Arab cuisine

Arab cuisinecollectively refers to theregional culinary traditionsof theArab world, consisting of theMaghreb(the west) and theMashriq(the east).These cuisines are centuries old and reflect the culture of trading in ingredients, spices, herbs, and commodities among theArabs. The regions have many similarities, but also unique traditions. They have also been influenced by climate, cultivation, and mutual commerce.
Thewhite breadbarazidhajwas made with high-quality wheat flour, similar toraqaqbread but thicker, thefermenteddough was leavened usually with yeast and "baker'sborax" (buraq) and baked in atandoor. One poetic verse describing this bread:
Raqaqbread was made in two varieties,labiq(soft, thin flatbreads) andjarmazaj(dry, thin bread flavored withtamariskseeds).
Numerous recipes for sauces (sibagh) have survived from historicArabic cookbooks. The 10th-centuryKitab al-Tabikhwritten byIbn Sayyar al-Warraqgives several recipes to be served with roasted fish, attributed to the various sources.
ToIbrahim ibn al-Mahdiare credited twosibaghrecipes, one prepared by addingrue,caraway, thyme,asafetidaandcassiato the mustard sauce, and another made by mashing vinegar-soaked raisins with garlic, walnut, mustard, vinegar, and seasonings like asafetida andanise.
From the seventhAbbasidcaliphAl-Ma'mun's recipe collection comes asibaghmade withwhey, walnut, garlic, olive oil andmurri.
There are similar recipes meant for poultry dishes prepared with seasonings like ginger, pomegranate,spikenard, and cloves.
A surviving poem aboutsibaghis attributed to CaliphAl-Mu'tamid:
Described as the "food of kings" and "supreme judge of all sweets",lauzinajwas an almond-basedconfectionthat had enteredmedieval European cuisineby the 13th-century fromAndalusianinfluence, returningCrusadersand Latin translations of cookery books. There are two versions of the dish known from medieval texts:
Vegetables includeleeks,endive,melilot,fenugreek,okra, onions,purslane,Jew's mallowandradish.Boiledasparagusis served witholive oilandmurri. The cooking water may be sweetened withhoneyand seasoned withcilantro,rue,aniseandblack pepper, and used as a beverage either by itself with honey, or added to wine.
Some vegetables are consumed raw, but the following are usually boiled: asparagus,cauliflower,white soy beans,leeks,orach, a variety of mushroom known asghushina,chard,cabbage,carrot,turnip, freshfennelandeggplant.
Some vegetable dishes are served cold. One example of such a dish is eggplant with fried onion, fresh herbs and olive oil dressed with fermented sauces, vinegar and caraway. There are several cold eggplant dishes that are similar, some made with smoked eggplant, adding nuts like ground walnuts or almonds, and sometimes different seasonings likesaffron,cassia, andgalangal.
A dish for fried carrots with fresh herbs, dressing and spices was described by the poet Kushajim:
Arab cuisine uses specific and unique foods and spices. Some of those foods are:
There are two basic structures for meals in theArab world, one regular schedule during most of the year and a second one that is unique to the month ofRamadanin which observant Muslims fast during the day.
Cafésoften servecroissantsfor breakfast. Breakfast is often a quick meal, consisting of bread and dairy products, with tea and sometimesjam. The most common breakfast items arelabnehandcream(kishta, made ofcow's milk).
Lunch is considered the main meal of the day, and is traditionally eaten between 1:30 pm and 2:30 pm. It is the meal for which the family comes together. Rarely do meals have different courses; however,saladsandmezzeare served as side dishes to the main meal.
The platter usually consists of a portion of meat, poultry or fish, a portion of rice, lentils, bread and a portion of cooked vegetables, in addition to the fresh ones with themezzeand salad.
The vegetables and meat are usually cooked together in a sauce (oftentomato, although others are also popular) to makemaraqa, which is served with rice. Most households add bread.
Drinks are not necessarily served with the food; however, there is a very wide variety of drinks such asshineena(orlaban),karakaden,Naqe'e Al Zabib,Irq Soos,Tamr Hindi, andfruit juice, as well as other traditional Arabic drinks.
During the 20th century,carbonated sodaand fruit-based drinks have also become very popular.
Dinner is traditionally the lightest meal, although in modern times, dinner has become more important with regards to entertaining guests due to the hours of the workday.
Iftar(also calledFutuur), orfast-breaking, is the meal taken atduskwhen the fast is over. The meal consists of three courses: first, diners eat adatedue toIslamictradition.
This is followed by a soup or anything they would like, the most popular beinglentil soup, but a wide variety of soups such aschicken,oats,freeka(a soup made fromwhole wheatandchicken broth), potato,maash, and others are also offered.
The third course is the main dish, usually eaten after an interval, when Maghreb prayer is conducted. The main dish is mostly similar to what is served in lunch year-round, except that cold drinks are served.
Suhuris the meal eaten just beforedawn, whenfastingmust begin. It is eaten to help the person make it through the day with enough energy untildusk.
In addition to the two meals eaten duringRamadan(one for dinner and one for Suhur before dawn), sweets are consumed much more than usual during the month of Ramadan; sweets and fresh fruits are served between these two meals. Although most sweets are made all year-round such askanafeh, baklava, andbasbousa, some are made especially for Ramadan, such asqatayef.
Essential to any cooking in theArab worldis the concept of hospitality and generosity. Meals are generally large family affairs, with much sharing and a great deal of warmth over the dinner table. Formal dinners and celebrations generally involve large quantities oflamb, and every occasion entails large quantities ofArabic coffeeorArabic tea.
In theKhaleej al-Arabregion, a visitor is greeted by a great table ofdried fruits, fresh fruits, nuts and cakes with syrup. Dried fruits include figs, dates,apricotsandplums. Fresh fruits include citruses, melons and pomegranate. Arabic coffee is most favored, but Arabic tea is also a great refresher. Spices are often added to the coffee and other drinks.
In the Khaleej al-Arab region, a guest should expect a dinner consisting of a very large platter calledkabsa, shared commonly, with a large amount of spiced rice, with spicy lamb, chicken, or both as separate dishes, with various stewed vegetables, heavily spiced, sometimes with atomato-based sauce.
Different types of bread are served with toppings specific to the region. Tea would certainly accompany the meal, as it is almost constantly consumed. Coffee would also be served.
In theMaghrebregion, a visitor will find a table full of bread-like snacks, includingm’semen,baghrir, and other stuffed breads. These are served with honey,rosewateror olive oil.
There are also many different cookies and cakes included accompanied by plates with different kinds of nuts. Mint tea is often served with it in a traditional Maghrebian teapot.
In the Maghreb region, a guest may find a table with different kinds ofstews, calledmarqasortajines. Dishes such ascouscousand othersemolina-based foodsare also to be found.
These main dishes are accompanied by smallermezze-like plates with salads, sauces and dips. Breads such asm'semen,khobzandbaguetteare used to eat the stews.
In an average Arab Levantine household, a visitor might expect a table full ofmezzes, breads topped with spices includingza'atarand nuts. In theLevant,Arabic coffeeis a much-loved beverage, butArabic teais also much enjoyed in Jordan and Palestinian culture.
In the Levant, a guest will find a table with different kinds ofmezzes, nuts, dips and oils.Mezzesincludehummus,baba ghanoush,falafel,kibbeh,kafta, smoked vegetables andtaboulisalads. The nuts can differ from almonds to walnuts, with different spice coatings. The dips and oils include hummus and olive oil.
There are many regional differences in the Arab cuisine. For instance,mujadarain Syria and Lebanon is different frommujadarainJordanandPalestinian culture. Some dishes, such asmansaf(the national dish of Jordan), are native to certain countries and rarely, if ever, make an appearance in other countries.
Unlike most Western recipes,cinnamonis used in meat dishes, as well as in sweets such asbaklava. Dishes such astajineandcouscouscan differ from Morocco to Libya, each having their own unique preparation. Other dishes, such as the Andalucian-Moorishbastillaandalbondigashave different traditional spice mixes and fillings.
Many Arabic food words are borrowed fromAramaic, the language originally spoken by the indigenous Christian inhabitants of Iraq and Syria.
South ArabianandEastern Arabiancuisine today is the result of a combination of diverse influences, incorporatingLevantineandYemenicuisines.
Bukhari rice (رز بخاري) (Ruz al Bukhari) is a very popular dish eaten in theHejazregion of Saudi Arabia. It is made with spicy tomato sauce, flavoured chicken and a fresh salad.
Kabsa(Arabic: كبسةkabsah) ormakbūs/machbūs(مكبوسGulfpron.:[mɑtʃˈbuːs]) is an Arabmixed rice dishthat originates fromYemen.It is commonly regarded as anational dishin all the countries of theArabian Peninsula. It can also be found in regions such as southernIran,GazainPalestine,and theMalabar CoastofIndia.
The cuisine ofYemenis in some ways distinct from other Arab cuisines. As in most Arab countries, chicken, goat, and lamb are eaten more often than beef, and fish is eaten mostly in coastal areas.
However, cheese, butter, and other dairy products are less common, especially in the cities and other urban areas. As with other Arab cuisines, the most widespread beverages are tea and coffee; tea is usually flavored withcardamom,clove, ormint, and coffee with cardamom.Karakaden,Naqe'e Al Zabib, anddiba'aare the most widespread cold beverages.
Although each region has their own variation,saltah(سلتة) is considered the national dish of Yemen. The base is a brown meat is calledmaraq(مرق), a dollop offenugreekfroth, andsahawiq(سحاوق) orsahowqa(a mixture of chili peppers, tomatoes, garlic, and herbs ground into a salsa.)
Rice, potatoes, scrambled eggs, and vegetables are common additions tosaltah. It is eaten with flat bread known asmulawah, which serves as a utensil to scoop up the food.
Other dishes widely known in Yemen includeaseed,fahsa,thareed,samak mafi,mandi,fattah,shakshouka,shafut,bint al-sahn,kabsa,jachnun,hareesandHyderabadihaleem.
TheBedouinsof theArabian Peninsula,Middle EastandNorth Africarely on a diet ofdates,dried fruit, nuts, wheat, barley, rice, and meat. The meat comes from large animals such as cows, sheep, and lambs. They also eat dairy products: milk, cheese, yoghurt, and buttermilk (labneh).
Bedouins also use many different dried beans including white beans, lentils, and chickpeas. Vegetables that are commonly used are those that could be dried, such as pumpkins, but also vegetables that are more heat-resistant, such as aubergines.
They drink a lot of freshverbenatea,Arabic tea,Maghrebi mint tea, orArabic coffee. A daily break to freshen up with drinks is a much-loved tradition.
Common breads in the Maghreb arekhobzandkhaleej. Traditional dishes such asmarqaandtajines(stews) are also regularly prepared.
Breakfast consists of baked beans, bread, nuts, dried fruits, milk, yoghurt, and cheese with tea or coffee. Snacks also include nuts and dried fruits.
Levantine cuisine is the traditional cuisine of theFertile Crescent. Although now divided intoSyria,Lebanon,Jordan, andPalestine, the region has historically been more united, and shares many culinary traditions. Although very similar, there is some variation within the Levantine area.
The main ingredients used include olive oil,za'atar, garlic,olives, and rice, and common dishes include a wide array ofmezzeor bread dips, stuffings, and side dishes such ashummus,falafel,ful,tabouleh,labaneh, andbaba ghanoush.
Salads are also often seasoned with lemon juice orpomegranate molasses. Most often, foods are either grilled, baked, fried, or sautéed in olive oil; butter and cream are usually reserved for desserts. Vegetables are often eaten raw or pickled, as well as cooked.
Levantine cuisine is also famous for its wide range of cheeses, includingshanklish,halloumi, andarisheh.
The main alcoholic drink in the Levant isarak, a distilled spirit of theanise drinksfamily (like the Greekouzoand the Frenchpastis). Levantine cuisine also incorporates wines made in Syria and Lebanon, such as the renownedDomaine de Bargylus.
Some ingredients are viewed as unique to Syrian and Lebanese cuisine, includingzucchini,vine leaves, andpistachios, among others.Eggplant, in particular, is considered particularly emblematic of Syrian cuisine.
Kibbeh, a dish based on spiced ground meat andbulgur wheat, is famous inSyriaandLebanon. It is considered the national dish of both countries.The city ofAleppo, in Syria, is particularly notable for supposedly having 17 different types of kibbeh,which includes kibbeh withsumac(kibbeh sumaqiyye), kibbeh withquince(kibbeh safarjaliyeh), kibbeh with yogurt (kibbeh labaniye), and raw kibbeh (kibbeh nayyeh). The latter dish is quite popular amongChristiansand is frequently consumed onChristmasorEaster.It is also very popular in Lebanon.
Another famous dish isshawarma, which consists of meat cut into thin slices which are placed in an inverted cone and cooked using a spit or a grill. Shawarma sandwiches are arguably the most famous example ofstreet foodin the Middle East.The traditional shawarma sandwich contains pickles and a garlic sauce, which can either betoum(when the meat used is chicken) ortarator(when beef is used). In Lebanon,French friesare often added.
A quintessential breakfast dish ismanakish,consisting of bread (pitaorsaj) topped withza'atar.It can also be topped with cheese—oftenakkawiorkashkawan. When topped with ground beef it is calledsfiha.
Kishkis a famous Syrian soup, alongside many soups made of lentils.
InJordanandPalestine(and to a lesser extent in southernSyria), there is a much stronger emphasis on roasting various meats, and cooking thick yogurt-like pastes from goat's milk.
Mansafis a traditional meal, and the national dish of Jordan, having roots in the Bedouin population of the country. It consists of a leg of lamb or large pieces of mutton, on top of amarkookbread that has been topped with yellow rice. A type of thick dried yogurt made from goat's milk, calledjameed, is poured on top of the lamb and rice to give it its distinct flavor and taste. The dish is garnished with cooked pine nuts and almonds.Mansafis mostly eaten during large dinner gatherings, and on special occasions such asRamadanorEid ul-Fitr.
Another common main dish ismusakhan, famous in northernJordan, the northern West Bank, andJerusalem. It consists oftaboonbread, topped with pieces of cookedsweet onions,sumac,saffron, andallspice. For large dinners, it can be topped by one or two roasted chickens on a single largetaboonbread.
Maqluba(lit. 'upside-down') is another popular meal in Jordan and central Palestine.It consists of meat, rice, and fried vegetables placed in a pot which is flipped upside down when served, hence the name.
Mujaddara, another food of the West Bank, as well as in the Levant in general, consists of cooked green lentils, withbulghursauteed in olive oil.
The primary cheese of the Palestinianmezzeisakkawicheese, which is a semi-hard cheese with a mild, salty taste and sparsely filled with roasted sesame seeds. It is primarily used inknafeh.
The Palestinian city ofNablusis particularly renowned for itsknafeh, which consists of mild white cheese (usuallyakkawicheese ornabulsicheese) and a shredded wheat surface, which is covered by sugar syrup. In the Middle East, this variant ofknafehis the most common.
Iraqis home to the first cookbook ever recorded in history, historically inBaghdadandMesopotamia. TheKitab al-tabikhis the oldest surviving Arabic cookbook, written byal-Warraqin the 10th century. It is compiled from the recipes of the 8th and 9th century courts of theAbbasid Caliphatein Baghdad. Due to its location, Iraq shares similarities in cooking and cuisines between both the surrounding regions of theArab worldas well asTurkishandPersiancuisine.Iraqi cuisinemainly consists of meat, rather than appetizers. In Iraqi cuisine, the most common meats are chicken and lamb. The national dish of Iraq is theMasgouffish, usually enjoyed with grilled tomatoes and onions.
Iraqi cuisine uses more spices than most Arab cuisines. Iraq's main food crops include wheat, barley, rice, vegetables, anddates. Vegetables includeeggplant,okra, potatoes, and tomatoes. Pulses such as chickpeas and lentils are also quite common. Common meats in Iraqi cuisine are lamb and beef; fish and poultry are also used.
Soups and stews are often prepared and served with rice and vegetables.Biryani, although influenced byIndian cuisine, is milder with a different mixture of spices, and a wider variety of vegetables, including potatoes, peas, carrots, and onions.Dolmais also one of the most popular dishes.
The Iraqi cuisine is famous for its extremely tenderkebab, as well as itstikka. A wide variety of spices, pickles, andambaare also extensively used.
Egypt has a very rich cuisine with many unique customs. These customs also vary within Egypt itself, for example, in the coastal areas, like the coast of theMediterranean Seaand Canal, the diet relies heavily on fish. In the more rural areas, reliance on farm products is much heavier. Duck, geese, chicken, and river fish are the main animal protein sources. While Egyptians eat a lot of meat, Egyptian cuisine is rich invegetariandishes; three national dishes of Egypt;ful medames,ta'miya(also known in other countries asfalafel), andkushari, are generally vegetarian. Fruits are also greatly appreciated in Egypt:mangos,grapes,bananas,apples, sycamore,guavas, andpeachesare very popular, especially because they are all domestically produced and are available at relatively low prices. A famous dessert from Egypt is calledom ali, which is similar to a bread and butter pudding made traditionally with puff pastry, milk and nuts. It is served all across the Middle East and is also made on special occasions such as Eid.Bread is a staple in Egypt; the most common breads areeish baladi.
In comparison to itsMaghrebandLevantineneighbors, the cuisine ofSudantends to be generous with spices. Sudanese cuisine has a rich variety in ingredients and creativity. Simple everyday vegetables are used to create stews andomelettesthat are healthy yet nutritious, and full of energy and flair. These stews are calledmullah. One could have a zucchinimullah, spinach (riglah)mullah, etc. Popular dishes includeful medames,shahan ful,hummus,bamya(a stew made from ground, sun-dried okra), andgurasa(pancake), as well as different types of salads and sweets.
Maghreb cuisine is the cooking of theMaghrebregion, the northwesternmost part of theArab worldalong theMediterranean Sea, consisting of the countries ofAlgeria,Libya,Morocco,Tunisia, andMauritania. In Maghrebi cuisine, the most commonstaple foodsarewheat(forkhobzbreadandcouscous),fish, seafood, goat,lamb,beef,dates,almonds,olivesand various vegetables and fruits.
Moroccan cuisine has long been considered one of the most diverse in the world. This is because Morocco has interacted extensively with the outside world for centuries. Over the centuries, chefs in Moroccan cuisine inFes,Meknes,Marrakech,RabatandTetouanhave been the basis for what is known as Moroccan cuisine today. Moroccan cuisine also ranked first in the Arab world and Africa, and second in the world in 2012 after France.
Tunisian cuisineis the style of cooking used by theTunisian peopleand is part of the Maghreb andMediterranean cuisine.Assaon mush, spices,olive oil,chili red pepper,kodaid,wheat flour, lamb,garlic, fish and many other vegetables and spices are common. Tunisian cuisine offers what is known as a "solar kitchen" that relies heavily on olive oil, spices, tomatoes, fish species, and meat. Bread is an essential ingredient in Tunisian cuisine, as it accompanies almost all dishes and is usually used by dipping for broth.
Libyancuisine derives much from the traditions ofMaghrebandMediterraneancuisines. One of the most popular Libyan dishes isbazin, anunleavened breadprepared withbarley, water and salt.Bazinis prepared by boilingbarley flourin water and then beating it to create a dough using amagraf, which is a unique stick designed for this purpose.Porkconsumption is forbidden, in accordance withSharia, the religious laws ofIslam.Tripoliis Libya's capital, and the cuisine is particularly influenced byItalian cuisine.Pasta is common, and many seafood dishes are available.Southern Libyan cuisine is more traditionally Arab andBerber. Common fruits and vegetables includefigs,dates,oranges,apricotsandolives.
Libyan cooking, like Tunisian, includes hot spices. Typical foods arebazin(Libyan bread),bsisa,couscous,harissa,hassaa,lebrak (filledgrape leaveswith rice and minced meat), Libyanboureek, Libyan summer salad,marqaortajine,madrouba, andmbatten.Mbekbkais a unique Libyan soup with pasta or spaghetti—rather than draining off the water, pasta is boiled together with the sauce. It can be made with any type of pasta, and the simplest dish involves frying onions in oil, throwing in the tomato puree, chili powder, turmeric, then adding water and salt and leaving to boil before adding the pasta. Another way involves adding lamb chops, chickpeas and garlic to the sauce before serving hot with a sprinkle of extra virgin olive oil, lemon, fresh chili and optional crusty bread. Other vegetables such as pumpkin, potato and green pepper can be added.Maglouba,shakshouka,sherba,usban,zumitaandasida. Desserts and beverages includemakroudh,Libyan tea,ghoriba,maakroun,mafrukaandmhalbiya.
Algerian cuisineis characterized by a wealth derived from land and sea production, aMediterranean-Maghreb cuisine. It offers a variety of dishes depending on the region and season, which gives a very varied plate. This cuisine is still based on vegetables and cereals that have always been produced in abundance in the country, which was formerly calledRoma bakeryand thenBakery Europe.In addition, Algeria's rich history has contributed to the abundance of food from different periods and regions of the world. Among all the culinary specialties available inAlgeria, couscous remains the most famous, recognized as a national dish, as well as the traditional pastry called Oriental pastry in Western countries. Despite its historical transmission from generation to generation, there are many books devoted to Algerian cuisine. Algerian cuisine combines a variety of ingredients including vegetables, fruits, spices, meat, fish, seafood, vegetables anddried fruits. Vegetables are often used for salads, soups, casserole, couscous and sauces.Carrots,pumpkins,potatoes,green beans,beans,kale,eggplant, andtrufflesare widely used.