Saffron

Saffron(/ˈsæfrən,-rɒn/)is a spice derived from the flower ofCrocus sativus, commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimsonstigmaandstyles, called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly as aseasoningandcolouring agentin food. The saffron crocus was slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.
Saffron's taste andiodoform-like orhay-like fragrance result from thephytochemicalspicrocrocinandsafranal.It also contains acarotenoidpigment,crocin, which imparts a rich golden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles.Its recorded historyis attested in a 7th-century BCAssyrianbotanical treatise,and it has beentraded and usedfor thousands of years. As of 2024,Iranproduced some 90% of the world total for saffron.At US$5,000 per kg or higher, saffron has long been the world's costliest spice by weight.
A degree of uncertainty surrounds the origin of the English word "saffron". It might stem from the 12th-centuryOld Frenchtermsafran, which comes from the Latin wordsafranum, from the Persian (زعفران,za'farān),from the Persian wordzarparān(زرپران) meaning "gold strung" (implying either the golden stamens of the flower or the golden colour it creates when used as flavour).
The domesticated saffron crocus,Crocus sativus, is an autumn-floweringperennial plantunknown in the wild. It probably descends from the eastern Mediterranean autumn-floweringCrocus cartwrightianuswhich is also known as "wild saffron"and is native tomainland Greece,Euboea,Crete,Skyrosand some islands of theCyclades.The similar speciesC. thomasiiandC. pallasiiwere considered as other possible ancestors.As a genetically monomorphic clone incapable of seed production, it was slowly propagated by humans throughout much ofEurasia.Various origins had been suggested for saffron, includingIran,Greece,Mesopotamia.andKashmir.
It is a steriletriploidform, which means that three homologous sets ofchromosomesmake up each specimen's genetic complement;C. sativusbears eight chromosomal bodies per set, making for 24 in total.Being sterile, the purple flowers ofC. sativusfail to produce viable seeds; reproduction hinges on human assistance: clusters ofcorms, underground, bulb-like, starch-storing organs, must be dug up, divided, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, producing via vegetative division up to ten "cormlets" that can grow into new plants in the next season.The compact corms are small, brown globules that can measure as large as 5 cm (2 in) in diameter, have a flat base, and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibres; this coat is referred to as the "corm tunic". Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net-like, that grow up to 5 cm (2 in) above the plant's neck.
The plant sprouts 5–11 white and non-photosyntheticleaves known ascataphylls. These membrane-like structures cover and protect 5 to 11 true leaves as they bud and develop on the crocus flower. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are1–3 mm (1⁄32–1⁄8in), in diameter, which either expand after the flowers have opened ("hysteranthous") or do so simultaneously with their blooming ("synanthous").C. sativuscataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigated relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bearbracteoles, or specialised leaves, that sprout from the flower stems; the latter are known aspedicels.Afteraestivatingin spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to 40 cm (16 in) in length. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve.The flowers possess a sweet, honey-like fragrance. Upon flowering, the plants are 20–30 cm (8–12 in) in height and bear up to four flowers. A three-prongedstyle25–30 mm (1–1+3⁄16in) in length, emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimsonstigma, which is the distal end of acarpel.
The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, probably descends fromCrocus cartwrightianus. It is atriploidthat is "self-incompatible" and male sterile; it undergoes aberrantmeiosisand is hence incapable of independent sexual reproduction—all propagation is byvegetative multiplicationvia manual "divide-and-set" of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation.
Crocus sativusthrives in the Mediterraneanmaquis, an ecotype superficially resembling the North Americanchaparral, and similar climates where hot and dry summer breezes sweep semi-arid lands. It can nonetheless survive cold winters, tolerating frosts as low as −10 °C (14 °F) and short periods of snow cover.Some reports suggest saffron can tolerate an air temperature range from −22 to 40 °C.Irrigation is required if grown outside of moist environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages 1,000–1,500 mm (40–60 in); saffron-growing regions in Greece (500 mm or 20 in annually) and Spain (400 mm or 16 in) are far drier than the main cultivating Iranian regions. What makes this possible is the timing of the local wet seasons; generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weather during flowering promotes disease and reduces yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm the crops,and rabbits, rats, and birds cause damage by digging up corms.Nematodes, leafrusts, and corm rot pose other threats. YetBacillus subtilisinoculation may provide some benefit to growers by speeding corm growth and increasing stigma biomass yield.
The plants fare poorly in shady conditions; they grow best in full sunlight. Fields that slope towards the sunlight are optimal (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere). Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern Hemisphere, where corms are lodged 7–15 cm (3–6 in) deep; its roots, stems, and leaves can develop between October and February.Planting depth and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors in determining yields. Mother corms planted deeper yield higher-quality saffron, though they form fewer flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers optimise thread yield by planting 15 cm (6 in) deep and in rows2–3 cm (3⁄4–1+1⁄4in) apart; depths of 8–10 cm (3–4 in) optimise flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers employ distinct depths and spacings that suit their locales.
C. sativusprefers friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-calcareoussoils with high organic content. Traditional raised beds promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some 20–30 tonnes per hectare (9–13 short tons per acre) of manure. Afterwards, and with no further manure application, corms were planted.After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair: after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes.All plants bloom within a window of one or two weeks.Stigmas are dried quickly upon extraction and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers.
The high retail value of saffron is maintained on world markets because of labour-intensive harvesting methods, which require some 440,000 hand-picked saffron stigmas per kilogram (200,000 stigmas/lb) – equivalently, 150,000 crocus flowers per kilogram (70,000 flowers/lb).Forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers.
One freshly picked crocus flower yields on average 30 mg of fresh saffron or 7 mg dried; roughly 150 flowers yield1 g (1⁄32oz) of dry saffron threads; to produce12 g (7⁄16oz) of dried saffron, 450 g (1 lb) of flowers are needed; the yield of dried spice from fresh saffron is only 13 g/kg (0.2 oz/lb).
Saffron contains some 28volatile and aroma-yielding compounds, dominated byketonesandaldehydes.Its main aroma-active compounds aresafranal– the main compound responsible for saffron aroma – 4-ketoisophorone, and dihydrooxophorone.Saffron also contains nonvolatilephytochemicals,including thecarotenoidszeaxanthin,lycopene, various α- and β-carotenes, as well ascrocetinand itsglycosidecrocein, which are the most biologically active components.Because crocetin is smaller and more water-soluble than the other carotenoids, it is more rapidly absorbed.
The yellow-orange colour of saffron is primarily the result of α-crocin.Thiscrocinis trans-crocetindi-(β-D-gentiobiosyl)ester; it bears thesystematic (IUPAC) name8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid. This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin.Crocins themselves are a series ofhydrophiliccarotenoids that are eithermonoglycosylor diglycosylpolyeneesters of crocetin.Crocetin is aconjugatedpolyenedicarboxylic acidthat ishydrophobic, and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin isesterifiedwith two water-soluble gentiobioses, which aresugars, a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant α-crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may make up more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for colouring water-based and non-fatty foods such as rice dishes.
The bitterglucosidepicrocrocinis responsible for saffron'spungent flavour.Picrocrocin (chemical formula:C16H26O7; systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carbaldehyde) is a union of analdehydesub-molecule known assafranal(systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carbaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Picrocrocin is a truncated version of the carotenoidzeaxanthinthat is produced viaoxidativecleavage, and is theglycosideof theterpenealdehydesafranal.
When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yieldD–glucoseand a free safranal molecule.Safranal, avolatileoil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma.Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples.A second molecule underlying saffron's aroma is2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one, which produces a scent described as saffron, dried hay-like.Chemists find this is the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance, despite its presence in a lesser quantity than safranal.Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuatingpHlevels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light andoxidisingagents. It must, therefore, be stored in air-tight containers to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.
Saffron is not all of the same quality and strength. Strength is related to several factors including the amount of style picked along with the red stigma. Age of the saffron is also a factor. More style included means the saffron is less strong gram for gram because the colour and flavour are concentrated in the red stigmas. Saffron fromIran,Spain, andKashmiris classified into various grades according to the relative amounts of red stigma and yellow styles it contains. Grades of Iranian saffron are:sargol(Persian:سرگل, red stigma tips only, strongest grade),pushalorpushali(red stigmas plus some yellow style, lower strength), "bunch" saffron (red stigmas plus large amount of yellow style, presented in a tiny bundle like a miniature wheatsheaf) andkonge(yellow style only, claimed to have aroma but with very little, if any, colouring potential). Grades of Spanish saffron arecoupé(the strongest grade, like Iranian sargol),mancha(like Iranian pushal), and in order of further decreasing strengthrio,standardandsierrasaffron. The wordmanchain the Spanish classification can have two meanings: a general grade of saffron or a very high quality Spanish-grown saffron from a specific geographical origin. Real Spanish-grown La Mancha saffron hasPDOprotected status and this is displayed on the product packaging. Spanish growers fought hard for Protected Status because they felt that imports of Iranian saffron re-packaged in Spain and sold as "Spanish Mancha saffron" were undermining the genuine La Mancha brand.Similar was the case in Kashmir where imported Iranian saffron is mixed with local saffron and sold as "Kashmir brand" at a higher price.In Kashmir, saffron is mostly classified into two main categories calledmongra(stigma alone) andlachha(stigmas attached with parts of the style).Countries producing less saffron do not have specialised words for different grades and may only produce one grade. Artisan producers in Europe and New Zealand have offset their higher labour charges for saffron harvesting by targeting quality, only offering extremely high-grade saffron.
In addition to descriptions based on how the saffron is picked, saffron may be categorised under the international standardISO3632 after laboratory measurement of crocin (responsible for saffron's colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance or aroma) content.However, often there is no clear grading information on the product packaging and little of the saffron readily available in the UK is labelled with ISO category. This lack of information makes it hard for customers to make informed choices when comparing prices and buying saffron.
Under ISO 3632, determination of non-stigma content ("floral waste content") and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("ash") are also key. Grading standards are set by theInternational Organization for Standardization, a federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes three categories: III (poorest quality), II, and I (finest quality). Formerly there was also category IV, which was below category III. Samples are assigned categories by gauging the spice's crocin and picrocrocin content, revealed by measurements of specific spectrophotometricabsorbance. Safranal is treated slightly differently and rather than there being threshold levels for each category, samples must give a reading of 20–50 for all categories.
These data are measured throughspectrophotometryreports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. Higher absorbances imply greater levels of crocin, picrocrocin and safranal, and thus a greater colouring potential and therefore strength per gram. The absorbance reading of crocin is known as the "colouring strength" of that saffron. Saffron's colouring strength can range from lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 200 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected, most red-maroon, tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive colouring strengths in excess of 250, making such saffron over three times more powerful than category IV saffron. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO categories. Sargol and coupé saffron would typically fall into ISO 3632 category I. Pushal and Mancha would probably be assigned to category II. On many saffron packaging labels, neither the ISO 3632 category nor the colouring strength (the measurement of crocin content) is displayed.
However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. Some people prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of threads for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practised by experiencedwinetasters.
Despite attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffronadulteration, particularly among the cheapest grades, continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under theSafranschoucode.Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances likebeetroot,pomegranatefibres, red-dyed silk fibres, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odourless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibres with viscid substances likehoneyor vegetable oil to increase their weight. Powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, withturmeric,paprika, and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabelled mixes of different saffron grades. Thus, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron.Saffloweris a common substitute sometimes sold as saffron. The spice is reportedly counterfeited withhorse hair,corn silk, or shredded paper.Tartrazineorsunset yellowhave been used to colour counterfeit powdered saffron.
In recent years, saffron adulterated with the colouring extract ofgardeniafruits has been detected in the European market. This form of fraud is difficult to detect due to the presence offlavonoidsandcrocinesin the gardenia-extracts similar to those naturally occurring in saffron. Detection methods have been developed by usingHPLCandmass spectrometryto determine the presence ofgeniposide, a compound present in the fruits of gardenia, but not in saffron.
The various saffron crocus cultivars give rise to thread types that are often regionally distributed and characteristically distinct. Varieties (not varieties in the botanical sense) from Spain, including the tradenames "Spanish Superior" and "Creme", are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish. Greek saffron produced in the town ofKrokosisPDOprotected due to its particularly high-quality colour and strong flavour.Various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries—some of them organically grown. In the US, Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its "earthy" notes—is marketed in small quantities.
Consumers may regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron, orzafferano dell'Aquila, is defined by high safranal and crocin content, distinctive thread shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour; it is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy'sAbruzzoregion, nearL'Aquila. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican friar from inquisition-era Spain.But the biggest saffron cultivation in Italy is inSan Gavino Monreale, Sardinia, where it is grown on 40 hectares, representing 60% of Italian production; it too has unusually high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content.
Another is the "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron of Kashmir (Crocus sativus'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain.Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in Kashmir combined with an Indian export ban, contribute to its prohibitive overseas prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognizable by its dark maroon-purple hue, making it among the world's darkest.In 2020,Kashmir Valleysaffron was certified with ageographical indicationfrom the Government of India.
Almost all saffron grows in a belt fromSpainin the west to India in the east.Iranis responsible for around 88% of global production.In 2024, Iran was the largest producer of saffron, withAfghanistanas the second largest.Saffron is cultivated in 26 of Afghanistan's 34 provinces, with most production concentrated inHerat.
Spain is the third largest producer, while theUnited Arab Emirates,Greece, theIndian subcontinentandMoroccoare among minor producers.
Saffron prices at wholesale and retail rates range from $1,100–$11,000/kg ($500–$5,000/lb). In Western countries, the average retail price in 1974 was $2,200/kg ($1,000/lb).In February 2013, a retail bottle containing1.7 g (1⁄16oz) could be purchased for $16.26 or the equivalent of $9,560/kg ($4,336/lb), or as little as about $4,400/kg ($2,000/lb) in larger quantities. There are between 150,000 and 440,000 threads /kg (70,000 and 200,000 threads/lb). Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron.
Saffron has a long history of use intraditional medicine.Saffron has also been used as a fabricdye, particularly in China and India, and in perfumery.It is used for religious purposes in India.
In the EuropeanE numbercategorisation for food elements and additives, Saffron is coded asE164.
Saffron's aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with grassy or hay-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and sweet. Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in Persian,Indian, European, and Arab cuisines. Confectioneries and liquors also often include saffron. Saffron is used in dishes ranging from the jewelled rice andkhoreshof Iran,the Milaneserisottoof Italy, thepaellaof Spain, thebouillabaisseof France, to thebiryaniwith various meat accompaniments in South Asia. Saffron is also used in the preparation of theGolden Ham, a precious dry-curedhammade with saffron fromSan Gimignano.Common saffron substitutes includesafflower(Carthamus tinctorius, which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "açafrão"),annatto, andturmeric(Curcuma longa). InMedieval Europe, turmeric was also known as "Indian saffron" because of its yellow-orange colour.
Dried saffron is 65%carbohydrates, 6% fat, 11%protein(table) and 12% water. In onetablespoon(2 grams; a quantity much larger than is likely to be ingested in normal use)manganeseis present as 29% of theDaily Value, while othermicronutrientshave negligible content (table).
Ingesting less than1.5 g (1⁄16oz) of saffron is not toxic for humans, but doses greater than5 g (3⁄16oz) can become increasingly toxic.Mild toxicity includes dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, whereas at higher doses there can be reducedplateletcount and spontaneous bleeding.
Saffron will not spoil, but will lose flavour within six months if not stored in an airtight, cool and dark place.Freezer storage can maintain flavour for up to two years.
As of 2020, saffron constituents, such ascrocin,crocetin, andsafranal, were under preliminary research for their potential to affectmental depression.Saffron has also been studied for its possible effect on cardiovascularrisk factors,and inerectile dysfunction.
Saffron likely originated in Iran,Greece,Mesopotamia,or Kashmir.Harold McGeestates that it was domesticated in or near Greece during the Bronze Age.C. sativusis probably atriploidform ofCrocus cartwrightianus,which is also known as "wild saffron".Saffron crocus was slowly propagated by humans throughout much ofEurasiaand was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.
Several wild species ofCrocussimilar to the commercial plant are known to have been harvested in recent times for use as saffron.Crocus ancyrensiswas used to make saffron in Sivas in Central Turkey, the corms were also eaten.Crocus cartwrightianuswas harvested on Andros in the islands of the Cyclades, for medicinal purposes and the stigmas for making a pigment called Zafran.Crocus longiflorusstigmas were used for saffron in Sicily.Crocus thomasiistigmas were used to flavour dishes around Taranto, South Italy. In Syria the stigmas of an unknown wild species were collected by women and children, sun-dried and pressed into small tablets which were sold in the Bazaars.Not all ancient depictions or descriptions of saffron spice or flowers are certain to be the same species as the modern commercial species used for spice.
Saffron was detailed in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled underAshurbanipal.Documentation of saffron's use over the span of 3,500 years has been uncovered.Saffron-based pigments have indeed been found in 50,000-year-old depictions of prehistoric places in northwest Iran.The Sumerians later used wild-growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions.Saffron was an article of long-distance trade before theMinoan palaceculture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient Persians cultivated Persian saffron (Crocus sativusvar.haussknechtiinow calledCrocus haussknechtiiby botanists) inDerbent,Isfahan, andKhorasanby the 10th century BC. At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles,ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes.Saffron threads would thus be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. Non-Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and aphrodisiac.During his Asian campaigns,Alexander the Greatused Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops imitated the practice from the Persians and brought saffron-bathing to Greece.
Conflicting theories explain saffron's arrival in South Asia. Kashmiri and Chinese accounts date its arrival anywhere between 2500 and 900 years ago.Historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC,attributing it to a Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks.Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy. Its use in foods and dyes subsequently spread throughout South Asia. Buddhist monks wear saffron-coloured robes; however, the robes are not dyed with costly saffron butturmeric, a less expensive dye, orjackfruit.Monks' robes are dyed the same colour to show equality with each other, and turmeric or ochre were the cheapest, most readily available dyes.Gambogeis also used to dye the robes.
Some historians believe that saffron came to China with Mongol invaders from Persia.Yet it is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volumeShennong Bencaojing, a pharmacopoeia written around 300–200 BC. Traditionally credited to the legendaryYan Emperorand the deityShennong, it discusses 252 plant-based medical treatments for various disorders.Nevertheless, around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to it as having a Kashmiri provenance. According to the herbalist Wan Zhen, "the habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha". Wan also reflected on how it was used in his time: "The flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."
Minoan depictions of saffron are now considered to beCrocus cartwrightianus.TheMinoansportrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 1600–1500 BC; they hint at its possible use as a therapeutic drug.Ancient Greek legends told of sea voyages toCilicia, where adventurers sought what they believed were the world's most valuable threads.Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed into the first saffron crocus.Ancient perfumers in Egypt, physicians inGaza, townspeople inRhodes,and the Greekhetaeraecourtesans used saffron in theirscented waters, perfumes and potpourris, mascaras and ointments, divine offerings, and medical treatments.
In latePtolemaic Egypt,Cleopatraused saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable.Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments.Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in suchLevantinecities asSidonandTyrein Lebanon.Aulus Cornelius Celsusprescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in themithridatium.
Saffron was a notable ingredient in certain Roman recipes such asjusselleandconditum.Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took it with them when they settled in southernGaul, where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. With this fall, European saffron cultivation plummeted. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th-century AD Moors or with theAvignonpapacy in the 14th century AD.Similarly, the spread of Islamic civilisation may have helped reintroduce the crop to Spain and Italy.
The 14th-centuryBlack Deathcaused demand for saffron-basedmedicamentsto peak, and Europe imported large quantities of threads via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands such as Rhodes. The theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the fourteen-week-longSaffron War.The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred corm cultivation inBasel; it thereby grew prosperous.The crop then spread toNuremberg, where endemic and insalubrious adulteration brought on theSafranschoucode—whereby culprits were variously fined, imprisoned, and executed.Meanwhile, cultivation continued in southern France, Italy, and Spain.
Direct archaeological evidence of mediaeval saffron consumption in Scandinavia comes from the wreck of the royal Danish-Norwegian flagship,Gribshunden. The ship sank in 1495 while on a diplomatic mission to Sweden. Excavations in 2021 revealed concentrations of saffron threads and small "pucks" of compressed saffron powder, along with fresh ginger, cloves, and pepper. Surprisingly, the saffron retained its distinctive odour even after more than 500 years of submersion in the Baltic Sea.
TheEssextown ofSaffron Walden, named for its new specialty crop, emerged as a prime saffron growing and trading centre in the 16th and 17th centuries but cultivation there was abandoned; saffron was re-introduced around 2013 as well as other parts of the UK (Cheshire).
Europeans introduced saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of theSchwenkfelder Churchleft Europe with a trunk containing its corms. Church members had grown it widely in Europe.By 1730, thePennsylvania Dutchcultivated saffron throughout eastern Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was equal to gold.Trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffron-bearing merchant vessels were destroyed.Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes.American saffron cultivation survives into modern times, mainly inLancaster County, Pennsylvania.
Saffron has a long history inAfghanistan, with cultivation believed to date back to beforeAlexander the Great's conquest of the Persian Empire.Due to prolonged droughts, conflict, and shifts in agricultural focus, saffron farming declined for centuries. Cultivation resumed in the early 2000s as an alternative toopium poppyfarming,supported by international organizations and the Afghan government.According to Afghanistan’sMinistry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, production increased from 20 metric tons in 2022 to 46 metric tons in 2024.Key export markets include India, Europe, and the United States, where Afghan saffron is prized for its high quality.
Saffron cultivation contributes significantly to Afghanistan’s economy, supporting thousands of farmers, particularly women. Over 80% of the saffron workforce consists of women, who primarily handle harvesting and processing. The sector has provided employment opportunities for over 40,000 people, playing a role in agricultural sustainability and rural development.
Afghan saffron is known for its deep red color, strong aroma, and high crocin content, a compound that determines color intensity.It has been ranked among the highest quality saffron varieties in recent years with a 310 Crocin color quality based on ISO 3632.2 standards.