Ismail al-Faruqi

Ismaʿil Raji al-Faruqi (/ɪsˈmɑːɪlˈrɑːdʒiːˌælˈfɑːruːkiː/; Arabic: إسماعيل راجي الفاروقي "Ismāʿīl Rājī al-Fārūqī"; January 1, 1921 – May 27, 1986) was a Palestinian-American Muslim philosopher and scholar who worked extensively in Islamic studies and interfaith dialogue. He spent several years at Al-Azhar University in Cairo and taught at universities in North America, including McGill University in Montreal, Canada. Al-Faruqi was a professor of religion at Temple University, where he founded and chaired the Islamic Studies program. He also co-founded the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT). Al-Faruqi authored more than 100 articles and 25 books, including Christian Ethics: A Historical and Systematic Analysis of Its Dominant Ideas (1967) and Al-Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life (1982), examining Islamic thought, ethics, the concept of monotheism, and interfaith relations.
In 1986, Al-Faruqi and his wife, Lois Lamya al-Faruqi, were tragically killed in their home in Pennsylvania. The case drew widespread attention, as their loss deeply affected the academic and interfaith communities.
Al-Faruqi was born in Jaffa, in British-mandate Palestine. His father, 'Abd al-Huda al-Faruqi, was an Islamic judge (qadi). Al-Faruqi received his early religious education at home and in the local mosque. His father's influence significantly shaped al-Faruqi's early religious and moral education. In 1936, he began attending the French Dominican Collège des Frères de Jaffa. Later al-Faruqi moved to Beirut, Lebanon, where he continued his studies at the American University of Beirut (AUB). At AUB, al-Faruqi was influenced by Arab nationalist movements and prominent Christian Arab nationalists such as Constantin Zureiq, Nabih Amin Faris and Nicola Ziadeh. These influences contributed to his adoption of Arabism. The academic environment at AUB included compulsory attendance of Christian missionary lectures and courses promoting Western modernity, which influenced his ideological development.
In 1942, he was appointed as a registrar of cooperative societies under the British Mandate government in Jerusalem. In 1945, he became the district governor of Galilee. Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, he enrolled at Indiana University, obtaining his M.A. in philosophy with a thesis titled The Ethics of Reason and the Ethics of Life (Kantian and Nietzschean Ethics) in 1949. He followed this with a second M.A. in philosophy from Harvard University in 1951 and earned his Ph.D. with a thesis titled On Justifying the Good from Indiana University in 1952. During this period, he met and married Lois Lamya al-Faruqi.
In his master's thesis, al-Faruqi examined the ethics of Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Nietzsche. His early philosophical work laid the groundwork for his later critiques of Western ethical systems and his development of Islamic ethical thought. In his doctoral thesis, al-Faruqi argued that values are absolute, self-existent essences known a priori through emotional intuition. He based his theories on Max Scheler's use of phenomenology and Nicolai Hartmann's studies in ethics. His studies led him to conclude that the absence of a transcendent foundation leads to moral relativism, prompting him to reassess his Islamic heritage.
Within six years of arriving in the United States, he recognized the need for a more thorough study of Islam, which led him to study at Egypt's Al-Azhar University from 1954 to 1958. By the time he left the United States, he had developed new questions about moral obligations and sought to integrate his intellectual pursuits with his Islamic identity.
In 1958, al-Faruqi was offered a visiting fellowship at McGill University's Faculty of Divinity. He joined the Institute of Islamic Studies at the invitation of its founder, Wilfred Cantwell Smith, teaching alongside Smith from 1958 to 1961. During this time, he studied Christian theology and Judaism, becoming acquainted with Pakistani philosopher Fazlur Rahman. Fazlur Rahman observed that al-Faruqi's immersion in these traditions under Smith's mentorship was pivotal, refining his comparative outlook on religious studies and interfaith dialogue.
In 1961, Fazlur Rahman facilitated a two-year appointment for al-Faruqi at the Central Institute of Islamic Research in Karachi, Pakistan, where he served as a visiting professor until 1963. Fazlur Rahman later highlighted this experience as deepening al-Faruqi's understanding of cultural diversity within Islam, an influence that shaped his subsequent theories on comparative religion and meta-religion.
In 1964, al-Faruqi returned to the United States, where he held concurrent roles as a visiting professor at the University of Chicago's Divinity School and as an associate professor at Syracuse University.
In 1968, he joined Temple University as a professor of religion, where he founded the Islamic Studies Program and held the position until he died in 1986. During his tenure at Temple University, al-Faruqi mentored many students, including his first doctoral student, John Esposito.
In May 1986, Ismail al-Faruqi and his wife, Lois Lamya al-Faruqi, were murdered at their home in Wyncote, Pennsylvania, by Joseph Louis Young, also known as Yusuf Ali. Young, who had prior associations with the local Muslim community, confessed to the crime, was sentenced to death, and died in prison of natural causes in 1996. Their daughter, Anmar el-Zein, who was pregnant at the time, survived multiple stab wounds and required extensive medical treatment. During a conference at the International Islamic University Malaysia in 2008, Anis Ahmad shared that al-Faruqi had once confided in him about his father's two supplications: that he might become a great scholar and die as a shahid (martyr). Al-Faruqi is reported to have wondered, "Now I am a scholar, but how can I die a shahid in the US?" Malik Badri reflected that "Allah Ta'ala accepted both supplications."
Al-Faruqi's early intellectual focus centered on ‘urubah (Arabism). He argued that ‘urubah was the core identity uniting all Muslims into a single community of believers (ummah) and viewed Arabic as essential for fully understanding Islamic teachings, as it is the language of the Qur’an. Initially focused on ‘urubah as central to Muslim unity, al-Faruqi's experiences abroad gradually broadened his focus to encompass a wider Islamic identity beyond an Arab-centric view.
Al-Faruqi held that ‘urubah intertwined both linguistic and religious dimensions, asserting that Islam and monotheism represented Arabism's contributions to humanity. He contended that restoring Islamic civilization depended on revitalizing Arabic as a central unifying cultural force for Muslims globally. His portrayal of Arabism extended beyond nationalism, positioning it as an ideological bridge across ethnic divides within Islam.
Central to al-Faruqi's thought was tawhid (monotheism), which he described as a defining element of Arab religious consciousness. He argued that the shared monotheistic roots of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism underscored Arabism's contribution to world religion, contrasting this with contemporary ideologies that promoted division and nationalism. Al-Faruqi maintained that Islam's revival necessitated the elevation of Arabic language and culture, advocating for them as unifying elements for Muslims across diverse regions.
Despite al-Faruqi's deep commitment to ‘urubah, scholars often critiqued his stance as being essentialist, arguing it risked marginalizing non-Arab Muslims. Some felt his assertion that Arabic was uniquely suited for Islamic thought neglected the rich intellectual contributions from non-Arab Muslims throughout history. These critiques, particularly from non-Arab Muslim intellectuals, highlighted concerns that his early philosophy prioritized Arab culture over Islam's universal aspects. His exposure to Pakistan's diverse Islamic culture, however, began to influence his perspective, gradually moving him away from an Arab-exclusive viewpoint.
His experiences abroad, particularly in Pakistan, broadened his perspective and led him to reconsider the Arab-centric lens through which he initially viewed Islam. Exposure to diverse Muslim societies prompted him to recognize a more expansive Muslim identity beyond language or ethnicity, embracing a universal spiritual ethos. Over time, this broadened vision emphasised Islamic unity that prioritized shared spiritual and ethical dimensions. This shift reflected al-Faruqi's belief in a transnational Islamic civilization, fostering unity across linguistic and cultural boundaries.
Al-Faruqi's philosophical inquiries included a critique of Kantian ethics, particularly regarding moral universality, which he sought to develop further within an Islamic ethical framework. In his PhD thesis, On Justifying the Good (1952), al-Faruqi explored philosophical questions related to goodness, value, and ethics, engaging critically with Western ethical theories. Drawing from the works of philosophers like Scheler and Kant, al-Faruqi identified two main fallacies in ethical reasoning: the naturalistic fallacy and the ambiguity fallacy. He argued that the naturalistic fallacy arises when ethical concepts are conflated with natural human desires. Al-Faruqi criticized John Stuart Mill's association of happiness with desirability, positing that this view risks equating ethical value with subjective desires, which he saw as potentially leading to ethical relativism.
Al-Faruqi's analysis of the ambiguity fallacy focused on what he described as the attribution of value based on ambiguous standards. He argued that philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel sometimes conflated terms like "utility" and "value" without providing clear distinctions. According to al-Faruqi, defining virtues primarily in terms of happiness could obscure the true nature of ethical value. He proposed that values should be understood independently of empirical or relative standards and claimed they are known a priori through emotional intuition rather than empirical observation.
In his examination of Scheler's theories, al-Faruqi proposed a classification of values, distinguishing between intrinsic and absolute values. He argued that these values exist independently of empirical influences and asserted that they represent a foundation for ethical inquiry. Al-Faruqi's framework in value theory was intended to provide an alternative to what he viewed as limitations in Western ethical thought. His dissertation laid the groundwork for his later efforts to integrate Islamic principles into modern academic disciplines, contributing to his broader concept of the Islamization of knowledge.
Al-Faruqi's perspectives shifted significantly after relocating to the United States, where his involvement with the Muslim Students Association (MSA) at Temple University exposed him to a diverse array of Muslim students. This experience prompted him to reconsider his earlier emphasis on Arabism, moving instead toward a broader Islamic identity over Arab nationalism. Malik Badri described this transformation, noting that, "For the first time in his life, al-Faruqi met a group of young students who shattered his conceptualization of Arabism. He had to submit to Islam as the ummah's real binding force – especially since Arabs are only a small minority within it." Al-Faruqi himself articulated this shift by stating, "Until a few months ago, I was a Palestinian, an Arab, and a Muslim. Now I am a Muslim who happens to be an Arab from Palestine". He further remarked, "I asked myself: Who am I? A Palestinian, a philosopher, a liberal humanist? My answer was: I am a Muslim".
In his later years, al-Faruqi emphasized the significance of Islamic law as a framework for shaping ethical and societal norms. He described legal measures, such as penalties for theft and adultery, as deterrents designed to foster discipline and prevent societal harm. Al-Faruqi viewed these laws as part of a larger effort, centered on education, to instill ethical behavior and cultivate a just society.
In his exploration of Islam's role in North America, al-Faruqi also highlighted the historical contributions and challenges of African Muslims, from early settlement to the influences of Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X on the Islamic movement among African Americans. His insights on the ethical foundations of Islam, the concept of the Ummah, and the responsibilities of Muslim immigrants have played a role in shaping the Muslim experience in North America.
This shift also influenced his approach to interfaith dialogue. Al-Faruqi believed that a unified Islamic identity was essential for fostering meaningful interactions with non-Muslim communities. His involvement in the MSA and his exposure to diverse Muslim backgrounds in the U.S. reinforced his commitment to a broader, inclusive Islamic identity over his earlier Arab-centric views.
Al-Faruqi's views on tawhid included a critical perspective on Sufism, which he considered to emphasize mysticism and esoteric practices. He critiqued Sufism for its mysticism, arguing that it often detracted from the rational and practical aspects of Islam. Al-Faruqi was inspired by Mu'tazilī theologians such as al-Nazzam and Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar, who advocated for the use of reason and logic in understanding Islamic principles. Additionally, he found value in the works of the Brethren of Purity (Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ), whose writings combined Islamic teachings with elements of Greek philosophy.
Al-Faruqi's emphasis on tawhid went beyond theology, encompassing an integrated approach that unified rational thought, ethics, and social responsibility across all aspects of life. He argued that tawhid is "that which gives Islamic civilization its identity, which binds all its constituents together and thus makes of them an integral, organic body". Al-Faruqi explains:
He also asserted that this principle "purges religion clean of all doubt regarding the transcendence and unicity of the Godhead."
This approach extended to his vision of secularism and materialism, which he viewed as challenges to Islamic unity and ethical integrity. Al-Faruqi argued that Islam's vision for society requires an integrated worldview where tawhid "marks a complete secularization of the natural world to allow for the development of the sciences," thus separating the sacred from nature while upholding a unified ethical framework. His response to Western secular ideologies was rooted in a belief that tawhid calls for a holistic framework where reason and faith work together, as opposed to the spiritual-material divide seen in secular ideologies.
Al-Faruqi sought to establish principles of meta-religion grounded in reason, aiming to evaluate religions by universal standards rather than by comparing them against each other. This approach was intended to find common ground for cooperation among diverse faiths. Central to his concept of meta-religion is a shared, intrinsic belief in the One God, which he argued represents the original "pure form of faith" predating the diversification of religions. As al-Faruqi envisioned, meta-religion is distinct from historical religion, focusing on universal principles rooted in fitrah (natural religion) as a basis for mutual understanding and interfaith cooperation.
Within this framework, din al-fitrah is an innate human disposition toward the divine, suggesting that meta-religion provides an internalized recognition of truth that transcends specific religious labels. This perspective supports a form of interfaith understanding that acknowledges shared spiritual foundations without equating the doctrinal specifics of each faith. Rather than affirming religious pluralism in its conventional sense, meta-religion upholds that religions mirror varying degrees of the original monotheistic truth inherent in human nature.
To facilitate dialogue, al-Faruqi proposed several guiding principles: all dialogue should be open to critique, communication must adhere to laws of internal and external coherence, dialogue should align with reality and remain free from "canonical figurizations," and discussions should emphasize ethical questions over theological disputes. Al-Faruqi's concept of meta-religion involves a belief in God or Ultimate Reality as the "totally other." He emphasized that Islam, as a universal meta-religion preached by all prophets, centers on the concept of tawhid, which encompasses both the oneness and transcendence of God and humanity's duty to reflect divine harmony within the world.
Al-Faruqi also asserted that the study of religion should focus less on validating its truth through external or functional measures and more on understanding the condition of the homo religiosus—the naturally religious human being with an inherent awareness of the divine.
For al-Faruqi, meta-religious dialogue served as a vehicle for fostering mutual understanding and respect among faith communities, bridging the gaps created by doctrinal differences. His emphasis on ethics over theology was intended to support more constructive and less contentious interfaith engagements.
Al-Faruqi's work in comparative religion aimed to create a framework for respectful engagement among diverse faith traditions. He explored philosophical contrasts and convergences between Islam and Christianity, especially regarding interpretations of Hebrew scripture. He emphasized that during the peak of Islamic civilization, interreligious dialogue was a public pastime and a common topic in intellectual circles, showcasing its historical precedence. His approach examined differing hermeneutical methods and theological frameworks, identifying shared values that could support interfaith dialogue while respecting doctrinal distinctions. He believed in the value of dialogue initiated based on mutual respect and ethical considerations, stating that "conversion to the truth is the aim of dialogue," reflecting his commitment to honest interfaith engagement.
Al-Faruqi argued that, unlike Islam, Christianity lacks explicit foundations for structuring social frameworks such as law and economics, which he viewed as essential to societal cohesion:
He further observed what he viewed as a fundamental internal conflict in Western ethics stemming from this dualistic legacy, stating:
In addition to his exploration of Christian theology, al-Faruqi engaged with contemporary Western philosophy, examining ethics through thinkers like Kant, Scheler, and Hartmann. His comparative studies also extended into ethical and metaphysical questions, where he highlighted differing value systems between Western and Islamic thought.
In examining religious traditions historically, al-Faruqi saw potential for interfaith dialogue that acknowledges shared principles alongside distinctive beliefs. Al-Faruqi argued that Western ethics often emphasize individualism, whereas Islamic ethics prioritize communal welfare and divine accountability. These contrasting frameworks, he suggested, shape each tradition's broader views on morality, existence, and purpose.
Some critics, such as Damian Howard, suggest that al-Faruqi's approach to interfaith engagement emphasizes Islamic viewpoints more than fostering reciprocal understanding across faiths, potentially limiting the dialogue’s depth and inclusiveness.
Al-Faruqi was instrumental in conceptualizing holistic knowledge, a framework that integrates Islamic principles with modern disciplines, an approach often described as neo-modernist. Concerned about the secularization of knowledge in Muslim societies, al-Faruqi advocated for a holistic epistemology, reinterpreting Islamic thought to address contemporary challenges. He described what he called "the malaise of the ummah," arguing that reliance on Western tools and methodologies led to a disconnection from ecological and social realities in Muslim nations, often overlooking essential Islamic ethics. Al-Faruqi emphasized the integration of Islamic values within modern knowledge systems to help preserve the ethical fabric of the Muslim community.
The later part of al-Faruqi's career concentrated on the Islamization of knowledge concept. Responding to what he saw as the secularization and Western dominance of Muslim educational systems, he envisioned an integration of Islamic values with contemporary scientific and academic disciplines, ultimately striving for an epistemology rooted in ethical integrity. This concept included economic principles such as zakat and prohibitions on usury to ensure that economic activity aligned with Islamic ethics. His ideas eventually led to the founding of IIIT, which aimed to create an Islamic epistemology and methodology applicable across disciplines.
Al-Faruqi's methodology also extended to social sciences, where he advocated frameworks that retained Islamic ethical considerations while critiquing Western secularism. His goal was to replace secular principles with a foundation built on Islamic ethics that aligned with the values of the ummah. He envisioned a unified Islamic curriculum that incorporated contemporary disciplines while firmly grounding them in Islamic thought. This approach sought to produce scholars capable of addressing modern challenges from an Islamic perspective, stressing both curriculum development and practical strategies for reforming educational systems.
Some scholars, such as Ibrahim Kalin, have critiqued al-Faruqi's focus on humanities, arguing it left the natural sciences largely unexamined. Kalin describes al-Faruqi's work as an example of how "the idea of method or methodology (manhaj and manhajiyyah)... can obscure deeper philosophical issues involved in the current discussions of science." Despite Al-Faruqi's goal to Islamize Western knowledge, Kalin asserts, his focus "was exclusively on the humanities, leaving scientific knowledge virtually untouched." This omission, Kalin argues, led to unintended consequences: "First, Faruqi's work on Islamization provided his followers with a framework in which knowledge (ilm) came to be equated with social disciplines, thus ending up in a kind of sociologism... Second, the exclusion of modern scientific knowledge from the scope of Islamization has led to negligent attitudes... toward the secularizing effect of the modern scientific worldview."
Kalin's critique suggests that al-Faruqi's limited engagement with scientific knowledge risks creating a framework overly centered on sociological interpretations of Islamic knowledge. By omitting the natural sciences, Kalin argues, al-Faruqi's approach inadvertently reinforces a secular divide between natural and human sciences that may leave modern Muslim intellectuals unequipped to address the philosophical and epistemological challenges posed by contemporary science.
Al-Faruqi was a vocal critic of Zionism, viewing it as incompatible with Judaism due to its nationalist ideology. He argued that Zionism was fundamentally unjust, as it sought to displace Palestine’s indigenous population and seize their land, resources, and homes. He characterized it as "naked robbery by force of arms," accompanied by indiscriminate violence against civilians:
Consequently, he maintained that Zionism's dismantling was necessary to restore justice.
Al-Faruqi envisioned an alternative path for Israeli Jews who renounced Zionism, suggesting they could live as an "ummatic community" within the Muslim world, where they could preserve their faith under Jewish law as interpreted by rabbinic courts supported within an Islamic framework. This perspective highlighted his belief that Islamic governance could accommodate diverse communities without imposing on their religious practices:
Reflecting on Zionism's impact, al-Faruqi argued that rather than providing security for Jews, it had created a precarious existence in Israel, where life became defined by conflict and reliance on foreign powers:
Al-Faruqi's critique of Zionism was rooted in his commitment to justice as defined within an Islamic worldview.
Al-Faruqi contributed to Islamic studies through his extensive writings and active involvement in academic and interfaith organizations. He authored over 100 articles in scholarly journals and magazines and published 25 influential books, including Christian Ethics: A Historical and Systematic Analysis of Its Dominant Ideas (1968), Islam and the Problem of Israel (1980), and Al-Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life (1982). These works addressed a wide range of topics, including ethics, theology, interfaith dialogue, and the integration of Islamic thought into contemporary academic disciplines.
Al-Faruqi was the first Muslim academic to engage in the phenomenological and history of religious approaches. He viewed these approaches as contributing to the appreciation of Islam as part of human religious history and enabling Muslim engagement in the modern study of religion and as a participant in building understanding between religions.
In 1973, al-Faruqi established the Islamic Studies Group in the American Academy of Religion (AAR) and chaired it for ten years. This initiative provided a formal platform for Muslim scholars to engage in dialogue with scholars from other religious traditions, particularly in comparative religion and interfaith studies. Besides his academic work, al-Faruqi held leadership positions such as vice president of the Inter-Religious Peace Colloquium and president of the American Islamic College in Chicago.
In March 1977, al-Faruqi played a significant role in the First World Conference on Muslim Education in Makkah. This conference included participants such as Muhammad Kamal Hassan, Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, and Syed Ali Ashraf, among others. The conference laid the groundwork for establishing Islamic universities in Dhaka, Islamabad, Kuala Lumpur, Kampala, and Niger. Al-Faruqi was instrumental in the conference's deliberations and the development of its action plans.
He also served as an adviser to political leaders in the Muslim world, including Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq in Pakistan and Mahathir Mohamad in Malaysia. During Zia-ul-Haq's administration, al-Faruqi contributed to the establishment of the International Islamic University in Islamabad in 1980, which aimed to integrate Islamic values with contemporary academic disciplines. In Malaysia, al-Faruqi advised Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad, assisting in the foundation of the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) in 1983. Both institutions were established to combine religious and secular knowledge within a holistic educational framework.
In 1980, Ismail al-Faruqi co-founded the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) with Taha Jabir Alalwani, Abdul Hamid AbuSulayman, and Anwar Ibrahim. His involvement in interfaith dialogue promoted mutual understanding and cooperation among religious communities, fostering a global environment of peace and respect that highlighted the commonalities between Islam, Christianity, and Judaism.
Al-Faruqi's ideas on the Islamization of knowledge continue to resonate within contemporary Islamic thought, influencing curriculum development in universities such as the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) and the International Islamic University, Islamabad. His emphasis on integrating Islamic principles with modern academic disciplines remains relevant among scholars and educators who aim to harmonize faith and reason. His work is frequently cited in academic conferences and publications related to Islamic thought and education.
Al-Faruqi's contributions to interfaith dialogue are also widely recognized. His approach emphasized finding common ethical and moral ground between faith traditions, particularly Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Scholars have noted that his focus on ethical principles over theological differences fostered mutual understanding and respect among religious communities. His framework has been influential in global efforts to promote peace and cooperation across religious divides.
Al-Faruqi's impact extends beyond academia into practical applications. His work in religious studies inspired the creation of related academic programs, particularly in institutions that have adopted his methodologies, such as the mandatory religious studies courses at the International Islamic University Malaysia, which aim to understand spiritual traditions and their civilizational significance comprehensively.
Additionally, al-Faruqi's scholarly works, such as Christian Ethics and Trialogue of the Abrahamic Faiths, continue to serve as key resources in interfaith dialogue and comparative religion studies. These works have shaped discussions in Islamic and Western academic circles, highlighting the intersections between these religious traditions.
His contributions have been recognized posthumously, particularly in communities like Montreal, where his scholarship and community-building efforts left a lasting impact.