Reconquista

TheReconquista(SpanishandPortuguesefor'reconquest')or thereconquest ofal-Andaluswas a series of military and cultural campaigns that European Christiankingdomswaged against theMuslim kingdomsfollowing theMuslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsulaby theUmayyad Caliphate, culminating in the reign of theCatholic Monarchs of Spain.The beginning of theReconquistais traditionally dated to theBattle of Covadonga(c.718or 722), in which anAsturianarmy achieved the first Christian victory over the forces of the Umayyad Caliphate since the beginning of the military invasion.TheReconquistaended in 1492 with thefall of the Nasrid kingdom of Granadato theCatholic Monarchs.
In the late 10th century, the UmayyadvizierAlmanzorwaged a series of military campaigns for 30 years in order to subjugate the northern Christian kingdoms. When theCaliphate of Córdobadisintegrated in the early 11th century, a series of petty successor states known astaifasemerged. The northern kingdoms took advantage of this situation and struck deep intoal-Andalus; they fostered civil war, intimidated the weakenedtaifas, and made them pay large tributes (parias) for "protection".
In the 12th century, theReconquistawas above all a political action to develop the kingdoms ofPortugal,León-CastileandAragon. The king's action took precedence over that of the local lords, with the help of themilitary ordersand also supported byrepopulation.Following a Muslim resurgence under theAlmohadsin the 12th century, the great Moorish strongholds fell to Christian forces in the 13th century, after the decisiveBattle of Las Navas de Tolosa(1212), theSiege of Córdoba(1236) and theSiege of Seville(1248)—leaving only the Muslim enclave of Granada as atributary statein the south. After thesurrender of Granadain January 1492, the entire Iberian peninsula was controlled by Christian rulers. On 30 July 1492, as a result of theAlhambra Decree, theJewish communitiesin Castile and Aragon—some 200,000 people—wereforcibly expelled. The conquest was followed by a series of edicts (1499–1526) whichforced the conversions of Muslims in Castile, Navarre, and Aragon, who were laterexpelledfrom the Iberian realms of theSpanish Crownby a series of decrees starting in 1609.Approximately three million Muslims emigrated or were driven out of Spain between 1492 and 1610.
Beginning in the 19th century,traditional historiography has used the termReconquistafor what was earlier thought of as a restoration of theVisigothic Kingdomover conquered territories.The concept ofReconquista, consolidated in Spanish historiography in the second half of the 19th century, was associated with the development of a Spanish national identity, emphasizingSpanish nationalistand romantic aspects.It is rememorated in theMoros y Cristianosfestival, very popular in parts of Southeastern Spain, and which can also be found in a few places in former Spanish colonies. Pursuant to anIslamophobicworldview, the concept is a symbol of significance for the 21st century Europeanfar-right.
The termReconquista, used to describe the struggle between Christians and Muslims in the Iberian peninsula during theMiddle Ages, was not used by writers of the period. Since its development as a term in medieval historiography occurred centuries after the events it references, it has acquired various meanings. Its meaning as an actual reconquest has been subject to the particular concerns or prejudices of scholars, who have sometimes wielded it as a weapon in ideological disputes.
A discernibleirredentistideology that would later become part of the concept of "Reconquista", a Christian reconquest of the peninsula, appeared in writings by the end of the 9th century.For example, the anonymous Christian chronicleChronica Prophetica(883–884) claimed a historical connection between theVisigothic Kingdomconquered by the Muslims in 711 and theKingdom of Asturiasin which the document was produced, and stressed a Christian and Muslim cultural and religious divide in Hispania, and a necessity to drive out the Muslims and restore conquered territories. In fact, in the writings of both sides, there was a sense of divide based on ethnicity and culture between the inhabitants of the small Christian kingdoms in the north and the dominant elite in the Muslim-ruled south.
The linear approach to the origins of aReconquistataken in early twentieth-century historiography is complicated by a number of issues.For example, periods of peaceful coexistence, or at least of limited and localised skirmishes on the frontiers, were more prevalent over the 781 years of Muslim rule in Iberia than periods of military conflict between the Christian kingdoms and al-Andalus.Additionally, both Christian and Muslim rulersfought other Christians and Muslims, and cooperation and alliances between Muslims and Christians were not uncommon, such as between theArista dynastyandBanu Qasias early as the 9th century.Blurring distinctions even further were the mercenaries from both sides who simply fought for whoever paid the most.The period is seen today to have had long episodes of relative religious coexistence and tolerance.The idea of a continuousReconquistahas been challenged by modern scholars.
TheCrusades, which started late in the 11th century, bred the religious ideology of a Christian reconquest.In the years just before theCouncil of Clermonttook place, Spanish kings used religious differences as a reason to fight against Muslims, although this argument was not extensively used beforehand.Inal-Andalusat that time, the Christian states were confronted by theAlmoravids, and to an even greater degree, they were confronted by theAlmohads, who espoused a similarly staunch MuslimJihadideology. In fact, previous documents which date from the 10th and 11th centuries are mute on any idea of "reconquest".Propaganda accounts of Muslim-Christian hostility came into being to support that idea, most notably theChanson de Roland, an 11th-century Frenchchanson de gestethat offers a fictionalised retelling of theBattle of Roncevaux Passdealing with the IberianSaracens(Moors), and centuries later introduced in the French school system with a view to instilling moral and national values in the population following the 1870 defeat of the French in theFranco-Prussian War, regardless of the actual events.
The consolidation of the modern idea of a "Reconquista" is inextricably linked to the foundational myths ofSpanish nationalismin the 19th century, associated with the development of a Centralist, Castilian, and staunchly Catholic brand of nationalism,evoking nationalistic, romantic and sometimes colonialist themes.The concept gained further track in the 20th century during theFrancoist dictatorship.It thus became one of the key tenets of the historiographical discourse ofNational Catholicism, the mythological and ideological identity of the regime. The discourse was underpinned in its most traditional version by an avowed historical illegitimacy of al-Andalus and the subsequent glorification of the Christian conquest.
The idea of a "liberation war" ofreconquestagainst the Muslims, who were viewed as foreigners, suited the anti-Republican rebels during theSpanish Civil War, the rebels agitated for the banner of a Spanish fatherland, a fatherland which, according to them, was being threatened by regional nationalisms andcommunism.Their rebellious pursuit was thus a crusade for the restoration of the Church's unity, where Franco stood for bothPelagius of AsturiasandEl Cid.TheReconquistahas become a rallying call for right and far-right parties in Spain to expel from office incumbent progressive or peripheral nationalist options, as well as their values, in different political contexts as of 2018.
The same kind of propaganda was circulated during theSpanish Civil Warby theRepublicans, who wanted to portray their enemies as foreign invaders, especially given the prominence of theArmy of Africaamong Franco's troops, an army which was made up of native North African soldiers.
Some contemporary authorsconsider the "Reconquista" proof that the process of Christian state-building in Iberia was frequently defined by the reclamation of lands that had been lost to theMoorsin generations past. In this way, state-building might be characterised—at least in ideological, if not practical, terms—as a process by which Iberian states were being "rebuilt".In turn, other recent historians dispute the whole concept of "Reconquista" as a concept createda posterioriin the service of later political goals. A few historians point out that Spain and Portugal did not previously exist as nations, and therefore the heirs of the ChristianVisigothic Kingdomwere not technicallyreconquering them, as the name suggests.One of the first Spanish intellectuals to question the idea of a "reconquest" that lasted for eight centuries wasJosé Ortega y Gasset, writing in the first half of the 20th century.However, the termReconquistais still widely in use.
In 711, North AfricanBerbersoldiers with someArabscommanded byTariq ibn Ziyadcrossed theStrait of Gibraltar, engaging a Visigothic force led by KingRodericat theBattle of Guadalete(July 19–26) in a moment of severe in-fighting and division across theVisigothic Kingdom of Hispania.Many of Roderic's troops deserted, leading to his defeat. He drowned while crossing theGuadalquivir River.
After Roderic's defeat, the Umayyad governor ofIfrikiyaMusa ibn-Nusayrjoined Tariq, directing a campaign against different towns and strongholds in Hispania. Some, likeMérida,Cordova, orZaragozain 712, probablyToledo, were taken, but many agreed to a treaty in exchange for maintaining autonomy, inTheodemir's dominion (region of Tudmir), orPamplona, for example.The invading Islamic armies did not exceed 60,000 men.
After the establishment of a localEmirate,CaliphAl-Walid I, ruler of theUmayyad Caliphate, removed many of the successful Muslim commanders. Tariq ibn Ziyad was recalled toDamascusand replaced with Musa ibn-Nusayr, who had been his former superior. Musa's son, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa, apparently marriedEgilona,Roderic's widow, and established his regional government inSeville. He was suspected of being under the influence of his wife and was accused of wanting to convert to Christianity and of planning a secessionist rebellion. Apparently a concerned Al-Walid I ordered Abd al-Aziz's assassination. Caliph Al-Walid I died in 715 and was succeeded by his brotherSulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. Sulayman seems to have punished the surviving Musa ibn-Nusayr, who very soon died during a pilgrimage in 716. In the end, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa's cousin,Ayyub ibn Habib al-Lakhmibecame thewali(governor) of al-Andalus.
A serious weakness amongst the Muslim conquerors was the ethnic tension between Berbers and Arabs.The Berbers were indigenous inhabitants of North Africa who had only recently converted to Islam; they provided most of the soldiery of the invading Islamic armies but sensed Arab discrimination against them.This latent internal conflict jeopardised Umayyad unity. The Umayyad forces arrived and crossed the Pyrenees by 719. The last Visigothic kingArdoresisted them in Septimania, where he fended off the Berber-Arab armies until 720.
After the Islamic Moorish conquest of most of the Iberian Peninsula in 711–718 and the establishment of the emirate of al-Andalus, an Umayyad expedition suffered a major defeat at theBattle of Toulouseand was halted for a while on its way north.Odo of Aquitainehad married his daughter toUthman ibn Naissa, a rebel Berber and lord ofCerdanya, in an attempt to secure his southern borders in order to fend offCharles Martel's attacks on the north. However, a majorpunitive expeditionled byAbdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, the latest emir of al-Andalus, defeated and killed Uthman, and the Muslim governor mustered an expedition north across the western Pyrenees, looted areas up to Bordeaux, and defeated Odo in theBattle of the River Garonnein 732.
A desperate Odo turned to his archrival Charles Martel for help, who led the Frankish and remaining Aquitanian armies against the Umayyad armies and defeated them at theBattle of Poitiersin 732, killing Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi. While Moorish rule began to recede in what is today France, it would remain in parts of the Iberian peninsula for another 760 years.
A drastic increase of taxes on Christians by the emirAnbasa ibn Suhaym Al-Kalbiprovoked several rebellions in al-Andalus, which a series of succeeding weak emirs were unable to suppress. Around 722, a Muslim military expedition was sent into the north in late summer to suppress a rebellion led byPelagius of Asturias(Pelayo in Spanish, Pelayu in Asturian). Traditional historiography has hailed Pelagius'svictory at Covadongaas the beginning of theReconquista.
Two northern realms, Navarreand Asturias, despite their small size, demonstrated an ability to maintain their independence. Because the Umayyad rulers based inCórdobawere unable to extend their power over the Pyrenees, they decided to consolidate their power within the Iberian peninsula. Arab-Berber forces made periodic incursions deep into Asturias, but this area was acul-de-sacon the fringes of the Islamic world fraught with inconveniences during campaigns and of little interest.
It comes then as no surprise that, besides focusing on raiding the Arab-Berber strongholds of the Meseta,Alfonso I of Asturiascentred on expanding his domains at the expense of the neighbouring Galicians and Basques at either side of his realm just as much.During the first decades, Asturian control over part of the kingdom was weak, and for this reason it had to be continually strengthened through matrimonial alliances and war with other peoples from the north of the Iberian Peninsula. After Pelayo's death in 737, his sonFavila of Asturiaswas elected king. Favila, according to the chronicles, was killed by a bear during a trial of courage. Pelayo's dynasty in Asturias survived and gradually expanded the kingdom's boundaries until all of northwest Hispania was included by roughly 775. However, credit is due to him and to his successors, theBanu Alfonsfrom the Arab chronicles. Further expansion of the northwestern kingdom towards the south occurred during the reign ofAlfonso II of Asturias(from 791 to 842). A king's expedition arrived in and pillaged Lisbon in 798, probably concerted with the Carolingians.
The Asturian kingdom became firmly established with the recognition of Alfonso II as king of Asturias byCharlemagneand the Pope. During his reign, the bones ofSt. James the Greatwere declared to have been found in Galicia, atSantiago de Compostela. Pilgrims from all over Europe opened a channel of communication between the isolated Asturias and the Carolingian lands and beyond, centuries later.
After the Umayyad conquest of the Iberian heartland of the Visigothic kingdom, the Muslims crossed the Pyrenees and gradually took control ofSeptimania, starting in 719 with the conquest ofNarbonnethrough 725 whenCarcassonneandNîmeswere secured. From the stronghold of Narbonne, they tried to conquerAquitainebut suffered a major defeat at theBattle of Toulouse (721).
Ten years after halting their advance north,Odo of Aquitainemarried his daughter toUthman ibn Naissa, a rebel Berber and lord ofCerdanya(perhaps all of contemporary Catalonia as well), in an attempt to secure his southern borders to fend offCharles Martel's attacks on the north. However, a majorpunitive expeditionled byAbdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, the latest emir of al-Andalus, defeated and killed Uthman.
After expelling the Muslimsfrom Narbonne in 759and driving their forces back over the Pyrenees, the Carolingian kingPepin the Short conquered Aquitainein a ruthless eight-year war. Charlemagne followed his father by subduing Aquitaine by creating counties, taking the Church as his ally and appointing counts of Frankish or Burgundian stock, like his loyalWilliam of Gellone, makingToulousehis base for expeditions against al-Andalus.Charlemagne decided to organize a regional subkingdom, theSpanish March, which included part of contemporaryCatalonia, in order to keep the Aquitanians in check and to secure the southern border of theCarolingian Empireagainst Muslim incursions. In 781, his three-year-old sonLouiswas crowned king ofAquitaine, under the supervision of Charlemagne's trustee William of Gellone, and was nominally in charge of the incipient Spanish March.
Meanwhile, the takeover of the southern fringes of al-Andalus by Abd ar-Rahman I in 756 was opposed byYusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman, autonomous governor (wāli) or king (malik) of al-Andalus. Abd ar-Rahman I expelled Yusuf from Cordova,but it took still decades for him to expand to the north-western Andalusian districts. He was also opposed externally by theAbbasidsof Baghdad who failed in their attempts to overthrow him. In 778, Abd al-Rahman closed in on the Ebro valley. Regional lords saw the Umayyad emir at the gates and decided to enlist the nearby Christian Franks. According toAli ibn al-Athir, a Kurdish historian of the 12th century, Charlemagne received the envoys ofSulayman al-Arabi, Husayn, andAbu Taurat the Diet of Paderborn in 777. These rulers ofZaragoza,Girona,Barcelona, andHuescawere enemies of Abd ar-Rahman I, and in return for Frankish military aid against him offered their homage and allegiance.
Charlemagne, seeing an opportunity, agreed upon an expedition and crossed the Pyrenees in 778. Near the city ofZaragozaCharlemagne received the homage ofSulayman al-Arabi. However the city, under the leadership ofHusayn, closed its gates and refused to submit.Unable to conquer the city by force, Charlemagne decided to retreat. On the way home the rearguard of the army was ambushed and destroyed by Basque forces at theBattle of Roncevaux Pass.The Song of Roland, a highly romanticised account of this battle, would later become one of the most famouschansons de gesteof the Middle Ages. Around 788 Abd ar-Rahman I died and was succeeded byHisham I. In 792 Hisham proclaimed ajihad, advancing in 793 against theKingdom of Asturiasand CarolingianSeptimania (Gothia). They defeated William of Gellone, Count of Toulouse, in battle, butWilliamled an expedition the following year across the eastern Pyrenees.Barcelona, a major city, became a potential target for the Franks in 797, as its governor Zeid rebelled against the Umayyad emir of Córdoba. An army of the emir managed to recapture it in 799, but Louis, at the head of an army, crossed the Pyrenees andbesieged the city for seven monthsuntil it finally capitulated in 801.
The main passes in the Pyrenees wereRoncesvalles,SomportandLa Jonquera. Charlemagne established across them the vassal regions ofPamplona,Aragon, andCataloniarespectively. Catalonia was itself formed from a number ofsmall counties, includingPallars,Girona, andUrgell; it was called theMarca Hispanicaby the late 8th century. They protected the eastern Pyrenees passes and shores and were under the direct control of the Frankish kings. Pamplona's first king wasIñigo Arista, who allied with his Muslim kinsmen theBanu Qasiand rebelled against Frankish overlordship and overcame aCarolingian expedition in 824that led to the setup of theKingdom of Pamplona. Aragon, founded in 809 byAznar Galíndez, grew aroundJacaand the high valleys of theAragon River, protecting the old Roman road. By the end of the 10th century, Aragon, which then was just a county, was annexed by Navarre. Sobrarbe and Ribagorza were small counties and had little significance to the progress of theReconquista.
In the late 9th century underCount Wilfred, Barcelona became thede factocapital of the region. It controlled the other counties' policies in a union, which led in 948 to the independence of Barcelona underCount Borrel II, who declared that the new dynasty in France (theCapets) were not the legitimate rulers of France nor, as a result, of his county. These states were small and, with the exception of Navarre, did not have the capacity for attacking the Muslims in the way that Asturias did, but their mountainous geography rendered them relatively safe from being conquered, and their borders remained stable for two centuries.
The northern principalities and kingdoms survived in their mountainous strongholds (see above). However, they started a definite territorial expansion south at the turn of the 10th century (Leon, Najera). The fall of the Caliphate of Cordova (1031) heralded a period of military expansion for the northern kingdoms, now divided into several mighty regional powers after the division of the Kingdom of Navarre (1035). Myriad autonomous Christian kingdoms emerged thereafter.
The Kingdom of Asturias was located in theCantabrian Mountains, a wet and mountainous region in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. It was the first Christian power to emerge. The kingdom was established by a Visigothic nobleman, named Pelagius (Pelayo), who had possibly returned after the Battle of Guadalete in 711 and was elected leader of the Asturians,and the remnants of thegens Gothorum(the Hispano-Gothic aristocracy and the Hispano-Visigothic population who took refuge in the North). Historian Joseph F. O'Callaghan says an unknown number of them fled and took refuge in Asturias or Septimania. In Asturias they supported Pelagius's uprising, and joining with the indigenous leaders, formed a newaristocracy.
The population of the mountain region consisted of native Astures, Galicians, Cantabri, Basques and other groups unassimilated into Hispano-Gothic society,laying the foundations for the Kingdom of Asturias and starting theAstur-Leonese dynastythat spanned from 718 to 1037 and led the initial efforts in the Iberian peninsula to take back the territories then ruled by the Moors.Although the new dynasty first ruled in the mountains of Asturias, with the capital of the kingdom established initially inCangas de Onís, and was in its dawn mostly concerned with securing the territory and settling the monarchy, the latest kings (particularlyAlfonso III of Asturias) emphasised the nature of the new kingdom as heir of that inToledoand the restoration of the Visigothic nation in order to vindicate the expansion to the south.However, such claims have been overall dismissed by modern historiography, emphasizing the distinct, autochthonous nature of the Cantabro-Asturian and Vasconic domains with no continuation to the Gothic Kingdom of Toledo.
Pelagius's kingdom initially was little more than a gathering point for the existing guerrilla forces. During the first decades, the Asturian dominion over the different areas of the kingdom was still lax, and for this reason it had to be continually strengthened through matrimonial alliances with other powerful families from the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, Ermesinda, Pelagius's daughter, was married toAlfonso,Dux Peter of Cantabria's son. Alfonso's sonFruelamarried Munia, a Basque fromÁlava, after crushing a Basque uprising (probably resistance). Their son is reported to beAlfonso II, while Alfonso I's daughter Adosinda married Silo, a local chief from the area of Flavionavia, Pravia.
Alfonso's military strategy was typical of Iberian warfare at the time. Lacking the means needed for wholesale conquest of large territories, his tactics consisted of raids in the border regions ofVardulia. With the plunder he gained further military forces could be paid, enabling him to raid the Muslim cities ofLisbon,Zamora, andCoimbra. Alfonso I also expanded his realm westwards conqueringGalicia.
During the reign ofKing Alfonso II(791–842), the kingdom was firmly established, and a series of Muslim raids caused the transfer of the Asturian capital toOviedo. The king is believed to have initiated diplomatic contacts with the kings ofPamplonaand theCarolingians, thereby gaining official recognition for his kingdom and his crown from thePopeandCharlemagne.
Thebonesof St.James the Greatwere proclaimed to have been found in Iria Flavia (present dayPadrón) in 813 or probably two or three decades later. The cult of the saint was transferred later toCompostela(from Latincampus stellae, literally "the star field"), possibly in the early 10th century when the focus of Asturian power moved from the mountains over to Leon, to become theKingdom of Leónor Galicia-Leon. Santiago's were among many saint relics proclaimed to have been found across north-western Hispania. Pilgrims started to flow in from other Iberian Christian realms, sowing the seeds of the laterWay of Saint James(11–12th century) that sparked the enthusiasm and religious zeal of continentalChristian Europefor centuries.
Despite numerous battles, neither the Umayyads nor the Asturians had sufficient forces to secure control over these northern territories. Under the reign ofRamiro, famed for the highly legendaryBattle of Clavijo, the border began to slowly move southward and Asturian holdings inCastile, Galicia, andLeonwere fortified, and an intensive program of re-population of the countryside began in those territories. In 924 the Kingdom of Asturias became theKingdom of León, when Leon became the seat of the royal court (it didn't bear any official name).
Alfonso III of Asturiasrepopulated the strategically important cityLeonand established it as his capital. King Alfonso began a series of campaigns to establish control over all the lands north of theDouroriver. He reorganised his territories into the major duchies (Galiciaand Portugal) and major counties (Saldañaand Castile), and fortified the borders with many castles. At his death in 910 the shift in regional power was completed as the kingdom became theKingdom of León. From this power base, his heirOrdoño IIwas able to organize attacks againstToledoand evenSeville.
TheCaliphate of Córdobawas gaining power, and began to attack Leon. King Ordoño allied with Navarre against Abd-al-Rahman, but they weredefeated in Valdejunquerain 920. For the next 80 years, the Kingdom of León suffered civil wars, Moorish attack, internal intrigues and assassinations, and the partial independence of Galicia and Castile, thus delaying the reconquest and weakening the Christian forces. It was not until the following century that the Christians started to see their conquests as part of a long-term effort to restore the unity of the Visigothic kingdom.
The only point during this period when the situation became hopeful for Leon was the reign ofRamiro II. King Ramiro, in alliance withFernán González of Castileand his retinue ofcaballeros villanos,defeated the Caliph in Simancasin 939. After this battle, when the Caliph barely escaped with his guard and the rest of the army was destroyed, King Ramiro obtained 12 years of peace, but he had to give González the independence of Castile as payment for his help in the battle. After this defeat, Moorish attacks abated untilAlmanzorbegan his campaigns.Alfonso Vfinally regained control over his domains in 1002. Navarre, though attacked by Almanzor, remained intact.
The conquest of Leon did not include Galicia which was left to temporary independence after the withdrawal of the Leonese king. Galicia was conquered soon after (by Ferdinand, son of Sancho the Great, around 1038). Subsequent kings titled themselves kings of Galicia and Leon, instead of merely king of Leon as the two were in apersonal union.
At the end of the 11th century, KingAfonso VI of Leónreached the Tagus (1085), repeating the same policy of alliances and developing collaboration withFrankishknights. The originalrepoblaciónwas then complete. His aim was to create a Hispanic empire like theVisigothic Kingdom(418–720) to reclaim his hegemony over the entireIberian Peninsula.Within this context, the territory between theDouroand theTaguswas repopulated and a western nucleus was formed inPortugal that wanted independence.This marks the beginning of thePortugueseRepovoaçãoouRepovoamentooccurred during the reigns of theHouse of Burgundyup to the middle of the thirteenth century when thePortuguese Reconquistawas also brought to an end with the ultimate conquering ofGharb al-Andaluswhen in March 1249 the city ofFarowas conquered byAfonso III of Portugal.
Ferdinand I of Leonwas the leading king of the mid-11th century. He conqueredCoimbraand attacked thetaifakingdoms, often demanding the tributes known asparias. Ferdinand's strategy was to continue to demand parias until the taifa was greatly weakened both militarily and financially. He also repopulated the Borders with numerousfueros. Following the Navarrese tradition, on his death in 1064 he divided his kingdom between his sons. His sonSancho II of Castilewanted to reunite the kingdom of his father and attacked his brothers, with a young noble at his side: Rodrigo Díaz, later known asEl Cid Campeador. Sancho was killed in the siege ofZamoraby the traitor Bellido Dolfos (also known as Vellido Adolfo) in 1072. His brotherAlfonso VItook over Leon, Castile and Galicia.
Alfonso VI the Brave gave more power to thefuerosand repopulatedSegovia,ÁvilaandSalamanca. Once he had secured the Borders, King Alfonso conquered the powerfulTaifa kingdom of Toledoin 1085.Toledo, which was the former capital of the Visigoths, was a very important landmark, and the conquest made Alfonso renowned throughout theChristian world. However, this "conquest" was conducted rather gradually, and mostly peacefully, during the course of several decades.However, Toledo was not fully secured and integrated into Alfonso's kingdom until after a period of gradual resettlement and consolidation, during which Christian settlers were encouraged to move into the area.
Alfonso VI was first and foremost a tactful monarch who chose to understand the kings of taifa and employed unprecedented diplomatic measures to attain political feats before considering the use of force. He adopted the titleImperator totius Hispaniae("Emperor of allHispania", referring to all the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula, and not just the modern country of Spain). Alfonso's more aggressive policy towards the taifas worried the rulers of those kingdoms, who called on the AfricanAlmoravidsfor help.
TheKingdom of Pamplonaprimarily extended along either side of the Pyrenees on the Atlantic Ocean. The kingdom was formed when local leader Íñigo Arista led a revolt against the regional Frankish authority and was elected or declared King in Pamplona (traditionally in 824), establishing a kingdom inextricably linked at this stage to their kinsmen, themuwalladBanu Qasiof Tudela.
Although relatively weak until the early 11th century, Pamplona took a more active role after the accession ofSancho the Great(1004–1035). The kingdom expanded greatly under his reign, as it absorbed Castile, Leon, and what was to be Aragon, in addition to other small counties that would unite and become thePrincipality of Catalonia. This expansion also led to the independence of Galicia, as well as gaining overlordship overGascony.
In the 12th century, however, the kingdom contracted to its core, and in 1162 KingSancho VIdeclared himselfking of Navarre. Throughout its early history, the Navarrese kingdom engaged in frequent skirmishes with the Carolingian Empire, from which it maintained its independence, a key feature of its history until 1513.
The Kingdom of Aragon started off as an offshoot of the Kingdom of Navarre. It was formed whenSancho III of Navarredecided to divide his large realm among all his sons. Aragon was the portion of the realm which passed toRamiro I of Aragon, an illegitimate son of Sancho III. The kingdoms of Aragon and Navarre were several times united in personal union until the death ofAlfonso the Battlerin 1135.
In 1137, the heiress of the kingdom married thecount of Barcelona, and their sonAlfonso IIruled from 1162 the combined possessions of his parents, resulting in the composite monarchy that modern historians call theCrown of Aragon.Alfonso successfully reincorporated thePrincipality of Tarragonainto their realm, expelling the Normand'Aguilófamily.
In the following centuries, the Crown of Aragon conquered a number of territories in the Iberian peninsula and the Mediterranean, including thekingdom of Valenciaand thekingdom of Mallorca.James I of Aragon, also known as James the Conqueror, expanded his territories to the north, south and east. James also signed theTreaty of Corbeil (1258), in which the French king renounced to any feudal claim over Catalonia.
Early in his reign, James attempted to reunite the Aragonese and Navarrese crowns through a treaty with the childlessSancho VII of Navarre. But the Navarrese nobles rejected him, and choseTheobald IV of Champagnein his stead.
Later on,Ferdinand II of Aragon, marriedIsabella of Castile, leading to a dynastic union which eventually gave birth to modern Spain, after the conquest of UpperNavarre(Navarre south of the Pyrenees) and theEmirate of Granada.
In 1139, after an overwhelming victory in theBattle of Ouriqueagainst theAlmoravids,Afonso Henriqueswas proclaimed the firstKing of Portugalby his troops. According to the legend, Christ announced from heavenAfonso's great deeds, whereby he would establish the firstPortuguese CortesatLamegoand be crowned by thePrimateArchbishop of Braga. In 1142 a group of Anglo-Norman crusaders on their way to the Holy Land helped King Afonso Henriques in a failedSiege of Lisbon (1142).In theTreaty of Zamorain 1143,Alfonso VII of Leon and Castilerecognized Portuguese independence from the Kingdom of León.
In 1147, Portugalcaptured Santarém, and seven months later the city of Lisbon was also brought under Portuguese control after theSiege of Lisbon. By the papal bullManifestis Probatum,Pope Alexander IIIrecognized Afonso Henriques as King of Portugal in 1179.
WithPortugalfinally recognized as an independent kingdom by its neighbors,Afonso Henriquesand his successors, aided byCrusadersand the military monastic orders theKnights Templar, theOrder of Avizor theOrder of Saint James, pushed theMoorsto theAlgarveon the southern coast of Portugal. After several campaigns, the Portuguese part in theReconquistacame to an end with the definitivecapture of the Algarvein 1249. With all of Portugal now under the control ofAfonso III of Portugal, religious, cultural and ethnic groups became gradually homogenized.
After the completion of theReconquista, the Portuguese territory was a Roman Catholic realm. Nonetheless,Denis of Portugalcarried out a short war withCastilefor possession of the towns ofSerpaandMoura. After this, Denis avoided war. In 1297, he signed theTreaty of AlcanizeswithFerdinand IV of Castile, establishing a permanent border between the two kingdoms.
During the suppression of the Knights Templar all over Europe, under the influence ofPhilip IV of FranceandPope Clement Vrequesting its annihilation by 1312, King Denis reinstituted the Templars ofTomaras theOrder of Christin 1319. Denis believed that the Order's assets should by their nature stay in any given Order instead of being taken by the King, largely for the Templars' contribution to theReconquistaand the reconstruction of Portugal after the wars.
The experience gained during the battles of theReconquistawas fundamental toConquest of Ceuta,the first step to the establishment of thePortuguese Empire. Likewise, the contact withMuslim's navigation techniques and sciencesenabled the creation ofPortuguese nautical innovationssuch as thecaravel– the principal Portuguese ship during their voyages of exploration in theAge of Discovery.
Minor Christian realms were theKingdom of Viguera(970–1005), theLordship of Albarracín(1167–1300), thePrincipality of Tarragona(1129–1173), and thePrincipality of Valencia(1094–1102).
During the 9th century the Berbers returned to North Africa in the aftermath of revolts. Many governors of large cities distant from the capital, Córdoba, had planned to establish their independence. Then, in 929, theEmir of Córdoba(Abd-ar-Rahman III), the leader of the Umayyad dynasty, declared himselfCaliph, independent from theAbbasidsinBaghdad. He took all the military, religious, and political power and reorganised the army and the bureaucracy.
After regaining control over the dissident governors, Abd-ar-Rahman III tried to conquer the remaining Christian kingdoms of the Iberian peninsula, attacking them several times and forcing them back beyond theCantabrian Mountains. Abd-ar-Rahman's grandson later became a puppet in the hands of the greatVizierAlmanzor(al-Mansur, "the victorious"). Almanzor waged several campaigns attacking and sackingBurgos, Leon,Pamplona,Barcelona, andSantiago de Compostelabefore his death in 1002.
Between Almanzor's death and 1031, al-Andalus suffered many civil wars, which ended in the division into theTaifa kingdoms. The taifas were small kingdoms, established by the city governors. The result was many (up to 34) small kingdoms, each centered upon its capital. Their governors had no larger-scale vision of the Moorish presence in the Iberian peninsula and had no qualms about attacking their neighbouring kingdoms whenever they could gain advantage by doing so.
The split into the taifa states weakened the Islamic presence, and the Christian kingdoms further advanced asAlfonso VI of Leon and CastileconqueredToledoin 1085. Surrounded by enemies, taifa rulers sent a desperate appeal to the Berber chieftainYusuf ibn Tashfin, leader of the Almoravids.Taifasreemerged when the Almoravid dynasty collapsed in the 1140s, and again when the Almohad Caliphate declined in the 1220s.
TheAlmoravidswere a Muslim militia composed of Berbers, and unlike previous Muslim rulers, they were not so tolerant towards Christians and Jews. Their armies entered the Iberian peninsula on several occasions (1086, 1088, 1093) and defeated King Alfonso at theBattle of Sagrajasin 1086, but initially their purpose was to unite all the taifas into a single Almoravid Caliphate. Their actions halted the southward expansion of the Christian kingdoms. Their only defeat came atValenciain 1094, due to the actions ofEl Cid.
Meanwhile, Navarre lost all importance under KingSancho IV, for he lost Rioja toSancho II of Castile, and nearly became the vassal of Aragon. At his death, the Navarrese chose as their kingSancho Ramírez, King of Aragon, who thus became Sancho V of Navarre and I of Aragon. Sancho Ramírez gained international recognition for Aragon, uniting it with Navarre and expanding the borders south, conqueringWasqaHuescadeep in the valleys in 1096 and building a fort, El Castellar, 25 km fromSaraqustaZaragoza.
Catalonia came under intense pressure from the taifas of Zaragoza andLérida, as well as from internal disputes, as Barcelona suffered a dynastic crisis that led to open war among the smaller counties. But by the 1080s, the situation had calmed down, and the dominion of Barcelona over the smaller counties was restored.
After a brief period of disintegration (the secondTaifaperiod), the Almohads, the rising power in North Africa, took over most ofal-Andalus. However they were decisively defeated at theBattle of Las Navas de Tolosa(1212) by a Christian coalition, losing almost all the remaining lands ofal-Andalusin the following decades. By 1252 only theEmirate of Granadaremained intact but as a vassal state of Castile.
Ferdinand and Isabellacompleted theReconquistawith a war against theEmirate of Granadathat started in 1482 and ended with Granada's surrender on 2 January 1492. The Moors in Castile previously numbered "half a million within the realm". By 1492 some 100,000 had died or been enslaved, 200,000 had emigrated, and 200,000 remained in Castile. Many of the Muslim elite, including Granada's former EmirMuhammad XII, who had been given the area of theAlpujarrasmountains as a principality, found life under Christian rule intolerable and emigrated toFezin North Africa.
In 1497, Spanish forces tookMelilla, west of Oran, and the island ofDjerba, south of Tunis, and went on to more important gains, with the bloodyseizure of Oran in 1509, and the capture ofBougieandTripoli in 1510. The Spanish capture ofTripolicost them some 300 men, while the inhabitants suffered between 3,000 and 5,000 killed and another 5,000–6,000 carried off as slaves.Soon thereafter, however, they faced competition from the rapidly expandingOttoman Empirein the east and were pushed back.
Clashes and raids on bordering Andalusian lands did not keep the Christian kingdoms from battling among themselves or allying with Muslim kings.Some Muslim kings had Christian-born wives or mothers.Some Christian mercenaries, likeEl Cid, were contracted bytaifakings to fight against their neighbours.Indeed, El Cid's first battle experience was gained fighting for a Muslim state against a Christian state.At theBattle of Grausin 1063, he and other Castilians fought on the side ofal-Muqtadir, MuslimsultanofZaragoza, against the forces ofRamiro I of Aragon.There is even an instance of a crusade being declared against another Christian king in Hispania.Although Christian rulersFernán González of CastileandRamiro II of Leónhad cooperated to defeat the Muslims at theBattle of Simancas(939), Fernán attacked Ramiro soon after and the Leonese–Castilian war that followed lasted until Ramiro's victory in 944.Ramiro II's death caused the war of the Leonese succession (951–956) between his sons, and the winnerOrdoño III of Leónconcluded peace with caliphAbd al-Rahman IIIof Córdoba.
After the defeat ofAlfonso VIII, King of Castile, atAlarcos, KingsAlfonso IXof Leon andSancho VIIof Navarre entered an alliance with theAlmohadsand invaded Castile in 1196.By the end of the year Sancho VII had dropped out of the war under Papal pressure. Early in 1197, at the request ofSancho I, King of Portugal, PopeCelestine IIIdeclared a crusade against Alfonso IX and released his subjects from their responsibilities to the king, declaring that "the men of his realm shall be absolved from their fidelity and his dominion by authority of the apostolic see."Together the Kings of Portugal, Castile, andAragoninvaded Leon. In the face of this onslaught combined with pressure from the Pope, Alfonso IX was finally forced to sue for peace in October 1197.
In the late years ofal-Andalus, Castile had the might to conquer the remnants of the kingdom ofGranada, but the kings preferred to wait and claim the tribute of the Muslimparias. The trade of Granadan goods and the parias were a major means by which African gold enteredmedieval Europe.
Similarly, there was frequent Muslim infighting throughout the existence of al-Andalus. TheAbbasid Revolution(747–750) divided Muslim rulers in Iberia into the pro-Abbasid Caliphatefaction (based inBaghdad) and the pro-Umayyad faction(reconstituted as theEmirate of Córdoba).Charlemagne's failed778 campaign into Iberiawas prompted by the invitation of the pro-Abbasid governor of Barcelona,Sulayman al-Arabi, which led to a briefAbbasid-Carolingian Allianceagainst the Umayyads.During theFitna of al-Andalus(1009–1031), the Umayyad-runCaliphate of Córdobafell apart into rivaltaifasheaded by Islamic emirs warring each other.After the Christian king of Castile and Leónconquered Toledoin 1085, the emirs requestedYusuf ibn Tashfin, leader of the strict IslamicAlmoravidsect, to come to their defence, which he did at theBattle of Sagrajas(1086). However, Yusuf soon turned on the Muslim emirs of Spain, defeating them all and conquering their lands by 1091.A similar scenario occurred in 1147–1157, when the Almoravid dynasty fell, aSecond Taifas periodhappened, and the Muslim-controlled cities of al-Andalus were conquered by the newAlmohad Caliphate.TheWar of the Granada succession(1482–1492) took place after the deposition of emirAbu'l-Hasan Ali of Granadaby his sonMuhammad XII of Granada; the deposed emir's brotherMuhammad XIII of Granadaalso joined the fight. This succession conflict took place simultaneously with theGranada War, and was ended only by the Castilian conquest in 1492.
TheReconquistawas a process not only of war and conquest, but also ofrepopulation. Christian kings moved their own people to locations abandoned by Muslims in order to have a population capable of defending the borders. The main repopulation areas were theDouroBasin (the northern plateau), the highEbrovalley (La Rioja) and centralCatalonia. The repopulation of theDouroBasin took place in two distinct phases. North of the river, between the 9th and 10th centuries, the "pressure" (orpresura) system was employed. South of theDouro, in the 10th and 11th centuries, thepresuraled to the "charters" (foraisorfueros).Fueroswere used even south of the Central Range.
Thepresurareferred to a group of peasants who crossed the mountains and settled in the abandoned lands of the Douro Basin. Asturian laws promoted this system, for instance granting a peasant all the land he was able to work and defend as his own property. Of course, Asturian and Galician minor nobles and clergymen sent their own expeditions with the peasants they maintained. This led to very feudalised areas, such asLeonand Portugal, whereas Castile, an arid land with vast plains and harsh climate, only attracted peasants with no hope in Biscay. As a consequence, Castile was governed by a single count, but had a largely non-feudal territory with manyfreepeasants.Presurasalso appear in Catalonia, when the count of Barcelona ordered the Bishop of Urgell and the count of Gerona to repopulate the plains ofVic.
During the 10th century and onwards, cities and towns gained more importance and power, as commerce reappeared and the population kept growing.Fueroswerechartersdocumenting the privileges and usages given to all the people repopulating a town. Thefuerosprovided a means of escape from thefeudal system, asfueroswere only granted by the monarch. As a result, the town council was dependent on the monarch alone and, in turn, was required to provideauxilium—aid or troops—for their monarch. The military force of the towns became thecaballeros villanos. The firstfuerowas given by countFernán Gonzálezto the inhabitants ofCastrojerizin the 940's. The most important towns of medieval Hispania hadfueros, orforais. In Navarre,fueroswere the main repopulating system. Later on, in the 12th century, Aragon also employed the system; for example, thefueroofTeruel, which was one of the last fueros, in the early 13th century.
From the mid-13th century on, no more charters were granted, as the demographic pressure had disappeared and other means of re-population were created.Fuerosremained as city charters until the 18th century in Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia and until the 19th century in Castile and Navarre.Fueroshad an immense importance for those living under them, who were prepared to go to war to defend their rights under the charter. In the 19th century, the abolition of thefuerosin Navarre would be one of the causes of theCarlist Wars. In Castile, disputes over the system contributed to the war against Charles I (Castilian War of the Communities).
At theFirst Council of the Lateran,Pope Callixtus IIdeclared the Reconquista as 
part of Crusades and its participants as Crusaders having an equal spiritual standing with those in the east.
In the 13th century,Pope Innocent IIIdeclared a crusade and persuaded warriors from many parts of Europe in and outside the Iberian peninsula to assist the Iberians against theAlmohad Caliphatearmy.The Almohads then advanced into Europe with the intent of undoing the previous achievements of the Reconquista and marching on Rome itself.The crusading campaign culminated in a resounding Crusader victory at theBattle of Las Navas de Tolosa, effectively turning the tide of war in favour of the Christians.
Jim Bradbury(2004) noted that the Christian belligerents in theReconquistawere not all equally motivated by religion, and that a distinction should be made between 'secular rulers' on the one hand, and on the other hand Christian military orders which came from elsewhere (including the three main orders ofKnights Templar,Knights HospitallerandTeutonic Knights), or wereestablished inside Iberia(such as those ofSantiago,AlcántaraandCalatrava).'[The Knights] were more committed toreligious warthan some of their secular counterparts, were opposed to treating with Muslims and carried out raids and even atrocities, such as decapitating Muslim prisoners.'
On the other hand, Christian armies sometimes forged temporary alliances with Islamic emirs, and Christian mercenaries were quite willing to fight for Arab and Berber rulers if the price was right.El Cidis a well-known example of a Christian mercenary leader who was inpaid military service of the Islamic kings of Zaragoza for years.Mercenaries were an important factor, as many kings did not have enough soldiers available.Norsemen,Flemishspearmen, Frankish knights, Moorish mounted archers (archers who travelled on horseback), and Berber light cavalry were the main types of mercenaries available and used in the conflict.
Medieval Christian armies mainly comprised two types of forces: the cavalry (mostly nobles, but including commoner knights from the 10th century on) and the infantry, orpeones(peasants). Infantry only went to war if needed, which was not frequent. In an atmosphere of constant conflict, warfare and daily life were strongly intertwined during this period. These armies reflected the need for society to be on constant alert during the first chapters of the Reconquista. These forces were capable of moving long distances in short times.
Cavalry tacticsin Hispania involved knights approaching the enemy, throwingjavelins, then withdrawing to a safe distance before commencing another assault. Once the enemy formation was sufficiently weakened, the knights charged with thrustingspears(lancesdid not arrive in Hispania until the 11th century). There were three types of knights (caballeros): royal knights, noble knights (caballeroshidalgos), and commoner knights (caballeros villanos, or "mounted soldier from avilla"). Royal knights were mainly nobles with a close relationship with the king, and thus claimed a direct Gothic inheritance.
Royal knights in the early stages of the Reconquista were equipped with mailhauberk, kite shield, a longsword(designed to fight from the horse), javelins, spears and anaxe. Noble knights came from the ranks of theinfanzonesor lower nobles, whereas the commoner knights were not noble but were wealthy enough to afford a horse. Uniquely in Europe, these horsemen comprised a militia cavalry force with no feudal links, being under the sole control of the king or the count ofCastilebecause offueros(charters) with the crown. Both noble and common knights wore padded armour and carried javelins, spears and round-tasselled shield (influenced by Moorish shields), as well as a sword.
Thepeoneswerepeasantswho went to battle in service of theirfeudallord. Poorly equipped, with bows and arrows, spears and short swords, they were mainly used as auxiliary troops. Their function in battle was to contain the enemy troops until the cavalry arrived and to block the enemy infantry from charging the knights. Thelongbow, thecomposite bow, and thecrossbowwere the basic types of bows and were especially popular in the infantry.
In the early Middle Ages in Hispania, armour was typically made of leather, with iron scales. Head protections consisted of a round helmet with nose protector (influenced by the designs used byVikings, who attacked during the 8th and 9th centuries) and a chain mail headpiece. Shields were often round or kidney-shaped, except for the kite-shaped designs used by the royal knights. Usually adorned with geometric designs, crosses or tassels, shields were made out of wood and had a leather cover.
Steel swords were the most common weapon. The cavalry used long double-edged swords and the infantry short, single-edged ones. Guards were either semicircular or straight, but always highly ornamented with geometrical patterns. Spears and javelins were up to 1.5 metres long and had an iron tip. The double-axe—made of iron, 30 cm long, and possessing an extremely sharp edge—was designed to be equally useful as a thrown weapon or in close combat. Maces and hammers were not common, but some specimens have remained and are thought to have been used by members of the cavalry.
This style of warfare remained dominant in the Iberian Peninsula until the late 11th century, when lance tactics entered from France, although the traditional horse javelin-shot techniques continued to be used. In the 12th and 13th centuries, soldiers typically carried a sword, a lance, a javelin, and either bow and arrows or crossbow and darts/bolts. Armor consisted of a coat of mail over a quilted jacket, extending at least to the knees, a helmet or iron cap, and bracers protecting the arms and thighs, either metal or leather.
Shields were round or triangular, made of wood, covered with leather, and protected by an iron band; the shields of knights and nobles would bear the family's coat of arms. Knights rode in both the Muslim style,a la jineta(i.e. the equivalent of a modern jockey's seat), a short stirrup strap and bended knees allowed for better control and speed, or in the French style,a la brida, a long stirrup strap allowed for more security in the saddle (i.e. the equivalent of the modern cavalry seat, which is more secure) when acting as heavy cavalry. Horses were occasionally fitted with a coat of mail as well.
Around the 14th and 15th centuries heavy cavalry gained a predominant role, including knights wearing full plate armor.
The new Christian hierarchy demanded heavy taxes from non-Christians and gave them rights, such as in theTreaty of Granada (1491)only for Moors in recently Islamic Granada. On 30 July 1492, all the Jewish community—some 200,000 people—were forcibly expelled.The next year, theAlhambra decreeordered the expulsion of practicing Jews, leading many of them to convert to Catholicism. In 1502, Queen Isabella I declared that conversion to Catholicism was compulsory within the Kingdom of Castile.Holy Roman Emperor Charles Vimposed the same religious requirement on Moors in the Kingdom of Aragon in 1526, forcing its Muslim population to convert during theRevolt of the Germanies.
Making things more complex were the many former Muslims and Jews known asMoriscos,Marranos, andConversos, who shared ancestors in common with many Christians, especially among the aristocracy, causing much concern over loyalty and attempts by the aristocracy to hide their non-Christian ancestry. Some—the numbers are debated—continued to secretly practice their religions and use their languages well into the sixteenth century.Those that theSpanish Inquisitionfound to be secretly practicing Islam or Judaism were executed, imprisoned, or exiled.
Nevertheless, all those deemed to be "New Christians" were repeatedly suspected of illegally continuing in secret to practice their religions. Variouscrimes against the Spanish stateincluding continued practice of Islam or Judaism. New Christians were subject to many discriminatory practices starting in the sixteenth century.
The many advances and retreats created several social types:
Since the 19th century, traditional Western and especially Iberianhistoriographyhas stressed the existence of theReconquista,a continual phenomenon by which the Christian Iberian kingdoms opposed and conquered the Muslim kingdoms, understood as a common enemy who had militarily seized territory from native Iberian Christians.However, modern scholarship has challenged this concept of a "reconquista" as anational mythtied to Spanish nationalism.The concept has served the idea "that Spain is a nation shaped against Islam", contributing to "a largely biased and distorted vision of the Iberian medieval past, aimed at delegitimizing the Islamic presence (al-Andalus) and therefore at legitimizing the Christian conquest of the Muslim territory."Among other arguments, one of those advanced by scholars is that "no military campaign lasts eight centuries."The term "reconquista" in this sense first appeared in the 19th century, and only entered the dictionary of theRoyal Spanish Academyin 1936, with the rise ofFrancisco Franco.The concept of the reconquista continues to have significance and has even experienced a resurgence in modern politics—especially for the extreme right Spanish partyVox, but also more broadly amongxenophobicand especiallyIslamophobicconservatives in the West, with the influence of the doctrine of a "Clash of Civilizations".
Real, legendary, and fictional episodes from theReconquistaare the subject of much of medievalGalician-Portuguese,Spanish, andCatalan literaturesuch as thecantar de gesta.
Some noblegenealogiesshow the close, though not numerous, relations between Muslims and Christians. For example,Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir, whose rule is considered to have marked the peak of power for Moorishal-AndalusHispania, married Abda, daughter ofSancho Garcés IIofNavarra, who bore him a son, named Abd al-Rahman and commonly known in a pejorative sense asSanchuelo(Little Sancho; in Arabic:Shanjoul).
After his father's death, Sanchuelo/Abd al-Rahman, as a son of a Christian princess, was a strong contender to take over the ultimate power in Muslim al-Andalus. A hundred years later, KingAlfonso VI of Castile, regarded as one of the greatest medieval Spanish kings, designated his son (also named Sancho) by the Muslim princess refugeeZaida of Seville, as his heir.
TheReconquistawas a war with long periods of respite between the adversaries, partly for pragmatic reasons and also due to infighting among the Christian kingdoms of the North spanning over seven centuries. Some populations practiced Islam or Christianity as their own religion during these centuries, so the identity of contenders changed over time.
It is noteworthy that the popular heroEl Cid, whose name is very much associated with the Reconquista, had at one part of his career actually fought  for the Muslim rulers ofZaragoza, whom he defended from its traditional enemy, the ChristianAragon. The most important achievement of El Cid's career, the conquest of thekingdom-city of Valencia, was actually achieved in close alliance with theBanu Hudand other Muslim dynasties opposed to theAlmoravids.
In 1558, the armies of KingHenry II of Francemanaged to conquer the city ofCalais, which had been under English rule for centuries. QueenMary I of Englandconsidered the loss of Calais as the greatest disaster of her reignThe region around Calais, then-known as theCalaisis, was renamed thePays Reconquis("Reconquered Country") in commemoration of its recovery by the French.The French were certainly aware of the Spanish Reconquista, and since at the timePhilip II of Spainwas Queen Mary's consort, use of this term might have been intended as a deliberate snub to him.
Currently, festivals calledmoros y cristianos(Spanish),moros i cristians(Catalan),mouros e cristãos(Portuguese) andmouros e cristiáns(Galician), which all mean "Moors and Christians", recreate the fights as colorful parades with elaborate garments and many fireworks, especially on the central and southern towns of theLand of Valencia, likeAlcoi,OntinyentorVillena.
A 2016 study found that the "rate of Reconquest"—how rapidly the Christian frontier was expanded—has persistent effects on the Spanish economy to this day. After an initial phase of military conquest, Christians states incorporated the conquered land. When large frontier regions were incorporated at once, the land was mostly given to the nobility and the military orders, with negative effects on long-term development. The incorporation of small regions, on the other hand, generally allowed for the participation of individual settlers and was more likely to fall under the auspices of the crown. This led to a more equitable distribution of land and greater social equality, with positive effects on long-term development.
As the Christian kingdoms completed their conquest of territory on the Iberian Peninsula, they shifted their impetus elsewhere, even to theMaghreb, which is  located across the Strait of Gibraltar. A Castilian Crown-sanctioned punitive expedition against Tetouan, a corsair stronghold, was launched as early as 1399–1400.Theconquest of Ceutain 1415 marked the beginning of Portuguese expansion in Africa. Thereby, it allowed Portugal to exert control over Castilian and Aragonese trade through the Strait, and it also allowed Portugal to establish a powerbase for the launching of raid expeditions in Muslim-ruled lands.Some 15th-century political writers promoted the idea of a "Gothic Monarchy", an heir toRome, that included territory across the Strait.
The African enterprise which was undertaken during the rule of theCatholic Monarchswas nominally endorsed by papal bulls and it was also financed with donations which were used to pay the crusade tax, even if it was viewed with some suspicion by the Papacy.Conquest efforts in Africa on the part of the Catholic Monarchy by and large stalled following the death of Ferdinand II of Aragon.The model of conquest and repopulation by Christian powers in the Peninsula was however never reproduced in Northern Africa, and with the conquered territory—a fortified mark with very few fortresses scattered along an extensive coastline—merely adopting a defensive role, it allowed for Ottoman expansion in the region.
The Portuguesewarred with the Ottoman Caliphatein theMediterranean,Indian OceanandSoutheast Asiaas the Portuguese conquered the Ottomans' allies: theSultanate of Adalin East Africa, theSultanate of Delhiin South Asia and theSultanate of Malaccain Southeast Asia.
Christopher Columbus's initial 1492voyage to the Americaswas predicated on the completion of the Granada War, with the Spanish monarchy only able to assent to his overseas journeys once it had completed the process of defeating the Moors.Columbus's views of the New World and the Christian convictions that shaped his actions there were influenced by historical European anti-Muslim ideas that had underpinned the Reconquista itself;he believed that by his voyaging, he would be able to reach theGrand Khanof Asia and create a coalition that could attack the Middle East from both sides and thus bring Jerusalem back under Christian rule.
Along with the rhetoric of thecrusades, the rhetoric of the 'Reconquista' serves as a rallying point in the political discourse of the contemporaryfar-rightin Spain, Portugal and, more broadly, it also serves as a rallying point in the political discourse of thefar-rightin Europe.Frequently, references to the Reconquista and the crusades are allegorically played asinternet memeby 21st-century online far-right groups which seek to conveyanti-Muslim sentiments.The theme has also been used as a major rallying point byidentitariangroups in France and Italy.
The annual commemoration of the surrender of Sultan Boabdil in Granada on 2 January acquired a markedly nationalistic undertone during the early years of theFrancoist regimeand, since the death of the dictatorFrancisco Francoin 1975, it has served as glue for extreme right groups by facilitating their open-air physical gatherings and providing them with an occasion which they can use to explicitly state their political demands.ASpanish Legionunit usually parades and singsEl novio de la muerte("Boyfriend of death").Thefar righthas also waged aculture warby claiming dates in the history of the Reconquista, such as the aforementioned 2 January or 2 February, regional festivities for the relatedautonomous communities(AndalusiaandMurcia).