davidanugraha/M4-RAG huggingface dataset:
Daniel W. Gade

Daniel Wynne Gade, PhD, (28 de septiembre de 1936 - 15 de junio de 2015) fue un profesor de Geografía en la Universidad de Vermont y un miembro distinguido de la Escuela de Geografía Latinoamericana de Berkeley. Sus intereses principales se ubicaron en los campos de lageografía cultural y la geografía histórica, así como la etnobotánica, la ecología cultural, y la investigación en montañas. Su foco regional se ubicó en los Andes Centrales de Ecuador, Perú, y Bolivia; además, Gade también investigó los paisajes culturales de la Canadá francófona, España y Portugal, las montañas de Madagascar, el sur de Francia y el norte de Italia. Nació en Niagara Falls, Nueva York.
Recibió el grado de bachiller de la Universidad de Valparaiso (Indiana) en 1959, una Maestría en Artes de la Universidad de Illinois en Urbana-Champaign en 1960, y una Maestría en Ciencias, seguido por un Doctorado de la Universidad de Wisconsin-Madison en 1967. Su tesis en uso humano de plantas en el Valle de Vilcanota en Perú fue publicada en la serie Biogeographica, entonces editada por alemán geographer Josef Schmithüsen. Durante sus viajes en América del Sur, también conoció al científico Nazi Heinz Brücher y analizó su trabajo en una publicación.​ Murió en Burlington, Vermont, el 15 de junio de 2015.​​
Estaciones porteñas

Las Cuatro Estaciones Porteñas, también conocidas como Estaciones Porteñas, son un conjunto de cuatro composiciones de tango escritas por el músico argentino Astor Piazzolla. Originalmente las concibió y trató como composiciones diferentes en lugar de una suite, y con el tiempo se fueron editando en álbumes diferentes. Sin embargo, Piazzolla llegó a interpretarlas en conjunto ocasionalmente. Las piezas se escribieron para quinteto provisto de violín, piano, guitarra eléctrica, contrabajo y bandoneón. El adjetivo porteño, gentilicio de Buenos Aires, es usado por Piazzolla para dar su impresión de las estaciones del año en Buenos Aires.
Entre 1996 y 1998, el compositor ruso Leonid Desyatnikov realizó un nuevo arreglo de las cuatro piezas anteriores con un vínculo mucho más evidente entre Vivaldi y Piazzolla, convirtiendo cada una de las piezas en piezas de tres secciones, y reordenando ciertas secciones para violín solista y orquesta de cuerdas. En cada pieza incluyó varias citas de la obra original de Vivaldi, pero debido a que las estaciones se invierten entre los hemisferios norte y sur, así, por ejemplo, en "Verano Porteño" había añadido elementos del "Invierno" de Vivaldi.​
Cien barrios porteños

Los Cien barrios porteños es una expresión utilizada en el ámbito de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires para hacer referencia a los barrios porteños.
Actualmente la cantidad de barrios de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires es solamente de 48 (es decir menos de la mitad), y eran menos aun cuando se creó esta expresión.​
El origen se remonta al vals "Cien barrios porteños", creado por Carlos Petit y Rodolfo Sciammarella. Este tema fue popularizado a mediados de la década del 40 por el cantante Alberto Castillo.
Rápidamente, la idea de que la Ciudad estaba compuesta por esa cantidad de jurisdicciones fue adoptada por los porteños, quienes no dudaron en aceptarla y difundirla sin mayores cuestionamientos.
En relación con cuál es el origen de este imaginativo concepto, el historiador Aníbal Lomba (expresidente de la Junta de Estudios Históricos de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires), comenta que la frase que titula el vals nunca había sido pronunciada públicamente con anterioridad a la difusión de la canción.
Según el historiador la extensión entre los habitantes de Buenos Aires se habría producido gracias al éxito que los cantores tuvieron en esa época.
Aníbal Lomba comentó en una ocasión que:
.
Según el historiador, esto tiene que ver con que en los años en los que se creó y popularizó la canción, no existían los barrios como ahora se conocen. En palabras del historiador:
La Ciudad de Buenos Aires cuenta con más de 100 barrios no oficiales (siendo en realidad más de 115 barrios no oficiales actualmente), ubicados todos ellos dentro de los 48 barrios oficiales. En algunos casos estos barrios no oficiales están dentro de más de un barrio no oficial, siendo parte de dos barrios por ejemplo.
Se podría hablar de unos nuevos 100 barrios porteños haciendo referencia a este listado de barrios, pero casi todos estos barrios nada tienen que ver con a los que se refería la canción, ya que la mayoría de estos no existían al momento de crearse la misma.
Porteño

Porteño (feminine: Porteña, lit. 'port city person' in Spanish) is mainly used to refer to the residents of Buenos Aires, Argentina. It is also used for other port cities, such as El Puerto de Santa María, Spain; Valparaíso, Chile; Mazatlán, Veracruz, Acapulco and Tampico, Mexico; Puerto Cabello, Venezuela; Puerto Colombia, Colombia; Puerto Suárez in Bolivia; Puerto Cortés, Honduras; Puntarenas, Costa Rica, and Montevideo, Uruguay.
Diego Churín

Diego Churín Puyo (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈdjeɣo tʃuˈɾin], born 1 December 1989) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as striker for Peruvian Liga 1 club Universitario de Deportes.
Churín came from the youth ranks of Juventud de Pergamino, later moving to Independiente de Avellaneda, where he was promoted to the senior team under manager Pedro Troglio.
Santiago–Valparaíso railway line

The Santiago–Valparaíso railway is a railway line linking the Chilean capital city Santiago with the port city of Valparaíso.
The existing rail line between Santiago and Valparaíso was opened in 1863, and is 187 km (116 mi) long, single-track and designed to avoid steep gradients through mountainous terrain. Passenger service ceased on this line in 1987, and freight traffic almost non-existent since then. Proposals have existed since the 1990s to build a more direct line between the two cities for passengers and freight. The section from Valparaíso to Limache was doubled and put underground in Viña del Mar as part of the Valparaíso Metro.
A study commissioned by EFE in 2016 outlined three different potential routes for a new Santiago–Valparaíso line, using the Chilean rail network's existing Indian gauge, and cost between US$4–5 billion.
In 2018, a proposal was submitted by the Tren Valparaíso Santiago consortium of local firm Sigdo Koppers and China Railway Engineering Corporation. The US$2.5 billion plan consisted of a 127 km (79 mi) line with four stations to be designed for passenger trains to run at up to 220 km/h (140 mph), offering an end-to-end journey time of 45 min, around half the time currently taken by road. The line would also be suitable for freight trains operating at up to 85 km/h (53 mph).
Quintero

Quintero is a Chilean city and commune in Valparaíso Province, in the Valparaíso Region, 30 kilometers north of Valparaíso. The commune spans an area of 147.5 km (57 sq mi). It was the first port in the country, created during the expedition of Diego de Almagro. Fundición Ventanas and other heavy industries are located in the commune of Quintero.
The name of the city comes from Alonso Quintero, the Spanish navigator who discovered the bay in 1536 when he arrived on the ship Santiaguillo.
In the early years of 21st century, Quintero has become famous as a symbol of insufficient environmental policies. Since the beginnings of 20th century when an industrialization politics started, in the zone were built a thermoelectric coal plant by Chilectra (currently Enel Américas) and the copper smelter Fundición Ventanas by Codelco in the nearby town of the same name; arriving to this date (2019) to be a zone informally known as Industrial Park Quintero-Puchuncaví, including oil industries, liquefied gas terminals, and chemical industries among others, which has caused the bay and surroundings to be considered a "sacrifice zone". Multiple protests about the gradual environmental destruction were unsuccessful, until a serious episode of mass poisoning in August 2018 put a spotlight on the city's situation and its surroundings in Quintero Bay causing investigations by the Senate of Chile. By October 2019, the situation remains unresolved.
According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Quintero had 21,174 inhabitants (10,390 men and 10,784 women). Of these, 18,719 (88.4%) lived in urban areas and 2,455 (11.6%) in rural areas. The population grew by 19% (3,378 persons) between the 1992 and 2002 censuses. The demonym for a man from Quintero is Quinterano and Quinterana for a woman.
As a commune, Quintero is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a communal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2008-2012 alcalde is José Varas Zuñiga.
Within the electoral divisions of Chile, Quintero is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Eduardo Cerda (PDC) and Andrea Molina (UDI) as part of the 10th electoral district, together with La Ligua, Petorca, Cabildo, Papudo, Zapallar, Puchuncaví, Nogales, Calera, La Cruz, Quillota and Hijuelas. The commune is represented in the Senate by Ignacio Walker Prieto (PDC) and Lily Pérez San Martín (RN) as part of the 5th senatorial constituency (Valparaíso-Cordillera).
According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Quintero has a warm-summer mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps.
Porteño (Argentina)

Porteño (feminine: Porteña; lit. 'port city person' in Spanish) is the gentilic used for people from the city (but not the province) of Buenos Aires, Argentina.
During the wave of European migration to Argentina peaking in the 1880s, the Río de la Plata area became heavily populated with people of European descent, mainly Italian, Spanish and French. They called themselves Porteños to distinguish themselves from existing criollo (colonial Spanish) ancestry, mestizos, indigenous people and mulattoes.
Equestrian sports are a huge part of Porteño life. Buenos Aires produces some of the best polo players in the world, due to the high quality of ponies raised throughout the fertile grasslands in the Pampas region and the enthusiastic sponsorship of the sport by Argentina's land-owning elites. Each year, in November, the Palermo Open, the world's most prestigious polo championship, takes place in the Palermo section of Buenos Aires.
Porteño cuisine consists heavily of beef that is available in abundance owing to the geography of the Pampas that lends itself to cattle raising.
Since Porteño is not officially reportable on any census, estimates differ regarding their population and geography. While not the majority ethnicity in Argentina, Porteños are prominent in the eastern province of Buenos Aires.
مسعود رانا

مسعود رانا پاکستان کے مشہور ترین گلوکاروں میں سے ایک تھے۔ وہ 9 جون 1938ء کو میرپورخاص کے ایک زمیندار کے گھر پیدا ہوئے۔ انھوں نے 1962ء میں گلوکاری شروع کی اور پہلی فلم انقلاب کے لیے پہلا گانا گایا۔ وہ اردو اور پنجابی فلموں کے صَف اوّل کے گلوکار تھے۔ انھوں نے 500 سے زائد فلموں کے لیے گانے گائے اور ان کے گائے ہؤے گانے پاکستان کے تمام بڑے اداکاروں پر فلمبند ہؤے جنمیں ندیم، محمّدعلی،وحیدمراد،شاہد،غلام محی الدین، اعجاز، حبیب،سدھیر،اکمل، وغیرہ قابل ذک رہیں۔ اُن کا انتقال 4 اکتوبر 1995ء کو ہوا۔ انھوں نے مشہور فلموں آئنہ، دل میرا دھڑکن تیری، خواب اور زندگی، چراغ کہاں روشنی کہاں، ہمراہی، بدنام، چاند اورچاندنی، نازنین، نیند ہماری خواب تمھارے، آنسو، بہاروں پھول برساؤ، دل لگی، شرافت، شرارت، یہ راستے ہیں پیارکے، مجاہد، نائلہ، کون کیسی کا، بھیّا، سنگدل، پاکدامن، احساس، دامن اور چنگاری، میراماہی، مرزاجٹ، دھی رانی،مکھڑاچن ورگا، وریام، اج دا مہینوال، وارنٹ، بادل وغیرہ کے لیے گانے گائے جو بے انتہا مقبول ہوئے۔ انھوں نے کافی سارے قومی نغمات بھی گائے جو انتہائی جوشیلے اندازمیں گائے ہیں جنہیں سن کر جوش آجاتا ہے۔ انھیں پاکستانی رفیع کا خطاب بھی دیا گیا۔
پاکستان میں مویشی پالنا

پاکستان ایک زرعی ملک ہے، یہاں زیادہ تر لوگوں کی معیشت کا انحصار زراعت اور مویشی پالنے پر ہے۔ مویشی پالنا پاکستان کی معیشت میں ایک اہم کردار ادا کرتا ہے اور بہت سے کسانوں کے لیے روزی روٹی کا ایک بڑا ذریعہ ہے۔ ایک اندازے کے مطابق پاکستان کی موجودہ لیبر فورس میں 30 سے 35 ملین کے درمیان لوگ ہیں جو مویشی پالنے میں مصروف ہیں۔ اگرچہ زرعی عمل پورے ملک میں رائج ہے، لیکن یہ پنجاب اور سندھ کے زرخیز صوبوں میں زیادہ عام ہے، جو روایتی طور پر زراعت اور کاشتکاری کی سرگرمیوں کے اہم شعبے ہیں۔ 2020ء میں، لائیو سٹاک کی صنعت مجموعی زراعت میں 60.6 فیصد اور جی ڈی پی میں 11.7 فیصد حصہ ڈال رہی تھی۔
2020ء تک، پاکستان میں تقریباً 41.2 ملین بھینسیں، 49.6 ملین گائے، 5.4 ملین گدھے، 78.2 ملین بکریاں اور 30.9 ملین بھیڑیں تھیں۔ 1999ء میں کمرشل پولٹری کی تعداد 170.1 ملین برائلر اور 10.36 ملین لیئرز تھی۔ یہاں 108 ملین پولٹری بھی رکھی گئی ہے اور لوگوں نے پالی ہوئی ہے۔
وسطی اور شمالی پاکستان کی چرنے والی زمینوں میں بھیڑیں بڑے پیمانے پر مختلف ہوتی ہیں۔ ان کی اون بڑی مقدار میں برآمد کی جاتی ہے۔ مقامی گائے کی نسلوں میں سب سے زیادہ قابل ذکر سرخ سندھی مویشی اور ساہیوال نسل ہیں، جو دودھ اور دودھ کی پیداوار کے مقاصد کے لیے بڑے پیمانے پر استعمال ہوتی ہیں۔ مویشیوں کے ذریعے خارج ہونے والا گوبر کھانا پکانے کے ایندھن اور مٹی کی کھاد کی فراہمی کے لیے ایک اہم ذریعہ ہے۔
دودھ، آئس کریم، پنیر اور مکھن جیسی ڈیری مصنوعات کی پیداوار ڈیری پلانٹس کے ذریعے کی جاتی ہے۔ 1984ء سے 1990ء کے عرصے کے دوران، قومی دودھ کی پیداوار میں 41 فیصد اضافہ ہوا جبکہ گوشت کی پیداوار میں 48 فیصد اضافہ ہوا۔
پاکستان میں خاص طور پر دیہی علاقوں میں جانوروں کو نقل و حمل کے لیے بھی بڑے پیمانے پر استعمال کیا جاتا ہے۔ سب سے زیادہ استعمال ہونے والے جانور اونٹ، گدھے اور بیل ہیں۔ پاکستان میں جدید پولٹری کو مسائل میں موت کی بلند شرح اور چوزوں میں بیماری کے واقعات کے ساتھ ساتھ مارکیٹنگ کا غیر موثر نظام شامل ہیں۔ لائیو سٹاک کی صنعت اپنی مکمل سماجی و اقتصادی صلاحیت کے مقابلے میں نظر انداز اور پسماندہ ہے۔ حکومت پاکستان ایشیائی ترقیاتی بینک کے تعاون سے لائیو سٹاک کی صنعت اور اس کی کارکردگی کو بہتر بنانے کے لیے مختلف ترقیاتی منصوبے شروع کر رہی ہے۔
گائے

گائے ایک ممالیہ جانور کا نام ہے اس کا مذکر بیل ہوتا ہے۔ گائے کی بہت سی اقسام ہوتی ہیں اِس کے مختلف رنگ ہوتے ہیں یہ ایک پالتو جانور ہے اور سبزہ گھاس چارہ کھاتی ہے گائے زیادہ تر ہر بھرے سبزہ زاروں میں پائی جاتی ہے اِس کا دودھ باقی تمام دودھ دینے والے جانوروں سے خوش ذائقہ اور غذائیت سے بھرپور تصور کیا جاتا ہے۔ گائے کو مختلف مذہبوں میں پاکیزہ اور متبرک مانا جاتا ہے۔ ہندو مت کے مطابق گائے ماں کا درجہ رکھتی ہے۔
قنولہ لگی گائے

قنولہ لگی گائے (انگریزی: Cannulated cow) یا فسچولیٹڈ(fistulated) گائے ایسی گائے ہوتی ہے جس پر جانوروں پر تحقیق کرنے والے سائنس دان زندہ گائے قنولہ لگاتے ہیں۔ اس کی وجہ یہ ہوتی ہے کہ زندہ گائے کے اندر جھانکنا مشکل ہے لہٰذا گائے کے معدے کو باہر سے ایک کھوکھلی چوڑی نلکی نما راستے سے جوڑا جاتا ہے۔ قنولہ لگی گائے کے معدے میں ایک سوراخ کیا جاتا ہے۔ اس سوراخ کے گرد ایک چھلا لگایا جاتا ہے جس کو ایک بڑے پلگ سے بند کیا جا سکتا ہے۔ چھلے کے گرد گائے کے زخم جلد بھر جاتے ہیں اور گائے چارے کو ویسے ہی ہضم کرتی رہتی ہے جیسے کہ سوراخ ہونے سے پہلے کرتی تھی۔گائے کے معدے میں سوراخ کرکے سائنس دان جان سکتے ہیں کہ اس کا معدہ کیسے خوراک کو ہضم کرتا ہے۔
گائے اینڈ چکن

گائے اینڈ چکن (انگریزی: Cow and Chicken) ایک امریکی اینیمیٹڈ کامیڈی ٹیلی ویژن سیریز ہے جو ڈیوڈ فیس نے کارٹون نیٹ ورک کے لیے بنائی ہے۔
یہ سلسلہ دو غیر ممکنہ ابھی تک کسی نہ کسی طرح حیاتیاتی بہن بھائیوں کی غلط فہمیوں پر مرکوز ہے: پیاری طبیعت ، مدھم ، پرجوش ، انتھروپومورفک 7 سالہ کاؤ اسٹیر اور اس کا 11 سالہ بڑا بھائی چکن اسٹیئر (دونوں کو چارلی ایڈلر نے آواز دی) . یہ دونوں اکثر اپنے بھڑکتے دشمن ریڈ گائے (ایڈلر) کے ساتھ فرار میں پھنس جاتے ہیں ، جو خود شیطان کا ایک مزاحیہ ورژن ہے جو اپنے آپ کو مختلف شخصیات کے تحت بھیس بدل کر یا تو انھیں دھوکا دینے یا جہنم میں لے جانے کی کوشش کرتا ہے۔
معاون کرداروں میں مرغی اور گائے کے دلکش انسانی والدین والد اور ماں (بالترتیب ڈی بریڈلی بیکر اور کینڈی میلو) شامل ہیں ، جو صرف کمر سے نیچے نظر آتے ہیں۔ چکن کے بہترین دوست فلیم (ہاورڈ مورس) اور ارل (ڈین کاسٹیلینیٹا) اور ان کا کزن ، بون لیس چکن (ایڈلر)۔ گائے کے پاس اس کی پسندیدہ گڑیا ہے ، کربز دی وارتھگ ، پائلز دی بیور اور مینور دی ریچھ ، جو قطبی ریچھ ہے۔
یہ سلسلہ سنکی ، حقیقت پسندانہ ، عجیب اور ناگوار مزاح پر کھینچا گیا ہے۔ مثال کے طور پر ، گائے اور مرغی ہمیشہ کیفے ٹیریا میں "سور کے گوشت کے بٹس اور ٹیٹرز" کا آرڈر دیتے ہیں ، ریڈ گائے ہمیشہ اپنا بٹ دکھاتا ہے اور کردار اکثر اپنی تقریر کو بدنیتی اور طنز کے ساتھ مرچ کرتے ہیں۔ ہنسی مذاق اور کہانی کی لکیریں اکثر بچپن کی روایتی پریشانیوں ، پریشانیوں یا فوبیاز پر مبنی ہوتی ہیں جیسے کوٹیز یا لڑکیوں کے بیت الخلا میں جانا ، لیکن مزاحیہ انداز میں بڑھایا گیا۔
تھپڑ مارنے والی بہت سی حرکات میں مرکزی کردار جسمانی طور پر زیادتی کا شکار ہوتے ہیں۔
گائے پیک

گائے پیک (انگریزی: Guye Peak) ریاستہائے متحدہ امریکا کا ایک پہاڑ جو ریاست واشنگٹن میں واقع ہے۔
گائے پیک کی مجموعی آبادی 1,575.23 میٹر سطح سمندر سے بلندی پر واقع ہے۔
Downer (animal)

A downer is an animal, usually livestock, that cannot stand on its own and therefore is to be killed. A downed animal, one that is unable to stand, is not necessarily a downer.
The animal's inability to stand may be caused by illness or injury. In nearly all cases it is considered by most farmers to be both humane and cost-effective to kill the animal when it becomes a downer, rather than keeping it alive and unhealthy. Once killed, and depending on how the animal became a downer and how it was killed, the animal may then be incinerated, buried, rendered, or slaughtered. Because of mad cow disease, the slaughter of downer cattle is a topic of great concern.
There are many possible reasons for an animal staying down, including:
Use of certain animal feed additives has been linked to downers such as the use of ractopamine in pigs.
A longstanding issue is whether these animals are treated humanely or inhumanely by shippers, stockyards, and packers while they are being moved or held for slaughter. Legislation periodically is introduced in Congress to outlaw the sale or transfer of such animals, but livestock producer groups have long contended that their voluntary efforts to end harmful practices have already proven successful. The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 10815) required the USDA to investigate and submit a report on nonambulatory livestock, and to issue and enforce regulations, if deemed necessary, to provide for their humane treatment.
Different jurisdictions have different rules about what can be done with a downer cow. In some jurisdictions the cow may be slaughtered without question. In others, downer cattle may not be slaughtered even if the cause is a physical injury. In the United States, meat inspection is usually an interstate commerce issue, and is regulated by the Federal Meat Inspection Act. Now all livestock auction barns are not allowed to take sick or downer cows because of the rulings that originated with the BSE "mad cow" crisis.
In Canada, transportation of animals is federally regulated. The Health of Animals Regulations state that an animal has to be fit for the intended journey and that a non-ambulatory animal cannot be transported because transport would cause additional suffering.
The Canadian authority responsible for the welfare of animals that are transported is the Canadian Food Inspection Agency.
The downer issue took on another dimension when bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), which often makes infected cattle downers, was found in two North American cows in 2003. Many experts believe that nonambulatory cattle are at higher risk of harboring BSE. As a result, on December 30, 2003, the USDA announced an immediate ban on the slaughter of downer cattle for human food use. At issue is how to monitor the hundreds of thousands of U.S. downer cattle (annual estimate) if they are no longer presented for observation and testing at meat packing plants; also at issue is what to do with their remains, and whether they have any non-food value.
List of acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1811

This is a complete list of acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for the year 1811.
Note that the first parliament of the United Kingdom was held in 1801; parliaments between 1707 and 1800 were either parliaments of Great Britain or of Ireland). For acts passed up until 1707, see the list of acts of the Parliament of England and the list of acts of the Parliament of Scotland. For acts passed from 1707 to 1800, see the list of acts of the Parliament of Great Britain. See also the list of acts of the Parliament of Ireland.
For acts of the devolved parliaments and assemblies in the United Kingdom, see the list of acts of the Scottish Parliament, the list of acts of the Northern Ireland Assembly, and the list of acts and measures of Senedd Cymru; see also the list of acts of the Parliament of Northern Ireland.
The number shown after each act's title is its chapter number. Acts passed before 1963 are cited using this number, preceded by the year(s) of the reign during which the relevant parliamentary session was held; thus the Union with Ireland Act 1800 is cited as "39 & 40 Geo. 3 c. 67", meaning the 67th act passed during the session that started in the 39th year of the reign of George III and which finished in the 40th year of that reign. Note that the modern convention is to use Arabic numerals in citations (thus "41 Geo. 3" rather than "41 Geo. III"). Acts of the last session of the Parliament of Great Britain and the first session of the Parliament of the United Kingdom are both cited as "41 Geo. 3". Acts passed from 1963 onwards are simply cited by calendar year and chapter number.
All modern acts have a short title, e.g. "the Local Government Act 2003". Some earlier acts also have a short title given to them by later acts, such as by the Short Titles Act 1896.
The fifth session of the 4th Parliament of the United Kingdom, which met from 1 November 1810 until 24 July 1811.
This session was also traditionally cited as 51 G. 3.
European Air Transport Leipzig

European Air Transport Leipzig GmbH – often shortened to EAT Leipzig or EAT-LEJ – is a German cargo airline with its head office and main hub on the grounds of Leipzig/Halle Airport in Schkeuditz, Saxony. It is wholly owned by Deutsche Post and operates the group's DHL-branded parcel post and express mail services. It also provides ad hoc charter services including livestock transport.
The company dates from a merger agreement of 10 February 2010, which involved European Air Transport N.V. Brussels. That company was incorporated by the European Air Transport Leipzig GmbH and merged with it. European Air Transport Leipzig employs around 500 pilots and 750 ground and technical personnel. The airline is owned by DHL Express and the largest operator of the DHL European air network and with their A330 fleet, expanding into the intercontinental network. The airline also operates a number of routes for British Airways, Iberia, Finnair, Lufthansa and Amazon.
European Air Transport operates services to Europe, Middle East, Africa, Asia and the United States as part of the DHL Aviation network. Besides over 75 smaller "air gateways", the major operational bases of DHL Aviation in Europe are:
As of January 2024, the European Air Transport Leipzig corporate fleet consists of the following aircraft. Additionally, several smaller aircraft are operated under contract for EAT Leipzig and DHL respectively by airlines such as Swiftair and West Atlantic UK.
Media related to European Air Transport Leipzig at Wikimedia Commons
Henry Cow discography

The Henry Cow discography is a list of officially released recordings by English avant-rock group Henry Cow. During their period of activity from 1968 to 1978, they released six albums, including two with German/English avant-pop trio Slapp Happy, and one double live album.
The album Hopes and Fears (1978) was credited to the Art Bears but has been described as "the lost Henry Cow album". Hopes and Fears was originally recorded as a Henry Cow album, but when some of the band members were unhappy about the predominance of song-oriented material over instrumentals, it was released under the Art Bears name.
In 2006 Recommended Records, founded by Henry Cow drummer Chris Cutler. released a 7-CD box set, the Henry Cow Box comprising CD remasters of the original six albums. In 2009, to mark the anniversary of the formation of Henry Cow, Recommended Records released a 9-CD plus one DVD box set, The 40th Anniversary Henry Cow Box Set that contained previously unreleased recordings made between 1972 and 1978. The DVD, a 75-minute video of Henry Cow performing in Vevey, Switzerland in August 1976, is the only known video recording of the band.
In 2019, to mark Henry Cow's 50th anniversary, Recommended Records released The Henry Cow Box Redux: The Complete Henry Cow, an 17-CD plus one DVD box set containing all officially released recordings of the band.
Albums with, or by, other artists containing previously unreleased Henry Cow tracks.
Greasy Truckers Live at Dingwalls Dance Hall

Greasy Truckers Live at Dingwalls Dance Hall is a 1973 live double album by various artists recorded at an October 1973 Greasy Truckers concert at the Dingwalls Dance Hall at Camden Lock in Camden Town, London. The concert featured four bands, Camel, Henry Cow, Global Village Trucking Company and Gong, and was recorded with Virgin Records' "Manor Mobile" recording truck.
Notwithstanding its title, not all the tracks on the album are from the Dingwalls Dance Hall concert. Due to delays in starting the event and a 2am curfew, Henry Cow's set (billed last) was curtailed to 10 minutes, and their contribution here was recorded a week later at Virgin's Manor Studio. An outtake from this session, "Bellycan" was released on the first (re-mixed) CD-release of their album, Legend. The first Gong track was recorded at an open-air festival at Tabarka, Tunisia in June 1973, and the second was recorded live at Sheffield City Hall in Sheffield, England in October 1973.
Greasy Truckers was "a loose organisation of individuals whose ideals were based on those of the Diggers in San Francisco, recycling money into worthwhile causes." This album was the second in a series of two albums recorded at concerts in London organised by Greasy Truckers, the first being Greasy Truckers Party (1972), released via United Artists. All proceeds from the concert and LP sales went to Greasy Truckers.
Side one: Camel (19:10)
Side two: Henry Cow (21:30)
Side three: Global Village Trucking Company (23:05)
Side four: Gong (20:15)
The album was mixed and produced at Island Records' Basing Street Studios by Richard G Elen, later a magazine editor, noted alternative technology guru and green activist among other occupations alongside that of sound engineer/producer. His name appeared wrongly as "Elan" on the cover.
Sources: Discogs, liner notes.
Iqtidar

Iqtidar (Urdu: اقتدار , lit. 'Authority') is a 2024 Pakistani drama serial. The drama premiered on 19 September 2024 on Green Entertainment. The drama is set on the political background and focuses on the life of the politician and publics.
Written by Hina Huma Nafees, it is directed by Fahim Burney and produced and presented by Multiverse Entertainment. It stars Anmol Baloch and Ali Raza with supporting cast of Rubina Ashraf, Ahmed Randhawa, Javed Sheikh and Seemi Pasha.
Mehrunnisa, a young woman supporting her family after her father's death, is devastated when her brother is killed in an accident caused by a politician's son. Determined to seek justice, she raises her voice against the lies surrounding his death.
A couple of days before the show was released, a behind-the-scenes video was published on social media showing Baloch being picked up by Raza bridal style which was met with scrutiny from the public.
Fuchsia magazine described the show as highly relatable, praising its ability to connect with audiences through realistic characters and situations that reflect everyday life experiences.
The series is presented in The Siasat Daily as a "mix of romance and drama" and one of the most watched in the country in 2024 while Dawn noted that it presented "comparatively formulaic story for the once-innovative Green TV but it is making the ratings because both Ali Raza and Anmol Baloch have worked hard on their characters, and kept the focus on their chemistry."
In an interview, Baloch shared that the show was initially intended to be titled "Qurat-ul-Ain", but was later renamed to "Iqtidar".
Zafri Khan

Zafri Khan (ﻇﻔﺮﯼ ﺧﺎﻥ; born 25 November 1970) is a Pakistani actor and comedian.
He is best known for his work in Pakistan theatre, based in Lahore. He also has a successful career in television and films. Khan is famous for his slapstick comedy. He has acted with a number of other comedians including Nasir Chinyoti, Murtaza Hassan, Naseem Vicky, Amanullah, Babu Baral, Sohail Ahmad, Iftikhar Thakur, Anwar Ali, Tariq Teddy and Sakhawat Naz.
Zafri Khan was born in Punjab on 25 November 1970.
Zafri Khan started his career from Pakistan theatre. His acclaimed theatre career has continued to flourish and he is now regarded as one of the most popular stage actors.
In 2016, Khan participated in Indian comedy competition show called Mazaak Mazaak Mein. He hosted a talk show called Afra Zafri on 24 News HD in 2018. Khan portrayed the role of Advocate Bilal in Punjabi movie Chal Mera Putt 2 His performance in the film was well received by critics.
Khan joined Comedy satire show Khabardaar on Express News in 2021 after Honey Albela left the show.
Our Lady of Alice Bhatti

Our Lady of Alice Bhatti (2011) is a novel by Pakistani author and journalist, Mohammed Hanif.
The story revolves around the everyday life of a Christian nurse working in a government hospital in the Pakistani city of Karachi.
The author explained that it was a love story, but some critics suggested that the novel is also a statement on the plight of religious minorities living in Pakistan.
It was shortlisted for the Wellcome Trust Book Prize (2012), and the DSC Prize for South Asian Literature (2013).
Desert Oasis High School

Desert Oasis High School is a public high school located in Enterprise, in Las Vegas, Nevada, in the United States. Opened in August 2008, the school is a part of the Clark County School District and was the first new public school to be opened in Clark County since Legacy High School was opened in 2006. The school also transferred approximately 1,000 students from Sierra Vista High School and others from Liberty High School.
Among the normal curricula available at most Las Vegas area high schools, Desert Oasis offers several alternative programs including those in the areas of Business and Career and Technical Education. Some of the classes offered in these programs include: accounting, woodworking, marketing, sports medicine, and sports, entertainment, and recreational marketing.
The following have served as principals of the School:
Central Asian southern desert

The Central Asian southern desert ecoregion (WWF ID: PA1312) is an arid but ecologically active region between the east coast of the Caspian Sea and steppes at the base of the mountains of central Asia. Most of Turkmenistan and eastern Uzbekistan is in this ecoregion. The winters are milder than in the cold desert to the north (the Central Asian northern desert ecoregion), and a large number of endemic species have adapted to living in the particular climate and soil of the region. As with sandy deserts in general, the region is notable for high numbers of endemic species of reptiles and insects.
The ecoregion covers the arid territory from the Caspian Sea on the west, almost to the Pamir-Alay Mountains to the east. Most of Turkmenistan and the eastern half of Uzbekistan is this region. Covered are the coastal plains of the Caspian, the Krasnovodsk and Ustyurt Plateaus of northwest Turkmenistan, the Karakum Desert ('Black Sand' desert) of central Turkmenistan, and the Kyzylkum Desert ('Red Sand' desert) of eastern Uzbekistan and a portion of southern Kazakhstan between the Syr Darya and Amu Darya Rivers. The ecoregion is bisected by the thin ecoregion of the Central Asian riparian woodlands of the Amu Darya River.
The climate in the surrounding region is Cold desert climate (Köppen climate classification (BWk)). This climate features hot desert conditions in the summer, but cooler than hot deserts. Winters are cold and dry. At least one month averages below 0 °C (32 °F). Precipitation is 125–170 mm/year, with the little precipitation occurring in the winter and spring.
Soil type and quality is one of the main drivers of plant species across the ecoregion. Sandy areas typically feature White saxaul (Haloxylon persicum) and Black saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendron), which are short hardy trees that are tolerant of drought and poor soils. They have extensive root systems to hold in the sand. Thin sandy and loamy soils support many species of sagebrush and salt-tolerate saltworts (Salsola). Saline solonchak soils support salt-tolerant succulent semi-shrubs such as Halostachys, Halocnemum strobilaceum and Seepweeds (Suaeda).
Common mammals include the long-earned hedgehog (Hemiechinus auritus), Brandt's hedgehog (Paraechinus hypomelas), and Tolai hare (Lepus tolai). Also common are gerbils and ten species of jerboas.
Significant protected areas in the ecoregion include:
Soakage (source of water)

A soakage, or soak, is a source of water in Australian deserts.
It is called thus because the water generally seeps into the sand, and is stored below, sometimes as part of an ephemeral river or creek.
Soakages were traditionally important sources of water for Aboriginal Australians in the desert, being the most dependable source in times of drought in Australia.
Aboriginal peoples would scoop out the sand or mud using a coolamon or woomera, often to a depth of several metres, until clean water gathered in the base of the hole. Knowing the precise location of each soakage was extremely valuable knowledge. It is also sometimes called a native well.
Anthropologist Donald Thomson wrote:
Wells were covered to keep them free from fouling by animals. This involved blocking the well with dead branches and uprooted trees. When the wells fell into disrepair, people would bail the well, using the coolamon to throw slush against the wall. This would set like a cement wash and help to hold loose sand, preventing it from falling into the water.
Wells could be up to fifteen feet deep, with small toe holds cut into the walls.
Donald Thomson writes:
In the nineteenth century, both Warburton and Carnegie recorded that they had run down Aboriginal residents with camels and captured and chained them to compel them to reveal their secret sources of water. This action left a lasting impression on Aboriginal residents of desert regions, who would have handed accounts of this down through successive generations.
In the 1930s, when H. H. Finlayson made his journeys through the desert by camel, he noted that a gelded male camel, after a hard three-and-a-half-day journey in intense heat without water, drank 150 litres (33 imperial gallons) by actual measure without stopping, and fifteen minutes later, another 45 L (10 imp gal).
This sheds light on the resentment built up among the Aboriginal population against explorers for the exploitation and, by enlarging well entrances and digging out springs, the devastation of their precious water supplies to satisfy camel teams.
Don McLeod (Aboriginal rights activist, see Pilbara) also tells a story of clashes over soak water at the time of the gold rushes in Western Australia:
McLeod relates a story told to him by an old prospector by the name of Long, observing an Aboriginal man and woman:
ANIMAL (image processing)

ANIMAL (first implementation: 1988 - revised: 2004) is an interactive environment for image processing that is oriented toward the rapid prototyping, testing, and modification of algorithms. To create ANIMAL (AN IMage ALgebra), XLISP of David Betz was extended with some new types: sockets, arrays, images, masks, and drawables.
The theoretical framework and the implementation of the working environment is described in the paper "ANIMAL: AN IMage ALgebra".
In the theoretical framework of ANIMAL a digital image is a boundless matrix with its history. However, in the implementation it is bounded by a rectangular region in the discrete plane and the elements outside the region have a constant value. The size and position of the region in the plane (focus) is defined by the coordinates of the rectangle. In this way all the pixels, including those on the border, have the same number of neighbors (useful in local operators, such as digital filters). Furthermore, pixelwise commutative operations remain commutative on image level, independently on focus (size and position of the rectangular regions). The history is a list which tracks the operations and parameters applied to the matrix. This mechanism is useful to document algorithms and generate new functions.
ANIMAL has been ported to R, a freely available language and environment for statistical computing and graphics.
ANIMAL offers the following key properties for image processing:
- Interactive environment facilitating rapid prototyping, testing, and modification of algorithms.
- Extends XLISP with new types including sockets, arrays, images, masks, and drawables.
- Defines images as bounded matrices with a history, facilitating algorithm documentation and function generation.
- Implements image processing operations within rectangular regions, ensuring consistent pixel neighborhoods and commutative operations.
- Ported to R, enabling its use in statistical computing and graphics.
Isu alam sekitar di Malaysia

Isu alam sekitar di Malaysia
Senarai Merah IUCN memberikan 2890 spesies yang terancam.
Penebangan hutan di lokasi-lokasi berikut mengancam flora dan fauna:
Penebangan hutan sedang berlaku untuk berbagai alasan, termasuk:
Penambakan pantai merosakkan bakau dan tempat bersarang penyu.
Tanah Rata

Tanah Rata terletak di kawasan tanah tinggi Cameron Highlands. Sebahagian kecil Tanah Rata terletak dalam Negeri Perak dan majoritinya terletak di dalam Negeri Pahang. Gunung Brinchang (2031 m) terletak di negeri Pahang. Ia terletak di bawah Dewan Undangan Negeri (DUN) Tanah Rata. Bandar Tanah Rata meerupakan ibu daerah Cameron Highland.
Tanah Rata mendapat nama dari muka bumi yang lebih rata dan datar di kawasan ini berbanding dengan seluruh pergunungan Cameron.
Stesen Ampang Park

Stesen Ampang Park ialah stesen pertukaran antara MRT dan LRT bawah tanah yang terletak di Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Nama stesen ini diambil daripada pusat membeli-belah tertua di Malaysia, Ampang Park Mall, yang telah ditutup pada Januari 2018. Stesen LRT-nya dibuka pada 1 Jun 1999 sebahagian daripada pembukaan fasa kedua 5 Laluan Kelana Jaya yang melalui 12 stesen antara Masjid Jamek dan Gombak (tidak termasuk stesen Sri Rampai). Stesen MRT-nya pula dibuka pada 16 Mac 2023 dalam fasa kedua 12 Laluan Putrajaya dari Kentomnen ke Putrajaya Sentral.
Stesen ini mula dibuka kepada awam pada 1 Jun 1999 dengan pembukaan segmen kedua LRT PUTRA (kini LRT Laluan Kelana Jaya) antara Masjid Jamek dan Gombak. Stesen ini dihubungkan dengan pusat membeli-belah tertua di Kuala Lumpur, Ampang Park yang dibuka sejak 1975.
Pada Oktober 2015, kerajaan Malaysia memulakan proses mengambil alih pusat membeli-belah Ampang Park untuk pembinaan stesen MRT yang akan diintegrasikan dengan stesen LRT sedia ada. Pada 1 Januari 2018, pusat membeli-belah Ampang Park ditutup bagi memulakan kerja pembinaan stesen MRT Ampang Park.
Stesen ini terletak di sebelah barat persimpangan antara Jalan Ampang dan Jalan Tun Razak di Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Terdapat berbagai-bagai kondominium mewah di sekitar stesen ini seperti MyHabitat, Vista Damai, Desa Kudalari, The Troika, dan Oval Kuala Lumpur. Selain itu, terdapat pelbagai menara pejabat di sekitar stesen ini seperti Menara Avenue Residences, Menara Tan & Tan, Menara KL Trillion, Menara Integra, Menara Ilham, Wisma MCA, Menara Atlan, Menara Binjai, Menara PNB, Menara Tabung Haji, Menara Citibank dan Plaza OSK. Stesen ini juga terletak berdekatan Hotel PNB Perdana, Hotel Somerset Kuala Lumpur, Hotel InterContinental Kuala Lumpur, Universiti Tun Abdul Razak (UNIRAZAK), pejabat Pesuruhjaya Tinggi British, pejabat Kedutaan Turki dan pusat membeli-belah Intermark Mall.
Stesen ini adalah stesen bawah tanah dengan tiga tingkat: aras tanah, aras legar dan aras platform. Stesen ini mempunyai satu platform tengah di bawah ruang legar untuk perkhidmatan Laluan Kelana Jaya. Terdapat kemudahan bagi Orang Kurang Upaya (OKU) seperti platform mesra OKU dan lif.
Pernah diusulkan pertukaran langsung antara laluan Kelana Jaya dan Putrajaya di sini, tetapi dibatalkan atas sebab pengurangan kos. Oleh itu, penumpang perlu mendaftar keluar dari satu stesen, naik ke aras tanah menerusi laluan pejalan kaki dan turun ke satu lagi stesen.
Bas RapidKL laluan BET7, 300, 302 dan 303 berkhidmat di stesen ini.
Stesen LRT Taman Paramount

Stesen LRT Taman Paramount ialah stesen LRT yang terletak di Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia, sebahagian Laluan Kelana Jaya. Stesen ini dibuka pada 1 September 1998 sebagai sebahagian segmen pertama laluan ini yang melalui 10 stesen bertingkat antara stesen Kelana Jaya dan Pasar Seni.
Stesen ini terletak di Taman Paramount, Petaling Jaya, Selangor. Terletak berhampiran stesen ini adalah kawasan perumahan Seksyen 20, Seksyen 21, Seksyen 22 dan SS 1 Petaling Jaya. Juga terletak berhampiran adalah taman rekreasi Taman Aman, Masjid Kampung Tunku, pangsapuri Seri Aman dan Paramount View Condominium.
Stesen ini adalah stesen bertingkat dimana ruang legar terletak di atas tanah. Stesen ini mempunyai dua platform sisi di atas ruang legar untuk perkhidmatan Laluan Kelana Jaya. Terdapat kemudahan bagi Orang Kurang Upaya (OKU) seperti platform mesra OKU dan lif. Selain itu, terdapat 68 petak parkir kereta. dan rak basikal yang boleh memuatkan sehingga 20 basikal.
Bas RapidKL laluan T785 dan T790 berkhidmat di stesen ini.
Stesen LRT Damai (Malaysia)

Stesen LRT Damai ialah stesen LRT yang terletak di utara Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Stesen ini dinamakan sempena lingkungan Damai dalam kawasan kampung, yang melingkungi separuh selatan Datuk Keramat dari selatan Sungai Klang dan dihubungkan dengan stesen melalui jejantas yang menyeberangi sungai. Stesen ini dibuka pada 1 Jun 1999 sebagai sebahagian segmen kedua Laluan Kelana Jaya yang melalui 12 stesen antara stesen Masjid Jamek dan stesen Gombak (tidak termasuk stesen Sri Rampai).
Stesen Damai terletak di sepanjang Jalan Datok Keramat di Kampung Datuk Keramat, timur Kuala Lumpur. Di sebelah selatan stesen terletaknya Sungai Klang dan Lebuhraya Bertingkat Ampang–Kuala Lumpur Lebuhraya Bertingkat Ampang-Kuala Lumpur (AKLEH) manakala di sebelah utara stesen adalah Keramat Mall dimana Mini UTC Keramat terletak. Juga terletak berhampiran stesen adalah Plaza Tol Dato Keramat.
Stesen ini adalah stesen bertingkat dengan tiga tingkat: aras tanah, aras legar dan aras platform. Stesen ini mempunyai satu platform tengah di atas ruang legar untuk perkhidmatan Laluan Kelana Jaya. Terdapat kemudahan bagi Orang Kurang Upaya (OKU) seperti platform mesra OKU dan lif. Selain itu, terdapat rak basikal yang boleh memuatkan sehingga 20 basikal.
Stesen LRT Taman Melati

Stesen LRT Taman Melati ialah stesen LRT Laluan Kelana Jaya yang terletak di utara Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Stesen ini dibuka pada 1 Jun 1999 sebagai sebahagian segmen kedua aliran ini yang melalui 12 stesen antara stesen Masjid Jamek dan stesen Gombak (tidak termasuk stesen Sri Rampai).
Stesen Taman Melati terletak berdekatan sempadan Kuala Lumpur-Selayang, dan dibina sepanjang Persiaran Pertahanan. Taman perumahan berdekatan stesen ini adalah Taman Melati, Gombak Setia, Taman Setapak Jaya, dan Taman Cemerlang. Stesen ini juga terletak berhampiran Pangsapuri Gombak, pusat membeli-belah M3, SMK Setapak Indah dan Masjid Salahudin Al-Ayyubi.
Stesen ini adalah stesen bertingkat dimana aras legar terletak di atas tanah. Stesen ini mempunyai dua platform sisi di atas ruang legar untuk perkhidmatan Laluan Kelana Jaya. Terdapat kemudahan bagi Orang Kurang Upaya (OKU) seperti platform mesra OKU dan lif. Selain itu, kemudahan parkir disediakan oleh Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur (DBKL). dan rak basikal yang boleh memuatkan sehingga 20 basikal.
Bas RapidKL laluan T202 dan T203 berkhidmat di stesen ini.
4 (nombor)

4 (empat, Jawi: ‏امڤت‎‎) ialah suatu nombor, angka, dan glif. Ia merupakan nombor asli selepas 3 dan sebelum 5.
Empat ialah nombor gubahan terkecil, pembahagi tepatnya ialah 1 dan 2. Empat juga ialah nombor gubahan tinggi. Nombor gubahan tinggi seterusnya ialah 6.
Empat Lambang

Dalam ilmu astrologi Cina, Empat Lambang (Bahasa Cina: 四象; pinyin: Sì Xiàng) ialah empat ekor makhluk mitos dalam buruj Cina, setiap satunya melambangkan satu arah dan satu musim, dan juga setiap satunya ada ciri-ciri dan asal-usul tersendiri. Empat Lambang ini pernah digambarkan dalam berbagai-bagai kisah mitos dan cereka bersejarah Asia Timur, di samping juga terpapar dalam komik dan animasi Jepun. Keempat-empatnya juga menerima "nama manusia" setelah meluasnya ajaran Tao di seluruh China.
Simpang Empat, Perlis

Simpang Empat atau Simpang Ampat merupakan sebuah pekan yang terletak di Perlis, Malaysia.
Asal nama Simpang Empat dirujuk kepada pertemuan silang parit dari Sungai Sanglang, Kampung Sanglang, Kedah ke Sungai Perlis dan Sungai Arau yang mengalir ke Kuala Sungai Baru. Parit ini dibuat untuk menyalirkan air supaya padi tidak ditenggelami banjir dan musim menuai lebih kering. Oleh kerana tiada jalan raya semasa itu, sungai telah menjadi laluan bot tambang. Simpang Empat ialah persimpangan anak sungai dan parit tersebut tumbuh sebagai pusat perniagaan pasar sehari, atau "nat" dalam bahasa samsam.
Pekan Simpang Empat ini juga dikenali sebagai Simpang Empat Syed Kasim, mengambil sempena nama bekas penghulunya, Syed Kasim. Ia juga disebut sebagai Simpang Empat Che Kasim, terutama di sebelah Kedah.
Zahari bin Bakar ialah bekas ADUN di kawasan ini selama 2 penggal dari 1999 hingga 2008. Beliau pernah dilantik menjadi ahli exco kerajaan negeri Perlis. Bagaimanapun, beliau tewas pada PRU 12.
6°20′N 100°11′E﻿ / ﻿6.333°N 100.183°E﻿ / 6.333; 100.183
Enjin empat lejang

Hari ini, jenis enjin pembakaran dalaman yang paling lazim digunakan pada kenderaan seperti kereta, bas, lori dan motosikal adalah enjin empat lejang, sama ada enjin petrol ataupun enjin Diesel. Satu lejang merujuk kepada gerakan omboh dari titik tetap atas ke titik tetap bawah atau sebaliknya; maka enjin empat lejang mendapat namanya daripada empat lejang yang masing-masing menjalankan satu fungsi khas iaitu masukan, mampatan, perolehan kuasa dan penyingkiran gas ekzos.
Enjin empat lejang yang juga dikenali sebagai enjin kitar Otto mula dipatenkan oleh Eric B. Davidson dan Felice Matteucci pada 1854 diikuti dengan prototaip pertama pada tahun 1860. Ia juga dikonsepkan oleh jurutera Perancis, Alphonse Beau de Rochas pada tahun 1862 dan secara bebas, oleh jurutera Jerman Nicolaus Otto pada 1876.
Kitaran kuasa terdiri daripada mampatan adiabatik, penambahan haba seisipadu, pengembangan adiabatik serta penyingkiran haba seisipadu, diwakili dengan perwatakan empat lejang, atau gerakan naik-turun omboh di dalam silinder: