Lentil

Thelentil(Vicia lensorLens culinaris) is alegume; it is anannual plantgrown for itslens-shaped edibleseeds, also calledlentils. It is about 40 cm (16 in) tall, and the seeds grow inpods, usually with two seeds in each.
Lentil seeds are used around the world forculinarypurposes. Incuisines of the Indian subcontinent, where lentils are astaple, split lentils (often with their hulls removed) known asdalare often cooked into a thickcurrythat is usually eaten withriceorroti. Lentils are commonly used instewsand soups.
Many different names in different parts of the world are used for the crop lentil.The first use of the wordlensto designate a specificgenuswas in the 17th century by the botanistTournefort.The word "lens" for the lentil is of classical Roman or Latin origin, possibly from a prominent Roman family named Lentulus, just as the family name "Cicero" was derived from the chickpea,Cicer arietinum, and "Fabia" (as inQuintus Fabius Maximus) from the fava bean (Vicia faba).
The genusViciais part of thesubfamilyFaboideaewhich is contained in the floweringplant familyFabaceaeor commonly known aslegumeorbeanfamily, of theorderFabalesin thekingdomPlantae.
The former genusLensconsisted of the cultivatedL. culinarisand six related wild taxa. Among the different taxa of wild lentils,L. orientaliswas considered to be the progenitor of the cultivated lentil and was generally classified asL. culinarissubsp.orientalis.
Lentil ishypogeal, which means thecotyledonsof the germinating seed stay in the ground and inside the seed coat. Therefore, it is less vulnerable to frost, wind erosion, or insect attack.
The plant is a diploid, annual, bushy herb of erect, semierect, or spreading and compact growth and normally varies from 30 to 50 centimetres (12 to 20 in) in height. It has many hairy branches and its stem is slender and angular. Therachisbears 10 to 15 leaflets in five to eight pairs. The leaves are alternate, of oblong-linear and obtuse shape and from yellowish green to dark bluish green in colour. In general, the upper leaves are converted intotendrils, whereas the lower leaves are mucronate. Ifstipulesare present, they are small. The flowers, one to four in number, are small, white, pink, purple, pale purple, or pale blue in colour. They arise from the axils of the leaves, on a slender footstalk almost as long as the leaves. The pods are oblong, slightly inflated, and about1.5 centimetres (5⁄8in) long. Normally, each of them contains two seeds, about0.5 centimetres (1⁄4in) in diameter, in the characteristic lens shape. The seeds can also be mottled and speckled. The several cultivated varieties of lentil differ in size, hairiness, and colour of the leaves, flowers, and seeds.
Lentils areself-pollinating. The flowering begins from the lowermost buds and gradually moves upward, so-called acropetal flowering. About two weeks are needed for all the flowers to open on the single branch. At the end of the second day and on the third day after the opening of the flowers, they close completely and the colour begins to fade. After three to four days, the setting of the pods takes place.
Types can be classified according to their size, whether they are split or whole, or shelled or unshelled. Seed coats can range from light green to deep purple, as well as being tan, grey, brown, black or mottled. Shelled lentils show the colour of the cotyledon which can be yellow, orange, red, or green.
Red-cotyledon types:
Small green/brown-seed coat types:
Medium green/brown-seed coat types
Large green/brown-seed coat types:
Other types:
In 2022, global production of lentils was 6.7 milliontonnes.  Canada produced the largest share, 2.2 million tonnes, or roughly 34% of the world's total output (table),nearly all (95%) of it inSaskatchewan.India was the world's second-largest producer, led by the states ofMadhya PradeshandUttar Pradesh, which together account for roughly 70 percent of the national lentil production.
The cultivated lentilLens culinarissubsp.culinariswas derived from its wild subspeciesL. culinarissubsp.orientalis, although other species may also have contributed some genes, according toJonathan Sauer(Historical Geography of Crop Plants, 2017).Unlike their wild ancestors, domesticated lentil crops haveindehiscentpods and non-dormant seeds.
Lentil was domesticated in theFertile Crescentof theNear Eastand then spread toEuropeandNorth Africaand the Indo-Gangetic plain. The primary center of diversity for the domesticLens culinarisas well as its wild progenitorL. culinaris ssp. orientalisis considered to be the Middle East. The oldest known carbonized remains of lentil fromGreece'sFranchthi Caveare dated to 11,000 BC. In archaeobotanical excavations carbonized remains of lentil seeds have been recovered from widely dispersed places such asTell RamadinSyria(6250–5950 BC), Aceramic Beidha inJordan,HacilarinTurkey(5800–5000 BC), Tepe Sabz (Ita.Tepe Sabz) inIran(5500–5000 BC) and Argissa-Magula Tessaly in Greece (6000–5000 BC), along other places.
Lentils can grow on various soil types, from sand to clay loam, growing best in deep sandy loam soils with moderate fertility. A soilpHaround 7 would be the best. Lentils do not tolerate flooding orwater-loggedconditions.
Lentils improve the physical properties of soils and increase the yield of succeeding cereal crops.Biological nitrogen fixationor other rotational effects could be the reason for higher yields after lentils.
The conditions under which lentils are grown differ across different growing regions. In thetemperate climateslentils are planted in the winter and spring under low temperatures and vegetative growth occurs in later spring and the summer. Rainfall during this time is not limited. In thesubtropics, lentils are planted under relatively high temperatures at the end of the rainy season, and vegetative growth occurs on the residual soil moisture in the summer season. Rainfall during this time is limited. InWest AsiaandNorth Africa, some lentils are planted as a winter crop before snowfall. Plant growth occurs during the time of snow melting. Under such cultivation, seed yields are often much higher.
The lentil requires a firm, smoothseedbedwith most of the previouscrop residuesincorporated. For the seed placement and for later harvesting it is important that the surface is not uneven with large clods, stones, or protruding crop residue. It is also important that the soil be made friable and weed-free, so that seeding can be done at a uniform depth.
The plant densities for lentils vary betweengenotypes, seed size, planting time and growing conditions, and also from region to region. In South Asia, a seed rate of 30 to 40 kilograms per hectare (27 to 36 pounds per acre) is recommended. In West Asian countries, a higher seed rate is recommended, and also leads to a higher yield. The seeds should be sown3 to 4 centimetres (1+1⁄4to1+1⁄2in) deep. In agriculturally mechanized countries, lentils are planted usinggrain drills, but many other areas still hand broadcast.
Inintercropping systems– a practice commonly used in lentil cultivation –herbicidesmay be needed to assure crop health.Like many otherlegumecrops, lentils canfix atmospheric nitrogenin the soil with specificrhizobia.Lentils grow well under lowfertilizerinput conditions, althoughphosphorus,nitrogen,potassium, andsulfurmay be used fornutrient-poor soils.
Below is a list of the most common lentil diseases.
A combination of gravity, screens and air flow is used to clean and sort lentils by shape and density. After destoning, they may be separated by a color sorter and then packaged.
A major part of the world's red lentil production undergoes a secondary processing step. These lentils aredehulled, split and polished. In theIndian subcontinent, this process is called dal milling.The moisture content of the lentils prior to dehulling is crucial to guarantee a good dehulling efficiency.The hull of lentils usually accounts for 6 to 7 percent of the total seed weight, which is lower than most legumes.Lentil flour can be produced by milling the seeds, like cereals.
Lentils can be eaten soaked, germinated, fried, baked or boiled – the most common preparation method.The seeds require a cooking time of 10 to 40 minutes, depending on the variety; small varieties with the husk removed, such as the common red lentil, require shorter cooking times (and unlike most legumes don't require soaking). Most varieties have a distinctive, earthy flavor. Lentils with husks remain whole with moderate cooking, while those without husks tend to disintegrate into a thick purée, which may enable various dishes. The composition of lentils leads to a highemulsifyingcapacity which can be even increased by doughfermentationin bread making.
Lentils are used worldwide in many different dishes. Lentil dishes are most widespread throughoutSouth Asia, theMediterraneanregions,West Asia, andLatin America.
In theIndian subcontinent,Fiji,Mauritius,Singaporeand theCaribbean, lentil curry is part of the everyday diet, eaten with both rice androti. Boiled lentils and lentil stock are used to thicken most vegetarian curries. They are also used as stuffing indalparathasandpurifor breakfast or snacks. Lentils are also used in many regional varieties of sweets. Lentil flour is used to prepare several different bread varieties, such aspapadam.
They are frequently combined withrice, which has a similar cooking time. A lentil and rice dish is referred to in Levantine countries asmujaddaraormejadra. In Iran, rice and lentil is served with friedraisin; this dish is calledadas polo. Rice and lentils are also cooked together inkhichdi, a popular dish in the Indian subcontinent (India and Pakistan); another dish,kushari, made in Egypt, is considered one of twonational dishes.
Lentils are used to prepare an inexpensive and nutritioussoupthroughout Europe andNorth and South America, sometimes combined withchickenorpork. In Western countries, cooked lentils are often used in salads.In Italy, the traditional dish for New Year's Eve isCotechinoserved with lentils.
Lentils are commonly eaten inEthiopiain a stew-like dish calledkik, orkik wot, one of the dishes people eat with Ethiopia's national food,injeraflatbread. Yellow lentils are used to make a non-spicy stew, which is one of the first solid foods Ethiopians feed their babies.
Lentils were a chief part of the diet of ancient Iranians, who consumed lentils daily in the form of a stew poured over rice.
Boiled lentils are 70% water, 20%carbohydrates, 9%protein, and 0.4%fat(table). In a reference amount of100 grams (3+1⁄2ounces), cooked lentils (boiled; variety unspecified) provide 114calories, and are a rich source (20% or more of theDaily Value, DV) offolate(45% DV), iron (25% DV), manganese (24% DV), and phosphorus (26% DV). They are a good source (10% DV) ofthiamine(15% DV),pantothenic acid(13% DV),vitamin B6(14% DV),magnesium(10% DV),copper(13% DV), andzinc(13%) (table). Lentils containcarotenoids,luteinandzeaxanthin, andpolyunsaturated fatty acids.
The low levels of readily digestible starch (5 percent) and high levels of slowly digested starch make lentils of potential value to people withdiabetes.The remaining 65% of the starch is aresistant starchclassified as RS1.A minimum of 10% in starch from lentils escapesdigestionand absorption in thesmall intestine(therefore called "resistant starch").Additional resistant starch is synthesized from gelatinized starch, during cooling, after lentils are cooked.
Lentils also haveantinutrientfactors, such astrypsin inhibitorsand a relatively highphytatecontent. Trypsin is an enzyme involved in digestion, and phytates reduce thebioavailabilityofdietary minerals.The phytates can be reduced by prolonged soaking and fermentation or sprouting.Cooking nearly completely removes the trypsin inhibitor activity; sprouting is also effective.
Although lentils have been an important crop for centuries, lentil breeding and genetic research have a relatively short history compared to that of many other crops. Since the inception of TheInternational Center for Agriculture Research in the Dry Areas(ICARDA) breeding programme in 1977 significant gains have been made. It supplies landraces and breeding lines for countries around the world, supplemented by other programmes in both developing (e.g. India) and developed (e.g. Australia and Canada) countries. In recent years, such collaborations among breeders and agronomists are becoming increasingly important.
The focus lies on high yielding and stable cultivars for diverse environments to match the demand of a growing population.In particular, progress in quantity and quality as well as in the resistance to disease and abiotic stresses are the major breeding aims.Several varieties have been developed applying conventional breeding methodologies.Serious genetic improvement for yield has been made, however, the full potential of production and productivity could not yet be tapped due to several biotic and abiotic stresses.
WildLensspecies are a significant source of genetic variation for improving the relatively narrow genetic base of this crop. The wild species possess many diverse traits including disease resistances and abiotic stress tolerances. The above-mentionedL. nigricansandL. orientalispossess morphological similarities to the cultivatedL. culinaris. But onlyL. culinarisandL. culinarissubsp. orientalis are crossable and produce fully fertile seed. Between the different related species hybridisation barriers exist. According to their inter-crossabilityLensspecies can be divided into three gene pools:
Crosses generally fail between members of different gene pools. However,plant growth regulatorsand/orembryo rescueallows the growth of viablehybridsbetween groups. Even if crosses are successful, many undesired genes may be introduced as well in addition to the desired ones. This can be resolved by using abackcrossingprogramme. Thus,mutagenesisis crucial to create new and desirable varieties. According to Yadav et al. other biotechnology techniques which may impact on lentil breeding aremicro-propagationusing meristamatic explants, callus culture and regeneration, protoplast culture and doubled haploid production.
There is a proposed revision of the gene pools using SNP phylogeny.