Ethiopia

Ethiopia,officially theFederal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is alandlocked countrylocated in theHorn of Africaregion ofEast Africa. It shares borders withEritreato thenorth,Djiboutito thenortheast,Somaliato theeast,Kenyato thesouth,South Sudanto thewest, andSudanto thenorthwest. Ethiopia covers a land area of 1,104,300 square kilometres (426,400 sq mi).As of 2024, it is home to around 132 million inhabitants, making it the10th-most populouscountry in the world,the2nd-most populous in AfricaafterNigeria, and the most populated landlocked country on Earth.The national capital and largest city,Addis Ababa, lies several kilometres west of theEast African Riftthat splits the country into theAfricanandSomalitectonic plates.
Anatomically modern humansemerged from modern-day Ethiopia and set out for theNear Eastand elsewhere in theMiddle Paleolithicperiod.In 980 BC, the Kingdom ofD'mtextended its realm over Eritrea and the northern region of Ethiopia, while theKingdom of Aksummaintained a unified civilization in the region for 900 years. Christianity was embraced by the kingdom in 330,and Islam arrived by thefirst Hijrain 615.After the collapse of Aksum in 960, theZagwe dynastyruled the north-central parts of Ethiopia until being overthrown byYekuno Amlakin 1270, inaugurating theEthiopian Empireand theSolomonic dynasty, claimed descent from the biblicalSolomonandQueen of Shebaunder their sonMenelik I. By the 14th century, the empire had grown in prestige through territorial expansion and fighting against adjacent territories; most notably, theEthiopian–Adal War(1529–1543) contributed to fragmentation of the empire, which ultimately fell under a decentralization known asZemene Mesafintin the mid-18th century.EmperorTewodros IIendedZemene Mesafintat the beginning of his reign in 1855, marking the reunification and modernization of Ethiopia.
From 1878 onwards, EmperorMenelik IIlaunched a series of conquests known asMenelik's Expansions, which resulted in the formation of Ethiopia's current border. Externally, during the late 19th century, Ethiopia defended itself against foreign invasions, including fromEgyptandItaly; as a result, Ethiopia preserved its sovereignty during theScramble for Africa. In 1936, Ethiopia was occupied byFascist Italyand annexed with Italian-possessedEritreaandSomaliland, later formingItalian East Africa. In 1941, duringWorld War II, it wasoccupied by the British Army, and its full sovereignty wasrestored in 1944after a period ofmilitary administration. TheDerg, a Soviet-backed military junta, took power in 1974 afterdeposingEmperorHaile Selassieand the Solomonic dynasty, and ruled the country for nearly 17 years amidst theEthiopian Civil War. Following thedissolution of the Dergin 1991, theEthiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front(EPRDF) dominated the country with anew constitutionandethnic-based federalism. Since then, Ethiopia has suffered from prolonged and unsolvedinter-ethnic clashesand political instability marked bydemocratic backsliding. From 2018, regional and ethnically based factions carried out armed attacks inmultiple ongoing wars throughout Ethiopia.
Ethiopia is amulti-ethnic statewith over 80 differentethnic groups.Christianityis the most widely professed faith in the country, with significant minorities of the adherents ofIslamand a small percentage totraditional faiths. Thissovereign stateis a founding member of the UN, theGroup of 24, theNon-Aligned Movement, theGroup of 77, and theOrganisation of African Unity. Addis Ababa is the headquarters of theAfrican Union, thePan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry, theUnited Nations Economic Commission for Africa, theAfrican Standby Forceand many of the globalnon-governmental organizationsfocused on Africa. Ethiopia became a full member ofBRICSin 2024.Ethiopia is one of theleast developed countriesbut is sometimes considered anemerging power,having thefastest economic growthinsub-Saharan Africancountries because offoreign direct investmentin expansion of agricultural and manufacturing industries;agricultureis the country's largest economic sector, accounting for over 37% of thegross domestic productas of 2022.However, in terms ofper capita incomeand theHuman Development Index,the country is regarded as poor, with high rates ofpoverty,poor respect forhuman rights, widespreadethnic discrimination, and a literacy rate of only 49%.
Tradition holds that the name Ethiopia (ኢትዮጵያ) comes from the name of the first King of Ethiopia, Ethiop, orEthiopis.
Ayele Berkerie explains:
In the 15th-century Ge'ezBook of Axum, the name is ascribed to a legendary individual calledItyopp'is. He was an extra-biblical son ofCush, son of Ham, said to have founded the city ofAxum.
TheGreekname Αἰθιοπία (fromΑἰθίοψ, "an Ethiopian") is a compound word, later explained as derived from the Greek wordsαἴθωandὤψ(eithō"I burn" +ōps"face"). According to theLiddell-Scott Jones Greek-English Lexicon, the designation properly translates asburnt-facein noun form andred-brownin adjectival form.The historianHerodotusused the appellation to denote those parts of Africa south of theSaharathat were then known within theEcumene(habitable world).The earliest mention of the term is found in the works ofHomer, where it is used to refer to two people groups, one in Africa and one in the east from eastern Turkey to India.This Greek name was borrowed intoAmharicas ኢትዮጵያ,ʾĪtyōṗṗyā.
InGreco-Romanepigraphs,Aethiopiawas a specific toponym for ancientNubia.At least as early asc.850,the nameAethiopiaalso occurs in many translations of theOld Testamentin allusion to Nubia. The ancientHebrewtexts identify Nubia instead asKush.However, in theNew Testament, the Greek term Aithiops does occur, referring to a servant of theKandake, the queen of Kush.
Following the Hellenic and biblical traditions, theMonumentum Adulitanum, a 3rd-century inscription belonging to theAksumite Empire, indicates that Aksum's ruler governed an area that was flanked to the west by the territory of Ethiopia and Sasu. The Aksumite KingEzanaeventually conquered Nubia the following century, and the Aksumites thereafter appropriated the designation "Ethiopians" for their own kingdom. In theGe'ezversion of the Ezana inscription, Aἰθίοπες is equated with the unvocalizedḤbštandḤbśt(Ḥabashat), and denotes for the first time the highland inhabitants of Aksum. This newdemonymwas subsequently rendered asḥbs('Aḥbāsh) inSabaicand asḤabashainArabic.Derivatives of this are used in some languages that use loanwords from Arabic, for example inMalayHabsyah.
In English, and generally outside of Ethiopia, the country was historically known as Abyssinia. This toponym was derived from the Latinized form of the ancientHabash.
Several important finds have propelled Ethiopia and the surrounding region to the forefront ofpalaeontology. The oldesthominiddiscovered to date in Ethiopia is the 4.2 million-year-oldArdipithecus ramidus(Ardi) found byTim D. Whitein 1994.The most well-known hominid discovery isAustralopithecus afarensis(Lucy). Known locally asDinkinesh, the specimen was found in theAwash ValleyofAfar Regionin 1974 byDonald Johanson, and is one of the most complete and best-preserved adultAustralopithecinefossils ever uncovered. Lucy's taxonomic name refers to the region where the discovery was made. This hominid is estimated to have lived 3.2 million years ago.
Ethiopia is also considered one of the earliest sites of the emergence ofanatomically modern humans,Homo sapiens. The oldest of these local fossil finds, theOmo remains, were excavated in the southwesternOmo Kibisharea and have been dated to theMiddle Paleolithic, around 200,000 years ago.Additionally, skeletons ofHomo sapiens idaltuwere found at a site in theMiddle Awashvalley. Dated to approximately 160,000 years ago, they may represent an extinct subspecies ofHomo sapiens, or the immediate ancestors of anatomically modern humans.ArchaicHomo sapiensfossils excavated at theJebel Irhoudsite in Morocco have since been dated to an earlier period, about 300,000 years ago,while Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) from southern Ethiopia is the oldest anatomically modernHomo sapiensskeleton currently known (196 ± 5 kya).
According to some anthropologists, the firstAfroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuingNeolithicera from the family's proposedurheimat("original homeland") in theNile Valley,or theNear East.The majority of scholars today propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in northeast Africa because of the higher diversity of lineages in that region, a telltale sign of linguistic origin.
In 2019, archaeologists discovered a 30,000-year-oldMiddle Stone Agerock shelter at theFincha Haberasite inBale Mountainsat an elevation of 3,469 metres (11,381 feet) above sea level. At this high altitude, humans are susceptible both tohypoxiaand to extreme weather. According to a study published in the journalScience, this dwelling is proof of the earliest permanent human occupation at high altitude yet discovered. Thousands of animal bones, hundreds of stone tools, and ancient fireplaces were discovered, revealing a diet that featured giantmole rats.
Evidence of some of the earliest known stone-tipped projectile weapons (a characteristic tool ofHomo sapiens), the stone tips of javelins or throwing spears, were discovered in 2013 at the Ethiopian site ofGademotta, which date to around 279,000 years ago.In 2019, additional Middle Stone Age projectile weapons were found at Aduma, dated 100,000–80,000 years ago, in the form of points considered likely to belong to darts delivered by spear throwers.
In 980 BC,Dʿmtwas established in present-dayEritreaand the northern part of Ethiopia in the Tigray region, and is widely believed to be the successor state toPunt. This polity's capital was located atYehain what is now northern Ethiopia. Most modern historians consider this civilization to be a native Ethiopian one, although in earlier times many suggested it wasSabaean-influenced because of the latter's hegemony of theRed Sea.
Other scholars regard Dʿmt as the result of a union of Afroasiatic-speaking cultures of the Cushitic and Semitic branches; namely, localAgaw peoplesand Sabaeans from Southern Arabia. However,Ge'ez, the ancient Semitic language of Ethiopia, is thought to have developed independently from theSabaean language. As early as 2000 BC, other Semitic speakers were living in Ethiopia and Eritrea where Ge'ez developed.Sabaean influence is now thought to have been minor, limited to a few localities, and disappearing after a few decades or a century. It may have been a trading or military colony in alliance with the Ethiopian civilization of Dʿmt or some other proto-Axumite state.
After the fall of Dʿmt during the 4th century BC, the Ethiopian plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. In the 1st century AD, theKingdom of Aksumemerged in what is now Tigray Region and Eritrea. According to the medievalBook of Axum, the kingdom's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush.Aksum would later at times extend its rule into Yemen on the other side of the Red Sea.The Persian prophetManilisted Axum with Rome, Persia, and China as one of the four great powers of his era, during the 3rd century.It is also believed that there was a connection between Egyptian and Ethiopian churches. There is diminutive evidence that the Aksumites were associated with theQueen of Sheba, via their royal inscription.
Around 316 AD,Frumentiusand his brother Edesius fromTyreaccompanied their uncle on a voyage to Ethiopia. When the vessel stopped at a Red Sea port, the natives killed all the travellers except the two brothers, who were taken to the court asslaves. They were given positions of trust by the monarch, and they converted members of the royal court to Christianity. Frumentius became the first bishop of Aksum.A coin dated to 324 shows that Ethiopia was the second country to officially adopt Christianity (after Armenia did so in 301), although the religion may have been at first confined to court circles; it was the first major power to do so. The Aksumites were accustomed to the Greco-Roman sphere of influence, but embarked on significant cultural ties and trade connections between theIndian subcontinentand the Roman Empire via theSilk Road, primarily exportingivory, tortoise shell, gold and emeralds, and importing silk and spices.The country's gold production in 2015 is 9 metric tons.
The kingdom adopted the name "Ethiopia" during the reign ofEzanain the 4th century. After the conquest ofKingdom of Kushin 330, the Aksumite territory reached its peak between the 5th and 6th centuries.This period was interrupted by several incursions into the South Arabian protectorate, includingJewishDhu Nuwasof theHimyarite Kingdomand theAksumite–Persian wars. In 575, the Aksumitesbesieged and retook Sana'afollowing the assassination of its governorSayf ibn Dhī Yazan. The Red Sea was left to theRashidun Caliphatein 646, and the port city ofAduliswas plundered by Arab Muslims in the 8th century; along with irrevocableland degradation, claimedclimate changeand sporadic rainfall precipitation from 730 to 760,these factors likely caused the kingdom to decline in power as part of an important trade route.Aksum came to an end in 960 whenQueen Guditdefeated the last king of Aksum.In response, the remnant of the Aksumite population to shift into the southern region and establish theZagwe dynasty, changing its capital toLalibela.Zagwe's rule ended when anAmharanoble manYekuno Amlakrevolted against KingYetbarakand established theEthiopian Empire(known by exonym "Abyssinia").
The Ethiopian Empire initiated territorial expansion under the leadership ofAmda Seyon I. He launched campaigns against his Muslim adversaries to the east, resulting in a significant shift in the balance of power in favor of the Christians for the next two centuries. After Amda Seyon's successful eastern campaigns, most of the Muslim principalities in theHorn of Africacame under the suzerainty of the Ethiopian Empire. Stretching fromGojjamto the Somali Coast inZelia.Among these Muslim entities was theSultanate of Ifat. During the reign of EmperorZara Yaqob, the Ethiopian Empire reached its pinnacle. His rule was marked by the consolidation of territorial acquisitions from earlier rulers, the oversight of the construction of numerous churches and monasteries, the active promotion of literature and art, and the strengthening of central imperial authority.Ifat's successor, theAdal Sultanate,tried to conquer Ethiopia during theEthiopian–Adal War, but was ultimately defeated at the 1543Battle of Wayna Daga.
By the 16th century, an influx of migration by ethnicOromointo northern parts of the region fragmented the empire's power. Embarking from present-dayGujiandBorena Zone, the Oromos were largely motivated by several folkloric conceptions—beginning withMoggaasaaandLiqimssa—many of whom related to their raids. This persisted untilgadaof Meslé.According toAbba Bahrey, the earliest expansion occurred under EmperorDawit II(lubaMelbah), when they encroached toBalebefore invading Adal Sultanate.
Ethiopia saw major diplomatic contact with Portugal from the 17th century, mainly related to religion. Beginning in 1555,Portuguese Jesuits attempted to develop Roman Catholicism as the state religion. After several failures, they sent several missionaries in 1603, including the most influential, Spanish JesuitPedro Paez.Under EmperorSusenyos I, Roman Catholicism became the state religion of the Ethiopian Empire in 1622.This decision caused an uprising by the Orthodox populace.
In 1632, EmperorFasilideshalted Roman Catholic state administration, restoringOrthodox Tewahedoas the state religion.Fasilides' reign solidified imperial power, relocating the capital toGondarin 1636, marking the beginning of the "Gondarine period".He expelled Jesuits, reclaimed lands, and relocated them toFremona. During his rule, Fasilides constructed the iconic royal fortress,Fasil Ghebbi, built forty-four churches,and revivedEthiopian art. He is also credited with building seven stone bridges over theBlue Nile River.
Gondar's power declined after the death ofIyasu Iin 1706. FollowingIyasu II's death in 1755, EmpressMentewabbrought her brother,RasWolde Leul, to Gondar, making him Ras Bitwaded. This led to regnal conflict between Mentewab'sQuaregnochand the Wollo group led by Wubit. In 1767, RasMikael Sehul, a regent inTigray Province, seized Gondar, killing the childIyoas Iin 1769, the reigning emperor, and installed 70-year-oldYohannes II.
Between 1769 and 1855, Ethiopia witnessed theZemene Mesafintor "Age of Princes," a period of isolation. Emperors became figureheads, controlled by regional lords and noblemen likeRasMikael Sehul, RasWolde Selassieof Tigray, and by theYejjuOromo dynasty of theWara Sheh, including RasGugsa of Yejju. Before the Zemene Mesafint, Emperor Iyoas I had introduced the Oromo language (Afaan Oromo) at court, replacing Amharic.
Ethiopian isolationism ended following a British mission that concluded with an alliance between the two nations, but it was not until 1855 that the Amhara kingdoms of northern Ethiopia (Gondar,Gojjam, andShewa) were briefly united after the power of the emperor was restored beginning with the reign ofTewodros II.Tewodros II began a process of consolidation, centralisation, and state-building that would be continued by succeeding emperors. This process reduced the power of regional rulers, restructured the empire's administration, and created a professional army. These changes created the basis for establishing the effective sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Ethiopian state.In 1875 and 1876, Ottoman and Egyptian forces, accompanied by many European and American advisors, twiceinvaded Abyssiniabut were initially defeated.From 1885 to 1889 (underYohannes IV), Ethiopia joined theMahdist Warallied to Britain, Turkey, and Egypt against the Sudanese Mahdist State. In 1887,Menelik II, king ofShewa, invaded theEmirate of Hararafter his victory at theBattle of Chelenqo.On 10 March 1889, Yohannes IV was killed by the Sudanese Khalifah Abdullah's army whilst leading his army in theBattle of Gallabat.
Ethiopia, in roughly its current form, began under the reign of Menelik II, who was Emperor from 1889 until his death in 1913. From his base in the central province of Shewa, Menelik set out to annex territories to the south, east, and west— areas inhabited by the Oromo,Sidama, Gurage,Welayta, and other peoples.He achieved this with the help ofRasGobana Dacche's Shewan Oromo militia, which occupied lands that had not been held sinceAhmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi's war, as well as other areas that had never been under Ethiopian rule.
For his leadership, despite opposition from more traditional elements of society, Menelik II was heralded as a national hero. He had signed theTreaty of Wuchalewith Italy in May 1889, by which Italy would recognize Ethiopia's sovereignty so long as Italy could control an area north of Ethiopia (now part of modern Eritrea). In return, Italy was to provide Menelik with weapons and support him as emperor. The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to expand their territorial claims. ThisFirst Italo–Ethiopian Warculminated in theBattle of Adwaon 1 March 1896, in which Italy's colonial forces were defeated by the Ethiopians.During this time, about a third of the population died in theGreat Ethiopian Famine(1888 to 1892),and therinderpestswept through the area, destroying much of the herd economy. On 11 October 1897, Ethiopia adopted thecolours of the pan-African flagwith green, yellow and red stripes in representation ofpan-Africanistideology.
The early 20th century was marked by the reign of EmperorHaile Selassie(Ras Tafari). He came to power afterLij Iyasuwas deposed, and undertooka nationwide modernization campaignfrom 1916 when he was made aRasand Regent (Inderase) for theEmpress RegnantZewditu, and became thede factoruler of the Ethiopian Empire. Following Zewditu's death, on 2 November 1930, he succeeded her as emperor.In 1931, Haile Selassie endowed Ethiopia with its first-everConstitutionin emulation of Imperial Japan's1890 Constitution.The independence of Ethiopia was interrupted by theSecond Italo-Ethiopian War, beginning when it was invaded byFascist Italyin early October 1935, and by subsequent Italian rule of the country (1936–1941) after Italian victory in the war.Italy, however, never managed to secure the country in its totality, due to resistance from theArbegnoch, this made Ethiopia, along withLiberia, the only African countries to never be colonized.Following the entry of Italy intoWorld War II,British Empireforces, together with theArbegnoch, liberated Ethiopia in the course of theEast African campaignin 1941. The country was placed underBritish military administration, and then Ethiopia's fullsovereigntywas restored with the signing of theAnglo-Ethiopian Agreementin December 1944.
On 24 October 1945, Ethiopia became a founding member of theUnited Nations. In 1952, Haile Selassie orchestrated afederation with Eritrea. He dissolved this in 1962 andannexedEritrea, resulting in theEritrean War of Independence.Haile Selassie also played a leading role in the formation of theOrganisation of African Unity(OAU).Opinion within Ethiopia turned against Haile Selassie, owing to the worldwide1973 oil crisiscausing a sharp increase in gasoline prices starting on 13 February 1974, leading to student and worker protests.The feudal oligarchical cabinet ofAklilu Habte-Woldwas toppled, and a new government was formed withEndelkachew Makonnenserving as Prime Minister.
Haile Selassie's rule ended on 12 September 1974, when he wasdeposedby theDerg, a committee made up of military and police officers.After the execution of60 former government and military officials,the newProvisional Military Administrative Councilabolished the monarchy in March 1975 and established Ethiopia as aMarxist-Leninist state.The abolition offeudalism, increasedliteracy,nationalization, and sweepingland reformincluding theresettlement and villagizationfrom theEthiopian Highlandsbecame priorities.
After a power struggle in 1977,Mengistu Halie Mariamgained undisputed leadership of the Derg.In 1977, Somalia, which had previously been receiving assistance and arms from theUSSR, invaded Ethiopia in theOgaden War, capturing part of theOgadenregion. Ethiopia recovered it after it began receiving massive military aid from the Soviet bloc countries.By the end of the seventies, Mengistu presided over the second-largest army in all ofsub-Saharan Africa, as well as a formidableair forceand navy.
In 1976–78, up to 500,000 were killed as a result of theRed Terror,a violentpolitical repressioncampaign by the Derg against various opposition groups.In 1987, the Derg dissolved itself and established thePeople's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia(PDRE) upon the adoption of the1987 Constitution of Ethiopia.A1983–85 famineaffected around 8 million people, resulting in 1 million dead. Insurrections againstauthoritarianrule sprang up, particularly in the northern regions of Eritrea and Tigray. TheTigray People's Liberation Front(TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements in 1989, to form theEthiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front(EPRDF).
The collapse ofMarxism–Leninismduring therevolutions of 1989coincided with the Soviet Union stopping aid to Ethiopia altogether in 1990.EPRDF forces advanced on Addis Ababa in May 1991, and Mengistu fled the country and was granted asylum in Zimbabwe.
In July 1991, the EPRDF convened a National Conference to establish theTransitional Government of Ethiopiacomposed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution.In 1994, a new constitution was written that established a parliamentary republic with a bicameral legislature and a judicial system.
In April 1993,Eritreagained independence from Ethiopia after anational referendum.In May 1998, a border dispute with Eritrea led to theEritrean–Ethiopian War, which lasted until June 2000 and cost both countries an estimated $1 million a day.This had a negative effect on Ethiopia's economy, and aborder conflictbetween the two countries would continueuntil 2018.As of 2018, furthercivil war in Ethiopiacontinues, mainly due to destabilization of the country.
Ethnic violence roseduring the late 2010s and early 2020s,with various clashes and conflicts leading to millions of Ethiopians being displaced.
The federal government decided that elections for 2020 (later beingrescheduled to 2021) be cancelled, due to health and safety concerns aboutCOVID-19.TheTigray Region's TPLF opposed this, andproceeded to hold electionsanyway on 9 September 2020.Relations between the federal government and Tigray deteriorated rapidly,and in November 2020, Ethiopia began a military offensive in Tigray in response toattacks on army units stationedthere, marking the beginning of theTigray war.By March 2022, as many as 500,000 people had died as a result ofviolenceandfamine.After a number ofpeace and mediation proposalsin the intervening years, Ethiopia and the Tigrayan rebel forces agreed to acessation of hostilities on 2 November 2022.Coupled withOLA insurgency, the federal government relations with Fano militias, who previously allied to the government in the Tigray War, deteriorated in mid-2023, resulting in awar in the Amhara Region. According to reports conducted by theEthiopian Human Rights Commission(EHRC), mass human rights violations carried out by ENDF troops including door-to-door searches, extrajudicial killings, massacres and detentions. Notable incident includes theMerawi massacrein early 2024, which left 50 to 100 residents deaths inMerawitown in Amhara.
At 1,104,300 square kilometres (426,372.61 sq mi),Ethiopia is the world's 26th-largest country, comparable in size toBolivia. It lies between the3rd parallel northand the15th parallel northand longitudes33rd meridian eastand48th meridian east.
The major portion of Ethiopia lies in theHorn of Africa, which is the easternmost part of the African landmass. The territories that have frontiers with Ethiopia are Eritrea to the north and then, moving in a clockwise direction, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, South Sudan and Sudan. Within Ethiopia is a vast highland complex of mountains and dissected plateaus divided by theGreat Rift Valley, which runs generally southwest to northeast and is surrounded by lowlands,steppes, or semi-desert. There is a great diversity of terrain with wide variations in climate, soils, natural vegetation and settlement patterns.
Ethiopia is an ecologically diverse country, ranging from the deserts along the eastern border to the tropical forests in the south to extensiveAfromontanein the northern and southwestern parts.Lake Tanain the north is the source of theBlue Nile. It also has manyendemicspecies, notably thegelada, thewalia ibexand theEthiopian wolf("Simien fox"). The wide range of altitude has given the country a variety of ecologically distinct areas, and this has helped to encourage the evolution of endemic species in ecological isolation.
The nation is a land of geographical contrasts, ranging from the vast fertile west, with its forests and numerous rivers, to the world's hottest settlement ofDallolin its north. TheEthiopian Highlandsare the largest continuous mountain ranges in Africa, and theSof Omar Cavescontains the largest cave on the continent. Ethiopia also has the second-largest number ofUNESCO World Heritage Sitesin Africa.
The predominant climate type is tropical monsoon, with wide topographic-induced variation. TheEthiopian Highlandscover most of the country and have a climate which is generally considerably cooler than other regions at similar proximity to the Equator. Most of the country's major cities are located at elevations of around 2,000–2,500 m (6,562–8,202 ft) above sea level, including historic capitals such as Gondar and Axum. The modern capital, Addis Ababa, is situated on the foothills ofMount Entotoat an elevation of around 2,400 metres (7,900 ft). It experiences a mild climate year round. With temperatures fairly uniform year round, the seasons in Addis Ababa are largely defined by rainfall: a dry season from October to February, a light rainy season from March to May, and a heavy rainy season from June to September. The average annual rainfall is approximately 1,200 millimetres (47 in).
There are on average seven hours of sunshine per day. The dry season is the sunniest time of the year, though even at the height of the rainy season in July and August there are still usually several hours per day of bright sunshine. The average annual temperature in Addis Ababa is 16 °C (60.8 °F), with daily maximum temperatures averaging 20–25 °C (68.0–77.0 °F) throughout the year, and overnight lows averaging 5–10 °C (41.0–50.0 °F).
Most major cities and tourist sites in Ethiopia lie at a similar elevation to Addis Ababa and have a comparable climate. In less elevated regions, particularly the lower lyingEthiopian xeric grasslands and shrublandsin the east of Ethiopia, the climate can be significantly hotter and drier.Dallol, in theDanakil Depressionin this eastern zone, has the world's highest average annual temperature of 34 °C (93.2 °F).
Ethiopia is vulnerable to many of theeffects of climate change. These include increases in temperature and changes in precipitation.Climate changein these forms threatens food security and the economy, which is agriculture based.Many Ethiopians have been forced to leave their homes and travel as far as the Gulf, Southern Africa and Europe.
Since April 2019, the Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed has promotedBeautifying Sheger, a development project that aims to reduce the negative effects of climate change – among other things – in the capital city Addis Ababa.In the following May, the government held "Dine for Sheger", a fundraising event in order to cover some of the $1 billion needed through the public.$25 million was raised through the expensive event, both through the cost of attending and donations.Two Chinese railway companies under theBelt and Road Initiativebetween China and Ethiopia had supplied funds to develop 12 of the total 56 kilometres.
Ethiopia is a global centre of avian diversity. To date more than 856 bird species have been recorded in Ethiopia, twenty of which are endemic to the country.Sixteen species are endangered or critically endangered. Many of these birds feed on butterflies, like theBicyclus anynana.
Historically, throughout the African continent, wildlife populations have been rapidly declining due to logging, civil wars, pollution, poaching, and other human factors.A 17-year-long civil war, along with severe drought, negatively affected Ethiopia's environmental conditions, leading to even greater habitat degradation.Habitat destruction is a factor that leads to endangerment. When changes to a habitat occur rapidly, animals do not have time to adjust. Human impact threatens many species, with greater threats expected as a result of climate change induced bygreenhouse gases.With carbon dioxide emissions in 2010 of 6,494,000 tonnes, Ethiopia contributes just 0.02% to the annual human-caused release of greenhouse gases.
Ethiopia has 31endemicspecies of mammals.Ethiopia has many species listed as critically endangered and vulnerable to global extinction. The threatened species in Ethiopia can be broken down into three categories (based onIUCNratings):critically endangered,endangered, andvulnerable.
Ethiopia is one of the eight fundamental and independentcentres of originfor cultivated plants in the world.However,deforestationis a major concern for Ethiopia as studies suggest loss of forest contributes to soil erosion, loss of nutrients in the soil, loss of animal habitats, and reduction in biodiversity. At the beginning of the 20th century, around 420,000 km(or 35%) of Ethiopia's land was covered by trees, but recent research indicates that forest cover is now approximately 11.9% of the area.The country had a 2018Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 7.16/10, ranking it 50th globally out of 172 countries.
Ethiopia loses an estimated 1,410 kmof natural forests each year due to firewood collection, conversion to farmland, overgrazing, and use of forest wood for building material. Between 1990 and 2005 the country lost approximately 21,000 kmof forests.Current government programs to control deforestation consist of education, promoting reforestation programs, and providing raw materials which are alternatives to timber. In rural areas the government also provides non-timber fuel sources and access to non-forested land to promote agriculture without destroying forest habitat.
Organizations such as SOS and Farm Africa are working with the federal government and local governments to create a system of forest management.
Ethiopia is afederalparliamentary republic, wherein thePrime Ministeris thehead of government, and thePresidentis thehead of statebut with largely ceremonial powers.Executive poweris exercised by the government and federallegislative powervested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament. TheHouse of Federationis the upper chamber of the bicameral legislature with 108 seats, and the lower chamber is theHouse of Peoples' Representatives(HoPR) with 547 seats. The House of Federation is chosen by the regional councils whereas MPs of the HoPR are elected directly, in turn, they elect the president for a six-year term and the prime minister for a 5-year term.
The Ethiopianjudiciaryconsists of dual system with two court structures: the federal and state courts. The FDRE Constitution vested federal judicial authority to theFederal Supreme Courtwhich can overturn and review decisions of subordinate federal courts; itself has regular division assigned for fundamentalerrors of law. In addition, the Supreme Court can performcircuit hearingsin established five states at any states of federal levels or "area designated for its jurisdiction" if deemed "necessary for the efficient rendering of justice".
The Federal Supreme Proclamation granted three subject matter principles: laws, parties and place to federal court jurisdiction, first "cases arising under theConstitution,federal lawsandinternational treaties", second over "parties specified by federal laws".
On the basis of Article 78 of the 1994 Ethiopian Constitution, the judiciary is completely independent of the executive and the legislature.To ensure this, the President and Vice President of the Supreme Court are appointed by Parliament on the nomination of Prime Minister. Once elected, the executive power has no authority to remove them from office. Other judges are nominated by theFederal Judicial Administration Council(FJAC) on the basis of transparent criteria and the Prime Minister's recommendation for appointment in the HoPR. In all cases, judges cannot be removed from their duty unless they retired, violated disciplinary rules, gross incompatibility, or inefficiency to unfit due to ill health. Contrary, the majority vote of HoPR have the right to sanction removal in federal judiciary level or state council in cases of state judges.In 2015, the realities of this provision were questioned in a report prepared byFreedom House.
Post-1995, Ethiopia's politics has been liberalized which promotes all-encompassing reforms to the country. Today, its economy is based onmixed,market-orientedprinciples.Ethiopia has eleven semi-autonomous administrative regions that have the power to raise and spend their own revenues.
Thefirst multiparty electiontook place in May 1995, which was won by the EPRDF.The president of the transitional government, EPRDF leaderMeles Zenawi, became the firstPrime Ministerof the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, andNegasso Gidadawas elected its president.Meles' government was consistently re-elected; however, these results were heavily criticized by international observers, and denounced by the opposition as fraudulent.
Meles died on 20 August 2012 in Brussels, where he was being treated for an unspecified illness.Deputy Prime MinisterHailemariam Desalegnwas appointed as a new prime minister until the2015 elections,and remained so afterwards with his party in control of every parliamentary seat.On 15 February 2018, Hailemariamresignedas Prime Minister, followingyears of protestsand astate of emergency.Abiy Ahmedbecame prime minister following Hailemariam's resignation. He made a historic visit to Eritrea in 2018, ending the state of conflict between the two countries,and was awarded theNobel Peace Prizein 2019.
According to theDemocracy Indexpublished by the United Kingdom-basedEconomist Intelligence Unitin late 2010, Ethiopia was an "authoritarian regime", ranking as the 118th-most democratic out of 167 countries.Ethiopia had dropped 13 places on the list since 2008, and the 2010 report attributed the drop to the government's crackdown on opposition activities, media, and civil society before the2010 parliamentary election, which the report argued had made Ethiopia ade factoone-party state.
Accompanied by pervasiveinternal and intercommunal conflicts in the 21st century, the Ethiopian government resorted to authoritarian structure, severing democratic and human rights.Freedom House, who has worked on Ethiopia since 2008, indicates that Ethiopia is "Not Free" state due to very poorfundamental rights(political and civil liberties) recorded in bothEPRDFandProsperity Partyregimes.Under Abiy Ahmed, Ethiopia is experiencingdemocratic backslidingsince 2019 marked by turbulent period ofinternal conflict, jailing opposition group members and limit media freedom.
Ethiopia isadministratively dividedinto four levels:regions,zones,woredas(districts) andkebele(wards).The country comprises 12 regions and two city administrations under these regions, plenty of zones, woredas and neighbourhood administration: kebeles. The two federal-level city administrations are Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa.
Ethiopia was historically atrading nationthat exported goods such asgold,ivory, exotic animals, andincense.Modern Ethiopian foreign relations began underEmperor Tewodros II, who during his reign sought to re-establish a cohesive Ethiopian state, but was thwarted by theBritish expedition of 1868.Since then, the country was seen redundant by world powers until the opening ofSuez Canaldue to an influence ofMahdist War.
Today, Ethiopia maintains strong relations withChina,Israel,Mexico,TurkeyandIndiaas well as neighboring countries. Ethiopia is a strategic partner of GlobalWar on TerrorismandAfrican Growth and Opportunity Act(AGOA).US. FormerU.S. PresidentBarack Obamawas the first incumbent U.S. president to visit Ethiopia in July 2015; the speech he gave inAfrican Unionduring this trip focused on combatting Islamic terrorism.Emigration from Ethiopiais primarily directed towards Europe, includingItaly, theUnited KingdomandSweden, as well asCanadaandAustralia, while emigration to theMiddle Eastis primarily toSaudi ArabiaandIsrael. Ethiopia is founding member of theGroup of 24(G-24), theNon-Aligned Movementand theG77. In 1963, theOrganization of African Unity, which later renamed itself the African Union, was founded in Addis Ababa, which today hosts the secretariat of the African Union, theAfrican Union Commission. In addition, Ethiopia is also a member of thePan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry, theUnited Nations Economic Commission for Africa, theAfrican Standby Forceand many of globalNGOsfocused on Africa.
Ethiopia's foreign relations with bothSudanandEgyptare somewhat fraught owing to the effects theGrand Ethiopian Renaissance Damproject, which was escalated in 2020, would have onwater rightsin the region.Despite six upstream countries (Ethiopia,Kenya,Uganda,Rwanda,Burundi, andTanzania) signing the Nile Basin Initiative in 2010, Egypt and Sudan rejected a water sharing treaty, citing the reduction of amount of water to theNile Basinand the challenge it would pose to their historic connection ofwater rights.In 2020, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed warned that "No force can stop Ethiopia from building a dam. If there is need to go to war, we could get millions readied."
Ethiopia is one of the African countries that was a founding member ofLeague of Nations, which served as the predecessor for theUnited Nations, since 1923. UN taskforces in Ethiopia deal primarily with humanitarian issues and development. Some of its agenciesmaintain regional ties withUnited Nations Economic Commission for Africaand the African Union. The UN prioritizessustainable developmentin Ethiopia, including fighting poverty, sustainable economic growth,climate change policy, educational and healthcare provisions, increasing employment, and environmental protection.
The Ethiopian army's origins and military traditions date back to the earliesthistory of Ethiopia. Due to Ethiopia's location between the Middle East and Africa, it has long been in the middle of Eastern and Western politics and has been subject to foreign invasions. In 1579, theOttoman Empire's attempt to expand from a coastal base atMassawaduring theOttoman conquest of Habeshwas defeated.TheArmy of the Ethiopian Empirewas also able to defeat the Egyptians in 1876 atGura, led by Ethiopian EmperorYohannes IV.Ethiopia only has 3 branches inside the military, consisting of theArmy,Airforce, and aNavyalthough it is landlocked. With an annual budget of over $1 billion dollars, it is the largest armed force in East Africa, and one of the largest in Africa.
Ethiopia has two main federal law enforcement agencies at the federal level, to which being theEthiopian Federal Police, and theNational Intelligence Security Service. TheNISSserving both as a spy agency and domestic law enforcement agency has national jurisdiction for counterterrorism, and foreign related counter espionage activities and protectingnational security. It also has authority related to international economic crimes related of which to Ethiopia as a whole.It alongside theEFP(Ethiopian Federal Police) who both enforce federal laws domestically and for theNational Intelligence Security Servicecooperate internationally and enforce border regulations and peoples and products coming in and out in Ethiopia.The EFP mostly enforcing non-international, and non-espionage crimes, enforcingcivil rightsrelated subjects of matter and domestic financial crimes. At the regional level Ethiopia has 12 regionals statewide police departments, and 2 federally chartered police forces, those being the Addis Ababa Police, and Dire Dawa Police forces.
Ethiopia registered the fastest economic growth underMeles Zenawi's administration.According to theIMF, Ethiopia was one of the fastest growing economies in the world, registering over 10% economic growth from 2004 through 2009.It was the fastest-growing non-oil-dependent African economy in the years 2007 and 2008.In 2015, the World Bank highlighted that Ethiopia had witnessed rapid economic growth with real domestic product (GDP) growth averaging 10.9% between 2004 and 2014.
In 2008 and 2011, Ethiopia's growth performance and considerable development gains were challenged by highinflationand a difficultbalance of paymentssituation. Inflation surged to 40% in August 2011 because of loosemonetary policy, largecivil servicewage increase in early 2011, and high food prices.
In spite of fast growth in recent years, GDP per capita is one of the lowest in the world, and the economy faces a number of serious structural problems. Based on the most recent data from 2019, 68.7% of the population is affected bymultidimensional povertyand an additional 18.4% vulnerable to it.
With a focused investment in public infrastructure and industrial parks, Ethiopia is attempting to address its structural problems by becoming a hub for light manufacturing in Africa.In 2019 a law was passed allowing expatriate Ethiopians to invest in Ethiopia's financial service industry.
The Ethiopian constitution specifies that rights to own land belong only to "the state and the people", but citizens may lease land for up to 99 years, but are unable to mortgage or sell. Renting out land for a maximum of twenty years is allowed and this is expected to ensure that land goes to the most productive user. Land distribution and administration is considered an area where corruption is institutionalized, and facilitation payments as well as bribes are often demanded when dealing with land-related issues.As there is no land ownership, infrastructural projects are most often simply done without asking the land users, which then end up being displaced and without a home or land. A lot of anger and distrust sometimes results in public protests. In addition, agricultural productivity remains low, and frequent droughts still beset the country, also leading to internal displacement.
Ethiopia has 14 major rivers flowing from its highlands, including the Nile. It has the largest water reserves in Africa. As of 2012, hydroelectric plants represented around 88.2% of the total installed electricity generating capacity.
The remaining electrical power was generated from fossil fuels (8.3%) and renewable sources (3.6%).
The electrification rate for the total population in 2016 was 42%, with 85% coverage in urban areas and 26% coverage in rural areas. As of 2016, total electricity production was 11.15 TW⋅h and consumption was 9.062 TW⋅h. There were 0.166 TW⋅h of electricity exported, 0 kW⋅h imported, and 2.784 GW of installed generating capacity.Ethiopia delivers roughly 81% of water volume to the Nile through the river basins of theBlue Nile,Sobat RiverandAtbara. In 1959, Egypt and Sudan signed a bilateral treaty, the1959 Nile Waters Agreement, which gave both countries exclusive maritime rights over the Nile waters. Ever since, Egypt has discouraged almost all projects in Ethiopia that sought to use the local Nile tributaries. This had the effect of discouraging external financing of hydropower and irrigation projects in western Ethiopia, thereby impeding water resource-based economic development projects. However, Ethiopia is in the process of constructing a large 6,450 MW hydroelectric dam on the Blue Nile river. Completed in 2023, thisGrand Ethiopian Renaissance Damis slated to be the largest hydroelectric power station in Africa.TheGibe IIIhydroelectric project is so far the largest in the country with an installed capacity of 1,870 MW. For the year 2017–18 (2010 E.C) this hydroelectric dam generated 4,900 GW⋅h.
Agriculture constitutes around 85% of the labour force. However, the service sector represents the largest portion of theGDP.Many other economic activities depend on agriculture, including marketing, processing, and export of agricultural products. Production is overwhelmingly by small-scale farmers and enterprises, and a large part of commodity exports are provided by the small agricultural cash-crop sector. Principal crops includecoffee,legumes,oilseeds,cereals, potatoes,sugarcane, and vegetables. Ethiopia is also aVavilovcentre of diversity for domesticated crops, includingenset,coffeeOkra andteff.
Exports are almost entirely agricultural commodities (with the exception ofgoldexports), and coffee is the largest foreign exchange earner. Ethiopia is Africa's second biggestmaizeproducer.According to UN estimations, the per capita GDP of Ethiopia has reached $357 as of 2011.
Ethiopia is often considered as the birthplace ofcoffeesince cultivation began in the 9th century.Exports from Ethiopia in the 2009–2010 financial year totalled US$1.4 billion.Ethiopia produces more coffee than any other nation on the continent."Coffee provides a livelihood for close to 15 million Ethiopians, 16% of the population. Farmers in the eastern part of the country, where a warming climate is already impacting production, have struggled in recent years, and many are currently reporting largely failed harvests as a result of a prolonged drought".
Ethiopia also has the fifth largest inventory ofcattle.Other main export commodities arekhat, gold, leather products, and oilseeds. Recent development of thefloriculturesector means Ethiopia is poised to become one of the top flower and plant exporters in the world.
Cross-border trade by pastoralists is often informal and beyond state control and regulation. InEast Africa, over 95% of cross-border trade is through unofficial channels. The unofficial trade of live cattle, camels, sheep, and goats from Ethiopia sold toSomalia,Djibouti, andKenyagenerates an estimated total value of US$250–300 million annually (100 times more than the official figure).
This trade helps lower food prices, increase food security, relieve border tensions, and promote regional integration.However, the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade runs risks, such as allowing disease to spread more easily across national borders. Furthermore, the government of Ethiopia is purportedly unhappy with lost tax revenue and foreign exchange revenues.Recent initiatives have sought to document and regulate this trade.
With the private sector growing slowly, designer leather products like bags are becoming a big export business, with Taytu becoming the first luxury designer label in the country.Additional small-scale export products include cereals, pulses, cotton, sugarcane, potatoes, and hides. With the construction of various new dams and growing hydroelectric power projects around the country, Ethiopia also plans to export electric power to its neighbours.
Most regard Ethiopia's large water resources and potential as its "white oil" and its coffee resources as "black gold".
Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Ethiopia: theCairo-Cape Town Highwayand theN'Djamena-Djibouti Highway. Ethiopia has 926 km of electrified1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in)standard gaugerailways, 656 km for theAddis Ababa–Djibouti Railwaybetween Addis Ababa and thePort of Djibouti(viaAwash)and 270 km for theAwash–Hara Gebeya Railwaybetween Addis Ababa and thetwin citiesofDessie/Kombolcha.
Ethiopia had 58 airports as of 2012,and 61 as of 2016.Among these, theBole International Airportin Addis Ababa and theAba Tenna Dejazmach Yilma International Airportin Dire Dawa accommodate international flights.
Science and technology in Ethiopia emerging as progressive due to lack of organized institutions. Manufacturing and service providers often place themselves incompetitive programmingin order to advance innovative and technological solutions through in-house arenas.TheEthiopian Space Science and Technologyis responsible for conducting multifaceted tasks regarding space and technology. In addition, Ethiopia also launched 70 kg ET-RSS1 multi-spectral remote sensing satellite in December 2019. The President Sahle-Work Zewde told prior in October 2019 that "the satellite will provide all the necessary data on changes in climate and weather-related phenomena that would be used for the country's key targets in agriculture, forestry as well as natural resources protection initiatives." By January 2020, satellite manufacturing, assembling, integrating and testing began. This would also incremented facility built by French company funded by European Investment Bank (EIB). The main observatory Entoto Observatory and Space Science Research Center (EORC) allocated space programmes. The Ethiopian Biotechnology Institute is a part of Scientific Research & Development Services Industry, responsible for environmental and climate conservation.Numerous profound scientists have contributed degree of honours and reputations. Some areKitaw Ejigu,Mulugeta Bekele,Aklilu Lemma,Gebisa EjetaandMelaku Worede. Computer scientistTimnit Gebru, named one ofTime'smost influential people in 2022, was born in Ethiopia.
Ethiopia is known for use oftraditional medicinesince millennia. The first epidemic occurred in Ethiopia was in 849, causing the Aksumite Emperor Abba Yohannes evicted from place due to "God's punishment for misdeeds". The first traditional medicine was claimed to be derived from this catastrophe, but the exact source is debated. Though differ from ethnic groups, traditional medicine often implements herbs, spiritual healing, bone-setting and minor surgical procedures in treating disease.
Ethiopia was ranked 130th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024.
Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world.Its total population has grown from 38.1 million in 1983 to 109.5 million in 2018.According to UN estimations in 2013, life expectancy had improved substantially over time, with male life expectancy reported to be 56 years and for women 60 years.
Ethiopia's population is highly diverse, containing over 80 different ethnic groups, the four largest of which are theOromo,Amhara,SomaliandTigrayans. According to the Ethiopian national census of 2007, theOromoare the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, at 34.4% of the nation's population. TheAmhararepresent 27.0% of the country's inhabitants, whileSomalisandTigrayansrepresent 6.2% and 6.1% of the population respectively.
Afroasiatic-speakingcommunities make up the majority of the population. Among these, Semitic speakers often collectively refer to themselves as theHabesha people. TheArabicform of this term (al-Ḥabasha) is the etymological basis of "Abyssinia", the former name of Ethiopia in English and other European languages.
In 2009, Ethiopia hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 135,200. The majority of this population came from Somalia (approximately 64,300 persons), Eritrea (41,700) and Sudan (25,900). The Ethiopian government required nearly all refugees to live in refugee camps.
Population growth, migration, and urbanization are all straining both governments' and ecosystems' capacity to provide people with basic services.Urbanization has steadily been increasing in Ethiopia, with two periods of significantly rapid growth. First, in 1936–1941 during the Italian occupation under Mussolini's fascist government, and then from 1967 to 1975 when the populations of urban areas tripled.
In 1936, Italy annexed Ethiopia, building infrastructure to connect major cities, and a dam providing power and water.This, along with the influx of Italians and labourers, was the major cause of rapid growth during this period. The second period of growth was from 1967 to 1975, when rural populations migrated to towns seeking work and better living conditions.
This pattern slowed due to the 1975 Land Reform program instituted by the government, which provided incentives for people to stay in rural areas. As people moved from rural areas to the cities, there were fewer people to grow food for the population. The Land Reform Act was meant to increase agriculture since food production was not keeping up with population growth over the period of 1970–1983. This program encouraged the formation of peasant associations, large villages based on agriculture. The legislation did lead to an increase in food production, although there is debate over the cause; it may be related to weather conditions more than the reform.Urban populations have continued to grow with an 8.1% increase from 1975 to 2000.
As of at least 2024, Ethiopia is one of the most rapidly urbanizing countries in the world, although its population is still largely rural.
Migration to urban areas is usually motivated by the hope of better lives. In peasant associations, daily life is a struggle to survive. About 16% of the population in Ethiopia lives on less than one dollar per day (2008). Only 65% of rural households in Ethiopia consume theWorld Health Organization's (WHO's) minimum standard of food per day (2,200 kilocalories), with 42% of children under five years old being underweight.
Most poor families (75%) share their sleeping quarters with livestock, and 40% of children sleep on the floor, where nighttime temperatures average 5 degrees Celsius in the cold season.The average family size is six or seven, living in a 30 square metre mud and thatch hut, with less than two hectares of land to cultivate.
The peasant associations face a cycle of poverty. Since the landholdings are so small, farmers cannot allow the land to lie fallow, which reduces soil fertility.Thisland degradationreduces the production of fodder for livestock, which causes low milk yields.Since the community burns livestock manure as fuel, rather than plowing the nutrients back into the land, the crop production is reduced.The low productivity of agriculture leads to inadequate incomes for farmers, hunger, malnutrition and disease. These unhealthy farmers have difficulty working the land and the productivity drops further.
Although conditions are drastically better in cities, all of Ethiopia suffers from poverty andpoor sanitation. However, poverty in Ethiopia fell from 44% to 29.6% during 2000–2011, according to the World Bank.In the capital city of Addis Ababa, 55% of the population used to live in slums.Now, however, a construction boom in both the private and the public sector has led to a dramatic improvement in living standards in major cities, particularly in Addis Ababa. Notably, government-built condominium housing complexes have sprung up throughout the city, benefiting close to 600,000 individuals.Sanitation is the most pressing need in the city, with most of the population lacking access to waste treatment facilities. This contributes to the spread of illness through unhealthy water.
Despite the living conditions in the cities, the people of Addis Ababa are much better off than people living in the peasant associations owing to their educational opportunities. Unlike rural children, 69% of urban children are enrolled in primary school, and 35% of those are eligible to attend secondary school.Addis Ababa has its ownuniversityas well as many other secondary schools. The literacy rate is 82%.
Many NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) are working to solve this problem; however, most are far apart, uncoordinated, and working in isolation.The Sub-Saharan Africa NGO Consortium is attempting to coordinate efforts.
According toGlottolog, there are 109 languages spoken in Ethiopia, whileEthnologuelists 90 individual languages spoken in the country.Most people in the country speakAfroasiatic languagesof theCushiticorSemiticbranches. The former includes theOromo language, spoken by theOromo, andSomali, spoken by theSomalis; the latter includesAmharic, spoken by theAmhara, andTigrinya, spoken by theTigrayans. Together, these four groups make up about three-quarters of Ethiopia's population. Other Afroasiatic languages with a significant number of speakers include the CushiticSidamo,Afar,HadiyyaandAgaw languages, as well as the SemiticGurage languages,Harari,Silt'e, andArgobbalanguages.Arabic, which also belongs to the Afroasiatic family, is likewise spoken in some areas.
English is the most widely spoken foreign language, the medium of instruction in secondary schools and all tertiary education; federal laws are also published in British English in theFederal Negarit Gazetaincluding the 1995 constitution.
Amharic was the language of primary school instruction, but has been replaced in many areas by regional languages such as Oromo, Somali or Tigrinya.All languages enjoy equal state recognition in the1995 Constitution of Ethiopia.
Ethiopia's principal orthography is theGe'ez script. Employed as anabugidafor several of the country's languages, it first came into usage in the 6th and 5th centuries BC as anabjadto transcribe the SemiticGe'ez language.Ge'ez now serves as the liturgical language of both theEthiopian Orthodox TewahedoandEritrean Orthodox TewahedoChurches. During the 1980s, the Ethiopic character set was computerized. It is today part of theUnicodestandard as Ethiopic,Ethiopic Extended,Ethiopic SupplementandEthiopic Extended-A.
Otherwriting systemshave also been used over the years by different Ethiopian communities. The latter includeBakri Sapalo's script forOromo.
According to the 2007 National Census, Christians make up 62.8% of the country's population, Muslims 33.9%, practitioners of traditional faiths 2.6%, and other religions 0.6%.The ratio of the Christian to Muslim population has largely remained stable when compared to previous censuses conducted decades ago.Sunnis form the majority of Muslims withnon-denominational Muslimsbeing the second largest group of Muslims, andthe Shiaare a minority. Sunnis are largelyShafi'isorSalafis; there are also manySufisthere.
Ethiopia has close historical ties with all three of the world's majorAbrahamic religions. In the 4th century, the Ethiopian empire was one of the first in the world to officially adopt Christianity as the state religion. As a result of the resolutions of theCouncil of Chalcedon, in 451 theMiaphysites, which included the vast majority of Christians in Egypt and Ethiopia, were accused ofmonophysitismand designated as heretics under the common name ofCoptic Christianity(seeOriental Orthodoxy).
TheEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Churchis part ofOriental Orthodoxy. It is by far the largest Christian denomination, although a number ofP'ent'ay(Protestant) churches have recently gained ground. Since 1930, a relatively  smallEthiopian Catholic Churchhas existed infull communionwith Rome, with adherents making up less than 1% of the total population.
Islam in Ethiopiadates back to the founding of the religion in 622 when a group of Muslims were counselled byMuhammadto escape persecution inMecca. The disciples subsequentlymigrated to Abyssiniavia modern-day Eritrea, which was at the time ruled byAshama ibn-Abjar, a pious Christian emperor.
Only a minority of Ethiopians are born in hospitals, while most are born in rural households. Those who are expected to give birth at home have elderly women serve as midwives who assist with the delivery.The "WHO estimates that a majority of maternal fatalities and disabilities could be prevented if deliveries were to take place at well-equipped health centres, with adequately trained staff".Birth rates,infant mortality rates, anddeath ratesare lower in cities than in rural areas due to better access to education, medicines, and hospitals.Life expectancy is better in cities compared to rural areas, but there have been significant improvements witnessed throughout the country as of 2016, the average Ethiopian living to be 62.2 years old, according to aUNDPreport.Despite sanitation being a problem, use of improved water sources is also on the rise; 81% in cities compared to 11% in rural areas.
Ethiopia's main health problems are said to be communicable (contagious) diseases worsened by poor sanitation andmalnutrition. Over 58 million people (nearly half the population) do not have access to clean water as of 2023.These problems are exacerbated by the shortage of trained doctors and nurses and health facilities.TheWorld Health Organization's 2006 World Health Report gives a figure of 1,936 physicians (for 2003), which comes to about 2.6 per 100,000.
The National Mental Health Strategy, published in 2012, introduced the development of policy designed to improve mental health care in Ethiopia. This strategy mandated that mental health be integrated into the primary health care system.However, the success of the National Mental Health Strategy has been limited. For example, the burden of depression is estimated to have increased 34.2% from 2007 to 2017.Furthermore, the prevalence of stigmatizing attitudes, inadequate leadership and co-ordination of efforts, as well as a lack of mental health awareness in the general population, all remain as obstacles to successful mental health care.
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI),Ethiopia ranks 102nd out of 127 countries and has a score of 26.2, which indicates a serious level of hunger.
The current system follows school expansion schemes which are very similar to the system in the rural areas during the 1980s, with an addition of deeper regionalization, providing rural education in students' own languages starting at the elementary level, and with more budgetary financing allocated to the education sector. Public education is free at primary levels and usually offers between age 7 and 12. The sequence of general education in Ethiopia is six years of primary school, then four years of lower secondary school followed by two years of higher secondary school.
The Ethiopian education is governed by theMinistry of Educationand its cycle consists of a 4+4+2+2 system; elementary education consists of eight years, divided into two cycles of four years, and four years of secondary education, divided into two stages of two years.National exams are conducted by theNational Education Assessment and Examination Agency(NEAEA). Since 2018, there are two national exams: theEthiopian General Secondary Education Certificate Examination(EGSECE), also known as Grade 10 national exam and  Grade 12 national exam.
As of 2022, there are 83 universities, 42 public universities, and more than 35 higher education institutions. Foreign students constitute 16,305 in higher education level. The overall number of tertiary students in both public and private institutions exploded by more than 2,000 percent, from 34,000 in 1991 to 757,000 in 2014, per UIS data.Access to education in Ethiopia has improved significantly. Approximately three million people were in primary school in 1994–95 but by 2008–09, primary enrolment had risen to 15.5 million – an increase of over 500%.In 2013–14, Ethiopia had witnessed a significant boost in gross enrolment across all regions.The national GER was 104.8% for boys, 97.8% for girls and 101.3% across both sexes.
The literacy rate has increased in recent years: according to the 1994 census, the literacy rate in Ethiopia was 23.4%.In 2007 it was estimated to be 39% (male 49.1% and female 28.9%).A report byUNDPin 2011 showed that the literacy rate in Ethiopia was 46.7%. The same report also indicated that the female literacy rate had increased from 27 to 39 per cent from 2004 to 2011, and the male literacy rate had increased from 49 to 59 per cent over the same period for persons 10 years and older.By 2015, the literacy rate had further increased, to 49.1% (57.2% male and 41.1% female).
Ethiopia's culture heavily influenced by the local population, an interaction of Semitic, Cushitic and less populous Nilo-Saharan speaking people, which evolved from first millennium BC. Semitic Tigrayans and Amharas, who dominated the politics in the past, distinguished from other population by hierarchical structure and agrarian life derived partly from South Arabia as a result of back migration, while the southern Cushitic (Oromo and Somali) are strong adherents toegalitarianismand pastoral life. Others including Kaffa, Sidamo, and Afar tradition derived from the latter people.
Ethiopia has 6 patriotic and public holidays and 9 major religious holidays given government recognition. The year (Gregorian calendar) starts withEthiopian Christmason January 7, it also hasEpiphanyor Timkat on January 19 or 20 depending on if the year is a leap, which celebrate the baptism ofJesus ChristbyJohn the Baptist. Timkat is recognized by the United Nation's as part of its "Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists" which are designated for important cultural and religious holidays.Three holidays are movable likeRamadan,Good FridayandEasterof which two are in spring and Ramadan in Islamic celebrations. Other holidays includeMawlidwhich begins on the 12th or 17th on the Islamic calendar depending on which Muslim denomination is the celebrator, nonetheless due to the fact the majority of Ethiopian Muslims are Sunni it is thus celebrated on the 12th day on the third month on the Islamic calendar which is in September. Other includeEid al-FitrandEid al-Adhafor other Islamic holidays whilst for Christians, the finding of the true cross or otherwise calledMeskel.
For public holidays the first of which falls on the calendar isAdwa Victory Dayon 2 March, commemoratingEmperor Menelik II's victory over the attempted but failed colonization efforts of Italy in 1896. Other's following such as theInternational Workers' Dayon the 1st of May, theEthiopian Patriots' Victory Dayfor celebrating the return of Emperor Haile Selassie I and thus the liberation of fascist Italian occupation on the 5th of May and theDownfall of the Dergon the 28th of May, a recent holiday promoted to a public status by the ruling government after 1991. And the most prominent of public holidays isEnkutatashwhich is the largest, celebrating theEthiopian new yearon September 11 or 12, which is approximately 7–8 years behind the rest of the world, depending on if the year is a leap, and thus behind ultimately the Georgian calendar by several years.Defense Dayalso exists for celebrating service men on the 26th of October the last holiday in the Gregorian calendar.
Nonetheless other festivals and holidays like the honoring of Saint Yohannes and others are celebrated across the country includingIrrechacelebrated by theOromo community.
Arts of Ethiopiawere largely influenced by Christian iconography throughout much of its history. This consisted ofilluminated manuscripts,painting,crosses,iconsand othermetalworksuch as crowns. Most historical arts were commissioned by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the state religion for a millennium. The earlier Aksumite period arts were stone carvings as evidenced in their stelae, though there is no surviving Christian art from this era. As Christianity was introduced, its iconography was partly influenced byByzantine art. Most remaining arts beyond the early modern period were ruined as a result of invasion of theAdal Sultanatein theEthiopian Highlands, but were revived by Catholic emissaries. TheWesternintervention in Ethiopian art began in the 20th century, while also maintaining traditional Ethiopian character. Some notable contemporary Ethiopian artists includeAfewerk Tekle,Lemma Guya,Martha Nasibù,Ale Felege Selamand others.
Ethiopian architecture like the "Bete Medhane Alem" or "House of our Saviour" is one of the 12 churches inLalibelabuilt under EmperorLalibela I.Emperor Lalibela Icommissioned large portions of the Lalibela church complex promptly named after him. This was largely attested to the inspiration for Ethiopia during the medieval times due to blockage from Jerusalem by Muslim conquests to replicate its own form of a "new Jerusalem" at a national level. Perhaps one of the most notable architectures in antiquity was founded during the Dʿmt period.Ashlar masonrywas an archetype ofSouth Arabianarchitecture with most architectural structure similarity.
The Aksumite continued to flourish its architecture around the 4th century CE. Aksumite stelae commonly used single block and rocks. The Tomb of the False Door built for Aksumite emperors used monolithic style.TheLalibelacivilization was largely of Aksumite influence, but the layer of stones or wood is quite different for some dwellings.
In the Gondarine period, the architecture of Ethiopia was influenced by Baroque, Arab, Turkish and Gujarati Indian styles independently taught by Portuguese emissaries in the 16th and 17th centuries. Examples include the imperial fortressFasil Ghebbi, which is influenced by a mix of these styles. The medieval architecture also affected the later 19th- and 20th-century era.
Ethiopian literaturetraces back to the Aksumite period in the 4th century, mostly religious motifs. In royal inscription, it employed bothGe'ezandGreeklanguage, but the latter was discontinued in 350. Unlike most Sub-Saharan African countries, Ethiopia has ancient distinct language, the Ge'ez, which dominated political and educational aspects. In spite of the current political instability in the country endangering cultural heritage of these works, preservation has improved in recent years.
During and the approximate time of theMiddle Agescomposers such asAbba GorgoryosandGiyorgis of Seglahave influenced Ethiopian languages such as writing one of the earliest instances ofAmharicand dictionaries of Ge'ez and such. Also encompassing religious hymns and doctrine justifications regarding issues in the Ethiopian Orthodox church and practices.
The Ethiopian literary works mostly consisted of handwrittencodex(branna, or ብራና in Amharic). It is prepared by gathering parchment leaves and sewing to stick together. The codex size varies considerably depending on volumes and preparation. For example, pocket size codex lengthens 45 cm, which is heavier in weight. Historians speculated that archaic codex existed in Ethiopia. Today manuscripts resembling primitive codex are still evident for existence where parchment leaves are convenient for writing.
Another notable writing book is protective (or magic)scroll, serving as written amulet. Some of these were intended for magical purpose, for exampleketabis used for magical defence. Scrolls were typically produced bydebtera, non-ordained clergy expertise onexorcismand healings. About 30 cm scroll is portable whereas 2 cm is often unrolled and hanged to the walls of houses. Scrolls emulating original medium of Ethiopia literature is highly disputed, where there is overwhelming evidence that Ge'ez language books were written in codex. In lesser, Ethiopia used accordion books (calledsensul) which were dated to late 15th or 16th century, made up of folded parchment paper, with or without cover. Those books usually contain pictorial representation of life and death of religious figures, or significant texts have also juxtaposed.
Baalu GirmaandHaddis Alemayehuhave been noted as the most influential novelist in Ethiopian history. Girma giving a critique of the communist government in the 80s in Ethiopia in his works. Haddis Alemayehu giving rise to one of the first examinations ofrealismand aromancetragedy in his works of novel and having influenced the sphere of Ethiopian intellectual community.
Ethiopia is highly popularized inpoetry. Most poets recount past events, social unrests, poverty and famine.Qeneis the most used element of Ethiopian poetry – regarded as a form of Amharic poetry, though the term generally refers to any poems. True qene requires advanced ingenious mindset. By providing two metaphorical words, i.e. one with obvious clues and the other is too convoluted conundrum, one must answer parallel meanings. Thus, this is calledsem ena work(gold and wax).The most notable poets areTsegaye Gebre-Medhin,Kebede MichaelandMengistu Lemma.
Ethiopian philosophy has been superlatively prolific since ancient times in Africa, though offset ofGreekandPatristicphilosophy. The best known philosophical revival was in the early modern period figures such asZera Yacob(1599–1692) and his studentWalda Heywat, who wroteHatata(Inquiry) in 1667 as an argument for theexistence of God.
Themusic of Ethiopiais extremely diverse, with each of the country's 80 ethnic groups being associated with unique sounds. Ethiopian music uses a distinctmodal systemthat ispentatonic, with characteristically long intervals between some notes. As with many other aspects of Ethiopian culture and tradition, tastes in music and lyrics are strongly linked with those in neighbouring Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti, and Sudan.Traditional singing in Ethiopia presents diverse styles ofpolyphony(heterophony,drone, imitation, andcounterpoint). Traditionally, lyricism in Ethiopian song writing is strongly associated with views of patriotism or national pride, romance, friendship, and a unique type of memoire known astizita.
SaintYared, a 6th-century Aksumite composer, is widely regarded as the forerunner of traditional music of Eritrea and Ethiopia, creating liturgical music of the Ethiopian andEritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.
Modern music is traced back to the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie, where 40 Armenian orphans calledArba Lijocharrived fromJerusalemto Addis Ababa. By 1924, the band was almost established as orchestral; but after World War II, several similar bands emerged such as Imperial Bodyguard Band, Army Band, and Police Band.
In the 1960s and 1970s, traditional infused modern Ethiopian music was revived in what is known as the "Golden Age". Several notable musical artists emerged thereafter, for example,Tilahun Gessesse,Alemayehu Eshete,Bizunesh Bekele,Muluken MelesseandMahmoud Ahmed. It also employed tradition style calledtizita. During the Derg regime, these artists were prohibited to perform in the country and often forced into exile in North America and Europe, mixing with jazz and funk influences. For example, Roha Band,Walias Band, and Ethio Stars. By this time,Neway Debebewas critical of the Derg government.
Modern music became developed shortly in the 1990s and 2000s. In this period, the most popular artists wereAster Aweke,GigiandTeddy Afro. Ethiopian music further modernized in the next decade, employing electronic type and more popular. DJRophnanwas renowned for pioneering EDM after releasing his debut albumReflectionin 2018.
Ethiopia has several local calendars. The most widely known is theEthiopian calendar, also known as the Ge'ez calendar, and written with the ancientGe'ez script, one of the oldest alphabets still in use in the world.It is based on the older Alexandrian orCoptic calendar, which in turn derives from theEgyptian calendar. Like the Coptic calendar, the Ethiopian calendar has twelve months of exactly 30 days each plus five or sixepagomenaldays, which form a thirteenth month. The Ethiopian months begin on the same days as those of the Coptic calendar, but their names are in Ge'ez.
Like theJulian calendar, the sixth epagomenal day—which in essence is aleap day—is added every four years without exception on 29 August of the Julian calendar, six months before the Julian leap day. Thus, the first day of the Ethiopian year, 1Mäskäräm, for years between 1901 and 2099 (inclusive), is usually 11 September (Gregorian), but falls on 12 September in years before the Gregorian leap year. It is approximately seven years and three months behind the Gregorian calendar because of an alternate calculation in determining the date of theAnnunciationof Jesus.
Another calendrical system was developed around 300 BC by theOromo people. A lunar-stellar calendar, thisOromo calendarrelies on astronomical observations of the moon in conjunction with seven particular stars or constellations. Oromo months (stars/lunar phases) areBittottessa(Iangulum),Camsa(Pleiades),Bufa(Aldebarran),Waxabajjii(Belletrix),Obora Gudda(Central Orion-Saiph),Obora Dikka(Sirius),Birra(full moon),Cikawa(gibbous moon),Sadasaa(quarter moon),Abrasa(large crescent),Ammaji(medium crescent), andGurrandala(small crescent).
TheEthiopian Broadcasting Corporation(EBC), formerly known as ETV, is thestate media. Radio broadcasting was commenced earlier in 1935 before the television service began in 1962 with assistance of British firm Thomson and Emperor Haile Selassie.Since 2015, EBC has upgraded its studios with modernized transmission.
Kana TVis the most popular TV channel in Ethiopia.It is mainly known fordubbingforeign content intoAmharic. Over several decades, the state television has served as the major mass media until in the late 2000s, whenEBS TVlaunched as the first private television channel. Moreover, numerous private channels were commenced in 2016, culminating in the growth of privately owned media companies in the country. As an example,Fana TVhas been the largest TV network since its launch in 2017.
The most widely circulated newspapers in Ethiopia areAddis Fortune,Capital Ethiopia,Ethiopian Reporter, Addis Zemen (Amharic) andEthiopian Herald.
The sole internet service provider is the national telecommunications firmEthio telecom. A large portion of users in the country access the internet through mobile devices.As of July 2016, there are around 4.29 million people who have internet access at their home as compared to a quarter of a million users a decade before that.The Ethiopian government has at times intentionally shut down internet service in the country or restricted access to certain social media sites during periods of political unrest. In August 2016, following protest and demonstration in the Oromia Region, all access to the internet was shut down for a period of two days.In June 2017, the government shut down access to the internet for mobile users during a period that coincided with the administration of university entrance examination. Although the reason for the restriction was not confirmed by the government,the move was similar to a measure taken during the same period in 2016, after a leak of test questions.
The first cinema was introduced in 1898, three years after the first world film was projected. Cinematic artifacts ascribed by Italian ministerFederico Ciccodicola[it]which then offered to Emperor Menelik II. The early 20th century appearance with spectacle was around 1909 and embraced by documentary or biographical films.Au de Menilekwas the first film directed by Charles Martel. The first 16mm black-and-white film dedicated to coronation of EmperorZewditu, then coronation of Emperor Haile Selassie was filmed. The 1990s saw international booming of Ethiopian films. The most influential people in this era wereHaile Gerima,Salem Mekuria, Yemane Demissie, andTeshome Gabriel. Films began modernized in the 2000s and implementedAmhariclanguage. The most internationally grossed films areSelanchi,Difret,Lamb,Prince of LoveandLambadina. The modern era saw several reoccurring actors includingSelam Tesfaye,Fryat Yemane,Hanan Tarik,Mahder Assefa,Amleset MuchieandRuth Negga.
One of the most prestigious film award isGumma Film Awardsheld in Addis Ababa. The award, which was started in 2014, broadcast on live television in some stations.Festivals includingAddis International Film Festivaland theEthiopian International Film Festivalshowcase amateur and professional filmmakers works; the latter being voted by judges. They were established in 2007and 2005 respectively.
The best-knownEthiopian cuisineconsists of various types of thick meatstews, known aswatin Ethiopian culture, and vegetable side dishes served on top ofinjera, a largesourdoughflatbreadmade ofteffflour. This is not eaten with utensils, but instead the injera is used to scoop up the entrées and side dishes. Almost universally in Ethiopia, it is common to eat from the same dish in the middle of the table with a group of people. It is also a common custom to feed others within a group or own hands—a tradition referred to as "gursha".Traditional Ethiopian cuisine employs nopork, as it is forbidden inEthiopian OrthodoxChristian and Islamic faiths; Ethiopian Orthodox Christians also fast from meat on Wednesdays, Fridays, and leading up to Easter and Christmas.
Chechebsa,Marqa,Chukko,MichirraandDhangaare the most popular dishes from theOromo.Kitfo, which originated among theGurage, is one of the country's most popular delicacies. In addition,Doro Wot(ዶሮ ወጥ inAmharic) andTsebehi Derho(ጽብሒ ድርሆ inTigrinya), are other popular dishes, originating from northwestern Ethiopia.Tihlo(ጥሕሎ)—which is a type ofdumpling—is prepared from roasted barley flour and originated in theTigray Region. Tihlo is now very popular inAmharaand spreading further south.
The main sports in Ethiopia aretrack and field(particularlylong distance running) and football. Ethiopian athletes have won manyOlympicgold medals in track and field, most of them in long distance running.Abebe Bikilabecame the first athlete from aSub-Saharancountry to win an Olympic gold medal when he won theMarathonat the 1960 Rome Olympic Games in a world record time of 2:15:16.
TheEthiopia national football teamwas one of four founding members of theConfederation of African Footballand won theAfrica Cup of Nationsin1962.Ethiopia has Sub-Saharan Africa's longest basketball tradition as it established anational basketball teamin 1949.
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