Malaysian Chinese

Malaysian Chinese,Chinese Malaysians, orSino-MalaysiansareMalaysian citizensofHan Chineseethnicity. They form the second-largest ethnic group in Malaysia, after theMalay majority, and as of 2020, constituted 21.2% of Malaysia's total population. In addition, Malaysian Chinese make up the third-largest community ofoverseas Chineseglobally, afterIndonesianandThai Chinese.
Within Malaysia, the ethnic Chinese community maintains a significant and substantial presence in thecountry's economy.
Most Malaysian Chinese are descendants ofSouthern Chineseimmigrants who arrived inMalaysiabetween the early 19th and the mid-20th centuries before the country attained independence from British colonial rule. The majority originate from the provinces of Fujian and Lingnan (including the three modern provinces of Guangdong, Hainan and Guangxi). They belong to diverse ethnic Han subgroups such as theHokkienandFuzhoufrom Fujian, theTeochew,Cantonese, andHakkafrom Guangdong, theHainanesefrom Hainan andKwongsaifrom Guangxi. Most Malaysian Chinese have maintained their Han Chinese heritage, identity, culture and language.
Another group of Chinese migrants who arrived between the 13th and the 17th centuries heavily assimilated aspects of the indigenous Malay cultures and formed a distinct group known as thePeranakaninKelantanandTerengganu, theBaba-NyonyainMalaccaandPenang, and as theSino-NativesinSabah. They exhibit a degree of intermarriage with native groups and are culturally distinct from the majority of the Malaysian Chinese but have recently begun to merge into the Malaysian Chinese mainstream.
The Malaysian Chinese are referred to as simply "Chinese" in Malaysian English, "Orang Cina" inMalay, "Sina" or "Kina" among indigenous groups inBorneo, "Cīṉar" (சீனர்) inTamil, "Huaren" (華人/华人, Chinese people) or "Huayi" (華裔/华裔, ethnic Chinese) inMandarin, "təŋ laŋ" (唐人) inHokkienandWàhyàhn(華人/华人, Chinese people) inCantonese.
Chinaand other early kingdoms in theMalay Archipelago, such as the northern area of theMalay Peninsulaand Po-Ni in westernBorneo, have long been connected.The first recorded movement of people fromChinainto present-day Malaysia was the 1292 arrival ofMongolexpeditionary forces underKublai Khanin Borneo in 1292 in preparation for theirinvasion of Javathe following year.Many of Khan's Chinese followers settled on the island with Chinese traders after the campaign, establishing an enclave along theKinabatangan River. Their arrival was welcomed by theindigenous people, who benefited from the jars, beads, silk, and pottery brought to the island by the Chinese.
Chinese explorer and sailorZheng Hecommandedseveral expeditions to south-east Asiabetween 1405 and 1430; during his third voyage, Zheng also visitedMalacca.His companion and translator,Ma Huan, described Malacca in hisYingya Shenglan.Formerly part of Thailand, Malacca was founded after convoys from the Ming Dynasty developed a city and the area's chief was crowned king.During his fourth imperial-fleet visit, Ma wrote that the local king had justconvertedto Islam and dressed like anArab.The last edition ofMingshi, one of the official ChineseTwenty-Four Histories,mentioned a pre-established Chinese settlement in the area.Mentions in other records exist, especially after trade contacts were established with theNanyangregion.According toHai Yü(Words about the Sea), written by Huang Zhong and published in 1537, the lifestyle of the Chinese community in Malacca differed from that of the localMalays.
This close relationship was maintained during the Islamisation of the Malacca andBruneikingdoms, whosethalassocracyonce covered much of present-day Malaysia. Both the Muslim sultanates pledged protection to the Chinese dynasties from further conquest by the neighbouring JavaneseMajapahitor the SiameseAyutthaya.This relationship resulted ininterethnic marriagebetween the sultanate's royal family and the Chinese envoy and representatives.Zheng He's arrival encouraged thespread of Islam in the Malay Archipelagoand aided the growth of theChinese Muslimpopulation from the Eastern Chinese coastal towns ofFujianandCanton, with many of their traders arriving in the coastal towns of present-day Malaysia andIndonesiaby the early 15th century.In addition to the early settlements in Kinabatangan and Malacca, two more old Chinese settlements are located inTerengganuand thePenang Islandas part of trade networks with their respective areas.
Although many Chinese traders avoidedPortuguese Malaccaafter its1511 conquest, the flow of emigrants from China continued.TheZhengde Emperorretaliated against the Portuguese for their activities in Malacca during theMing dynastyafter the arrival of their fleet in Canton.The Chinese emperor was reluctant to help the deposed Malaccan ruler reclaim his position, however, since the dynasty'sforeign policy was changing to maintain friendly relations with the Portuguese.
His successor, theJiajing Emperor, changed the attitude of the Ming court by executing two government officials and reaffirming the importance of Malaccan issues in major policy decisions.Some Chinese, including those from Fujian (defying Ming-Dynasty regulation for the sake of trade), informed the Portuguese of the trade route betweenGuangdongand Siam. Since the local Malaccan Chinese were not treated favourably by the Portuguese, they and most overseas Chinese refused to cooperate with them.Through the Portuguese administration in Malacca, Chinese Muslims sided with other Islamic traders against the latter by providing ships andhuman capital.Negotiations were later held in Guangdong between Chinese officials and Portuguese envoys about Malaccan issues, with Malacca remaining under Portuguese control.
After the 1641Dutchtakeover of Malacca,many local Malaccan Chinese were hired to construct Dutch buildings.The Dutch found the Chinese industrious, and encouraged their participation in the colony's economic life;the Dutch also established a settlement inPerakin 1650 through an earlier treaty withAcehand suggested that Alauddin, the 17th Sultan of Perak, allow the Chinese to developtin mines. This facilitated Alauddin's plan to request more Chinese workers from Malacca, and the sultan promised to punish any official guilty of mistreating the Chinese.
With the sultan'sconsent, the Chinese played a leading role in the tin-mining industry. TheFourth Anglo-Dutch Warin 1780 adversely affected the tin trade, however, and many Chinese miners left.Early Chinese settlements in Malacca and several areas along the archipelago's coasts notwithstanding, most mass Chinese migration to Malaysia occurred after the founding of British settlements inMalayaandBorneoduring the early 19th century.
A 1786 British settlement in Penang and another inSingaporein 1819 triggered a mass emigration from China to the Malay Peninsula.After the establishment of British rule inLabuanin 1846, more ethnic Chinese (primarilyHakka, and many from Singapore) arrived inBritish Borneo. The migration continued through the first few years of theNorth Borneo Chartered Company.Chinese migration to Labuan and North Borneo was largely confined to theagriculturalsector; migration to theRaj of Sarawakwas largely restricted to the mining and agricultural sectors.RajahCharles Brookeof Sarawak promoted the migration of Chinese andDayak peopleto interiorSarawakto develop the region. This resulted in the establishment of an administrative center andbazaarby the 19th century, primarily in Sarawak'sFirst, Second, and Third Divisions.
Rajah Charles invited Chineseblack-peppergrowers from Singapore to settle inKuchingin 1876, and they were later joined by local Chinese miners and others from neighbouringDutch Borneo.With the introduction of pepper to the kingdom, pepper cultivation in Sarawak's First Division Kuching-Serian region was dominated by the Hakka;FuzhouandCantonese peopledominated cultivation in the Third Division Sarikei-Binatang region, making Sarawak the world's second-largest pepper producer.After the British gained control of the four states of Perak,Selangor,Negeri SembilanandPahang, nearly two million Chinese immigrated to Perak and Selangor.
After the discovery oftin depositsinBritish Malaya, many Chinese immigrants worked in the tin-mining industry.As tin mines opened in Perak, many Chinese in neighbouring Penang became wealthy.Many Chinese tin-mining communities were established in the Malay Peninsula by the 1870s, particularly inIpoh(Kinta Valley),Taiping,SerembanandKuala Lumpur(Klang Valley).Each of the mining communities was governed by aKapitan Cina, with duties and privileges similar to those inJohor'sKangchu system.Chinese migration sprang from poverty in rural China and employment opportunities in the British colonies orprotectorates, and an estimated five million Chinese had immigrated by the 19th century.Despite economic prosperity after immigration, the new Chinese communities split into a number ofsecret societies. This exacerbated political unrest among the Malay aristocracy, which enlisted help from the secret societies.Contemporary local Malay politics was characterised as anarchy and civil war between people from similar backgrounds, prompting alliances between senior Malay political leaders and officials from China and Europe who were protecting their investments.
Civil wars and other conflicts among the indigenous ethnic groups ended when the British gained control of Malaya and the northern island ofBorneoby the 1900s. However, none of the Malay kingdoms fell under colonial rule. Their related entities were politically and economically stable. Economic prosperity was fueled by Britishcapitaland Chinese and Indian work forces who expanded and supplied tin andrubberproduction.Before the 1911Xinhai Revolutionwhich overthrew theQing dynastyin China,TongmenghuileaderSun Yat-senraised funds and organisational support from overseas Chinese communities (primarily inFrench Indochina, theDutch East Indies,the Philippines,Siam, British Singapore, Malaya and Borneo) and beganNanyangorganising activities inSaigon,Hanoi,Pontianak,Manila,Bangkok, Singapore andGeorge Town.Competition arose among three groups, with each group targeting overseas Chinese (particularly in Malaya and Singapore) for support.One group was a pro-Qing elite who targeted wealthy Chinese; the other two were reformists and revolutionaries who advocatedconstitutional reforms, the introduction of aparliamentary system, and the overthrow of Qing and Manchu influence on a modern Chinese nation.
After the revolution which established theRepublic of China, branches of theKuomintangemerged in British Malaya.Kuomintang activities in British Borneo were coordinated by the Democratic Party of North Borneo, consisting of Chinese-educatedtowkays.Patriotism among Chinese immigrant communities focused on China.British colonial authorities initially did not object to Kuomintang membership.A communist movement developed among overseas Chinese by 1925 with the establishment of theSouth Seas Communist Partyin Singapore, followed by theIndochinese Communist Party,Communist Party of Malaya,Communist Party of BurmaandCommunist Party of Siam; the movement also maintained relations with the earlier, Southeast AsianCommunist Party of Indonesia.The Communist Party of Malaya followed the general communist policy of opposingWestern democraciesbeforeWorld War II, increasing propaganda against the Malayan government and the colonial government of Singapore in 1940.
At the beginning of the Sino-Japanese conflict and the Japanese occupation ofMalayaandBritish Borneo, Kuomintang activities were ended.When theChinese Communist Party(underMao Zedong) reached an agreement with the Kuomintang government (underChiang Kai-shek) to put aside their differences and rally against Japanese aggression in July 1940, pro-independence sentiment led to bans on the Kuomintang and other Chinese organizations in Malaya.Since the conflict withJapanalso involved the British, Chiang Kai-shek urged Kuomintang members to fight alongside them; in return, British colonial authorities lifted their ban of Chinese associations (including the Kuomintang and the Chinese communist movement).This, and British recognition of the Communist Party of Malaya, resulted in the formation of theguerrillaMalayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army(MPAJA) in 1941.The MPAJA (primarily consisting of ethnic Chinese in Malaya) waged a guerrilla war against theImperial Japanese Army(IJA) with 10,000 men in eight battalions, and contacted the BritishForce 136.Local Kuomintang revolts, such as theJesselton uprisingin British Borneo, were suppressed by theKenpeitai.
Much Chinese underground anti-Japanese activity in North Borneo was part of the Nanyang Chinese National Salvation Movement, led byTan Kah Kee; in Sarawak, activities were coordinated by the Sarawak Anti-Fascist League.The MPAJA was disbanded after the 1945Allied victory in the Pacific, and many of its leaders were commended by the British.It began to massacre perceived collaborators (primarily Malay) after it was disbanded, however, sparking a Malay backlash.The MPAJA also targeted British posts, with severalgrenadeattacks on British troops.In North Borneo, the Chinese co-operated with the British and pledged loyalty to KingGeorge VIwhen theCrown Colony of North Borneowas formed after the war.
With the MPAJA renamed as theMalayan National Liberation Army(MNLA), communist insurgents used guerrilla tactics in the jungles, sabotaged transportation networks and attacked British plantations (assassinating several European plantation owners).British intelligence estimated MNLA support at about 500,000, out of a total Chinese population of 3.12 million; battling the insurgents was difficult, since most hid in inaccessible jungles.With the 18 June 1948 declaration of theMalayan Emergency, the early government response was chaotic; its primary aim was to guard important economic targets.Most Malayan Chinese opposed the MNLA.
The 1950Briggs Plan, devised by British generalHarold Briggs, intended to isolate the Chinese population from the insurgents. Independence was promised, and supported by the Malays; the Chinese population feared being treated as second-class citizens in an independent Malaya.In addition to new villages, the plan included labour reorganisation, the deployment of troops throughout Malaya, and cooperation between the police, the army, and intelligence.Under the resettlement scheme, more than 700,000 rural Chinese communities were relocated in 582 new government settlements.After British high commissionerHenry Gurneydied in a 1951 ambush,Gerald Templerare appointed as the new high commissioner for Malaya byWinston Churchillthe following year; Templer preferredwinning hearts and mindsto military measures against the insurgents.As part of his campaign, Templer incentivised rebel surrender and used strictcurfewsand tight control of food supplies in involved areas to flush them out.Crops grown by insurgents were sprayed withherbicidesanddefoliants, and restrictions were lifted in areas free of insurgents by elevating them to "white status".In theBatang Kali massacre, 24 unarmed Malaysian civilians suspected of providing aid to the MNLA were shot by aScots Guarddivision in late 1948.
According toChin Peng, the success of Templer's campaign was primarily due to the Briggs Plan's resettlement programme;Gurney also introduced a quasi-ministerial system, with a bill to increase the number of non-Malays eligible for citizenship after independence.After the 1949Chinese Communist Revolution, foreign missionaries in China were forced to leave; Templer invited them to Malaya to providespiritual healing, medical education and welfare measures to residents of the new government villages.By September 1952, every person born in Malaya (includes 1.2 million Chinese) was granted full citizenship.
When theFederation of Malayagained independence from the British in 1957, there was still an insurgency.Chinese communists who surrendered were given a choice of repatriation to China or declaring loyalty to the elected government of Malaya and renouncing communist ideology.The anti-communist campaign continued until 1960, when the Malayan government declared the end of itsstate of emergencyafter Chin Peng demobilized his forces and left his hide-out in southernThailandforBeijingviaNorth Vietnam.At a meeting of Chin andDeng Xiaopingin Beijing, China urged the Communist Party of Malaya to continue their armed struggle.The establishment of a communist government inmainland Chinaaffected Chinese youth in Sarawak, who organized the pro-Beijing Sarawak Overseas Chinese Democratic Youth League (later the Sarawak Advanced Youth Association, which sparked the 1960communist insurgency in Sarawak.Malaysia's economy continued to prosper, dependent on tin and rubber industries dominated by a Chinese and Indian workforce.
Early in 1961, when Prime MinisterTunku Abdul Rahmanoutlined a "Grand Malaysian Alliance" of the British protectorate ofBruneiand the crown colonies of North Borneo,SarawakandSingapore,Singapore Prime MinisterLee Kuan Yewsupported the proposal. Lee'sPeople's Action Party(PAP) rallied for the equality of all Malaysians, regardless of "class, skin colour or creed", known as "Malaysian Malaysia", in a multi-ethnic society withoutMalayisation.Although Lee was seen by Malay extremists in theUnited Malays National Organisation(UMNO) and thePan-Malaysian Islamic Party(PAS), as opposed toKetuanan Melayuafter the 1963 formation of Malaysia,he had adoptedMalayas Singapore's national language and appointed MalayYusof IshakasYang di-Pertuan Negara.
TheMalaysian Chinese Association(MCA), led byTan Cheng Lockand part of theMalaysian Alliance Party, refused to join the struggle for equality. The MCA feared that equality would disrupt an agreement between theUnited Malays National Organisation(UMNO) and theMalaysian Indian Congress(MIC) in which Malays were politically dominant and the Chinese controlled the country's economy;Malaysian Indiansplayed a smaller economic role, with the Malays promising to share future political power with the other two groups.After two years as part of the federation and the enactment ofArticle 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia, Lee was joined by the Malay Peninsula'sUnited Democratic PartyandPeople's Progressive Partyand Sarawak'sUnited Peoples' Partyand Machinda Party in theMalaysian Solidarity Conventionto campaign for equality.In a June 1965 speech at the MSC meeting in Singapore, Lee said:
Lee's call for a re-alignment of forces between those who wanted a "true Malaysian nation" and those who preferred a country led by a component of the Alliance Party, and his criticism of Malays advocating Malay dominance, led to bitterPAP–UMNO relationsand the1964 race riots in Singapore; Singapore was laterexpelledfrom the federation in August 1965, and became its own sovereign nation.
The struggle for equality continued with theDemocratic Action Party(DAP), which succeeded the PAP in 1965.Many Malaysian Chinese began to view the Malaysian Chinese Association as more concerned with business and economic interests than social factors, although Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman considered the MCA the sole legitimate representative of the federation's Chinese community.In 1968, communists supported by China begana new insurgencyfrom their stronghold in southern Thailand.The following year, the MCA was challenged by the DAP and theMalaysian People's Movement Party(GERAKAN). Of its 33 parliamentary seats contested in the election, the MCA retained 13 and lost control of thePenang state governmentto GERAKAN; Chinese-Malay tensions culminated in the13 May incident.Other clashes were also ethnic in nature.
In the aftermath of the riots, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman blamed the communists rather than racial issues and said that theVietnam Warin their neighbour was "not simply a civil war butcommunist-ideology expansion".The Malaysian government introduced several policy initiatives in security and development, a neighbourhood-watch program and thePeople's Volunteer Corps.The Communist Party of Malaya split into two factions during the early 1970s: arevolutionary wingin 1970 and aMarxist–Leninist wingin 1974.Kuala Lumpurand Beijing establisheddiplomatic relationsin 1974; China ended its aid to the factions, prompting their 1983 merger into theMalaysian Communist Partybefore their surrender to Thai authorities four years later and the1989 peace agreementending the insurgency.A Chinese communist insurgency in Sarawak, supported by neighboring Indonesia, ended with peace negotiations in 1990.
Issues between the Malaysian Chinese and the Malays remain unresolved.The failure ofMalaysia's social contracthas led to a strongChinese identity, in contrast to the Chinese communities in neighbouringIndonesia,the Philippines,Singapore,ThailandandVietnam.After the 1969 racial clashes, theMalaysian New Economic Policyfavouring the Malays from 1971 to 1990 increasedBumiputeraeconomic control by 60 percent.Malaysian Chinese remain the business sector's dominant players;equityownership doubled from 22.8 percent in 1969 to 45.5 percent in 1990, and nearly all ofMalaysia's richest peopleare Chinese.
Since Malaysian Chinese manage the country's economy, most (75.8 percent in 1991) live in urban areas.They generally do not speak Malay among themselves;this contrasts with earlier Chinese communities such as the Straits-born Chinese of Baba-Nyonya, Kelantanese and TerengganuanPeranakans,Penangite Hokkienand SabahSino-natives, who mingled with local Malay and other indigenous peoples.Chinese inEast Malaysiain Sabah and Sarawak, particularly in small inland towns, interact more closely with the indigenous communities.Integration issues in present-day Malaysia are largely inherited from Malayan racial politics, in which ethnic communities consolidated into a single political community.Malaysia's contemporaryeducationaland social policies has created a Chinesebrain draintodeveloped countries, especiallySingapore.The country has experienced a slight wave ofMandarin-speaking immigrants fromnortheastern Chinaand a smaller number ofVietnameseimmigrants, however, with local men marrying women from China andVietnam.
Since their early ancient trade connection and subsequent migrations, the majority of ethnic Chinese in Malaysia areethnic Hanfrom the historical areas ofFujianandGuangdongprovinces insouthern China.Nearly all ethnic Chinese Malaysians living in the country today are eitherpatrilinealdescendants of these early immigrants, or new immigrants born in mainland China.Among the first group from the first migration wave are the Peranakans inKelantanandTerengganu, Sino-Natives inSabahand Straits-born Chinese (Baba-Nyonya) inMalaccaandPenang.TheTaiping Rebellionin the mid-19th century caused much chaos and suffering in southern China, which led many ethnic Chinese civilians to seek refuge overseas, particularly to theNanyangregion (Southeast Asia) in further south.With the expanding British colonial ambitions in the region which led to the establishment ofStraits Settlements, more migrants were attracted and the region became an important destination forChinese emigration.
By the late 19th century with the second wave of migration through the British colonial rule, theHokkienof southern Fujian led by many of their wealthy and powerful individuals with skills infinanceandmaritime shippingbecame the dominant immigrant group as the first group of ethnic Chinese to settle in large numbers with their language become acontact languageamong Chinese of different linguistics background.TheCantonesefrom Guangdong follow suit and became well known as mineworkers,land reclamation, mechanics and their familiarity withcash cropping.Another large group, theHakkaare mostly hill farmers originated from northeastern Guangdong and various southern China places who specialise in forest clearance, mining as well onmetalworking.Other groups like theTeochewfromChaozhouof eastern Guangdong are mainly onplantationagriculture,theFuzhoufrom central Fujian specialise inentrepreneurship,while theHainanesefromHainanas one of the ethnic Chinese minority saw themselves assojournerswith many of Hainanese chefs and waiters ruled the kitchen of local Chinesekopi tiamandrestaurants.TheHenghuaand Hokchia from eastern Fujian are usually managing family industries while the Kwongsai fromGuangxiare employed in labour sectors.Followed by the third wave of ethnic Chinese migration thereafter, this resulted from Malaysia as being one of the countries outside China andTaiwanwithlargest population of Chinese speakersin the world.Following the establishment of diplomatic relationship between Mainland China and Malaysia in 1974, ajoint communiquéwas made between the two nations, which stated:
DifferentChinese dialectsare spoken in Malaysian cities and towns. Across the country,Mandarinhas emerged as thelingua francaamong the various Chinese dialect groups, largely due to its use as the language of instruction in Chinese schools andChina's increasing economic influence.
WithinPeninsular Malaysia,Hokkienis predominantly spoken in west coast cities such asGeorge Town,Seberang Perai,Klang,Malacca,Batu PahatandMuar.In contrast,Cantoneseis the main dialect inKuala Lumpur,Ipoh,SerembanandKuantan.Interior towns likeCameron HighlandsandKulaiwere primarilyHakka-speaking.Teochewwas also commonly used along the western coast ofPerakand inJohor Bahru.BentongandRaubcontained a substantial Kwongsai-speaking population.
The distribution of Chinese dialects inEast Malaysiaexhibits significant variation. InSabah, Hakka is the predominant dialect, particularly inKota Kinabalu,Lahad Datu,Semporna,PaparandTawau.InSarawak, Hakka is also prevalent in towns such asSerian,Kota SamarahanandBau.Cantonese serves as the main dialect inMiriandSandakan.KuchingandKapitcontained multiple dialect groups, including Hokkien, Hakka andFuzhou.The town ofSibuwas often referred to as a mini-Fuzhou, with the dialect also being used inSarikei.
The first census conducted in 1970 after Malaysia was formed in 1963 reported that there were 3,555,879 ethnic Chinese Malaysians, with theHokkienor Min Nan (福建人 or 闽南人) being the majority at 32.4%, followed byHakka(客家人) at 22.1%,Cantonese(广府人) at 19.8%,Teochew(潮汕人) andHainanese(海南人) at 12.4% and 4.7% respectively.This increase to 4,554,664 in 1980 and 4,623,900 in 1991.In 2000, the census reported that ethnic Chinese Malaysians numbered at 5,691,908, which was approximately 24.45% of the country's population at the time, with 86% of them living in urban areas.InWest Malaysia, Hokkien became the leading group followed by Cantonese, Hakka and Teochew.The pattern differs in East Malaysia where Hakka is the majority in Sabah and Sarawak followed by Hokkien and Cantonese in Sabah and theFuzhou(福州人), Hokkien and Teochew in Sarawak.The population increased further to 6,392,636 by 2010 and 6,892,367 by 2020.As of 2020, over three-fifths of Malaysia's ethnic Chinese resided inSelangor,Johor,Kuala LumpurandPenang. Penang also had the largest percentage of Chinese and was the only state where the Chinese constituted a plurality.
There is also a small community ofHuáběi-ren(Northern Chinese or 华北人) in Sabah whose ancestors coming from various parts ofHebei(河北) andShandong(山东) provinces in China with most of them calling themselves asTiānjīn-ren(天津人 or 津侨). Besides that, Sanjiang-ren (Chinese:三江人) is a collective term used to categorise the group of people whose ancestors hailed from Shanghai (上海), Zhejiang (浙江), Jiangsu (江苏), Hubei (湖北) and Jiangxi (江西). It is a subgroup of mixed spoken dialects and has the fewest people as compared to other Chinese subgroups. The first San Jiang Clansmen Association or San Kiang Association was formed in Penang back in 1897.
Although the ethnic Chinese population had been increasing since the 1970s, their proportion within the total population had been decreasing gradually, particularly caused by the lowerbirth rateamong the Chinese community.
Ethnic Chinese Malaysians have been traditionally dominant in the business sector of the Malaysian economy with large local Chinese enterprises involved innatural resourcesand food ingredients industries such assugarandpalm oil.Almost everybiscuitsmanufacturer in the country is dominated by ethnic Chinese Malaysians.Up to the 1970s, their economic structure was intertwined with very much family andkinshipties.By the 21st century with therising of China's economic influence, theireconomy networkare jointly connected with otherOverseas Chinesethrough thebamboo network.The local Chinese played a key role in facilitating China'scapitalto invest in Malaysia while in the process both benefited from expanded markets, lower labour costs and the introduction of different kind of technologies and managerial systems which resulted from Malaysia becoming the largest trading partner to China inAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN) region.Nevertheless, unlike the more transboundary business influence by neighbouringChinese Singaporeans, a majority of Chinese Malaysian businesses are still seen as less concentrating on developing business ties with other Southeast Asian Chinese businessmen despite there have been few businesses made by several local Malaysian Chinese companies.
Since the country's foundation in 1963, theMalaysian Chinese Association(MCA) was the sole legitimate political representation for ethnic Chinese in Malaysia under the multi-racial political coalition of theAlliance Party(later expanded intoNational Frontcoalition).However, the growing restriction of non-Malay interests in Malaysian society and politics since the 1970s caused deep dissension among Chinese Malaysians. The perception that their ethnic party representatives were unable to stand for their people's rights grew, and that decision-making was influenced by the Malaysupremacistsdominated party ofUnited Malays National Organisation(UMNO). The UMNO was the most influential part of the existing political coalition, and also championed Islamic values.Despite the coalition's multi-racial appearance, UMNO founding presidentOnn Jaafarhas once said that their movement did not adhere to any ideology other than "Malayism", defined by Malay scholarAriffin Omaras the belief that the interests of the Malay race must be upheld over anything else.From 1968, the inability of MCA to preserve ethnic Chinese Malaysian interests, particularly with regards to their culture, education, and language, resulted in the formation of another ethnic Chinese representative party, theMalaysian People's Movement Party(GERAKAN) led by Chinese overseas-educated elite, although this party also joined the Alliance Party coalition in 1972.
The growingIslamisationwith "Islamic version of non-tolerant and open", increasingracismwithin the Malay party members throughout the coalition imposing further into the country social demographics as well as the government discriminative policies on their education and employment, caused further disenchantment among non-Malays, especially ethnic Chinese.This subsequently caused dwindling support from ethnic Chinese Malaysians when many original strongholds of MCAconstituentsand even Gerakan turned to theDemocratic Action Party(DAP) as the latter were seen as more vocal on their rights.Therecent country general election in 2018saw the fall of National Front coalition following additional aid from Bornean parliamentary seats particularly in Sabah that were won byPakatan Harapancoalition ally ofregionalistSabah Heritage Party(WARISAN) as well from another indigenous party ofUnited Pasokmomogun Kadazandusun Murut Organisation(UPKO) as a result of similar growing frustration over long-time manipulation of the state demographics and resources with lack of development through the administration of the Malay-led supremacists government of UMNO with frequent labelling as "fixed deposit state".During the election, the DAP won a large amount of seats due to the support of many Chinese constituents and subsequently diminished MCA influence among ethnic Chinese Malaysians.
Although the Malaysian Chinese population is increasing in everycensus, the proportion of ethnic Chinese among the country's total population has been declining  in recent decades because of a lowerbirth rateand highemigrationrate. There are significant concerns about the loss of political representation. According to a report by theWorld Bank, theMalaysian diasporaaround the world in 2010 included around a million people, most of them ethnic Chinese. The large number of emigrants, many of whom are young with education or skills, constitutes a significant "brain drain" from the country, especially towards the country's immediate neighbourSingapore.
Aside from their economic dominance, ethnic Chinese Malaysians are known for their contribution in the countryhealthcaresectors with their traditional health practice. Around 3,000 medicine shops in the country sell traditional Chinese medicine with development support also given by the countryHealth Ministry.Chinese traditional health practice services in the country generally encompass thezhong yi 中医(Chinese medicine),qigong(气功),chiropractic care(整骨),acupuncture(针灸) and several others.In 2012, the Traditional and Complementary Medicine Bill (T&CM) was passed by theParliament of Malaysiafor the establishment of "Traditional and Complementary Medicine Council or Majlis Perubatan Tradisional dan Komplementari" to register and regulate traditional and complementary medicine practitioners, including traditional Chinese medicine practitioners as well Malay, indigenous and Indians traditional medicine which followed by the enforcement of T&CM Act in the following year.Since most of the traditional medicine pharmacies are family-apprentice trade, most of the traditional medicine practitioners are not registered as a doctor under the health department despite the support given by the Health Ministry with most can practice the career without needed to be registered under government law.
In educational aspects, Malaysia is the only country outside China andTaiwanwith a comprehensive and complete Chinese education system and the only Southeast Asian country that has perpetuated the Chinese education system established since the colonial era as a result of heavy brokerage and lobbying efforts by ethnic Chinese Malaysians political leaders with continual funding from local Chinese communities.The first Chinese schools had been established in the country in the 19th century during the British colonial administration.At the same time, Christian missions from China also founded schools for Chinese students to nurture Church workers, this are most notable among many Chinese Christians of Hakka origin in Sabah and the Fuzhou in Sarawak.Following the country's independence, some of the Chinese independent schools who were influenced by the new national agenda and desperately needed government financial support were willingly converted intoEnglish medium-schools. However, these schools were later scrupulously converted intoMalaymedium-schools following the massive elimination of English medium-schools by the Malay-dominated regime in the 1970s in an effort to impose the Malay language as the only medium of instructions in all schools in the aftermath of ethnic riots in 1969.The following period was considered a dark time for local Chinese education and witnessed a growing belief in the idea that the ethnic Chinese in Malaysia had to proceed on a basis of self-reliance and vigilance in order to preserve their language rights as the national education policy was seen as exclusionary and discriminatory for non-Malays, summed up in the aphorism "non-Malays belong to Malaysia but Malaysia only belongs to the Malays".
Although other remaining Chinese independent schools or 独中 were also included in the national school system in 1996, these independent schools still did not receive any financial assistance from the federal government and its United Examinations Certificate (UEC) or 统考 is not recognised by the government, making students who finish their studies from the local Chinese independent schools unable to enroll in government-funded publictertiary institutions.Since late 1970, ethnic Chinese Malaysians had expanded their own Mandarin-language primary schools where around 90% of their children were enrolled based on the figures from 2006.These schools gained a reputation for not only maintaining good discipline but also providing the high-quality education that the Malay schools were seen by some to lack. This perceived superiority attracted significant interest amongBumiputeraparents with various analyses placing the number of Bumiputera students enrollment in Chinese schools between 60,000 and 100,000 in 2000.The federal government's failure to impose Malay as the sole unifying language throughout the country's educational systems unlike in China withStandard Chineseor Indonesia withIndonesian languageare mainly attributed to the racial-based policy enforcement of ethnic inclusion and exclusion.Some argue that the educational policies imposed by the federal government over the years in regard to minority language education have created negative consequences for Malaysian youth: a mountingbrain drainin particular. A study from 2000 found that the country had lost an ample amount of talented and skilled youth to other more favourable countries as the result of students from the large non-Malay minority language communities being forced to go to university abroad because they did not attend Malay language schools.
Chinese cultural influencesmade their mark whenancient trade relationswere established with theNanyang(南洋) region.The massive ethnic Chinese migration during the British colonial period causing a subsequent strong influence on the country's culture, including in cuisine and the language.Aside from the Chinese cultural influence on local culture, ethnic Chinese from the first wave migration before English arrival had mainly adopted a localised culture.The Baba-Nyonya in Malacca had a very strong Malay influence in their clothing and food although still maintaining their Chinese heritage of religion, name, and identity.Their food are made with Malay ingredients and recipes but produced using the Chinese method while their houses are constructed with the infusion ofVictorian,ChineseandMalayelements.Together with the Peranakans in Penang, both sides use a mixture ofHokkienand Malay despite the Penang Peranakans speak mainly Hokkien with some borrowed words from Malay words while in Malacca, the Peranakans have adopted Malaypatoiswith some Hokkien words.The food prepared by Penang Peranakans also infuses both Chinese and Malay elements, albeit with an additionalThai influence.The Peranakans in the east coast of Malaysia in Kelantan and Terengganu have much closer ties with the Malay andSiamesecommunity there since most of them has adopted the Malay and Siamese lifestyle.
Further, close blood relations between ethnic Chinese and local indigenous in northernBorneosince the early kingdoms period produced the "Sino-Natives" persons in Sabah as a result ofinter-marriagebetween ethnic Chinese there and natives of Sabah.Instead of speaking Chinese languages, these communities spoke the localizedSabah Malaydialect as their mainlingua francasince the 14th century.The close relations are marked with earliest records of the "Kina" term which is widely used by the indigenousDusunto refer to the Chinese ethnicity including for the Dusun homeland mountain of "Mount Kinabalu" (Chinese widow mountain), "Kinabatangan River" (Chinese river) and several other places such as the Kinabalu mountain stream of "Kinataki", a small river in the northeastern coast of "Kinabañgun" and a Chinese land inLabuan Island, the "Kinabenua".TheNa Tuk Kongshrine for example shown another sign of assimilation with local culture, where it refers to local Malay guardian spirits worshipped by some ethnic Chinese in West Malaysia and neighbouringSingaporeand Indonesia.The termNa Tukoriginated from the Malay word ofDatuk(grandfather) which then merged withKong(公, sometimes addressed as 'Kung' meaning elderly male), similar withTu Ti Kung(Chinese:土地公), an earth deity worshipped inEast Asia.
The ethnic Chinese cuisine in Malaysia is derived from the culinary traditions of their early immigrants and descendants, who have adopted or modified their culinary traditions under the influence of Malaysian culture. Additionally due to the immigration of Chinese to the country,Chinese cuisinehas now become an inseparable part in the country’s cultural mixture.When Chinese merchants sailed theirjunksacross theSouth China Sea, they visited ports in Borneo and Malacca, which had a profound influence on the region.Since the local king at that time enjoyed Chinese cuisine, the traders would bring along cooks with them to the island.They introduced ingredients in Chinese cooking such asnoodles,bean sprouts,tofuandsoy saucewhich are by now widely used by every ethnic group in the country.Apart from introducing new ingredients , these earlier traders also discovered ingredients among the local population along the coast, such as the expensiveedible bird's nestwith the best quality nests claiming to come from Borneo.Since a vast majority of Chinese Malaysians today are descendants of immigrants fromsouthern China, local Chinese cuisine is predominantly based fromFujian,Cantonese,HakkaandTeochewcuisines. Their technique ofstir fryingingredients and adding a small portion ofcooking oilover high heat in awok(锅) is widely adopted among the nation.
Chinese Malaysian cuisine had developed a strong penchant forspicesandchillieswhere any local Chinesekopi tiamor restaurant will offer pickled green or red chilliessambalfor noodles and rice-based meals.They borrowedcurry leavesfrom the Indians and have since adapted EnglishWorcestershire sauceandtomato saucealong with Indian and Malay spices to thecooking pot.Among the notable Chinese dishes in the country including thebak kut teh(肉骨茶) (pork rib soup with Chinese herbs),char kway teow(炒粿条) (stir fried rice noodle),dim sum(点心) (ready-to-serve dishes),hae mee(虾面) (spicy prawn noodle soup served in savoury broth),Hainanese chicken rice(海南鸡饭),kai si hor fun(鸡丝河粉) (flat rice noodle soup with chicken slices, shrimps and bean sprouts),kolok or kolo mee(干捞面) (Sarawakian egg noodle served in dark sauce, tomato sauce or chilli sauce),lor mee(卤面) (thick yellow noodle served in dark sauce and thick broth),ngiu chap mee(牛杂面) (special Sabah mixed beef noodle),pan mee(板面) (handmade noodle soup served with pork balls, minced pork, dried anchovies,black fungusand vegetable),sang nyuk mee(生肉面) (special Sabah dry pork noodle or pork noodle soup),wonton mee(云吞面) (dry noodle or noodle soup served with BBQ pork, minced pork and pork or shrimp dumplings) andyong tau foo(酿豆腐) (tofu and mixed vegetables filled with ground pork mixture or fish paste). Many Chinese Malaysians also can cook Malay-style chicken or fish with most versions oflaksa(叻唦) are prepared by them.Some examples of basic Chinese Malaysians drinks that are commercially produced in the country include theblack tea,chrysanthemum tea,grass jelly,green tea,jasmine tea,soy milkandwhite coffeewhile popular snacks including thecakoi(油炸鬼) (long deep-fried dough),egg tart,hum ji peng(咸煎饼) (circle shaped fried dough with or without fillings),ngoi sing tart(外星塔) (UFO shaped tart),ngo hiang(炸五香) (various spiced, minced meat rolls prepared in deep fried style and served with vegetables),pau(包) (steamed buns),popiah(薄饼) (fried or plain spring rolls filled with mixed vegetables), andtau sar piah(豆沙饼) (pastry biscuits filled with a sweet or savoury filling).The legacy from the first wave migration created thePeranakan(土生华人) (including the Baba-Nyonya (峇峇娘惹)) ethnicity through a blend between Chinese and Malay which subsequently produced thePeranakan cuisinewhere they served Indian-style curries with eatingetiquettedifferent from mainstream ethnic Chinese society by following the Malay usage of fingers thanchopsticks.The Baba-Nyonya also specialized in making a variety of local snacks calledkuihwhich require plenty of patience and skills.
The 1970 Malaysian Census reported theSouthern Mindialects being the largest which accounting for 34.2% of the country Chinese population, followed byHakkawith 22.1%,Cantoneseby 19.8%,Chaozhou(Teochew) by 12.4% andHainaneseby 4.7%.In 2003, a more detailed statistics for each dialects reported theHokkienwith 2,020,914, Hakka with 1,092,835, Cantonese with 1,068,008, Teochew with 497,280,Fuzhouwith 251,553, Hainanese with 141,045, Kwongsai with 51,674,Henghuawith 24,654, Hockchia with 14,935 and different other ethnic Chinese with 202,977, for a total of 5,365,875.The Malaysian Hokkien are divided into two localised dialects; thePenang Hokkien(northern) comprisingPenang,Kedah,PerlisandPerak, andSouthern Peninsular HokkieninJohor,Malaccaand neighbouring Singapore.The northern Hokkien contains more Malay loanwords than the southern with the latter maintaining more of their original Hokkien words.Many Hokkien living in Sarawak have been influenced heavily by indigenous language similarly with Hokkien in Kelantan where their language was heavily localised following close interaction with local Malays andSiamese.Localised Hokkien also spoken primarily by the Peranakan community (Baba-Nyonya) in both Malacca and Penang.Generally, Hokkien became a contact language among ethnic Chinese of different linguistic background in most parts of Malaysia.
TheMalaysian Cantonesebecame the contact language in the Malaysia's capital of Kuala Lumpur albeit with a distinctphonologyand grammar from standard Cantonese spoken inPearl River Deltaregion of China including inHong KongandMacau.Hakka dialect assumes the role of contact language in Sabah but in the rest of the country the language are more commonly used as an intra-group language than alingua francawithin the Chinese community with about 66.2% of Hakka in Johor preferlocalised Mandarin.Similar studies onEastern Minspeakers of Fuzhou community in Sarawak also found a general shift of language choice from their own dialect toMandarin Chineseand English.The Chaozhou dialect despite being not a largest dialect group has become a bridge language for trade between Teochew exporters in China and wholesalers in Malaysia.Hainan dialect is another minority and the sub-dialect of theMin Chinesedialect family although it is treated in the country as an independent dialect.Several others like Henghua are also generally termed as "dialects", which in fact together with the rest arevariety of Chinese languagesfrom different Chinese ethnicity.Mandarin, which is generally spoken by northern Chinese minority in Sabah become the mainworking languageamong all Chinese in the country withStandard Mandarinis used as themedium of instructionin local Chinese medium school andindependent high schoolalthough the language still not necessarily spoken in their daily life practice.Based on early Malaysian Census in 1970, around 41% of ethnic Chinese Malaysians are able to converse in Mandarin.
With the large presence of ethnic Chinese in the country nationwide,Chinese New Yearis celebrated as a national public holiday.11 states and three federal territoriesin the country celebrate with two days holidays while two remaining states of Kelantan and Terengganu only celebrate a one-day holiday.During the New Year, many Chinese living with their family in the urban areas will celebrate together, while some who may have family in rural areas will return for family reunions. Traditional dinner with the entire family is the most important aspect of the celebration and may include a traditional food tossing ofyee sang,especially among the Cantonese.Elders will usually give the young ared envelope(ang poworangpau). Avariety of festival sweetsare presented in the house for visitors. Most Chinese settlements andChinatownstreets will be decorated before the New Year with colorful lanterns.Dragonandliondances will be performed withfirecrackerandfireworksshows also featured as part of the celebrations.
Chingayprocessions are also being held as part of the New Year festivities especially in Johor Bahru and Penang.Several other festivals are celebrated through the seasons in a year including theDongzhi Festival,Dragon Boat Festival,Hungry Ghost Festival,Lantern Festival(Chap Goh Mei),Mid-Autumn Festival,Nine Emperor Gods FestivalandQingming Festivalwhich originated from much ofChinese folk beliefsand traditional agricultural society.Throughout the festivals, especially for major Chinese festivals such as the New Year, Hungry Ghost, and Mid-Autumn, Chinese temples will organize cultural and religious activities.The Hungry Ghost Festival is generally not observed by mostDejiao(Zi) group in Malaysia which descended directly fromDejiaoassociation in China, it is only mainly observed by threeZiassociations in Kuala Lumpur (Zi Fang Ge),Pulau Ketam(Zi Bang Ge) andButterworth(Zi Wei Gi) with the three calling the festival asWanyuan ShenghuithanYulan Shanghui.The Mooncake Festival is celebrated through the Mid-Autumn Festival where there people will exchange and eatmooncake.TraditionalChinese weddingsremain popular to some ethnic Chinese Malaysian couples even though most have preferred the Western-influenced wearing of whitewedding dressesand blackjackets.
Based on the 2000 Malaysian Census, 86.6% of ethnic Chinese Malaysians adhere toBuddhismandChinese folk religionwith numerousChinese temples and shrinesvisible nationwide.More detailed statistics in 2010 found a total of 5,341,687 ethnic Chinese Malaysians adhere to Buddhism, 706,479 areChristians, 218,261 practisingConfucianism,Taoismand otherChinese folk religious sects, 49,320 wereirreligious, 42,048 areMuslims, 14,878 areHindus, 11,387 with unknown religion while 8,576 practising other different religion.Among the commondeitiesworshipped by ethnic Chinese Malaysians in temples areLord Guan(Guansheng Dijun 关圣帝君),Guan Yin(Goddess of Mercy观世音菩萨),Dabo Gong 大伯公(Earth Deity) andMazu(Goddess of Sea 妈祖).
Commonly found in ethnic Chinese homes and shops arealtarsinstalled for deities of their affinities together withancestral worship. Most of the deities are of Chinese origin but it is still common to see a few local deities.Most, if not all cities in Malaysia include the presence of Chinese Buddhist temples and societies. However, there exists towns with only Buddhist statues, although some may have one or two other Chinese deities.OtherBuddhist branchesofTheravādaand variousTibetantraditions (Vajrayāna) also have Chinese members and some of the buildings of these branches were built with the funds andphilanthropicefforts from local Chinese Buddhists, examples being the establishment ofBuddhist Maha Viharain Kuala Lumpur andWat Chayamangkalaramin Penang.Unlike theinstitutional religionof Buddhism, Christianity and Islam, ethnic Chinese who follow traditional folk religion do not have separate names for their belief and practices, as similar to the indigenous Malaysians such asIbanand theOrang Asli.They describe their religious beliefs as eitherbai shenorbai fo(worshipping deities) which does usually include the worshipping of Buddha since Mahayana Buddhist deities are also commonly worshipped by the followers of Chinese traditional religion.
Chinese Christians, including bothCatholicandProtestantspresence, are mainly visible with their active missionary activities especially among ethnic Chinese in East Malaysia, having a large proportion compared to other regions.The majority of Christians in West Malaysia also are of Chinese origin.Most early Chinese churches includingBaptists,MethodistsandPresbyterianshave their origins from missionary migrants that introduced the missions established in China to Malaysia.The number of Chinese Muslims is very small compared to Chinese Christians since the latter religion is seen as more tolerant, mainly due to the general perception that embracingIslam in Malaysiais to becomeMalayised, in addition to the ethnic rivalry between Malay and Chinese that makes Islam as less desirable to ethnic Chinese Malaysians.A majority of Chinese Malaysians, especially those who have received Chinese education, follow Confucian values and to a lesser extent, Taoism. Some that are more traditional may hold more conservative views onfilial pietyandsocial relations, while also consultingChinese horoscopesas well on Chinesegeomancyoffeng shui.Taoist activities gain increasing interests and significance among Chinese Malaysians although it is not deeply practiced.
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