Culture of Europe

TheCulture of Europeis diverse, and rooted in itsart,architecture,traditions,cuisines,music,folklore,embroidery,film,literature,economics,philosophyandreligious customs.
Whilst there are a great number of perspectives that can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing concept of European culture.Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe.One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes:
Berting says that these points fit with "Europe's most positive realizations".The concept of European culture is arguably linked to the classical definition of theWestern world. In this definition, Western culture is the set ofliterary,scientific,political,artistic, andphilosophicalprinciples which set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in theWestern canon.The term has come to apply to countries whose history has been strongly marked by European immigration or settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries, such asthe Americas, andAustralasia, and is not restricted to Europe.
TheNobel Prizelaureate in LiteratureThomas Stearns Eliot, in his 1948 bookNotes Towards the Definition of Culture, credited the prominentChristian influenceupon the European culture:"It is in Christianity that our arts have developed; it is in Christianity that the laws of Europe have--until recently--been rooted."
In the 5th century BCE, Greek philosopherHerodotusconceptualized what it was that divided Europe and Asia, differentiating Europe, as the West (where the sun sets), from the East (where the sun rises).A later concept of Europe as a cultural sphere emerged during theCarolingian Renaissanceof the late 8th and early 9th century, limited to the territories of Europe that practicedWestern Christianityat the time.
Europe underwent social change and transition from the Middle Ages to modernisation, when the cultural movementRenaissance, from the 15th to 16th century, spread values and art techniques across the continent.
Surviving Europeanprehistoric artmainly comprises sculpture and rock art. It includes the oldest known representation of the human body, theVenus of Hohle Fel, dating from 40,000 to 35,000 BC, found inSchelklingen,Germany, and theLöwenmensch figurine, from about 30,000 BC, the oldest undisputed piece of figurative art. TheSwimming Reindeerof about 11,000 BCE is among the finestMagdaleniancarvings in bone or antler of animals in theart of the Upper Paleolithic. At the beginning of theMesolithicin Europe, the figurative sculpture was greatly reduced, and remained a less common element in art than relief decoration of practical objects until the Roman period, despite some works such as theGundestrup cauldronfrom theEuropean Iron Ageand the Bronze AgeTrundholm sun chariot. The oldest European cave art dates back to 40,800and can be found in theEl Castillo Cavein Spain, but cave art exists across the continent. Rock painting was also performed on cliff faces, but fewer of those paintings have survived because of erosion. One well-known example is the rock paintings ofAstuvansalmiin theSaimaaarea of Finland.
TheRock Art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basinforms a distinct group with the human figure the main focus, often seen in large groups, with battles, dancing, and hunting all represented, as well as other activities and details such as clothing. The figures are generally rather sketchily depicted in thin paint, with the relationships between the groups of humans and animals more carefully depicted than individual figures. PrehistoricCeltic artis another distinct grouping from much ofIron Age Europeand survives mainly in the form of high-status metalwork skillfully decorated with complex, elegant, and mostly abstract designs, often using curving and spiral forms. Full-length human figures of any size are so rare that their absence may represent a religious taboo. As the Romans conquered Celtic territories, the style vanished, except in theBritish Isles, where it influenced theInsular styleof the Early Middle Ages.
Ancient Greek artstands out among that of other ancient cultures for its development of naturalistic but idealized depictions of the human body, in which largely nude male figures were generally the focus of innovation. The rate of stylistic development between about 750 and 300 BC was remarkable by ancient standards, and in surviving works is best seen inAncient Greek sculpture. There were important innovations in painting, which have to be essentially reconstructed due to the lack of original survivals of quality, other than the distinct field of painted pottery.Black-figure potteryand the subsequentred-figure potteryare famous and influential examples of the Ancient Greek decorative arts.
Roman artwas influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting and sculpture, but was also strongly influenced by the more localEtruscan artof Italy. The sculpture was perhaps considered as the highest form of art by Romans, but figure painting was also very highly regarded. TheRoman sculptureis primarily portraiture derived from the upper classes of society as well as depictions of the gods. However, Roman painting does have important unique characteristics. Among surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas inCampania, in Southern Italy, especially atPompeiiandHerculaneum. Such painting can be grouped into four main "styles" or periods and may contain the first examples oftrompe-l'œil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape.Early Christian artgrew out of Roman popular, and later Imperial, art and adapted itsiconographyfrom these sources.
Medieval art can be broadly categorized into the Byzantine art of the Eastern Roman Empire, and the Gothic art that emerged in Western Europe over the same period.
Byzantine artwas strongly influenced by its classical heritage but distinguished itself by the development of a new, abstract, aesthetic, marked by anti-naturalism and a favor for symbolism. The subject matter of monumental Byzantine art was primarily religious and imperial: the two themes are often combined, as in the portraits of later Byzantine emperors that decorated the interior of the sixth-century church ofHagia Sophiain Constantinople. However, the Byzantines inherited theEarly Christiandistrust ofmonumental sculpturein religious art, and produced onlyreliefs, of which very few survivals are anything like life-size, in sharp contrast to the medieval art of the West, where monumental sculpture revived fromCarolingian artonwards. Small ivories were also mostly in relief. The so-called "minor arts" were very important in Byzantine art, and luxury items, including ivories carved in relief as formal presentationConsular diptychsor caskets such as theVeroli casket,hardstone carvings,enamels,glass, jewelry, metalwork, andfigured silkswere produced in large quantities throughout the Byzantine era.
Migration Period artincludes the art of the Germanic tribes on the continent, as well the start of the distinctInsular artor Hiberno-Saxon art of theAnglo-Saxonand Celtic fusion in theBritish Isles. It covers many different styles of art including the polychrome style and the Scythian and Germanicanimal style. AfterChristianization, Migration Period art developed into various schools of EarlyMedieval artin Western Europe, which are normally classified by region, such asAnglo-Saxon artandCarolingian art, before the continent-wide styles ofRomanesque artand finallyGothic artdeveloped.
Romanesque artandGothic artdominated Western and Central Europe from approximately 1000 AD to the rise of theRenaissance stylein the 15th century or later, depending on the region. The Romanesque style was greatly influenced by Byzantine and Insular art. Religious art, such as church sculpture and decorated manuscripts, was particularly prominent. Art of the period was characterized by a very vigorous style in both sculpture and painting. Colors tended to be very striking and mostly primary. Compositions usually had little depth, and needed to be flexible to be squeezed into the shapes ofhistoriated initials, column capitals, and churchtympanums. Figures often varied in size in relation to their importance, and landscape backgrounds, if attempted at all, were closer to abstract decorations than realism.
Gothic art developed from Romanesque art in Northern France in the 12th century AD, led by the concurrent development ofGothic architecture. It spread to all ofWestern Europe, and much ofSouthernandCentral Europe. In the late 14th century, the sophisticated court style ofInternational Gothicdeveloped, which continued to evolve until the late 15th century. In many areas, especially England and Germany, Late Gothic art continued well into the 16th century.  Gothic art was oftentypologicalin nature, showing the stories of the New Testament and the Old Testament side by side. Saints' lives were often depicted. Images of theVirgin Marychanged from the Byzantine iconic form to a more human and affectionate mother, often showing the refined manners of a courtly lady.
Secularart came into its own during the gothic period alongside the creation of abourgeoisclass who could afford to patronize the arts and commission works. Increased literacy and a growing body ofsecular vernacular literatureencouraged the representation of secular themes in art. With the growth of cities, tradeguildswere formed, and artists were often required to be members of apainters' guild—as a result, because of better record-keeping, more artists are known to us by name in this period than any previous.
Renaissance artemerged as a distinct style in northern Italy from around 1420, in parallel with developments which occurred inphilosophy,literature,music, andscience. It took as its foundation the art ofClassical antiquity, but was also influenced by the art of Northern Europe and contemporary scientific knowledge. Renaissance artists painted a wide variety ofthemes. Religiousaltarpieces,frescocycles, and small works for private devotion were very popular. Painters in both Italy and northern Europe frequently turned toJacobus de Voragine'sGolden Legend(1260), a highly influential sourcebook for the lives ofsaintsthat had already had a strong influence on Medieval artists. Interest in classical antiquity andRenaissance humanismalso resulted in manyMythologicalandhistory paintings. Decorativeornament, often used in painted architectural elements, was especially influenced by classical Roman motifs.
Techniques characteristic of Renaissance art include the use ofproportionandlinear perspective;foreshortening, to create an illusion of depth;sfumato, a technique of softening of sharp outlines by subtle blending of tones to give the illusion of depth or three-dimensionality; andchiaroscuro, the effect of using a strong contrast between light and dark to give the illusion of depth or three-dimensionality.
Renaissance Classicism spawned two different movements—Mannerismand theBaroque. Mannerism, a reaction against the idealist perfection of Classicism, employed distortion of light and spatial frameworks in order to emphasize the emotional content of a painting and the emotions of the painter. Where High Renaissance art emphasizes proportion, balance, and ideal beauty, Mannerism exaggerates such qualities, often resulting in compositions that are asymmetrical or unnaturally elegant. The style is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities. It favors compositional tension and instability rather than the balance and clarity of earlier Renaissance paintings.
In contrast, Baroque art took the representationalism of the Renaissance to new heights, emphasizing detail, movement, lighting, and drama. Perhaps the best-known Baroque painters areCaravaggio,Rembrandt,Peter Paul Rubens, andDiego Velázquez. Baroque art is often seen as part of theCounter-Reformation— the revival of spiritual life in theRoman Catholic Church. Religious and political themes are widely explored within the Baroque artistic context, and both paintings and sculptures are characterized by a strong element of drama, emotion, and theatricality. Baroque art was particularly ornate and elaborate in nature, often using rich, warm colors with dark undertones.Dutch Golden Age paintingis a distinct subset of Baroque, leading to the development of secular genres such asstill life,genre paintingsof everyday scenes, andlandscape painting.
By the 18th century, Baroque art had developed intoRococoin France. Rococo art was even more elaborate than the Baroque, but it was less serious and more playful. The artistic movement no longer placed emphasis on politics and religion, focusing instead on lighter themes such as romance, celebration, and appreciation of nature. Furthermore, it sought inspiration from the artistic forms and ornamentation ofFar Eastern Asia, resulting in the rise in favor ofporcelainfigurines andchinoiseriein general. Rococo soon fell out of favor, being seen by many as a gaudy and superficial movement emphasizing aesthetics over meaning.
Neoclassicismbegan in the 18th century as a counter-movement opposing Rococo. It desired for a return to the simplicity, order, and 'purism' of classical antiquity, especially ancient Greece and Rome. Neoclassicism was the artistic component of the intellectual movement known asthe Enlightenment. Neoclassicism had become widespread in Europe throughout the 18th century, especially in theUnited Kingdom. In many ways, Neoclassicism can be seen as a political movement as well as an artistic and cultural one. Neoclassical art places emphasis on order, symmetry, and classical simplicity; common themes in Neoclassical art include courage and war, as were commonly explored in ancient Greek and Roman art.Ingres,Canova, andJacques-Louis Davidare among the best-known neoclassicists.
Just as Mannerism rejected Classicism,Romanticismrejected the aesthetic of the Neoclassicists, specifically the highly objective and ordered nature of Neoclassicism, favoring instead a more individual and emotional approach to the arts. Emphasis was placed on nature, especially when aiming to portray the power and beauty of the natural world, and emotions. Romantic art often used colors in order to express feelings and emotions. Romantic art was inspired by ancient Greek and Roman art and mythology, but also takes much of its aesthetic qualities frommedievalismandGothicism, as well as later mythology andfolklore. Among the greatest Romantic artists wereEugène Delacroix,Francisco Goya,J. M. W. Turner,John Constable,Caspar David Friedrich, andWilliam Blake.
In response to these changes caused byIndustrialisation, the movement ofRealismemerged, which sought to accurately portray the conditions and hardships of the poor in the hopes of changing society. In contrast with Romanticism, which was essentially optimistic about mankind, Realism offered a stark vision of poverty and despair. While Romanticism glorified nature, Realism portrayed life in the depths of an urban wasteland. Like Romanticism,Realismwas a literary as well as an artistic movement. Other contemporary movements were moreHistoricistin nature, such as thePre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which attempted to return art to its state of "purity" prior toRaphael, and theArts and Crafts Movement, which reacted against the impersonality of mass-produced goods and advocated a return to medieval craftsmanship.
This broad era encompassesearly music, which generally comprisesMedieval music(500–1400) andRenaissance music(1400–1600), but sometimes includesBaroque music(1600–1760).
This era includes thecommon practice periodfrom approximately 1600 to 1900, as well as themodernistandpostmoderniststyles that emerged after 1900 and which continue to the present day.
Folk music: Europe has a wide and diverse range of indigenous music, sharing common features in rural, traveling, or maritime communities. Folk music is embedded in an unwritten, oral tradition, but was increasingly transcribed from the nineteenth century onwards. Many classical composers used folk melodies, and folk music continues to influence popular music in Europe, however its prominence varies across countries. See thelist of European folk music.
Popular music: Europe has imported many different genres of popular music, includingRock,Blues,R&BSoul,Jazz,Hip-HopandPop. Various modern genres named after Europe are rooted inElectronic dance music(EDM), and includeEuropop,Eurodisco,EurodanceandEurobeat. Popular music can vary considerably across Europe. Styles of music from nations formerly underOttoman ruleenrich this variation, with their native musical traditions having fused withOttoman musical influencesover centuries.
TheNeolithic long housewas a long, narrow timber dwelling built by the first farmers inEuropebeginning at least as early as the period 5000 to 6000BC.Knap of HowarandSkara Brae, theOrkney Islands, Scotland, are stone-built Neolithic settlements dating from 3,500 BC.Megalithsfound in Europe and the Mediterranean were also erected in the Neolithic period. SeeNeolithic architecture.
Ancient Greek architecturewas produced by theGreek-speaking peoplewhosecultureflourished on the Greek mainland, thePeloponnese, theAegean Islands, and in colonies inAnatoliaand Italy for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD. Ancient Greek architecture is distinguished by its highly formalized characteristics, both of structure and decoration. The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in particular the division of architectural style into three defined orders: theDoric Order, theIonic Order, and theCorinthian Order, was to have a profound effect on theWestern architectureof later periods.
Ancient Roman architectureadopted the external language of classicalGreek architecturefor the purposes of theancient Romans, but differed from Greek buildings, becoming a newarchitecturalstyle. The two styles are often considered one body ofclassical architecture. Roman architecture flourished in theRoman Republicand even more so under theEmpire, when the great majority of surviving buildings were constructed. It used new materials, particularly concrete, and newer technologies such as thearchand thedometo make buildings that were typically strong and well-engineered. Large numbers remain in some form across the empire, sometimes complete and still in use.]
Romanesque architecturecombines features ofancient RomanandByzantinebuildings and other local traditions. It is known for its massive quality, thick walls, round arches, sturdypillars,groin vaults, large towers, and decorativearcading. Each building has clearly defined forms, frequently of a very regular,symmetricalplan; the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics and different materials, and is most frequently seen in churches. Plenty of examples of this architecture are found alongside theCamino de Santiago.
Gothic architectureflourished inEuropeduring theHighandLate Middle Ages. It evolved fromRomanesque architectureand was succeeded byRenaissance architecture. Originating in 12th centuryFranceand lasting into the 16th century, Gothic architecture was known during the period asOpus Francigenum("French work"), with the termGothicfirst appearing during the latter part of theRenaissance. Its characteristics include thepointed arch, theribbed vault(which evolved from the joint vaulting of Romanesque architecture), and theflying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the greatcathedrals,abbeys, and churches of Europe.
Renaissance architecturebegan in the early 14th and lasted until the early 17th century. It demonstrates a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman architectural thought and material culture, particularly thesymmetry,proportion,geometry, and the regularity of parts of ancient buildings. Developed first inFlorence, withFilippo Brunelleschias one of its innovators, the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities. The style was carried to France, Germany, England, Russia, and other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact
Palladian architecturewas derived from and inspired by the designs of the Italian Renaissance architectAndrea Palladio(1508–1580). Palladio's work was strongly based on the symmetry, perspective, and values of the formal classical temple architecture of theAncient GreeksandRomans. From the 17th century, Palladio's interpretation of this classical architecture was adapted as the style known as Palladianism. It continued to develop until the end of the 18th century, and continued to be popular in Europe throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, where it was frequently employed in the design of public and municipal buildings.
Baroque architecturebegan in 16th-century Italy. It took theRomanvocabulary ofRenaissance architectureand used it in a new rhetorical and theatrical fashion. It was, initially at least, directly linked to theCounter-Reformation, a movement within theCatholic Churchto reform itself in response to theProtestant Reformation. Baroque was characterized by new explorations of form, light, and shadow, and a freer treatment of classical elements. It reached its extreme form in theRococostyle.
Revivalismwas a hallmark of nineteenth-century European architecture. Revivals of theRomanesque,Gothic,Renaissance, andBaroquestyles all took place, alongside revivals of the Classical styles. Regional styles, such as EnglishTudor, were also revived, as well as non-European styles, such as Chinese (Chinoiserie) andEgyptian. These revivals often used elements of the original style in a freer way than original examples, sometimes borrowing from multiple styles at once. At Alnwick Castle, for example, Gothic revival elements were added to the exterior of the original medieval castle, while the interiors were designed in a Renaissance style.
Art Nouveau architecturewas a reaction against the eclectic styles which dominated European architecture in the second half of the 19th century. It was expressed through decoration. The buildings were covered with ornament in curving forms, based on flowers, plants, or animals: butterflies, peacocks, swans, irises, cyclamens, orchids, and water lilies. Façades were asymmetrical, and often decorated with polychrome ceramic tiles. The decoration usually suggested movement; there was no distinction between the structure and the ornament.
Art Deco architecturebegan in Brussels in 1903–04. Early buildings had clean lines, rectangular forms, and no decoration on the facades; they marked a clean break with the Art Nouveau style. After the First World War, art deco buildings of steel and reinforced concrete began to appear in large cities across Europe and the United States. Buildings became more decorated, and interiors were extremely colorful and dynamic, combining sculpture, murals, and ornate geometric design in marble, glass, ceramics, and stainless steel.
Modernist architectureis a term applied to a group of styles ofarchitecturethat emerged in the first half of the 20th century and became dominant afterWorld War II. It was based upon new technologies of construction, particularly the use ofglass,steel, andreinforced concrete; and upon a rejection of the traditionalneoclassical architectureandBeaux-Artsstyles that were popular in the 19th century. Modernist architecture continued to be the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings into the 1980s, when it was challenged bypostmodernism.
Expressionist architectureis a form of modern architecture that began during the first decades of the 20th century, in parallel with theexpressionistvisual and performing arts that especially developed and dominated inGermany. In the 1950s, the second movement of expressionist architecture developed, initiated by theRonchamp Chapel Notre-Dame-du-Haut(1950–1955) byLe Corbusier. The style was individualistic, but tendencies include Distortion of form for an emotional effect, efforts at achieving the new, original, and visionary, and a conception of architecture as a work of art.
Postmodern architectureemerged in the 1960s as a reaction against the austerity, formality, and lack of variety ofmodern architecture, particularly in theinternational styleadvocated byLe CorbusierandLudwig Mies van der Rohe. Embraced in the USA first, it spread to Europe. In contrast to Modernist buildings, Postmodern buildings have curved forms, decorative elements, asymmetry, bright colors, and features often borrowed from earlier periods. Colors and textures unrelated to the structure or function of the building. While rejecting the "puritanism" of modernism, it called for a return to ornament, and an accumulation of citations and collages borrowed from past styles. It borrowed freely from classical architecture,Rococo,neoclassical architecture, the Viennesesecession, the BritishArts and Crafts movement, the GermanJugendstil.
Deconstructivist architectureis a movement ofpostmodern architecturewhich appeared in the 1980s, which gives the impression of the fragmentation of the constructed building. It is characterized by an absence of harmony, continuity, or symmetry. Its name comes from the idea of "Deconstruction", a form ofsemioticanalysis developed by the French philosopherJacques Derrida. Besides fragmentation, Deconstructivism often manipulates the structure's surface skin and creates by non-rectilinearshapes which appear to distort and dislocateelements of architecture. The finished visual appearance is characterized by unpredictability and controlled chaos.
Western literature, also known as European literature,is theliteraturewritten in the context ofWestern culturein thelanguages of Europe, and is shaped by the periods in which they were conceived, with each period containing prominent western authors, poets, and pieces of literature.
The best of Western literature is considered to be theWestern canon. The list of works in the Western canon varies according to the critic's opinions onWestern cultureand the relative importance of its defining characteristics. Different literary periods held great influence on the literature of Western and European countries, with movements and political changes impacting the prose and poetry of the period. The 16th Century is known for the creation of Renaissance literature,while the 17th century was influenced by both Baroque and Jacobean forms.The 18th century progressed into a period known as the Enlightenment Era for many western countries.This period of military and political advancement influenced the style of literature created by French, Russian and Spanish literary figures.The 19th century was known as the Romantic era, in which the style of writing was influenced by the political issues of the century, and differed from the previous classicist form.
As theWestern Roman Empiredeclined, the Latin tradition was kept alive by writers such asCassiodorus,Boethius, andSymmachus. The liberal arts flourished atRavennaunderTheodoric, and the Gothic kings surrounded themselves with masters ofrhetoricand ofgrammar. Some lay schools remained in Italy, and noted scholars includedMagnus Felix Ennodius,Arator,Venantius Fortunatus,Felix the Grammarian,Peter of Pisa,Paulinus of Aquileia, and many others. The later establishment of the medieval universities ofBologna,Padua,Vicenza,Naples,Salerno,ModenaandParmahelped to spread culture and prepared the ground in which the newvernacular literaturedeveloped.Classical traditions did not disappear, and affection for the memory of Rome, a preoccupation with politics, and a preference for practice over theory combined to influence the development of Italian literature.
William Shakespearewas an Englishplaywright,poetandactor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in theEnglish languageand the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often calledEngland'snational poetand the "BardofAvon" (or simply "the Bard"). His extant works, includingcollaborations, consist of some39 plays,154 sonnets, three longnarrative poemsand a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His playshave been translatedinto every majorliving languageand are performed more often than those of any other playwright. Shakespeare remains arguably the most influential writer in the English language, and his works continue to be studied and reinterpreted.
Dante Alighieri, widely knownmononymouslyas Dante, was an Italianpoet, writer, and philosopher.HisDivine Comedy, originally calledComedìa(modern Italian:Commedia) and later christenedDivinabyGiovanni Boccaccio,is widely considered one of the most important poems of theMiddle Agesand the greatest literary work in the Italian language.Dante is known for establishing the use of thevernacularin literature at a time when most poetry was written inLatin, which was accessible only to educated readers. HisDe vulgari eloquentia(On Eloquence in the Vernacular) was one of the first scholarly defenses of the vernacular. His use of theFlorentine dialectfor works such asThe New Life(1295) andDivine Comedyhelped establish the modern-day standardized Italian language. His work set a precedent that important Italian writers such asPetrarchandBoccacciowould later follow.
Miguel de Cervanteswas a Spanish writer widely regarded as the greatest writer in theSpanish languageand one of the world's pre-eminent novelists. He is best known for his novelDon Quixote, a work considered as the first modernnovel.The novel has been labelled by many well-known authors as the "best book of all time" and the "best and most central work in world literature".
Leo Tolstoywas a Russian writer. He is regarded as one of the greatest and most influential authors of all time.He received nominations for theNobel Prize in Literatureevery year from 1902 to 1906 and for theNobel Peace Prizein 1901, 1902, and 1909. Tolstoy never having won a Nobel Prize was a majorNobel Prize controversy, and remains one.
Antoine Lumièrerealized, on 28 December 1895, the first projection, with theCinematograph, in Paris.In 1897,Georges Mélièsestablished the first cinema studio on a rooftop property in Montreuil, near Paris.
Some notable European film movements includeGerman Expressionism,Italian neorealism,French New Wave,Polish Film School,New German Cinema,PortugueseCinema Novo,Movida Madrileña,Czechoslovak New Wave,Dogme 95,New French Extremity, andRomanian New Wave.
The cinema of Europe has its own awards, theEuropean Film Awards.
Main festivals :Cannes Film Festival(France),Berlin International Film Festival(Germany). TheVenice Film Festival(Italy) or Mostra Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica di Venezia, is the oldest film festival in the world. Philippe Binant realized, on 2 February 2000, the firstdigital cinemaprojection inEurope.
Thehistory of sciencecovers the development ofsciencefromancient timesto thepresent. It encompasses all three majorbranches of science:natural,social, andformal.Protoscience,early sciences, and natural philosophies such asalchemyandastrologyduring theBronze Age,Iron Age,classical antiquity, and theMiddle Agesdeclined during theearly modern periodafter the establishment of formal disciplines ofscience in the Age of Enlightenment.
Science's earliest roots can be traced toAncient EgyptandMesopotamiaaround 3000 to 1200BCE.These civilizations' contributions tomathematics,astronomy, andmedicineinfluenced later Greeknatural philosophyofclassical antiquity, wherein formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in thephysical worldbased on natural causes.After thefall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge ofGreek conceptions of the worlddeteriorated inLatin-speakingWestern Europeduring the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) ofthe Middle Ages,but continued to thrive in theGreek-speakingByzantine Empire. Aided by translations of Greek texts, theHellenisticworldview was preserved and absorbed into theArabic-speakingMuslim worldduring theIslamic Golden Age.The recovery and assimilation ofGreek worksandIslamic inquiriesinto Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived the learning of natural philosophy in the West.Traditions of early science were also developed inancient Indiaand separately inancient China, theChinese modelhaving influencedVietnam,KoreaandJapanbeforeWestern exploration.Among thePre-Columbianpeoples ofMesoamerica, theZapotec civilizationestablished their first known traditions of astronomy and mathematics forproducing calendars, followed by other civilizations such as theMaya.
Natural philosophy was transformed during theScientific Revolutionin 16th- to 17th-century Europe,asnew ideas and discoveriesdeparted fromprevious Greek conceptionsand traditions.The New Science that emerged was moremechanisticin its worldview, more integrated with mathematics, and more reliable and open as its knowledge was based on a newly definedscientific method.More "revolutions" in subsequent centuries soon followed. Thechemical revolutionof the 18th century, for instance, introduced new quantitative methods and measurements forchemistry.In the19th century, new perspectives regarding theconservation of energy,age of Earth, andevolutioncame into focus.And in the 20th century, new discoveries ingeneticsandphysicslaid the foundations for new sub disciplines such asmolecular biologyandparticle physics.Moreover, industrial and military concerns as well as the increasing complexity of new research endeavors ushered in the era of "big science," particularly afterWorld War II.
Western philosophy, also known as European philosophy, refers to thephilosophicalthought, traditions and works of theWestern world. Historically, the term refers to the philosophical thinking ofWestern culture, beginning with theancient Greek philosophyof thepre-Socratics. The wordphilosophyitself originated from theAncient Greekphilosophía(φιλοσοφία), literally, "the love of wisdom"Ancient Greek:φιλεῖνphileîn, "to love" and σοφίαsophía, "wisdom". European philosophy is a predominant strand of philosophy globally, and is central to philosophical enquiry in theAmericasand most other parts of the world which have fallen under its influence. The Greek schools of philosophy inantiquityprovide the basis of philosophical discourse that extends to today.Christian thoughthad a huge influence on many fields of European philosophy (as European philosophy has been on Christian thought too), sometimes as a reaction. Many political ideologies were theorized in Europe, such ascapitalism,communism,fascism,socialism, oranarchism.
The scope of ancient Western philosophy included the problems of philosophy as they are understood today; but it also included many other disciplines, such aspure mathematicsandnatural sciencessuch asphysics,astronomy, andbiology(Aristotle, for example, wrote on all of these topics). The Classical period of ancient Greek philosophy centers onSocratesand the two generations of students who followed. Medieval philosophy roughly extends from the Christianization of theRoman Empireuntil the Renaissance.It is defined partly by the rediscovery and further development of classicalGreekandHellenistic philosophy, and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate the then-widespread sacred doctrines ofAbrahamic religion(Judaism,Christianity, andIslam) withsecularlearning. Some problems discussed throughout this period are the relation offaithtoreason, the existence and unity ofGod, the object oftheologyandmetaphysics, the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of individuation.
The Renaissance ("rebirth") was a period of transition between the Middle Ages and modern thought,in which the recovery ofancient Greek philosophicaltexts helped shift philosophical interests away from technical studies in logic, metaphysics, and theology towards eclectic inquiries into morality, philology, and mysticism.The term "modern philosophy" has multiple usages. For example,Thomas Hobbesis sometimes considered the first modern philosopher because he applied a systematic method to political philosophy.By contrast,René Descartesis often considered the first modern philosopher because he grounded his philosophy in problems ofknowledge, rather than problems of metaphysics.
German idealismemerged in Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It developed out of the work ofImmanuel Kantin the 1780s and 1790s.Transcendental idealism, advocated by Immanuel Kant, is the view that there are limits on what can be understood since there is much that cannot be brought under the conditions of objective judgment. Kant wrote hisCritique of Pure Reason(1781) in an attempt to reconcile the conflicting approaches of rationalism and empiricism, and to establish a new groundwork for studying metaphysics. Although Kant held that objective knowledge of the world required the mind to impose aconceptualorcategorical frameworkon the stream of pure sensory data—a framework including space and time themselves—he maintained thatthings-in-themselvesexisted independently of human perceptions and judgments; he was therefore not an idealist in any simple sense. Kant's account of things-in-themselves is both controversial and highly complex. Continuing his work,Johann Gottlieb FichteandFriedrich Schellingdispensed with belief in the independent existence of the world, and created a thoroughgoing idealist philosophy.
The three major contemporary approaches to academic philosophy areanalytic philosophy,continental philosophyandpragmatism.They are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. The20th centurydeals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th-century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures includeBertrand Russell,Ludwig Wittgenstein,Edmund Husserl,Martin Heidegger, andJean-Paul Sartre.
Christianityhas been the dominant religion shaping European culture for at least the last 1700 years.Modern philosophical thought has very much been influenced by Christian philosophers such as St Thomas Aquinas and Erasmus. And throughout most of its history, European values have been nearly synonymous withChristian culture.Christian cultureis said to have been the predominant force inwestern civilization, guiding the course ofphilosophy,art, andscience.The notion of "Europeand theWestern World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom". Many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unifiedEuropean identity.
Religion has been a major influence on the societies, cultures,traditions,philosophies,artistic expressionsandlawswithin present-day Europe. The largestreligionin Europe isChristianity.However,irreligionand practicalsecularisationare also prominent in some countries.In Southeastern Europe, three countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina,KosovoandAlbania) haveMuslimmajorities, with Christianity being the second-largest religion in those countries.
Little is known about theprehistoric religionofNeolithic Europe. Bronze and Iron Agereligion in Europeas elsewhere was predominantlypolytheisticand includedAncient Greek religion,Ancient Roman religion,Slavic paganism,Finnish paganism,Celtic polytheismandGermanic paganism. Modern revival movements of these religions, and religions influenced by them, includeHeathenism,Rodnovery,Romuva,Druidry,Wicca.
TheRoman Empireofficially adopted Christianity in AD 380. Most of Europe underwentChristianisationduring theEarly Middle Ages, with the process being essentially complete with theChristianisation of Lithuaniain theHigh Middle Ages, with the exception ofAl-Andalus. The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christendom", and many even consider Christianity as the unifying belief that created aEuropean identity,especially since Christianity in the Middle East was marginalized by the rise ofIslamfrom the 8th century. This confrontation led to theCrusades, which ultimately failed militarily, but were an important step in the emergence of a European identity based on religion. Despite this, traditions offolk religioncontinued at all times, largely independent from institutional religion or dogmatic theology.
TheGreat Schismof the 11th century andReformationof the 16th century tore apart Christendom into hostile factions, and following theAge of Enlightenmentof the 18th century,atheismandagnosticismhave spread across Europe. Nineteenth-centuryOrientalismcontributed to a certain popularity ofHinduismandBuddhism, and the 20th century brought increasingsyncretism,New Age, and variousnew religious movementsdivorcing spirituality from inherited traditions for many Europeans. Recent times have seen increased secularisation andreligious pluralism.Smaller religions includeIndian religions,Judaism, and someEast Asian religions, which are found in their largest groups inBritain,France, andKalmykia.
Christianity is the largest religion in Europe, with 76.2% ofEuropeansconsidering themselvesChristianin 2010,As 2010,Catholicswere the largestChristiangroup inEurope, accounting for more than 48% of European Christians. The second-largest Christian group in Europe was theOrthodox, who made up 32% of European Christians. About 19% of European Christians were part of theProtestanttradition.Russiais the largest Christian country in Europe by population, followed byGermanyandItaly.In 2012 Europe constituted in absolute terms theworld's largest Christian population.Historically, Europe has been the center and cradle ofChristian civilization.Christianityplayeda prominent role in the developmentof the European culture andidentity.
According to Scholars, in 2017, Europe's population was 77.8% Christian (up from 74.9% 1970),these changes were largely result of thecollapse of Communismandswitching to Christianityin the former Soviet Union andEastern Bloccountries.
The cuisines of European countries are diverse by themselves, although there are common characteristics that distinguish European cooking from cuisines ofAsian countriesand others.Compared with traditional cooking of Asian countries, for example, meat is more prominent and substantial in serving-size.Dairy productsare often utilized in the cooking process. Wheat-flourbreadhas long been the most common source ofstarchin this cuisine, along withpasta,dumplings, andpastries, although thepotatohas become a major starch plant in the diet of Europeans and their diaspora since theEuropean colonization of the Americas.
The earliest definite examples of needles originate from theSolutreanculture, which existed in France and Spain from 19,000 BC to 15,000 BC. The earliest dyed flax fibers have been found in a cave in Georgia and date back to 36,000 BP. SeeClothing in ancient Rome,1100–1200 in fashion,1200–1300 in fashion,1300–1400 in fashion,1400–1500 in fashion,1500–1550 in fashion,1550–1600 in fashion,1600–1650 in fashion,1650–1700 in fashion,Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution. Italian fashion has a long tradition.Top Global Fashion Capital Rankings(2013), byGlobal Language Monitor, ranked Rome sixth and Milan twelfth.MajorItalian fashionlabels—such asGucci,Armani,Prada,Versace,Valentino,Dolce & Gabbana—are among the finest fashion houses in the world. Jewellers such asBulgari,Damiani, andBuccellatiwere founded in Italy. The fashion magazineVogue Italiais one of the most prestigious fashion magazines in the world.Italy is prominentin the field of design, notably interior, architectural, industrial, and urban designs.Milan and Turin are the nation's leaders in architectural and industrial design. The city of Milan hostsFiera Milano, Europe's largest design fair.Milan hosts major design- and architecture-related events and venues, such as theFuori Saloneand theMilan Furniture Fair, and has been home to the designersBruno Munari,Lucio Fontana,Enrico Castellani, andPiero Manzoni.
Ancient Olympic Games, or the ancient Olympics, were a series ofathletic competitionsamong representatives ofcity-statesand one of thePanhellenic Gamesofancient Greece. They were held at thePanhellenic religious sanctuaryofOlympia, in honor ofZeus, and the Greeks gave them amythological origin. The originating Olympic Games are traditionally dated to 776 BC.The games were held every four years, orOlympiad, which became a unit of time in historical chronologies. These Olympiads were referred to based on the winner of theirstadionsprint, e.g., "the third year of the eighteenth Olympiad when Ladas of Argos won thestadion".They continued to be celebrated when Greece came underRoman rulein the 2nd century BC. Their last recorded celebration was in AD 393, under the emperorTheodosius I, but archaeological evidence indicates that some games were still held after this date.The games likely came to an end underTheodosius II, possibly in connection with a fire that burned down thetemple of the Olympian Zeusduring his reign.
During the celebration of the games, theOlympic truce(ekecheiría) was announced so that athletes and religious pilgrims could travel from their cities to the games in safety. The prizes for the victors wereolive leaf wreathsor crowns. The games became a political tool used by city-states to assert dominance over their rival city states. Politicians would announce political alliances at the games, and in times of war, priests would offer sacrifices to the gods for victory. The games were also used to help spreadHellenistic culturethroughout the Mediterranean. The Olympics also featured religious celebrations. Thestatue of Zeus at Olympiawas counted as one of theseven wonders of the ancient world. Sculptors and poets would congregate each Olympiad to display their works of art to would-be patrons.
The ancient Olympics had fewer events than the modern games, and for many years only freeborn Greek men were allowed to participate,although there were victorious women chariot owners. Moreover, throughout their history, the Olympics, both ancient and modern, have occasionally become arenas where political expressions, such as demonstrations, boycotts, and embargoes, have been employed by nations and individuals to exert influence over these sporting events.As long as they met the entrance criteria, athletes from any Greekcity-stateand kingdom were allowed to participate. The games were always held at Olympia rather than moving between different locations like themodern Olympic Games.Victors at the Olympics were honored, and their feats chronicled for future generations.
The modernOlympic Gamesare the world's leading international sporting events. They feature summer andwinter sportscompetitions in which thousands ofathletesfrom around the world participate in avariety of competitions. The Olympic Games are considered the world's foremost sports competition, with more than 200 teams, representing sovereign states and territories, participating. By default, the Games generally substitute for anyworld championshipsduring the year in which they take place (however, each class usually maintains its own records).The Olympics are staged every four years. Since1994, they have alternated between theSummerandWinter Olympicsevery two years during the four-yearOlympiad.
Their creation was inspired by theancient Olympic Games, held inOlympia, Greece, from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD.Baron Pierre de Coubertinfounded theInternational Olympic Committee(IOC) in 1894, leading to the first modern Games inAthensin1896. The IOC is the governing body of theOlympic Movement, which encompasses all entities and individuals involved in the Olympic Games. TheOlympic Charterdefines their structure and authority.
The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in numerous changes to the Olympic Games. Some of these adjustments include the creation of the Winter Olympic Games for snow and ice sports, theParalympic Gamesfor athletes with disabilities, theYouth Olympic Gamesfor athletes aged 14 to 18, the five Continental Games (Pan American,African,Asian,European, andPacific), and theWorld Gamesfor sports that are not contested in the Olympic Games. The IOC also endorses theDeaflympicsand theSpecial Olympics. The IOC need to adapt to a variety of economic, political, and technological advancements. Theabuse of amateur rulesprompted the IOC to shift away from pureamateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to the acceptance ofprofessional athletesparticipating at the Games. The growing importance of mass media has created the issue ofcorporate sponsorshipand general commercialisation of the Games. World WarsIandIIled to the cancellation of the1916,1940, and1944Olympics; large-scale boycotts during theCold Warlimited participation in the1980and1984Olympics;and the2020Olympics were postponed until 2021 because of theCOVID-19 restrictions.
In addition, Europe has numerous national or regional sports which do not command a large international following outside of emigrant groups. These include:
Some sports competitions feature aEuropean teamgathering athletes from different European countries. These teams use the European flag as an emblem. The most famous of these competitions is theRyder Cupin golf. Some sporting organizations hold European Championships likeEuropean Cricket Council, theEuropean Games, theEuropean Rugby Cup(Club/Regional competition), theEuropean SC Championships, theFIRA - Association of European Rugby, theIIHF, theMitropa Cup, theRugby League European Federation-European Championship, theSport in the European Unionand theUEFA.
See:History of Europe
See:Politics of the European Union
Each year since 1985 one or more cities across Europe are chosen asEuropean Capital of Culture, an EU initiative. Here are the past and future capitals:
A number of symbols ofEuropehave emerged since antiquity, notably the mythological figure ofEuropa. Several symbols were introduced in the 1950s and 1960s by theEuropean Council. TheEuropean Communitiescreated additional symbols for itself in 1985, which was to become inherited by theEuropean Union(EU) in 1993. Suchsymbols of the European Unionnow represent political positions in support of EU policies andEuropean integrationas advocated byEuropeans.
Europawas used as a geographical term, for one of the great divisions of theknown world, byHerodotus(in a reduced geographical scope, referring to parts ofThraceorEpirus, also in theHomeric hymntoApollo). It became the geographical term for the landmass west of theTanaisin the Roman-era geography byStraboandPtolemy.Europafirst began to be used in a cultural sense, denoting the territory ofLatinChristendom, in theCarolingian period.Europais a feminine name, the name of anymphinHesiod, and in a legend first related byHerodotus, the name of aPhoeniciannoble-woman abducted by Greeks (in Herodotus' opinion,Cretans). The classical legend of Europa being abducted not by Greek pirates but byZeusin the shape of abullis told inOvid'sMetamorphoses. According to the account, Zeus took the guise of a tame white bull and mixed himself with the herds of Europa's father. While Europa and her female attendants were gathering flowers, she saw the bull, and got onto his back. Zeus took that opportunity and ran to the sea and swam, with her on his back, to the island ofCrete. There he revealed his true identity, and Europa became the first queen of Crete. Zeus gave her a necklace made byHephaestusand three additional gifts:Talos,Laelapsand ajavelinthat never missed. Zeus later re-created the shape of the white bull in the stars, which is now known as the constellationTaurus.
Europa regina (LatinforQueen Europe) is thecartographicdepiction of the European continent as a queen.Introduced and made popular during themanneristperiod,Europa Reginais themap-like depiction of theEuropean continentas a queen.Made popular in the 16th century, the map shows Europe as a young and graceful woman wearingimperial regalia. TheIberian Peninsula(Hispania) is the head, wearing a crown shaped like theCarolingianhoop crown. ThePyrenees, forming the neck, separate the Iberian Peninsula fromFrance(Gallia), which makes up the upper chest. TheHoly Roman Empire(Germaniaand other territories) is the centre of the torso, withBohemia(sometimesAustriain early depictions) being the heart of the woman (alternatively described as a medallion at her waist). Her long gown stretches toHungary,Poland,Lithuania,Livonia,Bulgaria,Muscovy,MacedoniaandGreece. In her arms, formed byItalyandDenmark, she holds asceptreand anorb(Sicily).In most depictions,Africa,Asiaand theScandinavianpeninsula are partially shown,as are theBritish Isles, in schematic form.
Charlemagne(Latin:Carolus Magnus;King of the Franksfrom 768;Holy Roman Emperorc. 742 – 814), also known as Charles the Great, is considered the founder of theFrenchandGermanmonarchies. Known asPater Europae(«Father of Europe»),he establishedan empirethat represented the most expansive European unification since thefall of the Western Roman Empireand brought abouta renaissancethat formed a pan-European identity whilst marking the end ofLate Antiquity.There was also a contemporary intellectual and cultural revival which profoundly marked the history of Western Europe. This gave Charlemagne a legendary standing that transcended his military accomplishments.
TheRoman Catholic Churchvenerates six saints as "patrons of Europe".Benedict of Nursiahad been declared "Patron saint of all Europe" byPope Paul VIin 1964.Pope John Paul IInamed between 1980 and 1999 Ss.Cyril and Methodius,Bridget of Sweden,Catherine of SienaandTeresa Benedicta of the Crossas co-patrons.
Aflag of Europewas introduced by theCouncil of Europein 1955, originally intended as a "symbol for the whole of Europe",but due to its adoption by theEuropean Economic Community(EEC) in 1985, and hence by theEuropean Union(EU) as the successor organisation of the EEC, the flag is now strongly associated with the European Union so that it no longer serves the function of representing "Europe as a whole" at least since the early 2000s. 
The flag has notably been used by pro-EU protestors in thecolour revolutionsof the 2000s, e.g., inBelarusin 2004by the pro-EU faction in theEuromaidanriots in Ukraine in 2013, and by thepro-EU factionin theBrexit campaignsof 2016.