Chile

Chile,officially theRepublic of Chile,is a country in westernSouth America. It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest toAntarctica, stretching along a narrow strip of land between theAndes Mountainsand thePacific Ocean. Chile had a population of 17.5 million as of the latest census in 2017 and has a territorial area of 756,102 square kilometers (291,933 sq mi),sharing borders withPeruto the north,Boliviato the northeast,Argentinato the east, and theDrake Passageto the south. The country also controls several Pacific islands, includingJuan Fernández,Isla Salas y Gómez,Desventuradas, andEaster Island, and claims about 1,250,000 square kilometers (480,000 sq mi) of Antarctica as theChilean Antarctic Territory.The capital and largest city of Chile isSantiago, and the national language isSpanish.
Spain conquered and colonizedthe region in the mid-16th century, replacingInca rule, butfailed to conquerthe autonomous tribalMapuche peoplewho inhabited what is now south-central Chile. Chile emerged as a relatively stable authoritarian republic in the 1830s after their 1818declaration of independencefromSpain. During the 19th century, Chile experienced significant economic and territorial growth,putting an end to Mapuche resistancein the 1880s and gaining its current northern territory in theWar of the Pacific(1879–83) by defeating Peru and Bolivia. In the 20th century, up until the 1970s, Chile underwent a process ofdemocratizationand experienced rapid population growth andurbanization,while relying increasingly on exports fromcopper miningto supportits economy.During the 1960s and 1970s, the country was marked by severe left-rightpolitical polarizationand turmoil, which culminated in the1973 Chilean coup d'étatthat overthrewSalvador Allende's democratically electedleft-wing government. This was followed by a16-year right-wing military dictatorshipunderAugusto Pinochet, in which the1980 Chilean Constitutionwas made with the consultancy of theOrtúzar Commissionas well as several political and economic reforms,and resulted in more than3,000 deaths or disappearances.The regime ended in 1990, following areferendum in 1988, and was succeeded by acenter-left coalition, which ruled until 2010.
Chile is ahigh-income economyand is one of the most economically and socially stable nations in South America.Chile also performs well in the region in terms ofsustainability of the stateand democratic development.Chile is a founding member of theUnited Nations, theCommunity of Latin American and Caribbean States(CELAC), and thePacific Alliance, and joined theOECDin 2010.
There are various theories about the origin of the wordChile. According to 17th-century Spanish chroniclerDiego de Rosales,theIncascalled the valley of theAconcaguaChiliby corruption of the name of aPicunchetribal chief(cacique) calledTili, who ruled the area at the time of the Incan conquest in the 15th century.Another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of theCasma Valleyin Peru, where there was a town and valley namedChili.
Other theories say Chile may derive its name from aNative Americanword meaning either 'ends of the earth' or 'sea gulls';from the Mapuche wordchilli, which may mean 'where the land ends'"or from theQuechuachiri,'cold',ortchili, meaning either 'snow'or "the deepest point of the Earth".Another origin attributed tochilliis the onomatopoeiccheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a bird locally known astrile.
The Spanishconquistadorsheard about this name from the Incas, and the few survivors ofDiego de Almagro's first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535–36 called themselves the "men of Chilli".Ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the nameChile, after naming theMapochovalley as such.The older spelling "Chili" was in use in English until the early 20th century before switching to "Chile".
Stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented theMonte Verdevalley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migratingIndigenous peoplessettled in fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is present-day Chile. Settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde,Cueva del Milodónand thePali-Aike Crater'slava tube.
The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but theMapuche(or Araucanians as they were known by the Spaniards) successfully resisted many attempts by theInca Empireto subjugate them, despite their lack of state organization.They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army. The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as theBattle of the Maulewas that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at theMaule river.
In 1520, while attempting to circumnavigate the globe,Ferdinand Magellandiscovered the southern passage now named after him (theStrait of Magellan) thus becoming the first European to set foot on what is now Chile. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band ofSpanish conquistadors, who came fromPeruin 1535 seeking gold. The Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally throughslash-and-burnagriculture and hunting.
The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out byPedro de Valdivia, one ofFrancisco Pizarro's lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of theSpanish Empire.
Conquest took place gradually, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks. A massiveMapucheinsurrection that began in 1553 resulted in Valdivia's death and the destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements. Subsequent major insurrections took place in 1598 and in 1655. Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted, the southern border of the colony was driven northward. The abolition ofslaveryby the Spanish crown in 1683 was done in recognition that enslaving the Mapuche intensified resistance rather than cowing them into submission. Despite royal prohibitions, relations remained strained from continual colonialist interference.
Cut off to the north by desert, to the south by the Mapuche, to the east by the Andes Mountains, and to the west by the ocean, Chile became one of the most centralized, homogeneous territories in Spanish America. Serving as a sort of frontiergarrison, the colony found itself with the mission of forestalling encroachment by both the Mapuche and Spain's European enemies, especially theEnglishand theDutch.Buccaneersandpiratesmenaced the colony in addition to the Mapuche, as was shown bySir Francis Drake's 1578 raid on Valparaíso, the colony's principal port. Chile hosted one of the largest standing armies in the Americas, making it one of the most militarized of the Spanish possessions, as well as adrain on the treasury of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
The first general census was conducted by the government ofAgustín de Jáureguibetween 1777 and 1778; it indicated that the population consisted of 259,646 inhabitants: 73.5% ofEuropean descent, 7.9%mestizos, 8.6%indigenous peoplesand 9.8% blacks. Francisco Hurtado, Governor of the province ofChiloé, conducted a census in 1784 and found the population consisted of 26,703 inhabitants, 64.4% of whom were whites and 33.5% of whom were natives. The Diocese ofConcepciónconducted a census in areas south of theMaule riverin 1812, but did not include the indigenous population or the inhabitants of the province of Chiloé. The population is estimated at 210,567, 86.1% of whom wereSpanishor of European descent, 10% of whom were indigenous and 3.7% of whom were mestizos, blacks andmulattos.
A 2021 study byBatenand Llorca-Jaña shows that regions with a relatively high share of North European migrants developed faster in terms ofnumeracy, even if the overall number of migrants was small. This effect might be related toexternalities: the surrounding population adopted a similar behavior as the small non-European immigrant group, and new schools were created. Ironically, there might have been positivespillover effectsfrom the educational investment made by migrants, at the same time numeracy might have been reduced by the greater inequality in these regions. However, the positive effects of immigration were apparently stronger.
In 1808,Napoleon's enthronement of his brotherJosephas theSpanish Kingprecipitated the drive by Chile forindependence from Spain. A nationaljuntain the name ofFerdinand– heir to the deposed king – was formed on 18 September 1810. TheGovernment Junta of Chileproclaimed an autonomous government for Chile within the Spanish monarchy (in memory of this day, Chile celebrates itsNational Dayon 18 September each year).
After these events, a movement for total independence, under the command ofJosé Miguel Carrera(one of the most renowned patriots) and his two brothers Juan José andLuis Carrera, soon gained a wider following. Spanish attempts to re-impose arbitrary rule during what was called theReconquistaled to a prolonged struggle, including infighting fromBernardo O'Higgins, who challenged Carrera's leadership.
Intermittent warfare continued until 1817. With Carrera in prison in Argentina, O'Higgins and anti-Carrera cohortJosé de San Martín, hero of theArgentine War of Independence, ledan armythatcrossed the Andesinto Chile and defeated the royalists. On 12 February 1818,Chile was proclaimed an independent republic. The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th-century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and theRoman Catholic Church. A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained powerful.Bernardo O'Higgins once planned to expand Chile by liberating thePhilippinesfrom Spain and incorporating the islands. In this regard he tasked the Scottish naval officer, Lord Thomas Cochrane, in a letter dated 12 November 1821, expressing his plan to conquerGuayaquil, theGalapagos Islands, and thePhilippines. There were preparations, but the plan did not push through because O'Higgins was exiled.
Chile slowly started to expand its influence and to establish its borders. By the Tantauco Treaty, the archipelago ofChiloéwas incorporated in 1826. The economy began to boom due to the discovery of silver ore in Chañarcillo, and the growing trade of the port of Valparaíso, which led to conflict over maritime supremacy in the Pacific with Peru. At the same time, attempts were made to strengthen sovereignty in southern Chile intensifyingpenetration into Araucaníaandcolonizing Llanquihue with German immigrantsin 1848. Through the founding ofFort Bulnesby theSchooner Ancudunder the command ofJohn Williams Wilson, theMagallanes Regionstarted to be controlled by country in 1843, while theAntofagasta Region, at the time indispute with Bolivia, began to fill with people.
After theChilean Civil War of 1829–1830in which the conservatives won, under theJoaquín PrietoAdministration, theChilean Constitution of 1833was written and put into effect with high influence from the triple ministerDiego Portales. Two other civil wars happened in Chile in the 1850s, one in1851and the other one in1859.
Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by theOccupation of Araucanía. TheBoundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentinaconfirmed Chilean sovereignty over theStrait of Magellanbut also made the country to renounce to its claims in the rest of East Patagonia after adispute that started in 1842.As a result of theWar of the Pacificwith Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuablenitratedeposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. Chile had joined the stand as one of the high-income countries in South America by 1870.
On 9 September 1888, Chile took possession ofEaster Islandby the signing of a mutual will agreement with the local king, thanks to the efforts of the Bishop of Tahiti, Monsignor José María Verdier since the island was constantly attacked by slave merchants. The naval officerPolicarpo Tororepresented the Chilean Government andAtamu Tekenawas the head of the Council of Rapanui. The Rapa Nui elders ceded sovereignty, without renouncing their titles as chiefs, the ownership of their lands, the validity of their culture and traditions on equal terms. The Rapa Nui sold nothing, they were integrated in equal conditions to Chile.
The1891 Chilean Civil Warbrought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress, and Chile established aparliamentarystyle democracy. However, the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests, particularly the House of Edwards which had strong ties to foreign investors. Soon after, the country engaged in avastly expensive naval arms racewithArgentinathat nearly led to war, as well because of thePuna de Atacama dispute.
After the War of the Pacific, Chile became a Naval Power in the Americas, even sending a ship in protests in thePanama crisis of 1885against the United States intervention in the then Colombian territory. The United States and Chile had theBaltimore crisiswhich almost became a war as Chile was a potential threat to the intentions of hegemony from the United States in the Western Hemisphere.
In 1902 Chile and Argentina received the result from thearbitral award of the Andesresolved by theBritish Crown.
In 1903 the Puna de Atacama dispute was solved.
In 1904 Chile and Bolivia signed aTreaty of Peace and Friendshipwhich clarified the border between both countries.
The Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a rulingoligarchy. By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president,Arturo Alessandri, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. In the 1920s,Marxistgroups with strong popular support arose.
A military coup led by GeneralLuis Altamiranoin 1924 set off a period of political instability that lasted until 1932. Of the ten governments that held power in that period, the longest lasting was that of GeneralCarlos Ibáñez del Campo, who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what was ade factodictatorship (although not really comparable in harshness or corruption to the type of military dictatorship that have often bedeviled the rest of Latin America).
By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor, Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years, in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology. When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period ofRadical Partydominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez del Campo to office for another six years.Jorge Alessandrisucceeded Ibáñez del Campo in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term.
The1964 presidential electionofChristian DemocratEduardo Frei Montalvaby anabsolute majorityinitiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, andagrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals.
In the 1970 election, SenatorSalvador Allendeof theSocialist Party of Chile(then part of the "Popular Unity" coalition which included the Communists, Radicals, Social-Democrats, dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement, and the Independent Popular Action),achieved a partial majority in apluralityof votes in a three-way contest, followed by candidates Radomiro Tomic for the Christian Democrat Party and Jorge Alessandri for the Conservative Party. Allende was not elected with an absolute majority, receiving fewer than 35% of the votes.
TheChilean Congressconducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri, and, keeping with tradition, chose Allende by a vote of 153 to 35. Frei refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende, on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers' party and could not make common cause with the right wing.
Aneconomic depressionthat began in 1972 was exacerbated bycapital flight, plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and unemployment rose. Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, to increase consumer spending and redistribute income downward.Joint public-privatepublic worksprojects helped reduce unemployment.Much of the banking sector wasnationalized. Many enterprises within thecopper, coal, iron,nitrate, and steel industries wereexpropriated, nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration's first year.
Allende's program included advancement of workers' interests,replacing the judicial system with "socialist legality",nationalization of banks and forcing others to bankruptcy,and strengthening "popular militias" known as MIR.Started under former President Frei, the Popular Unity platform also called for nationalization of Chile's major copper mines in the form of a constitutional amendment. The measure was passed unanimously by Congress. As a result,theRichard Nixonadministrationorganized and inserted secret operativesin Chile, in order to swiftly destabilize Allende's government.In addition, US financial pressure restricted international economic credit to Chile.
The economic problems were also exacerbated by Allende's public spending, financed mostly through printing money, and by poor credit ratings given by commercial banks.Simultaneously, opposition media, politicians, business guilds and other organizations helped to accelerate a campaign of domestic political and economical destabilization, some of which was backed by the United States.By early 1973, inflation was out of control. 
On 26 May 1973, Chile's Supreme Court, which was opposed to Allende's government, unanimously denounced Allende'sdisruption of the legality of the nation. Although illegal under the Chilean constitution, the court supported and strengthened Pinochet's soon-to-be seizure of power.
Amilitary coupoverthrew Allende on 11 September 1973. As the armed forces bombarded thepresidential palace, Allende apparently committed suicide.After the coup,Henry KissingertoldU.S. presidentRichard Nixonthat the United States had "helped" the coupindirectly. According to the historian Sebastián Hurtado, there isn't documentary evidence to support that the United States Government acted actively in the coordination and execution of the September 11 coup actions by the Chilean Armed Forces, however, Richard Nixon's interest from the beginning was that the Allende government would not be consolidated and acted actively and decisively in the campaign to destabilize his government.In 1970, when Allende was first elected, Henry Kissinger had stated "I don't see why we need to stand by and watch a country go Communist due to the irresponsibility of its own people".There is no documentary evidence to support that the United States Government acted actively in the coordination and execution of the coup actions by the Chilean Armed Forces, however, Richard Nixon's interest from the beginning was that the Allende government would not be consolidated.
A military junta, led by GeneralAugusto Pinochet, took control of the country. The years of the regime were marked byhuman rights violations. Chile actively participated inOperation Condor.In October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by theCaravan of Death.According to theRettig ReportandValech Commission, at least 2,115 were killed,and at least 27,265were tortured (including 88 children younger than 12 years old).In 2011, Chile recognized an additional 9,800 victims, bringing the total number of killed, tortured or imprisoned for political reasons to 40,018.At the national stadium, filled with detainees, one of those tortured and killed was internationally known poet-singerVíctor Jara(see "Music and Dance", below).
A new Constitution was approved by a controversialplebisciteon 11 September 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an eight-year term. After Pinochet obtained rule of the country, several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined theSandinistaarmy inNicaragua, guerrilla forces inArgentinaor training camps inCuba, Eastern Europe and Northern Africa.
In the late 1980s, largely as a result of events such as the 1982 economic collapseand masscivil resistancein 1983–88, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly,speech, and association, to include trade union and political activity.The government launched market-oriented reforms withHernán Büchias Minister of Finance. Chile moved toward afree market economythat saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although thecopperindustry and other important mineral resources were not opened to competition. In aplebisciteon 5 October 1988, Pinochet was denied a second eight-year term as president (56% against 44%). Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of abicameralcongress on 14 December 1989. Christian DemocratPatricio Aylwin, the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called theConcertación, received an absolute majority of votes (55%).President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period.
In December 1993, Christian DemocratEduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%).Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by SocialistRicardo Lagos, who won the presidency in an unprecedentedrunoff electionagainstJoaquín Lavínof the rightistAlliance for Chile.In January 2006, Chileans elected their first female president,Michelle Bachelet Jeria, of the Socialist Party, defeatingSebastián Piñera, of theNational Renewalparty, extending theConcertacióngovernance for another four years.In January 2010, ChileanselectedSebastián Piñeraas the first rightist President in 20 years, defeating former PresidentEduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagleof theConcertación, for a four-year term succeeding Bachelet. Due to term limits,Sebastián Piñeradid not stand for re-election in 2013, and his term expired in March 2014 resulting inMichelle Bacheletreturning to office.Sebastián Piñera succeeded Bachelet again in 2018 as thePresident of Chileafter winning the December 2017 presidentialelection.
On 27 February 2010, Chile was struck by an 8.8Mwearthquake, the fifth largest ever recorded at the time. More than 500 people died (most from the ensuingtsunami) and over a million people lost their homes. The earthquake was also followed by multiple aftershocks.Initial damage estimates were in the range of US$15–30 billion, around 10% to 15% of Chile's real gross domestic product.
Chile achieved global recognition for the successfulrescue of 33 trapped minersin 2010. On 5 August 2010, the access tunnel collapsed at the San José copper and gold mine in theAtacama DesertnearCopiapóin northern Chile, trapping 33 men 700 meters (2,300 ft) below ground. A rescue effort organized by the Chilean government located the miners 17 days later. All 33 men were brought to the surface two months later on 13 October 2010 over a period of almost 24 hours, an effort that was carried on live television around the world.
2019–20 Chilean protestsare a series of country-wide protests in response to a rise in theSantiago Metro's subway fare, the increasedcost of living,privatizationandinequalityprevalent in the country.On 15 November, most of the political parties represented in the National Congress signed an agreement to call anational referendumin April 2020 regarding the creation of a new Constitution, later postponed to October due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.On 25 October 2020, Chileans voted 78.28 per cent in favor of a new constitution, while 21.72 per cent rejected the change. Voter turnout was 51 percent. Anelectionfor the members of theConstitutional Conventionwas held in Chile between 15 and 16 May 2021.
On 19 December 2021, a leftist candidate, the 35-year-old former student protest leaderGabriel Boric, won Chile's presidentialelectionto become the country's youngest ever leader.On 11 March 2022, Boric was sworn in as president to succeed outgoing President Sebastian Piñera.Out of 24 members of Gabriel Boric's female-majority Cabinet, 14 are women.
On 4 September 2022, voters rejected the new constitution proposal in theconstitutional referendum, which was put forward by the left-leaningConstitutional Convention.On 17 December 2023, voters rejected a second new constitution proposal in a newconstitutional referendum, written by the conservative-ledConstitutional Council.
A long and narrow coastalSouthern Conecountry on the west side of theAndes Mountains, Chile stretches over 4,300 km (2,670 mi) north to south, but only 350 km (217 mi) at its widest point east to westand 64 km (40 mi) at its narrowest point east to west, with an average width of 175 km (109 mi). This encompasses a large variety of climates and landscapes. It contains 756,950 square kilometers (292,260 sq mi) of land area. It is situated within thePacific Ring of Fire. Excluding its Pacific islands and Antarctic claim, Chile lies between latitudes17°and56°S, and longitudes66°and75°W.
Chile is among the longest north–south countries in the world. If one considers only mainland territory, Chile is unique within this group in its narrowness from east to west, with the other long north–south countries (including Brazil, Russia, Canada, and the United States, among others) all being wider from east to west by a factor of more than 10. Chile also claims 1,250,000 km(480,000 sq mi) ofAntarcticaas part of its territory (Chilean Antarctic Territory). However, this latter claim is suspended under the terms of theAntarctic Treaty, of which Chile is a signatory.It is the world's southernmost country that is geographically on the mainland.
Chile controlsEaster IslandandSala y GómezIsland, the easternmost islands of Polynesia, which it incorporated to its territory in 1888, and theJuan Fernández Islands, more than 600 km (370 mi) from the mainland. Also controlled but only temporarily inhabited (by some local fishermen) are the small islands ofSan Ambrosio and San Felix. These islands are notable because they extend Chile's claim to territorial waters out from its coast into the Pacific Ocean.
The northernAtacama Desertcontains great mineral wealth, primarilycopperandnitrates. The relatively small Central Valley, which includes Santiago, dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area is also the historical center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century when it integrated the northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests, grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border.
Chile is located along a highlyseismicandvolcaniczone, part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, due to the subduction of theNazcaand Antarctic plates in theSouth American Plate. In the latePaleozoic, 251 million years ago, Chile belonged to the continental block calledGondwana. It was just a depression that accumulated marine sediments began to rise at the end of the Mesozoic, 66 million years ago, due to the collision between the Nazca Plate and South American Plate, resulting in the Andes. The territory would be shaped over millions of years by the folding of the rocks, forming the current relief.
The Chilean relief consists of the central depression, which crosses the country longitudinally, flanked by two mountain ranges that make up about 80% of the territory: the Andes mountains to the east-natural border withBoliviaandArgentinain theregion of Atacamaand theCoastal Rangewest-minor height from the Andes. Chile's highest peak is theNevado Ojos del Salado, at 6891.3 m, which is also the highest volcano in the world. The highest point of the Coastal Range is Vicuña Mackenna, at 3114 meters, located in the Sierra Vicuña Mackenna, the south ofAntofagasta. Among the coastal mountains and the Pacific is a series of coastal plains, of variable length, which allow the settlement of coastal towns and big ports. Some areas of the plains territories encompass territory east of the Andes, and the Patagonian steppes and Magellan, or are high plateaus surrounded by high mountain ranges, such as the Altiplano or Puna de Atacama.
TheFar Northis the area between the northern boundary of the country and theparallel26° S, covering the first three regions. It is characterized by the presence of theAtacama desert, the most arid in the world. The desert is fragmented by streams that originate in the area known as thepampas Tamarugal. The Andes, split in two and whose eastern arm runs throughBolivia, has a high altitude and volcanic activity, which has allowed the formation of the Andean altiplano and salt structures as theSalar de Atacama, due to the gradual accumulation of sediments over time.
To the south is theNorte Chico, extending to theAconcagua river. Los Andes begin to decrease its altitude to the south and closer to the coast, reaching 90 km away at the height ofIllapel, the narrowest part of the Chilean territory. The two mountain ranges intersect, virtually eliminating the intermediate depression. The existence of rivers flowing through the territory allows the formation oftransverse valleys, where agriculture has developed strongly in recent times, while thecoastal plainsbegin to expand.
TheCentralarea is the most populated region of the country. The coastal plains are wide and allow the establishment of cities and ports along the Pacific. The Andes maintain altitudes above 6000m but descend slowly in height to 4000 meters on average. The intermediate depression reappears becoming a fertile valley that allows agricultural development and human settlement, due to sediment accumulation. To the south, the Cordillera de la Costa reappears in therange of Nahuelbutawhile glacial sediments create a series of lakes in the area ofLa Frontera.
Patagonia extends from within Reloncavi, at the height of parallel 41°S, to the south. During thelast glaciation, this area was covered by ice that strongly eroded Chilean relief structures. As a result, the intermediate depression sinks in the sea, while the coastal mountains rise to a series of archipelagos, such asChiloéand theChonos, disappearing in Taitao peninsula, in the parallel 47°S. The Andes mountain range loses height and erosion caused by the action of glaciers has causedfjords. East of the Andes, on the continent, or north of it, on theisland of Tierra del Fuegoare located relatively flat plains, which in the Strait of Magellan cover large areas. The Andes, as he had done previously Cordillera de la Costa, begins to break in the ocean causing a myriad of islands and islets and disappear into it, sinking and reappearing in the Southern Antilles arc and then the Antarctic Peninsula, where it is called Antartandes, in the Chilean Antarctic Territory, lying between the meridians 53°W and 90°W.
In the middle of the Pacific, the country has sovereignty over several islands of volcanic origin, collectively known as Insular Chile. The archipelago of Juan Fernandez and Easter Island is located in the fracture zone between the Nazca plate and the Pacific plate known as East Pacific Rise.
The diverseclimate of Chileranges from the world's driest desert in the north—theAtacama Desert—through aMediterranean climatein the center,tropicalin Easter Island,to anoceanic climate, includingalpine tundraandglaciersin the east and south.According to theKöppen system, Chile within its borders hosts at least eighteen major climatic subtypes.There are four seasons in most of the country: summer (December to February), autumn (March to May), winter (June to August), and spring (September to November).
Due to the characteristics of the territory, Chile is crossed by numerous rivers generally short in length and with low flow rates. They commonly extend from theAndesto the Pacific Ocean, flowing from East to West. Because of theAtacama desert, in the Norte Grande there are only shortendorheiccharacter streams, except for theLoa River, the longest in the country 440 km.In the high valleys, wetland areas generateChungará Lake, located at 4500 meters above sea level. It and theLauca Riverare shared withBolivia, as well as theLluta River. In the center-north of the country, the number of rivers that form valleys of agricultural importance increases. Noteworthy are the Elqui with 75 kmlong, 142 km Aconcagua, Maipo with 250 kmand its tributary, the Mapocho with 110 km, and Maule with 240 km. Their waters mainly flow from Andean snowmelt in the summer and winter rains. The major lakes in this area are the artificial lake Rapel, the Colbun Maule lagoon and the lagoon of La Laja.
Climate changeis expected to alter the frequency and severity of various natural hazards in Chile, including wildfires, floods, landslides, droughts and rising sea levels. Key sectors vulnerable to climate change impacts include agriculture, fisheries, agriculture and water security.
The flora and fauna of Chile are characterized by a high degree of endemism, due to its particular geography. In continental Chile, theAtacama Desertin the north and theAndes mountainsto the east are barriers that have led to the isolation of flora and fauna. Add to that the enormous length of Chile (over 4,300 km (2,672 mi)) and this results in a wide range of climates and environments that can be divided into three general zones: the desert provinces of the north, central Chile, and the humid regions of the south.
The native flora of Chile consists of relatively fewer species compared to the flora of other South American countries. The northernmost coastal and central region is largely barren of vegetation, approaching the most absolute desert in the world.
On the slopes of the Andes, in addition to the scattered tola desert brush, grasses are found. The central valley is characterized by several species of cacti, the hardyespinos, theChilean pine, thesouthern beechesand thecopihue, a red bell-shaped flower that is Chile's national flower.
In southern Chile, south of the Biobío River, heavy precipitation has produced dense forests of laurels, magnolias, and various species of conifers and beeches, which become smaller and more stunted to the south.
The cold temperatures and winds of the extreme south preclude heavy forestation. Grassland is found in EastMagallanes Provinceand northernTierra del Fuego(in Patagonia). Much of the Chilean flora is distinct from that of neighboring Argentina, indicating that the Andean barrier existed during its formation.
Some of Chile's flora has an Antarctic origin due toland bridgeswhich formed during the Cretaceous ice ages, allowing plants to migrate from Antarctica to South America.Chile had a 2018Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 7.37/10, ranking it 43rd globally out of 172 countries.
Just over 3,000 species of fungi are recorded in Chile,but this number is far from complete. The true total number of fungal species occurring in Chile is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7 percent of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.Although the amount of available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Chile, and 1995 species have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the country.
Chile's geographical isolation has restricted the immigration of faunal life so that only a few of the many distinctive South American animals are found. Among the larger mammals are thepumaor cougar, the llama-likeguanacoand the fox-likechilla. In the forest region, several types of marsupials and a small deer known as thepuduare found.
There are many species of small birds, but most of the larger common Latin American types are absent. Few freshwater fish are native, but North American trout have been successfully introduced into the Andean lakes.Owing to the vicinity of the Humboldt Current, ocean waters abound with fish and other forms of marine life, which in turn support a rich variety of waterfowl, including several penguins. Whales are abundant, and some six species of seals are found in the area.
The currentConstitution of Chilewas drafted byJaime Guzmánin 1980and subsequently approved via a nationalplebiscite—regarded as "highly irregular" by some observers—in September of that year, under the military dictatorship ofAugusto Pinochet. It entered into force in March 1981. After Pinochet's defeat in the1988 plebiscite, the constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the Constitution. In September 2005, PresidentRicardo Lagossigned into law several constitutional amendments passed by Congress. These include eliminating the positions of appointed senators andsenators for life, granting the President authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, and reducing the presidential term from six to four years.
Chile's judiciary is independent and includes a court of appeal, a system of military courts, a constitutional tribunal, and theSupreme Court of Chile. In June 2005, Chile completed a nationwide overhaul of its criminal justice system.The reform has replaced inquisitorial proceedings with an adversarial system with greater similarity to that of common law jurisdictions such as the United States.
For parliamentary elections, between 1989 and 2013 thebinominal systemwas used, which promoted the establishment of two majority political blocs -ConcertaciónandAlliance- at the expense of the exclusion of non-majority political groups. The opponents of this system approved in 2015 a moderateproportional electoral systemthat has been in force since the 2017 parliamentary elections, allowing the entry of new parties and coalitions. TheCongress of Chilehas a 50-seatSenateand a 155-memberChamber of Deputies. Senators serve for eight years with staggered terms, while deputies are elected every 4 years. The last congressional elections were held on 21 November 2021, concurrently with the presidential election. The Congress is located in the port city ofValparaíso, about 140 kilometers (90 miles) west of the capital, Santiago.
The main existing political coalitions in Chile are:
Government:
Opposition:
In the National Congress, Chile Vamos has 52 deputies and 24 senators, while the parliamentary group of Apruebo Dignidad is formed by 37 deputies and 6 senators. Democratic Socialism is the third political force with 30 deputies and 13 senators. The other groups with parliamentary representation are theRepublican Party(15 deputies and 1 senator), theChristian Democratic Party(8 deputies and 5 senators), theParty of the People(8 deputies) and theindependentsoutside of a coalition (5 deputies and 1 senator).
Since the early decades after independence, Chile has always had an active involvement in foreign affairs. In 1837, the country aggressively challenged the dominance of Peru's port ofCallaofor preeminence in the Pacific trade routes, defeating the short-lived alliance between Peru and Bolivia, thePeru–Bolivian Confederation(1836–39) in theWar of the Confederation. The war dissolved the confederation while distributing power in the Pacific. A second international war, theWar of the Pacific(1879–83), further increased Chile's regional role, while adding considerably to its territory.
During the 19th century, Chile's commercial ties were primarily with Britain, a nation that had a major influence on the formation of the Chilean navy. The French, influenced Chile's legal and educational systems and had a decisive impact on Chile, through the architecture of the capital in the boom years at the turn of the 20th century. German influence came from the organization and training of the army byPrussians.
On 26 June 1945, Chile participated as a founding member of the United Nations being among 50 countries that signed theUnited Nations Charterin San Francisco, California.With the military coup of 1973, Chile became isolated politically as a result of widespread human rights abuses.
Since its return to democracy in 1990, Chile has been an active participant in the international political arena. Chile completed a two-year non-permanent position on the UN Security Council in January 2005. Jose Miguel Insulza, a Chilean national, was elected Secretary General of the Organization of American States in May 2005 and confirmed in his position, being re-elected in 2009. Chile is currently serving on the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Board of Governors, and the 2007–2008 chair of the board is Chile's ambassador to the IAEA, Milenko E. Skoknic. The country is an active member of the UN family of agencies and participates in UN peacekeeping activities. It wasre-electedas a member of theUN Human Rights Councilin 2011 for a three-year term.It was alsoelectedto one of five non-permanent seats on theUN Security Councilin 2013.Chile hosted the Defense Ministerial of the Americas in 2002 and the APEC summit and related meetings in 2004. It also hosted the Community of Democracies ministerial in April 2005 and the Ibero-American Summit in November 2007. An associate member of Mercosur and a full member of APEC, Chile has been a major player in international economic issues and hemispheric free trade.
The Armed Forces of Chile are subject to civilian control exercised by the president through the Minister of Defense. The president has the authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces.
The commander-in-chief of theChilean ArmyisArmy GeneralRicardo Martínez Menanteau. The Chilean Army is 45,000 strong and is organized with an Army headquarters in Santiago, six divisions throughout its territory, an Air Brigade inRancagua, and a Special Forces Command inColina. The Chilean Army is one of the most professional and technologically advanced armies in Latin America.
AdmiralJulio Leiva Molinadirects the around 25,000-personChilean Navy,including 2,500 Marines. Of the fleet of 29 surface vessels, only eight are operational major combatants (frigates). Those ships are based inValparaíso.The Navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no Navy fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates four submarines based inTalcahuano.
Air Force General (four-star) Jorge Rojas Ávila heads the 12,500-strongChilean Air Force. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in Iquique, Antofagasta, Santiago, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas. The Air Force also operatesan airbaseonKing George Island, Antarctica. The Air Force took delivery of the final two of ten F-16s, all purchased from the U.S., in March 2007 after several decades of U.S. debate and previous refusal to sell. Chile also took delivery in 2007 of a number of reconditioned Block 15 F-16s from the Netherlands, bringing to 18 the total of F-16s purchased from the Dutch.
After the military coup in September 1973, theChilean national police(Carabineros) were incorporated into the Defense Ministry. With the return of democratic government, the police were placed under the operational control of the Interior Ministry but remained under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry. Gen. Gustavo González Jure is the head of the national police force of 40,964men and women who are responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile.
In 2017, Chile signed the UNtreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.
Chile is the 64th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.
In 1978 Chile was administratively divided intoregions,and in 1979 subdivided intoprovincesand these into communes.The country has16 regions,56 provincesand348 communes.
Each region was designated by a name and aRoman numeralassigned from north to south, except for theSantiago Metropolitan Region, which did not have a number. The creation of two new regions in 2007, Arica and Parinacota (XV) and Los Ríos (XIV), and a third region in 2018, Ñuble (XVI) made this numbering lose its original order meaning.
The national flower is thecopihue(Lapageria rosea, Chileanbellflower), which grows in the woods of southern Chile.
Thecoat of armsdepicts the two national animals: thecondor(Vultur gryphus, a very large bird that lives in the mountains) and thehuemul(Hippocamelus bisulcus,an endangered white tail deer). It also has the legendPor la razón o la fuerza(By reason or by force).
Theflag of Chileconsists of two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; there is a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center representing a guide to progress and honor; blue symbolizes the sky, white is for the snow-covered Andes, and red stands for the blood spilled to achieve independence. The flag of Chile is similar to theFlag of Texas, although the Chilean flag is 21 years older. However, like the Texan flag, the flag of Chile is modeled after theflag of the United States.
TheCentral Bank of Chilein Santiago serves as thecentral bankfor the country. The Chilean currency is theChilean peso(CLP). Chile is one of South America's most stable and prosperous nations,leading Latin American nations inhuman development, competitiveness, globalization, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption.Since July 2013, Chile is considered by theWorld Bankas a "high-income economy".
The think tankThe Heritage Foundationstates that Chile has the highest degree ofeconomic freedomin South America (ranking 22nd worldwide), owing to its independent and efficient judicial system and prudent public finance management.In May 2010 Chile became the first South American country to join theOECD.In 2006, Chile became the country with the highest nominal GDP per capita in Latin America.As of 2020, Chile ranks third in Latin America (behind Uruguay and Panama) in nominal GDP per capita.
Copper mining makes up 20% of Chilean GDP and 60% of exports.Escondidais the largest copper mine in the world, producing over 5% of global supplies.Overall, Chile produces a third of the world's copper.Codelco, the state mining firm, competes with private copper mining companies.
Sound economic policies, maintained consistently since the 1980s, have contributed to steady economic growth in Chile and have more than halved poverty rates.Chile began to experience a moderate economic downturn in 1999. The economy remained sluggish until 2003, when it began to show clear signs of recovery, achieving 4.0% GDP growth.The Chilean economy finished 2004 with growth of 6%. Real GDP growth reached 5.7% in 2005 before falling back to 4% in 2006. GDP expanded by 5% in 2007.Faced with thefinancial crisis of 2007–2008the government announced an economic stimulus plan to spur employment and growth, and despite theGreat Recession, aimed for an expansion of between 2% and 3% of GDP for 2009. Nonetheless, economic analysts disagreed with government estimates and predicted economic growth at a median of 1.5%.Real GDP growth in 2012 was 5.5%. Growth slowed to 4.1% in the first quarter of 2013.
The unemployment rate was 7.8% in 2022, according toThe World Bank.There are reported labor shortages in agriculture, mining, and construction.The percentage of Chileans with per capita household incomes below the poverty line—defined as twice the cost of satisfying a person's minimal nutritional needs—fell from 45.1% in 1987 to 11.5% in 2009, according to government surveys.Critics in Chile, however, argue that true poverty figures are considerably higher than those officially published.Using the relative yardstick favoured in many European countries, 27% of Chileans would be poor, according to Juan Carlos Feres of theECLAC.
As of November 2012, about 11.1 million people (64% of the population) benefit from government welfare programs,via the "Social Protection Card", which includes the population living in poverty and those at a risk of falling into poverty.The privatized national pension system(AFP) has encouraged domestic investment and contributed to an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 21% of GDP.Under the compulsory private pension system, most formal sector employees pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds.
Chile has signedfree trade agreements(FTAs) with a whole network of countries, including an FTA with the United States that was signed in 2003 and implemented in January 2004.Internal Government of Chile figures show that even when factoring out inflation and the recent high price of copper, bilateral trade between the U.S. and Chile has grown over 60% since then.Chile's total trade with China reached US$8.8 billion in 2006, representing nearly 66% of the value of its trade relationship with Asia.Exports to Asia increased from US$15.2 billion in 2005 to US$19.7 billion in 2006, a 29.9% increase.Year-on-year growth of imports was especially strong from a number of countries: Ecuador (123.9%), Thailand (72.1%), South Korea (52.6%), and China (36.9%).
Chile's approach to foreign direct investment is codified in the country's Foreign Investment Law. Registration is reported to be simple and transparent, and foreign investors are guaranteed access to the officialforeign exchange marketto repatriate their profits and capital.The Chilean Government has formed a Council on Innovation and Competition, hoping to bring in additional FDI to new parts of the economy.
Standard & Poor'sgives Chile acredit ratingof A.The Government of Chile continues to pay down its foreign debt, with public debt only 3.9% of GDP at the end of 2006.The Chilean central government is a net creditor with anet asset positionof 7% of GDP at end 2012.Thecurrent account deficitwas 4% in the first quarter of 2013, financed mostly by foreign direct investment.14% of central government revenue came directly from copper in 2012.Chile was ranked 1st in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024.
Chile is rich in mineral resources, especially copper and lithium. It is thought that due to the importance of lithium for batteries for electric vehicles and stabilization of electric grids with large proportions of intermittent renewables in the electricity mix, Chile could be strengthened geopolitically. However, this perspective has also been criticized for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production in other parts of the world.
The country was, in 2019, the world's largest producer ofcopper,iodineandrhenium,the second largest producer oflithiumandmolybdenum,the sixth largest producer ofsilver,the seventh largest producer ofsalt,the eighth largest producer ofpotash,the thirteenth producer ofsulfurand the thirteenth producer ofiron orein the world. In 2023, it was fourth largest silver producer globally.The country also has considerablegoldproduction: between 2006 and 2017, the country produced annual amounts ranging from 35.9 tonnes in 2017 to 51.3 tonnes in 2013,where the gold production in 2015 is 43 metric tonnes.
Agriculturein Chile encompasses a wide range of different activities due to its particulargeography,climateandgeologyand human factors. Historically agriculture is one of the bases of Chile's economy. Now agriculture and allied sectors likeforestry,loggingandfishingaccount for only 4.9% of theGDPas of 2007and employ 13.6% of the country's labor force. Chile is one of the 5 largest world producers ofcherryandblueberry, and one of the 10 largest world producers ofgrape,apple,kiwi,peach,plumandhazelnut, focusing on exporting high-value fruits.Some other major agriculture products of Chile includepears,onions,wheat,maize,oats,garlic,asparagus,beans,beef,poultry,wool,fish,timberandhemp. Due to its geographical isolation and strict customs policies Chile is free from diseases and pests such asmad cow disease,fruit flyandPhylloxera. This, its location in theSouthern Hemisphere, which has quite different harvesting times from theNorthern Hemisphere, and its wide range of agriculture conditions are considered Chile's main comparative advantages. However, Chile's mountainous landscape limits the extent and intensity of agriculture so that arable land corresponds only to 2.62% of the total territory. Chile currently utilizes 14,015 Hectares of agricultural land.
Chile is the world's second largest producer ofsalmon, after Norway. In 2019, it was responsible for 26% of the global supply.Inwine, Chile is usually among the 10 largest producers in the world. In 2018 it was in 6th place.
Tourism in Chile has experienced sustained growth over the last few decades. In 2005, tourism grew by 13.6%, generating more than 4.5 billion dollars of which 1.5 billion was attributed to foreign tourists. According to the National Service of Tourism (Sernatur), 2 million people a year visit the country. Most of these visitors come from other countries in the American continent, mainlyArgentina; followed by a growing number from the United States, Europe, and Brazil with a growing number of Asians fromSouth Koreaand China.
The main attractions for tourists are places of natural beauty situated in the extreme zones of the country:San Pedro de Atacama, in the north, is very popular with foreign tourists who arrive to admire the Incaic architecture, the altiplano lakes, and theValley of the Moon.InPutre, also in the north, there is theChungará Lake, as well as theParinacotaand thePomerapevolcanoes, with altitudes of 6,348 m and 6,282 m, respectively. Throughout the central Andes there are many ski resorts of international repute,includingPortillo,Valle NevadoandTermas de Chillán.
The main tourist sites in the south are national parks (the most popular isConguillío National Parkin the Araucanía)and the coastal area around Tirúa and Cañete with theIsla Mochaand theNahuelbuta National Park,Chiloé ArchipelagoandPatagonia, which includesLaguna San Rafael National Park, with its many glaciers, and theTorres del Paine National Park. The central port city ofValparaíso, which is World Heritage with its unique architecture, is also popular.Finally,Easter Islandin the Pacific Ocean is one of the main Chilean tourist destinations.
For locals, tourism is concentrated mostly in the summer (December to March), and mainly in the coastal beach towns.Arica,Iquique,Antofagasta,La SerenaandCoquimboare the main summer centers in the north, and Pucón on the shores ofLake Villarricais the main center in the south. Because of its proximity to Santiago, the coast of the Valparaíso Region, with its many beach resorts, receives the largest number of tourists.Viña del Mar, Valparaíso's more affluent northern neighbor, is popular because of its beaches,casino, and its annualsong festival, the most important musical event in Latin America.Pichilemuin theO'Higgins Regionis widely known as South America's "bestsurfingspot" according toFodor's.
In November 2005 the government launched a campaign under the brand "Chile: All Ways Surprising" intended to promote the country internationally for both business and tourism.Museums in Chilesuch as theChilean National Museum of Fine Artsbuilt in 1880, feature works byChilean artists.
Chile is home to the world-renownedPatagonian Trailthat resides on the border between Argentina and Chile. Chile recently launched a massive scenic route for tourism in hopes of encouraging development based on conservation. The Route of Parks covers 1,740 miles (2,800 km) and was designed by Tompkin Conservation (foundersDouglas Tompkinsand wifeKristine).
Due to Chile's topography a functioning transport network is vital to its economy. In 2020, Chile had 85,984 km (53,428 mi) ofhighways, with 21,289 km (13,228 mi) paved.In the same year, the country had 3,347 km (2,080 mi) ofduplicated highways, the second largest network in South America, after Brazil.Since the mid-1990s, there has been a significant improvement in the country's roads, through bidding processes that allowed the construction of an efficient road network, with emphasis on the duplication of continuous 1,950 km (1,212 mi) of thePanamerican Highway(Chile Route 5) betweenPuerto MonttandCaldera(in addition to the planned duplication in the Atacama Desert area),the excerpts in between Santiago, Valparaiso and the Central Coast, and the northern access to Concepción and the large project of the Santiago urbanhighwaysnetwork, opened between 2004 and 2006.Buses are now the main means of long-distance transportation in Chile, following the decline of its railway network.The bus system covers the entire country, fromAricatoSantiago(a 30-hour journey) and from Santiago toPunta Arenas(about 40 hours, with a change atOsorno).
Chile has a total of 372 runways (62 paved and 310 unpaved). Important airports in Chile includeChacalluta International Airport(Arica),Diego Aracena International Airport(Iquique),Andrés Sabella Gálvez International Airport(Antofagasta),Carriel Sur International Airport(Concepción),El Tepual International Airport(Puerto Montt),Presidente Carlos Ibáñez del Campo International Airport(Punta Arenas),La Araucanía International Airport(Temuco),Mataveri International Airport(Easter Island), the most remote airport in the world, as defined by distance to another airport, and theArturo Merino Benítez International Airport(Santiago) with a traffic of 12,105,524 passengers in 2011. Santiago is headquarters of Latin America's largestairlineholding companyand Chileanflag carrierLATAM Airlines.
Chile has a telecommunicationsystem which covers much of the country, including Chilean insular and Antarctic bases. Privatization of the telephone system began in 1988; Chile has one of the most advanced telecommunications infrastructure in South America with a modern system based on extensive microwave radio relay facilities and a domestic satellite system with 3 earth stations.In 2012, there were 3.276 million main lines in use and 24.13 million mobile cellular telephone subscribers.
According to a 2012 database of theInternational Telecommunication Union(ITU), 61.42% of the Chilean population uses the internet, making Chile the country with the highest internet penetration in South America.
The Chilean internet country code is ".cl".In 2017 the government of Chile launched its firstcyber securitystrategy, which receives technical support from theOrganization of American States(OAS) Cyber Security Program of the Inter-American Committee against Terrorism (CICTE).
Chile'stotal energy supply(TES) was 23.0GJ per capita in 2020.Energy in Chile is dominated by fossil fuels, with coal, oil and gas accounting for 73.4% of the total primary energy. Biofuels and waste account for another 20.5% of primary energy supply, with the rest sourced from hydro and other renewables.
Electricity consumption was 68.90 TWh in 2014. Main sources of electricity in Chile arehydroelectricity,gas,oilandcoal.Renewable energyin the forms ofwindandsolar energyare also coming into use, encouraged by collaboration since 2009 with theUnited States Department of Energy. The electricity industry isprivatizedwithENDESAas the largest company in the field.
In 2021, Chile had, in terms of installed renewable electricity, 6,807 MW in hydropower (28th largest in the world), 3,137 MW in wind power (28th largest in the world), 4,468 MW in solar (22nd largest in the world), and 375 MW in biomass.As the Atacama Desert has the highestsolar irradiationin the world, and Chile has always had problems obtaining oil, gas and coal (the country basically does not produce them, so it has to import them), renewable energy is seen as the solution for the country's shortcomings in the energy field.
In 2023 Chile emitted 107.99 million tonnes ofgreenhouse gases, equivalent to around 0.2% of the global total.In recent years Chile has emerged as a global leader in clean energy, particularly solar and wind.and has committed to net zero by 2050. According to Climate Action Tracker, the nation is making "considerable progress" in climate action by expanding renewables and phasing-out coal.
Chile's 2017 census reported a population of 17,574,003. Its rate of population growth has been decreasing since 1990, due to a decliningbirth rate.By 2050 the population is expected to reach approximately 20.2 million people.
Mexican professor Francisco Lizcano, of theNational Autonomous University of Mexico, estimated that 52.7% ofChileanswere white, 39.3% weremestizo, and 8% wereAmerindian.According to Encyclopædia Britannica as of year 2002 only 22% of Chileans were white and 72% were mestizo.
In 1984, a study calledSociogenetic Reference Framework for Public Health Studies in Chile, from the Revista de Pediatría de Chile determined an ancestry of 67.9% European, and 32.1% Native American.In 1994, a biological study determined that the Chilean composition was 64% European and 35% Amerindian.The recent study in the Candela Project establishes that the genetic composition of Chile is 52% of European origin, with 44% of the genome coming from Native Americans (Amerindians), and 4% coming from Africa, making Chile a primarily mestizo country with traces of African descent present in half of the population.Another genetic study conducted by theUniversity of Brasíliain several South American countries shows a similar genetic composition for Chile, with a European contribution of 51.6%, an Amerindian contribution of 42.1%, and an African contribution of 6.3%.In 2015 another study established genetic composition in 57% European, 38% Native American, and 2.5% African.
A public health booklet from theUniversity of Chilestates that 35% of the population is of Caucasian origin; "predominantly White" Mestizos are estimated to amount to a total of 65%, while Native Americans (Amerindians) comprise the remaining 5%.
Despite the genetic considerations, many Chileans, if asked, would self-identify as White. The 2011Latinobarómetrosurvey asked respondents in Chile what race they considered themselves to belong to. Most answered "White" (59%), while 25% said "Mestizo" and 8% self-classified as "indigenous".A 2002 national poll revealed that a majority of Chileans believed they possessed some (43.4%) or much (8.3%) "indigenous blood", while 40.3% responded that they had none.
Chile is one of 22 countries to have signed and ratified the only binding international law concerning indigenous peoples, theIndigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.It was adopted in 1989 as theInternational Labour Organization(ILO) Convention 169. Chile ratified it in 2008. A Chilean court decision in November 2009, considered to be a landmark ruling on indigenous rights, made use of the convention. The Supreme Court decision on Aymara water rights upheld rulings by both the Pozo Almonte tribunal and the Iquique Court of Appeals and marks the first judicial application of ILO Convention 169 in Chile.
The earliestEuropean immigrantswere Spanish colonizers who arrived in the 16th century.The Amerindian population of central Chile was absorbed into theSpanishsettler population in the beginning of the colonial period to form the largemestizopopulation that exists in Chile today; mestizos create modern middle and lower classes. In the 18th and 19th centuries, manyBasquescame to Chile where they integrated into the existing elites ofCastilianorigin. Postcolonial Chile was never a particularly attractive destination for migrants, owing to its remoteness and distance from Europe.Europeans preferred to stay in countries closer to their homelands instead of taking the long journey through the Straits of Magellan or crossing the Andes.European migration did not result in a significant change in the ethnic composition of Chile, except in theregion of Magellan.Spaniards were the only major European migrant group to Chile,and there was never large-scale immigration such as that to Argentina or Brazil.Between 1851 and 1924, Chile only received 0.5% of European immigration to Latin America, compared to 46% to Argentina, 33% to Brazil, 14% to Cuba, and 4% to Uruguay.However, it is undeniable that immigrants have played a significant role in Chilean society.
Immigrants to Chile during the 19th and 20th centuries came from France,Great Britain,Germany,andCroatia,among others. Descendants of differentEuropean ethnic groupsoften intermarried in Chile. This intermarriage and mixture of cultures and races have helped to shape the present society and culture of the Chilean middle and upper classes.Also, roughly 500,000 of Chile's population is of full or partialPalestinian origin,and 800,000 Arab descents.Chile currently has 1.5 million of Latin American immigrants, mainly fromVenezuela,Peru,Haiti,Colombia,BoliviaandArgentina; 8% of the total population in 2019, without counting descendants.According to the 2002 national census, Chile's foreign-born population has increased by 75% since 1992.As of November 2021, numbers of people entering Chile from elsewhere in Latin America have grown swiftly in the last decade, tripling in the last three years to 1.5 million, with arrivals stemming from humanitarian crises in Haiti (ca. 180,000) and Venezuela (ca 460,000).
About 85% of the country's population lives in urban areas, with 40% living inGreater Santiago. The largest agglomerations according to the 2002 census are Greater Santiago with 5.6 million people,Greater Concepciónwith 861,000
andGreater Valparaísowith 824,000.
Historically, theindigenous peoples in Chileobserved a variety of religions before theSpanish conquestin the 16th century. DuringSpanish ruleand the first century of Chilean independence, theCatholic Churchwas one of the most powerful institutions in the country. In the late 19th century, liberal policies (the so-calledLeyes laicasor "lay laws") started to reduce the influence of the clergy and the promulgation of anew Constitutionin 1925 established theseparation of church and state.
As of 2012, 66.6%of Chilean population over 15 years of age claimed to adhere to the Roman Catholic church, a decrease from the 70%reported in the 2002 census. In the same census of 2012, 17% of Chileans reported adherence to an Evangelical church ("Evangelical" in the census referred to all Christian denominations other than the Roman Catholic andOrthodox—Greek, Persian, Serbian, Ukrainian, and Armenian—churches,the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints,Seventh-day Adventists, andJehovah's Witnesses: essentially, those denominations generally still termed "Protestant" in most English-speaking lands, althoughAdventismis often considered an Evangelical denomination as well). Approximately 90% of Evangelical Christians arePentecostal. butWesleyan,Lutheran,Anglican,Episcopalian,Presbyterian,other Reformed,Baptist, andMethodist churchesalso are present amongst Chilean Evangelical churches.Irreligious people, atheists, and agnostics account for around 12% of the population.
By 2015, the major religion in Chile remained Christianity (68%), with an estimated 55% of Chileans belonging to the Roman Catholic church, 13% to various Evangelical churches, and just 7% adhering to any other religion. Agnostics and atheist were estimated at 25% of the population.
Chile has aBaháʼíreligious community, and is home to the Baháʼí mother temple, or continentalHouse of Worship, for Latin America. Completed in 2016, it serves as a space for people of all religions and backgrounds to gather, meditate, reflect, and worship.It is formed from cast glass and translucent marble and has been described as innovative in its architectural style.
The Constitution guarantees the right tofreedom of religion, and other laws and policies contribute to generally free religious practice. The law at all levels fully protects this right against abuse by either governmental or private actors.Church and state are officiallyseparatein Chile. A 1999 law on religion prohibitsreligious discrimination. 
However, the Roman Catholic church for mostly historical and social reasons enjoys a privileged status and occasionally receives preferential treatment.Government officials attend Roman Catholic events as well as major Evangelical and Jewish ceremonies.
The Chilean government treats the religious holidays of Christmas,Good Friday, theFeast of the Virgin of Carmen, theFeast of Saints Peter and Paul, theFeast of the Assumption,All Saints' Day, and theFeast of the Immaculate Conceptionasnational holidays.Recently, the government declared 31 October,Reformation Day, to be an additional national holiday, in honor of the Evangelical churches of the country.
Thepatron saintsof Chile areOur Lady of Mount CarmelandSaint James the Greater(Santiago).In 2005,Pope Benedict XVIcanonizedAlberto Hurtado, who became the country's second native Roman Catholic saint afterTeresa de los Andes.
TheSpanish spoken in Chileis distinctively accented and quite unlike that of neighboring South American countries because final syllables are often dropped, and some consonants have a soft pronunciation.Accent varies only very slightly from north to south; more noticeable are the differences in accent based on social class or whether one lives in the city or the country. That the Chilean population was largely formed in a small section at the center of the country and then migrated in modest numbers to the north and south helps explain this relative lack of differentiation, which was maintained by the national reach of radio, and now television, which also helps to diffuse and homogenize colloquial expressions.
There are several indigenous languages spoken in Chile:Mapudungun,Aymara,Rapa Nui,Chilean Sign Languageand (barely surviving)QawasqarandYaghan, along with non-indigenous German, Italian, English, Greek andQuechua. After the Spanish conquest, Spanish took over as thelingua francaand the indigenous languages have become minority languages, with some now extinct or close to extinction.
German is still spoken to some extent in southern Chile,either in small countryside pockets or as a second language among the communities of larger cities.
Through initiatives such as theEnglish Opens Doors Program, the government made English mandatory for students in fifth grade and above in public schools. Most private schools in Chile start teaching English from kindergarten.Common English words have been absorbed and appropriated into everyday Spanish speech.
TheMinistry of Health(Minsal) is the cabinet-level administrative office in charge of planning, directing, coordinating, executing, controlling and informing the public health policies formulated by the President of Chile. TheNational Health Fund(Fonasa), created in 1979, is the financial entity entrusted to collect, manage and distribute state funds for health in Chile. It is funded by the public. All employees pay 7% of their monthly income to the fund.
Fonasa is part of the NHSS and has executive power through theMinistry of Health (Chile). Its headquarters are inSantiagoand decentralized public service is conducted by various Regional Offices. More than 12 million beneficiaries benefit from Fonasa. Beneficiaries can also opt for more costly private insurance throughIsapre.
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index, Chile is one of 22 countries with a GHI score of less than 5.
In Chile, education begins withpreschooluntil the age of 5.Primary schoolis provided for children between ages 6 and 13. Students then attendsecondary schooluntil graduation at age 17.
Secondary education is divided into two parts: During the first two years, students receive a general education. Then, they choose a branch: scientific humanistic education, artistic education, or technical and professional education. Secondary school ends two years later on the acquirement of a certificate (licencia de enseñanza media).
Chilean education is segregated by wealth in a three-tiered system – the quality of the schools reflects socioeconomic backgrounds:
Upon successful graduation of secondary school, students may continue intohigher education. The higher education schools in Chile consist ofChilean Traditional Universitiesand are divided intopublic universitiesorprivate universities. There aremedical schoolsand both theUniversidad de ChileandUniversidad Diego Portalesofferlaw schoolsin a partnership withYale University.
From the period between early agricultural settlements and up to the late pre-Columbian period, northern Chile was a region of Andean culture that was influenced by altiplano traditions spreading to the coastal valleys of the north, while southern regions were areas of Mapuche cultural activities. Throughout the colonial period following the conquest, and during the early Republican period, the country's culture was dominated by the Spanish. Other European influences, primarily English, French, and German began in the 19th century and have continued to this day. German migrants influenced the Bavarian style rural architecture and cuisine in the south of Chile in cities such asValdivia,Frutillar,Puerto Varas,Osorno,Temuco,Puerto Octay,Llanquihue,Faja Maisan,Pitrufquén,Victoria,PucónandPuerto Montt.
Music in Chile ranges from folkloric, popular and classical music. Its large geography generates different musical styles in the north, center and south of the country, including also Easter Island and Mapuche music.The national dance is thecueca. Another form of traditional Chilean song, though not a dance, is thetonada. Arising from music imported by the Spanish colonists, it is distinguished from the cueca by an intermediate melodic section and a more prominent melody.
From the 1950s to the 1970s, native folk musical forms were revitalized with theNueva canción chilenamovement led by composers such asVioleta Parra,Raúl de RamónandPedro Messone, which was also associated with political activists and reformers such asVíctor Jara,Inti-Illimani, andQuilapayún. Also, many Chilean rock bands likeLos Jaivas,Los Prisioneros,La Ley,Los TresandLos Bunkershave reached international success, some incorporating strong folk influences, such as Los Jaivas. In February, annual music and comedy festivals are held inViña del Mar.
Chile is acountry of poets.Gabriela Mistralwas the first Latin American to receive aNobel Prize in Literature(1945). Chile's most famous poet isPablo Neruda, who received the Nobel Prize for Literature (1971) and is world-renowned for his extensive library of works on romance, nature, and politics. His three highly personalized homes inIsla Negra, Santiago and Valparaíso are popular tourist destinations.
Among the list of other Chilean poets areCarlos Pezoa Véliz,Vicente Huidobro,Gonzalo Rojas,Pablo de Rokha,Nicanor Parra,Ivonne CoñuecarandRaúl Zurita.Isabel Allendeis the best-selling Chilean novelist, with 51 million of her novels sold worldwide.NovelistJosé Donoso's novelThe Obscene Bird of Nightis considered by criticHarold Bloomto be one of the canonical works of 20th-century Western literature. Another internationally recognized Chilean novelist and poet isRoberto Bolañowhose translations into English have had an excellent reception from the critics.
Chilean cuisineis a reflection of the country's topographical variety, featuring an assortment of seafood, beef, fruits, and vegetables. Traditional recipes includeasado,cazuela,empanadas,humitas,pastel de choclo, pastel de papas,curanto, andsopaipillas.Crudosis an example of the mixture of culinary contributions from the various ethnic influences in Chile. The raw mincedllama, heavy use of shellfish, and rice bread were taken from nativeQuechuaAndean cuisine, (although beef, brought to Chile by Europeans, is also used in place of the llama meat), lemon and onions were brought by the Spanish colonists, and the use ofmayonnaiseandyogurtwas introduced by German immigrants, as wasbeer.
The folklore of Chile, cultural and demographic characteristics of the country, is the result of the mixture of Spanish and Amerindian elements that occurred during the colonial period. Due to cultural and historical reasons, they are classified and distinguished four major areas in the country: northern areas, central, southern and south. Most of the traditions of theculture of Chilehave a festive purpose, but some, such as dances and ceremonies, have religious components.
Chilean mythology is the mythology and beliefs of the Folklore of Chile. This includesChilote mythology,Rapa Nui mythologyandMapuche mythology.
Chile's most popular sport isassociation football. Chile has appeared in nine FIFA World Cups which includes hosting the1962 FIFA World Cupwhere thenational football teamfinished third. Other results achieved by the national football team include twoCopa Américatitles (2015 and2016), two runners-up positions, one silver and two bronze medals at thePan American Games, a bronze medal at the2000 Summer Olympicsand two third places finishes in the FIFA under-17 and under-20 youth tournaments. The top league in theChilean football league systemis theChilean Primera División, which is named by theIFFHSas the ninth strongest national football league in the world.
The main football clubs areColo-Colo,Universidad de ChileandUniversidad Católica. Colo-Colo is the country's most successful football club, having both the most national and international championships, including the covetedCopa LibertadoresSouth American club tournament. Universidad de Chile was the last international champion (Copa Sudamericana2011).
Tennis is Chile's most successful sport. Itsnational teamwon theWorld Team Cupclay tournament twice (2003 & 2004), and played theDavis Cupfinal against Italy in 1976. At the2004 Summer Olympicsthe country captured gold and bronze in men's singles and gold in men's doubles (Nicolás Massúobtained two gold medals).Marcelo Ríosbecame the first Latin American man to reach the number one spot in theATP singles rankingsin 1998.Anita Lizanawon theUS Openin 1937, becoming the first woman from Latin America to win aGrand Slamtournament.Luis Ayalawas twice a runner-up at the French Open and both Ríos andFernando Gonzálezreached the Australian Open men's singles finals. González also won a silver medal in singles at the2008 Summer Olympicsin Beijing.
At the Summer Olympic Games Chile boasts a total of two gold medals (tennis), seven silver medals (athletics,equestrian,boxing, shooting and tennis) and four bronze medals (tennis, boxing and football). In 2012, Chile won its first Paralympic Games medal (gold in Athletics).
Rodeois the country'snational sportand is practiced in the more rural areas of the nation. A sport similar tohockeycalledchuecawas played by the Mapuche people during the Spanish conquest.Skiingandsnowboardingare practiced at ski centers located in the Central Andes, and in southern ski centers near to cities as Osorno, Puerto Varas, Temuco and Punta Arenas.Surfingis popular at some coastal towns.Polois professionally practiced within Chile, with the country achieving top prize in the 2008 and 2015World Polo Championship.
Basketballis a popular sport in which Chile earned a bronze medal in the first men'sFIBA World Championshipheld in 1950 and won a second bronze medal when Chile hosted the1959 FIBA World Championship. Chile hosted the firstFIBA World Championship for Womenin 1953 finishing the tournament with the silver medal.San Pedro de Atacamais host to the annual "Atacama Crossing", a six-stage, 250-kilometer (160 mi) footrace which annually attracts about 150 competitors from 35 countries. TheDakar Rallyoff-road automobile racehas been held in both Chile andArgentinasince 2009.
Thecultural heritageof Chile consists, first, of its intangible heritage, composed of various cultural events and activities, such as visual arts, crafts, dances, holidays, cuisine, games, music and traditions. Secondly, its tangible heritage consists of those buildings, objects and sites of archaeological, architectural, traditional, artistic, ethnographic, folkloric, historical, religious or technological significance scattered through Chilean territory. Among them, some are declaredWorld Heritage SitesbyUNESCO, in accordance with the provisions of the Convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage of 1972, ratified by Chile in 1980. These cultural sites are theRapa Nui National Park(1995), theChurches of Chiloé(2000),the historical district of the port city of Valparaíso(2003),Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works(2005) and the mining citySewell(2006).
In 1999Cultural Heritage Daywas established as a way to honour and commemorate Chile's cultural heritage. It is an official national event celebrated in May every year.
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