Ottoman cuisine

Ottoman cuisineis thecuisineof theOttoman Empireand its continuation in the cuisines ofGreece,Turkey, theBalkans,Caucasus,Middle EastandNorthern Africa.
The Ottoman palace kitchen registers (matbah-i amire defterleri) are important primary sources for studies of early modern Ottoman cuisine containing information on ingredients and names of food dishes cooked by the palace kitchens.
Many cookbooks were published beginning in the 19th century reflecting the cultural fusions that characterized the rich cuisine of Istanbul's elites in the Late Ottoman period as new ingredients like tomatoes became widely available.There are few extant recipe collections before this era.
The earliest Ottoman cookbook is credited to Muhammad Shirvânî's 15th-century expansion of the earlier ArabicKitab al-TabikhbyMuhammad bin Hasan al-Baghdadi.
Diwan Lughat al-Turk(the earliest Turkish language dictionary) is often consulted as a source for the influence of Turkic cuisine, although scholars caution against uncritically assuming the words still meant the same thing hundreds of years later in geographically distant Anatolia.
Ottoman cuisine represents the synthesis ofCentral Asian,Persian,Balkan,ArabandByzantineculinary traditions, enriched by the introduction of new spices and ingredients during theColumbian Exchange.Maxime Rodinsonhas argued that food historians "need to show that [foods] do not have a common, parallel origin in Graeco-Roman cooking before we adduce any oriental influence" because, according to Rodinson,Latin Europe, Islam and theByzantine Empireall evolved from "the civilization of antiquity".This type of "mutual exchange and enrichment" is a typical feature of culinary history.
TheSeljuk-erafoodwaysof theTurkic tribeswere influenced by the cultures they had encountered during theirmigrationsfrom theAltay Mountainsto Anatolia, including Persian cuisine.Ayranis often considered to be part of the central Asian heritage of the Turkic tribes. Pilaf dishes exist in both Central Asian and Persian cuisine making it difficult to trace the path of diffusion back to its starting point.
Ottoman trade introduced new ingredients to the empire's regional cuisines, contributing to the evolving, unique character of Ottoman foodways.Levantine cuisinewas enriched by the new ingredients from Asia and the Americas.Fernand Braudelcredits the Ottomans with introducing rice, sesame and maize to the region.
Although tomatoes had entered the cuisine by the 1690s, they are not found in the few recipe manuscripts that survive from the 18th century. Ayşe Fahriye has recipes for both green tomatoes (kavata) and red tomatoes (domates) inEv Kadını. Some of the recipes like tomato pilaf and dolma are still common in modernTurkish cuisine. Fahriye's 1882 cookbook is the last mention of green tomatoes in Ottoman cooking.Mehmet Kamil's influential 1844 manuscript includes recipes for tomato stew, stuffed tomatodolmaand tomato pilaf.
Also from the Americas were potatoes,haricot beans, peppers, tomatoes, pumpkin, corn and zucchini.
The court cuisine was diffused through the provinces by Ottoman officials.
The influence of Ottoman cuisine in Europe beginning in the early 16th century is seen in dishes likesharbat, which spread first to Italy afterFranceso I de'Medicirequested a recipe for "Turkish sorbette" in 1577.Rice pudding, described in contemporaneous sources as "Turkish-style rice", was served at the wedding ofErcole I d'Este, Duke of Ferrarain 1529. Similar to the Western-style confectionnougat,koz halvais found in thecuisines of Central Europe, where it is calledTörökméz('Turkish honey') in Hungarian, andTürkischer Honigin Austria and southern Germany.
The Ottoman Empire spanned three continents, representing a wide range of climate zones and flora and fauna, and so the cuisine includes not only the cuisine of the Ottoman palace, but a rich diversity of regional specialties.
The iconic Ottoman stuffed pastrybörekmay be related to the triangularsanbusakpastries of Safavid cuisine. The cognate termsenbuseappears in Turkish sources as early as the 13th century, becoming corrupted assamsa(Samsaare often associated withUzbek cuisine.).
The term "börek" does not appear inKashgari's dictionarybut two recipes forpirakare recorded in the 14th centuryYinshan Zhengyao, a Chinese cookery manuscript from theMongol Yuanera. The description ofDanishmend Gazi's wedding feast inDanishmendnamementions both samsa and "well-buttered böreks".
Ottoman banquets in the 19th century served a mix ofalafranga and alaturcafoods. At these dinners,börekwas sometimes replaced by the similar French pastry,bouchéeorbouchée à la Reine.
The pastryboyoz(etymologically linked to the Spanishbollosmeaning "small loaves") may date to the arrival of Sephardic Jews in 1492. In modern times the pastry is found mainly in the city of Izmir where it represents the cultural heritage and contributions ofOttoman Jews.
Bread was made with wheat and classified according to the quality and origin of the flour. Istanbul's demand for grain could not be met by local production alone and it received shipments from the Thracian coastlands, western Anatolia,Dobruja,MacedoniaandThessaly.
Many types of bread were baked in the palace kitchens—flat white bread (fodula), loaves of good quality whole wheat (somun) and white bread (fırancala) andfilo(yufka).The addition of seeds like sesame and aniseed, or spices like cloves, was considered a luxury. Evliya Çelebi noted "the fine white Mudejar francala bread", referring to the European-style bread baked by theMudéjarin Galata.
Lapa,keşkekand other Ottoman porridge dishes were less expensive alternatives to white bread.
Sugar was still prohibitively costly in the 17th century; far more common were honey and syrups likepekmez, made with grapes.
The wheat berry puddingaşure, in modern times a part of the Islamic holy dayAshura, has roots in theharvest ritualsof theNeolithicperiod, since which time domesticatedwheatis known to have been cultivated atKaraca Dağ.
There are multiple competing theories of the origin ofbaklava, variously ascribing it to the Ancient Romanplacenta cake, Persianlauzinajor the influence of Central Asian desserts, found also in the milky layered dessertgüllaç.Dernschwam describes a baklava-like dish made by cooking thin wafers of starch flour and egg white, then filling with layers of sugared nuts with rosewater and nutmeg to create a dessert about as thick as a finger.
Dernschwam describeszerdeas rice pudding that is cooked in honeyed water and colored withsaffron, garnished with toasted almonds and served with fruits.Muhallebiis also listed among the foods Dernschwam encountered on his travels.
Visiting Europeans noted with interest the Ottoman manner of serving sweet dishes between other courses, instead of at the end of the meal as the custom was in France and other European countries. German army officerHelmuth von Moltkewhilst serving in theOttoman Empirenoted the unusual presentation of courses with the sweet courses served between roasts and other savory dishes.Edward Lear's account of a banquet in Ottoman Albania similarly notes the unexpected order of courses, roast meats followed by honeyed pastries, fruits followed by shellfish, savory and salted meats and stews followed by chocolate, and so on, he says, innumerable courses were served in confounding permutations of sweet, sour and salty combinations.
Dolmawere made by stuffing whole fruits and vegetables, or by wrapping leaves around a filling, either minced meat or spiced pilaf.
Dernschwam described a stuffed vegetable dish of young pumpkins and aubergines (which he callspodliczschan), stuffed with cubed mutton and garlic filling, and served with yogurt. He also describes the dish calledsarmaas stuffed vine leaves cooked with sour plums.
Coffeehousesdeveloped first in the Ottoman Empire and spread to Italy, then across Europe.There were coffeehouses,sharbatshops andbozahanesaround the port of Galata where imported coffee, sugar and other colonial goods arrived to Istanbul in the 18th century.Bozahanes were one of the most popular public hangouts in 15th and 16th century Bursa until overshadowed by the coffeehouses in the 17th centuries. These were lucrative businesses that generated tax revenue and rent.
Thomas Smith mentions boza in the 17th centuryEpistola de moribus ac institutis Tucarum: "They also have other liquors peculiar to them of which I shall only mentionBozzamade frommillet."
Jean de Thévenotdescribed the fish market ofGalatain the 17th century:
Anchovies were a favorite in the coastal city ofTrabzon. One of the many dishes recorded by Evliya Çelebi in his Book of Travels (Seyahatnâme) is ananchovydish fromTrebizond. Cooked in a stoneware pan, the anchovies are arranged in rows and covered with a cinnamon and black pepper scented mixture of leeks, celery, parsley and onions. The vegetable and fish layers alternate to fill up the pan, and olive oil is poured over the top. Çelebi described the dish as "like congealed light, and one who eats it is full of light ... This fish is indeed a table from heaven".
Many different fruits and nuts are recorded in the palace records.Pomegranateswere sourced from villages around theMarmara Sea.Üsküdar's fields and meadows had been converted to vineyards by the end of the 16th century. Oranges were not introduced until the 18th century, tangerines even later. Bananas, pineapples and other tropical fruits are not mentioned in any known records from the 19th-century imperial kitchens.
Fruits were used to makesharbatandcompotes. Sugar was too expensive for all but the wealthiest members of Ottoman society, and desserts,compotesandsharbatwere more likely to be sweetened with dry fruits, molasses or honey.There were hundreds of shops in 17th-century Istanbul specializing in preparations of the Ottoman-style compotehoşaf, often taken at the end of a meal.
Cakes and bread with poppy seed filling had been consumed in Byzantium since Roman times, a tradition that continued under the Ottoman Turks, enteringCentral European cuisineand the related culinary culture ofAshkenaziJews.
Kebabs,mantı,köfte,pastırmaandyahniare types of meat dishes associated with Ottoman cuisine.Evliya Çelebi describes shish kebab on skewers and meat slow-cooked in tandoor ovens. He says there were hundreds of stalls in the city of Istanbul selling kebabs and kofta.
Ottoman kebabs were slow-cooked in their own juices in earthenware casseroles (çömlek) or tandoor ovens. The recipe named "as the Turk likes it" from Hungarian noblewomanAnna Bornemisza's collection uses this technique:
Stuffed roasted lamb with a filling of rice and raisins was served at a feast held in honor ofMahmud II's sons.It was a choice offering at the garden parties of Istanbul's elites.In 1719 stuffed lamb was served as a feast organized by the newly appointed governor ofMosul.The 13th centuryDanishmendnamedescribes whole stuffed lambs served at a wedding feast:Çevirme kuzıların dolmış içi.
Hunting for food was common. SultanAhmed Ihunted rabbits at the palace in Üskudar. This style of hunt in gardens was practiced in Byzantine times atBlachernae Palace. The 19th-century hunting lodgeIhlamur Pavilionwas designed by the Ottoman-Armenian architectNikoğos Balyanin Istanbul for SultanAbdulmejid I. Deer, wolves and foxes were all hunted, but rabbits were by far the most common game.
Ottoman court proceedings show that thebozapeddlers claimed, by custom, exclusive rights to sell sauteed liver kebab (cığer).
Rice was mostly imported from Egypt and used to makepilaf. InOttoman languagepilaf dishes were calleddane, a term borrowed from thePersian language.Made with mulberries, stir-fried meats, honey, pomegranates andgourds, rice dishes were rich and varied, at least for the wealthy.Evliya Çelebi's description of rice dishes draws a distinction for the long-grain Persian rice used indanedishes, which he callsçilav(چلو).He reports attending a feast inBitliswhere rice dishes were presentedambrette seeds, partridge,koftaand eggs. These festive platters were often enriched with almonds, pistachios and currants.
Hans Dernschwam, a 16th-century German traveler, confirms thatçorba(Ottoman Turkish:چوربا) was a common dish of this period, prepared with butter and rice for thejanissarycorps. According to Dernschwam, most 16th-century Ottoman soups began with a base ofchicken stockand rice, with different vegetables added, although lamb stock was also used.Garlickyişkembe çorbası(tripe soup) was sold in the early morning hours byOttoman Greeksas a hangover cure.
Soup could be thickened with a mixture of egg and flour or bread and an acidic ingredient such as lemon juice, and served over stale bread. This style of soup could be found, with some variations, in Balkan territories like Romania andHungary, as well as in Turkey.
Hand-cut soup noodles callederişteare a basic dish found inCentral Asian cuisine.Tutmaçanderişteare both mentioned in the 13th centuryDanishmendname.
WhenMehmed IItook the city ofConstantinoplein 1453, the Turks gained control of thespice tradein the eastern Mediterranean.Spices were used in health tonics produced by the palaceconfectionerythat could be consumed as sweets and for health purposes, and could include up to 60 different spices in their preparation.
According to Evliya Çelebi, the local melons inDiyarbekirwere seasoned with cinnamon and cloves, according to the "recipe of Caliph Mu'awiya". The upper echelons of Ottoman society ateaniseedperfumed bread. Street vendors in Istanbul sold warm milk drinks sprinkled with fragrant cinnamon or ginger. Fish stews often included cinnamon, andkebabscould be spiced with cumin. Breads were made with seeds, cumin and spices either mixed into the dough or sprinkled on top.
A 17th-century report says that the used of spice in Istanbul was moderate and mostly limited to black pepper, but as the intensity of spice is subjective, other reports differ. The 16th-century Flemishherbalistand diplomatOgier Ghiselin de Busbecqdescribed the Ottoman culinary culture as "very frugal", with a simple meal of bread and salt, garlic or onion andyoghurtbeing all that was needed for nourishment.Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, writing in the 18th-century, says Ottomans use "a great deal of rich spice", and that she was unable to eat the food as the intensity of flavors took their toll on her and she "began to grow weary of it and desired our own cook might add a dish or two after our manner".
Sweet and sour dishes were typical of classical Ottoman cooking.The Turkish epicDanishmendnamerecords "They put lots of fig and apricot in sour dishes, as well as raisins and dates."
The sweet and sour lamb dishmutancanais rumored to have been one ofMehmed II's favorite courses. The recipe survives in Shirvani's 15th century manuscript, and some versions  appear in Romanian cookbooks, most likely influenced by cultural contact with Hungary.
Mahmudiyyeis a sweet and sour chicken and noodle dish of note from the Shirvani manuscript.
Palace archives from the reign ofMehmed IIconfirm purchases of carrots, cucumbers, eggplants, parsley, spinach and chard in the late 15th century.
Leeksare native to the eastern Mediterranean and are mentioned in theOld TestamentNumbers 11:15.Prasa(پراصه‎), as they were called, were a staple food forSalonican Jewswho suffered economic hardship during theCapitulations of the Ottoman Empire.
Braising was a typical way of cooking vegetables in the 19th century Ottoman Empire, sometimes with the addition of lamb. By the 1880s printed recipes had added tomato in the preparation of braised dishes. Vegetables were also used in the preparation of stuffeddolma.
Dernschwam wrote that, while cabbage was found, the Turks did not know how to cook it with beef like the Hungarians, saying they instead pickled it, a common preparation in those days.Pickled cabbage was known as early as Byzantine times according to the description of a Byzantine feast recorded inDanishmendname.
Of the four Ottoman palaces,Edirne Palace,Topkapı Palace,Dolmabahçe PalaceandYıldız Palace, it is Topkapı that for 400-years oversaw the development of the classical Ottoman palace cuisine. Topkapı could host up to 4,000 persons at a time and the kitchen staff was huge. At one 18th-century event at least 1,000 chefs were required to prepare a meal of pilaf, soup andzerdefor 10,000 attendantjanissaries.
Ottoman palace cuisine was amalgamated and honed in the imperial palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. These chefs were tested and hired by their method of cooking rice, a simple dish. They were brought over from various places for the express purpose of experimenting with exotic textures and ingredients and inventing new dishes.
Each cook specialized in specific tasks. All dishes intended for the sultan were first passed by the palate of thechesnidjibashi, or imperial food taster, who tested the food for both poison and taste. The creations of the Ottoman palace's kitchens also filtered to the common population, for instance throughRamadanevents, and through the cooking at the houses (yalis) of the pashas, and from there on to the people at large.
Clarified butterwas the favorite cooking fat of the Ottoman palace. Butter was used for pilafs, sweet pastries, savorybörek, and other dishes.Olive oil, although used in the palace cooking since the time ofFatih Sultan Mehmet, was used mostly for lighting lamps and in the manufacture of soaps.Its use in cuisine was limited, but included stuffed vegetables (dolma),İmam bayıldı,Karnıyarıkandpilaki.
Majun,compoteandhalvawere sweets made by palace chefs.
A palace register from 1692 lists different kinds of vegetables eaten in the palace, squash (kabak-ı Mısır), celery, lettuce (marul), cucumber, garlic, aubergines, borage (lisan-ı seveir), cowpeas, spinach, turnips, vine leaves, Jew's mallow (müluhiye), beets, carrots and okra. Parsley, dill, mint, and tarragon are also listed among the foodstuffs allocated for the sultan.Green tomatoes(kavata) are listed for thehasseki sultan(the sultan's favorite concubine), who also received snow for icedcoffeeand to coolsharbatandhoşab. Chicken was reserved for the elite, and pigeon only for the sultan,hasseki, other potential concubines and princesses. Some large portions allotted to non-imperial high-ranking servants like the female steward of the harem, who received one sheep and 10 chickens per day, indicate that persons in these roles were responsible for feeding their subordinates.
Salepis a drink made from the tubers of the orchid also consumed in this era.
Pepper and cinnamon were the dominant spices of the 18th-centuryOttoman court, used in huge quantities, such as 118 kg (260 lb) of pepper and over 1 kg (2.2 lb) ofmasticfor a 15-day festival attended by various dignitaries in 1720. Black pepper was immensely popular in early modern European cuisine, and was used in nearly all Ottoman dishes.
Mutton, clarified butter, flour and rice were the most common ingredients in the 19th century palace cuisine. Butter and yogurt, made with milk from Egyptian and Dutch cows, were purchased from theÜsküdarandEyüpmarkets. The most common cheeses werekaşar,kaşkaval,tulum peyniriandbeyaz peynir. Typical spices included cinnamon, clove, saffron, cumin, sumac, nutmeg, oregano, mastic, cardamom and black pepper.
Compared with earlier centuries, more fish, roe and caviar were consumed, including the pickled bonito dish calledlakerda. Roe andBeluga caviarwere even served for theiftarmeal during Ramadan. Offal meats were more common than lamb meat, which was a seasonal luxury item. More common weretripe, liver and trotters. Beef was only used in the production ofpastırmaandsucuk.
Starch was used to make the dessertgüllaçduring the month of Ramadan.
19th century banquets served a mix of alaturca and alafranga dishes. At an 1856 banquet celebrating Ottoman victory in theCrimean Warthe alaturca dishes were savory börek pastry,pilafand the dessertskadayıfand baklava. Some of the dishes given French names were new creations of the palace kitches likecroustade d'ananas en sultaneandsuprême de faisan à la Circassienne.
İmam bayıldıis an iconic eggplant dish with legendary folk origins. It was a dish created in the imperial kitchens that remains a popular entrée of modern Turkish cuisine.
The "Table of Abraham" (simat al-Khalil) was a custom of pre-OttomanHebronto host and feed travelers. According toNasir Khusraw, any guest to Hebron received a bowl of lentils with olive oil, and a round loaf of bread and raisins. Thesimatin Hebron, reinstated by the Mamluk sultanQaytbayin the 15th century, was still serving lentils each day in the 16th century. On Thursday eveningspomegranateseeds and seasoned rice (ruzz mufalfal) were served. According toMujir al-Din, all were welcome at thesimat al-Khalil.Evliya Çelebi, writing in the 17th century, said "each person had his bowl filled with the soup of Abraham, enough for the subsistence of men with their families. I [Evliya] was also fortunately among the group of those poor. I received a plate of wheat soup, a gift from God. I never witness such a tasty meal at the table of either viziers or men of learning".
At theHaseki Sultan Imaretin Jerusalem guests received two bowls of soup each day, enriched with clarified butter, and including legumes, grains, root vegetables and other seasonal ingredients, and always served with bread. On Fridays, and for special occasions likeiftar, Eid celebrations and other holy days likeAşure,MevludandBerat, lamb and rice would be served instead of soup, andzerde(rice pudding with honey and saffron).
All travelers were welcome to three days of basic meals at theimaretinFatih, İstanbul, but the special service of bread, honey and sweets upon arrival was limited to guests of thecaravansarai(roadside inn). Two soups were served each day, rice soup in the mornings, and wheat soup in the evenings, similar to the Jerusalem kitchens, but with meat and fresh parsley. The Friday menu was lamb with rice,zerde, andzırbaç(a dessert puddings with dried fruits and nuts). The highest ranking guests ate lamb and rice every day. When members of theashrafwere in attendance, they were servedsheep's trotters(paça) for breakfast each day, with hearty lamb and rice portions, and a spiced squash dish sweetened with honey, cloves and cinnamon. 3,300 loaves of bread were baked each day by the kitchens and leftovers distributed to the poor.
The culinary terminology ofOttoman Turkishincludes many Persian loanwords:
Other culinary terms that have entered theTurkish languagereveal an assortment of linguistic influences like Italian (barbunya), Greek (fasulye), Chinese (manti) and Arabic (muhallebi).
Beginning in the 19th century the Ottomans began using French culinary terms at diplomatic events.French cuisinewas considered, in those times, the epitome of culinary accomplishment and its influence was felt not only in the Ottoman court, but also other European courts, where French chefMarie-Antoine Carêmecooked in the imperial kitchens of theRussian Empire, andAlphonse Gouffewas Head Pastry Chef toQueen Victoria. Banquet menus for international dignitaries were written in French andservice à la russereplacedservice à la françaiseat formal dinners. Ottomanpilaf,börekandkebabscontinued to be served. Food remained a symbol of Ottoman power and prestige and the adaptation of French culinary practices to Ottoman palace cuisine reflected the Ottoman desire to prove themselves the cultural equal of Europeans.
Menus of formal banquets at the imperial court dating to the early 20th century show the use of French terms and their Turkish equivalents:
Ottoman culinary influence survived thedissolution of the Ottoman Empirein Mesopotamia, the Levant, Balkans, Anatolia and Greece.Albanian,Greek,Romanian,Serbian,Bulgarian,MacedonianandBosnian cuisineall share in the heritage of Ottoman culinary culture. Fragner notes that these cuisines, in the modern forms, "offer treacherous circumstantial evidence of this fact" of their shared cultural history, and that the origins of its legacy are impossible to ascertain:
The collapse of the Ottoman Empire gave rise to the creation of modern nation-states in the Balkans and Middle East. Nationalist ideologies became the tools to forge integrated, shared identities by erasing the shared Ottoman heritage and identity of these many nations. The newly founded states based their national identities on the ancient past (Pharonic, Mesopotamian, Phoenician, Greek). This has made the shared culinary heritage of these nations a flashpoint as competing nationalist agendas have fought over claims to the most prestigious dishes such as baklava.Fragner notes that the emergent national cuisines also represent "a good deal of local or regional culinary traditions".