Pax Mongolica

ThePax Mongolica(Latin for "Mongol Peace"), less often known asPax Tatarica("Tatar Peace"), is ahistoriographicalterm modeled after the original phrasePax Romanawhich describes the stabilizing effects of the conquests of theMongol Empireon the social, cultural and economic life of the inhabitants of the vastEurasianterritory that the Mongols conquered in the 13th and 14th centuries. The term is used to describe the eased communication and commerce that the unified administration helped to create and the period of relative peace that followed theMongols' vast and violent conquests.
The conquests ofGenghis Khan(r. 1206–1227) and hissuccessors, spanning fromSoutheast AsiatoEastern Europe, effectively took over theEastern worldwith theWestern world. TheSilk Road, connecting trade centres acrossAsiaandEurope, came under the sole rule of the Mongol Empire. It was commonly said that "a maiden bearing a nugget of gold on her head could wander safely throughout the realm".Despite thepolitical fragmentation of the Mongol Empireinto four khanates (Yuan dynasty,Golden Horde,Chagatai KhanateandIlkhanate), nearly a century of conquest and civil war was followed by relative stability in the early 14th century. The end of thePax Mongolicawas marked by the disintegration of thekhanatesand the outbreak of theBlack Deathin Asia whichspread along trade routesto much of the world in the mid-14th century.
During this time, Mongol elements including theʼPhags-pa scriptmade numerousappearances in Western art.
Pax Mongolicafollowed the wake of conquests by theMongol Empirebeginning withGenghis Khanin the early 13th century. In the process of conquering the various tribes in the region, Genghis Khan revolutionised the way Mongolian tribal society was structured.After each new victory, more and more people were incorporated under Genghis Khan's rule, thus diversifying the societal balance of the tribe. In 1203, Genghis Khan, in an effort to strengthen his army, ordered a reform that reorganised his army's structure while breaking down the traditional clan- and kindred-based divisions that had previously fragmented the society and military. He arranged his army intoarbans(inter-ethnic groups of ten), and the members of anarbanwere commanded to be loyal to one another regardless of ethnic origin.Tenarbansmade azuun, or a company; tenzuunsmade amyangan, or a battalion; and tenmyangansformed atumen, or an army of 10,000. Thisdecimal systemorganisation of Genghis Khan's strongmilitarywould prove very effective in conquering, by persuasion or force, the many tribes of the central Asian steppe, but it would also strengthen Mongol society as a whole.By 1206 Genghis Khan's military expansion had unified the tribes of Mongolia, and in the same year he was elected and acclaimed as the leader ofMongolia.
The new Mongol empire quickly moved to annex more territory. The first Mongol conquests were campaigns against theWestern Xia.In 1209 the Mongols conquered the Western Xia. Between 1213 and 1214 the Mongols conquered theJin Empire, and by 1214 the Mongols had captured most of the land north of theYellow River.In 1221 Mongol generalsJebeandSubodeibegan their expedition around theCaspian Seaand intoKievan Rus'; Genghis Khan defeated TurkicJalal ad-Din Mingburnuat theBattle of Indus; theKhwarezmian Empirewere defeated that same year. In 1235 the Mongols successfully invadedKorea.Two years later in 1237Batu KhanandSubodeibegan their conquest ofRus'; they invadedPolandandHungaryin 1241. In 1252 the Mongols began their invasion ofSong China; they would seize the capital ofHangzhouin 1276. In 1258Hulagu KhancapturedBaghdad.
Each new victory gave the Mongols the chance to incorporate new people, especially foreign engineers andlabourers, into their society. Each new conquest also acquired new trade routes and the opportunity to controltaxationandtribute. Thus, through territorial expansion, the Mongol Nation not only became an empire, but also became moretechnologicallyandeconomicallyadvanced.
At its height, the Mongolian empire stretched fromBusanin the east toBudapestin the west, fromLithuaniain the north toVietnamin the south. This meant that an extremely large part of the continent was united under one political authority. As a result, the trade routes used by merchants became safe for travel, resulting in an overallgrowth and expansion of tradefrom China in the east to Britain in the west.Thus, thePax Mongolicagreatly influenced many civilizations inEurasiaduring the 13th and 14th centuries.
Under the Mongols new technologies and commodities were exchanged across theOld World, particularly Eurasia.Thomas T. Allsennoted many personnel exchanges occurred during the Mongol period.There were many significant developments in economy (especially trade and public finance),military,medicine,agriculture,cuisine,astronomy,printing,geography, andhistoriography, which were not limited to Eurasia but also includedNorth Africa.
Before the Mongols' rise, theOld Worldsystem consisted of isolated imperial systems.The new Mongol empire amalgamated the once isolated civilizations into a new continental system, and re-established theSilk Roadas a dominant method of transportation. The unification of Eurasia under the Mongols greatly diminished the number of competing tribute gatherers throughout the trade network and assured greater safety and security in travel.During thePax Mongolica, European merchants likeMarco Polomade their way fromEuropetoChinaon the well-maintained and well travelled roads that linkedAnatoliato China.
On the Silk RoadcaravanswithChinese silk;pepper,ginger,cinnamon, andnutmegcame to theWestfrom theSpice Islandsvia the transcontinental trade routes. Eastern diets were introduced to Europeans as well.Indian muslins, cottons, pearls, and precious stones were sold in Europe, as well as weapons, carpets, and leather goods fromIran.Gunpowderwas also introduced to Europe from China. In the opposite direction, Europeans sent silver, fine cloth, horses, linen, and other goods to the near and far East.Increasing trade and commerce meant that the respective nations and societies increased their exposure to new goods and markets, thus increasing theGDPof each nation or society that was involved in the trade system. Μany of the cities participating in the 13th century world trade system grew rapidly in size.
Along with land trade routes, aMaritime Silk Roadcontributed to the flow of goods and establishment of aPax Mongolica. This Maritime Silk Road started with short coastal routes in Southern China. As technology and navigation progressed these routes developed into a high-seas route into the Indian Ocean. Eventually these routes further developed encompassing theArabian Sea,Persian Gulf,Red Sea, and the sea off East Africa.
Along with tangible goods, people, techniques, information, and ideas moved lucidly across the Eurasian landmass for the first time.For example,John of Montecorvino, archbishop ofBeijingfoundedRoman Catholicmissionsin India and China and also translated the New Testament into the Mongolian language.Long-distance trade brought new methods of doing business from the far East to Europe;bills of exchange, deposit banking, and insurance were introduced to Europe during thePax Mongolica.Bills of exchange made it significantly easier to travel long distances because a traveller would not be burdened by the weight of metal coins.
Islamicmethods ofmathematics,astronomy, andsciencemade their way toAfrica,East AsiaandEuropeduring thePax Mongolica.Methods of paper-making and printing made their way from China to Europe. Rudimentary banking systems were established, and money changing and credit extension were common, resulting in large amounts of merchant wealth.
Mongolia's central geographical position on the Asian continent was an important reason why it was able to play such a large role in the trade system.TheMongol armywas easily able to assert strong rulethroughout most of theempire.The military ensured that supply lines and trade routes flowed smoothly; permanent garrisons were established along trade routes to protect the travelers on these routes.Complex local systems of taxation and extortion that were prevalent before Mongol rule were abolished to ensure the smooth flow of merchants and trade through the empire.A system of weights-and-measures was also standardised.To make the voyage on the trade routes less harrowing, the Mongols went as far as to plant trees along the roads to shade the merchants and travelers in the summer months; stone pillars were used to mark the roads where trees could not grow.
The Mongols sought alliances with other nations and societies to ensure the flow of trade through the empire.The Mongol army was also used to reshape and streamline the flow of trade through the continent by destroying cities on the less-important or more inaccessible routes.The Mongol military was mostly made up of cavalrymen. This allowed the military to move swiftly and easily over large distances.
The Mongols developed the concepts of liability in relation to investments and loans in Mongol–ortoq partnerships, promoting trade and investment to facilitate the commercial integration of the Mongol Empire. In Mongol times, the contractual features of a Mongol-ortoqpartnership closely resembled that ofqiradandcommendaarrangements, however, Mongol investors used metal coins, paper money, gold and silver ingots and tradable goods for partnership investments and primarily financed money-lending and trade activities.Moreover, Mongol elites formed trade partnerships with merchants from Central and Western Asia and Europe, including Chinese andMarco Polo's family.
The code of Mongol law, known as theYassa("Great Law"), decreed strict rules and punishments in many areas of the Mongolian Empire's society, especially those areas concerning trade and commerce. TheYassahelped suppress the traditional causes of tribal feuding and war, thus helping to ensure a peaceful trading and traveling environment.Theft and animal rustling were outlawed, and the Mongol Empire underGenghis Khaneven established a massive lost-and-found system.Harsh penalties including a retribution of nine times the original value of stolen goods helped deter theft on Mongol roads.TheYassaalso decreed complete religious freedom, ensuring thatBuddhists,Muslims,Christians, etc., were all allowed to travel freely throughout the empire; religious leaders were also exempted from taxation, as were doctors, lawyers,undertakers, teachers, and scholars.TheYassadid allow for flexibility and it usually adapted, absorbed, or built upon legal systems in remote parts of the empire, thus maintaining a level of openness to various societies and ensuring peace and stability.
In order to ensure Mongol law was enforced, a hierarchy of legal administration was developed. This was headed by the Secretarial Council "chung-shu-sheng" (中書省) of the central government which oversaw 10 provincial governments known as "hsing-sheng" (行省). The Xingsheng was further split into smaller districts which handled legal cases. A police commissioner known as "hsien wei" (縣委) was entrusted withlaw enforcementand had the authority to arrest suspects. This method of federalising the empire made it easier and more efficient for laws to be administered throughout the continent.
The Mongols established theYam(Mongolian:Өртөө,Örtöö,checkpoint), the first system of communication that connected the Far East and the West. Relay stations were set up every 25–30 miles or an averageday's journeyon horse. These stations were introduced byÖgedei Khanin 1234 and supplied fresh horses andfodder. His brothersChagatai KhanandToluiand his nephewBatu Khanfurther extended this network.
The Mongol army administered theYam. The Yam stretched across Mongol territory from Eastern Europe to the Pacific Ocean.The routes were well organised, funded, maintained, and administered by the Mongols.This highly sophisticated system of communication and travel made it relatively easy to send important messages and travel long distances in relatively short amounts of time. As a result of the relatively lucid communication and ease of movement, the Mongols were able to govern their vast empire effectively, thereby ensuring political and economic stability.
The decline ofPax Mongolicawas a result of a number of factors: incompetent and rivaling leaders, corruption, revolts,decadence, factional struggles, assassinations, external attacks, and disease. The decline of thePax Mongolicaresulted in a decline of eased trade between East and West.
The Mongol Empire, near the time of its decline, consisted of many different territories. Each territory was defined as a "khanate". Due to the isolationof the Mongolian world, many rulers in the 14th century started to focus on their own khanates.
Religious intolerancewas one particular factor in the decline of thePax Mongolica. InRus', the Mongols (known as theGolden Horde), gradually lost power and territory due to intolerance specifically geared towards different religions. The Rus' Mongols converted toIslamand joined theEgyptian Mamluksfor political reasons. At one point in the war, the Golden Horde even fought thePersian Mongols.The eastern part of the Golden Horde,White Horde, had friendly relations with the Ilkhanate and the Great Khan. Thedecentralisationoccurred because communication was so difficult due to the collapsing trade system and the rivalry between Mongol princes. Eventually, thePersianMongol leaderGhazanconverted to Islam in 1295. This contributed to the growing power ofNawruz; a MuslimOiratgeneral.
In China, descendants ofKublai Khanclaimed the Mongols weakened their power by becoming "too Chinese". This led toYuanemperors separating themselves from their subjects in order to stress their Mongol identity and to reject their Chinese culture. Kublai Khan once promoted Chinese culture and the importance of its practice but under the Yuan emperors this was prohibited. As the Chinese culture was changing, intolerance became more common. Some Chinese thought that the Mongols were planning to kill Chinese children and perform sexual ritualson them. As a result many Chinese becamexenophobictowards the Mongols. This xenophobia led Chinese rulers to expel the Mongols from China and form theMing dynasty.
The segregation and fragmentation of the respective khanates in the Mongol Empire were not the only factors in contributing to the decline of thePax Mongolica. The outbreak ofbubonic plague, orBlack Death, also played a devastating role in the decline of thePax Mongolica. Because the Mongol Empire bridged once isolated regions, it made it easy for the Black Death to spread rapidly.HistorianWilliam H. McNeillhas noted that the plague was transferred from ground rodents living in southern Chinese and Burmese Himalayan foothills to Mongol soldiers when theyinvadedthe area in 1252.In 1331 theplaguewas noted in China,and from East Asia it was carried west along thetrade routesby merchants and Mongol soldiers who were able to so freely and quickly travel across the continent during thePax Mongolica. Plague-infected fleas hitched rides in the manes ofhorses, on the hair ofcamels, or onblack ratsthat nestled in cargoes or insaddlebags.The Black Death is estimated to have killed one-third of China's population and 25-50% of Europe's population.
Demographically weakened, the Mongols were not able to exert their rule over remote domains in their empire, which began to revolt once the plague broke out.These revolts disrupted the production of goods and flow of trade, which ended thePax Mongolica.
Over the next 300 years, China became increasingly isolationist and inward-looking.China prohibited foreigners, foreign trade, and languages other than Chinese.ConfucianismandTaoismwere reinstated as the national religions, and the Chinese experienced cultural stagnation.During the early years of theMing dynasty, despite the voyages ofZheng He, trade with the rest of the world overall declined.This is attributed to wars, epidemics and widespread disruptions rather than "symbolic policy change".Economic difficulties also contributed to the decline as an important world trade player.TheBlack Deathquickly spread to the rest of the world trade system, and the long-distance trading that was common and applauded during thePax Mongolicaalmost entirely stopped.