Thailand

Thailand,officially theKingdom of Thailandand historically known asSiam(the official name until 1939),is a country inSoutheast Asiaon theIndochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million,it spans 513,115 square kilometres (198,115 sq mi).Thailand isborderedto the northwest byMyanmar, to the northeast and east byLaos, to the southeast byCambodia, to the south by theGulf of ThailandandMalaysia, and to the southwest by theAndaman Sea; it also sharesmaritime borderswithVietnamto the southeast andIndonesiaandIndiato the southwest.Bangkokis the state capital and largest city.
Thai peoplesmigrated from southwestern China to mainland Southeast Asia from the 6th to 11th centuries.Indianised kingdomssuch as theMon,Khmer Empire, andMalay statesruled the region, competing with Thai states such as the Kingdoms ofNgoenyang,Sukhothai,Lan Na, andAyutthaya, which also rivalled each other. European contact began in 1511 with aPortuguesediplomatic mission to Ayutthaya, which became a regional power by the end of the 15th century. Ayutthaya reached its peak during the 18th century, until it was destroyed in theBurmese–Siamese War.King Taksin the Greatquickly reunified the fragmented territory and established the short-livedThonburi Kingdom(1767–1782), of which he was the only king. He was succeeded in 1782 byPhutthayotfa Chulalok(Rama I), the first monarch of the currentChakri dynasty. Throughout the era ofWestern imperialism in Asia, Siam remained the only state in the region to avoidcolonisationby foreign powers, although it was often forced to maketerritorial, trade, and legal concessions in unequal treaties.The Siamese system of government was centralised and transformed into a modern unitaryabsolute monarchyduring the 1868–1910 reign ofChulalongkorn(Rama V). 
InWorld War I, Siam sided withthe Allies, a political decision made in order to amend the unequal treaties. Following a bloodlessrevolutionin 1932, it became a constitutional monarchy and changed its official name to Thailand, becoming anally of JapaninWorld War II. In the late 1950s, a military coup underSarit Thanaratrevived the monarchy's historically influential role in politics. During theCold War, Thailand became amajor non-NATO allyof the United States and played ananti-communist rolein the region as a member ofSEATO, which was disbanded in 1977.
Apart from abrief period of parliamentary democracyin the mid-1970s and 1990s, Thailand has periodically alternated betweendemocracyandmilitary rule. Since the 2000s, the country has been in continual political conflict between supporters and opponents of twice-electedPrime Minister of ThailandThaksin Shinawatra, which resulted in twocoups(in2006and2014), along with the establishment of itscurrent constitution, anominally democratic governmentafter the2019 Thai general election, andlarge pro-democracy protests in 2020–2021, which included unprecedented demands to reform the monarchy. Since 2019, it has been nominally aparliamentaryconstitutional monarchy; in practice, however, structural advantages in the constitution have ensured the military's continued influence in politics.
Thailand is amiddle powerin global affairs and a founding member ofASEAN. It has thesecond-largest economyin Southeast Asia and the23rd-largest in the worldbyPPP, and it ranks29th by nominal GPD. Thailand is classified as anewly industrialised economy, with manufacturing, agriculture, andtourismas leading sectors.
Thailandwas known by outsiders before 1939 asSiam.According toGeorge Cœdès, the wordThai(ไทย) means 'free man' in the Thai language, "differentiating the Thai from the natives encompassed in Thai society as serfs".According toChit Phumisak, Thai (ไท) simply means 'people' or 'human being'; his investigation shows that some rural areas used the word "Thai" instead of the usual Thai wordkhon(คน) for people.According toMichel Ferlus, the ethnonyms Thai-Tai (or Thay-Tay) would have evolved from the etymon*k(ə)ri:'human being'.
Thais often refer to their country using the polite formprathet Thai(Thai:ประเทศไทย). They also use the more colloquial termmueang Thai(Thai:เมืองไทย) or simplyThai;the wordmueang, archaically referring to acity-state, is commonly used to refer to a city or town as the centre of a region.Ratcha Anachak Thai(Thai:ราชอาณาจักรไทย) means 'kingdom of Thailand' or 'kingdom of Thai'.
Etymologically, its components are:ratcha(Sanskrit:राजन्,rājan, 'king, royal, realm'),ana-(Paliāṇā'authority, command, power', itself from the Sanskritआज्ञा,ājñā, of the same meaning), and-chak(from Sanskritचक्रcakra-'wheel', a symbol of power and rule).
TheThai National Anthem(Thai:เพลงชาติ), written byLuang Saranupraphanduring the patriotic 1930s, refers to the Thai nation asprathet Thai(Thai:ประเทศไทย). The first line of the national anthem is:prathet thai ruam lueat nuea chat chuea thai(Thai:ประเทศไทยรวมเลือดเนื้อชาติเชื้อไทย), 'Thailand is founded on blood and flesh'.
The former nameSiammay have originated fromSanskritश्याम (śyāma, 'dark')orMonရာမည (rhmañña, 'stranger'), probably the same root asShanandAssam.The wordŚyâmais possibly not the true origin, but a pre-designed deviation from its proper, original meaning.Another theory is the name derives from the Chinese calling this region 'Xian'.
The ancient Khmers used the wordSiamto refer to people settled in the westChao Phraya Rivervalley surrounding the ancient city ofNakhon Pathomin the present-daycentral Thailand; it may probably originate from the name of LordKrishna, which also calledShyam, as in theWat Sri Chum Inscription, dated 13th century CE, mentionsPhra Maha Thera Sri Sattha[th]came to restorePhra Pathommachediat the city of Lord Krishna (Nakhon Pathom) in the early era of theSukhothai Kingdom.
The signature of KingMongkut(r. 1851–1868) readsSPPM(Somdet Phra Poramenthra Maha)Mongkut Rex Siamensium(Mongkut, King of the Siamese). This usage of the name inthe country's first international treatygave the nameSiamofficial status, until 24 June 1939 when it was changed toThailand.
There is evidence of continuous human habitation in present-day Thailand from 20,000 years ago to the present day.The earliest evidence of rice growing is dated at 2,000 BCE.Areas comprising what is now Thailand participated in theMaritime Jade Road, as ascertained by archeological research. The trading network existed for 3,000 years, between 2000 BCE to 1000 CE.Bronze appearedc.1,250–1,000 BCE.The site ofBan Chiangin northeast Thailand currently ranks as the earliest known centre of copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia.Iron appeared around 500 BCE.
TheKingdom of Funanwas the first and most powerful Southeast Asian kingdom at the time (2nd century BCE).TheMon peopleestablished the principalities ofDvaravatiand Kingdom ofHariphunchaiin the 6th century. TheKhmer peopleestablished theKhmer empire, centred inAngkor, in the 9th century.Tambralinga, a Malay state controlling trade through theMalacca Strait, rose in the 10th century.The Indochina peninsula was heavily influenced by theculture and religions of Indiafrom the time of the Kingdom of Funan to that of the Khmer Empire.
TheThai peopleare of theTai ethnic group, characterised by common linguistic roots.Chinese chronicles first mention the Tai peoples in the 6th century BCE. While there are many assumptions regarding the origin of Tai peoples,David K. Wyatt, a historian of Thailand, argued that their ancestors who at present inhabit Laos, Thailand, Myanmar, India, and China came from theĐiện Biên Phủarea between the 5th and the 8th century.
Thai people began migrating into present-day Thailand gradually from the 6th to 11th century, which Mon and Khmer people occupied at the time.Thus Thai culture was influenced by Indian, Mon, and Khmer cultures.Tai people intermixed with various ethnic and cultural groups in the region, resulting in many groups of present-day Thai people.Genetic evidences suggested that ethnolinguistics could not accurately predict the origins of the Thais.Sujit Wongthesargued that Thai is not a race or ethnicity but a culture group.
According to French historianGeorge Cœdès, "The Thai first enter history ofFarther Indiain the eleventh century with the mention ofSyamslaves or prisoners of war inChampaepigraphy", and "in the twelfth century, thebas-reliefsofAngkor Wat" where "a group of warriors" are described asSyam,though Cham accounts do not indicate the origins ofSyamor what ethnic group they belonged to.The origins and ethnicity of theSyamremain unclear, with some literature suggesting thatSyamrefers to theShan people, theBru people, or theBrau people.However, mainland Southeast Asian sources from before the fourteenth century primarily used the wordSyamas anethnonym, referring to those who belonged to a separate cultural category different from the Khmer, Cham, Bagan, or Mon. This contrasts with the Chinese sources, whereXianwas used as atoponym.
Theoretically,Tai-Kadai-speaking people formed as early as the 12th century BCE in the middle of theYangtze basin. Some groups later migrated south toGuangxi.However, after several bloody centuries againstChineseinfluence inGuangxibetween 333 BCE and the 11th century, hundreds of thousands of Tais were killed,thus,Tai peoplebegan to move southwestward along the rivers and over the lower passes into the mountain north ofSoutheast Asiaand river valleys in present-dayAssamofIndia.Some evidence indicates that the ancestors of Tai people migrated en masse southwestwards out of Yunnan only after the 1253Mongol invasion of Dali; however, it is not generally accepted.
Tais defeatedindigenous tribesand emerged as the new power in the new region. As a result, several Tai city-states were established, scattered fromĐiện Biên Phủin present-day northwesternVietnamand highlandSoutheast Asiatonortheastern India.
According to theSimhanavati legendgiven in several chronicles, the first Tai city-state in northern Thailand,Singhanavati, was founded around the 7th century.However, several moderngeologyandarchaeologystudies found that its centre, Yonok Nahaphan, dates from 691 BCE–545 CE;this roughly coincides with the establishment ofShan States, another Tai's federated principalities in the present-day northeastMyanmar.as well asMuang Sua(Luang Prabang) in the east.
After Singhanavati was submerged belowChiang Saen Lakedue to anearthquakein 545,the survivors then founded a new seat atWieng–Prueksha[th]. The kingdom lasted for another 93 years.
In addition toSinghanavati, another northern principality probably related to the Tai people,Ngoenyang, was established as the successor of Singhanavati in 638 byLavachakkaraj[th], also centred inWieng–Prueksha[th](present-dayMae Sai District,Chiang Rai).Its seat was moved toChiang Maiin 1262 by KingMangrai, which considered the foundation of theLan Nakingdom. Mangrai unified the surrounding area and also created a network of states through political alliances to the east and north of theMekong. His dynasty would rule the kingdom continuously for the next two centuries.Lan Naexpanded its territory southward and annexed theMonHariphunchaiofDvaravatiin 1292.
In the late tenth century, Tai people began to migrate further south to the present-day uppercentral Thailand.Around the 1100s period, several cities in this area, such as Songkwae, Sawankhalok, and Chakangrao, were ruled by the Tai people, and they eventually launched several battles against the pre-existingMonofLavo, who had been falling underChenlaandKhmerinfluences since the 7th century, thus bringing the establishment of the Tai people's independent state,Sukhothai Kingdom, in the upperChao Phraya Rivervalley in 1238.
The earliest conflict betweenTai peopleand the preexisting ethnics was recorded in the mid-4th century when the ruler ofSinghanavati,Pangkharat[th], forcibly lost the seat at Yonok to King Khom from Umongasela (present-dayFang). He then fled to Vieng Si Tuang (เวียงศรีทวง; present-day Wiang Phang Kham,Mae Sai district) but had to send tributes to Yonok annually until his son,Phrom, took back Yonok and expelled King Khom from Umongasela.Phromalso marched the troops south to occupyChakangraofrom the enemy as well as founding the city ofSongkwae.Some historians suggest thatLavo's capital,Lopburi, was once seized byPhrom.In contrast,Tai peopleinstead established relationships with Siamese Mon viaroyal intermarriages.
As is generally known, the present-dayThai peoplewere previously called Siamese before the country was renamed Thailand in the mid-20th century.Several genetic studies published in the 21st century suggest that the so-called Siamese people (central Thai) might have had Mon origins since their genetic profiles are more closely related to theMon peopleinMyanmarthan theTaisofsouthern China,and they probably later became Tais viacultural diffusionafter the arriving of Tai people from the north around the 8th–10th centuries.
This is also reflected in the language since over half of the vocabulary in the central Thai language is derived from or borrowed from theMon language, as well asPaliandSanskrit.Moreover, theJinakalamalichronicle of Tai'sLan Naalso called the southern region occupied by the MonHaripuñjayaofDvaravatiasShyam Pradesh(lit.'the land of Siam people'), which indicates that the ancient Siamese and the Mon people in central Thailand were probably the same ethnolinguistic group.
The earliest evidence to mention the Siam people are stone inscriptions found inAngkor BoreiofFunan(K.557 and K.600), dated 661 CE, the slave's name is mentioned as "Ku Sayam" meaning "Sayam female slaves" (Ku is a prefix used to refer to female slaves in the pre-Angkorian era), and the Takéo inscriptions (K.79) written in 682 during the reign ofBhavavarman IIofChenlaalso mention Siam Nobel:Sāraṇnoya Poña Sayam, which was transcribed into English as:the rice field that was given to the poña (noble rank) who was called Sayam (Siam).
TheSong Huiyao Jigao(960–1279) indicate Siamese people settled in the westcentral Thailandand their state was calledXiān guó(Chinese:暹國), while the eastern plain belonged to the Mon ofLavo(Chinese:羅渦國),who later fell under theChenlaandKhmerhegemony around the 7th–9th centuries.Those Mon political entities, which also includedHaripuñjayain the north and several city-states in thenortheast, are collectively calledDvaravati.
However, the states of Siamese Mon and Lavo were later merged via theroyal intermarriageand becameAyutthaya Kingdomin the mid-14th century,while the southwesternIsanprincipalities, centred inPhanom RungandPhimai, later pledged allegiance to Siamese's Ayutthaya during the reign ofBorommarachathirat II(r.1424–1448).The remaining principal city-states inIsanregion becameLan Xangaround 1353 after the twin cities ofMuang Sua(Luang Prabang) andVieng Chan Vieng Kham(Vientiane) became independent following the death of theSukhothaikingRam Khamhaeng.
According to the Wat Kud Tae inscription (K.1105), dated c. 7th century, during the period that the eastern Mon entity,Lavo, was strongly influenced by theChenla, the Siamese Mon in the west also established aroyal intermarriagewithChenlaas Sri Chakatham, prince of Sambhuka (ศามภูกะ, in the present-dayRatchaburi province), married to a princess ofIsanavarman I, and twomandalasthen became an ally.AfterChenlasiegedFunanand moved the centre toAngkor, both Siamese Mon and the Angkorian eventually marched the troops to attackVijayaofChampain 1201 during the reign ofJayavarman VII, as recorded in the Cho-Dinh inscription (C.3).
After the decline of the Khmer Empire andKingdom of Paganin the early 13th century, various states thrived in their place. The domains of Tai people existed from the northeast of present-day India to the north of present-day Laos and to theMalay Peninsula.During the 13th century, Tai people had already settled in the core land ofDvaravatiandLavo KingdomtoNakhon Si Thammaratin the south. There are, however, no records detailing the arrival of the Tais.
Around 1240,Pho Khun Bang Klang Hao, a local Tai ruler, rallied the people to rebel against the Khmer. He later crowned himself the first king ofSukhothai Kingdomin 1238.Mainstream Thai historians count Sukhothai as the first kingdom of Thai people. Sukhothai expanded furthest during the reign ofRam Khamhaeng(r.1279–1298). However, it was mostly a network of local lords who swore fealty to Sukhothai, not directly controlled by it.He is believed have inventedThai scriptand Thai ceramics were an important export in his era. Sukhothai embracedTheravadaBuddhismin the reign ofMaha Thammaracha I(1347–1368).
According to the most widely accepted version of its origin, the Ayutthaya Kingdom rose from the earlier, nearbyLavo Kingdomand Suvarnabhumi withUthongas its first king. Ayutthaya was a patchwork of self-governing principalities and tributary provinces owing allegiance to the King of Ayutthaya under themandala system.Its initial expansion was through conquest and political marriage.
Before the end of the 15th century, Ayutthaya invaded the Khmer Empire three times and sacked its capitalAngkor.Ayutthaya then became a regional power in place of the Khmer. Constant interference of Sukhothai effectively made it a vassal state of Ayutthaya and it was finally incorporated into the kingdom.Borommatrailokkanatbrought about bureaucratic reforms which lasted into the 20th century and created a system of social hierarchy calledsakdina, where male commoners were conscripted ascorvéelabourers for six months a year.Ayutthaya was interested in theMalay Peninsulabut failed to conquer theMalacca Sultanate, which was supported by the ChineseMing dynasty.
European contact and trade started in the early-16th century, with theenvoyofPortuguesedukeAfonso de Albuquerquein 1511. Portugal became an ally and ceded some soldiers to King Rama Thibodi II.The Portuguese were followed in the 17th century by the French, Dutch, and English. Rivalry for supremacy over Chiang Mai and the Mon people pitted Ayutthaya against the Burmese Kingdom. Several wars with its rulingTaungoo dynastystarting in the 1540s in the reign ofTabinshwehtiandBayinnaungwere ultimately ended with thecapture of the capital in 1570.Then a brief period of vassalage to Burma untilNaresuanproclaimed independence in 1584 followed.
Ayutthaya sought to improve relations with European powers for many successive reigns. The kingdom especially prospered during cosmopolitanNarai's reign (1656–1688), when some European travellers regarded Ayutthaya as an Asian great power, alongside China and India.However, growing French influence later in his reign was met with nationalist sentiment and eventually led to theSiamese revolution of 1688.Despite the revolution, overall relations remained stable, with French missionaries still actively preaching Christianity.
After a bloody period of dynastic struggle, Ayutthaya entered what has been called the Siamese "golden age", a relatively peaceful episode in the second quarter of the 18th century whereart,literature, and learning flourished. There were seldom foreign wars, apart from conflict with theNguyễn lordsfor control ofCambodiastarting around 1715. The last fifty years of the kingdom witnessed bloody succession crises, where there were purges of court officials and able generals for many consecutive reigns. In 1765, a combined 40,000-strong force of Burmese armiesinvaded itfrom the north and west.The Burmese under the newAlaungpayadynasty quickly rose to become a new local power by 1759. After a 14-month siege, the capital city's walls fell and the city was burned in April 1767.
The capital and many of its territories lay in chaos after the war. The former capital was occupied by theBurmesegarrison army and five local leaders declared themselves overlords, including the lords of Sakwangburi,Phitsanulok,Pimai,Chanthaburi, andNakhon Si Thammarat.Chao Tak, a capable military leader, proceeded to make himself a lord byright of conquest, beginning with the legendary sack ofChanthaburi. Based at Chanthaburi, Chao Tak raised troops and resources, and sent a fleet up theChao Phrayato take the fort ofThonburi. In the same year, Chao Tak was able to retake Ayutthaya from the Burmese only seven months after the fall of the city.
Chao Tak then crowned himself asTaksinand proclaimedThonburias temporary capital in the same year. He also quickly subdued the other warlords. His forces engaged in wars with Burma, Laos, and Cambodia, which successfullydrove the Burmese out of Lan Nain 1775,captured Vientianein 1778andtried to install a pro-Thai king in Cambodiain the 1770s. In his final years there was a coup, supposedly caused by his "insanity", and eventually Taksin and his sons were executed by his longtime companion GeneralChao Phraya Chakri(the future Rama I). He was the first king of the rulingChakri dynastyand founder of theRattanakosin Kingdomon 6 April 1782.
UnderRama I(1782–1809), Rattanakosin successfully defended against Burmese attacks and put an end to Burmese incursions. He also created suzerainty over large portions of Laos and Cambodia.In 1821, BritonJohn Crawfurdwas sent to negotiate a new trade agreement with Siam – the first sign of an issue which was to dominate 19th century Siamese politics.Bangkok signed theBurney Treatyin 1826, after the British victory in theFirst Anglo-Burmese War.
Anouvongof Vientiane, who mistakenly held the belief that Britain was about to launch an invasion of Bangkok, started theLao rebellionin 1826, which was suppressed.Vientiane was destroyed and a large number ofLao peoplewere relocated toKhorat Plateauas a result.Bangkok also wagedseveral warswithVietnam, where Siam successfully regained hegemony over Cambodia.
From the late 19th century, Siam tried to rule the ethnic groups in the realm as colonies.In the reign ofMongkut(1851–1868), who recognised the potential threat Western powers posed to Siam, his court contacted theBritish governmentdirectly to defuse tensions.A British mission led by SirJohn Bowring, Governor ofHong Kong, led to the signing of theBowring Treaty, the first of manyunequal treatieswith Western countries. This, however, brought trade and economic development to Siam.The unexpected death of Mongkut frommalarialed to the reign of underage KingChulalongkorn, withSomdet Chaophraya Sri Suriwongse(Chuang Bunnag) acting as regent.
Chulalongkorn (r.1868–1910) initiated centralisation, set up a privy council, and abolished slavery and thecorvéesystem. TheFront Palace crisisof 1874 stalled attempts at further reforms.In the 1870s and 1880s, he incorporated the protectorates up north into the kingdom proper, which later expanded to the protectorates in the northeast and the south.He established twelvekromin 1888, which were equivalent to present-day ministries.Thecrisis of 1893erupted, caused by French demands for Laotian territory east of Mekong.
Thailand is the only Southeast Asian state never to have been colonised by a Western power,in part because Britain and France agreed in 1896 to make theChao Phrayavalley abuffer state.Not until the 20th century could Siam renegotiate every unequal treaty dating from the Bowring Treaty, includingextraterritoriality. The advent of themonthonsystem marked the creation of the modern Thai nation-state.In 1905, there were unsuccessful rebellions in the ancientPataniarea, Ubon Ratchathani, and Phrae in opposition to an attempt to blunt the power of local lords.
ThePalace Revolt of 1912was a failed attempt by Western-educated military officers to overthrow the Siamese monarchy.Vajiravudh(r.1910–1925) responded by propaganda for the entirety of his reign,which promoted theidea of the Thai nation.In 1917, Siamjoined the First World Waron the side ofthe Allies.In the aftermath, Siam had a seat at theParis Peace Conferenceand gained freedom of taxation and the revocation of extraterritoriality.
Abloodless revolutiontook place in 1932, in whichPrajadhipokwas forced to grant the country's first constitution, thereby ending centuries of feudal andabsolute monarchy. The combined results of economic hardships brought on by theGreat Depression, sharply falling rice prices, and a significant reduction in public spending caused discontent among aristocrats.
In 1933,a counter-revolutionary rebelliontook place to reinstate absolute monarchy, but failed.Prajadhipok's conflict with the government eventually led to abdication. The government selectedAnanda Mahidol, who was studying in Switzerland, to be the new king.
Later that decade, the army wing of Khana Ratsadon came to dominate Siamese politics.Plaek Phibunsongkhramwho became premier in 1938, started political oppression and took an openly anti-royalist stance.His government adopted nationalism andWesternisation,anti-Chineseand anti-French policies.
In 1939, there was a decree changing the name of the country from "Siam" to "Thailand". In 1941, Thailand was ina brief conflictwithVichy France, resulting in Thailand gaining some Lao and Cambodian territories.
On 8 December 1941,the Empire of Japan launched an invasion of Thailand, and fighting broke out shortly before Phibun ordered anarmistice. Japan was granted free passage, and on 21 December Thailand and Japan signed a military alliance with a secret protocol, wherein the Japanese government agreed to help Thailand regainlost territories.
The Thai government then declared war on the United States and the United Kingdom.The United Kingdom, whose colonyMalayawas under immediate threat from Thai forces, responded in kind, but the United States refused to declare war and ignored Thailand's declaration.TheFree Thai Movementwas launched both in Thailand and abroad to oppose the government and Japanese occupation.After the war ended in 1945, Thailand signed formal agreements to end the state of war withthe Allies.
In June 1946, young King Ananda was found dead under mysterious circumstances. His younger brotherBhumibol Adulyadejascended to the throne. Thailand joined theSoutheast Asia Treaty Organization(SEATO) to become an active ally of the United States in 1954.Field MarshalSarit Thanaratlaunched a coup in 1957, which removed Khana Ratsadon from politics. His rule (premiership 1959–1963) was autocratic; he built his legitimacy around the god-like status of the monarch and by channelling the government's loyalty to the king.His government improved the country's infrastructure and education.After the United States joined theVietnam Warin 1961, there was a secret agreement wherein the U.S. promised to protect Thailand.
The period brought about increasingmodernisationandWesternisationof Thai society. Rapidurbanisationoccurred when the rural populace sought work in growing cities. Rural farmers gainedclass consciousnessand were sympathetic to theCommunist Party of Thailand.Economic development and education enabled the rise of a middle class in Bangkok and other cities.In October 1971, there was alarge demonstrationagainst the dictatorship ofThanom Kittikachorn(premiership 1963–1973), which led to civilian casualties.Bhumibol installedSanya Dharmasakti(premiership 1973–1975) to replace him, marking the first time that the king had intervened in Thai politics directly since 1932.The aftermath of the event marked a short-lived parliamentary democracy,often called the "era when democracy blossomed" (ยุคประชาธิปไตยเบ่งบาน).
Constant unrest and instability, as well as fear of a communist takeover after thefall of Saigon, made some ultra-right groups brand leftist students as communists.This culminated in theThammasat University massacrein October 1976.A coup d'état on that day brought Thailand a new ultra-right government, which cracked down on media outlets, officials, and intellectuals, and fuelled thecommunist insurgency. Another coup the following year installed a more moderate government, which offered amnesty to communist fighters in 1978.
Fuelled byIndochina refugee crisis,Vietnamese border raidsand economic hardships,Prem Tinsulanondabecame the Prime Minister from 1980 to 1988. The communists abandoned the insurgency by 1983. Prem's premiership was dubbed "semi-democracy" because the Parliament was composed of all elected House and all appointed Senate. The 1980s also saw increasing intervention in politics by the monarch, who rendered two coups in1981and1985attempts against Prem failed. In 1988 Thailand had its first elected prime minister since 1976.
Suchinda Kraprayoon, who wasthe coup leader in 1991and said he would not seek to become prime minister,was nominated as one by the majority coalition government after the1992 general election. This caused a popular demonstration in Bangkok, which ended witha bloody military crackdown. Bhumibol intervened in the event and signed an amnesty law, Suchinda then resigned.
The1997 Asian financial crisisoriginated in Thailand and ended the country's 40 years of uninterrupted economic growth.Chuan Leekpai's government took anIMFloan with unpopular provisions.
The2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunamihit the country, mostly in the south, claiming around 5,400 lives inPhuket,Phang Nga,Ranong,Krabi,Trang, andSatun, with thousands still missing.
The populistThai Rak Thai party, led by prime ministerThaksin Shinawatra, governed from 2001 until 2006. His policies were successful in reducing rural povertyand initiateduniversal healthcarein the country.However, Thaksin was viewed as a corrupt populist who was destroying the middle class in order to favour himself and the rural poor. He also faced criticism over his response to aSouth Thailand insurgencywhich escalated starting from 2004. Additionally, his recommendations to the rural poor directly conflicted with King Bhumibol's recommendations, drawing the ire of royalists, a powerful faction in Thailand. In response, the royalists made up a story about how Thaskin and his "advisors gathered in Finland to plot the overthrow of the monarchy".
Meanwhile, massive protests against Thaksin led by thePeople's Alliance for Democracy(PAD) started in his second term as prime minister. Eventually, the monarchy and the military agree to oust the leader. In this case, the military first sought permission from the king to oust Thaksin, the permission was denied. But then, the king rejected Thaksin's choice to lead the army, allowing a military leader to be put into power who wanted the coup.Then, the army dissolved Thaksin's party witha coup d'état in 2006and banned over a hundred of its executives from politics. After the coup, a military government was installed which lasted a year.
Coming back to democracy was a process that took very active participation of the people. The people frequently stormed government buildings and the military threatened yet another coup.Finally, in 2007, a civilian government led by the Thaksin-alliedPeople's Power Party(PPP) waselected.Another protest led by PADended with the dissolution of PPP, and theDemocrat Partyled a coalition government in its place. The pro-ThaksinUnited Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship(UDD) protested bothin 2009andin 2010, the latter of which ended witha violent military crackdowncausing more than 70 civilian deaths.
Afterthe general election of 2011, thepopulistPheu Thai Partywon a majority andYingluck Shinawatra, Thaksin's younger sister, became prime minister. ThePeople's Democratic Reform Committeeorganisedanother anti-Shinawatra protestafter the ruling party proposed an amnesty bill which would benefit Thaksin.Yingluck dissolved parliament anda general electionwas scheduled, but was invalidated by theConstitutional Court. Thecrisisended withanother coup d'état in 2014.
The ensuingNational Council for Peace and Order, a military junta led by GeneralPrayut Chan-o-cha, led the country until 2019. Civil and political rights were restricted, and the country saw a surge inlèse-majestécases. Political opponents and dissenters were sent to "attitude adjustment" camps;this was described by academics as showing the rise of fascism.Bhumibol, the longest-reigning Thai king, died in 2016, and his sonVajiralongkornascended to the throne. The referendum and adoption of Thailand's current constitution happened under the junta's rule.The junta also bound future governments to a 20-year national strategy 'road map' it laid down, effectively locking the country intomilitary-guided democracy.
In 2019, the junta agreed to schedulea general election in March.Prayut continued his premiership with the support ofPalang Pracharath Party-coalition in the House and junta-appointed Senate, amid allegations of election fraud.The2020–21 pro-democracy protestswere triggered by increasingroyal prerogative, democratic and economic regression from theRoyal Thai Armed Forcessupported by the monarchy in the wake of thecoup d'état in 2014, dissolution of the pro-democracyFuture Forward Party, distrust in the2019 general electionand the current political system, forced disappearance and deaths of political activists includingWanchalearm Satsaksit, and political corruption scandals,which brought forward unprecedented demands to reform the monarchyand the highest sense ofrepublicanismin the country.
In May 2023, Thailand's reformist opposition, the progressiveMove Forward Party(MFP) and the populistPheu Thai Party, won thegeneral election, meaning the royalist-military parties that supported Prime Minister Prayuth Chan-ocha lost power.On 22 August 2023,Srettha Thavisinof the populist Pheu Thai party, became Thailand's new prime minister, while the Pheu Thai party's billionaire figurehead Thaksin Shinawatra returned to Thailand after years in self-imposed exile.Thavisin was later dismissed from his prime ministerial role on 14 August 2024 by theConstitutional Courtfor his "gross ethics violations".
Totalling 513,120 square kilometres (198,120 sq mi), Thailand is the50th-largest countryby total area.Thailand comprises several distinct geographic regions, partly corresponding to the provincial groups. The north of the country is the mountainous area of theThai highlands, with the highest point beingDoi Inthanonin theThanon Thong Chai Rangeat 2,565 metres (8,415 ft) above sea level. The northeast,Isan, consists of theKhorat Plateau, bordered to the east by theMekong River. The centre of the country is dominated by the predominantly flatChao Phrayariver valley, which runs into theGulf of Thailand. Southern Thailand consists of the narrowKra Isthmusthat widens into theMalay Peninsula.
The Chao Phraya and the Mekong River are the indispensable water courses of rural Thailand. Industrial scale production of crops use both rivers and their tributaries. The Gulf of Thailand covers 320,000 square kilometres (124,000 sq mi) and is fed by the Chao Phraya,Mae Klong,Bang Pakong, andTapiRivers. It contributes to the tourism sector owing to its clear shallow waters along the coasts in the southern region and the Kra Isthmus. The eastern shore of the Gulf of Thailand has the kingdom's premier deepwater port inSattahipand its busiest commercial port,Laem Chabang.Phuket,Krabi,Ranong,Phang NgaandTrang, and their islands, all lay along the coasts of theAndaman Sea.
Thailand's climate is influenced by monsoon winds that have a seasonal character (the southwest and northeast monsoon).Most of the country is classified asKöppen'stropical savanna climate.The majority of the south, as well as the eastern tip, have atropical monsoon climate. Parts of the south also have atropical rainforest climate.
A year in Thailand is divided into three seasons.The first is the rainy or southwest monsoon season (mid–May to mid–October), which is caused by southwestern wind from theIndian Ocean.
Rainfall is also contributed byIntertropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ) and tropicalcyclones,with August and September being the wettest period of the year.The country receives a mean annual rainfall of 1,200 to 1,600 mm (47 to 63 in).
Winter or the northeast monsoon occurs from mid–October until mid–February.Most of Thailand experiences dry weather with mild temperatures.Summer or the pre–monsoon season runs from mid–February until mid–May.
Due to their inland position and latitude, the north, northeast, central and eastern parts of Thailand experience a long period of warm weather, where temperatures can reach up to 40 °C (104 °F) during March to May,in contrast to close to or below 0 °C (32 °F) in some areas in winter.
Southern Thailand is characterised by mild weather year-round with less diurnal and seasonal variations in temperatures due to maritime influences.It receives abundant rainfall, particularly during October to November.Thailand is among the world's ten countries that are most exposed to climate change. In particular, it is highly vulnerable torising sea levelsand extreme weather events.
National parksin Thailand are defined asan area that contains natural resources of ecological importance or unique beauty, or flora and fauna of special importance. Thailand's protected areas include 156 national parks, 58 wildlife sanctuaries, 67 non-hunting areas, and 120 forest parks. They cover almost 31 per cent of the kingdom's territory.The parks are administered by theNational Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department(DNP) of theMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment(MNRE).
Thailand has a mediocre but improving performance in the globalEnvironmental Performance Index(EPI), with an overall ranking of 91 out of 180 countries in 2016. The environmental areas where Thailand performs worst (i.e., highest-ranking) areair quality(167), environmental effects of the agricultural industry (106), and theclimate and energysector (93), the later mainly because of a highCO2emissionper kWh produced. Thailand performs best (i.e., lowest-ranking) inwater resource management(66), with some major improvements expected for the future, andsanitation(68).The country had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 6.00/10, ranking it 88th globally out of 172 countries.
The population of elephants, the country'snational symbol, has fallen from 100,000 in 1850 to an estimated 2,000.Poachers have long hunted elephants forivoryand hides, and now increasingly formeat.Young elephants are often captured for use in tourist attractions or as work animals, where there have been claims of mistreatment.In 1989, the government banned the use of elephants forlogging, leading many elephant owners to move their domesticated animals to the tourism industry.
Poaching of protected species remains a major problem.Tigers,leopards, and other large cats are hunted for their pelts. Many are farmed or hunted for their meat, which supposedly has medicinal properties. Although such trade is illegal, the well-known Bangkok marketChatuchakis still known for the sale of endangered species.The practice of keeping wild animals as pets affects species such asAsiatic black bear,Malayan sun bear,white-handed lar,pileated gibbon, andbinturong.
Prior to 1932, Thai kings were feudal orabsolute monarchs. DuringSukhothai Kingdom, the king was seen as aDharmarajaor 'king who rules in accordance withDharma'. The system of government was a network of tributaries ruled by local lords. Modern absolute monarchy and statehood was established by Chulalongkorn when he transformed the decentralised protectorate system into a unitary state. On 24 June 1932,Khana Ratsadon(People's Party) carried out a bloodless revolution which marked the beginning ofconstitutional monarchy.
Thailand has had 20 constitutions and charters since 1932, including the latest and current 2017 Constitution. All constitutions state that the politics is conducted within the framework of a constitutional monarchy, but thede factoform of government has ranged from military dictatorship to electoral democracy.Thailand's current form of government is part democracy and part dictatorship; many terms are used to describe it.Thailand has had the fourth-mostcoupsin the world."Uniformed or ex-military men have led Thailand for 55 of the 83 years" between 1932 and 2009.Most recently, themilitary juntaself-titled as theNational Council for Peace and Orderruled the country between 2014 and 2019.
Government isseparatedinto three branches:
Military and bureaucratic aristocrats fully controlled political parties between 1946 and the 1980s.Most parties in Thailand are short-lived.Between 1992 and 2006, Thailand had atwo-party system.Later constitutions created a multi-party system where a single party cannot gain a majority in the house.
Ahereditary monarchserves as Thailand'shead of state. The current King of Thailand isVajiralongkorn(Rama X), who has reigned since October 2016. The powers of the king are limited by the constitution and he is primarily a symbolic figurehead. However, the monarch still occasionally intervenes in Thai politics, as all constitutions pave the way for customary royal rulings. Some academics outside Thailand, includingDuncan McCargoand Federico Ferrara, noted extraconstitutional role of the monarch through a "network monarchy" behind the political scenes.The monarchy is protected by the severelèse majestélaw, even though the people's attitude towards the institution varies from one reign to another.
The kings are protected bylèse-majestélaws which allow critics to be jailed for three to fifteen years.After thecoup d'état in 2014, Thailand had the highestnumber oflèse-majestéprisonersin the nation's history.Human rights in Thailandhas been ratednot freeon theFreedom HouseIndex since 2014.On August 7, 2024, Thailand'sConstitutional Courtbanned the victors of the2023 parliamentary elections, theMove Forward Partyand all of its leaders from politics for its proposal to reform the lèse-majesté law, arguing it posed a threat to the constitutional order.The Economistcriticised the move as an example of "lawfare" and pointed to the dissolution of its predecessor party,Future Forwardin 2020, as the latest example of how an "alliance of conservative forces in Thailand—including monarchists, the army and a handful of business tycoons—has sought to suppress opposition".
On theFreedom in the World 2024 Reportfor Thailand, their status improved fromnot freetopartly freedue to competitive parliamentary elections and the formation of a new governing coalition by what had been a major opposition party, though unelected senators ensured that the party with the most votes was excluded.
Thailand is aunitary state; the administrative services of the executive branch are divided into three levels byNational Government Organisation Act, BE 2534(1991): central, provincial and local. Thailand is composed of 76provinces(จังหวัด,changwat),which are first-leveladministrative divisions. There are also two specially governed districts: the capitalBangkokandPattaya. Bangkok is at provincial level and thus often counted as a province. Each province is divided intodistricts(อำเภอ,amphoe) and the districts are further divided into sub-districts (ตำบล,tambons). The name of each province's capital city (เมือง, mueang) is the same as that of the province. For example, the capital ofChiang Mai Province(Changwat Chiang Mai) isMueang Chiang MaiorChiang Mai. All provincial governors and district chiefs, which are administrators of provinces and districts respectively, are appointed by the central government.Thailand's provinces are sometimes grouped into four to six regions, depending on the source.
Siam's and Thailand's way of conducting foreign relations has long been described as "bamboo bending with the wind", of policies that are "always solidly rooted, but flexible enough to bend whichever way the wind blows in order to survive",or adaptable and pragmatic. In order to secure independence, it sought to pit one great power against the others so that it would be dominated by none.
During theCold War, Thailand sought to prevent the spread of communism so it joined the United States, including participating inSEATOalliance, sending expeditions to Korea and Vietnam, and offering the US to use its base. Thailand is one of the five founding members ofAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN), initially to safeguard against communism. The end ofVietnam Warwas a turning point in Thai foreign policy and afterwards it sought to improve relations with Communist China and its now-Communist neighbours. Thailand remains an active member of ASEAN and seek to project its influence in it. Thailand has developed increasingly close ties with other members, with progressing regional co-operation in economic, trade, banking, political, and cultural matters.
In the 2000s, Thailand had taken an active role on the international stage and participated fully in international and regional organisations. It is amajor non-NATO allyand Priority Watch ListSpecial 301 Reportof the United States. WhenEast Timorgained independence from Indonesia, Thailand contributed troops to the international peacekeeping effort.As part of its effort to increase international ties, Thailand had reached out to such regional organisations as theOrganization of American States(OAS)and theOrganization for Security and Co-operation in Europe(OSCE).
DuringThaksin Shinawatra's premiership, negotiations for severalfree trade agreementswith China, Australia, Bahrain, India, and the US were initiated. Thaksin sought to position Thailand as a regional leader, initiating various development projects in poorer neighbouring countries. More controversially, he established close, friendly ties with the Burmese dictatorship.Thailand joined the US-ledinvasion of Iraq, sending ahumanitarian contingentuntil September 2004.Thailand also had contributed troops to reconstruction efforts inAfghanistan.
In April 2009, theCambodian–Thai border disputebrought troops on territory immediately adjacent to the 900-year-old ruins of Cambodia'sPreah VihearHindu temple near the border.
After the 2014 coup, Thailand leaned more towards China.Growing Chinese influence and capital inflow caused some members of parliament to raise the concern about "economic colony" under China after many concessions.
During theIsrael-Hamas military conflictin 2023, at first Thailand's prime minister stated that his government strongly condemns the attack against Israel and extends its deepest condolences to the government and the people of Israelbut the government later changed its position and announced that Thailand adopted a neutral stance in this conflict.28 Thai nationals were killed in this conflict.
TheRoyal Thai Armed Forces(กองทัพไทย;RTGS:Kong Thap Thai) constitute the military of the Kingdom of Thailand. It consists of theRoyal Thai Army(กองทัพบกไทย), theRoyal Thai Navy(กองทัพเรือไทย), and theRoyal Thai Air Force(กองทัพอากาศไทย). It also incorporates variousparamilitaryforces.
The Thai Armed Forces have a combined manpower of 306,000 active duty personnel and another 245,000 active reserve personnel.Thehead of the Thai Armed Forces(จอมทัพไทย,Chom Thap Thai) is the king,although this position is only nominal. The armed forces are managed by theMinistry of Defence of Thailand, which is headed by the Minister of Defence (a member of thecabinet of Thailand) and commanded by theRoyal Thai Armed Forces Headquarters, which in turn is headed by theChief of Defence Forces of Thailand.Thai annual defence budget almost tripled from US$1.98 billion in 2005 to US$5.88 billion in 2016, accounting for approximately 1.4% of GDP.Thailand ranked 16th worldwide in theMilitary Strength Indexbased on theCredit Suissereport in September 2015.
The military is also tasked with humanitarian missions, such as escortingRohingyato Malaysia or Indonesia,ensuring security and welfare for refugees duringIndochina refugee crisis.
According to the constitution, serving in the armed forces is a duty of all Thai citizens.Thailand still use active draft system for males over the age of 21. They are subjected to varying lengths of active service depending on the duration of reserve training asTerritorial Defence Studentand their level of education. Those who have completed three years or more of reserve training will be exempted entirely. The practice has long been criticized, as some media question its efficacy and value.It is alleged that conscripts end up as servants to senior officersor clerks in military cooperative shops.In a report issued in March 2020,Amnesty Internationalcharged that Thai military conscripts face institutionalised abuse systematically hushed up by military authorities.
Critics observed that Thai military's main objective is to deal with internal rather than external threats.Internal Security Operations Commandis called the political arm of the Thai military, which has overlapping social and political functions with civilian bureaucracy. It also has anti-democracy mission.The military is also notorious for numerous corruption incidents, such as accusation ofhuman trafficking,andnepotismin promotion of high-ranking officers.The military is deeply entrenched in politics. Most recently, the appointed senators include more than 100 active and retired military.
Thailand is the 75th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.
The economy of Thailand is heavily export-dependent, with exports accounting for more than two-thirds ofgross domestic product(GDP). Thailand exports over US$105 billion worth of goods and services annually.Major exports include cars, computers, electrical appliances,rice, textiles and footwear, fishery products, rubber, and jewellery.
Thailand is anemerging economyand is considered anewly industrialised country. Thailand had a 2017 GDP of US$1.236 trillion (on apurchasing power paritybasis).Thailand is the second largest economy in Southeast Asia after Indonesia. Thailand ranks midway in the wealth spread in Southeast Asia as it is the fourth richest nation according to GDP per capita, after Singapore, Brunei, and Malaysia.
Thailand functions as ananchor economyfor the neighbouring developing economies of Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia. In the third quarter of 2014, the unemployment rate in Thailand stood at 0.84% according to Thailand's National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB).
In 2017, the Thai economy grew an inflation-adjusted 3.9%, up from 3.3% in 2016, marking its fastest expansion since 2012.High public spending, especially during theCOVID-19 pandemic, prompted the authorities to raise Thailand's public debt ceiling from 60% to 70% of GDP.
As of 2024, Thailand struggles with low productivity, poor education, high household debt, low private investment and slow economic growth,with an economic research group forecasted an annual GDP growth of below 2% in the next decades without structural reforms.
Thais have median wealth per one adult person of $1,469 in 2016,increasing from $605 in 2010.In 2016, Thailand wasranked 87th in Human Development Index, and70th in the inequality-adjusted HDI.
In 2017, Thailand's median household income was ฿26,946 per month.Top quintile households had a 45.0% share of all income, while bottom quintile households had 7.1%.There were 26.9 million persons who had the bottom 40% of income earning less than ฿5,344 per person per month.During the2013–2014 Thai political crisis, a survey found that anti-governmentPDRCmostly (32%) had a monthly income of more than ฿50,000, while pro-governmentUDDmostly (27%) had between ฿10,000 and ฿20,000.
In 2014,Credit Suissereported that Thailand was the world's third most unequal country, behind Russia and India.The top 10% richest held 79% of the country's assets.The top 1% held 58% of the assets.The 50 richest Thai families had a total net worth accounting to 30% of GDP.Bank of Thailandreported that during 2006–16, Thailand's top 5% largest companies had 85% of all corporate revenue in the nation, and only 6% of the country's companies were in export industries, which made up 60% of the country's GDP.
In 2016, 5.81 million people lived in poverty, or 11.6 million people (17.2% of population) if "near poor" is included.The proportion of the poor relative to total population in each region was 12.96% in the Northeast, 12.35% in the South, and 9.83% in the North.In 2017, there were 14 million people who applied for social welfare (yearly income of less than ฿100,000 was required).In the first quarter of 2023, Thai household debts totaled 14.6 trillion baht or 89.2% of GDP; the average debt per household was approximately 500,000 baht.In 2016, there were estimated 30,000 homeless persons in the country.
The economy of Thailand is heavily export-dependent, with exports accounting for more than two-thirds of gross domestic products (GDPs). Major exports include cars, computers, electrical appliances,rice, textiles and footwear, fishery products, rubber, and jewellery.In 2022, Thailand's export of goods is worth roughly US$290 billion while its import worth roughly US$305 billion.
Substantial industries include electric appliances, components, computer components, and vehicles. Thailand's recovery from the 1997–1998 Asian financial crisis depended mainly on exports, among various other factors. As of 2012, theThai automotive industrywas the largest inSoutheast Asiaand the9th largest in the world.The Thailand industry has an annual output of near 1.5 million vehicles, mostly commercial vehicles.
Most of the vehicles built in Thailand are developed and licensed by foreign producers, mainly Japanese and American. The Thai car industry takes advantage of theASEAN Free Trade Area(AFTA) to find a market for many of its products. Eight manufacturers, five Japanese, two US, andTataof India, produce pick-up trucks in Thailand.As of 2012, due to its favourable taxation for 2-door pick-ups at only 3–12% against 17–50% for passenger cars, Thailand was the second largest consumer of pick-up trucks in the world, after the US.In 2014, pick-ups accounted for 42% of all new vehicle sales in Thailand.
Tourism makes up about 6% of the country's economy. Prior to the pandemic, Thailand was the world's eighth most visited country according to theWorld Tourism rankingscompiled by theUnited Nations World Tourism Organisation. In 2019, Thailand received 39.8 million international tourists, ahead ofUnited KingdomandGermanyand was the fourth highest in international tourism earning 60.5 billionUS dollars.
Thailand was the most visited country in Southeast Asia in 2013, according to the World Tourism Organisation. Estimates of tourism receipts directly contributing to the Thai GDP of 12 trillion baht range from 9 per cent (1 trillion baht) (2013) to 16 per cent.When including the indirect effects of tourism, it is said to account for 20.2 per cent (2.4 trillion baht) of Thailand's GDP.
Asian tourists primarily visit Thailand for Bangkok and the historical, natural, and cultural sights in its vicinity. Western tourists not only visit Bangkok and surrounding areas; many travel to the southern beaches and islands. The north is the chief destination for trekking andadventure travelwith its diverse ethnic minority groups and forested mountains. The region hosting the fewest tourists isIsan. To accommodate foreign visitors, a separate tourism police with offices were set up in the major tourist areas and an emergency telephone number.
Thailand ranks as the worlds fifth largestmedical tourismdestination in spending, according to theWorld Travel and Tourism Council, attracting over 2.5 million visitors in 2018,and is number one in Asia.The country is popular for the growing practice ofsex reassignment surgery(SRS) and cosmetic surgery. In 2010–2012, more than 90% of medical tourists travelled to Thailand for SRS.Prostitution in Thailandand sex tourism also form ade factopart of the economy. Campaigns promote Thailand as exotic to attract tourists.One estimate published in 2003 placed the trade at US$4.3 billion per year or about 3% of the Thai economy.It is believed that at least 10% of tourist dollars are spent on the sex trade.
Forty-nine per cent of Thailand's labour force is employed inagriculture.This is down from 70% in 1980.Rice is the most important crop in the country and Thailand had long been the world's leading exporter of rice, until recently falling behind both India and Vietnam.Thailand has the highest percentage of arable land, 27.25%, of any state in theGreater Mekong Subregion.About 55% of the arable land area is used for rice production.
Agriculture has been experiencing a transition from labour-intensive and transitional methods to a more industrialised and competitive sector.Between 1962 and 1983, the agricultural sector grew by 4.1% per year on average and continued to grow at 2.2% between 1983 and 2007.The relative contribution of agriculture to GDP has declined while exports of goods and services have increased.
Furthermore, access tobiocapacityin Thailand is lower than world average. In 2016, Thailand had 1.2 global hectaresof biocapacity per person within its territory, a little less than world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.In contrast, in 2016, they used 2.5 global hectares of biocapacity—theirecological footprintof consumption. This means they use about twice as much biocapacity as Thailand contains, resulting in a deficit.
In 2012, it was estimated that informal workers comprised 62.6% of the Thai workforce. TheMinistry of Labourdefines informal workers to be individuals who work in informal economies and do not have employee status under a given country's Labour Protection Act (LPA). The informal sector in Thailand has grown significantly over the past 60 years over the course of Thailand's gradual transition from an agriculture-based economy to becoming more industrialised and service-oriented.Between 1993 and 1995, ten per cent of the Thai labour force moved from the agricultural sector to urban and industrial jobs, especially in the manufacturing sector. It is estimated that between 1988 and 1995, the number of factory workers in the country doubled from two to four million, as Thailand's GDP tripled.
While theAsian financial crisisthat followed in 1997 hit the Thai economy hard, the industrial sector continued to expand under widespread deregulation, as Thailand was mandated to adopt a range of structural adjustment reforms upon receiving funding from the IMF and World Bank. These reforms implemented an agenda of increased privatisation and trade liberalisation in the country, and decreased federal subsidisation of public goods and utilities, agricultural price supports, and regulations on fair wages and labour conditions.Many migrant farmers took jobs in sweatshops and factories with few labour regulations and often exploitative conditions.Those that could not find formal factory work, including illegal migrants and the families of rural Thai migrants, are under the regulation imposed by the structural adjustment programmes. Scholars argue that the economic consequences and social costs of Thailand's labour reforms in the wake of the 1997 Asian financial crisis fell on individuals and families rather than the state.
Informal labour in entertainment, nightlife, and the sex industry face additional vulnerabilities, including recruitment into circles of sexual exploitation and human trafficking.A 2012 study found that 64% of informal workers had not completed education beyond primary school. Many informal workers are also migrants, only some of which have legal status in the country. The informal labour sector is also not recognised under the Labour Protection Act (LPA). Thai social security policies fail to protect against workplace accidents and unemployment and retirement insurance. Many informal workers are not legally contracted for their employment, and many do not make a living wage.Tens of thousands of migrants from neighboring countries face exploitation in a few industries,especially in fishing where slave-like conditions have been reported.
Thailand ranked 41st in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024.TheMinistry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovationandits agenciesoversees the development of science, technology, and research in Thailand. According to the National Research Council of Thailand, the country devoted 1.1% of its GDP to the research and development of science in 2019, with over 166,788 research and development personnel in full-time equivalent that year.
TheState Railway of Thailand(SRT) operates all of Thailand's national rail lines.Krung Thep Aphiwat Central TerminalandBangkok (Hua Lamphong)are the main termini of intercity routes. Phahonyothin and ICDLat Krabangare the main freight terminals. As of 2024SRT had 4,507 km (2,801 mi) of track, all of itmeter gauge. Nearly all is single-track (2,847.1 km), although some important sections around Bangkok are double (1,089.9 km or 677.2 mi) or triple-tracked (107 km or 66 mi), and there are plans to extend this.
Rail transport in Bangkokincludes long-distance services. There are four rapid transit rail systems in the capital: theBTS Skytrain,MRT,SRT Red Lines, and theAirport Rail Link.In Bangkok, there were two failed rapid rail projectsLavalin SkytrainandBangkok Elevated Road and Train System, beforeMass Rapid Transit Master Plan in Bangkok Metropolitan Regionwas endorsed by the cabinet on 27 September 1994 and implemented from 1995 to the present.
Thailand has 390,000 kilometres (240,000 miles) of highways.As of 2017, Thailand has over 462,133 roads and 37 million registered vehicles, 20 million of them motorbikes.A number of undivided two-lane highways have been converted into divided four-lane highways. Within the Bangkok Metropolitan Region, there are a number ofcontrolled-access highways. There are 4,125 public vans operating on 114 routes from Bangkok alone.Other forms of road transport includestuk-tuks, taxis—with over 80,647 registered taxis nationwide as of 2018,vans (minibus), motorbike taxis, andsongthaews.
As of 2012, Thailand has 103 airports with 63 paved runways, in addition to 6 heliports. The busiest airport in the country is Bangkok'sSuvarnabhumi Airport.
75% of Thailand's electrical generation is powered bynatural gasin 2014.Coal-fired power plants produce an additional 20% of electricity, with the remainder coming from biomass, hydro, and biogas.Compared to other ASEAN's countries, Thailand is the largest importer of gas in weight.In 2022, Thailand's oil and gas production dropped by 19% and 17%, respectively.
The government, in 2018, has developed an Alternative Energy Development Plan 2018–2037 (AEDP 2018). The plan defines goals for the increase of renewable energy to almost 30,000 MW by 2037.
Thailand has an estimated population of 71.7 million as of 2023;Thailand's first census in 1909 found the population to be 8.2 million.Thailand's population is largely rural, concentrated in the rice-growing areas of the central, northeastern, and northern regions. About 44.2% of Thailand's population lived in urban areas as of 2010, slowly increasing from 29.4% in the 1990 census and 31.1% in the 2000 census.
Thailand's government-sponsored family planning programme resulted in a dramatic decline in population growth from 3.1% in 1960 to around 0.4% today. In 1970, an average of 5.7 people lived in a Thai household; in 2022, the average Thai household size was 3 people.Now, more than 20% of its population is aged over 60 and has a low birth rate, posing economic challenges.Thesex ratiobetween male and female is 1.05, with Thailand having slightly more males.
As of 2010, Thai people make up the majority of Thailand's population (95.9%). The remaining 4.1% of the population are Burmese (2.0%), others (1.3%), and unspecified (0.9%).
According to genetic research, the present-day Thai people were divided into three groups: the northern group (Khon Mueang) are closely related to theTaiethnic groups insouthern China, the northeastern group (Isan people) are mixed Tai and severalAustroasiatic-speaking ethnic groups, while the central and southern groups (formerly called Siamese) strongly share genetic profiles with theMon people.
According to the Royal Thai Government's 2011 Country Report to the UN Committee responsible for theInternational Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, available from the Department of Rights and Liberties Promotion of the Thai Ministry of Justice,62 ethnic communities are officially recognised in Thailand. Twenty million Central Thai (together with approximately 650,000Khorat Thai) made up approximately 20,650,000 (34.1 per cent) of the state's population of 60,544,937at the time of completion of the Mahidol UniversityEthnolinguistic Maps of Thailanddata (1997).
The 2011 Thailand Country Report provides population numbers for mountain peoples ('hill tribes') and ethnic communities in the Northeast and is explicit about its main reliance on the Mahidol University Ethnolinguistic Maps of Thailand data.Thus, though over 3.288 million people in the Northeast alone could not be categorised, the population and percentages of other ethnic communitiesc.1997are known for all of Thailand and constitute minimum populations. In descending order, the largest (equal to or greater than 400,000) are a) 15,080,000 Lao (24.9 per cent) consisting of the Thai Lao (14 million) and other smaller Lao groups, namely the Thai Loei (400–500,000), Lao Lom (350,000), Lao Wiang/Klang (200,000), Lao Khrang (90,000), Lao Ngaew (30,000), and Lao Ti (10,000); b) six million Khon Muang (9.9 per cent, also called Northern Thais); c) 4.5 million Pak Tai (7.5 per cent, also called Southern Thais); d) 1.4 million Khmer Leu (2.3 per cent, also called Northern Khmer); e) 900,000 Malay (1.5%); f) 500,000 Nyaw (0.8 per cent); g) 470,000 Phu Thai (0.8 per cent); h) 400,000 Kuy/Kuay (also known as Suay) (0.7 per cent), and i) 350,000 Karen (0.6 per cent).Thai Chinese, those of significant Chinese heritage, are 14% of the population, while Thais with partial Chinese ancestry comprise up to 40% of the population.Thai Malaysrepresent 3% of the population, with the remainder consisting ofMons,Khmers, and various "hill tribes".
Increasing numbers of migrants from neighbouring Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia, as well as from Nepal and India, have pushed the total number of non-national residents to around 3.5 million as of 2009, up from an estimated 2 million in 2008.Some 41,000Britonsand 20,000Australianslive in Thailand.
Thaiis the official language. It is aKra–Dai languageclosely related toLao,Shanin Myanmar, and numerous smaller languages spoken in an arc fromHainanandYunnansouth to the Chinese border. It is the principal language of education and government and spoken throughout the country.The standard is based on the dialect of the central Thai people, and it is written in theThai alphabet, anabugidascript that evolved from theKhmer alphabet.
Sixty-two languages were recognised by the Royal Thai Government.For the purposes of the national census, four dialects of Thai exist; these partly coincide with regional designations, such asSouthern ThaiandNorthern Thai.
The largest of Thailand's minority languages is theLaodialect ofIsanspoken in the northeastern provinces. In the far south,Kelantan-Pattani Malayis the primary language of Malay Muslims. Varieties of Chinese are also spoken by the largeThai Chinesepopulation, with theTeochew dialectbest-represented. Numerous tribal languages are also spoken, including manyAustroasiatic languagessuch asMon,Khmer, andMlabri;Austronesian languagessuch asCham,MokenandUrak Lawoi';Sino-Tibetan languageslikeLawa,Akha, andKaren; and otherTai languagessuch asPhu Thai, andSaek.Hmongis a member of theHmong–Mien languages, which is now regarded as a language family of its own.
The country's most prevalent religion isTheravadaBuddhism, which is an integral part of Thai identity and culture. Active participation in Buddhism is among the highest in the world. Thailand has the second-largest number ofBuddhistsin the world after China.According to the 2018National Statistical Officedata, 93.46% of the country's population self-identified as Buddhists.
Muslimsconstitute the second largest religious group in Thailand, comprising 5.37% of the population in 2018.Islam is concentrated mostly in the country's southernmost provinces:Pattani,Yala,Satun,Narathiwat, and part ofSongkhla, which are predominantlyMalay, most of whom areSunni Muslims. Christians represented 1.13% of the population in 2018, with the remaining population consisting ofHindusandSikhs, who live mostly in the country's cities. There is also a smallJewish community in Thailanddating back to the 17th century.
The constitution does not name an official state religion, and provides for freedom of religion. There have been no widespread reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious belief or practice.Thai law officially recognises five religious groups: Buddhists, Muslims, Brahmin-Hindus, Sikhs, and Christians.However, some laws are inspired from Buddhist practices, such as banning alcohol sales on religious holidays.
In 1995, as minister of education,Sukavich Rangsitpollaidlet out his plans for educational reform in Thailand.The reform was considered a landmark movement after nearly 100 years of education under the previous system.Thailand's youth literacy rate was 98.1% in 2015.Education is provided by a school system of kindergartens, primary, lower secondary and upper secondary schools, numerous vocational colleges, and universities. Education is compulsory up to and including age 14, while the government is mandated to provide free education through to age 17. Issues concerning university entrance have been in constant upheaval for a number of years. The country is also one of the few that still mandates uniform up to the university years, which is still a subject of ongoing debate.
In 2013, theMinistry of Information and Communication Technologyannounced that 27,231 schools would receive classroom-level access tohigh-speed internet.However, the country's educational infrastructure was still underprepared for online teaching, as smaller and more remote schools were particularly hindered by COVID-19 restrictions.
The number of higher education institutions in Thailand has grown over the past decades to 156 officially. The two top-ranking universities in Thailand areChulalongkorn UniversityandMahidol University.Thai universities' research output is still relatively low, even though the country's journal publications increased by 20% between 2011 and 2016.Thailand has the second highest number of English-medium private international schools inSoutheast Asian Nations.Cram schoolsare especially popular for university entrance exams.
Students in ethnic minority areas score consistently lower in standardised national and international tests.This is likely due to unequal allocation of educational resources, weak teacher training, poverty, and low Thai language skill, the language of the tests.As of 2020, Thailand was ranked 89th out of 100 countries globally for English proficiency.Thailand is the third most popular study destination in ASEAN. The number of international degree students in Thailand increased by 9.7 times between 1999 and 2012, from 1,882 to 20,309 students. Most of international students come from neighbor countrieslike China, Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam.
Thailand ranks world's sixth, and Asia's first in the 2019Global Health Security Indexof global health security capabilities in 195 countries,making it the onlydeveloping countryon the world's top ten. Thailand had 62 hospitals accredited byJoint Commission International.In 2002,Bumrungradbecame the first hospital in Asia to meet the standard.
Health and medical care is overseen by theMinistry of Public Health(MOPH), with total national expenditures on health amounting to 4.3 per cent of GDP in 2009.Non-communicable diseasesform the major burden of morbidity and mortality, while infectious diseases including malariaand tuberculosis,as well as traffic accidents, are also important public health issues.
In December 2018, the interim parliament voted to legalise the use ofcannabisfor medical reasons, making Thailand the first Southeast Asian country to allow the use ofmedical cannabis.
Thai culture and traditions incorporate influences from India, China, Cambodia, and the rest of Southeast Asia. Thailand's national religion,Theravada Buddhism, is central to modernThai identity.Thai Buddhismhas evolved over time to include many regional beliefs originating fromHinduism,animism, as well as ancestor worship. Theofficial calendarin Thailand is based on the Eastern version of theBuddhist Era(BE). Thai identity today is asocial constructof thePhibunregime in the 1940s.
Several ethnic groups mediated change between their traditional local culture, national Thai, and global cultural influences.Overseas Chinesealso form a significant part of Thai society, particularly in and around Bangkok. Thai Chinese businesses prosper as part of the largerbamboo network.
Respect for elderly and superiors (by age, position, monks, or certain professions) is Thaimores, reflecting in many classes ofhonorifics.Waiis a traditional Thai greeting, and is generally offered first by a person who is younger or lower in social status and position. Older siblings have duties to younger ones.
Taboosin Thai culture include touching someone's head or pointing with the feet, as the head is considered the most sacred and the foot the lowest part of the body.
The origins of Thai art were influenced byBuddhist artand by scenes from the Indian epics. Traditional Thaisculpturealmost exclusively depictsimages of the Buddha, being very similar with the other styles fromSoutheast Asia. Traditional Thaipaintingsusually consist of book illustrations, and painted ornamentation of buildings such aspalacesandtemples.
Thai art was influenced by indigenous civilisations of theMonand other civilisations. By the Sukothai and Ayutthaya periods, Thai had developed into its own unique style and was later further influenced by the other Asian styles, mostly bySri LankanandChinese. Thai sculpture and painting, and the royal courts provided patronage, erecting temples and other religious shrines as acts of merit or to commemorate important events.
Traditional Thai paintings showed subjects in twodimensionswithoutperspective. The size of each element in the picture reflected its degree of importance. The primary technique ofcompositionis that of apportioning areas: the main elements are isolated from each other by space transformers. This eliminated the intermediate ground, which would otherwise imply perspective. Perspective was introduced only as a result ofWesterninfluence in the mid-19th century. Monk artistKhrua In Khongis well known as the first artist to introducelinear perspectiveto Thai traditional art.
The most frequent narrative subjects for paintings were or are: theJatakastories, episodes from the life of theBuddha, the Buddhistheavensandhells, themes derived from the Thai versions of theRamayanaandMahabharata, and scenes of daily life. Some of the scenes are influenced byThai folkloreinstead of following strict Buddhisticonography.
TheAyutthaya Kingdommovement is designed to display might and riches. The temples in Ayutthaya seldom built eaves stretching from the masterhead.Buddhist temples in Thailandare known as "wats", from thePāḷivāṭa, meaning an enclosure: a temple has an enclosing wall that divides it from the secular world. Watarchitecturedemonstrates many differences in layout and style, but they all adhere to the same principles.
Thai literature has had a long history. Even before the establishment of the Sukhothai Kingdom there existed oral and written works.
During theSukhothai Kingdom, most literary works were written in simple prose with certain alliteration schemes. Major works include KingRam Khamhaeng Inscriptiondescribing life at the time, which is considered the first literary work in Thai script, but some historians questioned its authenticity.Trai PhumPhra Ruang, written in 1345 by KingMaha Thammaracha I, expounds Buddhist philosophy based on an extensive study with reference to over 30 sacred texts and could be considered the nation's first piece of researchdissertation.
During theAyutthaya Kingdom, newpoeticforms were created, with different rhyme schemes and metres. It is common to find a combination of different poetic forms in one poetic work.LilitYuan Phaiis a narrative poem describingthe warbetween KingBorommatrailokkanatof Ayutthaya and PrinceTilokarajofLan Na. One literary work isKap He Ruea, composed by PrinceThammathibetin thenirattradition. Traditionally, the verse is sung during theroyal bargeprocessionand has been the model for subsequent poets to emulate. The same prince also composed the greatly admiredKap Ho Khlongon the Visit to Than Thongdaeng andKap Ho Khlong Nirat Phrabat.TheThonburiperiod producedRamakien, a verse drama contributed byKing Taksin the Great.
During the 18th centuryRattanakosinperiod, which still fought with the Burmese, many of the early Rattanakosin works dealt with war and military strategy. Some examples areNirat Rop Phama Thi Tha Din Daeng,Phleng Yao Rop Phama Thi Nakhon Si Thammarat. There were also verse recitals with musical accompaniment, such asMahoritelling the story ofKakiandSepha, relating the story ofKhun Chang Khun Phaen. Other recitals includeSri Thanonchai. The Thai poetSunthorn Phuis known as "the bard of Rattanakosin" (Thai:กวีเอกแห่งกรุงรัตนโกสินทร์). Sunthorn Phu is best known for his epic poemPhra Aphai Mani, a versified fantasy-adventure novel, a genre of Siamese literature known asnithan kham klon(Thai:นิทานคำกลอน).
Some of the most well-known modern Thai writers includeKukrit Pramoj,Kulap Saipradit, (pennameSiburapha), Suweeriya Sirisingh (penname Botan),Chart Korbjitti,Prabda Yoon, andDuanwad Pimwana.
Aside from folk and regional dances (southern Thailand'sMenoraandRamwong, for example), the two major forms of Thai classical dance drama areKhonandLakhon nai. In the beginning, both were exclusively court entertainments, and it was not until much later that a popular style of dance theatre,likay, evolved as a diversion for common folk.Folk dance forms include dance theater forms likelikay, numerous regional dances (ram), the ritual danceram muay, and homage to the teacher,wai khru.Both ram muay and wai khru take place before all traditionalmuay Thaimatches.
The three primary classical ensembles are thePiphat,Khrueang sai, andMahori. Mahori employ small ching hand cymbals.
Thai films are exported and exhibited inSoutheast Asia.Thai cinema has developed its own unique identity.
The Thai heist thriller filmBad Genius(2017) was one of the most internationally successful Thai films; it broke Thai film earning records in several Asian countries,Bad Genius won in 12 categories at the 27thSuphannahong National Film Awards, and also won the Jury Award at the 16thNew York Asian Film Festivalwith a worldwide collection of more than $42 million.
Shutter(2004) was one of the best-known Thai horror movies and was recognized worldwide.Films such asOng-Bak: Muay Thai Warrior(2003) andTom-Yum-Goong(2005), starringTony Jaa, feature distinctive aspects of Thai martial arts "Muay Thai". Thailand television dramas, known asLakorn, have become popular in Thailand and regionally.
The entertainment industries are estimated to have directly contributed $2.1 billion in GDP to the Thai economy in 2011. They also directly supported 86,600 jobs.Amongst severaldance-popartists who have made internationally successful are "Lisa"Lalisa Manobal,Violette Wautier,andTata Young.
Thai cuisine is one of the most popular in the world.Common ingredients includegarlic,lemongrass,kaffir lime,galangal,turmeric,coriander, andcoconut milk.Each region of Thailand has its specialities:kaeng khiao wan(green curry) in the central region,som tam(green papaya salad) in the northeast,khao soiin the north, andmassamancurryin the south.
In 2017, seven Thai dishes appeared on a list of the "World's 50 Best Foods"—an online worldwide poll byCNN Travel. Thailand had more dishes on the list than any other country. They were:tom yamgoong(4th),pad Thai(5th),som tam(6th),massamancurry (10th),green curry(19th),Thai fried rice(24th) andnam tok mu(36th).Two desserts were also listed in CNN's 50 Best Desserts Around The World:mango sticky riceandtub tim krob.
The staple food in Thailand is rice, particularlyjasmine rice, which forms part of almost every meal. Thailand is a leading exporter of rice, and Thais consume over 100 kg of milled rice per person per year.Thailand is also the world leader in edible insect industryand well known for its street food; Bangkok is sometimes called the street food capital of the world.
Thailand generally uses themetric system, buttraditional units of measurementfor land area are used, andimperial unitsof measurement are occasionally used for building materials. Years are numbered as B.E. (Buddhist Era) in educational settings, civil service, government, contracts, and newspaper datelines. However, in banking, and increasingly in industry and commerce, standard Western year (Christian orCommon Era) counting is the standard practice.
Muay Thai(lit.'Thai boxing') is acombat sportthat uses stand-up striking along with variousclinchingtechniques. Muay Thai became widespread internationally in the late-20th to 21st centuries. Famous practitioners includeBuakaw Banchamek,Samart Payakaroon, andApidej Sit-Hirun.Association footballhas overtaken Muay Thai as the most widely followed sport in Thailand. TheThailand national football teamhas played theAFC Asian Cupsix times and reached the semifinals in 1972. The country has hosted the Asian Cup twice, in1972and in2007(along with Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam for the 2007).
Volleyballis rapidly growing as one of the most popular sports. Thewomen's teamhas often participated in theWorld Championship,World Cup, andWorld Grand PrixAsian Championship. They have won theAsian Championshiptwice and theAsian Cuponce.Takrawis a sport native to Thailand in which the players hit a rattan ball and are only allowed to use their feet, knees, chest, and head to touch the ball.Sepak takrawis a form of this sport which is similar to volleyball. A rather similar game but played only with the feet isbuka ball.
Rugbyis also a growing sport in Thailand with theThailand national rugby union teamrising to be ranked 61st in the world.Thailand became the first country in the world to host an international 80 welterweight rugby tournament in 2005.Thailand has also attracts golfers from Japan, Korea, and Western countries.There are more than 200 world-class golf courses nationwide.For basketball, the Chang Thailand Slammers won the 2011ASEAN Basketball LeagueChampionship.TheThailand national basketball teamhad its most successful year at the1966 Asian Gameswhere it won the silver medal.
TheLumpinee Boxing Stadiumoriginally sited atRama IV RoadnearLumphini Parkhosted its final Muay Thai boxing matches on 8 February 2014 after the venue first opened in December 1956. On 11 February 2014, the stadium was relocated to Ram Intra Road due to the new venue's capacity.Thammasat Stadiumin Bangkok was built for the1998 Asian Games.Rajamangala National Stadiumis the biggest sporting arena in Thailand, with a capacity of around 50,000.
Government
General information
Travel
Other
15°N101°E﻿ / ﻿15°N 101°E﻿ /15; 101