Aristotle's wheel paradox

Aristotle's wheel paradox is a paradox or problem appearing in the pseudo-Aristotelian Greek work Mechanica. It states as follows: A wheel is depicted in two-dimensional space as two circles. Its larger, outer circle is tangential to a horizontal surface (e.g. a road that it rolls on), while the smaller, inner one has the same center and is rigidly affixed to the larger. (The smaller circle could be the bead of a tire, the rim it is mounted upon, or the axle.) Assuming the larger circle rolls without slipping (or skidding) for one full revolution, the distances moved by both circles' circumferences are the same. The distance travelled by the larger circle is equal to its circumference, but for the smaller it is greater than its circumference, thereby creating a paradox.
The paradox is not limited to wheels: other things depicted in two dimensions display the same behavior such as a roll of tape, or a typical round bottle or jar rolled on its side (the smaller circle would be the mouth or neck of the jar or bottle).
In an alternative version of the problem, the smaller circle, rather than the larger one, is in contact with the horizontal surface. Examples include a typical train wheel, which has a flange, or a barbell straddling a bench. American educator and philosopher Israel Drabkin called these Case II versions of the paradox, and a similar, but unidentical, analysis applies.
In antiquity, the wheel problem was described in the Greek work Mechanica, traditionally attributed to Aristotle, but widely believed to have been written by a later member of his school. (Thomas Winter has made the alternative proposal that it was written by Archytas.) It also appears in the Mechanica of Hero of Alexandria. In the Aristotelian version it appears as "Problem 24", where the description of the wheel is given as follows:
The problem is then stated:
The mathematician Gerolamo Cardano discusses the problem of the wheel in his 1570 Opus novum de proportionibus numerorum, taking issue with the presumption of its analysis in terms of motion. Mersenne further discussed it in his 1623 Quaestiones Celeberrimae in Genesim, where he suggests that the problem can be analysed by a process of expansion and contraction of the two circles. But Mersenne remained unsatisfied with his understanding, writing:
In his Two New Sciences, Galileo uses the wheel problem to argue for a certain kind of atomism. He begins his analysis by considering a pair of concentric hexagons, as opposed to circles. Imagining this hexagon "rolling" on a surface, Galileo notices that the inner hexagon "jumps" a little space with each roll of the outer onto a new face. He then imagines what would happen to the limit as the number of faces on a polygon becomes very large, and finds that the little space that is "jumped" by the inner polygon becomes smaller and smaller. He writes:
Since a circle is just the limit in which the number of faces on the polygon becomes infinite, Galileo finds that Aristotle's wheel contains material that is filled with infinitesimal spaces or "voids", and that "the interposed voids are not quantified, but are infinitely many". This leads him to conclude that a belief in atoms – in the sense that matter is "composed of infinitely many unquantifiable atoms" – is sufficient to explain the phenomenon. Gilles de Roberval (1602–1675) is also associated with this analysis.
Bernard Bolzano discussed Aristotle's wheel in The Paradoxes of the Infinite (1851), a book that influenced Georg Cantor and subsequent thinkers about the mathematics of infinity. Bolzano observes that there is a bijection between the points of any two similar arcs, which can be implemented by drawing a radius, remarking that the history of this apparently paradoxical fact dates back to Aristotle.
The author of Mathematical Fallacies and Paradoxes uses a dime glued to a half-dollar (representing smaller and larger circles, respectively) with their centers aligned and both fixed to an axle, as a model for the paradox. He writes:
The paradox is that the smaller inner circle moves 2πR, the circumference of the larger outer circle with radius R, rather than its own circumference. If the inner circle were rolled separately, it would move 2πr, its own circumference with radius r. The inner circle is not separate but rigidly connected to the larger.
If the smaller circle depends on the larger one (Case I), the larger circle's motion forces the smaller to traverse the larger’s circumference. If the larger circle depends on the smaller one (Case II), then the smaller circle's motion forces the larger circle to traverse the smaller circle’s circumference. This is the simplest solution.
This solution considers the transition from the starting to ending positions. Let Pb be a point on the bigger circle and Ps be a point on the smaller circle, both on the same radius. For convenience, assume they are both directly below the center, analogous to both hands of a clock pointing towards six. Both Pb and Ps travel in a cycloid path as they roll together one revolution.
While each travels 2πR horizontally from start to end, Ps's cycloid path is shorter and more efficient than Pb's. Pb travels farther above and farther below the center's path – the only straight one – than does Ps.
If Pb and Ps were anywhere else on their respective circles, the curved paths would be the same length. Summarizing, the smaller circle moves horizontally 2πR because any point on the smaller circle travels a shorter, and thus more direct path than any point on the larger circle.