Kimchi

Kimchi(/ˈkɪmtʃiː/;Korean:김치;RR:gimchi,IPA:[kim.tɕʰi]) is a traditional Korean side dish (banchan) consisting of salted andfermentedvegetables, most oftennapa cabbageorKorean radish. A wide selection of seasonings are used, includinggochugaru(Korean chili powder),spring onions,garlic,ginger, andjeotgal(a salted seafood).Kimchi is also used in a variety of soups and stews. Kimchi is astaple foodinKorean cuisineand is eaten as a side dish with almost every Korean meal.
There are hundreds of different types of kimchi made with different vegetables as the main ingredients.Traditionally, winter kimchi, calledgimjang, was stored in large earthenware fermentation vessels, calledonggi, in the ground to prevent freezing during the winter months and to keep it cool enough to slow down the fermentation process during summer months.The process of making kimchi was called kimjang and was a way for the whole village to participate. The vessels are also kept outdoors in special terraces calledjangdokdae. In contemporary times, householdkimchi refrigeratorsare more commonly used.
The termji(지), which has its origins in archaic Koreandihi(디히), has been used to refer to kimchi since ancient times.Thesound changecan be roughly described as:
TheMiddle Koreanformdihiis found in several books from theJoseonperiod (1392–1897).InModern Korean, the word remains as the suffix-jiin thestandard language(as injjanji,seokbak-ji),and as the suffix-jias well as the nounjiinGyeongsangandJeolla dialects.The unpalatalized formdiis preserved inP'yŏngan dialect.
Kimchi(김치) is the accepted word in bothNorthandSouth Koreanstandard languages. Earlier forms of the word includethimchoy(팀ᄎᆡ), aMiddle Koreantranscription of theSino-Koreanword沈菜(literally "submerged vegetable").Thimchoyappears inSohak Eonhae,the 16th century Korean rendition of the Chinese book,Xiaoxue.Sound changes from Middle Korean to Modern Korean regarding the word can be described as:
Theaspiratedfirst consonant ofthimchoybecame unaspirated intimchoy, then underwentpalatalizationincimchoy. The word then becamecimchuywith the loss of the vowelo(ㆍ) in Korean language, thenkimchi, with the depalatalized word-initial consonant. In Modern Korean, thehanjacharacters沈菜are pronouncedchimchae(침채), and are not used to refer to kimchi, or anything else. The wordkimchiis not considered as aSino-Korean word.Older forms of the word are retained in many regional dialects:jimchae(Jeolla,Hamgyŏng dialects),jimchi(Chungcheong,Gangwon,Gyeonggi, Gyeongsang, Hamgyŏng, Jeolla dialects),anddimchi(P'yŏngan dialect).
The English word "kimchi" perhaps originated fromkimch'i, theMcCune–Reischauertranscription of the Korean wordkimchi(김치).
Samguk Sagi, a historical record of theThree Kingdoms of Korea, mentions thepickle jarused to ferment vegetables, which indicates that fermented vegetables were commonly eaten during this time.Attributed with the earliest kimchi, theGoguryeopeople were skilled at fermenting and widely consumed fermented food.During theSilla dynasty(57 BCE – CE 935), kimchi became prevalent asBuddhismcaught on throughout the nation and fostered a vegetarian lifestyle.
The pickling of vegetables was an ideal method, prior to refrigerators, that helped to preserve the lifespan of foods. In Korea, kimchi was made during the winter by fermenting vegetables, and burying it in the ground in traditional brown ceramic pots calledonggi. This labor further allowed a bonding among women within the family.A poem onKorean radishwritten by Yi Gyubo, a 13th-century literatus, shows that radish kimchi was common inGoryeo(918–1392).
Kimchi has been a staple in Korean culture, but historical versions were not a spicy dish.Early records of kimchi do not mention garlic orchili pepper.Chili peppers, now a standard ingredient in kimchi, had been unknown in Korea until the early seventeenth century due to it being aNew Worldcrop.Chili peppers, originally native to the Americas, were introduced to East Asia by Portuguese traders.The first mention of chili pepper is found inJibong yuseol, an encyclopedia published in 1614.Sallim gyeongje, a 17‒18th century book on farm management, wrote on kimchi with chili peppers.However, it was not until the 19th century that the use of chili peppers in kimchi became widespread.Recipes from the early 19th century closely resemble today's kimchi.
A 1766 book,Jeungbo sallim gyeongje, reports kimchi varieties made with myriad ingredients, includingchonggak-kimchi(kimchi made withchonggak radish),oi-sobagi(with cucumber),seokbak-ji(withjogi-jeot), anddongchimi.However,napa cabbagewas introduced to Korea only at the end of 19th century,and whole-cabbage kimchi similar to its current form is described inSiuijeonseo, a cookbook published around that time.
During South Korea's involvement in theVietnam War, the industrialization and commercialization of kimchi production became increasingly important because the Korean government wanted to provide rations for its troops. The Korean government requested American help to ensure that South Korean troops, reportedly "desperate" for the food, could obtain it in the field.
In 2008, South Korean scientists created a special low-calorie, vitamin-rich "space kimchi" forYi So-yeon, the first Korean astronaut, to take to space. It was bacteria-free, unlike normal kimchi in which bacteria are essential for fermentation. It was feared that cosmic rays might mutate the bacteria.
South Korea developed programs for adultKorean adopteesto return to South Korea and learn about what it means to be Korean. One of these programs was learning how to make kimchi.
In 1996, Korea protested against Japanese commercial production of kimchi arguing that the Japanese-produced product (kimuchi,キムチ) was different from kimchi. In particular, Japanese kimchi was not fermented and was more similar toasazuke. Korea lobbied for an international standard from theCodex Alimentarius, an organization associated with the World Health Organization that defines voluntary standards for food preparation for international trade purposes.In 2001, the Codex Alimentarius published a voluntary standard defining kimchi as "a fermented food that uses salted napa cabbages as its main ingredient mixed with seasonings, and goes through a lactic acid production process at a low temperature", but which neither specified a minimum amount of fermentation nor forbade the use of any additives.Following the inclusion of the kimchi standard, kimchi exports in Korea did increase, but so did the production of kimchi in China and the import of Chinese kimchi into Korea.
Due to heavy rainfall shortening the harvesting time for cabbage and other main ingredients for kimchi in 2010, the price of kimchi ingredients and kimchi itself rose greatly. Korean and international newspapers described the rise in prices as a national crisis.Some restaurants stopped offering kimchi as a free side dish, whichThe New York Timescompared to an American hamburger restaurant no longer offering freeketchup.In response to the kimchi price crisis, the South Korean government announced the temporary reduction of tariffs on imported cabbage to coincide with thekimjangseason.
Kimchi-related items have been inscribed onUNESCO'sRepresentative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanityby both South and North Korea. This makes kimchi the second intangible heritage that was submitted by two countries, the other one being the folk song "Arirang" which was also submitted by both the Koreas."The culture of kimjang" was the subject of the Intangible Cultural Heritage: kimchi is not registered by itself.
Kimjang, the tradition of making and sharing kimchi that usually takes place in late autumn, was added to the list as "Gimjang, making and sharing kimchi in the Republic of Korea". The practice of Gimjang reaffirms Korean identity and strengthens family cooperation. Gimjang is also an important reminder for many Koreans that human communities need to live in harmony with nature.
North Korean kimchi-making was inscribed on the list in December 2015as "Tradition of kimchi-making in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea".North Korean kimchi tends to be less spicy and less red than South Korean kimchi.Seafood is used less often and less salt is added. Additional sugar is used to help with fermentation in the cold climate.
In theUnited States, statesCalifornia,Virginia,MarylandandNew York, and capital cityWashington D.C.have issued proclamations declaring 22 November as 'Kimchi Day' to recognize the importance of the dish as part of Korean culture.
Since 2012, the Chinese government has effectively banned the import of Korean kimchi through government regulations. Ignoring the standards of kimchi outlined by theCodex Alimentarius, China defined kimchi as a derivative of one of its own cuisines, calledpao cai.However, due to significantly different preparation techniques frompao cai, kimchi has significantly more lactic acid bacteria through its fermentation process, which exceeds China's regulations.Since 2012, commercial exports of Korean kimchi to China has reached zero; the only minor amounts of exports accounting for Korean kimchi are exhibition events held in China.
A 2017 article inThe New York Timessaid thatanti-Korean sentiment in Chinahad risen after South Korea's acceptance of the deployment ofTHAADin South Korea. Government-run Chinese news media encouraged the boycott of South Korean goods, and some Chinese nationalists vowed to not eat kimchi.The move was criticized by other Chinese nationalists, who noted that China officially considered Koreans an integral ethnic group in the multinational state, and that kimchi is also indigenous to theYanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture.
In November 2020, theInternational Organization for Standardization(ISO) posted ISO 24220:2020, new regulations for the making ofpao cai.The same month,BBC Newsreported that Chinese news organizationGlobal Timesclaimed the new ISO standard was "an international standard for the kimchi industry led by China" despite the standard clearly stating "this document does not apply to kimchi".This sparked strong anger from South Korean media and people,as well as the responses from some Chinese people who argued China held the right to claim kimchi as their own.
However clarifications from both countries, later revealed that the controversy was triggered over a misunderstanding of a translation of the Chinese wordpao cai.After the controversy emerged,Global Timesexplained it was simply a "misunderstanding in translation", where they had meant to refer to Chinesepao cai, and their Chinese language article had used the termpao cai, but their English language version had "erroneously" translated it as "kimchi", and that the dispute arose from being innocently "lost in translation".They acknowledged that kimchi andpao caiare two different foods, where "Kimchi refers to a kind of fermented cabbage dish that plays an integral role in Korean cuisine, whilepàocài, or Sichuanpàocài, refers to pickled vegetables that are popular originally in Southwest China's Sichuan Province, but now in most parts of northern China."Global Timesalso reported thatBaidu Baike, a Chinese online encyclopedia, removed the controversial phrase "Korean kimchi originated from China" after the request.
According to Sojin Lim, co-director of the Institute of Korean Studies of theUniversity of Central Lancashire, Korean kimchi is often calledpao caiin China, but China has its ownSichuanesefermented vegetable dish that it also callspao cai.In 2021, the South KoreanMinistry of Culture, Sports and Tourismsubsequently presented the guidelines to set the termxīnqí(辛奇)as the new proper Chinese translation of kimchi, whilepàocàiwas no longer the acceptable translation.However,CNNreported that the new Chinese translation of kimchi was unpopular with both Chinese and Korean netizens, and that some Chinese people complained that they do recognise the difference between dishes, but don't like to be told how to translate Kimchi in Chinese. There were also complaints among Koreans that Korea is appropriating their own traditional culture for the Chinese, by trying to promote a Chinese term for Kimchi which doesn't have an authentic Korean sound.
Kimchi varieties are determined by the main vegetable ingredients and the mix of seasoning used to flavor the kimchi.
Cabbages (napa cabbages,bomdong,headed cabbages) and radishes (Korean radishes,ponytail radishes,gegeol radishes,yeolmu radishes) are the most commonly used kimchi vegetables.Other kimchi vegetables include:aster,balloon flower roots,burdockroots,celery,chamnamul,cilantro,cress,crown daisy greens,cucumber,eggplant,garlic chives,garlicscapes,ginger,Korean angelica-treeshoots,Korean parsley,Korean wild chive,lotus roots,mustard greens, onions,perilla leaves,bamboo shoot,momordica charantia,pumpkins,radish greens,rapeseedleaves,scallions,seaweed,soybean sprouts,spinach,sugar beets,sweet potatovines, andtomatoes.
Brining salt(with a larger grain size compared tokitchen salt) is used mainly for initial salting of kimchi vegetables. Being minimally processed, it serves to help develop flavors in fermented foods.Cabbage is usually salted twice when making spicy kimchi.
Commonly used seasonings includegochugaru(chili powder),scallions,garlic,ginger, andjeotgal(salted seafood)Jeotgalcan be replaced with raw seafood in colder Northern parts of theKorean peninsula.If used, mildersaeu-jeot(salted shrimp) orjogi-jeot(salted croaker) is preferred and the amount ofjeotgalis also reduced in Northern and Central regions.In Southern Korea, on the other hand, a generous amount of strongermyeolchi-jeot(salted anchovies) andgalchi-jeot(saltedhairtail) is commonly used.Raw seafood ordaegu-agami-jeot(salted cod gills) are used in the East coast areas.
Salt, scallions, garlic, fish sauce, and sugar are commonly added to flavor the kimchi.
To make kimchi, start by slicing cabbage or daikon into small, uniform pieces to increase surface area. The pieces are then coated with salt to draw out water, which helps preserve them by preventing the growth of harmful microorganisms. This salting process can use 5–7% salt for 12 hours or 15% salt for 3–7 hours.
After salting, drain the excess water and mix in seasoning ingredients. Adding sugar can also help by binding any remaining water. Finally, pack the brined vegetables into an airtight jar and let them ferment at room temperature for 24 to 48 hours. The ideal salt concentration during fermentation is about 3%.
Since the fermentation process results in the production of carbon dioxide, the jar should be "burped" daily to release the gas.The more fermentation that occurs, the more carbon dioxide will be incorporated, which results in a very carbonated-drink-like effect.
Themicroorganismspresent in kimchi includeBacillus mycoides,B. pseudomycoides,B. subtilis,Lactobacillus brevis,Lb. curvatus,Lb. kimchii,Lb. parabrevis,Lb. pentosus,Lb. plantarum,Lb. sakei,Lb. spicheri,Lactococcus carnosum,Lc. gelidum,Lc. lactis,Leuconostoc carnosum,Ln. citreum,Ln. gasicomitatum,Ln. gelidum,Ln. holzapfelii,Ln. inhae,Ln. kimchii,Ln. lactis,Ln. mesenteroides,Serratia marcescens,Weissella cibaria,W. confusa,W. kandleri,W. kimchii.W. koreensis, andW. soli.Archaeaandyeasts, such as Saccharomyces, Candida, Pichia, and Kluyveromyces are also present in kimchi,with the latter being responsible for undesirable white colonies that sometimes form in the product as well as food spoilages and off-flavors.
In early fermentation stages, theLeuconostocvariety is found more dominantly in kimchi fermentation because of its lower acid tolerance and microaerophilic properties; theLeuconostocvariety also grows better at low salt concentrations.Throughout the fermentation process, as acidity rises, theLactobacillusandWeissellavariety become dominant because of their higher acid tolerance.Lactobacillusalso grows better in conditions with a higher salt concentration.
These microorganisms are present due to the natural microflora provided by utilizing unsterilized food materials in the production of kimchi.The step of salting the raw materials as well as the addition of red pepper powder inhibit the pathogenic and putrefactive bacteria present in the microflora, allowing thelactic acid bacteria(LAB) to flourish and become the dominant microorganism.These anaerobic microorganisms steadily increase in number during the middle stages of fermentation, and prefer to be kept at low temperatures of about 10°C, pH of 4.2-4, and remain in the presence of 1.5% – 4% NaCl.A faster fermentation at a higher temperature may be chosen as well to accelerate the growth of bacterial cultures for a faster decrease in pH level.
Since the raw cruciferous vegetables themselves are the source of LAB required for fermentation, no starter culture is required for the production of kimchi; rather, spontaneous fermentation occurs.The total population of microorganisms present at the beginning of processing determine the outcome of fermentation, causing the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor.Currently, there are no recommended approaches to control the microbial community during fermentation to predict the outcome.In the industrial production of kimchi, starter cultures made up ofLeu. mesenteroides,Leu. citreum, andLb. plantarumare used, which are often unsuccessful because they fail to outcompete the naturally occurring cultures on the raw materials.
Thelactic acid bacteria(LAB) producelactic acid,hydrogen peroxide, andcarbon dioxideas by-products during metabolism. Lactic acid quickly lowers the pH, creating an acidic environment that is uninhabitable for most other microorganisms that survived salting.This also modifies the flavor of sub-ingredients and can increase the nutritive value of the raw materials, as the microbial community in the fermentation process can synthesize B vitamins and hydrolyze cellulose in plant tissues to free nutrients that are normally indigestible by the human gastrointestinal tract.Hydrogen peroxide is formed by the oxidation of reducednicotinamide adenine dinucleotide(NADH) and provides an antibiotic to inhibit some undesirable microorganisms.Carbon dioxide functions as a preservative, flushing out oxygen to create an anaerobic environment, as well as creating the desired carbonation in the final product.
Kimchi is known for its strong, spicy, flavors and odors, although milder varieties exist. Variations in the fermentation process cause the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor.The strong odor is especially tied to the sulfur compounds from garlic and ginger of kimchi, which can be less appealing to non-Koreans. Thus, scientists are experimenting with the types of bacteria used in its production to minimize the odor to increase the appeal for international markets.These efforts are not universally appreciated by lovers of kimchi, as the flavor is affected in the process, and some see that "South Korea's narrative about its own culinary staple" is being manipulated to suit the foreigners' tastes.
Kimchi is one of the most important staples ofKorean cuisine. The Korean term "Kimchi" refers to fermented vegetables, and encompasses salt and seasoned vegetables.It is mainly served as a side dish with every meal, but also can be served as a main dish.Kimchi is mainly recognized as a spicy fermented cabbage dish globally.
New variations of kimchi continue to be created,and the taste can vary depending on the region and season.Conventionally, the secret of kimchi preparation was passed down by mothers to their daughters in a bid to make them suitable wives to their husbands.However, with the current technological advancement and increase in social media use, many individuals worldwide can now access recipes for kimchi preparation.
Kimchi can be categorized by main ingredients, regions or seasons. Korea's northern and southern sections have a considerable temperature difference.There are over 180 recognized varieties of kimchi.The most common kimchi variations are:
Kimchi from the northern parts of Korea tends to have less salt and red chili and usually does not include brined seafood for seasoning. Northern kimchi often has a watery consistency. Kimchi made in the southern parts of Korea, such asJeolla ProvinceandGyeongsang Province, uses salt, chili peppers andmyeolchijeot(멸치젓, brinedanchovyallowed to ferment) orsaeujeot(새우젓, brined shrimp allowed to ferment),myeolchiaekjeot(멸치액젓), anchovy fish sauce,kkanariaekjeot(까나리액젓), liquid anchovyjeot, similar tofish sauceused in Southeast Asia, but thicker.
Saeujeot(새우젓) ormyeolchijeotis not added to the kimchi spice-seasoning mixture, but is simmered first to reduce odors, eliminate tannic flavor and fats, and then is mixed with a thickener made of rice or wheat starch (풀). This technique has been falling into disuse in the past 40 years.
White kimchiis neither red nor spicy. It includes whitenapa cabbage kimchiand other varieties such as whiteradishkimchi (dongchimi). Watery white kimchi varieties are sometimes used as an ingredient in a number of dishes such as cold noodles indongchimibrine(dongchimi-guksu).
The following regional classification dates to the 1960s. Since then, kimchi-making practices and trends in Korea have diverged from it.
Different types of kimchi were traditionally made at different times of the year, based on when various vegetables were in season and also to take advantage of hot and cold seasons before the era of refrigeration. Although the advent of modern refrigeration – includingkimchi refrigeratorsspecifically designed with precise controls to keep different varieties of kimchi at optimal temperatures at various stages of fermentation – has made this seasonality unnecessary, Koreans continue to consume kimchi according to traditional seasonal preferences.
After a long period of consuminggimjangkimchi(김장김치) during the winter, freshpotherbsand vegetables were used to make kimchi. These kinds of kimchi were not fermented or even stored for long periods of time but were consumed fresh.
Yeolmu radishesand cucumbers are summer vegetables made into kimchi,yeolmu-kimchi(열무김치) which is eaten in several bites. Brined fish or shellfish can be added, and freshly ground dried chili peppers are often used.
Baechukimchiis prepared by inserting blended stuffing materials, calledsok(literallyinside), between layers of salted leaves of uncut, wholeNapa cabbage. The ingredients ofsok(속) can vary, depending on the regions and weather conditions. Generally,baechu kimchiused to have a strong salty flavor until the late 1960s, before which a large amount ofmyeolchijeotorsaeujeothad been used.
Gogumasoon Kimchiis made from sweet potato stems.
Traditionally, the greatest varieties of kimchi were available during the winter. In preparation for the long winter months, many types ofkimjangkimchi (김장 김치) were prepared in early winter and stored in the ground in large kimchi pots. Today, many city residents use modernkimchi refrigeratorsoffering precise temperature controls to store kimjang kimchi. November and December are traditionally when people begin to make kimchi; women often gather together in each other's homes to help with winter kimchi preparations."Baechu kimchi" is made with saltedbaechufilled with thin strips ofradish, parsley, pine nuts, pears, chestnuts, shredded red pepper,manna lichen(Korean:석이 버섯;RR:seogi beoseot), garlic, and ginger.
As of 2004, the preference of kimchi preparation in Korean households from the most prepared type of kimchi to less prepared types of kimchi was:baechukimchi, being the most prepared type of kimchi, thenkkakdugi, thendongchimiand thenchonggakkimchi.Baechukimchi comprised more than seventy percent of marketed kimchi and radish kimchi comprised about twenty percent of marketed kimchi.
Kimchi is made of various vegetables and contains a high concentration ofdietary fiber,while being low infood energy. The vegetables used in kimchi also contribute to intake of vitamin A, thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), calcium, and iron.
A 2003 article said that South Koreans consume 18kg (40lbs) of kimchi per person annually.Many credit theKorean Miraclein part to eating the dish.Adult Koreans eat from 50 grams (0.11 lb) to 200 grams (0.44 lb) of kimchi a day.
South Korea spent around $129 million in 2017 to purchase 275,000 metric tons of foreign kimchi, more than 11 times the amount it exported, according to data released by the Korea Customs Service in 2017.South Korea consumes 1.85 million metric tons of kimchi annually, or 36.1 kg per person.It imports a significant fraction of that, mostly from China, and runs a $47.3 million kimchi trade deficit.
In 2021, Koreans collectively consumed 1,965,000 tons of Kimchi, with average Korean consuming 88.3 grams of Kimchi daily. This average has been steadily declining from 109.9 grams per day in 2010, marking a 19.6% decrease. Males tend to consume more Kimchi than females, with an average of 106.6 grams compared to 70.0 grams.
TheCanadian Food Inspection Agencyhas regulations for the commercial production of kimchi. The final product should have a pH ranging from 4.2 to 4.5.Any low-acidity ingredients with a pH above 4.6, including white daikon and napa cabbage, should not be left under conditions that enable the growth of undesirable microorganisms and require a written illustration of the procedure designed to ensure this is available if requested.This procedural design should include steps that maintain sterility of the equipment and products used, and the details of all sterilization processes.The cutoff pH of 4.6 is a value common to many food safety regulations, initially defined becausebotulism toxinis not produced below this level.