Pasta

Pasta(UK:/ˈpæstə/,US:/ˈpɑːstə/;Italian:[ˈpasta]) is a type of food typically made from anunleavened doughofwheatflour mixed with water oreggs, and formed into sheets or other shapes, then cooked byboilingorbaking. Pasta was originally only made withdurum, although the definition has been expanded to include alternatives for agluten-free diet, such asrice flour, orlegumessuch as beans orlentils. Pasta is believed to have developed independently inItalyand is astaple foodofItalian cuisine,with evidence ofEtruscansmaking pasta as early as 400 BCE in Italy.
Pastas are divided into two broad categories: dried (Italian:pasta secca) and fresh (Italian:pasta fresca). Most dried pasta is produced commercially via anextrusionprocess, although it can be produced at home. Fresh pasta is traditionally produced by hand, sometimes with the aid of simple machines.Fresh pastas available in grocery stores are produced commercially by large-scale machines.
Both dried and fresh pastas come in a number of shapes and varieties, with 310 specific forms known by over 1,300 documented names.In Italy, the names of specific pasta shapes or types often vary by locale. For example, the pasta formcavatelliis known by 28 different names depending upon the town and region. Common forms of pasta include long and short shapes, tubes, flat shapes or sheets, miniature shapes for soup, those meant to be filled or stuffed, and specialty or decorative shapes.
As a category in Italian cuisine, both fresh and dried pastas are classically used in one of three kinds of prepared dishes: aspasta asciutta(orpastasciutta), cooked pasta is plated and served with a complementary sauce or condiment; a second classification of pasta dishes ispasta in brodo, in which the pasta is part of asoup-type dish. A third category ispasta al forno, in which the pasta is incorporated into a dish that is subsequently baked in the oven.Pasta dishes are generally simple, but individual dishes vary in preparation. Some pasta dishes are served as a small first course or for light lunches, such aspasta salads. Other dishes may be portioned larger and used for dinner. Pastasaucessimilarly may vary in taste, color and texture.
In terms ofnutrition, cooked plain pasta is 31%carbohydrates(mostlystarch), 6% protein, and low in fat, with moderate amounts ofmanganese, but pasta generally has lowmicronutrientcontent. Pasta may beenriched or fortified, or made fromwhole grains.
Earliest appearances in the English language are in the 1830s;the wordpastacomes fromItalianpasta, in turn fromLatinpasta,latinisationof theAncient Greek:παστά.
Evidence ofEtruscansmaking pasta dates back to 400 BCE.The first concrete information on pasta products inItalydates to the 13th or 14th centuries.In the 1st-centurywritings ofHorace,lagana(sg.:laganum) were fine sheets of fried doughand were an everyday foodstuff.Writing in the 2nd century,Athenaeus of Naucratisprovides a recipe forlaganawhich he attributes to the 1st-century Chrysippus of Tyana: sheets of dough made of wheat flour and the juice of crushed lettuce, then flavored with spices and deep-fried in oil.An early 5th-century cookbook describes a dish calledlaganathat consisted of layers of dough with meat stuffing, an ancestor of modern-daylasagna.However, the method of cooking these sheets of dough does not correspond to the modern definition of either a fresh or dry pasta product, which only had similar basic ingredients and perhaps the shape.
Historians have noted several lexical milestones relevant to pasta, none of which changes these basic characteristics. For example, the works of the 2nd-century Greek physicianGalenmentionitrion, homogeneous compounds made of flour and water.TheJerusalem Talmudrecords thatitrium, a kind of boiled dough,was common inPalestinefrom the 3rd to 5th centuries.A dictionary compiled by the 9th-century Arab physician and lexicographerIsho bar Alidefinesitriyya, the Arabic cognate, as string-like shapes made ofsemolinaand dried before cooking.
The geographical text ofMuhammad al-Idrisi, compiled for the Norman King ofSicilyRoger IIin 1154 mentionsitriyyamanufactured and exported from NormanSicily:
One form ofitriyyawith a long history islagana, which in Latin refers to thin sheets of dough,and gave rise to the Italianlasagna.
InNorth Africa, a food similar to pasta, known ascouscous, has been eaten for centuries. However, it lacks the distinguishing malleable nature of pasta, couscous being more akin to droplets of dough. At first, dry pasta was a luxury item in Italy because of high labor costs; durum wheat semolina had to be kneaded for a long time.
There is a legend ofMarco Poloimporting pasta fromChinawhich originated with theMacaroni Journal, published by an association of food industries with the goal of promoting pasta in the United States.Rustichello da Pisawrites in hisTravelsthat Marco Polo described a food similar tolagana. The way pasta reached Europe is unknown, however there are many theories,Jeffrey Steingartenasserts that Moors introduced pasta in theEmirate of Sicilyin the ninth century, mentioning also that traces of pasta have been found in ancient Greece and thatJane Grigsonbelieved the Marco Polo story to have originated in the 1920s or 1930s in an advertisement for a Canadian spaghetti company.
Food historians estimate that the dish probably took hold in Italy as a result of extensive Mediterranean trading in the Middle Ages. From the 13th century, references to pasta dishes—macaroni, ravioli, gnocchi, vermicelli—crop up with increasing frequency across the Italian peninsula.In the 14th-century writer Boccaccio's collection of earthy tales,The Decameron, he recounts a mouthwatering fantasy concerning a mountain ofParmesan cheesedown which pasta chefs roll macaroni and ravioli to gluttons waiting below.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, dried pasta became popular for its easy storage. This allowed people to store pasta on ships when exploring the New World.A century later, pasta was present around the globe during the voyages of discovery.
Althoughtomatoeswere introduced to Italy in the 16th century and incorporated in Italian cuisine in the 17th century, description of the first Italian tomato sauces dates from the late 18th century: the first written record of pasta with tomato sauce can be found in the 1790 cookbookL'Apicio Modernoby Roman chefFrancesco Leonardi.Before tomato sauce was introduced, pasta was eaten dry with the fingers; the liquid sauce demanded the use of a fork.
At the beginning of the 17th century,Napleshad rudimentary machines for producing pasta, later establishing thekneadingmachine and press, making pasta manufacturing cost-effective.In 1740, a license for the first pasta factory was issued inVenice.During the 1800s,watermillsandstone grinderswere used to separate semolina from the bran, initiating expansion of the pasta market.In 1859, Joseph Topits (1824−1876) founded Hungary's first pasta factory, in the city ofPest, which worked with steam machines; it was one of the first pasta factories in Central Europe.By 1867,BuitoniCompany inSansepolcro, Tuscany, was an established pasta manufacturer.During the early 1900s, artificial drying andextrusionprocesses enabled greater variety of pasta preparation and larger volumes for export, beginning a period called "The Industry of Pasta".In 1884, the Zátka Brothers's plant in Boršov nad Vltavou was founded, making it Bohemia's first pasta factory.
The art of pasta making and the devotion to the food as a whole has evolved since pasta was first conceptualized. In 2008, it was estimated that Italians ate over 27 kg (60 lb) of pasta per person, per year, easily beating Americans, who ate about 9 kg (20 lb) per person.Pasta is so beloved in Italy that individual consumption exceeds the average production of wheat of the country; thus, Italy frequently imports wheat for pasta making. In contemporary society, pasta is ubiquitous and there is a variety of types in local supermarkets, in many countries. With the worldwide demand for this staple food, pasta is now largely mass-produced in factories and only a tiny proportion is crafted by hand.
Since at least the time ofCato'sDe Agri Cultura, basic pasta dough has been made mostly of wheat flour orsemolina,withdurum wheatused predominantly in the south of Italy andsoft wheatin the north. Regionally other grains have been used, including those from barley, buckwheat, rye, rice, and maize, as well as chestnut and chickpea flours. Liquid, often in the form of eggs, is used to turn the flour into a dough.
To address the needs of people affected bygluten-related disorders(such ascoeliac disease,non-celiac gluten sensitivityandwheat allergysufferers),some recipes use rice ormaizefor making pasta. Grain flours may also be supplemented with cookedpotatoes.
Other additions to the basic flour-liquid mixture may include vegetable purees such as spinach or tomato, mushrooms, cheeses, herbs, spices and other seasonings. While pastas are, most typically, made from unleavened doughs, at least nine different pasta forms are known to use yeast-raised doughs.
Additives in dried, commercially sold pasta include vitamins and minerals that are lost from the durum wheat endosperm during milling. They are added back to the semolina flour once it is ground, creatingenriched flour.Micronutrientsadded may includeniacin(vitamin B3),riboflavin(vitamin B2),folate,thiamine(vitamin B1), andferrous iron.
Fresh pasta is usually locally made with fresh ingredients unless it is destined to be shipped, in which case consideration is given to the spoilage rates of the desired ingredients such as eggs or herbs. Furthermore, fresh pasta is usually made with a mixture of eggs and all-purpose flour or "00" low-gluten flour. Since it contains eggs, it is more tender compared to dried pasta and only takes about half the time to cook.Delicate sauces are preferred for fresh pasta in order to let the pasta take front stage.
Fresh pastas do not expand in size after cooking; therefore, 0.7 kg (1.5 lb) of pasta are needed to serve four people generously.Fresh egg pasta is generally cut into strands of various widths and thicknesses depending on which pasta is to be made (e.g., fettuccine, pappardelle, and lasagne). It is best served with meat, cheese, or vegetables to createfilled pastassuch asravioli,tortellini, andcannelloni. Fresh egg pasta is well known in thePiedmontandEmilia-Romagnaregions of northern Italy. In this area, dough is only made out of egg yolk and flour resulting in a very refined flavor and texture. This pasta is often served simply with butter sauce and thinly sliced truffles that are native to this region. In other areas, such asApulia, fresh pasta can be made without eggs. The only ingredients needed to make the pasta dough are semolina flour and water, which is often shaped intoorecchietteorcavatelli. Fresh pasta forcavatelliis also popular in other places includingSicily. However, the dough is prepared differently: it is made of flour andricotta cheeseinstead.
Dried pasta can also be defined as factory-made pasta because it is usually produced in large amounts that require large machines with superior processing capabilities to manufacture.Dried pasta can be shipped further and has a longer shelf life. The ingredients required to make dried pasta include semolina flour and water. Eggs can be added for flavor and richness, but are not needed to make dried pasta. In contrast to fresh pasta, dried pasta needs to be dried at a low temperature for several days to evaporate all the moisture allowing it to be stored for a longer period. Dried pastas are best served in hearty dishes, such asragùsauces, soups, and casseroles.Once it is cooked, the dried pasta will usually grow to twice its original size. Therefore, approximately 0.5 kg (1 lb) of dried pasta serves up to four people.
Pasta, whether dry or fresh, is eaten after cooking it in hot water. For Italian pasta, which is unsalted, salt is added to the cooking water. This is not the case for Asian wheat noodles, such asudonandlo mein, which are made from salty dough.
In Italy, pasta is often cooked to beal dente, such that it is still firm to the bite. This is because it is then often cooked in the sauce for a short time, which makes it soften further.
There are a number ofurban mythsabout how pasta should be cooked. In fact, it does not generally matter whether pasta is cooked at a lower or a higher temperature, although lower temperatures require more stirring to avoid sticking, and certain stuffed pasta, such as tortellini, break up in higher temperatures.It also does not matter whether salt is added before or after bringing the water to a boil.The amount of salt has no influence on cooking speed.
Pasta is generally served with some type of sauce; the sauce and the type of pasta are usually matched based on consistency and ease of eating. Northern Italian cooking uses less tomato sauce, garlic and herbs, andbéchamel sauceis more common.However, Italian cuisine is best identified by individual regions. Pasta dishes with lighter use of tomato are found inTrentino-Alto AdigeandEmilia-Romagnaregions of northern Italy.In Bologna, the meat-basedBolognese sauceincorporates a small amount of tomato concentrate and a green sauce calledpestooriginates from Genoa. Incentral Italy, there are sauces such astomato sauce,amatriciana,arrabbiata, and the egg-basedcarbonara.
Tomato sauces are also present insouthern Italiancuisine, where they originated. In southern Italy more complex variations include pasta paired with fresh vegetables, olives, capers or seafood. Varieties includeputtanesca,pasta alla Norma(tomatoes, eggplant and fresh or baked cheese),pasta con le sarde(fresh sardines, pine nuts, fennel and olive oil),spaghetti aglio, olio e peperoncino(lit.'spaghetti with garlic, [olive] oil and hot chili peppers'),pasta con i peperoni cruschi(crispy peppers and breadcrumbs).
Pasta can be served also inbroth(pastina, or stuffed pasta, such astortellini,cappellettiandagnolini) or in vegetable soup, typicallyminestroneor bean soup (pasta e fagioli).
Ingredients to make pasta dough include semolina flour, egg, salt and water. Flour is first mounded on a flat surface and then a well in the pile of flour is created. Egg is then poured into the well and a fork is used to mix the egg and flour.There are a variety of ways to shape the sheets of pasta depending on the type required. The most popular types includepenne,spaghetti, andmacaroni.
Kitchen pastamachines, also called pasta makers, are popular with cooks who make large amounts of fresh pasta. The cook feeds sheets of pasta dough into the machine by hand and, by turning ahand crank,rollsthe pasta to thin it incrementally. On the final pass through the pasta machine, the pasta may be directed through a machine 'comb' to shape of the pasta as it emerges.
Semolina flour consists of a protein matrix with entrapped starch granules. Upon the addition of water, during mixing, intermolecular forces allow the protein to form a more ordered structure in preparation for cooking.
Durum wheat is ground into semolina flour which is sorted by optical scanners and cleaned.Pipes allow the flour to move to a mixing machine where it is mixed with warm water by rotating blades. When the mixture is of a lumpy consistency, the mixture is pressed into sheets orextruded. Varieties of pasta such as spaghetti and linguine are cut by rotating blades, while pasta such as penne and fusilli are extruded. The size and shape of the dies in the extruder through which the pasta is pushed determine the shape that results. The pasta is then dried at a high temperature.
The ingredients to make dried pasta usually include water and semolina flour; egg for color and richness (in some types of pasta), and possibly vegetable juice (such as spinach, beet, tomato, carrot), herbs or spices for color and flavor. After mixing semolina flour with warm water the dough is kneaded mechanically until it becomes firm and dry. If pasta is to be flavored, eggs, vegetable juices, and herbs are added at this stage. The dough is then passed into the laminator to be flattened into sheets, then compressed by a vacuum mixer-machine to clear out air bubbles and excess water from the dough until the moisture content is reduced to 12%. Next, the dough is processed in a steamer to kill any bacteria it may contain.
The dough is then ready to be shaped into different types of pasta. Depending on the type of pasta to be made, the dough can either be cut or extruded through dies. The pasta is set in a drying tank under specific conditions of heat, moisture, and time depending on the type of pasta. The dried pasta is then packaged: Fresh pasta is sealed in a clear, airtightplastic containerwith a mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen that inhibits microbial growth and prolongs the product's shelf life; dried pastas are sealed in clear plastic or cardboard packages.
Gluten, the protein found in grains such as wheat, rye, spelt, and barley, contributes to protein aggregation and firm texture of a normally cooked pasta. Gluten-free pasta is produced with wheat flour substitutes, such as vegetable powders, rice, corn, quinoa, amaranth, oats and buckwheat flours.Other possible gluten-free pasta ingredients may includehydrocolloidsto improve cooking pasta with high heat resistance,xanthan gumto retain moisture during storage, or hydrothermally-treatedpolysaccharidemixtures to produce textures similar to those of wheat pasta.
The storage of pasta depends on its processing and extent of drying.Uncooked pasta is kept dry and can sit in the cupboard for a year if airtight and stored in a cool, dry area. Cooked pasta is stored in the refrigerator for a maximum of five days in an airtight container. Adding a couple teaspoons of oil helps keep the food from sticking to itself and the container. Cooked pasta may be frozen for up to two or three months. Should the pasta be dried completely, it can be placed back in the cupboard.
Pasta exhibits a random molecular order rather than a crystalline structure.The moisture content of dried pasta is typically around 12%,indicating that dried pasta will remain a brittle solid until it is cooked and becomes malleable. The cooked product is, as a result, softer, more flexible, and chewy.
Semolina flour is the ground endosperm of durum wheat,producing granules that absorb water during heating and an increase in viscosity due to semi-reordering of starch molecules.
Another major component of durum wheat is protein which plays a large role in pasta dough rheology.Gluten proteins, which include monomeric gliadins and polymeric glutenin, make up the major protein component of durum wheat (about 75–80%).As more water is added and shear stress is applied, gluten proteins take on an elastic characteristic and begin to form strands and sheets.The gluten matrix that results during forming of the dough becomes irreversibly associated during drying as the moisture content is lowered to form the dried pasta product.
Before the mixing process takes place, semolina particles are irregularly shaped and present in different sizes.Semolina particles become hydrated during mixing. The amount of water added to the semolina is determined based on the initial moisture content of the flour and the desired shape of the pasta. The desired moisture content of the dough is around 32% wet basis and will vary depending on the shape of pasta being produced.
The forming process involves the dough entering an extruder in which the rotation of a single or double screw system pushes the dough toward a die set to a specific shape.As the starch granules swell slightly in the presence of water and a low amount of thermal energy, they become embedded within the protein matrix and align along the direction of the shear caused by the extrusion process.
Starch gelatinization and protein coagulation are the major changes that take place when pasta is cooked in boiling water.Protein and starch competing for water within the pasta cause a constant change in structure as the pasta cooks.
In 2015–16, the largest producers of dried pasta wereItaly(3.2 milliontonnes), theUnited States(2 million tonnes),Turkey(1.3 million tons),Brazil(1.2 million tonnes), andRussia(1 million tons).In 2018, Italy was the world's largest exporter of pasta, with $2.9 billion sold, followed byChinawith $0.9 billion.
The largest per capita consumers of pasta in 2015 were Italy (23.5kg/person),Tunisia(16.0kg/person),Venezuela(12.0kg/person) andGreece(11.2kg/person).In 2017, the United States was the largest consumer of pasta with 2.7 milliontons.
When cooked, plain pasta is composed of 62% water, 31%carbohydrates(26%starch), 6%protein, and 1%fat. A100-gram (3+1⁄2oz) portion ofunenrichedcooked pasta provides 670 kilojoules (160 kcal) offood energyand a moderate level ofmanganese(15% of theDaily Value), but few othermicronutrients.
Pasta has a lowerglycemic indexthan many other staple foods in Western culture, such as bread, potatoes, and rice.
As pasta was introduced elsewhere in the world, it became incorporated into a number of local cuisines, which often have significantly different ways of preparation from those of Italy. When pasta was introduced to different nations, each culture would adopt a different style of preparation. In the past,ancient Romanscooked pasta-like foods by frying rather than boiling. It was also sweetened with honey or tossed withgarum. Ancient Romans also enjoyed baking it in rich pies, called timballi.
Countries such asSomalia,Ethiopia, andEritreawere introduced to pasta from colonization and occupation through theItalian Empire, in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Southern Somalia has a dish calledsuugowhich has a meat sauce, typically beef based, with their localxawaashspice mix.In Ethiopia, pasta can also be served overinjera, where it is also eaten with hands instead of cutlery. A dollop of bolognese withberberespice blend can be served on the side.
InHong Kong, the local Chinese have adopted pasta, primarilyspaghettiandmacaroni, as an ingredient in theHong Kong–style Western cuisine. Incha chaan teng, macaroni is cooked in water and served in broth withhamorfrankfurter sausages, peas,black mushrooms, and optionallyeggs, reminiscent ofnoodle soupdishes. This is often a course for breakfast or light lunch fare.These affordable dining shops evolved from American food rations after World War II due to lack of supplies, and they continue to be popular for people with modest means.
Two common spaghetti dishes served inJapanare theBologneseand theNaporitan.
InNepal, macaroni has been adopted and cooked in a Nepalese way. Boiled macaroni is sautéed along withcumin,turmeric, finely chopped green chillies, onions and cabbage.
In thePhilippines, spaghetti is often served with a distinct, slightly sweet yet flavorful meat sauce (based on tomato sauce or paste and ketchup), frequently containing ground beef or pork and diced hot dogs and ham. It is spiced with soy sauce, heavy quantities of garlic, dried oregano sprigs and sometimes with dried bay leaf, and topped with grated cheese. Other pasta dishes are also cooked nowadays in Filipino kitchens, such as carbonara, pasta with alfredo sauce, and baked macaroni. These dishes are often cooked for gatherings and special occasions, such as family reunions or Christmas. Macaroni or other tube pasta is also used insopas, a local chicken broth soup.
InArmenia, a popular traditional pasta called arishta is first dry pan toasted so as slightly golden, and then boiled to make the pasta dish which is often topped with yogurt, butter and garlic.
InGreece,hilopittesis considered one of the finest types of dried egg pasta. It is cooked either in tomato sauce or with various kinds of casserole meat. It is usually served with Greek cheese of any type.
InSweden, spaghetti is traditionally served withköttfärssås(Bolognese sauce), which is minced meat in a thick tomato soup.
Twice a year, hundreds of people inSardiniamake a nighttime 20-mile (32 km)pilgrimagefrom the city ofNuoroto the village of Lula for the biannual Feast of San Francesco, where they eat what is possibly the world's rarest pasta.Su filindeu(lit.'threads of God'in theSardinian language) is an incredibly intricate semolina pasta made by just three women who only make the pasta for the festival.
Pasta is also widespread in theSouthern Cone, as well most of the rest ofBrazil, mostly pervasive in the areas with mild to strong Italian roots, such as Central Argentina, and the eight southernmost Brazilian states (wheremacaroniis calledmacarrão, and more general pasta is known under the umbrella termmassa,lit.'dough', together with someJapanese noodles, such asbifumrice vermicelliandyakisoba, which also entered general taste). The local names for the pasta are many times varieties of the Italian names, such asñoquis/nhoqueforgnocchi,ravioles/raviólifor ravioli, ortallarines/talharimfor tagliatelle, although some of the most popular pasta in Brazil, such as theparafuso('screw', 'bolt'), a specialty of the country'spasta salads, are also way different both in name and format from its closest Italian relatives, in this case thefusilli.
In theUnited States,fettuccine Alfredois a popular Italian-style dish.
InAustralia, boscaiola sauce, based on bacon and mushrooms, is popular.
Although numerous variations of ingredients for different pasta products are known, in Italy the commercial manufacturing and labeling of pasta for sale as a food product within the country is highly regulated.Italian regulations recognize three categories of commercially manufactured dried pasta as well as manufactured fresh and stabilized pasta:
The Italian regulations under Presidential Decree No. 187 apply only to the commercial manufacturing of pastas both made and sold within Italy. They are not applicable either to pasta made for export from Italy or to pastas imported into Italy from other countries. They also do not apply to pastas made in restaurants.
In the US, regulations for commercial pasta products occur both at the federal and state levels. At the Federal level, consistent with Section 341 of theFederal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act,theFood and Drug Administration(FDA) has definedstandards of identityfor what are broadly termedmacaroni products. These standards appear in 21CFRPart 139.Those regulations state the requirements for standardizedmacaroni productsof 15 specific types of dried pastas, including the ingredients and product-specific labeling for conforming products sold in the US, including imports:
The federal regulations under 21 CFR Part 139 are standards for the products noted, not mandates. Following the FDA's standards, a number of states have, at various times, enacted their own statutes that serve as mandates for various forms of macaroni and noodle products that may be produced or sold within their borders. Many of these specifically require that the products sold within those states be of the enriched form.According to a report released by the Connecticut Office of Legislative Research, when Connecticut's law was adopted in 1972 that mandated certain grain products, including macaroni products, sold within the state to be enriched it joined 38 to 40 other states in adopting the federal standards as mandates.
Beyond the FDA's standards and state statutes, theUnited States Department of Agriculture(USDA), which regulates federal school nutrition programs,broadly requires grain and bread products served under these programs either beenrichedorwhole grain(see 7 CFR 210.10 (k) (5)). This includes macaroni and noodle products that are served as part the category grains/breads requirements within those programs. The USDA also allows that enriched macaroni productsfortifiedwith protein may be used and counted to meet either a grains/breads or meat/alternative meat requirement, but not as both components within the same meal.
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