Mutapa Empire

TheMutapa Empire– sometimes referred to as theMutapa Kingdom,Mwenemutapa, (Shona:Mwene (or Munhu) we Mutapa,Portuguese:Monomotapa) – was an African empire in Zimbabwe, which expanded to what is now modern-dayMozambique,Botswana,Malawi, andZambia.
ThePortuguesetermMonomotapais a transliteration of theShonaroyal titleMwenemutapa or Munhumutapaderived from a combination of two wordsMweneorMunhumeaning Man, andMutapameaning conqueror. Over time the monarch's royal title was applied to the kingdom as a whole, and used to denote the kingdom's territory on maps from the period.
There are several Mutapa origin stories, the most widely accepted told by oral tradition is of the princes ofGreat Zimbabwe. The first "Mutapa" was a warrior prince namedNyatsimba Mutotafrom theKingdom of Zimbabwewho expanded the reach of the kingdom initially to discover new sources of salt in the north.It is believed Prince Mutota found salt in his conquest of the Tavara, a Shona subdivision. Another historical narrative of the empire's origins is that Prince Mutota had broken away from Great Zimbabwe after going to war with Prince Mukwati, (believed to have been either his brother or cousin) over control of the Kingdom.
It was believed that only their most recent ancestors would follow them, with older ancestors staying at Great Zimbabwe and providing protection there. A Shona king's claim to land is through their ancestors, and this would have impacted the legitimacy of Mutapa's leaders.
Mutota's son and successor, Nyanhewe Matope, extended this new kingdom into an empire encompassing most of the lands between Tavara and theIndian Ocean.This empire had achieved uniting a number of different peoples inSouthern Africaby building strong, well-trained armies and encouraging states to join voluntarily, offering membership in the Great council of the Empire to any who joined without resistance.Matope's armies overran the kingdom of the Manyika as well as the coastal kingdoms of Kiteve and Madanda.By the time the Portuguese arrived on the coast of Mozambique, the Mutapa Kingdom was the premier state in the region.He raised a strong army which conquered the Dande area of the Tonga and Tavara. The empire had reached its full extent by the year 1480, a mere 50 years following its creation.
The Portuguese dominated much of southeast Africa's coast, laying waste toSofalaandKilwa, by 1515.Their main goal was to dominate the trade with India; however, they unwittingly became mere carriers for luxury goods between Mutapa's sub-kingdoms and India. Main commodity brokers included Zharare and mhere mhere.As the Portuguese settled along the coast, they made their way into the hinterland assertanejos(backwoodsmen). Thesesertanejoslived alongsideSwahilitraders and even took up service among Shona kings as interpreters and political advisors. One suchsertanejo, António Fernandes, managed to travel through almost all the Shona kingdoms, including Mutapa's metropolitan district, between 1512 and 1516.He mainly travelled with Dhafa Zharare,son of Chipere Zharare who wanted the son to learn how to trade.
The Portuguese finally entered into direct relations with the Mwenemutapa in the 1560s.They recorded a wealth of information about the Mutapa Kingdom as well as its predecessor,Great Zimbabwe. According to Swahili traders whose accounts were recorded by the Portuguese historianJoão de Barros, Great Zimbabwe was a medieval capital city built of stones of marvellous size without the use of mortar. And while the site was not within Mutapa's borders, the Mwenemutapa kept noblemen and some of his wives there.By the 17th century, other Europeans would extensively describe Mutapa architecture through paintings.Olfert Dapperrevealed four grand gateways which led to several halls and chambers in the Mutapa palace. The ceilings of the rooms in the palace were gilt with golden plates alongside ivorychandelierswhich hung on silver chains and filled the halls with light.
In 1569, KingSebastian of Portugalmade a grant of arms to the Mwenemutapa. These were blazoned: Gules between two arrows Argent an African hoe barwise bladed Or handled Argent – The shield surmounted by a Crown Oriental.This was probably the firstgrant of armsto a native of southern Africa; however it is unlikely that these arms were ever actually used by the Mwenemutapa.
In 1561, a Portuguese Jesuit missionary,Gonçalo da Silveiramanaged to make his way into the Mwenemutapa's court and convert him to Christianity.This did not go well with the Muslim merchants in the capital, and they persuaded the king to kill the Jesuit only a few days after his baptism. This was all the justification the Portuguese needed to penetrate the interior and take control of the gold mines and ivory routes. After a lengthy preparation, an expedition of 1,000 men underFrancisco Barretowas launched in 1568. They managed to get as far as the upperZambezi, but local disease decimated the force. The Portuguese returned to their base in 1572 and took their frustrations out on the Swahili traders, whom they massacred. They replaced them with Portuguese and their half-African progeny who became prazeiros (estate holders) of the lower Zambezi. Mutapa maintained a position of strength exacting a subsidy from each captain ofPortuguese Mozambiquethat took the office. The Mwenemutapa also levied a duty of 50 percent on all trade goods imported.
Mutapa proved invulnerable to attack and even economic manipulation due to the Mwenemutapa's strong control over gold production.What posed the greatest threat was infighting among different factions which led to opposing sides calling on the Portuguese for military aid. However, the Portuguese proved to be happy with the downfall of the Mutapa state.
In 1629 the Mwenemutapa attempted to throw out the Portuguese. He failed and in turn he himself was overthrown, leading to the Portuguese installation ofMavura Mhande Felipeon the throne.Mutapa signed treaties making it a Portuguese vassal and ceding gold mines, but none of these concessions were ever put into effect.Mutapa remained nominally independent, though practically a client state. All the while, Portugal increased control over much of southeast Africa with the beginnings of a colonial system. The Portuguese were now in control of the trade and the trade routes.
Another problem for Mutapa was that its tributaries such as Kiteve, Madanda andManyikaceased paying tribute. At the same time, a new kingdom under theRozvi dynastynear Barwe was on the rise. All of this was hastened by
Portugal retaining a presence on the coast and in the capital.At least one part of the 1629 treaty that was acted on was the provision allowing Portuguese settlement within Mutapa. It also allowed the praezeros to establish fortified settlements across the kingdom. In 1663, the praezeros were able to depose MwenemutapaSiti Kazurukamusapaand put their own nominee,Kamharapasu Mukombweon the throne.
In the 17th century, a low ranking Mutapa prince broke away from the Empire, invading the neighboring Kingdom of Butua. The leader of this Dynasty became known as Changamire Dombo. A possible reason for the breakaway was Dombo's dissatisfaction with the levels of Portuguese interference in the Mwenemutapa Empire's governance.
By the late 17th century, Changamire Domborakonachingwango (or Dombo for short. Pronounced as Ɗömbö) was actively challenging Mutapa. In 1684 his forces encountered and decisively defeated those of Mwenemutapa Kamharapasu Mukombwe just south of Mutapa's metro district at theBattle of Mahungwe. When Mukombwe died in 1692, a succession crisis erupted. The Portuguese backed one successor and Dombo another. In support of his candidate, Changamire Dombo razed the Portuguese fair-town of Dembarare next to the Mutapa capital and slaughtered the Portuguese traders and their entire following. From 1692 until 1694, Mwenemutapa Nyakambira ruled Mutapa independently. Nyakambira was later killed in battle with the Portuguese who then placedNyamaende Mhandeon the throne as their puppet.
In 1695, Changamire Dombo overran the gold-producing Kingdom of Manyika and took his army east and destroyed the Portuguese fair-town of Masikwesi. This gave him complete control of all gold-producing territory from Butwa to Manyika, supplanting Mutapa as the premier Shona Kingdom in the region.
It appears neither the Rozwi nor the Portuguese could maintain control of the Mutapa state for very long, and it moved back and forth between the two throughout the 17th century. Far from a victim of conquest, the Mutapa rulers actually invited in foreign powers to bolster their rule. This included vassalage toPortuguese East Africafrom 1629 to 1663 and vassalage to theRozwi Empirefrom 1663 until the Portuguese return in 1694. Portuguese control of Mutapa was maintained or at least represented by an armed garrison at the capital. In 1712, yet another coveter of the throne invited the Rozwi back to put him on the throne and kick out the Portuguese. This they did, and Mutapa again came under the control of the Rozwi Empire. The new MwenemutapaSamatambira Nyamhandu Ibecome their vassal, while the outgoing king was forced to retreat to Chidama in what is nowMozambique.
The Rozwi quickly lost interest in Mutapa, as they sought to consolidate their position in the south. Mutapa regained its independence around 1720. By this time, the Kingdom of Mutapa had lost nearly all of the Zimbabwe plateau to theRozwi Empire. In 1723, Nyamhandi moved his capital into the valley near the Portuguese trading settlement ofTete, underMwenemutapa Nyatsusu. Upon his death in 1740, the youngDehwe Mapunzagututook power. He sought Portuguese support and invited them back to Mutapa along with their garrison of armed men, but Mutapa remained independent.
The Mwenemutapa died in 1759, sparking yet another civil war for the throne. This one was more destructive than its predecessors and Mutapa never recovered. The "winners" ended up governing an even more reduced land from Chidima. They used the titleMambo a Chidimaand ruled independently of Portugal until 1917 whenMambo Chioko, the last king of the dynasty, was killed in battle against the Portuguese.
The empire had another indirect side effect on the history of southern Africa. Gold from the empire inspired in Europeans a belief that Mwenemutapa held the legendary mines of KingSolomon, referred to in the Bible as the biblical port ofOphir.
The belief that the mines were inside the Mwenemutapa kingdom in southern Africa was one of the factors that led to thePortuguese explorationof the hinterland of Sofala in the 16th century, and this contributed to early development of Mozambique, as the legend was widely used among the less educated populace to recruit colonists. Some documents suggest that most of the early colonists dreamt of finding the legendary city of gold in southern Africa, a belief mirroring the early South American colonial search forEl Doradoand quite possibly inspired by it. Early trade in gold came to an end as the mines ran out, and the deterioration of the Mutapa state eliminated the financial and political support for further developing sources of gold.
Legacy
For several centuries, this trading empire enabled people across a large territory to live in peace and security under a stable government and succession of rulers. With primary records dating back to 1502, the empire is a "prime testing ground for theories … concerning economic, political and religious development" inpre-colonial Africa. Beach comments that the Mutapa was one of only four Shona states that was not entirely "uprooted by new settlements of people" and the only one "close to Portuguese centers" thus providing important data on contact and relationships between this and other Shona states as well as with Europeans. The Mutapa Empire is an example of a working system of government in Africa and of a flourishing civilization, both of which are often assumed to have been absent before the coming of the Europeans.
The Emperor Mutope had left the empire with a well-organised religion with a powerful shamanism. The religion of the Mutapa kingdom revolved around ritual consultation of spirits and of ancestors. Shrines were maintained within the capital by spirit mediums known asmhondoro. The mhondoro also served as oral historians recording the names and deeds of past kings.