".Its maritime ability was instrumental in the dissemination ofBuddhism throughout East Asiaand spreading continental culture to Japan.Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, especially during the time ofGeunchogo,but was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto the Great and declined.Silla was the smallest and weakest of the three, but used opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventuallyTang China, to its advantage.
In 676, the unification of the Three Kingdoms by Silla led to theNorthern and Southern States period, in whichBalhaecontrolled the northern parts of Goguryeo, and much of the Korean Peninsula was controlled byLater Silla. Relationships between Korea and China remained relatively peaceful during this time. Balhae was founded by aGoguryeo generaland formed as a successor state to Goguryeo. During its height, Balhae controlled most of Manchuria and parts of the Russian Far East and was called the "Prosperous Country in the East".
Late Sillawas a wealthy country,and its metropolitan capital ofGyeongjugrew to become the fourth largest city in the world.It experienced a golden age of art and culture,exemplified by monuments such asHwangnyongsa,Seokguram, and theEmille Bell. It also carried on the maritime legacy and prowess of Baekje, and during the 8th and 9th centuries dominated the seas of East Asia and the trade between China, Korea, and Japan, most notably during the time ofJang Bogo. In addition, Silla people made overseas communities in China on theShandong Peninsulaand the mouth of theYangtzeRiver.However, Silla was later weakened due to internal strife and the revival of successor statesBaekjeandGoguryeo, which culminated into theLater Three Kingdomsperiod in the late 9th century.
Buddhism flourished during this time. ManyKorean Buddhistsgained great fame among Chinese Buddhist circlesand greatly contributed toChinese Buddhism.Examples of significant Korean Buddhists from this period includeWoncheuk,Wonhyo,Uisang,Musang,andKim Gyo-gak. Kim was a Silla prince whose influence madeMount Jiuhuaone of the FourSacred Mountainsof Chinese Buddhism.
In 936, the Later Three Kingdoms were united byWang Geon, who establishedGoryeoas the successor state of Goguryeo.Balhae had fallen to theKhitan Empirein 926, and a decade later thelast crown prince of Balhaefled south to Goryeo, where he was warmly welcomed and included in the ruling family by Wang Geon, thus unifying the two successor nations of Goguryeo.Like Silla, Goryeo was a highly cultural state, and invented the metal movable typeprinting press.After defeating the Khitan Empire, which was the most powerful empire of its time,in theGoryeo–Khitan War, Goryeo experienced a golden age that lasted a century, during which theTripitaka Koreanawas completed and significant developments in printing and publishing occurred. This promoted education and the dispersion of knowledge on philosophy, literature, religion, and science. By 1100, there were 12 universities that produced notable scholars.
However, theMongol invasionsin the 13th century greatly weakened the kingdom. Goryeo was never conquered by the Mongols, but exhausted after three decades of fighting, the Korean court sent itscrown princeto theYuancapital to swear allegiance toKublai Khan, who accepted and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince.Henceforth, Goryeo continued to rule Korea, though as a tributary ally to the Mongols for the next 86 years. During this period, the two nations became intertwined as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses,and thelast empressof the Yuan dynasty was a Korean princess. In the mid-14th century, Goryeo drove out the Mongols to regain its northern territories, briefly conqueredLiaoyang, and defeated invasions by theRed Turbans. However, in 1392, GeneralYi Seong-gye, who had been ordered to attack China, turned his army around and staged a coup.
Yi Seong-gye declared the new name of Korea as "Joseon" in reference to Gojoseon, and moved the capital to Hanseong (one of the old names ofSeoul).The first 200 years of theJoseondynasty were marked by peace and saw great advancements in scienceand education,as well as the creation ofHangulbySejong the Greatto promote literacy among the common people.The prevailing ideology of the time wasNeo-Confucianism, which was epitomized by theseonbiclass: nobles who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity. Between 1592 and 1598, Japan underToyotomi Hideyoshilaunchedinvasions of Korea, but the advance was halted by Korean forces (most notably theJoseon Navyled by AdmiralYi Sun-sinand his renowned "turtle ship") with assistance fromrighteous armymilitias formed by Korean civilians, andMing dynastyChinese troops.Through a series of successful battles of attrition, the Japanese forces were eventually forced to withdraw, and relations between all parties became normalized. However, theManchustook advantage of Joseon's war-weakened state andinvaded in 1627 and 1637and thenwent on to conquerthe destabilized Ming dynasty. After normalizing relations with the newQing dynasty, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. KingsYeongjoandJeongjoparticularly led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty during the 18th century.
In the 19th century, Joseon began experiencing economic difficulties and widespread uprisings, including theDonghak Peasant Revolution. The royal in-law families had gained control of the government, leading to mass corruption and weakening of the state.In addition, the strict isolationism of the Joseon government that earned it "thehermit kingdom" became increasing ineffective due to increasing encroachment from powers such as Japan, Russia, and the United States. This is exemplified by theJoseon–United States Treaty of 1882, in which it was compelled to open its borders.
In the late 19th century, Japan became a significant regional power after winning theFirst Sino-Japanese Waragainst Qing China and theRusso-Japanese Waragainst theRussian Empire. In 1897, King Gojong, thelast king of Korea, proclaimed Joseon as theKorean Empire. However, Japancompelled Korea to become its protectoratein 1905 andformally annexed itin 1910. What followed was a period of forced assimilation, in which Korean language, culture, and history were suppressed.This led to theMarch First Movementprotests in 1919 and the subsequent foundation of resistance groups in exile, primarily in China. Among the resistance groups wasProvisional Government of the Republic of Korea.
Towards the end ofWorld War II, the U.S. proposed dividing the Korean peninsula into two occupation zones: aU.S. zoneand aSoviet zone.Dean RuskandCharles H. Bonesteel IIIsuggested the38th parallelas the dividing line, as it placed Seoul under U.S. control. To the surprise of Rusk and Bonesteel, the Soviets accepted their proposal and agreed to divide Korea.
Despite intentions to liberate a unified peninsula in the1943 Cairo Declaration, escalating tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States led to thedivision of Koreainto two political entities in 1948: North Korea and South Korea.
In the South, the United States appointed and supported the former head of the Korean Provisional GovernmentSyngman Rheeas leader. Rhee won the first presidential elections of the newly declared Republic of Korea in May 1948. In the North, the Soviets backed a former anti-Japanese guerrilla and communist activist,Kim Il Sung, who was appointed premier of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in September.
In October, the Soviet Union declared Kim Il Sung's government as sovereign over both the north and south. The UN declared Rhee's government as "a lawful government having effective control and jurisdiction over that part of Korea where the UN Temporary Commission on Korea was able to observe and consult" and the government "based on elections which was observed by the Temporary Commission" in addition to a statement that "this is the only such government in Korea."Both leaders engaged in authoritarian repression of political opponents.South Korea requested military support from the United States but was denied,and North Korea's military was heavily reinforced by the Soviet Union.
On June 25, 1950,North Korea invadedSouth Korea, sparking theKorean War, theCold War's first major conflict, which continued until 1953. At the time, the Soviet Union had boycotted the UN, thus forfeitingtheir veto rights. This allowed the UN to intervene in a civil war when it became apparent that the superior North Korean forces would unify the entire country. The Soviet Union and China backed North Korea, with the later participation of millions ofChinese troops. After an ebb and flow that saw both sides facing defeat with massive losses among Korean civilians in both the north and the south, the war eventually reached a stalemate. During the war, Rhee's party promoted theOne-People Principle, an effort to build an obedient citizenry through ethnic homogeneity and authoritarian appeals tonationalism.
The1953 armistice, never signed by South Korea, split the peninsula along thedemilitarized zonenear the original demarcation line. No peace treaty was ever signed, resulting in the two countries remaining technically at war. Approximately 3 million people died in the Korean War, with a higher proportional civilian death toll thanWorld War IIor theVietnam War, making it one of the deadliest conflicts of the Cold War era.In addition, virtually all of Korea's major cities were destroyed by the war.
In 1960, a student uprising (the "April Revolution") led to the resignation of the autocratic President Syngman Rhee. This was followed by 13 months of political instability as South Korea was led by a weak and ineffectual government. This instability was broken by theMay 16, 1961, coupled by GeneralPark Chung Hee. As president, Park oversaw a period of rapidexport-led economic growthenforced bypolitical repression. Under Park, South Koreatook an active rolein the Vietnam War.
Park was heavily criticized as a ruthless military dictator, who in 1972 extended his rule by creating anew constitution, which gave the president sweeping (almost dictatorial) powers and permitted him to run for an unlimited number of six-year terms. TheKorean economydeveloped significantly during Park's tenure. The government developed thenationwide expressway system, theSeoul subway system, and laid the foundation for economic development during his 17-year tenure, which ended withhis assassinationin 1979.
The years after Park's assassination were marked again by political turmoil, as the previously suppressed opposition leaders all campaigned to run for president in the sudden political void. In 1979, GeneralChun Doo-hwanled thecoup d'état of December Twelfth. Following the coup d'état, Chun planned to rise to power through several measures. On May 17, Chun forced the Cabinet to expand martial law to the whole nation, which had previously not applied toJeju Island. The expanded martial law closed universities, banned political activities, and further curtailed the press. Chun's assumption of the presidency through the events of May 17 triggered nationwide protests demanding democracy; these protests were particularly focused inGwangju, to which Chun sent special forces to violently suppress theGwangju Democratization Movement.
Chun subsequently created the National Defense Emergency Policy Committee and took the presidency according to his political plan. Chun and his government held South Korea under a despotic rule until 1987, when aSeoul National Universitystudent,Park Jong-chul, was tortured to death.OnJune 10, theCatholic Priests Association for Justicerevealed the incident, igniting theJune Democratic Struggleacross the country. Eventually, Chun's party, theDemocratic Justice Party, and its leader,Roh Tae-woo, announced theJune 29 Declaration, which included the direct election of the president. Roh went on to win the election by a narrow margin against the two main opposition leaders,Kim Dae-jungandKim Young-sam. Seoul hosted theOlympic Games in 1988, widely regarded as successful and a significant boost for South Korea's global image and economy.
South Korea was formally invitedto become a member of the United Nations in 1991. The transition of Korea from autocracy to modern democracy was marked in 1997 by the election of Kim Dae-jung, who was sworn in as the eighth president of South Korea on February 25, 1998. His election was significant given that he had in earlier years been a political prisoner sentenced to death (later commuted to exile). He won against the backdrop of the1997 Asian financial crisis, where he tookIMFadvice to restructure the economy and the nation soon recovered its economic growth, albeit at a slower pace.
In June 2000, as part of President Kim Dae-jung's "Sunshine Policy" of engagement, aNorth–South summittook place inPyongyang, the capital of North Korea.Later that year, Kim received theNobel Peace Prize"for his work for democracy and human rights in South Korea and in East Asia in general, and for peace and reconciliation with North Korea in particular".However, because of discontent among the population for fruitless approaches to the North under the previous administrations and, amid North Korean provocations, a conservative government was elected in 2007 led by PresidentLee Myung-bak, formermayor of Seoul.Meanwhile, South Korea and Japan jointly co-hosted the2002 FIFA World Cup.However,South Korean and Japanese relationslatersouredbecause of conflicting claims of sovereignty over theLiancourt Rocks.
In 2010, there was anescalation in attacksby North Korea. In March 2010 the South Korean warshipROKSCheonanwas sunkkilling 46 South Korean sailors, allegedly by a North Korean submarine. In November 2010Yeonpyeongdowas attackedby a significant North Korean artillery barrage, with 4 people dying. The lack of a strong response to these attacks from both South Korea and the international community (the official UN report declined to explicitly name North Korea as the perpetrator for theCheonansinking) caused significant anger with the South Korean public.
South Korea saw another milestone in 2012 with the first ever female PresidentPark Geun-hyeelectedand assuming office. The daughter of former President Park Chung Hee, she carried on a conservative brand of politics.President Park Geun-hye's administration was formally accused of corruption, bribery, and influence-peddling for the involvement of close friendChoi Soon-silin state affairs. There followed a series ofmassive public demonstrationsfrom November 2016,and she was removed from office.After the fallout of Park's impeachment and dismissal, elections were held andMoon Jae-inof theDemocratic Partywon the presidency, assuming office on May 10, 2017.His tenure saw an improving political relationship with North Korea, some increasing divergence in the military alliance with the United States, and the successful hosting ofthe Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang.In April 2018, Park Geun-hye was sentenced to 24 years in jail because of abuse of power and corruption.The COVID-19 pandemichas affected the nation since 2020. That same year, South Korea recorded more deaths than births, resulting in a population decline for the first time on record.
In March 2022,Yoon Suk Yeol, the candidate of conservative oppositionPeople Power Party, won a closeelectionover the Democratic Party candidate by the narrowest margin ever. Yoon was sworn in on May 10, 2022.He declaredmartial lawon December 3, 2024, accusing the opposition of being pro-North Korean and conducting anti-state activities.After several hours, the National Assembly voted to nullify the declaration in a unanimous vote of 190/0, causing Yoon to end martial law early on December 4.Yoon's actions resulted inhis impeachmenton December 14, 2024.
South Korea occupies the southern portion of theKorean Peninsula, which extends some 1,100 km (680 mi) from the Continental and East Asian mainland. This mountainous peninsula is flanked by theYellow Seato the west and theSea of Japanto the east. Its southern tip lies on theKorea Straitand theEast China Sea. The country, including all its islands, lies between latitudes33°and39°N, and longitudes124°and130°E. Its total area is 100,410 square kilometers (38,768.52 sq mi).
South Korea can be divided into four general regions: an eastern region of high mountain ranges and narrow coastal plains; a western region of broad coastal plains,river basins, and rolling hills; a southwestern region of mountains and valleys; and a southeastern region dominated by the broad basin of theNakdong River.South Korea is home to three terrestrial ecoregions:Central Korean deciduous forests,Manchurian mixed forests, andSouthern Korea evergreen forests.South Korea's terrain is mostly mountainous, most of which is notarable.Lowlands, located primarily in the west and southeast, make up only 30% of the total land area. South Korea has20 national parksand popular nature places like theBoseongTea Fields,Suncheon Bay Ecological Park, andJirisan.
About 3,000 islands, mostly small and uninhabited, lie off the western and southern coasts of South Korea.Jeju Provinceis about 100 kilometers (62 miles) off the southern coast of South Korea. It is the country's largest island, with an area of 1,845 square kilometers (712 square miles). Jeju is also the site of South Korea's highest point:Hallasan, an extinctvolcano, reaches 1,950 meters (6,400 feet)above sea level. The easternmost islands of South Korea includeUlleungdoandLiancourt Rocks(Dokdo/Takeshima), whileMaradoandSocotra Rockare the southernmost islands of South Korea.
South Korea tends to have ahumid continental climateand ahumid subtropical climate, and is affected by theEast Asian monsoon, withprecipitationheavier in summer during a short rainy season calledjangma, which begins end of June and lasts through the end of July. In Seoul, the average January temperature range is −7 to 1 °C (19 to 34 °F), and the average August temperature range is 22 to 30 °C (72 to 86 °F). Winter temperatures are higher along the southern coast and considerably lower in the mountainous interior.Summer can be uncomfortably hot and humid, with temperatures exceeding 30 °C (86 °F) in most parts of the country. South Korea has four distinct seasons; spring, summer, autumn and winter. Spring usually lasts from late March to early May, summer from mid-May to early September, autumn from mid-September to early November, and winter from mid-November to mid-March.
Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months of June through September. The southern coast is subject to late summertyphoonsthat bring strong winds, heavy rains and sometimes floods. The average annual precipitation varies from 1,370 millimeters (54 in) in Seoul to 1,470 millimeters (58 in) in Busan.
During the first 20 years of South Korea's growth surge, little effort was made to preserve the environment.Unchecked industrialization and urban development have resulted in deforestation and the ongoing destruction of wetlands such as the Songdo Tidal Flat.However, there have been recent efforts to balance these problems, including a government run$84 billionfive-yeargreen growthproject that aims to boost energy efficiency and green technology.
The green-based economic strategy is a comprehensive overhaul of South Korea's economy, utilizing nearly two percent of the national GDP. The greening initiative includes such efforts as a nationwide bike network, solar and wind energy, lowering oil dependent vehicles, backing daylight saving time and extensive usage of environmentally friendly technologies such as LEDs in electronics and lighting.The country—one of the world's most wired—plans to build a nationwide next-generation network that will be 10 times faster than broadband facilities, in order to reduce energy usage.
Therenewable portfolio standardprogram withrenewable energy certificatesruns from 2012 to 2022.Quota systems favor large, vertically integrated generators and multinational electric utilities, if only because certificates are generally denominated in units of one megawatt-hour. They are also more difficult to design and implement than afeed-in tariff.Around 350 residentialmicro combined heat and powerunits were installed in 2012.In 2017, South Korea was the world's seventh largest emitter of carbon emissions and the fifth largest emitter per capita. President Moon Jae-in pledged to reducegreenhouse gas emissionsto zero in 2050.
Seoul'stap waterrecently became safe to drink, with city officials branding it "Arisu" in a bid to convince the public.Efforts have also been made withafforestationprojects. Another multibillion-dollar project was the restoration ofCheonggyecheon, a stream running throughdowntown Seoulthat had earlier been paved over by a motorway.One major challenge is air quality, with acid rain, sulfur oxides, and annual yellow dust storms being particular problems.It is acknowledged that many of these difficulties are a result of South Korea's proximity to China, which is a major air polluter.South Korea had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 6.02/10, ranking it 87th globally out of 172 countries.
South Korea is a member of theAntarctic-Environmental Protocol,Antarctic Treaty,Biodiversity Treaty,Kyoto Protocol(forming the Environmental Integrity Group (EIG), regardingUNFCCC,with Mexico and Switzerland),Desertification,Endangered Species,Environmental Modification,Hazardous Wastes,Law of the Sea,Marine Dumping,Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty(not into force),Ozone Layer Protection,Ship Pollution,Tropical Timber 83,Tropical Timber 94,Wetlands, andWhaling.
The South Korean government's structure is determined by theConstitution of the Republic of Korea. Like many democratic states,South Korea has a government divided into three branches:executive,judicial, andlegislative. The executive and legislative branches operate primarily at the national level, although various ministries in the executive branch also carry out local functions. Thejudicial branchoperates at both the national and local levels. Local governments are semi-autonomous and contain executive and legislative bodies of their own. South Korea is a constitutional democracy.
The constitution has been revised several times since its first promulgation in 1948 at independence. However, it has retained many broad characteristics and with the exception of the short-livedSecond Republic of Korea, the country has always had a presidential system with an independent chief executive.Under its current constitution the state is sometimes referred to as theSixth Republic of Korea. The first directelectionwas also held in 1948.
Although South Korea experienced a series of military dictatorships from the 1960s until the 1980s, it has since developed into a successfulliberal democracy. Today, theCIA World Factbookdescribes South Korea's democracy as a "fully functioning modern democracy",whileThe Economist Democracy Indexclassifies it as a "full democracy", ranking at 24th out of 167 countries in 2022.According to theV-Dem Democracy indicesSouth Korea is the 3rd mostelectoral democratic country in Asiaas of 2023.However, some political experts has argued that South Korea has been experiencingdemocratic backslidingand the reemergence ofauthoritarianism, particularly under the presidency ofYoon Suk Yeol, which culminated when he declaredmartial lawfor the first time since the1980 military coup d'étatafter theassassinationof dictatorPark Chung Hee, and the first sincedemocratization in 1987.South Korea is ranked 33rd on theCorruption Perceptions Index(6th in theAsia–Pacificregion), with a score of 63 out of 100.
The major administrative divisions in South Korea are elevenprovinces,threespecial self-governing provinces, sixmetropolitan cities(self-governing cities that are not part of any province), onespecial metropolitan cityand onespecial self-governing city.
Revised Romanisation;SeeNames of Seoul;May As of 2018.;Areas that belong to the territory under the Constitution of the Republic of Korea but have not been recovered.
South Korea has been a member of the United Nations since 1991, when it became a member state at the same time as North Korea. On January 1, 2007, former South Korean Foreign MinisterBan Ki-moonserved asUN Secretary-Generalfrom 2007 to 2016. South Korea has developed links with theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nationsas both a member ofASEAN Plus three, a body of observers, and theEast Asia Summit(EAS). In November 2009, South Korea joined the OECDDevelopment Assistance Committee, marking the first time a former aid recipient country joined the group as a donor member. South Korea hosted the G-20 Summit in Seoul in November 2010, a year that saw South Korea and theEuropean Unionconclude afree trade agreement(FTA) to reduce trade barriers. South Korea went on to sign aFree Trade Agreement with CanadaandAustraliain 2014, and another withNew Zealandin 2015. South Korea and Britain have agreed to extend a period of low or zero tariffs on bilateral trade of products with parts from the European Union in October 2023.
Both North and South Korea claim complete sovereignty over the entire peninsula and outlying islands.Despite mutual animosity, reconciliation efforts have continued since the initial separation between North and South Korea. Political figures such asKim Kuworked to reconcile the two governments even after the Korean War.With longstanding animosity following the Korean War from 1950 to 1953, North Korea and South Korea signed an agreement to pursue peace.On October 4, 2007,Roh Moo-Hyunand North Korean leaderKim Jong Ilsigned an eight-point agreement on issues of permanent peace, high-level talks, economic cooperation, renewal of train services, highway and air travel, and a joint Olympic cheering squad.
Despite the Sunshine Policy and efforts at reconciliation, the progress was complicated byNorth Korean missile testsin1993,1998,2006,2009, and2013. By early 2009, relationships between North and South Korea were very tense; North Korea had been reported to have deployed missiles,ended its former agreements with South Korea,and threatened South Korea and the United States not to interfere with a satellite launch it had planned.North and South Korea are still technically at war (having never signed a peace treaty after the Korean War) and share the world's most heavily fortified border.
Historically, Korea had close relations with the dynasties in China, and some Korean kingdoms were members of theImperial Chinese tributary system. The Korean kingdoms also ruled over some Chinese kingdoms including the Khitan people and the Manchurians before the Qing dynasty and received tributes from them.In modern times, before the formation of South Korea, Korean independence fighters worked with Chinese soldiers during the Japanese occupation. However, after World War II, the People's Republic of China embracedMaoismwhile South Korea sought close relations with the United States. The PRC assisted North Korea with manpower and supplies during the Korean War, and in its aftermath the diplomatic relationship between South Korea and the PRC almost completely ceased. Relations thawed gradually, and South Korea and the PRC re-established formal diplomatic relations on August 24, 1992. The two countries sought to improve bilateral relations and lifted the forty-year-old trade embargo,and South Korean–Chinese relations have improved steadily since 1992.The Republic of Korea broke off official relations with theRepublic of China (Taiwan)upon gaining official relations with the People's Republic of China, which does not recognizeTaiwan's sovereignty.China has become South Korea's largest trading partner by far, sending 26% of South Korean exports in 2016 worth $124 billion, as well as an additional $32 billion worth of exports toHong Kong.South Korea is also China's fourth largest trading partner, with $93 billion of Chinese imports in 2016.
Following the Korean War, the Soviet Union's relation with North Korea resulted in little contact until thedissolution of the Soviet Union. Since the 1990s, there has been greater trade and cooperation between the two nations.
Korea and Japan have had difficult relations since ancient times but also significant cultural exchange, with Korea acting as the gateway between East Asia and Japan. Contemporary perceptions of Japan are still largely defined byJapan's 35-year colonization of Koreain the 20th century, which isgenerally regarded in South Korea as having been very negative. There were no formal diplomatic ties between South Korea and Japan directly after independence at the end of World War II in 1945. South Korea and Japan eventually signed theTreaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Koreain 1965 to establish diplomatic ties. Japan is today South Korea's third largest trading partner, with 12% ($46 billion) of exports in 2016.
Longstanding issues such asJapanese war crimesagainst Korean civilians, thenegationistre-writing of Japanese textbooksrelating Japanese atrocities during World War II, the territorial disputes over theLiancourt Rocks, known in South Korea as "Dokdo" and in Japan as "Takeshima",and visits by Japanese politicians to theYasukuni Shrine, honoring Japanese people (civilians and military) killed during the war continue to trouble Korean-Japanese relations. The Liancourt Rocks were the first Korean territories to be forcibly colonized by Japan in 1905. Although it was again returned to Korea along with the rest of its territory in 1951 with the signing of the Treaty of San Francisco, Japan does not recant on its claims that the Liancourt Rocks are Japanese territory.In 2009, in response to Prime MinisterJunichiro Koizumi's visits to the Yasukuni Shrine, President Roh Moo-hyun suspended all summit talks between South Korea and Japan in 2009.A summit between the nations' leaders was eventually held on February 9, 2018, during the Korean held Winter Olympics.South Korea asked theInternational Olympic Committee(IOC) to ban the JapaneseRising Sun Flagfrom the2020 Summer Olympicsin Tokyo,and the IOC said in a statement "sports stadiums should be free of any political demonstration. When concerns arise at games time we look at them on a case-by-case basis."
TheEuropean Union(EU) and South Korea are important trading partners, having negotiated afree trade agreementfor many years since South Korea was designated as a priority FTA partner in 2006. The free trade agreement was approved in September 2010, and took effect on July 1, 2011.South Korea is the EU's tenth largest trade partner, and the EU has become South Korea's fourth largest export destination. EU trade with South Korea exceeded €90 billion in 2015 and has enjoyed an annual average growth rate of 9.8% between 2003 and 2013.
The EU has been the single largest foreign investor in South Korea since 1962, and accounted for almost 45% of all FDI inflows into Korea in 2006. Nevertheless, EU companies have significant problems accessing and operating in the South Korean market because of stringent standards and testing requirements for products and services often creating barriers to trade. Both in its regular bilateral contacts with South Korea and through its FTA with Korea, the EU is seeking to improve the current geopolitical situation.
A close relationship with the United States began directly after World War II, when the United States temporarily administered Korea for three years (mainly in the South, with the Soviet Union engaged in North Korea). Upon the onset of the Korean War in 1950, U.S. forces were sent to defend against an invasion from North Korea of the South and subsequently foughtas the largest contributor of UN troops. The United States participation was critical for preventing thenear defeat of the Republic of Koreaby northern forces, as well as fighting back for the territory gains that define the South Korean nation today.
Following the Armistice, South Korea and the U.S. agreed to a "Mutual Defense Treaty", under which an attack on either party in thePacific areawould summon a response from both.In 1967, South Korea obliged the mutual defense treaty by sending a large combat troop contingent to support the United States in theVietnam War. The two nations have strong economic, diplomatic, and military ties, although they have at times disagreed with regard to policies towards North Korea and with regard to some of South Korea's industrial activities that involve usage of rocket or nuclear technology. There had also been strong anti-American sentiment during certain periods, which has largely moderated in the modern day.
The two nations also share a close economic relationship, with the U.S. being South Korea's second largest trading partner, receiving $66 billion in exports in 2016.In 2007, a free trade agreement known as theRepublic of Korea-United States Free Trade Agreementwas signed between South Korea and the United States, but its formal implementation was repeatedly delayed, pending approval by the legislative bodies of the two countries. On October 12, 2011, the U.S. Congress passed the long-stalled trade agreement with South Korea.It went into effect on March 15, 2012.
Unresolved tension with North Korea has prompted South Korea to allocate 2.6% of its GDP and 13.2% of all government spending to its military (government share of GDP: 14.967%), while maintaining compulsory conscription for men.Consequently, the ROK Armed Forces is one of the largest and most powerful standing armed forces in the world with a reported personnel strength of 3,600,000 in 2022 (500,000 active and 3,100,000 reserve).
The South Korean military consists of theArmy(ROKA), theNavy(ROKN), theAir Force(ROKAF), and theMarine Corps(ROKMC), and reserve forces. Many of these forces are concentrated near the Korean Demilitarized Zone. All South Korean males are constitutionally required to serve in the military, typically 18 months.In additionKorean Augmentation to the United States Armyis a branch of the Republic of Korea Army that consists of Korean enlisted personnel who are augmented to the Eighth United States Army. In 2010, South Korea spent₩1.68 trillion in a cost-sharing agreement with the U.S. to provide budgetary support to the U.S. forces in Korea, on top of the ₩29.6 trillion budget for its own military.
From time to time, South Korea has sent its troops overseas to assist American forces. It has participated in most major conflicts that the United States has been involved in the past 50 years. South Korea dispatched 325,517 troops to fight in theVietnam War, with a peak strength of 50,000.In 2004, South Korea sent 3,300 troops of theZaytun Divisionto help rebuilding in northernIraq, and was the third largest contributor in thecoalition forcesafter the U.S. and Britain.Beginning in 2001, South Korea had deployed 24,000 troops in the Middle East region to support thewar on terror.
The right toconscientious objectionwas not recognized in South Korea until recently. Over 400 men were typically imprisoned at any given time for refusing military service for political or religious reasons in the years before right to conscientious objection was established.On June 28, 2018, the South Korean Constitutional Court ruled the Military Service Act unconstitutional and ordered the government to accommodate civilian forms of military service for conscientious objectors.On November 1, 2018, the South Korean Supreme Court legalized conscientious objection as a basis for rejecting compulsory military service.
There is a substantialUnited States military presence in South Korea. There are approximately 28,500 U.S. military personnel stationed in South Korea,most of them serving one year unaccompanied tours. The U.S. troops, which are primarily ground and air units, are assigned toUnited States Forces Koreaand mainly assigned to theEighth Army,Seventh Air Force, andNaval Forces Korea. They are stationed in installations atOsan,Kunsan, Yongsan,Dongducheon, Sungbuk,Camp Humphreys, andDaegu, as well as atCamp Bonifasin the DMZJoint Security Area.
A fully functioningUN Commandis at the top of thechain of commandof all forces in South Korea, including the U.S. forces and the entire South Korean military – if a sudden escalation of war between North and South Korea were to occur the United States would assume control of the South Korean armed forces in all military and paramilitary moves. There has been long-term agreement between the United States and South Korea that South Korea should eventually assume the lead for its own defense. This transition to a South Korean command has been slow and often postponed, although it is currently scheduled to occur in the 2020s.
South Korea'smixed economyis the13th largest by nominal GDPand the14th largest GDPby purchasing power parity in the world,identifying it as one of theG20major economies. It is adeveloped countrywith ahigh-income economyand is the most industrialized member country of the OECD. South Korean brands such asLG ElectronicsandSamsungare internationally famous and garnered South Korea's reputation for its quality electronics and other manufactured goods.South Korea became a member of the OECD in 1996.
Its massive investment in education has taken the country from mass illiteracy to a major international technological powerhouse. The country's national economy benefits from a highly skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentages of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree.South Korea's economy was one of the world's fastest-growing from the early 1960s to the late 1990s, and was still one of the fastest-growing developed countries in the 2000s, along with Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan, the other threeAsian Tigers.It recorded thefastest rise in average GDP per capitain the world between 1980 and 1990.South Koreans refer to this growth as theMiracle on the Han River.The South Korean economy is heavily dependent on international trade, and in 2014, South Korea was thefifth-largest exporterandseventh-largest importerin the world. In addition, the country has one of the world'slargest foreign-exchange reserves.
Despite the economy's high growth potential and apparent structural stability, the country suffers damage to its credit rating in the stock market because of the belligerence of North Korea in times of deep military crises, which has an adverse effect on its financial markets.TheInternational Monetary Fundcompliments the resilience of the economy against various economic crises, citing low state debt and high fiscal reserves that can quickly be mobilized to address financial emergencies.Although it was severely harmed by the1997 Asian financial crisis, the country managed a rapid recovery and subsequently tripled its GDP.
Furthermore, South Korea was one of the few developed countries that was able to avoid a recession during theglobal financial crisisof 2007–08.Its economic growth rate reached 6.2% in 2010 (the fastest growth for eight years after significant growth by 7.2% in 2002),a sharp recovery from economic growth rates of 2.3% in 2008 and 0.2% in 2009 during theGreat Recession. The unemployment rate also remained low in 2009 at 3.6%.
South Korea has a technologically advanced transport network consisting of high-speed railways, highways, bus routes, ferry services, and air routes that crisscross the country.Korea Expressway Corporationoperates the toll highways and service amenities en route.Korailprovides train services to all major South Korean cities. Two rail lines,GyeonguiandDonghae Bukbu Line, to North Korea are being reconnected. The Koreanhigh-speed railsystem,KTX, provides high-speed service alongGyeongbuandHonam Line. Major cities have urban rapid transit systems.Express bus terminals are available in most cities.
The main gateway and largest airport isIncheon International Airport, serving58 millionpassengers in 2016.Other international airports includeGimpo,BusanandJeju. There are also many airports that were built as part of the infrastructure boom but are barely used.There are also manyheliports.The national carrierKorean Airserved over 26 million passengers, including almost 19 million international passengers in 2016.A second carrier,Asiana Airlinesalso serves domestic and international traffic. Combined, South Korean airlines serve 297 international routes.Smaller airlines, such asJeju Air, provide domestic service with lower fares.
South Korea is the world's fifth-largestnuclear power producerand the third-largest in Asia as of 2010.Supplying 45% of its electricity production, nuclear research is very active with investigation into a variety of advanced reactors, including a small modular reactor, a liquid-metal fast/transmutationreactor and a high-temperaturehydrogengeneration design. Fuel production and waste handling technologies have also been developed locally. It is also a member of theITERproject.
South Korea is an emerging exporter ofnuclear reactors, having concluded agreements with the United Arab Emirates to build and maintain four advanced nuclear reactors,withJordanfor a research nuclear reactor,and with Argentina for construction and repair of heavy-water nuclear reactors.As of 2010, South Korea and Turkey are in negotiations regarding construction of two nuclear reactors.South Korea is also preparing to bid on construction of a light-water nuclear reactor for Argentina.
South Korea is not allowed toenrich uraniumor develop traditional uranium enrichment technology on its own, because of U.S. political pressure,unlike most major nuclear powers such as Japan, Germany, and France, competitors in the international nuclear market. This impediment to South Korea's indigenous nuclear industrial undertaking has sparked occasional diplomatic rows between the two allies. While successful in exporting its electricity-generating nuclear technology and nuclear reactors, it cannot capitalize on themarket for nuclear enrichment facilities and refineries, preventing it from further expanding its export niche. South Korea has sought unique technologies such aspyroprocessingto circumvent these obstacles and seek a more advantageous competition.The U.S. has recently been wary of the burgeoning nuclear program, which South Korea insists will be for civilian use only.
South Korea is the 2nd highest ranked Continental Asian country in the World Economic Forum'sNetworked Readiness Indexafter Singapore—an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. South Korea ranks 9th worldwide.
In 2019, more than 17 million foreign tourists visited South Korea.South Korean tourism is driven by many factors, including the prominence of Korean pop culture such asSouth Korean pop musicandtelevision dramas, known as theKorean WaveorHallyu, has gained popularity throughout East Asia. The Hyundai Research Institute reported that the Korean Wave has a direct influence on encouraging direct foreign investment back into the country through demand for products, and the tourism industry.Among East Asian countries, China was the most receptive, investing $1.4 billion in South Korea, with much of the investment within its service sector, a sevenfold increase from 2001.
According to an analysis by economist Han Sang-Wan, a 1% increase in the exports of Korean cultural content pushes consumer goods exports up 0.083%, while a 1% increase in Korean pop content exports to a country produces a 0.019% bump in tourism.
TheSouth Korean pension systemwas created to provide benefits to persons reaching old age, families and persons stricken with death of their primary breadwinner, and for the purposes of stabilizing the nation'swelfare state.The structure is primarily based on taxation and is income-related.The system is divided into four categories distributing benefits to participants through national, military personnel, governmental, and private school teacher pension schemes.The national pension scheme is the primary welfare system providing allowances to the majority of persons. Eligibility for the national pension scheme is not dependent on income but on age and residence, where those between the ages of 18 and 59 are covered.Anyone under 18 is a dependent of someone who is covered or under a special exclusion where they are allowed to alternative provisions.The national pension scheme is divided into four categories of insured persons – the workplace-based insured, the individually insured, the voluntarily insured, and the voluntarily and continuously insured. An old-age pension scheme covers individuals age 60 or older for the rest of their life as long as they have satisfied the minimum of 20 years of national pension coverage beforehand.
Scientific and technological development in South Korea at first did not occur largely because of more pressing matters such as thedivision of Koreaand theKorean Warthat occurred right after its independence. It was not until the 1960s under the dictatorship of Park Chung Hee when South Korea's economy rapidly grew from industrialization and thechaebolcorporations such asSamsung,LG, andSK. Ever since the industrialization of South Korea's economy, South Korea has placed its focus on technology-based corporations, which has been supported by infrastructure developments by the government.
South Korea leads the OECD in graduates in science and engineering.From 2014 to 2019, the country ranked first among the most innovative countries in theBloomberg Innovation Index.It was ranked 6th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024.Republic of Korea South Korea today is known as a launchpad of a mature mobile market that allows developers to reap benefits of a market where very few technology constraints exist. There is a growing trend of inventions of new types of media or apps, utilizing the 4G and 5G internet infrastructure in South Korea. South Korea has the infrastructures to meet a high density of population and culture; this, along with high revenues, allows South Korean-only tech startups to reach valuations of $1 billion and above, a peak usually reserved for startups growing in several countries.
Total spending for research and development grew from about 3.9% ofgross domestic product(GDP) in 2013 to more than 4.9% in 2022 and was thus the second-highest in the world, only behind Israel which spent 5.9%. In 2023 the government announced a spending cut by about 11% for 2024 and the intention to shift resources to new initiatives, such as efforts to build rockets, pursue biomedical research, and develop US-style biotech innovation.
Followingcyberattacksin the first half of 2013, whereby government, news-media, television station, and bank websites were compromised, the national government committed to the training of 5,000 new cybersecurity experts by 2017. The South Korean governmentblamed North Koreafor these attacks, as well as incidents that occurred in 2009, 2011 and 2012, but Pyongyang denies the accusations.South Korea's government maintains a broad-ranging approach toward the regulation of specific online content and imposes a substantial level ofcensorshipon election-related discourse and on many websites that the government deems subversive or socially harmful.
South Korea has sent up 10 satellites since 1992, all using foreign rockets and overseas launch pads, notablyArirang-1in 1999, andArirang-2in 2006 as part of its space partnership with Russia.Arirang-1 was lost in space in 2008, after nine years in service.In April 2008,Yi So-yeonbecame the first Korean to fly in space, aboard the RussianSoyuz TMA-12.
In June 2009, the firstspaceportof South Korea,Naro Space Center, was completed atGoheung,South Jeolla Province.The launch ofNaro-1in January 2013 was a success, after two previous failed attempts.
Efforts to build an indigenous space launch vehicle have been marred by persistent political pressure from the United States, who had for many decades hindered South Korea's indigenous rocket and missile development programsin fear of their possible connection to clandestine military ballistic missile programs, which Korea many times insisted did not violate the research and development guidelines stipulated by US-Korea agreements on restriction of rocket technology research and development.South Korea has sought the assistance of foreign countries such as Russia throughMTCRcommitments to supplement its restricted domestic rocket technology. The two failed KSLV-Ilaunch vehicleswere based on theUniversal Rocket Module, the first stage of the RussianAngara rocket, combined with a solid-fueled second stage built by South Korea.
On October 21, 2021, theKSLV-2Nuri was successfully launched, and South Korea became a country with its own space projectile technology.
Roboticshas been included in the list of main national research and development projects since 2003.In 2009, the government announced plans to build robot-themed parks in Incheon and Masan with a mix of public and private funding.In 2005, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) developed the world's second walkinghumanoid robot,HUBO. A team in the Korea Institute of Industrial Technology developed the first Koreanandroid,EveR-1in May 2006.EveR-1 has been succeeded by more complex models with improved movement and vision.
Plans of creating English-teaching robot assistants to compensate for the shortage of teachers were announced in February 2010, with the robots being deployed to most preschools and kindergartens by 2013.Robotics are also incorporated in the entertainment sector; theKorean Robot Game Festivalhas been held every year since 2004 to promote science and robot technology.
Since the 1980s, the government has invested in the development of a domesticbiotechnologyindustry.The medical sector accounts for a large part of the production, including production ofhepatitis vaccinesandantibiotics. Research and development ingeneticsandcloninghas received increasing attention, with the first successful cloning of a dog,Snuppyin 2005, and the cloning of two females of an endangered species ofgray wolvesby theSeoul National Universityin 2007.The rapid growth of the industry has resulted in significant voids in regulation of ethics, as was highlighted by thescientific misconductcase involvingHwang Woo-Suk.
Since late 2020, SK Bioscience Inc. (a division ofSK Group) has been producing a major proportion of theVaxzevriavaccine (also known as COVID-19 Vaccine AstraZeneca), under license from theUniversity of OxfordandAstraZeneca, for worldwide distribution through theCOVAXfacility under theWHOhospice. A recent agreement withNovavaxexpands its production for a second vaccine to 40 million doses in 2022, with a $450 million investment in domestic and overseas facilities.
South Korea had an estimated population of roughly 51.7 million in 2022.The population more than doubled from 21.5 million in 1955to 50 million by 2010.However, it is expected to peak at 52 million in 2024 and decline to 36 million in 2072,owing to a rapid decline in birth rates that began in 1960. South Korea's birth rate became the world's lowest in 2009,at an annual rate of approximately 9 births per 1000 people.Fertility saw some modest increase afterwards,but dropped to a new global low in 2017,with fewer than 30,000 births per month for the first time since records began,and less than one child per woman in 2018.In 2020, the country recorded more deaths than births, resulting in the first population decrease since modern records began.
By 2021, the fertility rate stood at just 0.81 children per woman,well below thereplacement rateof 2.1, falling to 0.78 in 2022 and 0.72 in 2023—the lowest in the world. Consequently, South Korea has seen the steepest decline inworking age populationamongOECD nations;the proportion of people aged 65 years and over is slated to reach over 20% by 2025 and close to 45% by 2050.The low birth rate has been declared a "national emergency" and prompted the creation of a new ministry in May 2024 dedicated to reversing the trend and addressing issues related to aging, immigration, and the workforce.The government has also launched various incentives to help entice families to have children, including a cash allowance for newborns and greater funding of childcare and fertility treatments.
Government policy, along with a rebound in marriages delayed by COVID-19, may account for the Korean birth rate increasing in late 2024;total births in the third quarter were up 8% from the same period last year, marking the largest quarterly increase since the third quarter of 2012 and the first annual rise in total fertility since 2015.Data released in January 2025 show the number of births in November 2024 was 20,095, a 14.6% increase year-on-year, the highest growth rate since November 2010 (which recorded a 17.5% increase), and the third consecutive month of double-digit growth, following September's 10.1% and October's 13.4%.
Most South Koreans live in urban areas following rapid migration from the countryside during the country's rapid economic expansion in the 1970s through the 1990s.About half the population (24.5 million) is concentrated in theSeoul Metropolitan Area, making it the world's second largest metropolitan area; other major cities includeBusan(3.5 million),Incheon(3.0 million),Daegu(2.5 million),Daejeon(1.4 million),Gwangju(1.4 million) andUlsan(1.1 million).Population density is estimated at 514.6 per square kilometre (1,333/sq mi) in 2022,more than 10 times the global average.
The population has been shaped by international migration. After World War II and the division of the Korean Peninsula, about four million people from North Korea crossed the border to South Korea. This trend of net entry reversed over the next 40 years because of emigration; large numbers of ethnic Koreans live overseas, sometimes in ethnic neighborhoods known asKoreatowns. The four largest diaspora populations are inChina(2.3 million), theUnited States(1.8 million),Japan(850,000), andCanada(250,000).
South Korea is among the mostethnically homogeneoussocieties in the world, with ethnic Koreans representing approximately 96% of the total population. Precise numbers are difficult to estimate since official statistics do not record ethnicity, and manyimmigrants are ethnically Koreanwhile a growing number of South Korean citizens are not.The percentage of foreign nationals has been growing rapidly since the late 1990s,with South Korea having one of the fastest-growing foreign-born populations: As of November 2023, there was an all-time high of 2.46 million foreign residents, accounting for nearly 5 percent of the total population, compared to 2016 figures of 1.4 million foreign residents (roughly 2.75 percent of the population).Much of this growth was driven by foreign workers and international students.
About 30,000 foreign born residents obtain South Korean citizenship every year since 2010; in 2023, the number of foreigners who acquired Korean nationality was 234,506, an increase of 4.8 percent from the prior year. The number of children of foreign residents born in South Korea increased by 7,809, or 2.8 percent, to 289,886.Many foreign citizens ethnic Koreans:migrants from China (PRC)are the largest foreign-born group both proportionally and numerically, accounting for 56.5% of foreign nationals, but approximately 70% of these Chinese citizens areJoseonjok(조선족), PRC citizens of Korean ethnicity.In addition, about 43,000 English teachers fromEnglish-speaking countriesreside temporarily in Korea.
Corresponding to its socioeconomic development, South Korea has experienced a dramatic increase inlife expectancy, from 79.10 years in 2008(which was34th in the world),to 83.53 years in 2024—the fifth highest of any country or territory.
Korean is the official language of South Korea and is classified by most linguists as alanguage isolate. It incorporates a significant number ofloan wordsfrom Chinese. Korean uses an indigenous writing system calledHangul, created in 1446 byKing Sejong, to provide a convenient alternative to theClassical ChineseHanjacharacters that were difficult to learn and did not fit the Korean language well. South Korea still uses some Chinese Hanja characters in limited areas, such as print media and legal documentation.
The Korean language in South Korea has astandard dialectknown as theSeoul dialect, with an additional four dialects (Chungcheong,Gangwon,Gyeongsang, andJeolla) and one language (Jeju) in use around the country. Almost all South Korean students today learnEnglishthroughout their education.
According to the results of the Korea Research's regular survey 'Public Opinion in Public Opinion', more than half of the South Korean population (51%) declared themselves not affiliated with anyreligious organizations.In a 2012 survey, 52% declared themselves "religious", 31% said they were "not religious" and 15% identified themselves as "convincedatheists".Of the people who are affiliated with a religious organization, most areChristiansandBuddhists. According to the survey, 31% of the population were Christians (20% identified themselves as Protestants, 11% as Roman Catholics) and 17% were Buddhists.Other religions includeIslam(130,000 Muslims, mostly migrant workers from Pakistan and Bangladesh but including some 35,000 Korean Muslims), the homegrown sect ofWon Buddhism, and a variety of indigenous religions, includingCheondoism(aConfucianizingreligion),Jeungsanism,Daejongism,Daesun Jinrihoe, and others.Freedom of religionis guaranteed by the constitution, and there is nostate religion.Overall, between 2015 and 2024, there has been a slight rise in Christianity (down from 27.6% to 31%), a slow rise in Buddhism (from 15.5% to 17%), and a decline in the unaffiliated population (from 56.9% to 51%).
Christianity is South Korea's largest organized religion, accounting for more than half of all South Korean adherents of religious organizations. There are approximately 16 million Christians in South Korea today; about two thirds of them belonging to Protestant churches, and the rest to the Catholic Church.The number of Protestants had been stagnant throughout the 1990s and the 2000s but increased to a peak level throughout the 2010s. Roman Catholics increased significantly between the 1980s and the 2000s but declined throughout the 2010s.Christianity, unlike in other East Asian countries, found fertile ground in Korea in the 18th century, and by the end of the 18th century it persuaded a large part of the population, as the declining monarchy supported it and opened the country to widespreadproselytismas part of a project of Westernization. The weakness of KoreanKorean shamanism, which—unlike JapaneseShintoandChina's religious system—never developed into a national religion of high status,combined with the impoverished state ofKorean Buddhism, (after 500 years of suppression at the hands of the Joseon state, by the 20th century it was virtually extinct) left a free hand to Christian churches. Christianity's similarity to native religious narratives has been studied as another factor that contributed to its success in the peninsula.TheJapanese colonizationof the first half of the 20th century further strengthened the identification of Christianity withKorean nationalism, as the Japanese coopted native Korean shamanism into the NipponicImperial Shintothat they tried to establish in the peninsula.Widespread Christianization of the Koreans took place during State Shinto,after its abolition, and then in the independent South Korea as the newly established military government supported Christianity andtried to utterly oustnative shamanism.
Among Christian denominations,Presbyterianismis the largest. About nine million people belong to one of the hundred different Presbyterian churches; the biggest ones are theHapDong Presbyterian Church,TongHap Presbyterian Churchand theKoshin Presbyterian Church. South Korea is also the second-largest missionary-sending nation, after the United States.
Buddhism was introduced to Korea in the 4th century.It soon became a dominant religion in the southeastern kingdom of Silla, the region that hitherto hosts the strongest concentration of Buddhists in South Korea. In the other states of the Three Kingdoms Period, Goguryeo and Baekje, it was made the state religion respectively in 372 and 528. It remained the state religion in Later Silla and Goryeo. It was later suppressed throughout much of the subsequent history under the unified kingdom of Joseon, which officially adopted a strictKorean Confucianism. Today, South Korea has about 8,7 million Buddhists,most of them affiliated to theJogye Order. Most of theNational Treasures of South Koreaare Buddhist artifacts.
A centralized administration in South Korea oversees the process for the education of children from kindergarten to the third and final year of high school. The school year is divided into two semesters, the first of which begins at the beginning of March and ends in mid-July, the second of which begins in late August and ends in mid-February. The country adopted a new educational program to increase the number of their foreign students through 2010. According to theMinistry of Education, Science and Technology, the number of scholarships for foreign students in South Korea would have (under the program) doubled by that time, and the number of foreign students would have reached 100,000.
South Korea is one of the top-performingOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD) countries in reading literacy, mathematics and sciences with the average student scoring 519, compared with the OECD average of 492, placing it ninth in the world. The country has one of the world's highest-educated labor forces among OECD countries.The country is well known for its highly feverish outlook on education, where its national obsession with education has been called "education fever".This obsession with education has catapulted the resource-poor nation consistently atop the global education rankings. In 2014, South Korea ranked second worldwide (after Singapore) in the national rankings of students' math and science scores by the OECD.Higher education is a serious issue in South Korean society, where it is viewed as one of the fundamental cornerstones of South Korean life. Education is regarded with a high priority for South Korean families, as success in education is often a source of honor and pride for families and within South Korean society at large, and is seen as a fundamental necessity to channel one'ssocial mobilityto ultimately improve one's socioeconomic position in South Korean society.
In 2015, the country spent 5.1% of its GDP on all levels of education—roughly 0.8 percentage points above the OECD average of 4.3%.A strong investment in education, a militant drive to achieve academic success, as well as the passion for scholarly excellence has helped the resource-poor country rapidly grow its economy over the past 60 years from a war-torn land to a prosperous, developed country.
South Korea has auniversal health caresystem.According to the Health Care Index ranking, it has the world's best healthcare system as of 2021.South Korean hospitals have advanced medical equipment and facilities readily available, ranking 4th forMRIunits per capita and 6th forCT scannersper capita in the OECD.It also had the OECD'ssecond largest number of hospital beds per 1000 peopleat 9.56 beds.Life expectancyhas been rising rapidly and South Korearanked 6th in the world for life expectancyat 83.5 years in 2023.It also has thethird highest health adjusted life expectancyin the world.Suicide in South Koreais the12th highest in the worldaccording to theWorld Health Organization, as well as the highest suicide rate in theOECD.
South Korea shares its traditional culture with North Korea, but the two Koreas have developed distinct contemporary forms of culture since the peninsula was divided in 1945. Historically, while the culture has beenheavily influenced by that of neighboring China, it has nevertheless independently managed to develop a unique cultural identity in its own right that is distinct from that of its larger neighbor on the East Asian mainland.As of 2024, South Korea has 24UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity,along with16 World Heritage Sites.TheMinistry of Culture, Sports and Tourismactively encourages the traditional arts, as well as modern forms, through funding and education programs.According to the 2023 edition of thePress Freedom Index, South Korea has the second highest level of press freedom in Continental and East Asia, behind Taiwan.
Industrialization and urbanization have brought many changes to the way modern Koreans live. Changing economic circumstances and lifestyles have led to a concentration of population in major cities, especially the capital Seoul, with multi-generational households separating intonuclear familyliving arrangements. A 2014 Euromonitor study found that South Koreans drink the most alcohol on a weekly basis compared to the rest of the world. South Koreans drink 13.7 shots of liquor per week on average and, of the 44 other countries analyzed, Russia, the Philippines, and Thailand follow.
Korean art has been highly influenced byBuddhismandConfucianism, which can be seen in the many traditional paintings, sculptures, ceramics and the performing arts.Korean pottery and porcelain, such as Joseon'sbaekjaandbuncheong, andGoryeo'sceladonare well known throughout the world.TheKorean tea ceremony,pansori,talchum,andbuchaechumare also notable Korean performing arts.
Post-war modern Korean art started to flourish in the 1960s and 1970s, when South Korean artists took interest in geometrical shapes and intangible subjects. Establishing a harmony betweenman and naturewas also a favorite of this time. Because of social instability, social issues appeared as main subjects in the 1980s. Art was influenced by various international events and exhibits in Korea, which brought more diversity.TheOlympic Sculpture Gardenin 1988, the transposition of the 1993 edition of theWhitney Biennialto Seoul,the creation of theGwangju Biennaleand the Korean Pavilion at theVenice Biennalein 1995were notable events.
Because of South Korea's tumultuous history, construction and destruction has been repeated endlessly, resulting in an interesting melange of architectural styles and designs.
Traditional Korean architecture is characterized by its harmony with nature. Ancient architects adopted thebracket systemcharacterized bythatched roofsand heated floors calledondol.People of the upper classes built bigger houses with elegantly curved tiled roofs and lifting eaves. Traditional architecture can be seen in the palaces and temples, preserved old houses calledhanok,and special sites likeHahoe Folk Village,Yangdong Folk VillageandKorean Folk Village. Traditional architecture may also be seen at several of theUNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Western architecture was first introduced at the end of the 19th century. Churches, offices for foreign legislation, schools and university buildings were built in new styles. With the annexation by Japan in 1910 the colonial regime intervened in Korea's architectural heritage, andJapanese-stylemodern architecture was imposed. Anti-Japanese sentiment and the Korean War led to the destruction of most buildings constructed during that time.
Modern Korean architecture entered a new phase of development during the post-Korean War reconstruction, incorporating modern architectural trends and styles. Stimulated by the economic growth in the 1970s and 1980s, active redevelopment saw new horizons in architectural design. In the aftermath of the 1988 Seoul Olympics, South Korea has witnessed a wide variation of styles in its architectural landscape with the opening up of the market to foreign architects.Contemporary architectural efforts have attempted to balance the traditional philosophy of "harmony with nature" and the fast-paced urbanization that the country has been going through in recent years.
In addition to domestic consumption, South Korea has a thriving entertainment industry where various facets of South Korean entertainment, including television dramas, films, and popular music, have garnered international popularity and generated significant export revenues for the nation's economy. The cultural phenomenon known asHallyuor the "Korean Wave", has swept many countries across Continental and East Asia making South Korea a major soft power as an exporter of popular culture and entertainment, rivaling Western nations such as the United States and the United Kingdom.
Until the 1990s,trotand traditionalfolk-basedballads dominated the South Korean popular music scene. The emergence of the pop groupSeo Taiji and Boysin 1992 marked a turning point for South Korean popular music, also known asK-pop. Since the 1990s, the genre of K-pop has continuously engaged in a process of ongoing reinvention and modernization by assimilating various elements of popular musical genres and trends from across the world such asWestern popular music,experimental,jazz,gospel,Latin,hip hop,rhythm and blues,electronic dance,reggae,country,folk, androckon top of its uniquelytraditional Korean musicroots.Though Western-style pop, hip hop, rhythm and blues, rock, folk, electronic dance oriented acts have become dominant in the contemporary South Korean popular music scene, trot still continues to be appreciated and enjoyed by older South Koreans.K-pop idolsare well known across Continental Asia, have found fame in the Western World, and have generated millions of dollars in export revenue beyond the confines of the traditionalEast Asian music market. Many K-pop acts have also established themselves by securing a strong global following using online social media platforms such asYouTube. K-pop first began to make its mark outside of Continental and East Asia following the unexpected success of singerPsy's international music sensation, "Gangnam Style", which topped global music charts in 2012.
Since the success of the filmShiriin 1999, theKorean filmindustry has grown substantially, garnering recognition both nation-wide and across the globe. Domestic films have a dominant share of the South Korean film market, partly because of the existence of governmentscreen quotasrequiring cinemas to show Korean films for at least 73 days of the year.2019'sParasite, directed byBong Joon-ho, became thehighest-grossing film in South Koreaas well as the first non-English language film to win Best Picture at the United States-basedAcademy Awardsthat yearamongstnumerous other accolades.
South Korean television showshave become popular outside of Korea. Television dramas, known asK-dramas, have begun to find fame internationally. Many dramas tend to have a romantic focus. Historical dramas are also famous.The 2021 survival dramaSquid Game, created byHwang Dong-hyuk, received critical acclaim and widespread international attention upon its release, becomingNetflix's most-watched series at launch and garnering a viewership of more than 142 million households during its first four weeks from launch.
TheKorean New Year, or "Seollal", is celebrated on the first day of theKorean calendar. Korean Independence Day falls on March 1 and commemorates theMarch First Movementof 1919.Memorial Dayis celebrated on June 6, and its purpose is to honor the men and women who died in South Korea's independence movement.Constitution Dayis on July 17, and it celebrates the promulgation ofConstitution of the Republic of Korea.Liberation Day, on August 15, celebrates Korea's liberation from theEmpire of Japanin 1945.
Every 15th day of the 8th lunar month, Koreans celebrate theMidautumn Festival, in which Koreans visit their ancestral hometowns and eat a variety of traditional Korean foods. On October 1, Armed Forces Day is celebrated, honoring the military forces of South Korea. October 3 isNational Foundation Day.Hangul Dayon October 9 commemorates the invention ofhangul, the native alphabet of theKorean language.
Korean cuisine,hanguk yori, orhansik, has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Ingredients and dishes vary by province. There are many significant regional dishes that have proliferated in different variations across the country in the present day. TheKorean royal court cuisineonce brought all of the unique regional specialties together for the royal family. Meals consumed both by the royal family and ordinary citizens have been regulated by a unique culture of etiquette.
Korean cuisine is largely based onrice,noodles,tofu, vegetables, fish and meats. Traditional meals are noted for the number of side dishes,banchan, which accompany steam-cooked short-grain rice. Every meal is accompanied by numerous banchan.Kimchi, a fermented, usually spicy vegetable dish is commonly served at every meal and is one of the best known dishes. Korean cuisine usually involves heavy seasoning withsesame oil,doenjang(a type offermented soybean paste),soy sauce, salt, garlic, ginger, andgochujang(a hot pepper paste). Other well-known dishes arebulgogi, grilled marinated beef;gimbap; andtteokbokki, a spicy snack consisting of rice cake seasoned with gochujang or a spicy chili paste.
Soups are also a common part of a meal and are served as part of the main course rather than at the beginning or the end of the meal. Soups known asgukare often made with meats, shellfish and vegetables. Similar to guk,tanghas less water and is more often served in restaurants. Another type isjjigae, astewthat is typically heavily seasoned with chili pepper and served boiling hot.
PopularKorean alcoholic drinksincludeSoju,MakgeolliandBokbunja ju. Korea is unique among East Asian countries in its use of metalchopsticks. Metal chopsticks have been discovered in Goguryeo archaeological sites.
Themartial arttaekwondooriginated in Korea. In the 1950s and 1960s, modern rules were standardized, with taekwondo becoming an officialOlympic sportin 2000.Other Korean martial arts includeTaekkyon,hapkido,Tang Soo Do,Kuk Sool Won,kumdoandsubak.
Footballhas traditionally been regarded as the most popular sport in Korea, withbaseballas the second.Recent polling indicates that a majority, 41% of South Korean sports fans continue to self-identify as football fans, with baseball ranked 2nd at 25% of respondents. However, the polling did not indicate the extent to which respondents follow both sports.
Thenational football teambecame the first team in theAsian Football Confederationto reach theFIFA World Cupsemi-finals in the2002 FIFA World Cup, jointly hosted by South Korea and Japan. TheKorea Republic national team(as it is known) has qualified for every World Cup sinceMexico 1986, and has broken out of the group stage in 2002, in2010, when it was defeated by eventual semi-finalistUruguayin the Round of 16, and in2022. At the2012 Summer Olympics, South Korea won the bronze medal for football.
Baseball was first introduced to Korea in 1905.Recent years have been characterized by increasing attendance and ticket prices for professional baseball games.TheKorea Professional Baseballleague, a 10-team circuit, was established in 1982. TheSouth Korea national teamfinished third in the2006 World Baseball Classicand second in the2009 tournament. The team's 2009 final game against Japan was widely watched in Korea, with a large screen atGwanghwamuncrossing in Seoul broadcasting the game live.In the2008 Summer Olympics, South Korea won the gold medal in baseball.Also in 1982, at the Baseball Worldcup, Korea won the gold medal. At the2010 Asian Games, the Korean National Baseball team won the gold medal. Several Korean players have gone on to play inMajor League Baseball.
Basketballis a popular sport in the country as well. South Korea has traditionally had one of the top basketball teams in Asia and one of the continent's strongest basketball divisions. Seoul hosted the1967and1995 Asian Basketball Championship. TheKorea national basketball teamhas won a record number of 23 medals at the event to date.
South Korea hosted theAsian Gamesin 1986 (Seoul), 2002 (Busan), and 2014 (Incheon). It also hosted the WinterUniversiadein 1997, theAsian Winter Gamesin 1999, and the Summer Universiade in 2003 and 2015. In 1988, South Korea hosted theSummer Olympics in Seoul, coming fourth with 12 gold medals, 10 silver medals, and 11 bronze medals. South Korea regularly performs well inarchery,shooting,table tennis,badminton,short track speed skating,handball,field hockey,freestyle wrestling,Greco-Roman wrestling,baseball,judo,taekwondo,speed skating,figure skating, andweightlifting. TheSeoul Olympic Museumis dedicated to the 1988 Summer Olympics.
Pyeongchanghosted the2018 Winter Olympics. South Korea has won more medals in theWinter Olympicsthan any other Asian country, with a total of 45 (23 gold, 14 silver, and 8 bronze). At the2010 Winter Olympics, South Korea ranked fifth in the overall medal rankings. South Korea is especially strong inshort track speed skating.Speed skatingandfigure skatingare also popular, andice hockeyis an emerging sport, withAnyang Hallawinning their first everAsia League Ice Hockeytitle in March 2010.
Seoul hosted a professionaltriathlonrace, which is part of theInternational Triathlon Union(ITU) World Championship Series in 2010.In 2011, the South Korean city of Daegu hosted the2011 IAAF World Championships in Athletics.In 2010, South Korea hosted its firstFormula Onerace at theKorea International CircuitinYeongam.TheKorean Grand Prixwas held from 2010 to 2013.
Domestichorse racingevents are followed by South Koreans andSeoul Race ParkinGwacheon,Gyeonggi Provinceis located closest to Seoul out of the country's three tracks.
Competitivevideo gaming, also calledesports, has become more popular in South Korea in recent years, particularly among young people.The two most popular games areLeague of LegendsandStarCraft. The gaming scene is managed by theKorean e-Sports Association.
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