Indonesian cuisine

Indonesian cuisineis a collection of various regionalculinarytraditions that formed in the archipelagic nation ofIndonesia. There are a wide variety of recipes and cuisines in part because Indonesia is composed of approximately 6,000 populatedislandsof the total 17,508 in the world's largestarchipelago,with more than600 ethnic groups.
There are many regional cuisines, often based uponindigenous culturewith some foreign influences.
In 2023/2024,TasteAtlasrated Indonesian cuisine as the sixth best cuisine in the world. Indonesian cuisine is placed behindItalian,Japanese,Greek,Portuguese, andChinese cuisines, making Indonesian the best-rated cuisine inSoutheast Asia.
Indonesia has around 5,350 traditional recipes, with 30 of them considered the most important.Indonesia's cuisine may includerice,noodleandsoupdishes inmodest local eateriesto street-sidesnacksand top-dollar plates.
Indonesian cuisine varies greatly by region and has many different influences.Sumatrancuisine, for example, often hasMiddle EasternandIndianinfluences, featuring curried meat andvegetablessuch asgulaiandcurry, whileJavanese cuisineis mostly indigenous,with some hint ofChinese influence.
The cuisines ofEastern Indonesiaare similar toPolynesian and Melanesian cuisine. Elements of Chinese cuisine can be seen in Indonesian cuisine: foods such asnoodles,meat balls,spring rolls, andwontonshave been completely assimilated.
Throughout its history, Indonesia has been involved in trade due to its location and natural resources. Additionally, Indonesia's indigenous techniques and ingredients were influenced byIndia, theMiddle East,China, and finallyEurope. Spanish and Portuguese traders broughtNew Worldproduceeven before the Dutch came to colonise most of thearchipelago. The Indonesian islandsthe Moluccas(Maluku), which are famed as "the Spice Islands", also contributed to the introduction of native spices, such asclovesandnutmeg, to Indonesian and global cuisine.
Indonesian cuisine often demonstrates complexflavour,acquired from certain ingredients andbumbuspices mixture. Indonesian dishes have rich flavours; most often described assavory,hotandspicy, and also combination of basictastessuch assweet,salty,sourandbitter. Most Indonesians favour hot and spicy food, thussambal, Indonesian hot and spicychili saucewith various optional ingredients, notablyshrimp paste,shallots, and others, is a staple condiment at all Indonesian tables.Seven main Indonesiancookingmethods arefrying,grilling,roasting,dry roasting,sautéing,boilingandsteaming.
Some popular Indonesian dishes such asnasi goreng,gado-gado,satay,andsotoareubiquitousin the country and are considered national dishes. The officialnational dishof Indonesia istumpeng, chosen in 2014 byIndonesian Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economyas the dish that binds the diversity of Indonesia's various culinary traditions.Later in 2018, the same ministry has chosen 5 national dish of Indonesia; they aresoto, rendang, satay, nasi goreng, andgado-gado.
Today, some popular dishes that originated in Indonesia are now common to neighbouring countries, Malaysia and Singapore. Indonesian dishes such assatay, beefrendang, andsambalare favoured inMalaysiaandSingapore. Soy-based dishes, such as variations oftofuandtempeh, are also very popular. Tempeh is regarded as aJavaneseinvention, a local adaptation of soy-based food fermentation and production. Another fermented food isoncom, similar in some ways to tempeh but using a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and particularly popular inWest Java.
Indonesian cuisine has a long history—although most of it is not well-documented, and relied heavily on local practice and oral traditions. A rare instance is demonstrated byJavanese cuisinethat somewhat has quite a well-documented culinary tradition. The diversity ranges from ancientbakar batuor stone-grilled yams and boar practiced byPapuan tribesof eastern Indonesia, to sophisticated contemporary Indonesian fusion cuisine. The ethnic diversity of Indonesian archipelago provides an eclectic combination — mixing local Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, Minang, Malay and other native cuisine traditions, with centuries worth of foreign contacts with Indian traders, Chinese migrants and Dutch colonials.
Rice has been an essential staple for Indonesian society, as bas-reliefs of 9th centuryBorobudurandPrambanandescribes rice farming in ancient Java. Ancient dishes were mentioned in many Javanese inscriptions and historians have succeeded in deciphering some of them. The inscriptions fromKingdom of Mataramera circa 8th to 10th century mentioned several ancient dishes, among others arehadaŋan haraŋ(minced water buffalo meat satay, similar with today Balinesesate lilit),hadaŋan madura(water buffalo meat simmered with sweet palm sugar), anddundu puyengan(eel seasoned with lemon basil).Also variousharaŋ-haraŋ(grilled meats) eitherceleṅ/wök(pork),hadahan/kbo(water buffalo),kidaŋ/knas(deer) orwḍus(goat).Ancient beverages includenalaka rasa(sugarcane juice),jati wangi(jasmine beverage), andkinca(tamarind juice). Also variouskuluban(boiled vegetables served in spices, similar with todayurap) andphalamula(boiled yams and tubers served with liquid palm sugar).Other ancient vegetable dishes includerumwah-rumwah(lalap),dudutan(raw vegetables) andtetis.
The 9th century Old JavaneseKakawin Ramayanamentioned cooking technique asTrijataofferedSitasome food (canto 17.101); scrumptious food oflanduga tatla-tila(cooked with oil) andmodakanda sagula(sugareddelicacies).
Several foods were mentioned in several Javanese inscriptions dated from the 10th to 15th centuries. Some of this dishes are identified with present-day Javanese foods. Among others arepecel,pindang,rarawwan(rawon),rurujak(rujak),kurupuk(krupuk), sweets likewajikanddodol, also beverages likedawet.
In the 15th century Sundanese manuscriptSanghyang Siksa Kandang Karesian, it was mentioned the commonSundanese foodflavours of that times which includes;lawana(salty),kaduka(hot and spicy),tritka(bitter),amba(sour),kasaya(savoury), andmadura(sweet).
By the 13th to 15th century, coastal Indonesian polities began to absorb culinary influences fromIndiaand the Middle East, as evidence with the adoption ofcurry-like recipes in the region. This was especially affirmative in the coastal towns ofAceh,Minangkabaulands of West Sumatra, andMalayports of Sumatra and Malay peninsula. Subsequently, those culinary traditions displayed typical Indian culinary influences, such askare(curry),roti caneandgulai. This also went hand in hand with the adoption of Islamic faith, thus encouragedhalalMuslim dietary law that omits pork. On the other hand, the indigenous inhabitant that resides inland—such as theBataksand Dayaks, retains their older Austronesian culinary traditions, which incorporatebushmeat, pork andbloodin their daily diet.
According to the 17th century account ofRijklof van Goens, the ambassador of theVOCforSultan Agung's JavaneseMataram court,the techniques of meat processing (sheep, goats, and buffalo) during celebration in Java, was by grilling and frying the seasoned meat. Unlike European, the Javanese primarily use coconut oil instead of butter.
Chinese immigrantshas settled in Indonesian archipelago as early asMajapahitperiod circa 15th century CE, and accelerated during Dutch colonial period. The Chinese settlers introducedstir-fryingtechnique that required the use of Chinesewokand small amount of cooking oil.They also introduced some new Chinese cuisine—including soy sauce,noodles and soybean processing technique to make tofu. Subsequently, soybean processing led to the possibly accidental discovery oftempeh(fermented soybean cake). The earliest known reference to tempeh appeared in 1815 in the Javanese manuscript ofSerat Centhini.
The vigor ofspice tradeduring theAge of Discoveryhas brought European traders to Indonesian shores. Subsequently,European colonialismwas established in the 19th centuryDutch East Indies. The influences of European cuisine—most notably the Portuguese and Dutch, has introduced European techniques, especially in bread-making, pastries, cookies and cake-baking.
Indonesian culinary tradition has been exposed to various influences. Regarding the method of food processing techniques, each region has developed a specificity that ultimately leads to localization of regional taste.
Indonesian traditional meals usually consists ofsteamed riceas staple, surrounded by vegetables and soup and meat or fish side dishes. In a typical family meal, the family members gather around the table filled with steamed rice and several other dishes.Each dish is placed in a separate communal large plate or in bowls. Each of these dishes has its own serving spoons, used only to take parts of the dishes from the communal plate into one's own personal plate. Each of the family members has their own personal plate that is first filled with steamed rice. Usually the oldest family member or the husband has the right to initiate the meal,followed by the rest of the family to help themselves with the dishes. Each of them take some portion of dishes from the communal plates into their own individual plates.
On their personal plate, the steamed rice will soon be surrounded by two, three or more dishes; vegetables and fish or meat, and maybe some fried dishes,sambalandkrupuk. In Indonesian customs — unlike in Japanese counterpart — it is quite acceptable to be seen to mix the different flavoured dishes in a single personal plate during consumption. A practice commonly found innasi campur,nasi Padang, or during a buffet. The soupy dish might be served in a separate small personal bowl. Today in contemporary Indonesian restaurants, the set menu is often offered. This has led to the personal serving practice, in a similar fashion to those ofJapanese cuisine, with a personal plate on a tray, a rattan or bamboo container each with a separate small portion of dishes surrounding the rice. This can be found in the presentation of nasi Bali.
Indonesian meals are commonly eaten with the combination of aspoonin the right hand andforkin the left hand (to push the food onto the spoon). Unlike the European dining custom,knivesare absent from the dining table, thus most of the ingredients such as vegetables and meat are already cut into bite-size pieces prior to cooking.Although, in many parts of the country, such asWest Java,GorontaloandWest Sumatra, it is also common to eat with one's bare hands.
In restaurants or households that commonly use bare hands to eat, such as seafood food stalls, traditionalSundaneseandMinangkabaurestaurants, or East Javanesepecel lele(friedcatfishwithsambal) andayam goreng(fried chicken) food stalls,kobokanis usually served along with the food.Kobokanis a bowl of tap water with a slice of lime in it to give a fresh scent, this bowl of water is not intended for consumption, rather it is used to wash one's hand before and after eating.
Eating withchopsticksis generally only found in food stalls or restaurants serving Indonesian adaptations of Chinese cuisine, such asbakmieormie ayam(chicken noodle) withpangsit(wonton),mie goreng(fried noodles), andkwetiau goreng(fried flatrice noodles).
Rice is a staple for all classes in contemporaryIndonesia,and it holds the central place in Indonesian culture: it shapes the landscape; is sold at markets; and is served in most meals both as a savoury and a sweet food. The importance of rice in Indonesian culture is demonstrated through the reverence ofDewi Sri, the rice goddess of ancientJavaandBali. Traditionally the agricultural cycles linked to rice cultivations were celebrated through rituals, such asSeren Taunrice harvest festival.
Rice is most often eaten as plain rice with just a few protein and vegetable dishes as side dishes. It is also served asnasi uduk(rice cooked incoconut milk),nasi kuning(rice cooked with coconut milk andturmeric),ketupat(rice steamed in woven packets of coconut fronds),lontong(rice steamed inbananaleaves),intiporrengginang(rice crackers), desserts,vermicelli,noodles,arak beras(rice wine), andnasi goreng(fried rice).Nasi gorengis omnipresent in Indonesia and considered anational dish.
Rice was only incorporated into diets as either the technology to grow it, or the ability to buy it from elsewhere, was gained. Evidence of wild rice on the island ofSulawesidates from 3000 BCE. Evidence for the earliest cultivation come from the eighth century stone inscriptions from the central island ofJava, which shows that kings levied taxes in rice. The images of rice cultivation, rice barns, and pestmiceinfesting a ricefield is evident in Karmawibhanga bas-reliefs ofBorobudur. Divisions of labour between men, women, and animals that are still in place in Indonesian rice cultivation, were carved into relief friezes on the ninth centuryPrambanan templesinCentral Java: awater buffaloattached to a plough; women planting seedlings and pounding grain; and a man carrying sheaves of rice on each end of a pole across his shoulders (pikulan). In the sixteenth century, Europeans visiting the Indonesian islands saw rice as a new prestige food served to the aristocracy during ceremonies and feasts.
Rice production in Indonesian history is linked to the development ofirontools and the domestication ofwild Asian water buffaloaswater buffalofor cultivation of fields andmanurefor fertiliser. Rice production requires exposure to the sun. Once covered in dense forest, much of the Indonesian landscape has been gradually cleared for permanent fields and settlements as rice cultivation developed over the last fifteen hundred years.
Wheatis not a native plant to Indonesia. Through imports and foreign influences — most notably Chinese and Dutch — Indonesians began to develop a taste for wheat-based foodstuff, especially Chinesenoodles, Indianroti, and Dutchbread. Other than common steamed rice, the Chinese in Indonesia also considered noodles,bakpaoandcakweas staples. Yet in Indonesia, especially in Java and Sumatra, the rice culture was so prevalent that sometimes these wheat-based dishes, such as noodles are treated as side dishes and are consumed with rice, while others such as Chinese buns andcakweare treated as snacks. The European, especially the Portuguese and the Dutch, introduced bread and various type of bakery and pastry. These European staples have now become alternatives for a quick breakfast.
The Indonesian wheat consumption reached a new height after the advent of Indonesianinstant noodleindustry back in the 1970s. Since then Indonesia has become one of the world's major producers and consumers of instant noodles. Indonesia is the world's second largest instant noodle market only after China, with demand reaching 12.54 billion servings in 2018,Today, instant noodles have become a staple in Indonesian households for quick hot meals. Certain brands such asIndomiehave become household names.
Other staple foods in Indonesia include a number of starchytuberssuch asyam,sweet potato,potato,taroandcassava. Starchy fruit such asbreadfruitandjackfruitand grains such asmaizeare eaten. Asagocongeecalledpapedais a staple food especially inMalukuandPapua. Sago is often mixed with water and cooked as a simple pancake. Next to sago, people of eastern Indonesia consume wild tubers as staple food.
Many types of tubers such astalas(a type of taro but larger and more bland) and breadfruit are native to Indonesia, while others were introduced from elsewhere.Yamwas introduced from Africa; while potato, sweet potato, cassava and maize were introduced from the Americas through Spanish influence and reached Java in the 17th century. Cassava is usually boiled, steamed, fried or processed as a popular snackkripik singkong(cassava crackers). Dried cassava, locally known astiwul, is an alternate staple food in arid areas of Java such as Gunung Kidul and Wonogiri, while other roots and tubers are eaten especially in hard times. Maize is eaten in drier regions such asMaduraand islands east of theWallace Line, such as the Lesser Sunda Islands.
A number ofleaf vegetablesare widely used in Indonesian cuisine, such askangkung,spinach,genjer,melinjo,papayaandcassavaleaves. These are often sauteed withgarlic. Spinach and corn are used in simple clear watery vegetable soupsayur bayam beningflavoured withtemu kunci, garlic andshallot. Clear vegetable soup includessayur oyong. Other vegetables likecalabash,chayote,kelor,yardlong bean,eggplant,gambasandbelustru, are cut and used in stir fries, curries and soups likesayur asem,sayur lodehorlaksa.Daun ubi tumbukis pounded cassava leaves dish, commonly found inSumatra,KalimantanandSulawesi.Sayur sopiscabbage,cauliflower,potato,carrot, withmacaronispiced withblack pepper, garlic and shallot in chicken or beefbroth. The similar mixed vegetables are also stir fried ascap cai, a popular dish of theChinese Indonesian cuisine.Tumis kangkungis a popular stir-fried water spinach dish.
Vegetables likewinged bean,tomato,cucumberand the small variety ofbitter melonare commonly eaten raw, like inlalab. The large bitter melon variety is usually boiled.Kecombrangandpapayaflower buds are a common Indonesian vegetable.Urapis seasoned and spiced shreddedcoconutmixed together with vegetables,asinan betawiare preserved vegetables.Gado-gadoandpecelare a salad of boiled vegetables dressed in apeanut-based spicy sauce, whilekaredokis its raw version.
Vegetarianismis well represented in Indonesia, as there is a wide selection of vegetarian dishes and meat substitutes that may be served. According to Euromonitor International survei conducted in 2018, Indonesia has the third-highest rate of vegetarianism growth.Dishes such asgado-gado,karedok,ketoprak,tauge goreng,pecel,urap,rujakandasinanare vegetarian dishes. However, dishes that usepeanut sauce, such asgado-gado, karedokorketoprak, might contain small amounts ofshrimp paste, called "terasi", for flavor. Shrimp paste is also often used to add flavour to spicysambalchili paste served withlalap, assorted fresh vegetables. Fermentedsoyproducts, such astempeh, "tahu" (tofu) andoncomare prevalent as meat substitutes and as a source of vegetableprotein. In contemporary fusion cuisine, tempeh is used to replace meat patties and served as tempeh burgers.
Most Indonesians do not practice strict vegetarianism and may consume vegetables or vegetarian dishes for their taste, preference, economic and health reasons.Nevertheless, there are small numbers ofIndonesian Buddhiststhat practice vegetarianism for religious reasons.
The main animalproteinsources in the Indonesian diet are mostlypoultryandfish, while meats such asbeef,water buffalo,goatandmuttonare commonly found in the Indonesian marketplaces.
The most common poultry consumed ischickenandduckto a lesser amount,pigeon, quail and wild swamp bird such aswatercockare also consumed. Traditionally, Indonesians breed free-range chickens in the villages known asayam kampung(village chicken). Compared to common domesticated chickens, these village chickens are thinner and their meat are slightly firmer. Various recipes ofayam goreng(fried chicken) andayam bakar(grilled chicken) are commonly found throughout Indonesia. Other than frying or grilling, chicken might be cooked as soup, such assup ayamandsoto ayam, or cooked incoconut milkasopor ayam. Chickensatayis also commonly found in Indonesia; it is barbecued on skewers and served with peanut sauce.Popular chicken recipes includeayam goreng kalasanfromYogyakarta,ayam bakar padangfromPadang,ayam taliwangfrom Lombok,ayam betutufromBali, andayam goreng lengkuas(galangal fried chicken).
Beefandgoat meatare the most commonly consumed meats in Indonesia, whilekerbau(water buffalo) anddomestic sheepare also consumed to a lesser degree, since water buffalo are more useful for ploughing thericepaddies, while sheep are kept for their wool or to be used for the traditional entertainment ofram fighting. As a country with anIslamicmajority, Indonesian Muslims follow the Islamichalaldietary law which forbids the consumption ofpork.
In other parts of Indonesia where there are significant numbers of non-Muslims, boar and pork are commonly consumed. Dishes made of non-halal meats can be found in provinces such asBali,North Sumatra,North Sulawesi,East Nusa Tenggara,Maluku,West Kalimantan,Central Kalimantan,North Kalimantan,West Papua,Papua, and also in theChinatownsof major Indonesian cities. Today to cater for the larger Muslim market, most of the restaurants and eating establishments in Indonesia put halal signs that signify that they serve neither pork nor any non-halal meats, nor do they uselardin their cooking. With an overwhelming Muslim population and a relatively small population of cattle, today Indonesians rely heavily on importedbeeffromAustralia,New Zealandand theUnited Stateswhich often results in a scarcity and raised prices of beef in the Indonesian market.
The meat can be cooked in rich spices andcoconut milksuch as beef, goat or lambrendang, skewered, seasoned and grilled chicken or mutton assatay, barbecued meats, or sliced and cooked in rich broth soup assoto. Muttons and variousoffalscan be use as ingredients for soto soup orgulaicurry. In Bali, with its Hindu majority, thebabi guling(pig roast) is popular among locals as well as non-Muslim visitors, while theBatakpeople ofNorth Sumatrahavebabi panggangthat is a similar dish.Wild boarare also commonly consumed inPapua. The meat also can be processed to be thinly-sliced and dried asdendeng(jerky), or made into abon (meat floss).Dendeng celengis Indonesian "dried, jerked" boar meat.Raisedrabbitsare also consumed as food in mountainous region of Indonesia.
Some game meat such asvenisonmight be sold and consumed in some areas of Indonesia. InKalimantan,West Nusa Tenggara,East Nusa Tenggara, andPapua,deermeat can be found, usually wildly acquired by hunting. Other unusual and often controversial exotic meats includefrog legsandsoftshell turtleconsumed inChinese IndonesianandJavanesecuisine,horse meatconsumed inYogyakarta,West Nusa Tenggara, andSouth Sulawesi,turtlemeat consumed inBaliand Eastern Indonesia,snake,biawak(monitor lizard),paniki(fruit bats),dog meat,cat meat, and fieldratsconsumed inMinahasancuisine ofNorth Sulawesi.Batakcuisine ofNorth Sumatrais also familiar with cooking dog meat, while its consumption is diminishing in Central Java. Exotic and rare game meat such ascrocodile,squirrel,civet, andmonkeymight also be sold and consumed in wilder parts of Indonesia.
In an archipelagic nation,seafoodis abundant, and it is commonly consumed especially by Indonesian residents in coastal areas. Fish is especially popular in the eastern Indonesian regions ofSulawesiandMaluku, where most of the people work as fishermen. Both areas have a vast sea which brings them many different kinds of seafood.
Popular seafood in Indonesian cuisine includesskipjack tuna,tuna,mackerel,pomfret,wahoo,milkfish,trevally,rabbitfish,abalistes,amberjacks,rastrelliger,yellowtail scad,nemipterus japonicus,john dory,garoupa,red snapper,anchovy,swordfish,shark,stingray,squidorcuttlefish,shrimp,crab,blue crab, andmussel.
Seafood is commonly consumed across Indonesia, but it is especially popular inMaluku islands,Gorontalo Peninsulaand Minahasa (North Sulawesi) cuisine. Seafood is usually grilled, boiled or fried.Ikan bakaris a popular grilled fish dish that can be found throughout Indonesia. The method of cooking like stir fried in spices or in soup is also possible.Salted fishis preserved seafood through cured in salt, it also can be found in Indonesian market.
Fresh water fisheries can be found in inland regions or in areas with large rivers or lakes. Fresh water fishes are popular inSundanese cuisineof West Java, caught or raised inLake TobainBataklands ofNorth Sumatra, or taken from large rivers inMalaylands ofRiau,JambiandSouth Sumatra, or large rivers inKalimantan. Popular fresh water fish among others;carp,gourami,catfish,pangasius,snakehead,trichogaster,climbing gourami,Nile tilapia, andMozambique tilapia.
Unlike Thailand, in Indonesiainsectis not a popular food ingredient nor widely available as street food. In Java, locals do catch, breed and sell certain species of insects, usually sold fresh or alive as pet bird feed. Nevertheless, traditionally several cultures in Indonesia are known to consume insects, especiallygrasshopper,cricket,termite, also thelarvaeofsago palm weevil,beeanddragonfly. In Java and Kalimantan, grasshoppers and crickets are usually lightly battered and deep fried inpalm oilas crispykripiksnack.Smaller grasshoppers, crickets and termites might be made asrempeyekbatter cracker which resembles insect fossil. During monsoon rainy season, flying termites are abundant being attracted to lightbulbs to mate. Locals usually put a bucket of water under the lamp to trap the flying termites, pluck the wings, and roast the termites as additional protein-rich snack. InBanyuwangi, East Java, there is a specialty dish calledbotoktawon(honeybee botok), which isbeehivesthat contains bee larvae, being seasoned in shredded coconut and spices, wrapped insidebanana leafpackage and steamed.Dayaktribes of Kalimantan, also Moluccans and Papuan tribes in Eastern Indonesia, are known to consumesulat sagu(lit. sagoo caterpillar) or larvae ofsago palm weevil. This protein-rich larvae are considered a delicacy inPapua, and often being roasted prior of consumption. Locals may also commonly eat the larvae raw or alive.InBali, dragonflies are also consumed by processing them intopepes.
"Rempah" is the Indonesian word for spice, while "bumbu" is the Indonesian word for a spice mixture or seasoning, and it commonly appears in the names of certain spice mixtures, sauces and seasoning pastes.
Known throughout the world as the "Spice Islands", the Indonesian islands ofMalukucontributed to the introduction of its native spices to world cuisine. Spices such asnutmeg or mace,clove,pandan leaves,keluwakandgalangalare native to Indonesia. It is likely thatblack pepper,turmeric,lemongrass,shallot,cinnamon,candlenut,corianderandtamarindwere introduced fromIndia, whileginger,scallionsandgarlicwere introduced fromChina. Those spices from mainland Asia were introduced early, in ancient times, thus they became integral ingredients in Indonesian cuisine.
In ancient times, thekingdom of Sundaand the latersultanate of Bantenwere well known as the world's major producers ofblack pepper. The maritime empires ofSrivijayaandMajapahitalso benefited from the lucrative spice trade between the spice islands with China and India. Later theDutch East India Companycontrolled the spice trade between Indonesia and the world.
The Indonesian fondness for hot and spicy food was enriched when the Spanish introducedchili pepperfrom theNew Worldto the region in the 16th century. After that hot and spicysambalshave become an important part of Indonesian cuisine.
Indonesia has perhaps the richest variants of sambals. In the Indonesian archipelago, there are as many as 300 varieties ofsambal.The intensity ranges from mild to very hot. Sambal evolved into many variants across Indonesia, ones of the most popular issambal terasi(sambal belacan) andsambal mangga muda(unripe mango sambal).Sambal terasiis a combination of chilies, sharp fermented shrimp paste called terasi, tangy lime juice, sugar and salt all pounded up with mortar and pestle.Dabu-dabuis a combinedGorontaloandNorth Sulawesistyle of sambal with chopped freshtomato, chili, andlimejuice.
Sambal, especially sambal ulek, or sambal terasi can also become a base ingredient for many dishes, such as sambal raja (a dish from Kutai), terong balado, dendeng balado, ayam bumbu rujak, sambal goreng ati, among other things.
Soy sauceis also an important flavourings in Indonesian cuisine.Kecap asin(salty or common soy sauce) was adopted from Chinese cuisine, however Indonesian developed their ownkecap manis(sweet soy sauce)with generous addition ofpalm sugarinto soy sauce. Sweet soy sauce is an importantmarinadefor barbecued meat and fish, such as satay and grilled fishes. Sweet soy sauce is also an important ingredient forsemur, Indonesianstew.
One of the main characteristics of Indonesian cuisine is the wide application ofpeanutsin many Indonesian signature dishes, such assatay,gado-gado,karedok,ketoprak, andpecel. All of these dishes applied ample ofbumbu kacang(peanut sauce) for flavouring.Gado-gadoandsatay, for example, have been considered Indonesian national dishes.
Introduced fromMexicobyPortugueseandSpanishmerchants in the 16th century, peanuts assumed a place within Indonesian cuisine as a key ingredient. Peanuts thrived in the tropical environment of Southeast Asia, and today they can be found, roasted and chopped finely, in many recipes. Whole, halved, or crushed peanuts are used to garnish a variety of dishes, and used inmarinadesand dipping sauces such assambal kacang(a mixture of ground chilies and fried peanuts) forotak-otakorketan.Peanut oil, extracted from peanuts, is one of the most commonly used cooking oils in Indonesia.
Bumbu kacangorpeanut saucerepresents a sophisticated, earthy seasoning rather than a sweet, gloppy sauce.It should have a delicate balance of savoury, sweet, sour, and spicy flavours, acquired from various ingredients, such as fried peanuts,gula jawa(coconut sugar),garlic,shallots,ginger,tamarind,lemonjuice,lemongrass,salt,chilli,peppercorns, sweetsoy sauce, ground together and mixed with water to form the right consistency. The secret to good peanut sauce is "not too thick and not too watery". Indonesian peanut sauce tends to be less sweet than theThaiversion, which is a hybrid adaptation.Gado-gadois a popular dish particularly associated withbumbu kacang, and is eaten across Indonesia.
Coconutsare abundant in tropical Indonesia, and since ancient times Indonesians developed many and various uses for this plant. The broad use ofcoconut milkin dishes throughout the archipelago is another common characteristic of Indonesian cuisine. It is used in recipes ranging from savoury dishes – such asrendang,soto,gulai,mie koclok,sayur lodeh,gudeg, andopor ayam– todesserts– such asescendolandes doger.
The use of coconut milk is not exclusive to Indonesian cuisine. It can also be found in Indian, Samoan, Thai, Malaysian, Filipino, and Brazilian cuisines. Nonetheless, the use of coconut milk is quite extensive in Indonesia, especially inMinangkabau cuisineandGorontalese cuisine, although inMinahasan(North Sulawesi) cuisine, coconut milk is generally absent, except in Minahasan cakes and desserts such asklappertaart.
In Indonesian cuisine, two types of coconut milk are found, thin coconut milk and thick coconut milk. The difference depends on the water and oil content. Thin coconut milk is usually used for soups such assayur lodehandsoto, while the thicker variety is used forrendangand desserts. It can be made from freshly shredded coconut meat in traditional markets, or can be found processed in cartons at the supermarket.
After the milk has been extracted from the shredded coconut flesh to make coconut milk, theampas kelapa(leftover coconut flesh) can still be used inurap, seasoned and spiced shredded coconut meat mixed together with vegetables. Leftover shredded coconut can also be cooked,sauteedand seasoned to makeserundeng, almost powdery sweet and spicy finely shredded coconut.Kerisikpaste, added to thickenrendang, is another use of coconut flesh. To acquire a rich taste, some households insist on using freshly shredded coconut, instead of leftover, forurapandserundeng.Serundengcan be mixed with meat in dishes such asserundeng daging(beef serundeng) or sprinkled on top of other dishes such assotoorketan(sticky rice). An example of the heavy use of coconut isburasafromMakassar, rice wrapped in banana leaf cooked with coconut milk and sprinkled with powdered coconut similar toserundeng.
Most of the common Indonesian dishes are named according to their main ingredients and cooking method. For example,ayam gorengisayam(chicken) andgoreng(frying), which denotesfried chicken.Mie gorengis fried noodle,ikan bakaris grilled fish,udang rebusis boiled shrimp,babi panggangis roasted pork andtumis kangkungis stir friedwater spinach. Cooking methods in Indonesian kitchen aregoreng(frying) either in a small amount of oil ordeep fryingwith a lot of cooking oil,tumis(stir frying),sangrai(sautéing). Roasting methods arebakar(grilling) usually employingcharcoal,firewood, or coconut shell,panggang(baking/roasting) usually refer to baking employingoven. Other methods arerebus(boiling),kukus(steaming) andasap/salai(smoking).
The fire used in cooking can be either a strong fire or a small fire for slow cooking. Cookingnasi gorengusually employs strong fire, while authenticrendangfor example requires a small fire for slow cooking of beef, spices, and coconut milk until the meat is caramelised and all the coconut milk's liquid has evaporated. Traditional Indonesiandapur(kitchen) usually employs firewood-fuelledkitchen stove, while the contemporary household today usesliquefied petroleum gas-fuelled stove or an electric stove. The ingredients could be cut into pieces, sliced thinly, or ground into a paste. Cooking utensils arewajan(wok),penggorengan(frying pan),panci(cauldron),knives, several types ofspoonandfork,parutan(shredder),cobekandulekan(stonemortar and pestle). Traditionally Indonesians use a stone mortar and a pestle to grind the spices and ingredients into coarse or fine pastes. Today most households useblenderorfood processorfor the task. Traditional Indonesian cooking wares are usually made from stone,earthenwarepottery, wood, and woven bamboo or a rattan container or filter, while contemporary cooking wares, plates and containers use metals – iron, tin, stainless steel, aluminium, ceramics, plastics, and also glass.
Initially during the early years of Indonesian independence, the ubiquitous and highly popularnasi gorengwas considered thenational dishof the republic, albeit at that time was unofficial.Its simplicity and versatility has contributed to its popularity and made it as a staple among Indonesian households—colloquially considered the most "democratic" dish since the absence of an exact and rigid recipe has allowed people to do anything they want with it.
Nasi gorengthat is commonly consumed daily in Indonesian households was considered the quintessential dish that represent an Indonesian family. It is in the menu, introduced, offered and served in Indonesian Theatre Restaurant within the Indonesian pavilion at the1964 New York World's Fair.Howard Palfrey Jones, the US ambassador to Indonesia during the last years ofSukarno's reign in the mid 1960s, in his memoir "Indonesia: The Possible Dream", said that he likesnasi goreng. He described his fondness fornasi gorengcooked by Hartini, one of Sukarno's wives, and praised it as the most deliciousnasi gorenghe ever tasted.Nevertheless, other widely popular Indonesian dishes, such assatay,sotoandgado-gadoare also considered strong contenders.Sotois ubiquitous in Indonesia and considered one of Indonesia'snational dishes.
In 2014, theIndonesian Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economyin an effort to promote Indonesian cuisine, has chosentumpengas an official Indonesian national dish. Technicallytumpengrefer to the rice cone in the center, while the surrounding various dishes might be taken from any choice of various Indonesian dishes—thus was considered ideal as a national dish that binds the diversity of Indonesia's various culinary traditions.Subsequently the designation oftumpengas the single national dish of Indonesia was considered insufficient to describe the diversity of Indonesian culinary traditions. Later in 2018, the same ministry has chosen another additional 5 national dishes of Indonesia; they aresoto,satay,nasi goreng,rendangandgado-gado.
Satay andsotoare notable and the natural choice to be promoted as Indonesian national dish, since they had transcends the cultural boundaries of myriadethnic groups of Indonesia—those dishes has been extremely localised and has branched into various recipes nationwide. For example, there are rich variants of satay andsotorecipes throughout Indonesia; from Sumatra to Eastern Indonesia. Each cultures, ethnics, or even cities had adopted these dishes, and thus developed their own version in accordance to their own culture, tradition, creativity, localised taste and preference, also the availability of local ingredients.
Diverse and eclectic,Betawi cuisineofJakartadraw culinary influences fromChinese,Malay,Sundanese, to Arab, Indian and European.Popular Betawi dishes includenasi uduk(coconut rice),sayur asem(sweet and sour vegetable soup),asinan(salad of pickled vegetables),gado-gado, (boiled or blanched vegetables salad in peanut sauce),ketoprak, (vegetables, tofu, rice vermicelli and rice cake in peanut sauce), andkerak telor(spiced coconut omelette). Born from a creole or hybrid phenomena, the Betawi cuisine is quite similar to thePeranakan cuisine.
A textural speciality ofSunda(West Java) iskaredok, a fresh salad made with long beans, bean sprouts, and cucumber with a spicy peanut sauce.Lalabfresh vegetables served with spicysambaldipping sauce is ubiquitous in Sundanese households and eating establishments. Other Sundanese dishes includemie kocokwhich is a beef and egg noodle soup, andSoto Bandung, a beef and vegetable soup with daikon and lemon grass. A hawker favourite iskupat tahu(pressed rice, bean sprouts, and tofu with soy and peanut sauce).Colenak(roasted fermented cassava tapai with sweet coconut sauce) andulen(roasted brick of sticky rice with peanut sauce) are dishes usually eaten warm.
The food ofCentral Javais renowned for its sweetness, and the dish ofgudeg, acurrymade fromjackfruit, is a particularly sweet. The city ofYogyakartais renowned for itsayam goreng(friedchicken) andklepon(green rice-flour balls withpalm sugarfilling).Surakarta's (Solo) specialities includeNasi liwet(rice with coconut milk, unripepapaya,garlicandshallots, served with chicken or egg) andserabi(coconut milk pancakes topped withchocolate,bananaor jackfruit). Other Central Javanese specialitiespecel(peanut sauce withspinachand bean sprouts),lotek(peanut sauce with vegetable and pressed rice), andopor ayam(braised chicken in coconut sauce).
The food ofEast Javais similar to that of Central Java. East Java foods tend to be less sweet and more spicier compare to the Central Javanese ones. Fish and fish/seafood products are quite extensively, e.g.terasi(driedshrimppaste) andpetis udang(shrimp paste). Some of the more popular foods are lontong kupang (tiny clams soup with rice cakes),lontong balap(bean sprouts andtofuwith rice cakes),sate klopo(coconut beef satay),semanggi surabaya(marsilealeaves with spicysweet potatosauce),pecel lele(deep friedcatfishserved with rice and sambal),rawon(dark beef soup). Food fromMalangincludesbakso malang(meatball soup withwon tonand noodles) andorem-orem[id](pressed rice,tempe, sprouts, soy sauce, coconut, and peanuts).
Madurais an island on the northeastern coast of Java and is administered as part of the East Java province. Like the Eastern Javanese foods which usepetis udang, Madura foods addpetis ikanwhich is made from fish instead of shrimp. The Madura stylesatayis probably the most popular satay variants in Indonesia. Some of its popular dishes aresate ayam Madura(chicken satay with peanut sauce),soto Madura(beef soup). There is also a mutton variant of Madura satay, Madura goat satay.Sup Kambingmutton soup is also popular in Madura. As a leadingsaltproduction center in Indonesian archipelago, Madura dishes are often saltier compared to other Eastern Javanese foods.
Balinese cuisinedishes includelawar(choppedcoconut,garlic,chilli, withporkorchickenmeat and blood).Bebek betutuisduckstuffed with spices, wrapped inbananaleaves and coconut husks cooked in a pit of embers. Balinesesate, known assate lilit, is made from spiced mince pressed onto skewers which are often made fromlemon grasssticks.Babi gulingis a spit-roasted pig stuffed with chilli,turmeric, garlic, andginger.Basa gedeorbasa rajangis a spice paste that is a basic ingredient in many Balinese dishes.
Batak peopleuse eitherporkor evendogto makesaksang. Another Batak pork speciality isbabi panggangin which the meat is boiled invinegarand pig blood before being roasted. Another batak dish,ayam namargota, ischickencooked in spices and blood. Another notable Batak dish isarsik, thecarpfish cooked with spices and herbs.Lada rimbais strongpepperused by Bataks.
Arab,Persian, andIndiantraders influenced food in Aceh although flavours have changed a lot their original forms. Amongst these arecurrydishes known askareorgulai, which are rich,coconut-based dishes traditionally made withbeef,goat,fishorpoultry, but are now also made withtofu, vegetables, andjackfruit. The popular Aceh food such asroti cane,mie acehandnasi gurih.
Buffaloesare a symbol of West Sumatra and are used inrendang, a rich and spicy buffalo meat or beef dish, which is also the signature dish of Minangkabau culture. In 2017,rendangwas chosen as the "World's Most Delicious Food" by theCNNTravel reader's choice.Padang foodcomes from West Sumatra, and they have perhaps the richest variants ofgulai, a type of curried meat, offal, fish or vegetables. Padang favourite includesasam padeh(sour and spicy fish stew),sate Padang(Padang satay),soto Padang(Padang soto) andkatupek sayua(ketupatricedumpling in vegetable soup). Dishes from the region includenasi kapaufromBukittinggi, which is similar to Padang food but uses more vegetables.Ampiang dadiah(buffaloyogurtwithpalm sugarsyrup,coconutflesh and rice) andbubur kampiun(Mung beanporridge withbananaand rice yogurt) are other West Sumatran specialties.
Traditionally,Minangkabau peopleadheres tomerantau(migrating) culture, and they are avid restaurant entrepreneurs. As a result, Padang foodrestaurant chainscan be found throughout Indonesia and neighbouring countries, likely making it the most popular regional dish in Indonesia. Outside of West Sumatra, such as inJava, most  Padang Restaurants still use buffalo to make rendang, but claim it is Rendang Sapi for selling purposes, due to buffalo meat being "inferior" and cheaper than cow meat. Buffalo meat is harder, so it is more suitable for rendang which has a cooking time of at least 3 hours, and presents a coarser texture and a redder color compared to cow meat when it is fully cooked.
The cuisine of east coast of Sumatra is referring to the culinary tradition ofethnic MalaysofIndonesianSumatran provinces facingMalacca strait; which includesRiau,Riau Islands,Jambiprovinces and coastalNorth Sumatrain Melayu Deli areas in and aroundMedan. Because of close ethnic kinship and proximity toMalaysian Malays, many dishes are shared between the two countries. For examplenasi lemak, the national dish of Malaysia, and alsonasi ulamare considered native dishes in Riau and Jambi. Malay cuisine also shares many similarities with neighboring Minangkabau cuisine of West Sumatra, South Sumatra, and alsoAceh; such as sharinggulai,asam pedas,pindang,kari,lemangandrendang. This is due to the fact that the Minangkabau are culturally closely related to the Malays.Tempoyakfermented durian sauce andsambal belacanare the familiar condiments in both Sumatra and Malay Peninsula. Variants ofperanakancuisine such aslaksaspicy noodle andotak-otakare also can be found in Riau Islands and Medan. Seafood dishes are popular in archipelagic Riau Islands province, while fresh water fishes from Sumatran rivers, such aspatin,catfish,carpandgouramiare popular in Riau and Jambi.Gulai ikan patinis a signature dish ofPekanbaru, whilegulai ketam(crab gulai) andnasi goreng teri Medan(Medan anchovy fried rice) are the signature dishes of Medan.
The city ofPalembangis the culinary centre of South Sumatra and is renowned for itspempek, a deep fried fish andsagodumpling that is also known asempek-empek.Pempekis served in distinctivekuah cuko, a sweet, sour and spicy sauce made from palm sugar, chili, tamarind and vinegar.Pempekderivatives dishes aretekwansoup ofpempekdumpling,mushroom, vegetables, andshrimp,lenggangorpempekslices inomelette.Mie celoris a noodle dish with egg in coconut milk and dried shrimp, it is a Palembang speciality.
The cuisine of Palembang demonstrates various influences, from native Palembang Malay taste to Chinese and Javanese influences.Pempekis said to be influenced by Chinese fish cake akin tosurimi, while the preference of mild sweetness is said to be of Javanese influence. South Sumatra is home topindang, a sweet, sour and spicy fish soup made fromsoysauce andtamarind.Pindangdishes usually uses either freshwater fishes and seafood as ingredients.Ikan brengkesis fish in a spicydurian-based sauce.Tempoyakis a sauce of shrimp paste,limejuice, chilli and fermented durian, andsambal buahis a chilli sauce made from fruit.
Manado cuisineofMinahasanpeople fromNorth Sulawesifeatures the heavy use of meat such aspork,fowl, andseafood.Wokuis a type of seafood dish with generous use of spices, often making up half the dish. The ingredients includelemongrass,limeleaves,chili peppers, springonion,shallots, either sautéed with meat or wrapped around fish and grilled covered inbananaleaves. Other ingredients such asturmericandgingerare often added to create a version of woku. Other Minahasan signature dishes aretinutuan, chickentuturuga,rica-ricaandcakalang fufu.
Foreign colonial influence played a role in shaping Minahasan cuisine. Several cakes and pastries explicitly show Dutch, Portuguese and Spanish influences such asklappertaartandpanada.Brenebon(fromDutchbruin(brown) andboon(bean)) is a pork shank bean stew spiced withnutmegandclove. Minahasan roast pork similar tolechonin thePhilippinesor pig roast inHawaiiare served in special occasions, especially weddings. Other unusual and exotic meats such asdog,bat, andforest ratare regularly served in North Sulawesi region.Panikiis the bat dish of Minahasa.
The strategic location of Gorontalo, between theCelebes SeaandPacific Oceanin the north, and alsoGulf of Tominiin the south, has made theGorontalo regiona strategic shipping route in the past.This long past history has formed the roots of a unique and distinctiveculturein Gorontalo, including its unique dishes. Therefore, Gorontalo is also known as the land ofspiceswith a unique taste of culinary.
Gorontalese cuisine known for its freshseafood, prepared using a full-palette ofspicesandherbs. Home of some Gorontalese delicacies such asbinte biluhuta,ayam iloni,ikan iloni,sate tuna,tabu moitomo,sate balanga,sagela,pilitode, andbilentango.
Gorontalo cuisine is also marked by a multi-cultural influence from other communities who migrated to Gorontalo, such asArabsandChineseculture. Moreover, Gorontalo's pastries are also famous for their sweetness and it has been influenced by European culture brought by theDutch.
In 2016, the Gorontalese recipe book: "Trailing the Taste of Gorontalo" won as the "Best in the World" at theGourmand World Cookbook AwardinYantai,Chinafor theAsian Cuisinefrom Asian Books category.
Makassaris one of the culinary centres in Indonesia. Home of some Bugis and Makassar delicacies such asCoto,Konro,PallubasaandMie Kering. All of these Makassar foods are usually consumed withburasa, a coconut milk rice dumpling wrapped in a banana leaf, to replace steamed rice or ketupat. As a big fish market centre, Makassar is also famous for itsseafood. Variousikan bakaror grilled fish are popular and commonly served in Makassar restaurants,warungand foodstalls, such asikan bolu bakar(grilledmilkfish).Sop saudarafromPangkepandKapurungfromPalopoare also famous dishes of South Sulawesi. Another popular cuisine from Makassar isAyam Goreng Sulawesi(Celebes fried chicken); the chicken is marinated in a traditional soy sauce for up to 24 hours before being fried into a golden colour. The dish is usually served with chicken broth, rice and specialsambal(chilli sauce).
In addition, Makassar is also home of traditional sweet snacks such aspisang epe(pressed banana), as well aspisang ijo(green banana).Pisang Epeis a flat-grilled banana which is pressed, grilled, and covered with palm sugar sauce and sometimes eaten withdurian. Many street vendors sellpisang epe, especially around the area of Losari beach.Pisang ijois a banana covered with green colored flours, coconut milk, and syrup.Pisang ijois sometimes served iced, and often sold and consumed asiftarto break the fast duringRamadhan.
With a drier climate inNusa Tenggaraarchipelago, there is less rice and more sago, corn, cassava, and taro compared to central and western Indonesia. Fishes are popularly consumed, includingsepat(Trichogaster), which is shredded fish in coconut and young-mango sauce.Lombok'ssasak peopleenjoy spicy food such asayam taliwangwhich is roasted chicken served with peanut, tomato chilli and lime dip.Pelecingis a spicy sauce used in many dishes made with chilli, shrimp paste, and tomato. A local shrimp paste calledlengkareis used on the island of Lombok.Saresis made from chilli, coconut juice and banana palm pith and is sometimes mixed with meat. Non meat dishes includekelor(hot soup with vegetables),serebuk(vegetables mixed with coconut), andtimun urap(cucumber with coconut, onion and garlic).
InEast Nusa Tenggara, majority of its inhabitants areCatholics, hence pork is commonly consumed. Popular Timor dishes areSe'ismoked meat (usually pork), andkatemakvegetable soup.
TheMaluku Islands' cuisine is rich with seafood, while the native Papuan food usually consists of roastedboarwithtuberssuch assweet potatoandtaro. Various types ofikan bakar(grilled fish) or seafood are eaten with spicycolo-colocondiment. The staple food of Maluku andPapuaissago, either as a pancake or sago congee calledpapeda, usually eaten with yellow soup made fromtuna,red snapperor other fishes spiced withturmeric,lime, and other spices.
Indianinfluence can be observed in Indonesia as early as the 4th century. Following the spread of Islam to Indonesia, Muslim Indian as well as Arab influences made their way into Indonesian cuisine. Andreas Maryoto, a journalist which focus on culinary history, suggests there was at least two waves of Indian culinary influence that made its way into Indonesia. The early arrival was marked by the adoption of Hindu culture that still can be seen in Java. The second wave was came from theMughal Empire, which was influenced by Islamic culture that has entered the archipelago. This second wave of Indian culinary influence can be seen throughout most of northern Sumatra, especially in Aceh and West Sumatra provinces.Examples include Indianmartabakandkari(curry) that influenced Sumatran cuisines of Aceh, Minangkabau, and Malay; in addition toBetawiand coastal Javanese cuisine. Some of Aceh and Minangkabau dishes such asroti cane,nasi biryani,nasi kebuli, andgulaikambingcan trace its origin to Indian influences.
Arab Indonesiansbrought their legacy of Arab cuisine—originally from Hadhramaut, Hejaz and Egypt—and modified some of the dishes with the addition of Indonesian ingredients. The Arabs arrived in the Nusantara archipelago to trade and spread Islam.Nasi kebulifor example, is a popular dish among Arab Indonesian community that has made its way into mainstream Indonesian cuisine.In Maluku,kue asidaserved during Ramadan for iftar, is believed to be derived from the Middle Easternasidathat was introduced by Arab merchants into the Maluku Islands.
Chinese immigration to Indonesiastarted in the 7th century, and accelerated during Dutch colonial times, thus creating the fusion of Chinese cuisine with indigenous Indonesian style. Similar Chinese-native fusion cuisine phenomena is also observable in neighbouring Malaysia and Singapore asperanakan cuisine.
The Chinese cooking style that has influenced Indonesian cuisine was mainlyHokkien cuisine. Some of Chinese Indonesian food retain its Hokkien name; e.g.kwetiau,bakmi,bakcang,bihunandlumpia.Some popular Indonesian dishes trace its origin to Chinese influences such as;bakso,soto mie,soto,bakpau,nasi goreng,mie goreng,tahu goreng,siomay,pempek,nasi tim,cap cai,fu yung haiandswikee. Some of this Chinese-influenced dishes has been so well-integrated into Indonesian mainstream cuisine that many Indonesian today might not recognise their Chinese-origin and considered them their own.
The Dutch arrived in Indonesia in the 16th century in search of spices. When the Dutch East India Company (VOC) went bankrupt in 1800,Indonesiabecame a treasured colony of the Netherlands.Through colonialism, Europeans introducedbread,cheese, barbecuedsteakandpancake. Bread,butterandmargarine, chocolatesprinkles, sandwiches filled with ham, cheese or fruit jam,poffertjes,pannekoekandDutch cheesesare commonly consumed by colonial Dutch andIndosduring the colonial era. Some of native upperclassningrat(nobles) and educated native were exposed to European cuisine; This cuisine was held in high esteem as the cuisine of the upper class ofDutch East Indiessociety.
This led to adoption and fusion of European cuisine into Indonesian cuisine. Several Indonesian food can trace its origin from Dutch influence, such askue odadingthat was derived from Dutcholiebollen,semurfrom Dutchsmoor,perkedelfromfrikadeller,sop senerekfromerwtensoep,selat solo(solo salad) fromholland biefstuk.
Some dishes created during the colonial era were influenced byDutch cuisine, includingroti bakar(grilled bread),roti buaya,macaroni schotel(macaroni casserole),pastel tutup(Shepherd's pie),bistik jawa(Javanese beef steak),erten(pea soup),brenebon(kidney bean soup) andsop buntut.
Many pastries, cakes and cookies such askue bolu(tart),lapis legit(spekkoek),lapis Surabaya(spiku),kroket(croquette),kue bolu kenari(ontbijtkoek), andkastengel(kaasstengelsor cheese sticks) are come from Dutch influence.Some recipes were invented as Dutch Indies fusion cuisine, using native ingredients but employing European pastry techniques. These includepandan cakeandklappertaart(coconut tart).Kue cubit, commonly sold as a snack at schools and marketplaces, are believed to be derived frompoffertjes.
Conversely, Indonesian cuisine also had influenced the Dutch through their shared colonial heritage. Indonesian cuisine also influencing neighbouring countries through Indonesians migration across thestraitsto Malaysia.
Because of their proximity, historic migrations and close cultural kinship, Indonesian cuisine also has influenced neighbouring cooking traditions; most notablyMalaysian cuisine. Indonesian influence is pervasive in the central state ofNegeri Sembilan, which was settled largely byMinangkabau peoplehailing from West Sumatra and is, thus, reflected in their culture, history and cuisine.Minangkabau cuisineinfluences is profound inMalay cooking tradition, as the result both traditions share same dishes; includingrendang,gulai,asam pedasandtempoyak.Rendangis a typical example that has been well-integrated into mainstream Malaysian cuisine and is now considered their own, and popular especially duringHari Raya Aidil Fitri. In the early 20th century, there are large influx of Sumatrans to Kuala Lumpur and other parts of Malaysia heartland, that led to the popularity ofNasi Padang(originated fromPadangcity, West Sumatra) not only in Malaysia, but also in Singapore.
The Malay cuisine of southernmost state ofJohor, reflects the influences ofJavanesewho settled there for over past two centuries.Popular Javanese-origin dishes in Johor includesayam penyet,nasi ambeng,telur pindang,sayur lodeh,mee rebusandpechal.
Some dishes in Singapore are influenced by Indonesian cuisine.Satay bee hoonhas a connection toJavanese cuisine. The dish was a product of Teochew Chinese and Javanese culinary cultures.Singaporeanrojakhas its roots in Indonesia.In cakes and pastries, Indonesian traditionalkuesnacks and dessert also has influenced Singapore'skuehscene, through the migration of Anastasia Liew, aChinese Indonesianentrepreneur, into the city state and established Bengawan Solo cake shop that has become a Singaporean signature.
To a lesser extent, Indonesian cuisine also had influencedThai cuisine— probably through Malaysian intermediary — such as the introduction ofsatay, from Java to Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, and reached Thailand.Achat(Thai:อาจาดpronounced[ʔāː.t͡ɕàːt]), is a Thai pickles which believed to be derived from Indonesianacar. It is made with cucumber, red chilies, red onions or shallots, vinegar, sugar and salt. It is served as a side dish with the Thai version of satay (Thai:สะเต๊ะ).
During thecolonial period, the Dutch embraced Indonesian cuisine both at home and abroad.The Indonesian cuisine had influenced colonial Dutch andIndo peoplethat brought Indonesian dishes back to theNetherlandsdue to repatriation following the independence of Indonesia.
C.Countessvan Limburg Stirumwrites in her book "The Art of Dutch Cooking" (1962):There exist countless Indonesian dishes, some of which take hours to prepare; but a few easy ones have become so popular that they can be regarded as "national dishes". She then provides recipes fornasi goreng(fried rice),pisang goreng(battered, deep fried bananas),lumpia goreng(fried spring rolls),bami(fried noodles),satay(grilled skewered meat),sataysauce (peanut sauce), andsambal oelek(chilli paste).
Dutch-Indonesian fusion dishes also exist, of which the most well-known is therijsttafel("rice table"), which is an elaborate meal consisting of many (up to several dozens) small dishes (hence filling "an entire table").While popular in the Netherlands, Rijsttafel is now rare in Indonesia itself. Today, there are many Indonesian restaurants in the Netherlands, especially in large cities likeAmsterdam,The Hague,UtrechtandRotterdam.
Indonesian cuisine traditionally enjoyed popularity in neighbouring countries; e.g. Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and Australia, as well as nations that shares historical ties with Indonesia; such as the Netherlands, Suriname, East Timor and South Africa. It is also increasingly popular in Japan and Korea.
Learning from the success of other countriesculinary diplomacy, especially those of Thailand, Korea and Japan, in 2021, the Indonesian government has launched the "Indonesia Spice Up The World" program, which is a form of coordinated gastrodiplomacy efforts.The programme was launched to promote Indonesian cuisine abroad, to assist Indonesian culinary industry; by helping the local spice products and processed food to find their ways into the global market, and also to assist Indonesian restaurants abroad.
The "Indonesia Spice Up The World" program involves government's inter-ministerial institutions, Indonesian food industry, and also the public. The objective of the program is to boost the export value of Indonesian spices and herbs to US$2 billion, and increasing the presence of four thousand Indonesian restaurants abroad by 2024.
Indonesians might consume snacks or varieties of small dishes throughout the day. If separate scheduled larger meal is observed, they usually consists ofsarapanormakan pagi(breakfast),makan siang(lunch) is often the main meal of the day, followed bymakan malam(dinner).Mealtime is typically a casual and solitary affair, and might be observed differently across region.
Inwestern and central Indonesia, the main meal is usually cooked in the late morning, and consumed around midday. In many families there is no set meal time when all members are expected to attend. For this reason, most of the dishes are made so that they can remain edible even if left on the table atroom temperaturefor many hours. The same dishes are then re-heated for the final meal in the evening. Most meals are built around a cone-shaped pile of long-grain, highly polished rice. A meal may include a soup, salad (or more commonly vegetables sautéed with garlic), and another main dish. Whatever the meal, it is accompanied by at least one, and often several, relishes calledsambals. Especially for Javanese family, on the table, it is also common to always have chips, that can bekerupuk,rempeyek, or any other chips to accompany the meal.
Ineastern Indonesia, such as on the islands ofPapuaandTimor, where the climate is often much drier, the meals can be centred around other sources of carbohydrates such assagoor root vegetables and starchytubers. Being east of theWallace line, thebiogeographic realm, and hence thefloraandfauna, are quite different from those of the islands to the west, and so the food stuffs are as well.
Many Indonesian traditional customs and ceremonies incorporate food and feast, one of the best examples istumpeng. Originally fromJava, tumpeng is a cone shaped mound of rice surrounded by an assortment of other dishes, officially chosen as Indonesiannational dishin 2014.Traditionally featured inslametanceremonies, the cone of rice is made by using bamboo leaves woven into a cone-shaped container. The rice itself can be plain white steamed rice,uduk(rice cooked with coconut milk), oryellow rice(rice coloured withkunyit, i.e.,turmeric). After it is shaped, the rice cone is surrounded by assorted dishes, such asurapvegetables, fried chicken,semur(beef in sweet soy sauce), teri kacang (little dried fish fried with peanuts), fried prawns,telur pindang(marbleized boiled eggs), shredded omelette,tempe orek(sweet, dry friedtempeh),perkedel kentang(mashed potato fritters),perkedeljagung(corn fritters),sambal goreng ati(liver in chilli sauce), and many other dishes. Nasi tumpeng probably comes from an ancient Indonesian tradition that revers mountains as the abode of the ancestors and the gods. Rice cone is meant to symbolise the holy mountain. The feast served as some kind of thanksgiving for the abundance of harvest or any other blessings. Because of its festivities and celebratory value, even now tumpeng is sometimes used as an Indonesian counterpart tobirthday cake.
HavingNasi Padangin festivehidang(serve) style provides opportunity to sample wide array ofPadang foodin a single setting.Nasi Padang(Padang-style rice) is thesteamed riceserved with various choices of pre-cookeddishesoriginated fromPadangcity,West Sumatra. It is a miniature banquet of meats, fish, vegetables, and spicysambalseaten with plain white rice. It is the Minangkabau's great contribution to Indonesian cuisine.
After the customers are seated, they do not have to order. The waiter with stacked plates upon their hands will immediately serves the dishes directly to the table. The table will quickly be set with dozens of small dishes filled with richly flavoured foods such as beefrendang, variousgulais, curried fish, stewedgreens, chilieggplant, curried beef liver, tripe, intestines, or foot tendons, fried beef lung, fried chicken, and of course,sambal. A dozen of dishes is a normal number, it could reach 14 dishes or more.Nasi Padangis an at-your-table, by-the-plate buffet.Customers take — and pay for — only what they have consumed from this array.
Another Indonesian feast, theRijsttafel(from Dutch, meaning 'rice table'), demonstrates both colonial opulence and the diversity of Indonesian cuisine at the same time. The classic style rijsttafel involved serving of up to 40 different dishes by 40 male waiters, bare foot but dressed in formal white uniforms withblangkon(traditional Javanese caps) on their heads andbatikcloth around their waists.In contemporary Indonesian cuisine, it has been adapted into a western styleprasmananbuffet.
When attending the reception of an Indonesian traditional wedding party, office lunch-time meeting, a seminar or dinner gathering, one usually will find themselves queuing to Indonesianprasmanan; a long table filled with wide array of Indonesian dishes. Aprasmananis quite similar with rijsttafel but minus the ceremonial waiters and usually served fewer choices of dishes compared to its flamboyant colonial predecessor. It is an Indonesianbuffetas it employs a long table with a wide range of dishes, both savoury and sweet, served on it. It can usually be found in wedding ceremonies or any other festivities. The layout for an Indonesian wedding ceremony buffet is usually: plates, eating utensils (spoon and fork), and paper napkins placed on one end, followed by rice (plain or fried), a series of Indonesian (and sometimes international) dishes,sambalandkrupuk(shrimp crackers), and ending with glasses of water on the other end of the table.
The most common and popular Indonesian drinks and beverages areteh(tea) andkopi(coffee). Indonesian households commonly serveteh manis(sweet tea) orkopi tubrukto guests. Since the colonial era of Netherlands East Indies, plantations, especially in Java, were major producers ofcoffee,teaandsugar. Since then hot and sweet coffee and tea beverages have been enjoyed by Indonesians.Jasmine teais the most popular tea variety drunk in Indonesia, however recent health awareness promotions have madegreen teaa popular choice. Usually coffee and tea are served hot, but cold iced sweet tea is also frequently drunk.Kopi luwakis Indonesian exotic and expensive coffee beverage made from the beans of coffee berries which have been eaten by theAsian palm civet(Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) and other related civets.Teh botol, bottled sweet jasmine tea, is now quite popular and locally competes favourably with international bottled soda beverages such asCoca-ColaandFanta.Kopi susu(coffee with sweetenedcondensed milk) is an Indonesian version ofCafé au lait.Es kelapa mudaor young coconut ice is fresh drink which is made from chilled young coconut water, coconut flesh and syrup. It is among favourite beverage in Indonesia.
Fruit juices (jus) are very popular. Varieties includeorange(jus jeruk),guava(jus jambu),mango(jus mangga),soursop(jus sirsak) andavocado(jus alpokat), the last of these being commonly served with condensed milk and chocolate syrup as a dessert-like treat.Duriancan be made into ice cream calledes durian.
Many popular drinks are based on ice (es) and can also be classified as desserts. Typical examples include young coconut (es kelapa muda),grass jelly(es cincau),cendol(es cendolores dawet), avocado,jackfruitand coconut with shredded ice and condensed milk (es teler), mixed ice (es campur),kidney beans(es kacang merah),musk melon(es blewah), and seaweed (es rumput laut).
Hot sweet beverages can also be found, such asbajigurandbandrekwhich are particularly popular in West Java. Both are coconut milk or coconut sugar (gula jawa) based hot drinks, mixed with other spices.Sekoteng, agingerbased hot drink which includes peanuts, diced bread, andpacar cina, can be found in Jakarta and West Java.Wedang jahe(hotginger drink) andwedang ronde(a hot drink withsweet potatoballs) are particularly popular in Yogyakarta, Central Java, and East Java.
As aMuslim-majority country, Indonesian Muslims shareIslamic dietary lawsthat prohibit alcoholic beverages. Since ancient times, local alcoholic beverages were developed in the archipelago. According to a Chinese source, people of ancient Java drank wine made from palm sap calledtuak(palm wine). Todaytuakcontinues to be popular in theBatakregion,North Sumatra. A traditional Batak bar serving tuak is calledlapo tuak. In Solo, Central Java,ciu(a local adaptation of Chinese wine) is known. Bottledbrem bali(Balinese rice wine) is popular in Bali. InNusa TenggaraandMaluku Islandsthe people also drink palm wine, locally known assopi.In theMinahasaregion of North Sulawesi, the people drink a highly alcoholic drink calledCap Tikus. Indonesians developed local brands of beer, such asBintang Beerand Anker Beer.
In Indonesia, dishes are served from a fine dining restaurant in five-star hotel, a simplerestaurantdowntown, humble street sidewarungunder the tent, to street hawker peddling theirgerobak(cart) orpikulan(carrying using rod).
In Indonesiarumah makanmeansrestaurant, whilewarungmeans small and humble shop.From these eating establishments, a warteg (warung Tegal) andrumah makan Padangare particularly notable for their ubiquitousness in Indonesian cities and towns.
A warteg orwarung tegalis a more specific warung nasi, established byJavanese peoplefrom the townTegalinCentral Java. They sells favouriteJavanese dishesand rice, the wide array of pre-cooked dishes are arranged in glass windowed cupboard. They are well known on selling modestly-priced meals, popular among working class such as low-skilled labours in the cities. Whilerumah makan Padangis aPadangrestaurant, a smaller scale Padang eateries might be calledwarung Padang.
Most of Indonesian restaurants are based upon specific regional cuisine tradition. For example, rumah makan Padang are definitely Minangkabau cuisine.Sundanesesaungrestaurant or colloquially called askuringrestaurants are sellingSundanese dishes. This includesBataks'lapo,ManadoandBalineserestaurants. While other restaurants might specifically featuring their best specific dishes, for exampleAyam gorengMbok Berek,BakmiGajah Mada,SataySenayan,RawonSetan Surabaya,PempekPak Raden, etc.
Indonesian street food are usually cheap, offer a great variety of food of different tastes, and can be found on every corner of the city.Street and street-side vendors are common, in addition to hawkers peddling their goods on bicycles or carts. These carts are known aspedagang kaki lima. These food hawkers on carts or bicycles might be travelling on streets, approaching potential buyers through residential areas whilst announcing their presence, or stationing themselves on a packed and busy street side, setting simple seating under a small tent and waiting for customers. Many of these have their own distinctive call, tune, or noise to announce their presence. For example,baksosellers will hit the side of a soup bowl using a spoon, whereasnasi gorengsellers announce themselves by hitting theirwok.
In most cities, it is common to see Chinese dishes such as bakpao (steamed buns with sweet and savoury fillings),bakmie(noodles), andbakso(meatballs) sold by street vendors and restaurants, often adapted to become Indonesian-Chinese cuisine. One common adaptation is that pork is rarely used since the majority of Indonesians are Muslims. Other popular Indonesian street food and snacks aresiomayandbatagor(abbreviated frombakso tahu goreng),pempek(deep fried fish cake),bubur ayam(chickencongee),bubur kacang hijau(mung beansporridge),satay,nasi goreng(English: fried rice),soto mie(soto noodle),mie ayam(chicken noodle) andmie goreng(fried noodle),taoge goreng(mung bean sprouts and noodle salad),asinan(preserved vegetables or fruits salad),laksa,kerak telor(spicy omelette),gorengan(Indonesian assorted fritters) andbakwan(fried dish of beansprouts and batter).
Indonesian street snacks include iced and sweet beverages, such asescendolores dawet,es teler,es cincau,es doger,es campur,es potong, andes puter. Indonesian cakes and cookies are often calledjajanan pasar(market munchies).
Indonesia has a rich collection of snacks calledkue(cakes and pastry), both savoury and sweet. Traditional kue usually made fromrice flour, coconut milk,coconut sugarand mostly steamed or fried instead of baked. Traditional kue are popularly known askue basah("wet kue") that has a moist and soft texture because of rich coconut milk. Thekue kering(dried kue) is local name for cookies.
Indonesia has rich variations of kue, both native-origin or foreign-influenced. Popular ones includeBika Ambon,kue pisang,kue cubit,klepon,onde-onde,nagasari,kue pandan,lupis,lemang,lemper,lontong,tahu isi,getuk,risoles,pastel,lumpia,bakpia,lapis legit,soes,poffertjesandbolu kukus.
Traditional crackers are calledkrupuk, made from bits of shrimp, fish, vegetables or nuts, which are usually consumed as a crunchy snack or to accompany main meals.These crispy snacks sometimes are added upon the main meal to provide crunchy texture; several Indonesian dishes such as gado-gado, karedok, ketoprak, lontong sayur, nasi uduk, asinan and bubur ayam are known to require specific type of krupuk as toppings. There are wide variations ofkrupukavailable across Indonesia. The most popular ones would bekrupuk udang(prawn crackers) andkrupuk kampungorkrupuk putih(cassava crackers).
Other popular types includekrupuk kulit(dried buffalo-skin crackers),empingmelinjo(gnetum gnemoncrackers), andkripik(chips or crisps), such askripik pisang(banana chips) andkeripik singkong(Cassavachips),rempeyek, is a flour-based cracker with brittle of peanuts, anchovies or shrimp bound by crispy flour cracker,rengginangorintip(Javanese) is rice cracker made from sun-dried and deep fried leftover rice.
Indonesian markets abound with many types of tropical fruit. These are an important part of the Indonesian diet, either eaten freshly, or made into juices (such asjus alpukat), desserts (such ases buahandes teler), processed in savoury and spicy dishes likerujak, fried likepisang goreng(fried banana), cooked into cakes (such askue pisangorbika ambon), sweetened and preserved such assale pisangandmanisan buah, or processed into kripik (crispy chips) as snacks like jackfruit or banana chips.
Many of these tropical fruits such asmangga(mango),manggis(mangosteen),rambutan,cempedak,nangka(jackfruit),durian,jambu air,duku(langsat),jeruk bali(pomelo),belimbing(carambola),kedondongandpisang(banana), are indigenous toIndonesian archipelago; while others have been imported from other tropical countries, although the origin of many of these fruits might be disputed.Klengkeng(longan) were introduced from India,semangka(watermelon) from Africa,kesemekfrom China, whilealpukat(avocado),sawo,markisa(passionfruit),sirsak(soursop),nanas(pineapple),jambu biji(guava) andpepaya(papaya) were introduced from theAmericas. Many of these tropical fruits are seasonally available, according to each species flowering and fruiting seasons. While certain fruits such as banana, watermelon, pineapple and papaya are available all year round.
Today, Indonesian markets is also enrichen with selections of home-grown non-tropical fruits that is not native to Indonesia.Strawberry,melon,apple,pearanddragonfruitare introduced and grown in cooler Indonesian highlands such asMalangin mountainous East Java,PuncakandLembangnearBandung, to mimic their nativesubtropicshabitat.
In the last few years, fruit chips have been more and more various. In the old times, banana and jackfruit chips were the most common, but now Indonesian fruit chips are also made from strawberry, apple, dragonfruit, pepino, watermelon, melon, more. Malang, a city in East Java, is the centre of fruit chip production aside from tempeh chips.
Banana and coconut are particularly important, not only to Indonesian cuisine, but also in other uses, such as timber, bedding, roofing, oil, plates and packaging.Banana leafandjanur(young coconut leaf) are particularly important for packaging and cooking process, employed to make pepes, lontong and ketupat.
Muchcarbohydrateintake in Indonesian cuisine comes fromrice, while in eastern parts of Indonesia, yam and sago are common. Indonesianproteinintake comes fromsoybean products that are processed into tofu and tempeh. Chicken eggs, poultry and meats are also consumed. Most of thefatintake comes fromcooking oil(coconut oil) of fried dishes, coconut milk,peanuts, as well as meats andoffals.
Some Indonesian fruit and vegetable dishes such as fruit rujak, gado-gado, karedok, pecel, lalab, capcay, tofu and tempeh are foods with low fat and high fibre. Tempeh, for example, is a vegetarian substitute for meat.Some dishes, especiallygorengan(deep-fried fritters) and those dishes infused or caramelised with coconut milk, such as rendang and gulai, might taste succulent but are rich insaturated fat.
The authentic traditional Indonesian home cooking is freshly made and consumed daily with minimal or no processed, canned or preserved foods, which means there is a minimal amount ofpreservativesandsodium. Most ingredients are bought fresh very early in the morning from local traditional markets, cooked around the late morning and consumed mainly for lunch. The leftovers are stored in the cupboard or on the table covered withtudung saji(weaved bamboo food cover to protect the food from insects or other animals), all in room temperature to be heated and consumed again for dinner.Traditionally, Indonesian dishes are rarely stored for long periods of time, thus most of these dishes are cooked and consumed in the same day. Some exceptions apply to dried, salted, and processed food. For example, dry rendang may still be safe to consume for several days. Modern refrigeration technology is available in most households.
While most of Indonesian grocery products and food served in mid to upperscale eating establishments maintainfood hygienestandard ranges from good to acceptable — regulated and supervised byBadan Pengawasan Obat dan Makanan(Indonesian Food and Drug Administration) — somewarungtraditional foodstalls and street vendors might have poor hygiene. The tropical microbes also might contribute tofood poisoningcases mostlygastroenteritis, especially among foreigners during their stay in Indonesia.It is advisable to drink bottled or boiled drinking water, or choose cooked hot food instead of uncooked room temperatured ones sold by street vendors.