West African cuisine

West African cuisineencompasses a diverse range of foods that are split between its 16 countries. InWest Africa, many families grow and raise their own food, and within each there is a division of labor. Indigenous foods consist of a number of plant species and animals, and are important to those whose lifestyle depends on farming andhunting.
Thehistory of West Africaalso plays a large role in their cuisine and recipes, as interactions with different cultures (particularly the Arab world and later Europeans) over the centuries have introduced many ingredients that went on to become key components of the various national cuisines today.
During theearly modern period, European explorers and slave traders influenced regional cuisines in West Africa, but only to a limited extent. However, it was European merchant andslave shipswhich broughtchili peppers,maizeandtomatoesfrom theNew World, which have become ubiquitous components of West African cuisines, along withpeanuts,cassava, andplantains. In turn, these slave ships carried African ingredients to the New World, includingblack-eyed peasandokra.
Around the time of thecolonial period, particularly during theScramble for Africa, European settlers defined colonial borders without regard to pre-existing borders, territories or cultural differences. This bisected tribes and created colonies with varying culinary styles. As a result, it is difficult to sharply define, for example, Senegalese cuisine.
Although the European colonists brought many new ingredients to the African continent, they had relatively little effect on the way people cook in West Africa.
Though there are obvious differences among the local cuisines in West Africa, there are also many commonalities, mainly in the ingredients used.
Many dishes are enriched with a base oftomatoes,onionsandchili peppers.Considered an essential and even "sacred" cooking technique in the region, the combination of these three ingredients sauteed in oil is analogous to similar concepts such as theholy trinityofCajunandCreole cookingin theUnited States,sofritoused in theSpanish-speaking world,soffrittoinItaly, and themirepoixofFrance.
The most prevalent cooking oil ispalm nut oil, traditionally associated with the coastal regions and contributing a distinctive colour, flavour and texture to food, whileshea butteris more commonly used inthe Sahelcalledkaritéin French, which comes from the Arabic wordghartī, it is prized for the rich mouthfeel it imparts.
There are certain ingredients that go with certain countries as well. InGhana, the most commonly used ingredients are hot pepper,ginger, andmaize. Ghanaians use hot pepper because they believe the hot peppers will cool the body and cleanse/purify it (Salm, 106-108). InSenegal, the main ingredients are among many others hot pepper,rice,millet,peanut, ginger,tamarindleaves, andbaobab fruit, and cooking oil (Ross, 75). Those are the few that have a slight difference of what they commonly use for their dishes.
For an overall view of West Africa, according to Fran Osseo-Asare, the common ingredients for the West African region are the leaves from a baobab tree, cereal grains:sorghum,millet, andfonio,cola nuts,egusiseeds,guinea fowl,melegueta pepper,oil palm,okra, and rice. Other ingredients used are okra (thickener) as a basis for soups and stews,black-eyed peas, andsesameaccording toJessica B. HarrisinHigh on the Hog.
Obe ata and ata din din are base sauces used in many recipes.Both are based on tomatoes, chili peppers, onions and flavorings such as thyme, garlic, ginger, curry powder, along with stock or bouillon.
Spicesplay a relatively less prominent role in West African cooking compared to say,North African cuisine. Cooks uses spices and herbs like ginger, coriander, and thyme sparingly but knowingly.
Chilli peppers, however, are loved in West Africa, in fresh, dried and powdered form, particularly in the more hot and humid lands of the region. Introduced to Africa sometime afterChristopher Columbussailed to America by European sailors, it is said that the sweating induced by the spicy heat of chilli helps to cool the skin. More than in other regions of Africa, West Africans utilizeScotch bonnetchilli peppers with a liberal hand in many of their sauces and stews. The bite and fire of these extremely hot peppers (Scovillerating 200,000-300,000) add a unique flavor as well as heat. The chilli is also supposed to help preserve food, as well as adding flavour to relatively bland tropical staples like root vegetables.
The seeds of Guinea pepper (Aframomum melegueta; also calledgrains of paradiseor melegueta pepper), a plant indigenous to West Africa, are also widely used. This native spice tastes and looks somewhat like a peppercorn, but hascardamomandcoriander seedflavor notes. Grains of paradise was once a prized commodity reaching Europe through North African middlemen during theMiddle Ages.
Sumbalaorsoumbalais a flavouring used widely across West Africa, used in a manner not unlike abouillon cube. It is usually prepared by women over the course of several days, traditionally fromnéré(Parkia biglobosa) seeds, also known as locust bean, a plant native to West Africa. It can be made from other kinds of seeds, and the use ofsoybeansfor this purpose is increasing due mainly to inadequate supply ofnéréseeds. The fabrication process involves boiling, cleaning and then packing away to ferment - thefermentationprocess giving it a pungent smell and at the same time a rich, deepumamior savory flavour is developed. Salt can be added to the finished product to facilitate storage life. This condiment is traditionally sold in balls or patties that can be kept for several months at a time in the case of the best quality.
It is a traditional cooking ingredient used across West Africa, although the less traditional bouillon cube, specifically theMaggibrand, rivals it in popularity.
African potash (potassium carbonate) is a native salt used for flavoring and to expedite the cooking time for some foods by cooks, it is made from wood-fire ashes in an ancient process that was once used by pioneer settlers in North America.
Vegetablesare a part of any West African meal. Some commonly eaten vegetables includeblack-eyed peas,eggplant,pumpkinand other squashes,okra, as well as an extensive variety of both farmed and foragedgreen leafy vegetables, little known or used outside of the African continent.
Baobableaves, pumpkin leaves, rosella leaves, sweet potato leaves, andcassavaleaves (which contain cyanide in their raw state, and are always blanched with boiling water before use to remove the toxins) are some of the greens that are commonplace in a West African kitchen. Black-eyed peas form the basis for a popular fried snack, theakarafritter.
Starchy tubers androot vegetablesare used as staple food, to be served with their meat and vegetable dishes, often as a foil to the hotness of the peppers.Cassava,cocoyams,sweet potatoes,plantains, andyamsare ubiquitous in the local diet, and they are usually boiled and then pounded with a pestle and mortar into a thick starchy paste calledfufu.
Other starch staples eaten throughout West Africa besides root vegetables and tubers includefonio,rice,millet,sorghum, andmaize.
Although West Africans ate far more vegetables and much lessmeatin the past, today their diet is heavier in meats, salt, and fats.Seafoodis especially popular along the coast and many dishes combine both fish and meat. Seafood is one of the most common protein sources in West Africa.
Seafood is so prevalent in this region that this industry accounts for a quarter of the workforce.Dried and smoked fish flavor a number of sauces, stews, and other dishes, including condiments, in much the same way that anchovies and bacon flavor food in a number of other cuisines. It is often flaked and fried in oil, and sometimes cooked in sauce made with the base of hot peppers, onions and tomatoes, various spices (such assoumbala) and water to produce a combination of subtle flavors.
Chickenis eaten nearly everywhere and chicken eggs are a common food and source of protein.Guinea fowleggs also popular. In some inland areas,beef,porkandmuttonare preferred, with goat meat being the dominant red meat.
Suya, a popular grilled spicy meat kebab flavored with peanuts and other spices, is sold by street vendors as a snack or evening meal and is typically made with beef or chicken.
Some dishes are a prevalent feature in most West African societies, but bearing different names in different locales.
Fufuis usually made from cassava, yams, and sometimes combined withcocoyam,plantains,cornmeal, oroatmeal.In Ghana,fufuis mostly made from boiled cassava and unripe plantain beaten together, as well as from cocoyam. Currently, these products have been made into powder/flour and can be mixed with hot water to obtain the final product,  eliminating the task of beating it in a mortar with a pestle until a desired consistency is reached.
Fufucan also be made from semolina, rice, or even instant potato flakes. Often, the dish is still made by traditional methods: pounding and the base substance in a mortar with a wooden spoon. In contexts where poverty is not an issue, or where modern appliances are readily available, a food processor may also be used.
In Western and Central Africa, the more common method is to serve a mound offufualong with a soup (ọbẹ). After washing hands, the diner pinches off a small ball offufuand makes an indentation with the thumb. This reservoir is then filled with soup, and the ball is eaten.
In Nigeria and Ghana, the ball is often not chewed but swallowed whole; in fact, chewingfufuis considered afaux pas. Therefore,fufunot only serves as a food but also as a utensil.
Some soups that may be served withfufuincludes light (tomato) soup,palm nut soup,groundnut soup,peppersoup,and other types of soups with vegetables such as okra andnkontomire(cocoyam leaves). Soups are often made with different kinds of meat and fish, fresh or smoked.
Groundnut stew (maafe), (var.mafé,maffé,maff,sauce d'arachide,tigadèguènaortigadene), is apeanut-basedstewcommon to much of West Africa, and very popular inSenegal,the Gambia,Mali,GuineaandCôte d'Ivoire. Variants ofmaafeappear in the cuisine of nations throughout West Africa andCentral Africa. With the significant expansion of groundnut cultivation during thecolonial period,maafehas become a popular dish across West Africa, and as far east asCameroon.
Recipes for the stew vary widely, but groundnut stew at its core is cooked with a sauce based on groundnuts (peanuts),the West Africantrinityof tomatoes, onion and chillies, and protein components such asmutton, beef or chicken. In the coastal regions ofSenegal,maafeis frequently made withfish.Maafeis traditionally served with whiterice(in Senegambia),couscous(as West Africa meets the Sahara) orfufuandsweet potatoesin the more tropical areas.
Jollof rice, also calledbenachin,is a popular dish all over West Africa.  It originated inSenegalbut has since spread to the whole of West Africa, especially Nigeria and Ghana amongst members of the Wolof ethnic group, from whom the word "jollof" originated.
There are many variations of jollof rice, which in most cuisines depends on a base similar toobe ata. The most common basic ingredients are rice, tomatoes and tomato paste, onion, salt, and red pepper. Beyond that, nearly any kind of meat, vegetable, or spice can be added.
TheSenegaleseversion of jollof rice is a bit different and is calledceebu jen,the national dish of Senegal. A variation,thiebou yapp, or "rice meat" is made with beef, mutton or other red meat. Riz gras is a similar dish found in French-speaking West Africa.
Malt drinkssuch asSupermaltand freshcoconut waterare popular beverages in West Africa. As for alcoholic drinks,palm wineis a common beverage made from the fermented sap of various types of palm trees and is usually sold in sweet (less-fermented, retaining more of the sap's sugar) or sour (fermented longer, making it stronger and less sweet) varieties.Beerfrom millet is also common.
Dining is communal; diners use their fingers to eat. Water has a very strong ritual significance in many West African nations (particularly in dry areas), and water is often the first thing an African host will offer a guest.
For more specific styles, refer to the articles on each national or regional cuisines: