Colombia

Colombia,officially theRepublic of Colombia,is a country primarily located inSouth Americawithinsular regionsinNorth America. The Colombian mainland is bordered by theCaribbean Seato the north,Venezuelato the east and northeast,Brazilto the southeast,PeruandEcuadorto the south and southwest, thePacific Oceanto the west, andPanamato the northwest. Colombia is divided into 32departments. The Capital District ofBogotáis also thecountry's largest cityhosting the main financial and cultural hub. Other major urban areas includeMedellín,Cali,Barranquilla,Cartagena,Santa Marta,Cúcuta,Ibagué,VillavicencioandBucaramanga. It covers an area of 1,141,748 square kilometers (440,831 sq mi) and has a population of around 52 million. Its richcultural heritage—including language, religion, cuisine, and art—reflects its history as a colony, fusing cultural elements brought byimmigrationfromEuropeand theMiddle East,with those brought by theAfrican diaspora,as well as with those of the variousIndigenouscivilizations that predate colonization.Spanishis theofficial language, althoughCreole, Englishand64 other languagesare recognized regionally.
Colombia has been home to manyindigenous peoples and culturessince at least 12,000 BCE. The Spanish first landed inLa Guajirain 1499, and by the mid-16th century, they had colonized much of present-day Colombia, and established theNew Kingdom of Granada, withSanta Fe de Bogotáas its capital.Independencefrom theSpanish Empireis considered to have been declared in 1810, with what is now Colombia emerging as theUnited Provinces of New Granada. After a briefSpanish reconquest, Colombian independence was secured and the period ofGran Colombiabegan in 1819. The new polity experimented with federalism as theGranadine Confederation(1858) and then theUnited States of Colombia(1863), before becoming a centralised republic—the current Republic of Colombia—in1886. With the backing of the United States and France,Panama secededfrom Colombia in 1903, resulting in Colombia's present borders. Beginning in the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensityarmed conflictand political violence, both of which escalated in the 1990s. Since 2005, there has been significant improvement in security, stability, and rule of law, as well as unprecedented economic growth and development.Colombia is recognized for itshealthcare system, being the best healthcare inLatin Americaaccording to theWorld Health Organizationand 22nd in the world.Itsdiversified economyis the third-largest in South America, with macroeconomic stability and favorable long-term growth prospects.
Colombia is one of the world's seventeenmegadiverse countries; it has the highest level ofbiodiversityper square mile in the world and the second-highest level overall.Its territory encompassesAmazon rainforest,highlands,grasslandsanddeserts. It is the only country in South America with coastlines (and islands) along both theAtlanticandPacificoceans. Colombia is a key member of major global and regional organizations including theUN, theWTO, theOECD, theOAS, thePacific Allianceand theAndean Community; it is also aNATOGlobal Partnerand amajor non-NATO allyof theUnited States.
The name "Colombia" is derived from the last name of the Italian navigatorChristopher Columbus(Latin:Christophorus Columbus,Italian:Cristoforo Colombo, Spanish:Cristóbal Colón). It was conceived as a reference to all of the New World.The name was later adopted by theRepublic of Colombiaof 1819, formed from the territories of the oldViceroyalty of New Granada(modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and northwest Brazil).
When Venezuela, Ecuador, andCundinamarcacame to exist as independent states, the formerDepartment of Cundinamarcaadopted the name "Republic of New Granada". New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to theGranadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was again changed, this time toUnited States of Colombia, before finally adopting its present name – the Republic of Colombia – in 1886.
To refer to this country, the Colombian government uses the termsColombiaandRepública de Colombia.
Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human civilization fromMesoamericaand theCaribbeanto theAndesandAmazon basin. The oldest archaeological finds are from thePubenzaandEl Totumosites in the Magdalena Valley 100 kilometers (62 mi) southwest of Bogotá.These sites date from thePaleoindianperiod (18,000–8000 BCE). AtPuerto Hormigaand other sites, traces from theArchaic Period(~8000–2000 BCE) have been found. Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions ofEl AbraandTequendamainCundinamarca. The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found inSan Jacinto, dates to 5000–4000 BCE.
Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 12,500 BCE. Nomadichunter-gatherertribes at the El Abra,Tibitóand Tequendama sites near present-dayBogotátraded with one another and with other cultures from theMagdalena RiverValley.A site including eight miles (13 km) ofpictographsthat is under study at Serranía de la Lindosa was revealed in November 2020.Their age is suggested as being 12,500 years old (c. 10,480 B.C.) by the anthropologists working on the site, because of extinct fauna depicted. It was during the earliest known human occupation of the area.
Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared. Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups ofAmerindiansincluding theMuisca,Zenú,Quimbaya, andTaironadeveloped the political system ofcacicazgoswith a pyramidal structure of power headed bycaciques. The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now theDepartmentsofBoyacáandCundinamarcahigh plateau (Altiplano Cundiboyacense) where they formed theMuisca Confederation. They farmed maize, potato, quinoa, and cotton, and traded gold,emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especiallyrock saltwith neighboring nations. The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated mountain range ofSierra Nevada de Santa Marta.The Quimbaya inhabited regions of theCauca RiverValley between theWesternandCentralRanges of the Colombian Andes.Most of the Amerindians practiced agriculture and the social structure of each indigenous community was different. Some groups of indigenous people such as the Caribs lived in a state of permanent war, but others had less bellicose attitudes.During the 1200s,Malayo-PolynesiansandNative Americansin Colombia made contact, thereby spreading Native American genetics from Precolonial Colombia to some Pacific Ocean islands.
Alonso de Ojeda(who had sailed with Columbus) reached theGuajira Peninsulain 1499.Spanish explorers, led byRodrigo de Bastidas, made the first exploration of theCaribbean coastin 1500.Christopher Columbusnavigated near the Caribbean in 1502.In 1508,Vasco Núñez de Balboaaccompanied an expedition to the territory through the region ofGulf of Urabáand they founded the town ofSanta María la Antigua del Dariénin 1510, the first stable settlement on the continent.Santa Martawas founded in 1525,andCartagenain 1533.SpanishconquistadorGonzalo Jiménez de Quesadaled an expedition to the interior in April 1536, and christened the districts through which he passed "New Kingdom of Granada". In August 1538, he provisionally founded its capital near the MuiscacacicazgoofMuyquytá, and named it "Santa Fe". The name soon acquired a suffix and was called Santa Fe de Bogotá.Two other notable journeys by early conquistadors to the interior took place in the same period.Sebastián de Belalcázar, conqueror ofQuito, traveled north and foundedCali, in 1536, andPopayán, in 1537;from 1536 to 1539, German conquistadorNikolaus Federmanncrossed theLlanos Orientalesand went over theCordillera Orientalin a search forEl Dorado, the "city of gold".The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring the Spanish and other Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Theconquistadorsmade frequent alliances with the enemies of different indigenous communities.Indigenous allieswere crucial to conquest, as well as to creating and maintaining empire.Indigenous peoples in Colombia experienced a decline in population due to conquest as well as Eurasian diseases, such assmallpox, to which they had no immunity.Regarding the land as deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to all persons interested in colonized territories, creating large farms and possession of mines.In the 16th century, thenautical sciencein Spain reached a great development thanks to numerous scientific figures of theCasa de Contrataciónand nautical science was an essential pillar of theIberian expansion.In 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of theViceroyalty of Peru, with its capital inLima.In 1547, New Granada became a separate captaincy-general within the viceroyalty, with its capital at Santa Fe de Bogota.In 1549, theRoyal Audienciawas created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by theRoyal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá, which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán, Guayana and Cartagena.But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by theCouncil of the Indies.
In the 16th century, European slave traders had begun to bringenslaved Africansto the Americas. Spain was the only European power that did not establishfactoriesin Africa to purchase slaves; the Spanish Empire instead relied on theasientosystem, awarding merchants from other European nations the license to trade enslaved peoples to their overseas territories.This system brought Africans to Colombia, although many spoke out against the institution.The indigenous peoples could not be enslaved because they were legallysubjectsof the Spanish Crown.To protect the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership and regulation were established by the Spanish colonial authorities:resguardos,encomiendasandhaciendas.
However, secret anti-Spanish discontentment was already brewing for Colombians since Spain prohibited direct trade between theViceroyalty of Peru, which included Colombia, and theViceroyalty of New Spain, which included the Philippines, the source of Asian products like silk and porcelain which was in demand in the Americas. Illegal trade between Peruvians, Filipinos, and Mexicans continued in secret, as smuggled Asian goods ended up inCórdoba, Colombia, the distribution center for illegal Asian imports, due to the collusion between these peoples against the authorities in Spain. They settled and traded with each other while disobeying the forced Spanish monopoly.
TheViceroyalty of New Granadawas established in 1717, then temporarily removed, and then re-established in 1739. Its capital was Santa Fé de Bogotá. This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America that had previously been under the jurisdiction of theViceroyalties of New SpainorPeruand correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along withLimaandMexico City, though it remained less developed compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways.
Great Britaindeclared waron Spainin 1739, and the city of Cartagena quickly became a top target for the British. A massive British expeditionary force was dispatched to capture the city, but, after achieving initial inroads, devastating outbreaks of disease crippled their numbers, and the British were forced to withdraw. The battle became one of Spain's most decisive victories in the conflict, and secured Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until theSeven Years' War.The 18th-century priest, botanist, and mathematicianJosé Celestino Mutiswas delegated by ViceroyAntonio Caballero y Góngorato conduct an inventory of the nature of New Granada. Started in 1783, this became known as theRoyal Botanical Expedition to New Granada. It classified plants and wildlife, and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá.In July 1801 the Prussian scientistAlexander von Humboldtreached Santa Fe de Bogotá where he met with Mutis. In addition, historical figures in the process of independence in New Granada emerged from the expedition as the astronomerFrancisco José de Caldas, the scientistFrancisco Antonio Zea, the zoologistJorge Tadeo Lozanoand the painterSalvador Rizo.
Rebellions against Spanish rule had occurred in the empire since the advent of conquest and colonization, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation. The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810 and culminated in the Colombian Declaration of Independence, issued on 20 July 1810, the day that is now celebrated as the nation's Independence Day.This movement followed the independence ofSaint-Domingue(present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to an eventual leader of this rebellion:Simón Bolívar.Francisco de Paula Santanderalso would play a decisive role.
A movement was initiated byAntonio Nariño, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against theViceroyalty.Cartagenabecame independent in November 1811.In 1811, theUnited Provinces of New Granadawere proclaimed, headed byCamilo Torres Tenorio.The emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the patriots (federalismandcentralism) gave rise to a period of instability called thePatria Boba.Shortly after theNapoleonic Warsended,Ferdinand VII, recently restored to the throne in Spain, unexpectedly decidedto send military forcesto retake most of northern South America. The viceroyalty was restored under the command ofJuan de Sámano, whose regime punished those who participated in the patriotic movements, ignoring the political nuances of thejuntas.The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful rebellion led by the Venezuelan-bornSimón Bolívar, who finally proclaimedindependencein 1819.Thepro-Spanish resistancewas defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela.During the Independence War, between 250 and 400 thousand people (12–20% of the pre-war population) died.
The territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became theRepublic of Colombia, organized as aunion of the current territoriesof Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, parts of Guyana and Brazil and north ofMarañón River.TheCongress of Cúcutain 1821 adopted aconstitutionfor the new Republic.Simón Bolívar became the firstPresident of Colombia, and Francisco de Paula Santander was madeVice President.However, the new republic was unstable and the Gran Colombia ultimately collapsed.
Modern Colombia comes from one of the countries that emerged after thedissolution of Gran Colombia, the other two being Ecuador and Venezuela.Colombia was the firstconstitutional governmentin South America,and theLiberalandConservativeparties, founded in 1848 and 1849, respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas.Slaverywas abolished in the country in 1851.
Internal political and territorial divisions led to the dissolution ofGran Colombiain 1830.The so-called "Department of Cundinamarca" adopted the name "New Granada", which it kept until 1858 when it became the "Confederación Granadina" (Granadine Confederation). After atwo-year civil warin 1863, theUnited States of Colombiawas created, which became known as the Republic of Colombia in 1886.Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being theThousand Days' War(1899–1902), in which between 100 and 180 thousand Colombians lost their lives when theLiberal Party, supported byVenezuela,Ecuador,Nicaragua, andGuatemalarebelled against theNationalist governmentand took control ofSantander, ultimately being defeated in 1902 by nationalist forces.
The United States of America's intentions to influence the area (especially thePanama Canalconstruction and control)led to thesecession of the Department of Panamain 1903 and its political independence.The United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of PresidentRoosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of theThomson–Urrutia Treaty.Colombia and Peru went towarbecause of territory disputes far in theAmazon basin. The war ended with a peace deal brokered by theLeague of Nations. The League finally awarded the disputed area to Colombia in June 1934.
Soon after, Colombia achieved some degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known asLa Violencia("The Violence"). Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidateJorge Eliécer Gaitánon 9 April 1948.The ensuing riots in Bogotá, known asEl Bogotazo, spread throughout the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians.
Colombia entered theKorean WarwhenLaureano Gómezwas elected president. It was the only Latin American country to join the war in a direct military role as an ally of the United States. Particularly important was the resistance of the Colombian troops atOld Baldy.
The violence between the two political parties decreased first whenGustavo Rojasdeposed thePresidentof Colombia in a coup d'état and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under themilitary juntaof GeneralGabriel París.
After Rojas' deposition, the Colombian Conservative Party and the Colombian Liberal Party agreed to create theNational Front, a coalition that would jointly govern the country. Under the deal, the presidency would alternate between conservatives and liberals every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices.The National Front ended "La Violencia", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with theAlliance for Progress.Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as theFARC, theELNand theM-19to fight the government and political apparatus.
Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from anasymmetriclow-intensityarmed conflictbetweengovernment forces,leftist guerrilla groupsandright wing paramilitaries.The conflict escalated in the 1990s,mainly in remote rural areas.Since the beginning of the armed conflict,human rights defendershave fought for the respect for human rights, despite staggering opposition.Several guerrillas' organizations decided to demobilize after peace negotiations in 1989–1994.
The United States has been heavily involved in the conflict since its beginnings, when in the early 1960s theU.S. governmentencouraged the Colombian military to attack leftist militias in rural Colombia. This was part of the U.S. fight against communism.Mercenariesand multinational corporations such asChiquita Brands Internationalare some of the international actors that have contributed to the violence of the conflict.
Beginning in the mid-1970s Colombiandrug cartelsbecame major producers, processors and exporters ofillegal drugs, primarilymarijuanaandcocaine.
On 4 July 1991, a newConstitutionwas promulgated. The changes generated by the new constitution are viewed as positive by Colombian society.
The administration of PresidentÁlvaro Uribe(2002–2010) adopted thedemocratic security policywhich included an integratedcounter-terrorismandcounter-insurgencycampaign.The government economic plan also promoted confidence in investors.As part of a controversial peace process, theAUC(right-wing paramilitaries) had ceased to function formally as an organization .In February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed groups.
After peace negotiations inCuba, theColombian governmentof PresidentJuan Manuel Santosand theguerrillasof the FARC-EP announced a final agreement to end the conflict.However, areferendumto ratify the deal was unsuccessful.Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revisedpeace dealin November 2016,which theColombian congressapproved.In 2016, President Santos was awarded theNobel Peace Prize.The Government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict.Colombia shows modest progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed byHRW.ASpecial Jurisdiction of Peacehas been created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches ofinternational humanitarian lawwhich occurred during the armed conflict and to satisfy victims' right tojustice.During his visit to Colombia,Pope Francispaid tribute to the victims of the conflict.
In June 2018,Iván Duque, the candidate of the right-wingDemocratic Centerparty, won the presidentialelection.On 7 August 2018, he was sworn in as the newPresident of Colombiato succeed Juan Manuel Santos.Colombia's relations with Venezuelahave fluctuated due to ideological differences between the two governments.Colombia has offeredhumanitarian supportwith food and medicines to mitigate the shortage of supplies in Venezuela.Colombia's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolveVenezuela's crisisshould be peaceful.Colombia proposed the idea of theSustainable Development Goalsand a final document was adopted by the United Nations.In February 2019, Venezuelan presidentNicolás Madurocut off diplomatic relations with Colombia after Colombian President Ivan Duque had helped Venezuelan opposition politicians deliver humanitarian aid to their country. Colombia recognized Venezuelan opposition leaderJuan Guaidóas the country's legitimate president. In January 2020, Colombia rejected Maduro's proposal that the two countries restore diplomatic relations.
Protestsstarted on 28 April 2021 when the government proposed a tax bill that would greatly expand the range of the 19 percentvalue-added tax.The 19 June 2022electionrun-off vote ended in a win for former guerrilla,Gustavo Petro, taking 50.47% of the vote compared to 47.27% for independent candidateRodolfo Hernández. The single-term limit for the country's presidency prevented President Iván Duque from seeking re-election. On 7 August 2022, Petro was sworn in, becoming the country's first leftist president.
The geography of Colombia is characterized by its six mainnatural regionsthat present their unique characteristics, from theAndesmountain range region; thePacific Coastalregion; the Caribbean coastal region; theLlanos(plains); theAmazon rainforestregion; to theinsular area, comprising islands in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.It shares its maritime limits withCosta Rica,Nicaragua,Honduras,Jamaica,Haiti, and theDominican Republic.
Colombia is bordered to the northwest byPanama, to the east byVenezuelaand Brazil, and to the south byEcuadorandPeru;it established its maritime boundaries with neighboring countries through seven agreements on the Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean.It lies between latitudes12°Nand4°Sand between longitudes67°and79°W.
East of the Andes lies thesavannaof theLlanos, part of theOrinocoRiver basin, and in the far southeast, thejungleof theAmazon rainforest. Together these lowlands make up over half Colombia's territory, but they contain less than 6% of the population. To the north theCaribbean coast, home to 21.9% of the population and the location of the major port cities ofBarranquillaandCartagena, generally consists of low-lying plains, but it also contains theSierra Nevada de Santa Martamountain range, which includes the country's tallest peaks (Pico Cristóbal ColónandPico Simón Bolívar), and theLa Guajira Desert. By contrast the narrow and discontinuousPacific coastal lowlands, backed by theSerranía de Baudómountains, are sparsely populated and covered in dense vegetation. The principal Pacific port isBuenaventura.
Part of theRing of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes andvolcanic eruptions,in the interior of Colombia the Andes are the prevailing geographical feature. Most of Colombia's population centers are located in these interior highlands. Beyond theColombian Massif(in the southwestern departments ofCaucaandNariño), these are divided into three branches known ascordilleras(mountain ranges): theCordillera Occidental, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city ofCali; theCordillera Central, running between theCaucaandMagdalena Rivervalleys (to the west and east, respectively) and including the cities ofMedellín,Manizales,Pereira, andArmenia; and theCordillera Oriental, extending northeast to theGuajira Peninsulaand including Bogotá,Bucaramanga, andCúcuta.Peaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed 4,700 m (15,420 ft), and in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental they reach 5,000 m (16,404 ft). At 2,600 m (8,530 ft), Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world.
The main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca,Guaviare,Atrato,Meta,PutumayoandCaquetá. Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin. The Orinoco andAmazonRivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.
The climate of Colombia is characterized for being tropical presenting variations withinsix natural regionsand depending on the altitude, temperature,humidity, winds and rainfall.Colombia has a diverse range of climate zones, includingtropical rainforests,savannas,steppes,desertsand mountain climates.
Mountain climateis one of the unique features of the Andes and other high altitude reliefs where climate is determined by elevation. Below 1,000 meters (3,281 ft) in elevation is thewarm altitudinal zone, where temperatures are above 24 °C (75.2 °F). About 82.5% of the country's total area lies in the warm altitudinal zone. Thetemperate climate altitudinal zonelocated between 1,001 and 2,000 meters (3,284 and 6,562 ft) is characterized for presenting an average temperature ranging between 17 and 24 °C (62.6 and 75.2 °F). Thecold climateis present between 2,001 and 3,000 meters (6,565 and 9,843 ft) and the temperatures vary between 12 and 17 °C (53.6 and 62.6 °F). Beyond lies the alpine conditions of the forested zone and then the treeless grasslands of thepáramos. Above 4,000 meters (13,123 ft), where temperatures are below freezing, the climate isglacial, a zone of permanent snow and ice.
Colombia is one of themegadiverse countriesinbiodiversity,ranking first inbird species.Colombia is the country with the planet's highest biodiversity, having the highest rate of species by area as well as the largest number ofendemisms(species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined. Colombia has 10% of the world'smammalsspecies, 14% of theamphibianspecies and 18% of thebirdspecies of the world.
As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 plantspecies, equivalent to 10 or 20% of total global species, which is even more remarkable given that Colombia is considered a country of intermediate size.Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the world, lagging only after Brazil which is approximately 7 times bigger.
Colombia has about 2,000 species ofmarine fishand is the second most diverse country infreshwater fish. It is also the country with the most endemic species ofbutterflies, is first inorchidspecies, and has approximately 7,000 species ofbeetles. Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country inreptilesandpalms. There are about 1,900 species ofmollusksand according to estimates there are about 300,000 species ofinvertebratesin the country. In Colombia there are 32 terrestrialbiomesand 314 types ofecosystems.
Protected areas and the "National Park System" cover an area of about 14,268,224 hectares (142,682.24 km) and account for 12.77% of the Colombian territory.Compared to neighboring countries, rates ofdeforestation in Colombiaare still relatively low.Colombia had a 2018Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 8.26/10, ranking it 25th globally out of 172 countries.Colombia is the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total renewable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of freshwater.
The government of Colombia takes place within the framework of apresidentialparticipatory democraticrepublic as established in the Constitution of 1991.In accordance with the principle ofseparation of powers, government is divided into three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch.
As the head of the executive branch, thePresident of Colombiaserves as bothhead of stateandhead of government, followed by theVice Presidentand theCouncil of Ministers. The president is elected by popular vote to serve a single four-year term (In 2015, Colombia's Congress approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment that changed the one-term limit for presidents to a two-term limit).At the provincial level executive power is vested indepartment governors,municipal mayorsand local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such ascorregimientosorcomunas.All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election.
The legislative branch of government is represented nationally by theCongress, a bicameral institution comprising a 166-seatChamber of Representativesand a 102-seatSenate.The Senate is elected nationally and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral districts.Members of both houses are elected to serve four-year terms two months before the president, also by popular vote.
The judicial branch is headed byfour high courts,consisting of theSupreme Courtwhich deals with penal and civil matters, theCouncil of State, which has special responsibility foradministrative lawand also provides legal advice to the executive, theConstitutional Court, responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian constitution, and theSuperior Council of Judicature, responsible for auditing the judicial branch.Colombia operates a system ofcivil law, which since 1991 has been applied through anadversarial system.
Despite a number of controversies, thedemocratic security policyhas ensured that former PresidentÁlvaro Uriberemained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 76%, according to a poll in 2009.However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010.In the run-offelectionson 20 June 2010 the former Minister of DefenseJuan Manuel Santoswon with 69% of the vote against the second most popular candidate,Antanas Mockus. A second round was required since no candidate received over the 50% winning threshold of votes.Santos won re-election with nearly 51% of the vote in second-roundelectionson 15 June 2014, beating right-wing rivalÓscar Iván Zuluaga, who won 45%.In 2018,Iván Duquewon in the second round of theelectionwith 54% of the vote, against 42% for his left-wing rival,Gustavo Petro. His term as Colombia's president ran for four years, beginning on 7 August 2018.In 2022, ColombiaelectedGustavo Petro, who became its first leftist leader,andFrancia Marquez, who was the first black person elected as vice president.
The foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President, as head of state, and managed by theMinister of Foreign Affairs.Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents.
Colombia was one of the four founding members of thePacific Alliance, which is a political, economic and co-operative integration mechanism that promotes the free circulation of goods, services, capital and persons between the members, as well as a common stock exchange and joint embassies in several countries.Colombia is also a member of the United Nations, theWorld Trade Organization, theOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, theOrganization of American States, theOrganization of Ibero-American States, and theAndean Community of Nations.
Colombia is a global partner ofNATOand amajor non-NATO allyof theUnited States.
The executive branch of government is responsible for managing the defense of Colombia, with the Presidentcommander-in-chiefof the armed forces. TheMinistry of Defenceexercises day-to-day control of the military and theColombian National Police. Colombia has 455,461 active military personnel.In 2016, 3.4% of the country's GDP went towards military expenditure, placing it 24th in the world. Colombia's armed forces are the largest in Latin America, and it is the second largest spender on its military after Brazil.In 2018, Colombia signed the UNtreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.
The Colombian military is divided into three branches: theNational Army of Colombia; theColombian Aerospace Force; and theColombian Navy. The National Police functions as agendarmerie, operating independently from the military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country. Each of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus separate from theNational Intelligence Directorate(DNI, in Spanish).
The National Army is formed by divisions, brigades, special brigades, and special units,the Colombian Navy by theNaval Infantry, the Naval Force of the Caribbean, the Naval Force of the Pacific, the Naval Force of the South, the Naval Force of the East, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation, and the Specific Command of San Andres y Providenciaand the Aerospace Force by 15 air units.
Colombia is divided into 32departmentsand onecapital district, which is treated as a department (Bogotá also serves as the capital of thedepartment of Cundinamarca). Departments are subdivided intomunicipalities, each of which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are in turn subdivided intocorregimientosin rural areas and intocomunasin urban areas. Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly elected to four-year terms, and each municipality is headed by a mayor and council. There is a popularly elected local administrative board in each of thecorregimientosorcomunas.
In addition to the capital, four other cities have been designateddistricts(in effect special municipalities), on the basis of special distinguishing features. These areBarranquilla,Cartagena,Santa MartaandBuenaventura. Some departments have local administrative subdivisions, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other (for example, in Antioquia and Cundinamarca). Where departments have a low population (for example Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada), special administrative divisions are employed, such as "departmentcorregimientos", which are a hybrid of a municipality and acorregimiento.
Click on a department on the map below to go to its article.
Historically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanized rapidly in the 20th century, by the end of which just 15.8% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generating just 6.6% of GDP; 20% of the workforce were employed in industry and 65% in services, responsible for 33% and 60% of GDP respectively.The country'seconomic productionis dominated by its strongdomestic demand.Consumption expenditureby households is the largest component of GDP.
Colombia'smarket economygrew steadily in the latter part of the 20th century, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4% per year between 1970 and 1998. The country suffered arecessionin 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since theGreat Depression), and the recovery was long and painful. However, growth reaching 7% in 2007, one of thehighestin Latin America.According toInternational Monetary Fundestimates, in 2023, Colombia's GDP (PPP) was US$1 trillion,32nd in the worldand third in South America, after Brazil and Argentina.
Totalgovernment expendituresaccount for 28% of the domestic economy.External debtequals 40% of gross domestic product. A strong fiscal climate was reaffirmed by a boost inbond ratings.Annual inflation closed 2017 at 4.09% YoY (vs. 5.75% YoY in 2016).The average nationalunemployment ratein 2017 was 9.4%,although the informality is the biggest problem facing thelabour market(the income of formal workers climbed 24.8% in 5 years while labor incomes of informal workers rose only 9%).Colombia hasfree-trade zones(FTZ),such as Zona Franca del Pacifico, located in theValle del Cauca, one of the most striking areas for foreign investment.
Thefinancial sectorhas grown favorably due to good liquidity in the economy, the growth of credit and the positive performance of the Colombian economy.TheColombian Stock Exchangethrough the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA) offers a regional market to trade equities.Colombia is now one of only three economies with a perfect score on the strength of legal rights index, according to theWorld Bank.
Colombia is rich in natural resources, and it is heavily dependent on energy and mining exports.Colombia's main exports include mineral fuels, oils,distillationproducts, fruit and other agricultural products, sugars and sugar confectionery,food products, plastics, precious stones, metals, forest products,chemical goods,pharmaceuticals, vehicles, electronic products, electrical equipment, perfumery and cosmetics, machinery, manufactured articles, textile and fabrics, clothing and footwear, glass and glassware, furniture, prefabricated buildings, military products, home and office material, construction equipment, software, among others.Principal trading partners are the United States, China, the European Union and some Latin American countries.
Non-traditional exports have boosted the growth of Colombian foreign sales as well as the diversification of destinations of export thanks to new freetrade agreements.Recent economic growth has led to a considerable increase of new millionaires, including the new entrepreneurs, Colombians with a net worth exceeding US$1 billion.
In 2017, however, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) reported that 26.9% of the population were living below the poverty line, of which 7.4% were in "extreme poverty". The multidimensional poverty rate stands at 17.0 percent of the population.The Government has also been developing a process offinancial inclusionwithin the country's most vulnerable population.
The contribution oftourismto GDP was US$5,880.3bn (2.0% of total GDP) in 2016. Tourism generated 556,135 jobs (2.5% of total employment) in 2016.Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen from 0.6 million in 2007 to 4 million in 2017.
In agriculture, Colombia is one of the five largest producers in the world ofcoffee,avocadoandpalm oil, and one of the 10 largest producers in the world ofsugarcane,banana,pineappleandcocoa. The country also has considerable production ofrice,potatoandcassava. Although it is not the largest coffee producer in the world (Brazil claims that title), the country has been able to carry out, for decades, a global marketing campaign to add value to the country's product. Colombian palm oil production is one of the most sustainable on the planet, compared to the largest existing producers. Colombia is also among the 20 largest producers in the world ofbeefandchicken meat.Colombia is also the 2nd largestflowerexporter in the world, after the Netherlands.Colombian agriculture emits 55% of Colombia'sgreenhouse gasemissions, mostly from deforestation, over-extensive cattle ranching, land grabbing, and illegal agriculture.
Colombia is an important exporter ofcoalandpetroleum– in 2020, more than 40% of the country's exports were based on these two products.In 2018 it was the 5th largest coal exporter in the world.In 2019, Colombia was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, with 791 thousand barrels/day, exporting a good part of its production – the country was the 19th largest oil exporter in the world in 2020.In mining, Colombia is the world's largest producer ofemerald,and in the production ofgold, between 2006 and 2017, the country produced 15 tons per year until 2007, when its production increased significantly, beating the record of 66.1 tons extracted in 2012. In 2017, it extracted 52.2 tons. Currently, the country is among the 25 largest gold producers in the world.
The electricity production in Colombia comes mainly fromRenewable energysources. 69.93% is obtained from thehydroelectric generation.Colombia's commitment to renewable energy was recognized in the 2014Global Green Economy Index (GGEI), ranking among the top 10 nations in the world in terms of greening efficiency sectors.
Transportation in Colombia is regulated within the functions of theMinistry of Transportand entities such as the National Roads Institute (INVÍAS) responsible for theHighways in Colombia,theAerocivil, responsible for civil aviation andairports,theNational Infrastructure Agency, in charge ofconcessionsthroughpublic–private partnerships, for the design, construction, maintenance, operation, and administration of the transport infrastructure,the General Maritime Directorate (Dimar) has the responsibility of coordinating maritime traffic control along with the Colombian Navy,among others, and under the supervision of theSuperintendency of Ports and Transport.
In 2021, Colombia had 204,389 km (127,001 mi) of roads, 32,280 km (20,058 mi) of which were paved. At the end of 2017, the country had around 2,100 km (1,305 mi) ofduplicated highways.Rail transportationin Colombia is dedicated almost entirely tofreight shipmentsand the railway network has a length of 1,700 km of potentially active rails.Colombia has 3,960 kilometers of gas pipelines, 4,900 kilometers ofoil pipelines, and 2,990 kilometers of refined-products pipelines.
The Colombian government aimed to build 7,000 km of roads between 2016 and 2020, which would reduce travel times by an estimated 30 per cent, and transport costs by an estimated 20 per cent. A toll road concession programme will comprise 40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to invest nearly $50 bn in transport infrastructure, including railway systems, making theMagdalena Rivernavigable again, improving port facilities, and an expansion ofEl Dorado International Airport.Colombia is a middle-income country.
Colombia has more than 3,950 research groups in science and technology.iNNpulsa, a government body that promotes entrepreneurship and innovation in the country, provides grants to startups, in addition to other services it and institutions provide. Colombia was ranked 61st in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024.Co-working spaces have arisen to serve as communities for startups large and small.Organizations such as the Corporation for Biological Research (CIB) for the support of young people interested in scientific work has been successfully developed in Colombia.TheInternational Center for Tropical Agriculturebased in Colombia investigates the increasing challenge ofglobal warmingandfood security.
Important inventions related to medicine have been made in Colombia, such as the firstexternal artificial pacemaker with internal electrodes, invented by the electrical engineerJorge Reynolds Pombo, an invention of great importance for those who suffer from heart failure. Also invented in Colombia were themicrokeratomeand keratomileusis technique, which form the fundamental basis of what now is known asLASIK(one of the most important techniques for the correction ofrefractive errorsof vision) and theHakim valvefor the treatment ofhydrocephalus.Colombia has begun to innovate in military technology for its army and other armies of the world; especially in the design and creation of personal ballistic protection products, military hardware,military robots,bombs, simulators and radar.
Some leading Colombian scientists are Joseph M. Tohme, researcher recognized for his work on thegenetic diversityof food,Manuel Elkin Patarroyowho is known for his groundbreaking work onsynthetic vaccinesformalaria,Francisco Loperawho discovered the "Paisa Mutation" or a type ofearly-onset Alzheimer's,Rodolfo Llinásknown for his study of the intrinsicneuronsproperties and the theory of a syndrome that had changed the way of understanding the functioning of the brain, Jairo Quiroga Puello recognized for his studies on the characterization ofsynthetic substanceswhich can be used to fight fungus,tumors,tuberculosisand even some viruses and Ángela Restrepo who established accuratediagnosesand treatments to combat the effects of a disease caused byParacoccidioides brasiliensis.
With an estimated 50 million people in 2020, Colombia is thethird-most populous countryin Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico.At the beginning of the 20th century, Colombia's population was approximately 4 million.Since the early 1970s Colombia has experienced steady declines in its fertility, mortality, and population growth rates. The population growth rate for 2016 is estimated to be 0.9%.About 26.8% of the population were 15 years old or younger, 65.7% were between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.4% were over 65 years old. The proportion of older persons in the total population has begun to increase substantially.Colombia is projected to have a population of 55.3 million by 2050.
Estimates for the population of the area that is now Colombia range between 2.5 and 12 million people in 1500; estimates between the extremes include figures of 6and 7 million. With the Spanish conquest, the region's population had collapsed to around 1.2 million people in 1600, for an estimated decrease of 52–90%. By the end of the colonial period, it had declined further to around 800,000; it began rising in the early 19th century to around 1.4 million, where it would drop again in theColombian War of Independenceto between 1 and 1.2 million. The country's population did not recover to pre-conquest levels until the 1940s, nearly 450 years after its 16th-century peak.
The population is concentrated in theAndean highlandsand along theCaribbean coast, also the population densities are generally higher in the Andean region. The nine eastern lowland departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 6% of the population.Traditionally a rural society,movement to urban areaswas very heavy in the mid-20th century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America. The urban population increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to nearly 60% in 1973, and by 2014 the figure stood at 76%.The population ofBogotáalone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 8 million today.In total seventy-two cities now have populations of 100,000 or more (2015). As of 2012Colombia has the world's largest populations ofinternally displaced persons(IDPs), estimated to be up to 4.9 million people.
The life expectancy was 74.8 years in 2015, and infant mortality was 13.1 per thousand in 2016.In 2015, 94.58% of adults and 98.66% of youth are literate and the government spends about 4.49% of its GDP on education.
Around 99.2% of Colombians speak Spanish, also called Castilian; 65Amerindian languages, twoCreole languages, theRomani languageandColombian Sign Languageare also used in the country.Englishhas official status in thearchipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina.
Including Spanish, a total of 101 languages are listed for Colombia in theEthnologuedatabase. The specific number of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors consider as different languages what others consider to be varieties or dialects of the same language. Best estimates recorded 71 languages that are spoken in-country today – most of which belong to theChibchan,Tucanoan,Bora–Witoto,Guajiboan,Arawakan,Cariban,Barbacoan, andSalibanlanguage families. There are currently more than 850,000 speakers of native languages.
Colombia is ethnically diverse, its people descending from the originalNativeinhabitants, Spanish conquistadors,Africansoriginally brought to the country as slaves, and 20th-centuryimmigrants from Europeand theMiddle East, all contributing to a diverse cultural heritage.The demographic distribution reflects a pattern that is influenced by colonial history.Whites live all throughout the country, mainly in urban centers and the burgeoning highland and coastal cities. The populations of the major cities also include mestizos.Mestizocampesinos(people living in rural areas) also live in the Andean highlands where some Spanish conquerors mixed with the women of Amerindianchiefdoms. Mestizos include artisans and small tradesmen that have played a major part in the urban expansion of recent decades.In a study by the American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Colombians have an average ancestry of 47% Amerindian DNA, 42% European DNA, and 11% African DNA.
The2018 censusreported that the "non-ethnic population", consisting ofwhitesand mestizos (those of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry), constituted 87.6% of the national population. 6.7% is ofAfricanancestry.Indigenous Amerindiansconstitute 4.3% of the population.Raizalpeople constitute 0.06% of the population.Palenqueropeople constitute 0.02% of the population. 0.01% of the population areRoma. A study by Latinobarómetro in 2023 estimates that 50.3% of the population areMestizo, 26.4% areWhite, 9.5% areIndigenous, 9.0% areBlack, 4.4% areMulatto, and 0.4% areAsian, these estimates would equate to around 26 million people being Mestizo, 14 million being White, 5 million being Indigenous, 5 million being Black, 2 million being Mulatto, and 200k being Asian.
TheFederal Research Divisionestimated that the 86% of the population that did not consider themselves part of one of the ethnic groups indicated by the 2006 census, white Colombians are mainly ofSpanishlineage, but there is also a large population ofMiddle Eastdescent; in some areas there is a considerable input ofGermanandItalianancestry.
Many of theIndigenous peoplesexperienced a reduction in population during the Spanish ruleand many others were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the remainder currently represents over eighty distinct cultures. Reserves (resguardos) established for indigenous peoples occupy 30,571,640 hectares (305,716.4 km) (27% of the country's total) and are inhabited by more than 800,000 people.Some of the largest indigenous groups are theWayuu,thePaez, the Pastos, theEmberáand theZenú.The departments ofLa Guajira,Cauca,Nariño,CórdobaandSucrehave the largest indigenous populations.
TheOrganización Nacional Indígena de Colombia(ONIC), founded at the first National Indigenous Congress in 1982, is an organization representing the indigenous peoples of Colombia. In 1991, Colombia signed and ratified the current international law concerning indigenous peoples,Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.
Sub-Saharan Africanswere brought asslaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th century and continuing into the 19th century. Large Afro-Colombian communities are found today on the Pacific Coast.NumerousJamaicansmigrated mainly to the islands of San Andres and Providencia. A number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including people from the formerUSSRduring and after theSecond World War.
Many immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from theMiddle EastandEurope. Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations ofLebanese,Palestinian, and otherLevantines.There are also important communities ofRomanisandJews.There is a major migration trend ofVenezuelans, due to the political and economic situation in Venezuela.In August 2019, Colombia offered citizenship to more than 24,000 children of Venezuelan refugees who were born in Colombia.
TheNational Administrative Department of Statistics(DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain. However, based on various studies and a survey, about 90% of the population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%–79%) areRoman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7%) adhere toProtestantism(primarilyEvangelicalism). Some 4.7% of the population isatheistor agnostic, while 3.5% claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific religion. 1.8% of Colombians adhere toJehovah's WitnessesandAdventismand less than 1% adhere to other religions, such as theBaháʼí Faith,Islam, Judaism,Buddhism,Mormonism,Hinduism,Indigenous religions,Hare Krishna movement,Rastafari movement,Eastern Orthodox Church, and spiritual studies. The remaining people either did not respond or replied that they did not know. In addition to the above statistics, 35.9% of Colombians reported that they did not practice their faith actively.1,519,562 people in Colombia, or around 3% of the population reported following an Indigenous religion.
While Colombia remains a mostly Roman Catholic country bybaptismnumbers, the 1991 Colombian constitution guarantees freedom of religion and all religious faiths and churches are equally free before the law.
The overalllife expectancyin Colombia at birth is 79.3 years (76.7 years for males and 81.9 years for females).Healthcare reforms have led to massive improvements in the healthcare systems of the country, with health standards in Colombia improving very much since the 1980s. The new system has widened population coverage by the social and health security system from 21% (pre-1993) to 96% in 2012.In 2017, the government declared acancer researchand treatment center as a Project of National Strategic Interest.
A 2016 study conducted byAmérica Economíamagazine ranked 21 Colombianhealth care institutionsamong the top 44 in Latin America, amounting to 48 percent of the total.In 2022, 26 Colombian hospitals were among the 61 best inLatin America(42% total).Also in 2023, two Colombian hospitals were among the top 75 of the world.
The educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at apreschoolacademy until age five (Educación preescolar). Basic education (Educación básica) is compulsory by law.It has two stages: Primary basic education (Educación básica primaria) which goes from first to fifth grade – children from six to ten years old, and Secondary basic education (Educación básica secundaria), which goes from sixth to ninth grade. Basic education is followed by Middle vocational education (Educación media vocacional) that comprises the tenth and eleventh grades. It may have different vocational training modalities or specialties (academic, technical, business, and so on.) according to the curriculum adopted by each school.
After the successful completion of all the basic and middle education years, ahigh-school diplomais awarded. The high-school graduate is known as abachiller, because secondary basic school and middle education are traditionally considered together as a unit calledbachillerato(sixth to eleventh grade). Students in their final year of middle education take theICFES test(now renamed Saber 11) to gain access to higher education (Educación superior). This higher education includes undergraduate professional studies, technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies. Technical professional institutions of Higher Education are also opened to students holder of a qualification in Arts and Business. This qualification is usually awarded by theSENAafter a two years curriculum.
Bachilleres(high-school graduates) may enter into a professional undergraduate career program offered by a university; these programs last up to five years (or less for technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies), even as much to six to seven years for some careers, such as medicine. In Colombia, there is not an institution such as college; students go directly into a career program at a university or any other educational institution to obtain a professional, technical or technological title. Once graduated from the university, people are granted a (professional, technical or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to practice the career they have chosen. For some professional career programs, students are required to take the Saber-Pro test, in their final year of undergraduate academic education.
Public spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2015 was 4.49%. This represented 15.05% of total government expenditure. Theprimary and secondary gross enrolment ratiosstood at 113.56% and 98.09% respectively.School-life expectancywas 14.42 years. A total of 94.58% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 98.66% of those aged 15–24.
Colombia is a highly urbanized country with 77.1% of the population living in urban areas. The largest cities in the country areBogotá, with 7,387,400 inhabitants,Medellín, with 2,382,399 inhabitants,Cali, with 2,172,527 inhabitants, andBarranquilla, with 1,205,284 inhabitants.
Colombia lies at the crossroads ofLatin Americaand the broader American continent, and as such has been hit by a wide range of cultural influences.Native American,Spanishand otherEuropean,African,American,Caribbean, andMiddle Easterninfluences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia's modern culture. Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression.
Manynational symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common. Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through theMinistry of Culture.
Colombian literature dates back to pre-Columbian era; a notable example of the period is the epic poem known as theLegend of Yurupary.In Spanish colonial times, notable writers includeJuan de Castellanos(Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias), Hernando Domínguez Camargo and his epic poem to San Ignacio de Loyola,Pedro SimónandJuan Rodríguez Freyle.
Post-independence literature linked to Romanticism highlightedAntonio Nariño,José Fernández Madrid,Camilo Torres TenorioandFrancisco Antonio Zea.In the second half of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century the literary genre known ascostumbrismobecame popular; great writers of this period wereTomás Carrasquilla,Jorge IsaacsandRafael Pombo(the latter of whom wrote notable works of children's literature).Within that period, authors such asJosé Asunción Silva,José Eustasio Rivera,León de Greiff,Porfirio Barba-JacobandJosé María Vargas Viladeveloped themodernistmovement.In 1872, Colombia established theColombian Academy of Language, the first Spanish language academy in the Americas.Candelario Obesowrote the groundbreakingCantos Populares de mi Tierra(1877), the first book of poetry by an Afro-Colombian author.
Between 1939 and 1940 seven books of poetry were published under the nameStone and Skyin the city of Bogotá that significantly influenced the country; they were edited by the poet Jorge Rojas.In the following decade,Gonzalo Arangofounded the movement of "nothingness" in response to the violence of the time;he was influenced bynihilism,existentialism, and the thought of another great Colombian writer:Fernando González Ochoa.During theboom in Latin American literature, successful writers emerged, led byNobel laureateGabriel García Márquezand his magnum opus,One Hundred Years of Solitude,Eduardo Caballero Calderón,Manuel Mejía Vallejo, andÁlvaro Mutis, a writer who was awarded theCervantes Prizeand thePrince of Asturias Award for Letters.
Colombian art has over 3,000 years of history. Colombian artists have captured the country's changing political and cultural backdrop using a range of styles and mediums. There is archeological evidence of ceramics being produced earlier in Colombia than anywhere else in the Americas, dating as early as 3,000 BCE.
The earliest examples of gold craftsmanship have been attributed to the Tumaco peopleof the Pacific coast and date to around 325 BCE. Roughly between 200 BCE and 800 CE, theSan Agustín culture, masters ofstonecutting, entered its "classical period". They erected raisedceremonialcenters,sarcophagi, and large stonemonolithsdepictinganthropomorphicandzoomorphicforms out ofstone.
Colombian art has followed the trends of the time, so during the 16th to 18th centuries,Spanish Catholicismhad a huge influence on Colombian art, and the popularbaroquestyle was replaced withrococowhen the Bourbons ascended to theSpanish crown.During this era, in the Spanish colony, the most important Neogranadine (Colombian) painters wereGregorio Vásquez de Arce y Ceballos,Gaspar de Figueroa,Baltasar Vargas de Figueroa,Baltasar de Figueroa (the Elder),Antonio Acero de la CruzandJoaquín Gutiérrez, of which their works are preserved. Also important wasAlonso de Narváezwho, although born in the Province of Seville, spent most of his life in colonial Colombia, also the ItalianAngelino Medoro, lived in Colombia and Peru, and left works of art preserved in several churches inTunjacity.
During the mid-19th century, one of the most remarkable painters wasRamón Torres Méndez, who produced a series of good quality paintings depicting the people and their customs of different Colombian regions. Also noteworthy in the 19th century wereAndrés de Santa María,Pedro José Figueroa,Epifanio Garay,Mercedes Delgado Mallarino,José María Espinosa,Ricardo Acevedo Bernal, between many others.
More recently, Colombian artistsPedro Nel GómezandSantiago Martínez Delgadostarted the Colombian Murial Movement in the 1940s, featuring theneoclassicalfeatures ofArt Deco.Since the 1950s, the Colombian art started to have a distinctive point of view, reinventing traditional elements under the concepts of the 20th century. Examples of this are the GreiffportraitsbyIgnacio Gómez Jaramillo, showing what the Colombian art could do with the new techniques applied to typical Colombian themes. Carlos Correa, with hisparadigmatic"Naturaleza muerta en silencio" (silent dead nature), combines geometricalabstractionandcubism.Alejandro Obregónis often considered as the father of modern Colombian painting, and one of the most influential artist in this period, due to his originality, the painting of Colombian landscapes withsymbolicandexpressionistuse of animals, (specially theAndean condor).Fernando Botero,Omar Rayo,Enrique Grau,Édgar Negret,David Manzur,Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt,Oscar Murillo,Doris SalcedoandOscar Muñozare some of the Colombian artists featured at the international level.
The Colombian sculpture from the sixteenth to 18th centuries was mostly devoted toreligious depictionsof ecclesiastic art, strongly influenced by the Spanish schools ofsacredsculpture. During the early period of the Colombian republic, the national artists were focused in the production of sculptural portraits of politicians and public figures, in a plainneoclassicisttrend.During the 20th century, the Colombian sculpture began to develop a bold and innovative work with the aim of reaching a better understanding of national sensitivity.
Colombian photography was marked by the arrival of thedaguerreotype.Jean-Baptiste Louis Groswas who brought the daguerreotype process to Colombia in 1841. The Piloto public library has Latin America's largest archive of negatives, containing 1.7 million antique photographs covering Colombia 1848 until 2005.
The Colombian press has promoted the work of thecartoonists. In recent decades,fanzines, internet andindependent publishershave been fundamental to the growth of the comic in Colombia.
Throughout the times, there have been a variety ofarchitectural styles, from those of indigenous peoples to contemporary ones, passing through colonial (military and religious), Republican, transition and modern styles.
Ancient habitation areas, longhouses,crop terraces, roads as theInca road system, cemeteries,hypogeumsandnecropolisesare all part of thearchitectural heritage of indigenous peoples.Some prominent indigenous structures are thepreceramicandceramicarchaeological site ofTequendama,Tierradentro(a park that contains the largest concentration ofpre-Columbianmonumentalshaft tombswith side chambers),the largest collection of religious monuments andmegalithicsculptures in South America, located inSan Agustín, Huila,Lost city(an archaeological site with a series of terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads, and several circular plazas), and the large villages mainly built withstone, wood, cane, and mud.Architecture during the period of conquest and colonization is mainly derived of adaptingEuropean stylesto local conditions, andSpanish influence, especiallyAndalusianandExtremaduran, can be easily seen.When Europeans founded cities two things were making simultaneously: the dimensioning of geometrical space (town square, street), and the location of a tangible point oforientation.The construction offortswas common throughout the Caribbean and in some cities of the interior, because of the dangers posed to Spanish colonial settlements from English, French and Dutchpiratesand hostile indigenous groups.Churches, chapels, schools, and hospitals belonging toreligious ordershave a great urban influence.Baroque architectureis used in military buildings and public spaces.Marcelino Arroyo,Francisco José de Caldasand Domingo de Petrés were great representatives ofneo-classical architecture.
TheNational Capitolis a great representative of romanticism.Wood was extensively used in doors, windows, railings, and ceilings during the colonization ofAntioquia. TheCaribbeanarchitecture acquires a strongArabic influence.TheTeatro Colónin Bogotá is a lavish example of architecture from the 19th century.The quintas houses with innovations in thevolumetricconception are some of the best examples of the Republican architecture; the Republican action in the city focused on the design of three types ofspaces: parks with forests, smallurban parksandavenuesand theGothic stylewas most commonly used for the design of churches.
Deco style,modern neoclassicism,eclecticismfolkloristandart decoornamentalresources significantly influenced the architecture of Colombia, especially during the transition period.Modernismcontributed with new construction technologies and newmaterials(steel,reinforced concrete, glass and synthetic materials) and thetopologyarchitecture andlightened slabs systemalso have a great influence.The most influential architects of the modern movement wereRogelio Salmonaand Fernando Martínez Sanabria.
Thecontemporary architectureof Colombia is designed to give greater importance to thematerials, this architecture takes into account the specificnatural and artificial geographiesand is also an architecture that appeals to thesenses.Theconservation of the architectural and urban heritageof Colombia has been promoted in recent years.
Colombia has a vibrant collage of talent that touches a full spectrum ofrhythms. It is known as the land of a thousand rhythms, at around 1,024 folk rhythms. Musicians, composers, music producers and singers from Colombia are recognized internationally such asShakira,Juanes,Carlos Vivesand others.Colombian music blends European-influenced guitar and song structure with largegaita flutesand percussion instruments from the indigenous population, while its percussion structure and dance forms come from Africa. Colombia has a diverse and dynamic musical environment.
Guillermo Uribe Holguín, an important cultural figure in theNational Symphony Orchestra of Colombia, Luis Antonio Calvo and Blas Emilio Atehortúa are some of the greatest exponents of theart music.TheBogotá Philharmonic Orchestrais one of the most active orchestras in Colombia.
Caribbean music has many vibrant rhythms, such ascumbia(it is played by themaracas, the drums, the gaitas andguacharaca),porro(it is a monotonous but joyful rhythm),mapalé(with its fast rhythm and constantclapping) and the "vallenato", which originated in the northern part of theCaribbeancoast (the rhythm is mainly played by the caja, the guacharaca, andaccordion).
The music from thePacific coast, such as thecurrulao, is characterized by its strong use of drums (instruments such as the nativemarimba, the conunos, thebass drum, theside drum, and the cuatro guasas or tubular rattle). An important rhythm of the south region of the Pacific coast is thecontradanza(it is used in dance shows due to the striking colours of the costumes).Marimba music, traditional chants and dances from the Colombia South Pacific region are onUNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
Important musical rhythms of theAndean Regionare thedanza(dance of Andean folklore arising from the transformation of the European contredance), thebambuco(it is played with guitar,tipleandmandolin, the rhythm is danced by couples), thepasillo(a rhythm inspired by the Austrianwaltzand the Colombian "danza", the lyrics have been composed by well-known poets), the guabina (thetiple, thebandolaand therequintoare the basic instruments), thesanjuanero(it originated inTolimaandHuilaDepartments, the rhythm is joyful and fast).Apart from these traditional rhythms,salsa musichas spread throughout the country, and the city ofCaliis considered by many salsa singers to be 'The New Salsa Capital of the World'.
The instruments that distinguish the music of theEastern Plainsare theharp, thecuatro(a type of four-stringed guitar) and maracas. Important rhythms of this region are thejoropo(a fast rhythm and there is also tapping as a result of itsflamencoancestry) and thegaleron(it is heard a lot whilecowboysare working).
The music of the Amazon region is strongly influenced by the indigenous religious practices. Some of the musical instruments used are the manguaré (a musical instrument ofceremonialtype, consisting of a pair of largecylindrical drums), thequena(melodic instrument), therondador, thecongas,bells, and different types of flutes.
The music of theArchipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalinais usually accompanied by amandolin, atub-bass, ajawbone, a guitar andmaracas. Some popular archipelago rhythms are theSchottische, theCalypso, thePolkaand theMento.
Theater was introduced in Colombia during theSpanish colonizationin 1550 throughzarzuelacompanies. Colombian theater is supported by the Ministry of Culture and a number of private and state owned organizations. TheIbero-American Theater Festival of Bogotáis the cultural event of the highest importance in Colombia and one of the biggest theater festivals in the world.Other important theater events are: The Festival of Puppet The Fanfare (Medellín), The Manizales Theater Festival, The Caribbean Theatre Festival (Santa Marta) and The Art Festival of Popular Culture "Cultural Invasion" (Bogotá).
Although theColombian cinemais young as an industry, more recently the film industry was growing with support from the Film Act passed in 2003.Many film festivals take place in Colombia, but the two most important are theCartagena Film Festival, which is the oldest film festival in Latin America, and theBogotá Film Festival.
Some important national circulation newspapers areEl TiempoandEl Espectador.Television in Colombiahas two privately owned TV networks and three state-owned TV networks with national coverage, as well as six regional TV networks and dozens of local TV stations. Private channels,RCNandCaracolare the highest-rated. The regional channels and regional newspapers cover a department or more and its content is made in these particular areas.
Colombia has three major nationalradio networks:Radiodifusora Nacional de Colombia, a state-run national radio;Caracol RadioandRCN Radio, privately owned networks with hundreds of affiliates. There are other national networks, includingCadena Super,Todelar, and Colmundo. Many hundreds of radio stations are registered with theMinistry of Information Technologies and Communications.
Colombia's varied cuisine is influenced by its diverse fauna and flora as well as the cultural traditions of the ethnic groups. Colombian dishes and ingredients vary widely by region. Some of the most common ingredients are: cereals such as rice and maize; tubers such as potato andcassava; assortedlegumes; meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and seafood.Colombia cuisine also features a variety of tropical fruits such ascape gooseberry,feijoa,arazá,dragon fruit,mangostino,granadilla,papaya,guava, mora (blackberry),lulo,soursopandpassionfruit.Colombia is one of the world's largest consumers of fruit juices.
Among the most representative appetizers and soups arepatacones(fried green plantains),sancochode gallina (chicken soup with root vegetables) andajiaco(potato and corn soup). Representative snacks and breads arepandebono,arepas(corn cakes),aborrajados(fried sweet plantains with cheese),tortadechoclo,empanadasandalmojábanas. Representative main courses arebandeja paisa,lechona tolimense,mamona,tamalesand fish dishes (such asarroz de lisa), especially in coastal regions wherekibbeh,suero,costeño cheeseandcarimañolasare also eaten. Representative side dishes are papas chorreadas (potatoes with cheese), remolachas rellenas con huevo duro (beets stuffed withhard-boiled egg) andarroz con coco(coconut rice).Organic foodis a current trend in big cities, although in general across the country the fruits and veggies are very natural and fresh.
Representative desserts arebuñuelos,natillas,Maria Luisa cake,bocadillomade of guayaba (guava jelly),cocadas(coconut balls), casquitos de guayaba (candied guava peels),torta de natas,obleas,flandemango,roscón,milhoja,manjar blanco, dulce defeijoa, dulce depapayuela,tortade mojicón, and esponjado decuruba. Typical sauces (salsas) arehogao(tomato and onion sauce) and Colombian-styleají.
Some representative beverages arecoffee(Tinto),champús,cholado,lulada,avenacolombiana,sugarcanejuice,aguapanela,aguardiente,hot chocolateand fresh fruit juices (often made with water or milk).
Tejois Colombia's national sport and is a team sport that involves launching projectiles to hit a target.But of all sports in Colombia,footballis the most popular.Colombiawas the champion of the2001 Copa América, in which they set a new record of being undefeated, conceding no goals and winning each match. Colombia has been awarded "mover of the year" twice.
Colombia is a hub forroller skaters. The national team is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed Skating Championships.Colombia has traditionally been very good incyclingand a large number of Colombian cyclists have triumphed in major competitions of cycling.
Baseball is popular in cities likeCartagenaandBarranquilla. Of those cities have come good players like:Orlando Cabrera,Édgar Rentería, who was champion of theWorld Seriesin1997and2010and others who have played inMajor League Baseball. Colombia wasworld amateur championin 1947 and 1965.
Boxingis one of the sports that has produced more world champions for Colombia.Motorsportsalso occupies an important place in the sporting preferences of Colombians;Juan Pablo Montoyais a race car driver known for winning 7 Formula One events. Colombia also has excelled in sports such asBMX,judo,shooting sport,taekwondo,wrestling,high divingandathletics, also has a long tradition inweightliftingandbowling.
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