Korean cuisine

Korean cuisineis the set of foods and culinary styles which are associated withKorean culture. This cuisine has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Originating from ancientagricultural and nomadic traditionsinKoreaand southernManchuria, Koreancuisinereflects a complex interaction of the natural environment and different cultural trends.
Korean cuisine is largely based onrice,vegetables,seafoodand (at least inSouth Korea)meats. Dairy is largely absent from the traditional Korean diet.Traditional Korean meals are named for the number ofside dishes(반찬;飯饌;banchan) that accompanysteam-cookedshort-grain rice.Kimchiis served at nearly every meal. Commonly used ingredients includesesame oil,doenjang(fermented bean paste),soy sauce, salt, garlic, ginger,gochugaru(pepperflakes),gochujang(fermented red chili paste) andnapa cabbage.
Ingredients and dishes vary by province. Many regional dishes have become national.Korean royal court cuisineonce brought all of the unique regional specialties together for the royal family. Foods are regulated by Korean culturaletiquette.
Kimjang, which means makingkimchi, is listed onUNESCO Intangible Heritage List.
In theJeulmun pottery period(approximately 8000 to 1500 BCE), hunter-gatherer societies engaged in fishing and hunting, and incipient agriculture in the later stages.Since the beginning of theMumun pottery period(1500 BCE), agricultural traditions began to develop with new migrant groups from theLiao Riverbasin of Manchuria. During the Mumun period, people grewmillet,barley,wheat, legumes andrice, and continued to hunt and fish. Archaeological remains point to development of fermented beans during this period, and cultural contact with nomadic cultures to the north facilitated domestication of animals.
TheThree Kingdomsperiod (57 BCE – 668 CE) was one of rapid cultural evolution. The kingdom ofGoguryeo(37 BCE – 668 CE) was located in the northern part of the peninsula along much of modern-dayManchuria. The second kingdom,Baekje(18 BCE – 660 CE), was in the southwestern portion of the peninsula, and the third,Silla(57 BCE – 935 CE), was located at the southeastern portion of the peninsula. Each region had its own distinct set of cultural practices and foods. For example, Baekje was known for cold foods and fermented foods likekimchi. The spread ofBuddhismandConfucianismthrough cultural exchanges with China during the fourth century CE began to change the distinct cultures of Korea.
Attributed with the earliestkimchi, the Goguryeo people were skilled at fermenting and widely consumed fermented food.
During the latter Goryeo period, theMongolsinvaded Goryeo in the 13th century. Some traditional foods found today in Korea have their origins during this period. The dumpling dish,mandu, grilled meat dishes,noodle dishes, and the use of seasonings such as black pepper, all have their roots in this period.
Agricultural innovations were significant and widespread during this period, such as the invention of the rain gauge during the 15th century. During 1429, the government began publishing books on agriculture and farming techniques, which includedNongsa jikseol(literally "Straight Talk on Farming"), an agricultural book compiled underKing Sejong.
A series of invasions in the earlier half of the Joseon caused a dynamic shift in the culture during the second half of the period. Groups ofsilhak("practical learning") scholars began to emphasize the importance of looking outside the country for innovation and technology to help improve the agricultural systems. Crops traded by Europeans from theNew Worldbegan to appear, acquired through trade with China,Japan,Europe, and thePhilippines; these crops includedmaize,sweet potatoes,chili peppers,tomatoes,peanuts, andsquash. Potatoes and sweet potatoes were particularly favored as they grew in soils and on terrains that were previously unused.
Government further developed agriculture through technology and lower taxation. Complexirrigation systemsbuilt by government allowed peasant farmers to produce larger crop volumes and produce crops not only for sustenance but also ascash crops. Reduced taxation of the peasantry also furthered the expanded commerce through increasing periodic markets, usually held every five days. One thousand such markets existed in the 19th century, and were communal centers for economic trade and entertainment.
The end of the Joseon period was marked by consistent encouragement to trade with the Western world, China and Japan. In the 1860s, trade agreements pushed by the Japanese government led theJoseon dynastyto open its trade ports with the west, and to numerous treaties with the United States, Britain, France, and other Western countries.
The opening of Korea to the Western world brought further exchange of culture and food. Western missionaries introduced new ingredients and dishes to Korea. Joseon elites were introduced to these new foods by way of foreigners who attended the royal court as advisers or physicians. This period also saw the introduction of various seasonings imported from Japan via western traders and alcoholic drinks from China.
Japan occupied theKorean peninsulafrom 1910 to 1945. Many of its agricultural systems were taken over by the Japanese to support Japan's food supply. Land changes resulting from theJapanese occupationincluded combining small farms into large-scale farms, which led to larger yields. Rice production increased during this period to support theJapanese Empire's war efforts. Many Koreans, in turn, increased the production of other grains for their own consumption.
Meals during the Japanese occupation were quite varied. Koreans usually ate two meals a day during the cold seasons, and three during the warm seasons. For the lower classes, satiety, rather than quality, was most important. Those in even lower economic levels were likely to enjoy only a single bowl of white riceeach year, while the remainder of the year was filled with cheaper grains, such asmilletandbarley.For the Korean middle and upper classes during the occupation, things were quite different. Western foods began emerging in the Korean diet, such as white bread and commercially produced staples such as precooked noodles. The Japanese occupational period ended after the defeat of Japan duringWorld War II.
The country remained in a state of turmoil through theKorean War(1950–1953) and theCold War, which separated the country intoNorth KoreaandSouth Korea. Both of these periods continued the limited food provisions for Koreans,and the stew calledbudae jjigae, which makes use of inexpensive meats such as sausage andSpam, originated during this period.
At this point, the history of North and South Korea sharply diverged. In the 1960s under PresidentPark Chung Hee, industrialization began to give South Korea the economic and cultural power it holds in the global economy today. Agriculture was increased through use of commercial fertilizers and modern farming equipment. In the 1970s, food shortages began to lessen. Consumption of instant and processed foods increased, as did the overall quality of foods.Livestockand dairy production was increased during the 1970s through the increase of commercial dairies and mechanized farms.The consumption of pork and beef increased vastly in the 1970s. Per-capita consumption of meat was 3.6 kg in 1961 and 11 kg by 1979. The result of this increased meat consumption brought about the rise ofbulgogirestaurants, which gave the middle class of South Korea the ability to enjoy meat regularly. Meat eating continued to rise, reaching 40 kg in 1997, with fish consumption at 49.5 kg in 1998. Rice consumption continually decreased through these years, from 128 kg consumed per person in 1985 to 106 kg in 1995 and 83 kg in 2003. The decrease in rice consumption has been accompanied by an increase in the consumption of bread and noodles.In 2009, the South Korean government launched a $77-millionculinary diplomacyprogram called "Korean Cuisine to the World" to promote its cuisine and subsequently pivoted into the markets in the United States and Muslim countries.
Grainshave been one of the most important staples of the Korean diet. Early myths of the foundations of various kingdoms in Korea center on grains. One foundation myth relates toJumong, who receivedbarleyseeds from twodovessent by his mother after establishing the kingdom ofGoguryeo.Yet another myth speaks of the three founding deities ofJeju Island, who were to be wed to the three princesses ofTamna; the deities brought seeds of five grains which were the first seeds planted, which in turn became the first instance of farming.
During the pre-modern era, grains such as barley and millet were the main staples. They were supplemented by wheat,sorghum, andbuckwheat. Rice is not an indigenous crop to Korea and millet was likely the preferred grain before rice was cultivated. Rice became the grain of choice during the Three Kingdoms period, particularly in theSillaandBaekjeKingdoms in the southern regions of the peninsula. Rice was such an important commodity in Silla that it was used to pay taxes. TheSino-Koreanword for "tax" is a compound character that uses the character for the rice plant. The preference for rice escalated into theJoseonperiod, when new methods of cultivation and new varieties emerged that would help increase production.
As rice was prohibitively expensive when it first came to Korea, the grain was likely mixed with other grains to "stretch" the rice; this is still done in dishes such asboribap(rice with barley) andkongbap(rice with beans).White rice, which is rice with the bran removed, has been the preferred form of rice since its introduction into the cuisine. The most traditional method of cooking the rice has been to cook it in an iron pot called asot(솥) ormusoe sot(무쇠솥). This method of rice cookery dates back to at least theGoryeoperiod, and these pots have even been found in tombs from the Silla period. Thesotis still used today, much in the same manner as it was in the past centuries.
Rice is used to make a number of items, outside of the traditional bowl of plain white rice. It is commonly ground into a flour and used to make rice cakes calledtteokin over two hundred varieties. It is also cooked down into acongee(juk) orgruel(mieum) and mixed with other grains, meat, or seafood. Koreans also produce a number ofrice wines, both in filtered and unfiltered versions. Grains have also been used for centuries to makemisuandmisu-garu, drinks made from grain powder that are sometimes used as meal supplements.
Encompassing a wide range of temperate climates, the Korean peninsula supports the growth of many cultivated and wild fruit species. Asian pears of numerous varieties, apples, melons and berries and more are typical of summer and fall produce.
Legumeshave been significant crops in Korean history and cuisine, according to the earliest preserved legumes found inarchaeological sitesin Korea.The excavation at Okbang site,Jinju,South Gyeongsang Provinceindicatessoybeanswere cultivated as a food cropcirca1000–900 BCE.They are still made into dubu (tofu), while soybean sprouts are sauteed as a vegetable (kongnamul) and whole soybeans are seasoned and served as a side dish. They are also made intosoy milk, which is used as the base for the noodle dish calledkongguksu. A byproduct of soy milk production isbijiorkong-biji, which is used to thicken stews and porridges. Soybeans may also be one of the beans inkongbap, boiled together with several types of beans and other grains, and they are also the primary ingredient in the production of fermented condiments collectively referred to asjang, such as soybean pastes,doenjangandcheonggukjang, a soy sauce calledganjang, chili pepper paste orgochujangand others.
Nokdu(Mung bean) is commonly used in Korean cuisine.Sukjunamuls (Mung bean sprouts)are often served as a side dish,blanchedandsautéedwith sesame oil, garlic, and salt. Ground Nokdu is used to make a porridge callednokdujuk, which is eaten as a nutritional supplement and digestive aid, especially for ill patients.A popular snack,bindaetteok(mung bean pancake), is made with ground nokdu and fresh sukju namul. Starch extracted from ground nokdu is used to make transparent dangmyeon (cellophane noodles). The dangmyeons are the main ingredients forjapchae(a salad-like dish) andsundae(ablood sausage), and are a subsidiary ingredient for soups and stews.The starch can be also used to make jelly-like foods, such asnokdumukandhwangpomuk. Themukhave a bland flavor, so are served seasoned with soy sauce, sesame oil and crumbled seaweed or other seasonings such astangpyeongchae.
Cultivation ofazuki beansdates back to ancient times according to an excavation from Odong-ri,Hoeryong,North Hamgyong Province, which is assumed to be that ofMumun period(approximately 1500–300 BCE). Azuki beans are generally eaten aspatbap, which is a bowl of rice mixed with the beans, or as a filling and covering fortteok(rice cake) and breads. A porridge made with azuki beans, calledpatjuk, is commonly eaten during the winter season. OnDongjinal, a Korean traditional holiday which falls on December 22, Korean people eatdonji patjuk, which containssaealsim(새알심), a ball made from glutinous rice flour. In old Korean tradition,patjukis believed to have the power to drive evil spirits away.
Condimentsare divided into fermented and nonfermented variants. Fermented condiments includeganjang,doenjang,gochujangand vinegars. Nonfermented condiments or spices include red pepper, black pepper, cordifolia, mustard, chinensis, garlic, onion, ginger, leek, and scallion (spring onion).
Gochujangcan be found in many writings. Some of the writings are theMangi Yoram[ko],The Three States, theNonggawolryeongga, theGijaejapgi, and theHyangyak-jipsongbang[ko]. TheHyangyak-jipseongbang, which dates back to around 1433 during the Chosun dynasty, is one of the oldest writings mentioning gochujang.
Gochujang is a fermented bean paste that has red pepper powder, soybean powder and rice flour added to it to create a spicy paste. It typically can be added to most dishes. Gochujang can be used as a seasoning and sometimes as a dipping sauce.
Many variations come fromjang, fermented bean paste. Some variations can includedoenjang(soybean and brine),kanjang(soybeans, water, and salt),chogochujang(gochujang and vinegar), andjeotgal(mixture of other jangs and seafoods).
Vegetables such as cucumbers, carrots, and cabbage use gochujang as a dip. Gochujang is a common seasoning for foods such as Korean barbecue including pork and beef. One popular snack food that is very commonly eaten with gochujang is bibimbap.Bibimbapincludes rice, spinach, radish, bean sprouts. Sometimes beef is added to bibimbap. Another popular dish including gochujang istteokbokki.
Gochujang was believed to revitalize people who were sick with colds or exhaustion during the Gio period. There have been some studies that show that red peppers fight obesity and diabetes. Gochujang is also added to many foods so that there can be additional nutritional value with each meal.
In antiquity, most meat in Korea was likely obtained throughhuntingandfishing. Ancient records indicate rearing oflivestockbegan on a small scale during the Three Kingdoms period. Meat was consumed roasted or in soups or stews during this period. Those who lived closer to the oceans were able to complement their diet with more fish, while those who lived in the interior had a diet containing more meat.
Beefis the most prized of all, with cattle holding an important cultural role in the Korean home. Beef is prepared in numerous ways today, including roasting, grilling (gui) or boiling insoups. Beef can also be dried intoyukpo, a type ofpo, as with seafood, calledeopo.
The cattle were valuable draught animals, often seen as equal to human servants, or in some cases, members of the family. Cattle were also given their own holiday during the first 'cow' day of thelunar New Year. The importance of cattle does not suggest Koreans ate an abundance of beef, however, as the cattle were valued asbeasts of burdenand slaughtering one would create dire issues in farming the land. Pork and seafood were consumed more regularly for this reason. The Buddhist ruling class of the Goryeo period forbade the consumption of beef. TheMongolsdispensed with the ban of beef during the 13th century, and they promoted the production of beef cattle. This increased production continued into the Joseon period, when the government encouraged both increased quantities and quality of beef.Only in the latter part of the 20th century has beef become regular table fare.
Chickenhas played an important role as a protein in Korean history, evidenced by a number of myths. One myth tells of the birth ofKim Alji, founder of theKim familyofGyeongjubeing announced by the cry of a white chicken. As the birth of a clan's founder is always announced by an animal with preternatural qualities, this myth speaks to the importance of chicken in Korean culture. Chicken is often served roasted or braised with vegetables or in soups. All parts of the chicken are used in Korean cuisine, including thegizzard,liver, and feet. Young chickens are braised withginsengand other ingredients in medicinal soups eaten during the summer months to combat heat calledsamgyetang. The feet of the chicken, calleddakbal(닭발), are often roasted and covered with hot and spicygochujang-based sauce and served as ananju, or side dish, to accompanyalcoholic beverages, especiallysoju.
Porkhas also been another important land-based protein for Korea. Records indicate pork has been a part of the Korean diet back to antiquity, similar to beef.
A number of foods have been avoided while eating pork, includingChinese bellflower(doraji, 도라지) andlotus root(yeonn ppuri, 연뿌리), as the combinations have been thought to cause diarrhea. All parts of the pig are used in Korean cuisine, including the head, intestines, liver, kidney and other internal organs. Koreans utilize these parts in a variety of cooking methods including steaming, stewing, boiling and smoking.Koreans especially like to eat grilled pork belly, which is calledsamgyeopsal.
Fishandshellfishhave been a major part of Korean cuisine because of the oceans bordering the peninsula. Evidence from the 12th century illustrates commoners consumed a diet mostly of fish and shellfish, such asshrimp,clams,oysters,abalone, andloach, whilesheepand hogs were reserved for the upper class.
Both fresh and saltwater fish are popular, and are served raw, grilled, broiled, dried or served in soups and stews. Common grilled fish includemackerel,hairtail,croakerandPacific herring. Smaller fish, shrimp, squid, mollusks and countless other seafood can be salted and fermented asjeotgal. Fish can also be grilled either whole or in fillets asbanchan. Fish is often dried naturally to prolong storing periods and enable shipping over long distances. Fish commonly dried includeyellow corvina,anchovies(myeolchi) andcroaker.Dried anchovies, along with kelp, form the basis of common soup stocks.
Shellfish is widely eaten in all different types of preparation. They can be used to preparebroth, eaten raw withchogochujang, which is a mixture ofgochujangand vinegar, or used as a popular ingredient in countless dishes.Raw oysters and other seafood can be used in making kimchi to improve and vary the flavor.Salted baby shrimp are used as a seasoning agent, known assaeujeot, for the preparation of some types of kimchi. Large shrimp are often grilled asdaeha gui(대하구이)or dried, mixed with vegetables and served with rice.Molluskseaten in Korean cuisine includeoctopus,cuttlefish, andsquid.
Korean cuisine uses a wide variety of vegetables, which are often served uncooked, either in salads orpickles, as well as cooked in various stews, stir-fried dishes, and other hot dishes.Commonly used vegetables includeKorean radish,napa cabbage, cucumber, potato, sweet potato, spinach, bean sprouts, scallions, garlic, chili peppers,seaweed,zucchini, mushrooms,lotus root. Several types of wild greens, known collectively aschwinamul(such asAsterscaber), are a popular dish, and other wild vegetables such asbracken fernshoots (gosari) orKorean bellflowerroot (doraji) are also harvested and eaten in season.Traditional medicinal herbs in Korean cuisine, such asginseng,lingzhi mushroom,wolfberry,Codonopsis pilosula, andAngelica sinensis, are often used as ingredients in cooking, as insamgyetang.
Medicinal food (boyangshik) is a wide variety of specialty foods prepared and eaten for their purported medicinal purposes, especially during the hottest 30-day period in the lunar calendar, calledsambok. Hot foods consumed are believed to restoreki, as well as sexual and physical stamina lost in the summer heat.Commonly eatenboyangshikinclude ginseng, chicken, black goat, abalone, eel, carp, beef bone soups, pig kidneys.
Samgyetangis a chicken ginseng soup traditionally consumed during Boknal (복날) days: the hottest days of summer. It is a Korean custom to eat hot food in hot weather called Iyeolchiyeol (이열치열), which means "controlling heat with heat". Consequently, Samgyetang is Koreans' favorite energizing food and it is common to have it on sambok (삼복) days — Chobok (초복), Jungbok (중복) and Malbok (말복) — which are believed to be the hottest days in Korea.
Korean foods can be largely categorized into groups of "mainstaple foods" (주식), "subsidiary dishes" (부식), and "dessert" (후식). The main dishes are made from grains such asbap(a bowl of rice),juk(porridge), andguksu(noodles).
Many Koreanbanchanrely on fermentation for flavor and preservation, resulting in a tangy, salty, and spicy taste. Certain regions are especially associated with some dishes (for example, the city ofJeonjuwithbibimbap) either as a place of origin or for a famous regional variety. Restaurants will often use these famous names on their signs or menus (e.g. "Suwongalbi").
Soupsare a common part of any Korean meal. Unlike other cultures, in Korean culture, soup is served as part of the main course rather than at the beginning or the end of the meal, as an accompaniment to rice along with otherbanchan. Soups known asgukare often made with meats, shellfish and vegetables. Soups can be made into more formal soups known astang, often served as the main dish of the meal.Jjigaeare a thicker, heavier seasoned soups or stews.
Some popular types of soups are:
Stews are referred to asjjigae, and are often a shared side dish.Jjigaeis often both cooked and served in the glazed earthenware pot (ttukbaegi) in which it is cooked. The most common version of this stew isdoenjang jjigae, which is a stew ofsoybean paste, with many variations; common ingredients include vegetables, saltwater or freshwater fish, and tofu. The stew often changes with the seasons and which ingredients are available. Other common varieties ofjjigaecontainkimchi(kimchi jjigae) or tofu (sundubu jjigae).
Kimchirefers to often fermented vegetable dishes, usually made withnapa cabbage,Korean radish, or sometimes cucumber. There are 4 types of raw materials which are major ones: spices, seasonings, and other additional materials. Red and black pepper, cinnamon, garlic, ginger, onion, and mustard are the example of spices.There are endless varieties with regional variations, and it is served as a side dish or cooked into soups and rice dishes. In the late 15th century, it depicted Korean's custom that Korean ancestors buried kimchi jars in the ground for storage for the entire winter season, as fermented foods can keep for several years.These were stored in traditional Korean mud pots known asjangdokdae, although with the advent of refrigerators, special kimchi freezers and commercially produced kimchi, this practice has become less common. Kimchi is a vegetable-based food which includes low calorie, low fat, and no cholesterol. Also, it is a rich source of various vitamins and minerals. It contains vitamins such as vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C, and vitamin K and minerals which are calcium, iron, phosphorus, and selenium. The same lactobacilli bacteria found in yogurt and other fermented dairy products are also found in kimchi.In 2021, Koreans collectively consumed 1,965,000 tons of Kimchi, with average Korean consuming 88.3 grams of Kimchi daily.
Noodles or noodle dishes in Korean cuisine are collectively referred to asguksuin native Korean ormyeoninhanja. While noodles were eaten in Korea from ancient times, productions of wheat was less than other crops, so wheat noodles did not become a daily food until 1945.Wheat noodles (milguksu) were specialty foods for birthdays, weddings or auspicious occasions because the long and continued shape were thought to be associated with the bliss for longevity and long-lasting marriage.
In Korean traditional noodle dishes areonmyeonorguksu jangguk(noodles with a hot clear broth),naengmyeon(cold buckwheat noodles),bibim guksu(cold noodle dish mixed with vegetables),kalguksu(knife-cut noodles),kongguksu(noodles with a cold soybean broth),japchae(cellophane noodles made from sweet potato with various vegetables) and others. In royal court,baekmyeon(literally "white noodles") consisting of buckwheat noodles andpheasantbroth, was regarded as the top quality noodle dish.Naengmyeonwith a cold soup mixed withdongchimi(wateryradishkimchi) and beef brisket broth was eaten in court during summer.
Banchanis a term referring collectively to side dishes in Korean cuisine. Soups and stews are not consideredbanchan.
Guiare grilled dishes, which most commonly have meat or fish as their primary ingredient, but may in some cases also comprise grilled vegetables or other vegetable ingredients. At traditional restaurants, meats are cooked at the center of the table over a charcoal grill, surrounded by variousbanchanand individual rice bowls. The cooked meat is then cut into small pieces and wrapped with fresh lettuce leaves, with rice, thinly sliced garlic,ssamjang(a mixture ofgochujanganddwenjang), and other seasonings. The suffixguiis often omitted in the names of meat-basedguisuch asgalbi, the name of which was originallygalbi gui.
Jjimandseon(steamed dishes) are generic terms referring to steamed or boiled dishes in Korean cuisine. However, the former is made with meat or seafood-based ingredients marinated ingochujangorganjangwhileseonis made with vegetable stuffed with fillings.
Hoe(raw dishes): although the term originally referred to any kind of raw dish, it is generally used to refer tosaengseonhweh(생선회, raw fish dishes). It is dipped ingochujang, or soy sauce withwasabi, and served with lettuce orperillaleaves.
Jeon(orbuchimgae) is a Korean savory pancake made from various ingredients. Chopped kimchi or seafood is mixed into a wheat flour-based batter, and then pan fried. This dish is typically dipped in a mixture of soy sauce, vinegar, and red pepper powder. It can be served as an appetizer, side dish (banchan) or accompanied by alcohol (anju).
There are some sweet varieties calledHwajeon(화전) which means flower pancakes.
Cooking oils such as soy and corn are used today, though technology required for producing these oils was not available during the Joseon dynasty.
Namulmay refer to eithersaengchae(생채, literally "fresh vegetables") orsukchae(숙채, literally "heated vegetables"), although the term generally indicates the latter.Saengchaeis mostly seasoned with vinegar,chili pepperpowder and salt to give a tangy and refreshing taste. On the other hand,sukchae(숙채) is blanched and seasoned with soy sauce,sesame oil, chopped garlic, or sometimes chili pepper powder.
Anjuis a general term for a Korean side dish consumed with alcohol. It matches well with Korean traditional alcohol such as Soju or Makgeolli and helps people to enjoy their drinking more. Some examples ofanjuinclude steamed squid withgochujang, assorted fruit,dubu kimchi(tofu with kimchi), peanuts,odeng/ohmuk,sora(소라) (a kind of shellfish popular in street food tents), andnakji(small octopus) andJokbal(pig's leg served with salted shrimp sauce). Samgyupsal (pork belly) is also considered as Anju with Soju. Most Korean foods can be considered as 'anju', as the food consumed alongside the alcohol depends on the diner's taste and preferences.
Songpyeonis a Korean dish made of rice powder mostly eaten duringChuseokto express gratitude towards ancestors. Songpyeon recordings appear from the 17th century. It is said in 『Yorok 要 錄』, "Make rice cakes with white rice flour, steam them with pine and pine needles and wash them off with water." At the beginning of Songpyeon, rice cakes were made simply with white rice powder, pine needles were steamed and then washed in water. It is said that "red beans, pine nuts, walnuts, ginger and cinnamon" were added in the "Buyin Pilji 婦人 必 知". In 『Korean Rice Cakes, Hangwa, Eumcheongryu』, "In mountainous regions such as Gangwon-do and Chungcheong-do, potato songpyeon, acorn songpyeon and songgisongpyeon have been prepared and eaten. In the coastal areas of Hamgyeong-do, Pyeongan-do and Gyeonggi-do, shellfish songpyeon as produced and eaten, and in the southern regions of Jeolla-do and Gyeongsang-do, songpyeon with moss leaves was produced and eaten.
Ogok-bapmeans five rice dish, which consists of rice mixed with glutinous rice, cornstarch, red bean, perilla, and soybean. By consuming grains with the energy of blue, red, yellow, white, and black, we pray for good health as well as a good year for our body with the energy of the five elements, and to chase away bad luck and happiness and well-being.
All Korean traditional nonalcoholic beverages are referred to aseumcheongoreumcheongnyu(음청류飮淸類) which literally means "clear beverages".According to historical documents regarding Korean cuisine, 193 items ofeumcheongnyuare recorded.Eumcheongnyucan be divided into the following categories:tea,hwachae(fruit punch),sikhye(sweet rice drink),sujeonggwa(persimmon punch),tang(탕, boiled water),jang(장, fermented grain juice with a sour taste),suksu(숙수, beverage made of herbs),galsu(갈수, drink made of fruit extract, and Oriental medicine), honeyed water, juice and milk by their ingredient materials and preparation methods. Among the varieties, tea,hwachae,sikhye, andsujeonggwaare still widely favored and consumed; however, the others almost disappeared by the end of the 20th century.
In Korean cuisine,tea, orcha, refers to various types ofherbal teathat can be served hot or cold. Not necessarily related to the leaves, leaf buds, andinternodesof theCamellia sinensisplant, they are made from diverse substances, including fruits (e.g.yuja-cha), flowers (e.g.gukhwa-cha), leaves, roots, and grains (e.g.bori-cha,hyeonmi-cha) or herbs and substances used intraditional Korean medicine, such asginseng(e.g.insam-cha) and ginger (e.g.saenggang-cha).
Whilesojuis the best known liquor, there are well over 100 different alcoholic beverages, such as beers, rice and fruit wines, and liquors produced in South Korea as well as a sweet rice drink. The top-selling domestic beers (maekjuin Korean) arelagers, which differ from Western beers in that they are brewed from rice, rather than barley. Consequently, Korean beers are lighter, sweeter and have less head than their Western counterparts. TheSouth Korean beermarket is dominated by the two major breweries:HiteandOB.Taedonggangis aNorth Korean beerproduced at a brewery based inPyongyangsince 2002.Microbrewerybeers and bars are growing in popularity after 2002.
Sojuis a clear spirit which was originally made from grain, especially rice, and is now also made from sweet potatoes or barley.Sojumade from grain is considered superior (as is also the case with grain vs. potatovodka).Sojuis around 22%ABV, and is a favorite beverage of hard-up college students, hard-drinking businessmen, and blue-collar workers.
Yakjuis a refined pure liquor fermented from rice, with the best known beingcheongju.Takjuis a thick unrefined liquor made with grains, with the best known beingmakgeolli, a white, milky rice wine traditionally drunk by farmers.
In addition to therice wine, various fruit wines and herbal wines exist in Korean cuisine. Acacia,maesilplum,Chinese quince, cherry,pine cone, and pomegranate are most popular.Majuang wine(a blended wine of Korean grapes with French or American wines) and ginseng-based wines are also available.
Traditional rice cakes,tteokand Korean confectioneryhangwaare eaten as treats during holidays and festivals.Tteokrefers to all kinds ofrice cakesmade from either pounded rice (메떡,metteok), poundedglutinous rice(찰떡,chaltteok), or glutinous rice left whole, without pounding. It is served either filled or covered with sweetened mung bean paste,red bean paste, mashed red beans,raisins, a sweetened filling made with sesame seeds, sweet pumpkin, beans, jujubes, pine nuts or honey).Tteokis usually served as dessert or as a snack. Among varieties,songpyeonis a chewy stuffedtteokserved atChuseok.Honeyor another soft sweet material such as sweetened sesame or black beans are used as fillings.Pineneedles can be used for imparting flavor during the steaming process.Yaksikis a sweet rice cake made with glutinous rice, chestnuts, pine nuts, jujubes, and other ingredients, whilechapssaltteokis atteokfilled withsweet bean paste.
On the other hand,hangwais a general term referring to all types of Korean traditionalconfectionery. The ingredients ofhahngwamainly consist of grain flour, honey,yeot, and sugar, or of fruit andedible roots.Hangwais largely divided intoyumilgwa(fried confectionery),suksilgwa,jeonggwa,gwapyeon,dasik(tea food) andyeot.Yumilgwais made bystir fryingor frying pieces of dough, such asmaejakgwaandyakgwa.Maejakgwais a ring-shaped confection made of wheat flour, vegetable oil,cinnamon,gingerjuice,jocheong, andpine nuts, whileyakgwa, literally "medicinal confectionery", is a flower-shaped biscuit made ofhoney,sesame oiland wheat flour.
Suksilgwais made by boiling fruits, ginger, or nuts in water, and then forming the mix into the original fruit's shape, or other shapes.Gwapyeonis ajelly-like confection made by boiling sour fruits, starch, and sugar.Dasik, literally "eatery for tea", is made by kneading rice flour, honey, and various types of flour from nuts, herbs, sesame, or jujubes.Jeonggwa, orjeongwa, is made by boiling fruits, plant roots and seeds in honey,mullyeot(물엿, liquid candy) or sugar. It is similar tomarmaladeorjam/jelly.Yeotis a Korean traditional candy in liquid or solid form made fromsteamed rice, glutinous rice,glutinous kaoliang, corn, sweet potatoes or mixed grains. The steamed ingredients are lightly fermented and boiled in a large pot calledsot(솥) for a long time.
YugwaandYakgwa. They are traditional desserts enjoyed during Chuseok, marriage or thesixtieth birthday.
Korean regional cuisines (향토음식;hyangto eumsik)are characterized by local specialties and distinctive styles within Korean cuisine. The divisions reflected historical boundaries of theprovinceswhere these food and culinary traditions were preserved until modern times.
Although Korea has been divided into two nation-states since 1948 (North Korea and South Korea), it was once divided intoeight provinces(paldo) according to theJoseonadministrative districts. The northern region consisted ofHamgyeongProvince,PyeonganProvince andHwanghae Province. The central region comprisedGyeonggi Province,Chungcheong Province, andGangwon Province.Gyeongsang ProvinceandJeolla ProvinceProvince made up the southern region.
Until the late 19th century, transportation networks were not well developed, and each provincial region preserved its own characteristic tastes and cooking methods. Geographic differences are also reflected by the local specialty foodstuffs depending on the climate and types of agriculture, as well as the natural foods available. With the modern development of transportation and the introduction of foreign foods, Korean regional cuisines have tended to overlap and integrate. However, many unique traditional dishes in Korean regional cuisine have been handed down through the generations.
Korean temple cuisine originated in Buddhist temples of Korea. SinceBuddhismwas introduced into Korea,Buddhisttraditions have strongly influenced Korean cuisine, as well. During theSillaperiod (57 BCE – 935 CE),chalbap(찰밥, a bowl of cookedglutinous rice)yakgwa(a fried dessert) andyumilgwa(a fried and puffed rice snack) were served for Buddhist altars and have been developed into types ofhangwa, Korean traditionalconfectionery. During theGoryeoperiod,sangchu ssam(wraps made with lettuce),yaksik, andyakgwawere developed, and since spread to China and other countries. Since the Joseon dynasty, Buddhist cuisine has been established in Korea according to regions and temples.
On the other hand,royal court cuisineis closely related to Korean temple cuisine. In the past, when the royal court maids,sanggung, who were assigned toSuragan(수라간;水剌間; the name of the royal kitchen), where they prepared the king's meals, became old, they had to leave the royal palace. Therefore, many of them entered Buddhist temples to become nuns. As a result, culinary techniques and recipes of the royal cuisine were integrated into Buddhist cuisine.
Vegetarian cookeryin Korea may be linked to theBuddhisttraditions that influenced Korean culture from theGoryeodynasty onwards. There are hundreds of vegetarian restaurants in Korea, although historically they have been local restaurants that are unknown to tourists. Most have buffets, with cold food, and vegetariankimchiandtofubeing the main features.Bibimbapis a commonvegandish. Menus change with seasons. Wine with the alcohol removed and fineteasare also served. TheKorean tea ceremonyis suitable for all vegetarians and vegans, and began with Buddhist influences. All food is eaten with a combination of stainless steel ovalchopsticksand a long-handled shallow spoon called togethersujeo.
Food is an important part of traditions of Korean family ceremonies, which are mainly based on the Confucian culture.Gwan Hon Sang Je(관혼상제;冠婚喪祭), the four family ceremonies (coming-of-age ceremony, wedding, funeral, and ancestral rite) have been considered especially important and elaborately developed, continuing to influence Korean life to these days. Ceremonial food in Korea has developed with variation across different regions and cultures.
For example, ancestral rites calledjesaare mainly held on the anniversary of an ancestor's death. Ritual food includes rice, rice cakes, meat and fish, alcohol, and fruit.
In South Korea, inexpensive food may be purchased frompojangmacha, street carts during the day, where customers may eat standing beside the cart or have their food wrapped up to take home. At night,pojangmacha(포장마차) become small tents that sell food, drinks, and alcoholic beverages.
Seasonal street foods includehotteokandbungeoppang, which are enjoyed in autumn and winter.Gyeran-ppangandhoppangare also enjoyed in winter.
Other common street foods includegimbap(김밥),tteokbokki(떡볶이),sundae,twigim, andeomuk.Dak-kkochi(닭꼬치), or skewered chicken grilled in various sauces, is also popular.Beondegi(번데기) anddalgona/ppopgi(뽑기) are two examples of original street foods many people have enjoyed since childhood.
Dining etiquette in Korea can be traced back to theConfucianphilosophies of theJoseon period. Guidebooks, such asSasojeol(士小節,Elementary Etiquette for Scholar Families), written in 1775 by Yi Deokmu (이덕무;李德懋), comment on the dining etiquette for the period. Suggestions include items such as "when you see a fat cow, goat, pig, or chicken, do not immediately speak of slaughtering, cooking or eating it","when you are having a meal with others, do not speak of smelly or dirty things, such as boils ordiarrhea,""when eating a meal, neither eat so slowly as to appear to be eating against your will nor so fast as if to be taking someone else's food. Do not throw chopsticks on the table. Spoons should not touch plates, making a clashing sound",among many other recommendations which emphasized propertable etiquette.
Other than the etiquette mentioned above, blowing one's nose when having a meal is considered an inappropriate act as well.
The eldest male at the table was always served first, and was commonly served in the men's quarters by the women of the house. Women usually dined in a separate portion of the house after the men were served. The eldest men or women always ate before the younger family members. The meal was usually quiet, as conversation was discouraged during meals. In modern times, these rules have become lax, as families usually dine together now and use the time to converse. Of the remaining elements of this decorum, one is that the younger members of the table should not pick up theirchopsticksor start eating before the elders of the table or guests and should not finish eating before the elders or guests finish eating.
In Korea, unlike in other East Asian cuisines such asChineseandJapanese, the rice or soup bowl is not lifted from the table when eating from it. This is due to the fact that each diner is given a metal spoon along with the chopsticks known collectively assujeo. The use of the spoon for eating rice and soups is expected. There are rules which reflect the decorum of sharing communal side dishes; rules include not picking through the dishes for certain items while leaving others, and the spoon used should be clean, because usually diners put their spoons in the same serving bowl on the table. Diners should also cover their mouths when using atoothpickafter the meal.
The table setup is important as well, and individual place settings, moving from the diner's left should be as follows: rice bowl, spoon, then chopsticks. Hot foods are set to the right side of the table, with the cold foods to the left. Soup must remain on the right side of the diner along withstews. Vegetables remain on the left along with the rice, andkimchiis set to the back while sauces remain in the front.
The manner of drinkingalcoholic drinkswhile dining is significant inKorean dining etiquette. Each diner is expected to face away from theeldest maleand cover his mouth when drinking alcohol.
According to Hyang Eum Ju Rye (향음주례;鄕飮酒禮), the drinking etiquette established inChoseon dynasty, it is impolite for a king and his vassal, a father and his son, or a teacher and his student to drink face to face. Also, a guest should not refuse the first drink offered by host, and in the most formal situations, the diner should politely twice refuse a drink offered by the eldest male or a host. When the host offers for the third time, then finally the guest can receive it. If the guest refuses three times, drink is not to be offered any more.
Collectively known asgungjung eumsikduring the pre-modern era, the foods of the royal palace were reflective of the opulent nature of the past rulers of the Korean peninsula. This nature is evidenced in examples as far back as theSillakingdom, where a man-made lake (Anapji Lake, located inGyeongju), was created with multiple pavilions and halls for the sole purpose of opulentbanquets, and a spring fed channel,Poseokjeong, was created for the singular purpose of setting wine cups afloat while they wrote poems.
Reflecting the regionalism of the kingdoms and bordering countries of the peninsula, the cuisine borrowed portions from each of these areas to exist as a showcase. The royalty would have the finest regional specialties and delicacies sent to them at the palace. Although there are records of banquets predating the Joseon period, the majority of these records mostly reflect the vast variety of foods, but do not mention the specific foods presented.The meals cooked for the royal family did not reflect the seasons, as the commoner's meals would have. Instead, their meals varied significantly day-to-day. Each of the eight provinces was represented each month in the royal palace by ingredients presented by their governors, which gave the cooks a wide assortment of ingredients to use for royal meals.
Food was considered significant in the Joseon period. Official positions were created within theSix Ministries(Yukjo, 육조) that were charged with all matters related to procurement and consumption of food and drink for the royal court. The Board of Personnel (Ijo, 이조) contained positions specific for attaining rice for the royal family. The Board of Rights (Yejo) were responsible for foods prepared for ancestor rites, attaining wines and other beverages, and medicinal foods. There were also hundreds of slaves and women who worked in the palace that had tasks such as makingtofu, liquor, tea, andtteok(rice cakes). The women were the cooks to the royal palace and were of commoner or low-born families. These women would be split into specific skill sets or "bureau" such as the bureau of special foods (Saenggwa-bang, 생과방) or the bureau of cooking foods (Soju-bang, 소주방). These female cooks may have been assisted by male cooks from outside the palace during larger banquets when necessary.
Five meals were generally served in the royal palace each day during the Joseon period, and records suggest this pattern had existed from antiquity. Three of these meals would be full meals, while the afternoon and after dinner meals would be lighter. The first meal,mieumsang(미음상), was served at sunrise and was served only on days when the king and queen were not taking herbal medicines. The meal consisted ofrice porridge(juk, 죽) made with ingredients such as abalone (jeonbokjuk), white rice (huinjuk), mushrooms (beoseotjuk), pine nuts (jatjuk), and sesame (kkaejuk). The side dishes could consist ofkimchi,nabak kimchi, oysters, soy sauce, and other items. The porridge was thought to give vitality to the king and queen throughout the day.
Thesura(수라) were the main meals of the day. Breakfast was served at ten in the morning, and the evening meals were served between six and seven at night. The set of three tables (surasang, 수라상), were usually set with two types of rice, two types of soup, two types of stew (jjigae), one dish ofjjim(meat stew), one dish ofjeongol(a casserole of meat and vegetables), three types ofkimchi, three types ofjang(장) and twelve side dishes, called 12 cheop (12첩). The meals were set in thesuragan(수라간), a room specifically used for taking meals, with the king seated to the east and the queen to the west. Each had their own set of tables and were attended by three palace servant women known assura sanggung(수라상궁). These women would remove bowl covers and offer the foods to the king and queen after ensuring the dishes were not poisoned.
Banquets (궁중 연회 음식) were held on special occasions in the Korean Royal Palace. These included birthdays of the royal family members, marriages, and national festivals, including Daeborum, Dano, Chuseok, and Dongji.Banquet food was served on individual tables which varied according to the rank of the person. Usually banquet food consisted of ten different types of dishes. Main dishes were prepared based on the seasonal foods. Main dishes of the banquet includedsinseollo,jeon,hwayang jeok,honghapcho,nengmyunandmulgimchi.A typical banquet ingredient waschogyetang(chicken broth with vinegar), which was prepared with five different chickens, five abalones, ten sea cucumbers, twenty eggs, half a bellflower root, mushrooms, two cups of black pepper, two peeled pine nuts, starch, soy sauce and vinegar.Yaksikwas a favorite banquet dessert.
Traditional Korean diet or Hansik is often associated with spiritual and physical health. While the diet of modern Korean people has become increasingly westernized and consists of numerous non-traditional foods, many believe in the healing power of Hansik. Vegetables and fermented foods are part of a healthy diet around the world, and Hansik includes many vegetable dishes and fermented foods. Three dishes, soup,Kimchiand multigrain rice make up the basic meal pattern of Hansik called three Cheopbansang. Fermented soybean pasteDoenjangused in soups and fermented red chili pasteGochujangused in kimchi add health benefits to these foods.
Certain foods are typically consumed to combat the heat of the summer or the cold months, regain strength during and after an illness, or for general health. Cool noodleNaengmyeonoriginally from the northern part of the Korean peninsula is now enjoyed in South Korea as well as many parts of the world especially during the hot summer months. Likewise, ginseng chicken soupSamgyetangis often eaten during summer to reduce heat exhaustion and regain stamina.
Following a traditional Korean diet may lower the risk of some health issues including obesity and metabolic syndrome with a decrease in body mass index (BMI), body fat percent, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol.Fermented foods like kimchi and doenjang contain probiotics which may boost immunity and reduce the incidence or severity of allergic conditions such as asthma and atopic dermatitis. It may also lower the risk of cardiovascular and chronic metabolic diseases such as hypertension and diabetes.
Probiotics typically found in kimchi include species of generaLactobacillus,Leuconostoc, andWeissella, and they have been linked to anti-inflammatory effects and health benefits such as improved gut health.Napacabbage is prepared with much salt and approximately 20% of sodium intake comes from kimchi. An increased risk of gastric cancer among subjects with frequent or high consumption of kimchi was found in some case-control studies.As with other salted foods, moderate consumption may maximize health benefits of kimchi.