Christmas

Christmasis an annual festival commemoratingthe birthofJesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25as areligiousandculturalcelebration among billions of peoplearound the world. Aliturgicalfeast central toChristianity, Christmas preparation begins on theFirst Sunday of Adventand it is followed byChristmastide, which historically in the West laststwelve daysand culminates onTwelfth Night. Christmas Day is apublic holidayinmany countries, is observed religiously by a majority ofChristians, as well as celebrated culturally by many non-Christians, and forms an integral part of the annualholiday season.
The traditional Christmas narrative recounted in theNew Testament, known as theNativity of Jesus, says that Jesus was born inBethlehem, in accordance withmessianic prophecies. WhenJosephandMaryarrived in the city, the inn had no room, and so they were offered a stable where theChrist Childwas soon born, withangelsproclaiming this news toshepherds, who then spread the word.
There are different hypotheses regarding thedate of Jesus's birth. In the early fourth century, the church fixed the date as December 25, the date of thewinter solsticein the Roman Empire. It is nine months afterAnnunciationon March 25, also the Roman date of the spring equinox. Most Christians celebrate on December 25 in theGregorian calendar, which has been adopted almost universally in thecivil calendarsused in countries throughout the world. However, part of theEastern Christian Churchescelebrate Christmas on December 25 of the olderJulian calendar, which currently corresponds to January 7 in the Gregorian calendar. For Christians, celebrating thatGodcame into the world in theform of mantoatonefor thesinsof humanity is more important than knowing Jesus's exact birth date.
The customs associated with Christmas in various countries have a mix ofpre-Christian, Christian, andsecularthemes and origins. Popular holiday traditions includegift giving; completing anAdvent calendarorAdvent wreath;Christmas musicandcaroling; watchingChristmas movies; viewing aNativity play; an exchange ofChristmas cards; attendingchurch services; aspecial meal; and displaying variousChristmas decorations, includingChristmas trees,Christmas lights,nativity scenes,poinsettias,garlands,wreaths,mistletoe, andholly. Additionally, several related and often interchangeable figures, known asSanta Claus,Father Christmas,Saint Nicholas, andChristkind, are associated with bringing gifts to children during the Christmas season and have their own body oftraditionsand lore. Because gift-giving and many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity, the holiday has become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses. Over the past few centuries, Christmas has had a steadily growingeconomic effectin many regions of the world.
The English wordChristmasis a shortened form of 'Christ'sMass'.The word is recorded asCrīstesmæssein 1038 andCristes-messein 1131.Crīst(genitiveCrīstes) is from theGreekΧριστός(Khrīstos, 'Christ'), a translation of theHebrewמָשִׁיחַ‎(Māšîaḥ, 'Messiah'), meaning 'anointed';andmæsseis from theLatinmissa, the celebration of theEucharist.
The formChristenmaswas also used during some periods, but is now considered archaic and dialectal.The term derives fromMiddle EnglishCristenmasse, meaning 'Christian mass'.Xmasis an abbreviation ofChristmasfound particularly in print, based on the initial letterchi(Χ) in the GreekΧριστός (Christ), although somestyle guidesdiscourage its use.This abbreviation has precedent in Middle EnglishΧρ̄es masse(whereΧρ̄is another abbreviation of the Greek word).
The holiday has had various other English names throughout its history. TheAnglo-Saxonsreferred to the feast as "midwinter",or, more rarely, asNātiuiteð(from the Latinnātīvitāsbelow).Nativity, meaning 'birth', is from the Latinnātīvitās.InOld English,Gēola('Yule') referred to the period corresponding to December and January, which was eventually equated with Christian Christmas.'Noel' (also 'Nowel' or 'Nowell', as in "The First Nowell") entered English in the late 14th century and is from theOld Frenchnoëlornaël, itself ultimately from the Latinnātālis (diēs)meaning 'birth (day)'.
Koledais the traditional Slavic name for Christmas and the period from Christmas to Epiphany or, more generally, to Slavic Christmas-related rituals, some dating to pre-Christian times.
The gospels ofLukeandMatthewdescribe Jesus as being born inBethlehemto theVirgin Mary. In the Gospel of Luke, Joseph and Mary travel fromNazarethto Bethlehem in order to be counted for a census, and Jesus is born there and placed in amanger.Angels proclaim him a savior for all people, and three shepherds come to adore him. In the Gospel of Matthew, by contrast, three magi follow astarto Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, born theking of the Jews.King Herodorders themassacre of all the boysless than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later returns to Nazareth.
In the 2nd century, the "earliest church records" indicate that "Christians were remembering and celebrating the birth of the Lord", an "observance [that] sprang up organically from the authentic devotion of ordinary believers"; although "they did not agree upon a set date".The earliest document to place Jesus's birthday on December 25 is theChronograph of 354(also called the Calendar of Filocalus), which also names it as the birthday ofSol Invictus(the 'Invincible Sun').
Liturgical historians generally agree that this part of the text was written in Rome in AD 336.This is consistent with the assertion that the date was formally set byPope Julius I, bishop of Rome from 337 to 352.Though Christmas did not appear on the lists of festivals given by the early Christian writersIrenaeusandTertullian,the early Church FathersJohn Chrysostom,Augustine of Hippo, andJeromeattested to December 25 as the date of Christmas toward the end of the fourth century.December 25 was the traditional date of thewinter solsticein the Roman Empire,where most Christians lived, and the Roman festivalDies Natalis Solis Invicti(birthday of Sol Invictus) had been held on this date since 274 AD.
In theEast, the birth of Jesus was celebrated in connection with theEpiphanyon January 6.This holiday was not primarily about Christ's birth, but ratherhis baptism.Christmas was promoted in the East as part of the revival ofOrthodox Christianitythat followed the death of the pro-ArianEmperorValensat theBattle of Adrianoplein 378. The feast was introduced inConstantinoplein 379, inAntiochbyJohn Chrysostomtowards the end of the fourth century,probably in 388, and inAlexandriain the following century.The Georgian Iadgari demonstrates that Christmas was celebrated in Jerusalem by thesixth century.
In theEarly Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which inwestern Christianityfocused on the visit of themagi. However, the medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin" (which began on November 11, the feast ofSt. Martin of Tours), now known as Advent.In Italy, formerSaturnaliantraditions were attached to Advent.Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to theTwelve Days of Christmas(December 25 – January 5); a time that appears in the liturgical calendars as Christmastide or Twelve Holy Days.
In 567, theCouncil of Toursput in place the season ofChristmastide, proclaiming "thetwelve daysfrom Christmas to Epiphany as a sacred and festive season, and established the duty ofAdventfasting in preparation for the feast".This was done in order to solve the "administrative problem for the Roman Empire as it tried to coordinate the solar Julian calendar with the lunar calendars of its provinces in the east".
The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually afterCharlemagnewas crowned Emperor on Christmas Day in 800.KingEdmund the Martyrwas anointed on Christmas in 855 and KingWilliam I of Englandwas crowned on Christmas Day 1066.
By theHigh Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where variousmagnatescelebrated Christmas.King Richard IIof England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which 28 oxen and 300 sheep were eaten.The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts.Carolingalso became popular, and was originally performed by a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form."Misrule"—drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling—was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day (a custom at the royal court), and there was special Christmas ale.
Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival that incorporatedivy,holly, and other evergreens.Christmasgift-givingduring the Middle Ages was usually between people with legal relationships, such as tenant and landlord.The annual indulgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting, and card playing escalated in England, and by the 17th century the Christmas season featured lavish dinners, elaborate masques, and pageants. In 1607,King James Iinsisted that a play be acted on Christmas night and that the court indulge in games.It was during theReformationin 16th–17th-century Europe that many Protestants changed the gift bringer to theChrist ChildorChristkindl, and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.
Following theProtestant Reformation, many of the new denominations, including theAnglican ChurchandLutheran Church, continued to celebrate Christmas.In 1629, the Anglican poetJohn MiltonpennedOn the Morning of Christ's Nativity, a poem that has since been read by many during Christmastide.Donald Heinz, a professor atCalifornia State University, Chico, states thatMartin Luther"inaugurated a period in which Germany would produce a unique culture of Christmas, much copied in North America".Among the congregations of theDutch Reformed Church, Christmas was celebrated as one of the principalevangelical feasts.
However, in 17th century England, some groups such as thePuritansstrongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings ofpopery" or the "rags ofthe Beast".In contrast, the establishedAnglican Church"pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints' days. The calendar reform became a major point of tension between the Anglican party and the Puritan party".TheCatholic Churchalso responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. KingCharles I of Englanddirected his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old-style Christmas generosity.Following theParliamentarianvictory over Charles I during theEnglish Civil War, England's Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647.
Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeksCanterburywas controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways withhollyand shoutedroyalistslogans.Football, among the sports the Puritans banned on a Sunday, was also used as a rebellious force: when Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule.The book,The Vindication of Christmas(London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", old Father Christmas and carol singing.During the ban, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ's birth continued to be held, and people sang carols in secret.
It was restored as a legal holiday in England with theRestorationofKing Charles IIin 1660 when Puritan legislation was declared null and void, with Christmas again freely celebrated in England.Many Calvinist clergymen disapproved of Christmas celebration. As such, in Scotland, the PresbyterianChurch of Scotlanddiscouraged the observance of Christmas, and thoughJames VIcommanded its celebration in 1618,attendance at churchwas scant.TheParliament of Scotlandofficially abolished the observance of Christmas in 1640, claiming that the church had been "purged of all superstitious observation of days".Whereas in England, Wales and Ireland Christmas Day is a common law holiday, having been a customary holiday sincetime immemorial, it was not until 1871 that it was designated abank holidayin Scotland.Following the Restoration of Charles II,Poor Robin's Almanackcontained the lines: "Now thanks to God for Charles return, / Whose absence made old Christmas mourn. / For then we scarcely did it know, / Whether it Christmas were or no".The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th century, details the observance of Christmas and celebrations associated with the season over a number of years.
As in England, Puritans inColonial Americastaunchly opposed the observation of Christmas.ThePilgrimsof New England pointedly spent their first December 25 in the New World working normally.Puritans such asCotton Mathercondemned Christmas both because scripture did not mention its observance and because Christmas celebrations of the day often involved boisterous behavior.Many non-Puritans in New England deplored the loss of the holidays enjoyed by the laboring classes in England.Christmas observance was outlawed inBostonin 1659.The ban on Christmas observance was revoked in 1681 by English governorEdmund Andros, but it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.
At the same time, Christian residents ofVirginiaand New York observed the holiday freely.Pennsylvania Dutchsettlers, predominantlyMoraviansettlers ofBethlehem,Nazareth, andLititzin Pennsylvania and theWachoviasettlements in North Carolina, were enthusiastic celebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bethlehem had the first Christmas trees in America as well as the first Nativity Scenes.Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after theAmerican Revolution, when it was considered an English custom.George WashingtonattackedHessian(German) mercenaries on the day after Christmas during theBattle of Trentonon December 26, 1776, Christmas being much more popular in Germany than in America at this time.
With the atheisticCult of Reasonin power during the era ofRevolutionary France, Christian Christmasreligious serviceswere banned and thethree kings cakewas renamed the "equality cake" underanticlerical government policies.
In the early 19th century, Christmas festivities and services became widespread with the rise of theOxford Movementin theChurch of Englandthat emphasized the centrality of Christmas in Christianity and charity to the poor,along withWashington Irving,Charles Dickens, and other authors emphasizing family, children, kind-heartedness, gift-giving, andSanta Claus(for Irving),orFather Christmas(for Dickens).
In the early-19th century, writers imaginedTudor-period Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1843,Charles Dickenswrote the novelA Christmas Carol, which helped revive the "spirit" of Christmas and seasonal merriment.Its instant popularity played a major role in portraying Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion.
Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centered festival of generosity, linking "worship and feasting, within a context of social reconciliation".Superimposing his humanitarian vision of the holiday, in what has been termed "Carol Philosophy",Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas that are celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit.A prominent phrase from the tale,"Merry Christmas", was popularized following the appearance of the story.This coincided with the appearance of theOxford Movementand the growth ofAnglo-Catholicism, which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances.
The termScroogebecame a synonym formiser, with the phrase"Bah! Humbug!"becoming emblematic of a dismissive attitude of the festive spirit.In 1843, the first commercialChristmas cardwas produced bySir Henry Cole.The revival of theChristmas Carolbegan withWilliam Sandys'sChristmas Carols Ancient and Modern(1833), with the first appearance in print of "The First Noel", "I Saw Three Ships", "Hark the Herald Angels Sing" and "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen", popularized in Dickens'sA Christmas Carol.
In Britain, theChristmas treewas introduced in the early 19th century by the German-bornQueen Charlotte. In 1832, the futureQueen Victoriawrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung withlights,ornaments, and presents placed round it.After her marriage to her German cousinPrince Albert, by 1841 the custom became more widespread throughout Britain.An image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle created a sensation when it was published in theIllustrated London Newsin 1848. A modified version of this image was published inGodey's Lady's Book, Philadelphia in 1850.By the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become common in America.
In America, interest in Christmas had been revived in the 1820s by several short stories byWashington Irvingwhich appear in hisThe Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent.and "Old Christmas". Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted English Christmas festivities he experienced while staying inAston Hall, Birmingham, England, that had largely been abandoned,and he used the tractVindication of Christmas(1652) of Old English Christmas traditions, that he had transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories.
In 1822,Clement Clarke Moorewrote the poemA Visit From St. Nicholas(popularly known by its first line:Twas the Night Before Christmas).The poem helped popularize the tradition of exchanging gifts, and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance.This also started the cultural conflict between the holiday's spiritual significance and its associatedcommercialismthat some see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 bookThe First Christmas in New England,Harriet Beecher Stoweincludes a character who complains thatthe true meaning of Christmaswas lost in a shopping spree.
While the celebration of Christmas was not yet customary in some regions in the U.S.,Henry Wadsworth Longfellowdetected "a transition state about Christmas here in New England" in 1856. "The old puritan feeling prevents it from being a cheerful, hearty holiday; though every year makes it more so".InReading, Pennsylvania, a newspaper remarked in 1861, "Even our presbyterian friends who have hitherto steadfastly ignored Christmas—threw open their church doors and assembled in force to celebrate the anniversary of the Savior's birth."
The First Congregational Church of Rockford,Illinois, "although of genuine Puritan stock", was 'preparing for a grand Christmas jubilee', a news correspondent reported in 1864.By 1860, fourteen states including several fromNew Englandhad adopted Christmas as a legal holiday.In 1875,Louis Prangintroduced theChristmas cardto Americans. He has been called the "father of the American Christmas card".On June 28, 1870, Christmas was formally declared aUnited States federal holiday.
During theFirst World Warand particularly (but not exclusively) in 1914,a series ofinformal trucestook place for Christmas between opposing armies. The truces, which were organised spontaneously by fighting men, ranged from promises not to shoot (shouted at a distance in order to ease the pressure of war for the day) to friendly socializing, gift giving and even sport between enemies.These incidents became a well known and semi-mythologised part of popular memory.They have been described as a symbol of common humanity even in the darkest of situations and used to demonstrate to children the ideals of Christmas.
Under thestate atheismof the Soviet Union, after its foundation in 1917, Christmas celebrations—along with other Christian holidays—were prohibited in public.During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, theLeague of Militant Atheistsencouraged school pupils to campaign against Christmas traditions, such as the Christmas tree, as well as other Christian holidays, including Easter; the League established an antireligious holiday to be the 31st of each month as a replacement.At the height of this persecution, in 1929, on Christmas Day, children in Moscow were encouraged to spit oncrucifixesas a protest against the holiday.Instead, the importance of the holiday and all its trappings, such as the Christmas tree and gift-giving, was transferred to the New Year.It was not until thedissolution of the Soviet Unionin 1991 that thepersecutionended and Orthodox Christmas became a state holiday again for the first time in Russia after seven decades.
In 1991, theGubbio Christmas Tree, in Italy, 650 meters high and decorated with over 700 lights, entered theGuinness Book of Recordsas the tallest Christmas tree in the world.European History Professor Joseph Perry wrote that likewise, inNazi Germany, "because Nazi ideologues saw organized religion as an enemy of the totalitarian state, propagandists sought to deemphasize—or eliminate altogether—the Christian aspects of the holiday" and that "Propagandists tirelessly promoted numerous Nazified Christmas songs, which replaced Christian themes with the regime's racial ideologies".
As Christmas celebrations began to spread globally even outside traditionalChristian cultures, several Muslim-majority countries began to ban the observance of Christmas, claiming it underminedIslam.In 2023, public Christmas celebrations were cancelled inBethlehem, the city synonymous with the birth of Jesus.Palestinianleaders of various Christian denominations cited theongoing Israel–Hamas warin their unanimous decision to cancel celebrations.
Christmas Day is celebrated as a major festival and public holiday in countries around the world, including many whose populations are mostly non-Christian. In some non-Christian areas, periods of former colonial rule introduced the celebration (e.g. Hong Kong); in others, Christian minorities or foreign cultural influences have led populations to observe the holiday. Countries such as Japan, where Christmas is popular despite there being only a small number of Christians, have adopted many of the cultural aspects of Christmas, such as gift-giving, decorations, and Christmas trees. A similar example is inTurkey, being Muslim-majority and with a small number of Christians, where Christmas trees and decorations tend to line public streets during the festival.
Many popular customs associated with Christmas developed independently of the commemoration of Jesus's birth, with some claiming that certain elements are Christianized and have origins in pre-Christian festivals that were celebrated by pagan populations who were laterconverted to Christianity; other scholars reject these claims and affirm that Christmas customs largely developed in a Christian context.The prevailing atmosphere of Christmas has also continually evolved since the holiday's inception, ranging from a sometimes raucous, drunken,carnival-like state in theMiddle Ages,to a tamer family-oriented and children-centered theme introduced in a 19th-century transformation.The celebration of Christmas was banned on more than one occasion within certain groups, such as thePuritansandJehovah's Witnesses(who do not celebrate birthdays in general), due to concerns that it was too unbiblical.Celticwinter herbs such asmistletoeandivy, and the custom of kissing under a mistletoe, are common in modern Christmas celebrations in the English-speaking countries.
The pre-ChristianGermanic peoples—including the Anglo-Saxons and the Norse—celebrated a winter festival calledYule, held in the late December to early January period, yielding modern Englishyule, today used as a synonym forChristmas.In Germanic language-speaking areas, numerous elements of modern Christmas folk custom and iconography may have originated from Yule, including theYule log,Yule boar, and theYule goat.Often leading a ghostly procession through the sky (theWild Hunt), the long-bearded godOdinis referred to as "the Yule one" and "Yule father" in Old Norse texts, while other gods are referred to as "Yule beings".On the other hand, as there are no reliable existing references to a Christmas log prior to the 16th century, the burning of the Christmas block may have been an early modern invention by Christians unrelated to the pagan practice.
Amongcountries with a strong Christian tradition, a variety of Christmas celebrations have developed that incorporate regional and local cultures. For example, in eastern Europe Christmas celebrations incorporated pre-Christian traditions such as theKoleda,which shares parallels with theChristmas carol.
Christmas Day (inclusive of itsvigil, Christmas Eve), is aFestivalin theLutheran Churches, asolemnityin theRoman Catholic Church, and aPrincipal Feastof theAnglican Communion. Other Christian denominations do not rank their feast days but nevertheless place importance on Christmas Eve/Christmas Day, as with other Christian feasts like Easter, Ascension Day, and Pentecost.As such, for Christians, attending a Christmas Eve or Christmas Daychurch serviceplays an important part in the recognition of theChristmas season. Christmas, along with Easter, is the period of highest annual church attendance. A 2010 survey byLifeWay Christian Resourcesfound that six in ten Americans attend church services during this time.In the United Kingdom, the Church of England reported an estimated attendance of 2.5million people at Christmas services in 2015.
Nativity scenesare known from 10th-century Rome. They were popularised by SaintFrancis of Assisifrom 1223, quickly spreading across Europe.Different types of decorations developed across the Christian world, dependent on local tradition and available resources, and can vary from simple representations of the crib to far more elaborate sets – renowned manger scene traditions include the colourfulKraków szopkain Poland,which imitateKraków's historical buildings as settings, the elaborate Italianpresepi(Neapolitan,GenoeseandBolognese),or theProvençalcrèches insouthernFrance, using hand-painted terracotta figurines calledsantons.In certain parts of the world, notablySicily, living nativity scenes following the tradition of Saint Francis are a popular alternative to static crèches.The first commercially produced decorations appeared in Germany in the 1860s, inspired by paper chains made by children.In countries where a representation of theNativity sceneis very popular, people are encouraged to compete and create the most original or realistic ones. Within some families, the pieces used to make the representation are considered a valuable familyheirloom.
The traditional colors of Christmas decorations are red, green, and gold.Red symbolizes the blood of Jesus, which was shed in hiscrucifixion; green symbolizes eternal life, and in particular the evergreen tree, which does not lose its leaves in the winter; and gold is the first color associated with Christmas, as one of the three gifts of theMagi, symbolizing royalty.
TheChristmas treewas first used by German Lutherans in the 16th century, with records indicating that a Christmas tree was placed in the Cathedral of Strassburg in 1539, under the leadership of theProtestant Reformer,Martin Bucer.In the United States, these "German Lutherans brought the decorated Christmas tree with them; theMoraviansput lighted candles on those trees".Whendecoratingthe Christmas tree, many individuals place a star at the top of the tree symbolizing theStar of Bethlehem, a fact recorded byThe School Journalin 1897.Professor David Albert Jones ofOxford Universitywrites that in the 19th century, it became popular for people to also use an angel to top the Christmas tree in order to symbolize the angels mentioned in the accounts of theNativity of Jesus.Additionally, in the context of a Christian celebration of Christmas, the Christmas tree, being evergreen in colour, issymbolicof Christ, who offers eternal life; the candles or lights on the tree represent theLight of the World—Jesus—born in Bethlehem.Christian services for family use and public worship have been published for the blessing of a Christmas tree, after it has been erected.The Christmas tree is considered by some asChristianisationofpagantradition and ritual surrounding theWinter Solstice, which included the use ofevergreenboughs, and an adaptation of pagantree worship;according to eighth-century biographerÆddi Stephanus,Saint Boniface(634–709), who was a missionary in Germany, took an ax to an oak tree dedicated toThorand pointed out afir tree, which he stated was a more fitting object of reverence because it pointed toheavenand it had a triangular shape, which he said was symbolic of theTrinity.The English language phrase "Christmas tree" is first recorded in 1835and represents an importation from the German language.
Since the 16th century, thepoinsettia, a native plant from Mexico, has been associated with Christmas carrying the Christian symbolism of theStar of Bethlehem; in that country it is known in Spanish as theFlower of the Holy Night.Other popular holiday plants include holly,mistletoe, redamaryllis, andChristmas cactus. Along with a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along withgarlandsandevergreenfoliage. The display ofChristmas villageshas also become a tradition in many homes this season. The outside of houses may be decorated with lights and sometimes with illuminatedsleighs,snowmen, and other Christmas figures. Mistletoe features prominently in European myth and folklore (for example, the legend ofBaldr); it is an evergreen parasitic plant that grows on trees, especially apple and poplar, and turns golden when it is dried. It is customary to hang a sprig of mistletoe in the house at Christmas, and anyone standing underneath it may be kissed.
Other traditional decorations includebells,candles,candy canes,stockings,wreaths, andangels. The wreaths and candles in each window are a more traditional Christmas display. The concentric assortment of leaves, usually from anevergreen, make up Christmas wreaths. Candles in each window are meant to demonstrate that Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the ultimate light of the world.
Christmas lightsand banners may be hung along streets, music played by speakers, and Christmas trees placed in prominent places.It is common in many parts of the world for town squares and consumer shopping areas to sponsor and display decorations. Rolls of brightly colored paper with secular or religious Christmas motifs are manufactured to wrap gifts. In some countries, Christmas decorations are traditionally taken down onTwelfth Night.
The tradition of theNativity scenecomes from Italy. One of the earliest representation in art of the nativity was found in theearly ChristianRoman catacombofSaint Valentine.It dates to about AD 380.Another, of similar date, is beneath the pulpit inSant'Ambrogio, Milan.
For the Christian celebration of Christmas, the viewing of theNativity playis one of the oldest Christmastime traditions, with the first reenactment of theNativity of Jesustaking place in A.D. 1223 in the Italian town ofGreccio.In that year,Francis of Assisiassembled a Nativity scene outside of his church in Italy and children sang Christmas carols celebrating the birth of Jesus.
Each year, this grew larger, and people travelled from afar to see Francis' depiction of the Nativity of Jesus that came to feature drama and music.Nativity plays eventually spread throughout all of Europe, where they remain popular. Christmas Eve and Christmas Day church services often came to feature Nativity plays, as did schools and theatres.In France, Germany, Mexico, and Spain, Nativity plays are often reenacted outdoors in the streets.
The earliest extant specifically Christmas hymns appear in fourth-centuryRome. Latin hymns such as"Veni redemptor gentium", written byAmbrose, Archbishop of Milan, were austere statements of the theological doctrine of the Incarnation in opposition toArianism."Corde natus ex Parentis"("Of the Father's love begotten") by the Spanish poetPrudentius(died413) is still sung in some churches today.In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Christmas "Sequence" or "Prose" was introduced in North European monasteries, developing underBernard of Clairvauxinto a sequence of rhymedstanzas. In the 12th century the Parisian monkAdam of St. Victorbegan to derive music from popular songs, introducing something closer to the traditionalChristmas carol. Christmas carols in English appear in a 1426 work ofJohn Awdlaywho lists twenty five "caroles of Cristemas", probably sung by groups of 'wassailers', who went from house to house.
The songs now known specifically as carols were originally communal folk songs sung during celebrations such as "harvest tide" as well as Christmas. It was only later that carols began to be sung in church. Traditionally, carols have often been based onmedievalchord patterns, and it is this that gives them their uniquely characteristic musical sound. Some carols like "Personent hodie", "Good King Wenceslas", and"In dulci jubilo"can be traced directly back to theMiddle Ages. They are among the oldest musical compositions still regularly sung."Adeste Fideles"(O Come all ye faithful) appeared in its current form in the mid-18th century.
The singing of carols increased in popularity after theProtestant Reformationin theLutheranareas of Europe, as the ReformerMartin Lutherwrote carols and encouraged their use in worship, in addition to spearheading the practice of caroling outside theMass.The 18th-century English reformerCharles Wesley, a founder ofMethodism, understood the importance of music to Christian worship. In addition to setting many psalms to melodies, he wrote texts for at least three Christmas carols. The best known was originally entitled "Hark! How All the Welkin Rings", later renamed "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing".
Christmas seasonal songs of a secular nature emerged in the late 18th century. The Welsh melody for "Deck the Halls" dates from 1794, with the lyrics added by Scottish musicianThomas Oliphantin 1862, and the American "Jingle Bells" was copyrighted in 1857. Other popular carols include "The First Noel", "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen", "The Holly and the Ivy", "I Saw Three Ships", "In the Bleak Midwinter", "Joy to the World", "Once in Royal David's City" and "While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks".In the 19th and 20th centuries, African American spirituals and songs about Christmas, based in their tradition of spirituals, became more widely known. An increasing number of seasonal holiday songs were commercially produced in the 20th century, including jazz and blues variations. In addition, there was a revival of interest in early music, from groups singing folk music, such as The Revels, to performers of early medieval and classical music.
One of the most ubiquitous festive songs is "We Wish You a Merry Christmas", which originates from theWest Countryof England in the 1930s.Radio has covered Christmas music from variety shows from the 1940s and 1950s, as well as modern-day stations that exclusively play Christmas music from late November through December 25.Hollywood movies have featured new Christmas music, such as "White Christmas" inHoliday InnandRudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer.Traditional carols have also been included in Hollywood films, such as "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing" inIt's a Wonderful Life(1946), and "Silent Night" inA Christmas Story.
A specialChristmas family mealis traditionally an important part of the holiday's celebration, and the food served varies greatly from country to country. Some regions have special meals for Christmas Eve, such asSicily, where 12 kinds of fish are served. In the United Kingdom and countries influenced by its traditions, a standard Christmas meal includes turkey, goose or other large bird, gravy, potatoes, vegetables, sometimes bread, and cider. Special desserts are also prepared, such asChristmas pudding,mince pies,fruit cakeandYule log cake.
In Poland and Scandinavia, fish is often used for the traditional main course, but richer meat such as lamb is increasingly served. In Sweden, it is common with a special variety ofsmörgåsbord, where ham, meatballs, and herring play a prominent role. In Germany, France, and Austria, goose and pork are favored. Beef, ham, and chicken in various recipes are popular worldwide. TheMaltesetraditionally serveImbuljuta tal-Qastan,a chocolate and chestnuts beverage, afterMidnight Massand throughout the Christmas season. Slovenes prepare the traditional Christmas breadpotica,bûche de Noëlin France,panettonein Italy, and elaborate tarts and cakes.Panettone, anItaliantype ofsweet breadandfruitcake, originally fromMilan, Italy, usually prepared and enjoyed for Christmas andNew YearinWestern,Southern, andSoutheastern Europe, as well as inSouth America,Eritrea,Australia and North America.
The eating of sweets and chocolates has become popular worldwide, and sweeter Christmas delicacies include the Germanstollen,marzipancake or candy, and Jamaican rum fruit cake. As one of the few fruits traditionally available to northern countries in winter, oranges have been long associated with special Christmas foods.Eggnogis asweeteneddairy-basedbeveragetraditionally made with milk, cream, sugar, and whipped eggs (which gives it a frothy texture).Spiritssuch as brandy, rum, or bourbon are often added. The finished serving is often garnished with a sprinkling of ground cinnamon or nutmeg.
Christmas cards are illustrated messages of greeting exchanged between friends and family members during the weeks preceding Christmas Day. The traditional greeting reads "wishing you a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year", much like that of the first commercialChristmas card, produced bySir Henry Colein London in 1843.The custom of sending them has become popular among a wide cross-section of people with the emergence of the modern trend towards exchangingE-cards.
Christmas cards are purchased in considerable quantities and feature artwork, commercially designed and relevant to the season. The content of the design might relate directly to theChristmas narrative, withdepictions of the Nativity of Jesus, orChristian symbolssuch as theStar of Bethlehem, or a whitedove, which can represent both theHoly SpiritandPeaceon Earth. Other Christmas cards are more secular and can depictChristmas traditions, figures such as Santa Claus, objects directly associated with Christmas such as candles, holly, and baubles, or a variety of images associated with the season, such as Christmastide activities, snow scenes, and the wildlife of the northern winter.
A number of nations have issuedcommemorative stampsat Christmastide.Postal customers will often use these stamps to mailChristmas cards, and they are popular withphilatelists.These stamps are regular postage stamps, unlikeChristmas seals, and are valid for postage year-round. They usually go on sale sometime between early October and early December and are printed in considerable quantities.
Christmas seals were first issued to raise funding to fight and bring awareness totuberculosis. The first Christmas seal was issued inDenmarkin 1904, and since then other countries have issued their own Christmas seals.
The exchanging of gifts is one of the core aspects of the modern Christmas celebration, making it the most profitable time of year for retailers and businesses throughout the world. On Christmas, people exchange gifts based on the Christian tradition associated withSaint Nicholas,and the gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh which were given to the baby Jesus by theMagi.The practice of gift giving in theRomancelebration ofSaturnaliamay have influenced Christian customs, but on the other hand the Christian "core dogma of theIncarnation, however, solidly established the giving and receiving of gifts as the structural principle of that recurrent yet unique event", because it was the Biblical Magi, "together with all their fellow men, who received the gift of God through man's renewed participation in the divine life".However, Thomas J. Talley holds that the Roman EmperorAurelianplaced the alternate festival on December 25 in order to compete with the growing rate of the Christian Church, which had already been celebrating Christmas on that date first.
A number of figures are associated with Christmas and the seasonal giving of gifts. Among these areFather Christmas, also known asSanta Claus(derived from theDutchfor Saint Nicholas), Père Noël, and theWeihnachtsmann;Saint NicholasorSinterklaas; theChristkind; Kris Kringle;Joulupukki;tomte/nisse; Babbo Natale;Saint Basil; andDed Moroz. The Scandinavian tomte (also called nisse) is sometimes depicted as agnomeinstead of Santa Claus.
The best known of these figures today is red-dressed Santa Claus, of diverse origins. The name 'Santa Claus' can be traced back to the DutchSinterklaas('Saint Nicholas'). Nicholas was a 4th-centuryGreekbishop ofMyra, a city in theRoman provinceofLycia, whose ruins are 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from modernDemrein southwest Turkey.Among other saintly attributes, he was noted for the care of children, generosity, and the giving of gifts. His feast day, December 6, came to be celebrated in many countries with the giving of gifts.
Saint Nicholas traditionally appeared in bishop's attire, accompanied by helpers, inquiring about the behaviour of children during the past year before deciding whether they deserved a gift or not. By the 13th century, Saint Nicholas was well known in the Netherlands, and the practice of gift-giving in his name spread to other parts of central and southern Europe. At theReformationin 16th- and 17th-century Europe, many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child orChristkindl, corrupted in English to 'Kris Kringle', and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.
The modern popular image of Santa Claus, however, was created in the United States, and in particular in New York. The transformation was accomplished with the aid of notable contributors includingWashington Irvingand theGerman-AmericancartoonistThomas Nast(1840–1902). Following theAmerican Revolutionary War, some of the inhabitants of New York City sought out symbols of the city's non-English past. New York had originally been established as the Dutch colonial town ofNew Amsterdamand the Dutch Sinterklaas tradition was reinvented as Saint Nicholas.
Current tradition in severalLatin Americancountries (such as Venezuela and Colombia) holds that while Santa makes the toys, he then gives them to the Baby Jesus, who is the one who actually delivers them to the children's homes, a reconciliation between traditionalreligious beliefsand theiconographyof Santa Claus imported from the United States.
In Italy'sSouth Tyrol, Austria, the Czech Republic, Southern Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Slovakia, and Switzerland, theChristkind(Ježíšekin Czech, Jézuska in Hungarian and Ježiško in Slovak) brings the presents. Greek children get their presents fromSaint Basilon New Year's Eve, the eve of that saint's liturgical feast.The German St. Nikolaus is not identical with the Weihnachtsmann (who is the German version of Santa Claus / Father Christmas). St. Nikolaus wears a bishop's dress and still brings small gifts (usually candies, nuts, and fruits) on December 6 and is accompanied byKnecht Ruprecht. Although many parents around the world routinely teach their children about Santa Claus and other gift bringers, some have come to reject this practice, considering itdeceptive.
Multiple gift-giver figures exist in Poland, varying between regions and individual families. St Nicholas (Święty Mikołaj) dominates Central and North-East areas, the Starman (Gwiazdor) is most common inGreater Poland, Baby Jesus (Dzieciątko) is unique toUpper Silesia, with the Little Star (Gwiazdka) and the Little Angel (Aniołek) being common in the South and the South-East. Grandfather Frost (Dziadek Mróz) is less commonly accepted in some areas of Eastern Poland.It is worth noting that across all of Poland, St Nicholas is the gift giver onSaint Nicholas Dayon December 6.
Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival with annual indulgences included the sporting.When Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule.The OrkneyChristmas Day Ba'tradition continues.In theformer top tier of English football, home and away Christmas Day and Boxing Day double headers were often played guaranteeing football clubs large crowds by allowing many working people their only chance to watch a game.ChampionsPreston North EndfacedAston Villaon Christmas Day 1889and the last December 25 fixture was in1965 in England,Blackpoolbeating Blackburn Rovers 4–2.One of the most memorable images of theChristmas truceduring World War I was the games of football played between the opposing sides on Christmas Day 1914.
More recently, in the United States, bothNFLandNBAhave held fixtures on Christmas Day.
During the lateQing dynastytheShanghai Newsreferred to Christmas by a variety of terms. In 1872 it initially called Christmas "Jesus' birthday" (Chinese:耶穌誕日;pinyin:yēsū dànrì), but from 1873 to 1881 it used terms such as "Western countries' Winter Solstice" (Chinese:西國冬至;pinyin:xīguó dōngzhì) and "Western peoples' Winter Solstice" (Chinese:西人冬節;pinyin:xīrén dōngjiē), before finally settling on "Foreign Winter Solstice" (Chinese:外國冬至;pinyin:wàiguó dōngzhì) from 1882 onwards. This term was gradually replaced by the now standard term "Festival of the birth of the Holy One" (Chinese:聖誕節;pinyin:shèngdàn jiē) during the early years of the twentieth century.
In Scandinavia—Denmark,Norway,Sweden—whereLutheranismis dominant, Christmas (jul) is celebrated on 24 December.In Sweden, it is traditional for companies to host a Christmas buffet lunch (julbord or jullunch) for their employees a week before Christmas. To prevent food poisoning during the holiday season, Swedish newspapers annually publish reports and laboratory tests warning the public to avoid leaving cold cuts, mayonnaise, and other perishable foods at room temperature to prevent spoilage. Christmas in Sweden is a time to indulge in festive meals, with roasted ham being the centerpiece of the feast. However, the exact day for enjoying this treat varies across regions, with each area having its own traditions. Another well-established custom in Sweden is tuning in to watch a special Disney television program at precisely 3 p.m. on December 24.
In Norway, the Christmas feast is held on December 24, with each region offering its own special dishes for Christmas dinner. After the meal, "Julenissen" (where "jule" means Christmas and "nissen" refers to a mythical elf in Norwegian folklore) brings gifts to well-behaved children. Following a quiet family gathering on December 25, another grand celebration takes place on Boxing Day, December 26, where children go door-to-door visiting neighbors and receiving treats.
There are several theories as to why December 25 was chosen as the date for Christmas. However, theology professor Susan Roll notes that "no liturgical historian [...] goes so far as to deny that it has any sort of relation with the sun, thewinter solsticeand the popularity of solar worship in the later Roman Empire".The early Church linked Jesus Christ to the Sun and referred to him as the 'Sun of Righteousness' (Sol Justitiae) prophesied byMalachi.In the early fifth century,Augustine of HippoandMaximus of Turinpreached that it was fitting to celebrate Christ's birth at the winter solstice, because it marked the point when the hours of daylight begin to grow.
The 'history of religions' or 'substitution' theory suggests that the Church chose December 25 as Christ's birthday (dies Natalis Christi)to appropriate the Roman winter solstice festivaldies Natalis Solis Invicti(birthday ofSol Invictus, the 'Invincible Sun'), held on this date since 274 AD; before the earliest evidence of Christmas on that date.Gary Forsythe, Professor of Ancient History, says that theNatalis Solis Invictifollowed "the seven-day period of theSaturnalia(December 17–23), Rome's most joyous holiday season sinceRepublican times, characterized by parties, banquets, and exchanges of gifts".Roll says that "the specific nature of the relation" between Christmas and theNatalis Solis Invictihas not yet been "conclusively proven from extant texts".
The 'calculation theory'suggests that December 25 was calculated as nine months after a date chosen forJesus's conception: 25 March, the Roman date of thespring equinox, which later became theFeast of the Annunciation.
Some jurisdictions of theEastern Orthodox Church, including those ofRussia,Georgia,North Macedonia,Montenegro,Serbia, andJerusalem, mark feasts using the olderJulian calendar. As of 2024, there is a difference of 13 days between the Julian calendar and the modernGregorian calendar, which is used internationally for most secular purposes. As a result, December 25 on the Julian calendar currently corresponds to January 7 on the calendar used by most governments and people in everyday life. Therefore, the aforementioned Orthodox Christians mark December 25 (and thus Christmas) on the day that is internationally considered to be January 7.
However, following theCouncil of Constantinople in 1923,other Orthodox Christians, such as those belonging to the jurisdictions ofConstantinople,Bulgaria,Greece,Romania,Antioch,Alexandria,Albania,Cyprus,Finland, and theOrthodox Church in America, among others, began using theRevised Julian calendar, which at present corresponds exactly to the Gregorian calendar.Therefore, these Orthodox Christians mark December 25 (and thus Christmas) on the same day that is internationally considered to be December 25.
A further complication is added by the fact that theArmenian Apostolic Churchcontinues the original ancientEastern Christianpractice of celebrating the birth of Christ not as a separate holiday, but on the same day as the celebration of his baptism (Theophany), which is on January 6. This is a public holiday in Armenia, and it is held on the same day that is internationally considered to be January 6, because since 1923 the Armenian Church in Armenia has used the Gregorian calendar.
However, there is also a smallArmenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem, which maintains the traditional Armenian custom of celebrating the birth of Christ on the same day as Theophany (January 6), but uses the Julian calendar for the determination of that date. As a result, this church celebrates "Christmas" (more properly called Theophany) on the day that is considered January 19 on the Gregorian calendar in use by the majority of the world.
Following the2022 invasion of its territory by Russia,Ukraineofficially moved its Christmas date from January 7 to December 25, to distance itself from theRussian Orthodox Churchthat had supported Russia's invasion.This followed theOrthodox Church of Ukraineformally adopting theRevised Julian calendarfor fixed feasts and solemnities.
There are four different dates used by different Christian groups to mark the birth of Christ, given in the table below.
Christmas is typically a peak selling season for retailers in many nations around the world; sales increase dramatically during this time as people purchase gifts, decorations, and supplies to celebrate. In the United States, the "Christmas shopping season" starts as early as October.In Canada, merchants begin advertising campaigns beforeHalloween(October 31) and step up their marketing following Remembrance Day on November 11. In the UK and Ireland, the Christmas shopping season starts from mid-November, around the time when high streetChristmas lightsare turned on.A concept devised by retail entrepreneurDavid Lewis, the firstChristmas grottoopened inLewis'sdepartment store in Liverpool, England in 1879.In the United States, it has been calculated that a quarter of all personal spending takes place during the Christmas/holiday shopping season.Figures from theUS Census Bureaureveal that expenditure in department stores nationwide rose from $20.8billion in November 2004 to $31.9billion in December 2004, an increase of 54 percent. In other sectors, the pre-Christmas increase in spending was even greater, there being a November–December buying surge of 100 percent in bookstores and 170 percent in jewelry stores. In the same year employment in American retail stores rose from 1.6million to 1.8million in the two months leading up to Christmas.Industries completely dependent on Christmas includeChristmas cards, of which 1.9billion are sent in the United States each year, and live Christmas trees, of which 20.8million were cut in the US in 2002.In the UK in 2010, up to £8billion was expected to be spent online at Christmas, approximately a quarter of total retail festive sales.
In most Western nations, Christmas Day is the least active day of the year for business and commerce; almost all retail, commercial and institutional businesses are closed, and almost all industries cease activity (more than any other day of the year), whether laws require such or not. InEngland and Wales, theChristmas Day (Trading) Act 2004prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day. Similar legislation was approved in Scotland in 2007.Film studiosrelease many high-budget movies during the holiday season, including Christmas films, fantasy movies or high-tone dramas with high production values to hopes of maximizing the chance of nominations for theAcademy Awards.
One economist's analysis calculates that despite increased overall spending, Christmas is adeadweight lossunder orthodoxmicroeconomic theory, because of the effect of gift-giving. This loss is calculated as the difference between what the gift giver spent on the item and what the gift receiver would have paid for the item. It is estimated that in 2001, Christmas resulted in a $4billion deadweight loss in the US alone.Because of complicating factors, this analysis is sometimes used to discuss possible flaws in current microeconomic theory. Other deadweight losses include the effects of Christmas on the environment and the fact that material gifts are often perceived aswhite elephants, imposing cost for upkeep and storage and contributing to clutter.
Christmas has been the subject of controversy and attacks from various sources, both Christian and non-Christian. Historically, it was prohibited byPuritansduring their ascendency in theCommonwealth of England(1647–1660) and inColonial New Englandwhere the Puritans outlawed the celebration of Christmas in 1659 on the grounds that Christmas was not mentioned in Scripture and therefore violated theReformedregulative principle of worship.TheParliament of Scotland, which was dominated byPresbyterians, passed a series of acts outlawing the observance of Christmas between 1637 and 1690; Christmas Day did not becomea public holiday in Scotlanduntil 1871.Today, some conservative Reformed denominations such as theFree Presbyterian Church of Scotlandand theReformed Presbyterian Church of North Americalikewise reject the celebration of Christmas based on the regulative principle and what they see as its non-Scriptural origin.Celebrating Christmas is banned in theJehovah's Witnesses, as the Governing Body believes that Christmas is originally pagan and again that it is without basis in Scripture.Christmas celebrations have also been prohibited byatheist statessuch as theSoviet Unionand more recently majority Muslim states such asSomalia,TajikistanandBrunei.
Some Christians and organizations such asPat Robertson'sAmerican Center for Law and Justicecite alleged attacks on Christmas (dubbing them a "war on Christmas").Such groups claim that any specific mention of the term "Christmas" or its religious aspects is being increasinglycensored, avoided, or discouraged by a number of advertisers, retailers, government (prominently schools), and other public and private organizations. One controversy is the occurrence of Christmas trees being renamed Holiday trees.In the U.S. there has been a tendency to replace the greetingMerry ChristmaswithHappy Holidays, which is considered inclusive at the time of the Jewish celebration ofHanukkah.In the U.S., and Canada, where the use of the term "Holidays" is most prevalent, opponents have denounced its usage and avoidance of using the term "Christmas" as beingpolitically correct.In 1984, theU.S. Supreme Courtruled inLynch v. Donnellythat a Christmas display (which included a Nativity scene) owned and displayed by the city ofPawtucket, Rhode Island, did not violate the First Amendment.American Muslim scholarAbdul Malik Mujahidhas said that Muslims must treat Christmas with respect, even if they disagree with it.
The government of the People's Republic of China officially espouses state atheism,and has conductedantireligious campaignsto this end.In December 2018, officials raided Christian churches prior to Christmastide and coerced them to close; Christmas trees and Santa Clauses were also forcibly removed.