Penang Hokkien

Penang Hokkien(Chinese:庇能福建話;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Pī-né͘ng Hok-kiàn-ōa;Tâi-lô:Pī-néeng Hok-kiàn-uā;IPA:/pi˨˩nɛŋ˦˥hɔk̚˦kiɛn˥˧ua˨˩/) is a local variant ofHokkienspoken inPenang,Malaysia. It is spokennativelyby 63.9% ofPenang's Chinese community,and also by somePenangite IndiansandPenangite Malays.
It was once thelingua francaamong the majorityChinesepopulation inPenang,Kedah,Perlisand northernPerak. However, since the 1980s, many younger speakers haveshiftedtowardsMalaysian Mandarinunder the Speak Mandarin Campaign inChinese-medium schools in Malaysia, even though Mandarin was not previously spoken in these regions.Mandarinhas been adopted as the onlylanguage of instructionin Chinese schools and, from the 1980s to mid-2010s, these schools penalised students and teachers for using non-Mandarinvarieties of Chinese.A 2021 study found that Penang Hokkien was a 'threatened' language in theExpanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale, due to the encroachment of Mandarin.
Penang Hokkien is a subdialect ofZhangzhou(漳州;Tsiang-tsiu) Hokkien, with extensive use ofMalayandEnglishloanwords. Compared to dialects inFujian(福建;Hok-kiàn)province, it most closely resembles the variety spoken in the district ofHaicang(海滄;Hái-tshng) inLonghai(龍海;Liông-hái)countyand in the districts ofJiaomei(角美;Kak-bí) and Xinglin (杏林;Hēng-lîm) in neighbouringXiamen(廈門;Ēe-muî)prefecture.InSoutheast Asia, similar dialects are spoken in the states borderingPenang(Kedah,Perlisand northernPerak), as well as inMedanandNorth Sumatra,Indonesia. It is markedly distinct fromSouthern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien,Singaporean HokkienandTaiwanese Hokkien.
Penang Hokkien is largely a spoken language, however it can be written inChinese characters(唐人字;Tn̂g-lâng-jī), orromanisedin theLatin script(紅毛字;Âng-môo-jī). Penang Hokkien has a growing body of written, particularly romanised material, thanks largely in part to its increasing online presence on social media. Many topics focus on the language itself such as dictionaries and learning materials. This is linked to efforts to preserve, revitalise and promote the language as part of Penang's cultural heritage, due to increasing awareness of the loss of Penang Hokkien usage among younger generations in favour ofMandarinand English. The standard romanisation systems commonly used in these materials are based onTâi-lôandPe̍͘h-ōa-jī, with varying modifications to suit Penang Hokkien phonology.
The Hokkien Language Association of Penang (Persatuan Bahasa Hokkien Pulau Pinang; 庇能福建話協會) is one such organisation which promotes the language's usage and revitalisation. Through theirSpeak Hokkien Campaignthey promote a Tâi-lô based system modified to suit the phonology of Penang Hokkien and its loanwords. This system is used throughout this article and its features are detailed below.
The Speak Hokkien Campaign also promotes the use oftraditional Chinese charactersderived from recommended character lists forwritten Hokkienpublished byTaiwan's Ministry of Education.
Most native-speakers are not aware of these standardised systems and resort to ad hoc methods of romanisation based onEnglish,MalayandPinyinspelling rules. These methods are in common use for many proper names and food items, e.g.Char Kway Teow(炒粿條;tshá-kúe-tiâu). These spellings are often inconsistent and highly variable with several alternate spellings being well established, e.g.Char Koay Teow. These methods, which are more intuitive to the average native-speaker, are the basis of non-standard romanisation systems used in some written material.
In Penang Hokkien, the twoDepartingtones (3rd & 7th) are virtually identical, and may not be distinguished except in theirsandhiforms. Most native speakers of Penang Hokkien are therefore only aware of four tones in unchecked syllables (high, low, rising, high falling), and twoEnteringtones (high and low) in checked syllables. In most systems of romanisation, this is accounted as seven tones altogether. The tones are:
The names of the tones no longer bear any relation to the tone contours. The (upper)Rising(2nd) tone has two variants in Penang Hokkien, a high falling tone [˥˧] (53) and a high rising tone [˦˦˥] (445). The high falling tone [˥˧] (53) is more common among the older generations while in the younger generations there has been a shift towards the use of the high rising tone [˦˦˥] (445). When the 3rd tone is sandhied to the 2nd tone, the high falling variant [˥˧] (53) is used, however some speakers may sandhi the 3rd tone to the 1st tone [˦] (44).As in Amoy and Zhangzhou, there is no lowerRising(6th) tone.
Penang Hokkien, like other Hokkien dialects albeit less extensive,featurestone sandhi(變調;piàn-tiāu), a process where the tone of a character changes if it is followed by another character as part of a multisyllabic compound. When a character is read in isolation as a monosyllabic word, or as the final character in a multisyllabic compound, it is pronounced with its "original tone" (本調;pún-tiāu). Within a multisyllabic compound, every character, except for the one in the final position undergoes tone sandhi. For example, the word 牛gûin isolation is pronounced with an ascending tone, [˨˧] (23), but when it combines with a following syllable, as in 牛肉gû-bah, it undergoes tone sandhi and is pronounced with a low tone, [˨˩] (21). Meanwhile 肉bahin the final position is pronounced with its original tone [ʔ˧] (3). This process occurs regardless of the length of the compound, for example, in 牛肉粿條湯gû-bah-kué-tiâu-thng, the first 4 characters are pronounced with their sandhied tone, while only the final character 湯thng, is pronounced with its original tone.
In both Tâi-lô and Pe̍͘h-ōa-jī based romanisation systems, compounds are indicated with the use of hyphens linking the individual syllables. Single hyphens (-) are most often used and linked syllables undergo tone sandhi as described above. Double hyphens (--) are used in instances where the preceding syllable does not undergo tone sandhi. Tone marks always show the original tone, and do not change to indicate the sandhied tone in a compound.
The general tone sandhi rules for Penang Hokkien are as follows:
Checked syllables (-p, -t, -k, -h):
Although the two departing tones (3rd & 7th) are virtually identical in Penang Hokkien, in their sandhi forms they become [˥˧] (53) and [˨˩] (21) and are thus easily distinguishable.
There is a reasonably reliable correspondence between Hokkien and Mandarin tones:
Words withEnteringtones all end with⟨-p⟩,⟨-t⟩,⟨-k⟩or⟨-h⟩(glottal stop). As Mandarin no longer has anyEnteringtones, there is no simple corresponding relationship for the Hokkien 4th and 8th tones, e.g. 國kok/guó, but 發huat/fā. The tone in Mandarin often depends on what the initial consonant of the syllable is (see the article onEntering tonesfor details).
Hokkien has not been taught in schools in Penang since the establishment of theRepublic of Chinain 1911, when Mandarin was made the Chinese national language. As such, few if any people have received any formal instruction in Hokkien, and it is not used for literary purposes. However, as in other variants of Min Nan, most words have bothliterary and colloquial pronunciations. Literary variants are generally eschewed in favour of colloquial pronunciations, e.g. 大學tuā-o̍hinstead oftāi-ha̍k, though literary pronunciations still appear in limited circumstances, e.g.:
Unlike in China, Taiwan, and the Philippines, the literary pronunciations of numbers higher than two are not used when giving telephone numbers, etc.; e.g. 二五四jī-gōo-sìinstead ofjī-ngóo-sù.
Penang Hokkien has differences in pronunciation and vocabulary when compared to other varieties of Hokkien. Although Penang Hokkien has many similarities to Zhangzhou Hokkien from which it is derived, it also has its own unique differences.
General pronunciation differences can be shown as below:
Due to Penang's linguistic and ethnic diversity, Penang Hokkien is in close contact with many other languages and dialects which are drawn on heavily for loanwords.These include Malay, Teochew,Cantoneseand English.
Like other dialects inMalaysiaandSingapore,PenangHokkien borrows heavily fromMalay, but sometimes to a greater extent than other Hokkien dialects, e.g.:
There are also many Hokkien words which have been borrowed into Malay, sometimes with slightly different meanings, e.g.:
There are words in Penang Hokkien that originated from other varieties of Chinese spoken in and around Malaysia. e.g.:
Penang Hokkien has also borrowed some words from English, some of which may have been borrowed via Malay. Often, these words tend to be more technical and less well embedded than the Malay words, e.g. brake, park, pipe, pump, etc. However some are used in common everyday language, e.g.:
Penang Hokkien also contains words which are thought to come fromThai, e.g.:
In recent years, a number of movies that incorporate the use of Penang Hokkien have been filmed, as part of wider efforts to preserve the language's relevance.Among the more recent movies areThe Journey, which became the highest-grossing Malaysian film in 2014, andYou Mean the World to Me, the first movie to be filmed entirely in Penang Hokkien.
Another significant contribution to the entertainment landscape is the Penang Hokkien Podcast. Founded in 2005 by John Ong, a Penangite residing inKansas City, US - this podcast stands as the pioneering platform dedicated entirely to Penang-style Hokkien. Thepodcastoffers a fun and engaging show for Penangites and individuals who understand the language. With its inception predating the recent wave of Penang Hokkien-focused films, the podcast provides a unique space for lighthearted and casual conversations with no topic restrictions. Listeners can enjoy funny and relatable discussions reminiscent of sharing secrets and stories with close friends.
As an initiative in the realm of Penang Hokkien entertainment, the Penang Hokkien Podcast complements the efforts to preserve the language's relevance. It serves as an audio medium that celebrates the culture, and humour associated with Penang Hokkien, offering a valuable resource for those seeking animmersiveexperience.
An earlier and unexpected instance of Penang Hokkien in global entertainment can be traced back to the British sitcomMind Your Language(1977–79). Malaysian-born actressPik-Sen Lim, a native of Penang, portrayed Chung Su-Lee, a Chinese national. While her character would have been expected to speakMandarin, Lim naturally spoke Penang Hokkien, the language she grew up identifying as "Chinese". During the late 1970s, Mandarin had not yet gained global prominence, and the distinction went unnoticed by most viewers. This unintentional but authentic use of Penang Hokkien is likely the earliest recorded instance of the language being clearly spoken and heard on video, adding a unique and unplanned moment of representation for the language in international media. This occurrence underscores how Penang Hokkien forms a deep part of theidentityof its speakers, even when representing different cultural contexts.
TheSpeak Hokkien Campaignis a social movement aimed at the revitalisation and promotion of the Hokkien language, with a particular focus on preserving its use among Hokkien-speaking communities worldwide. Launched online on 12 Jul 2015, the campaign began as a grassroots initiative onFacebookby Hokkien speakers fromPenang,Malaysia, and has since grown into an active platform for spreading awareness and fostering pride in the language.
While its roots lie in Penang Hokkien, the campaign also shares information about other variants of Hokkien spoken in regions such asSingapore, thePhilippines,Indonesia,Taiwan, and beyond, emphasising the language’s diversity and cultural richness.
The campaign contrasts with Singapore’s government-ledSpeak Mandarin Campaign, advocating instead for the preservation and use of Hokkien. The Facebook page is operated by members of the Persatuan Bahasa Hokkien Pulau Pinang (Hokkien Language Association of Penang), a non-governmental organisation officially established in 2014 to safeguard the linguistic and cultural heritage of Penang Hokkien. Through its online presence, the Speak Hokkien Campaign plays a crucial role in uniting Hokkien-speaking communities globally and inspiring a renewed appreciation for the language.