davidanugraha/M4-RAG huggingface dataset:
Barbarea verna

Barbarea verna is a biennial herb in the family Brassicaceae. Common names include land cress, American cress, bank cress, black wood cress, Belle Isle cress, Bermuda cress, poor man's cabbage, early yellowrocket, early wintercress, scurvy cress, creasy greens, and upland cress. It is native to southern Europe and western Asia, and naturalized elsewhere It has been cultivated as a leaf vegetable in England since the 17th century. As it requires less water than watercress, it is easier to cultivate.
Annual or biennial, winter green, herbaceous plant in the Brassicaceae. The seeds typically germinate in the autumn to form an over-wintering rosette. The following spring, it grows a main stem up to about 90 cm, sometimes up to 130 cm, which is pale green, groovy (sulcate) and occasionally branched. The leaves are alternate and pinnate with clasping auricles at the base and between 4 and 11 pairs of sub-opposite lobes. The upper leaves have much narrower lobes than those found lower down. The whole plant is almost entirely glabrous.
The flowers appear in early spring. The inflorescence is a terminal raceme, or lateral raceme arising from the leaf axils, with 6 to 25 flowers on short 3-8mm pedicels. There are four yellowy green sepals, 5mm long and four bright yellow petals each 8mm long. Six stamens and one style with a capitate stigma at the tip.
Land cress is considered a satisfactory substitute for watercress. It can be used in sandwiches, or salads, or cooked like spinach, or used in soup.
Land cress can be grown easily in any garden. Like watercress, it loves water, but does not do well when partially submerged for long periods of time. This plant needs full sun or partial shade and moist or poorly drained soil. It is a common green in Appalachian cuisine as one of few plants that can overwinter in the mountains.
Other common names include dryland cress, cassabully, and American watercress. When cooked similarly to Southern collard greens the leaves may be called creasy greens. A variegated form is available.
Korean traditional pharmacist

Oriental Medicine Pharmacists (Korean: 한약사; Hanja: 韓藥師; RR: hanyaksa) are a licensed healthcare professionals who take charge of various pharmaceutical affairs like the manufacturing, preparation, identification, storage, importation, sales of drugs and other pharmaceutical technologies in the South Korea.
Oriental Medicine Pharmacists practice pharmacy and sell medical & pharmaceutical products including over-the-counter drugs and work on Korean tranditional medication. Also, some of them work at pharmaceutical companies and government agencies such as Ministry of Food and Drug Safety, controlling the whole drug manufacturing process along with public health administration.
Korean Oriental Pharmacists are placed on the middle ground between Korean traditional medical doctors and general pharmacists. So Oriental Medicine Pharmacists can prepare(dispense) Korean traditional medicine in addition to the jobs of general pharmacists such as running pharmacy and various pharmaceutical affairs.
In order to become a licensed Oriental Medicine Pharmacist, one has to pass a few nationwide Oriental Pharmacist Licensure Examination administered by the government of the South Korea. They must major in Oriental Pharmacy at the undergraduate level of pharmacy school of university to qualify for these exams. They are also required to take the minimum 160 credits; 70 credits of Western medicine and Korean traditional medicine each. As a result, they can become eligible to take the exams after meeting these academic requirements. They take courses on Biochemistry, Organic Chemistry, Immunology and Microbiology, Pharmacognosy, Pharmacology, Pharmaceutics, and so on.
Allium monanthum

Allium monanthum, the Korean wild chive, is a spring vegetable with minuscule bulbous roots that have a mild onion flavor and found in the woodlands of Korea, Japan, northeastern Russia (Primorye), and northeastern China (Hebei, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning).
Allium monanthum is unusual in the genus in being usually dioecious (male and female flowers on separate plants), but rarely hermaphrodite or gynomonoecious. The species produces a single round bulb about 1 cm (1⁄3 in) in diameter. Scapes are relatively short for the genus, rarely more than 10 cm (4 in) tall. Leaves are flat, long and narrow, longer than the scape. Umbels are small, with one flower on pistillate (female) plants and 4-5 flowers on staminate (male) plants. All flowers are white, pink or red.
Called dallae (달래) in Korean, Korean wild chives are used in Korean herbal cooking alongside other san-namul (mountain vegetables) such as deodeok, angelica-tree, gondre and Siberian onion. Having a similar flavor profile to Tree onion, Korean wild chives can be eaten raw or blanched as a namul (seasoned herbal vegetable dish), pickled as a jangajji, or pan-fried to make buchimgae (pancake). As a herb, Korean wild chives make a good last minute addition to doenjang-jjigae (soybean paste stew) and other jjigae (stews). Soy sauce based dips are often flavored with Korean wild chives. In North Korea, radish water kimchi flavored with Korean wild chives is a popular spring banchan (side dish).
Rhododendron mucronulatum

Rhododendron mucronulatum, the Korean rhododendron or Korean rosebay (Korean: 진달래; RR: Jindalrae), is a rhododendron species native to Korea, Mongolia, Russia, and parts of northern China. It is a deciduous shrub that grows to 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) in height, with elliptic or elliptic-lanceolate leaves, 3–7 cm (1+1⁄4–2+3⁄4 in) long by 1–3.5 cm (3⁄8–1+3⁄8 in) wide. The reddish-purple flowers appear in late winter or early spring, often on the bare branches before the foliage unfurls. It inhabits forested regions at 1,600–2,300 m (5,200–7,500 ft).
The Latin specific epithet mucronulatum means "sharply pointed", referring to the leaf shape.
The cultivar 'Cornell Pink' has light pink flowers, and has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. It is hardy down to −20 °C (−4 °F) but like most rhododendron species requires a sheltered position in dappled shade with acid soil that has been enriched with leaf mould.
In Korea, the flowers are used in pan-fried flower cakes called hwajeon, which are traditional for Samjinnal, a spring festival. It is also used in infused liquor.
Ephemeral plant

An ephemeral plant is a plant with a very short life cycle or very short period of active growth, often one that grows only during brief periods when conditions are favorable. Several types of ephemeral plants exist. The first, spring ephemeral, refers to plants that emerge quickly in the spring and die back to their underground parts after a short growth and reproduction phase. Desert ephemerals are plants which are adapted to take advantage of the short wet periods in arid climates. Mud-flat ephemerals take advantage of short periods of low water. In areas subjected to recurring human disturbance, such as plowing, weedy ephemerals are very short-lived plants whose entire life cycle takes less than a growing season. In each case, the species has a life cycle timed to exploit a short period when resources are freely available. An evergreen plant could be considered the opposite of an ephemeral plant.
Spring ephemerals are woodland wildflowers which develop aerial parts (i.e. stems, leaves, and flowers) of the plant early each spring and then quickly bloom, and produce seed. The leaves often wither leaving only underground structures (i.e. roots, rhizomes, and bulbs) for the remainder of the year. This strategy is very common in herbaceous communities of deciduous forests as it allows small herbaceous plants to take advantage of the high levels of sunlight reaching the forest floor prior to the formation of a canopy by woody plants. Examples include: spring beauties, trilliums, harbinger of spring and the genus of Dicentra particularly D. cucullaria, Dutchman's breeches and D. canadensis, squirrel corn.
In the herb layer of beech forest and hornbeam-sessile oak forest, tuberous, bulbous and rhizomous plants are abundant. They comprise the spring geophytes (tuberous, bulbous and rhizomous).
Desert ephemerals, such as Arabidopsis thaliana, are plants which are adapted to take advantage of the very short favourable seasons in deserts. Annual plants in deserts may use the weedy ephemeral strategy to survive in the desert environment. These species survive the dry seasons through seed dormancy. Alternatively, some perennial desert plants may die back to their underground parts and become dormant when there is not enough water available.
Most water bodies have natural changes in water level over a year. For example, rivers have higher water periods after melting snow or rainy seasons, followed by natural low water periods. Large lakes have similar seasonal changes, but also changes over longer periods of time. Many short-lived plants, particularly annual plants, grow during low water periods, then set seeds which remain buried in the mud until the next low water period.
Many agricultural weeds are ephemeral and reproduce rapidly after human disturbance from plowing. Roadside weeds similarly exploit the disturbance from road construction and mowing. These plants rarely have any commercial use and can be invasive weeds. Examples include: Cardamine hirsuta and Cannabis ruderalis. Plants which have short life spans, rapid rates of growth, and high levels of seed production are also termed ruderals.
Descurainia sophia

Descurainia sophia is a member of the family Brassicaceae. Common names include flixweed, herb-Sophia and tansy mustard. It reproduces by seeds. It is a dominant weed in dark brown prairie and black prairie soils of southern Alberta. Its stem is erect, branched, and 4–30 in (10–76 cm) high. It was once given to patients with dysentery and called by ancient herbalists Sophia Chirurgorum, "The Wisdom of Surgeons". It is the type species of the genus Descurainia (named for French botanist and herbalist François Descurain (1658–1749)) and of the rejected genus Sophia Adans.
Descurainia sophia is an annual plant. It will sprout and grow in the fall and spends winter as a rosette. Growth resumes in the spring and plants flower by late spring.
In Iran, the seeds are called khak-e shir (khakshir), and khak-e shir drinks are traditionally favored as thirst quencher during hot summer days. Khakshir is also considered a medicinal substance in traditional Iranian medicine, consumed in varying combinations with other herbs and substances to gain effects ranging from antidiuretic to aphrodisiac.
China has a tradition of eating this plant, and its eating method is recorded in the Jiuhuang Bencao (Book of Famine Relief Herbals).
In German, it is called the Sophienkraut and associated with Saint Sophia of Rome, who was invoked against late frosts.
Dataran Pahlawan Melaka Megamall

Dataran Pahlawan Melaka Megamall merupakan sebuah medan beli-belah yang terletak di Bandar Hilir, Melaka, Malaysia. Ia dibangunkan dan dimiliki Hatten Group Sdn. Bhd. di atas tapak seluas 7.7 hektar di Bandaraya Melaka, dan merupakan medan beli-belah gaya hidup terbesar di negeri itu. Medan beli-belah ini mempunyai keluasan kasar 1.5 juta kaki persegi dan keluasan runcit bersih 750,000 kaki persegi dan menempatkan jenama fesyen antarabangsa, kegemaran F & B tempatan dan antarabangsa, pusat hiburan, pawagam filem dan karaoke. Tanah yang medan beli-belah kini berdiri dahulu merupakan sebuah ruang hijau di tepi pantai yang bernama Padang Pahlawan, tempat pengumuman tarikh kemerdekaan Persekutuan Tanah Melayu.
Tokong Poh San Teng

Kuil Poh San Teng (Cina ringkas: 宝山亭; pinyin: Bǎo Shān Tíng) ialah sebuah tokong Cina yang terletak di kaki Bukit China, bersebelahan dengan Tugu Pahlawan Melaka dan perigi Raja di Bandar Raya Melaka, negeri Melaka, Malaysia. Kuil ini dikhaskan untuk Tua Pek Kong.
Kuil ini diasaskan pada tahun 1795 semasa era Melaka Belanda oleh Kapitan Cina yang bernama Chua Su Cheong (Tsai Shih-chang).
Memandangkan ia adalah kuil tanah perkuburan, nama-nama dewa, " Fu De Zheng Shen " atau " Tua Pek Kong " ditulis dengan kuil itu terutamanya didedikasikan untuk Tua Pek Kong. Sebuah prasasti pada prasasti di perkarangan kuil memperingati penubuhan kuil, di mana ia berbunyi:
Politik di Melaka

Bangunan Dewan Undangan Negeri Melaka yang juga dikenali sebagai Seri Negeri terletak di Hang Tuah Jaya, Ayer Keroh.
Ketua Menteri Melaka kini adalah YB Adly bin Zahari, merupakan Ketua Menteri Melaka yang kesebelas menggantikan Datuk Seri Ir Idris Haron mulai tahun 2018. YB Adly bin Zahari juga merupakan Ahli Dewan Undangan Negeri bagi kawasan N17 Bukit Katil.
Senarai Ketua Menteri Melaka
Portuguese Settlement, Malacca

The Portuguese Settlement (Saint John's Village; Portuguese: Aldeia de São João; Malay: Kampung St. John, Kampung Portugis) is a settlement area of Ujong Pasir in Malacca City, Melaka Tengah District, Malacca, Malaysia, which serves as a home for the Kristang people. The Kristang people are a Malaysian ethnic group with mixed Portuguese and Malay heritage, originating from the time of the Portuguese rule in Malacca (16th to 17th century).
In 1933, 11 hectares of land at Malacca were purchased with the purpose of creating a haven for the scattered Kristang people. The swampy land was cleared and 10 wooden houses with earth floors and attap roofs were built. Saint John's village, as that simple fishing village was originally known, soon attracted additional Kristang from other areas of Malacca, and grew to become one of Malacca's main tourist attractions, improving the standard of living of its villagers.
Like many other Portuguese-speaking communities around the world, the Portuguese Settlement holds a yearly "June festival" that opens with Festa de São João ("Feast of Saint John", June 23) and closes with Festa de São Pedro ("Feast of Saint Peter", the fishermen's patron saint, June 29). This festival is attended by about 100,000 visitors from Malaysia and abroad. At the festival one can hear Kristang folk songs and watch dancers in colourful costumes perform to the rhythm of branyu music. An important event in the festival is the blessing of the local fishermen's boats, specially decorated for the occasion, to assure good catch.
Distritos de Francia

Los 100 departamentos franceses (départements), al frente de cada uno de los cuales se sitúa un prefecto, se dividen en 342 distritos (arrondissements) que, liderados por un subprefecto, tienen por misión ayudar a aquel en la aplicación de las políticas territoriales y administrativas del Estado francés.
La capital de un distrito se llama sous-préfecture (subprefectura) excepto cuando se trata del distrito de la propia capital departamental, que mantiene la denominación de préfecture (prefectura), si bien cumple con las mismas funciones para con el resto de las comunas de su distrito.
Los distritos agrupan a un número determinado de comunas, la división administrativa básica, que además se agrupan en diferentes cantones, organización que cumple las funciones de partido judicial (sede del Tribunal de Primera Instancia) y de manera regular, de circunscripción electoral.
En las ciudades de París, Lyon y Marsella también se denominan arrondissements a las divisiones administrativas que agrupan a los diferentes barrios y al frente de los cuales se designa un maire o alcalde.
Entre 1790 y 1800 en Francia, los districts fueron el primer nivel de subdivisión de los départements, y fueron posteriormente reemplazados por los arrondissements. Durante parte del siglo XX, se denominó district a una forma de mancomunidad de municipios.
Mediodía-Pirineos

Mediodía-Pirineos​ (en francés: Midi-Pyrénées, en occitano gascón: Miegjorn Pirenèus y en occitano languedociano: Miègjorn Pirenèus) fue una antigua región administrativa de Francia. Esta región estaba atravesada por el meridiano de Greenwich. Era la más grande en superficie del país y también, junto a la de Ródano-Alpes, la que contaba con el mayor número de departamentos. Formaba parte de la región histórica de Occitania. El 1 de enero de 2016, a consecuencia de la reforma territorial de 2014, se fusionó con la región Languedoc-Rosellón para formar la nueva región de Occitania.
Mediodía-Pirineos era una región situada en el sur de Francia. Era la más extensa de la Francia metropolitana con una superficie de 45 348 km², área que es comparable a la de Dinamarca y que es mayor que la de países como Bélgica y Suiza. La frontera meridional marcaba el límite con España y el Principado de Andorra. Limitaba con otras cuatro regiones francesas: Aquitania al oeste, Lemosín al norte, Auvernia al noreste y Languedoc-Rosellón al este.
Sus límites físicos eran el Macizo Central al noreste y los Pirineos al sur. La región no llegaba a formar parte ni de la fachada atlántica ni de la mediterránea. El valle del Garona es canalizado en la parte central de la región recogiendo las aguas de la vertiente sur del Macizo Central y de la vertiente norte de los Pirineos Centrales.​
La región gravitaba alrededor de Toulouse, con un área urbana de alrededor de 900 núcleos de habitantes, ejemplificando junto con el resto de la región —con una densidad de población baja— la dinámica de concentración metropolitana.​
La región agrupaba ocho departamentos:
La región contaba con un número total de 3020 comunas. Las 20 mayores comunas en términos de población total en el año 2010 fueron:
La región contaba con equipos profesionales de fútbol (Toulouse), rugby (Stade Toulousain, Castres Olympique y Auch) y balonmano (Fenix Toulouse). Desde 1982 hasta 2000 se jugó el Torneo de Toulouse de tenis, que formaba parte de la ATP World Series.
Los Grandes Sitios de Mediodía-Pirineos son un conjunto de los principales sitios turísticos representativos de la región de Mediodía-Pirineos que se agrupan al objeto de disponer de una etiqueta de promoción turística reconocible a nivel nacional e internacional. En diciembre de 2015, había 25 Grandes Sitios distribuidos de manera bastante uniforme en todo el territorio regional.
Muro atlántico

El Muro Atlántico o Muralla del Atlántico (en alemán Atlantikwall) fue una gran cadena interrumpida de puntos de refuerzo construida durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial por el Tercer Reich que tenía como misión impedir una invasión del continente europeo desde Gran Bretaña por parte de los Aliados.
La edificación de este gigantesco proyecto se confió en 1942 a la Organización Todt. La parte principal de la obra, con un alto coste, dotó a la zona costera del canal de La Mancha, aunque la intención era construir una muralla defensiva desde Hendaya hasta el cabo Norte con una longitud total de 2687 km (1670 millas), bajo control alemán de todo tipo de búnkeres, blocaos, casamatas, trincheras, dientes de dragón —destacando los dientes de Hitler en Noruega, que todavía se conservan— túneles y demás estructuras defensivas, que en total sumarían en torno a 15 000 edificios, requiriendo el uso de 11 millones de toneladas de hormigón y 1 millón de toneladas de acero.
Muchos de los puertos más importantes a lo largo de la costa francesa fueron integrados en el plan de defensa atlántica alemán. Acercándose el final de la guerra, Hitler ordenó la defensa de las posiciones a toda costa,​​ y efectivamente algunas de estas posiciones seguían sin estar en manos aliadas hasta la rendición alemana el 8 de mayo de 1945. Varias de las fortalezas costeras habían sido adaptadas como bases de submarinos tras la rendición de Francia en 1940, y se convirtieron en objetivos primarios para los Aliados. Entre sus guarniciones se contaban unidades SS y tropas de origen eslavo.​
Zona horaria del Atlántico (América del Norte)

La zona horaria del Atlántico (AST, siglas en inglés de Atlantic Standard Time) es una región geográfica que corresponde al huso horario oficial de cuatro horas menos respecto al Tiempo universal coordinado (UTC), específicamente UTC-4. La hora en esta zona está basada en el tiempo solar medio del meridiano 60 oeste del Observatorio de Greenwich.
En Canadá, las provincias de Nuevo Brunswick​ y Nueva Escocia​ calculan el tiempo con cuatro horas menos respecto a la hora media de Greenwich (GMT-4). La isla del Príncipe Eduardo y pequeñas partes de Quebec (el este de Côte-Nord y las Islas de la Magdalena) también forman parte de la zona horaria del Atlántico. De forma oficial, la provincia de Terranova y Labrador forma parte del Tiempo de Terranova y Labrador,​ pero en práctica, la mayor parte de Labrador usa la zona horaria del Atlántico.
Otras partes del mundo que forman parte de este huso horario son las islas Bermudas, en el Atlántico del Norte; muchas islas del Caribe, incluyendo República Dominicana y Puerto Rico; y varios países sudamericanos, tales como Paraguay, Venezuela, Chile, Bolivia, y partes de Brasil.
A AST se le conoce (donde se aplica) como «horario de verano del Atlántico» (ADT, siglas en inglés de Atlantic Daylight Time) durante el horario de verano y se le añade una hora para modificarlo a tres horas detrás del Tiempo Universal Coordinado, es decir UTC-3.
Principales ciudades y áreas metropolitanas que forman parte de la zona horaria del Atlántico.
Montañas de Štiavnica

Las Montañas de Štiavnica (Montañas Štiavnické, en eslovaco Štiavnické vrchy) es una cordillera montañosa de origen volcánico situada en el centro sur de Eslovaquia. Forman parte de los Inner Montes Cárpatos del oeste. Es un espacio natural protegido.
El sistema montañoso está delimitado por las Montañas Kremnica (Kremnické vrchy) en el norte, las montañas Pliešovce y Krupina (Krupinská kotlina) en el este, las Montañas Danubian (Podunajská pahorkatina) en el sur y por Pohronský Inovec, Vtáčnik y Žiar Basin (Žiarska kotlina) en el oeste. El punto más alto es el pico Sitno de 1.009 m.
Las montañas son una inmensa caldera creada por el colapso de un antiguo volcán. Debido a su origen volcánico son mineralmente muy ricas conteniendo alrededor de 140 clases de minerales diferentes. En el pasado hubo una importante industria minera (plata) en las inmediaciones de Banská Štiavnica.
En la zona existen 24 lagos artificiales denominados tajchy. Estos embalses construidos en el siglo XVIII se usaron en la industria minera.
Geografía (Estrabón)

Geografía (en griego: Γεωγραφικά [Geōgraphiká], en latín: Geographica) es una extensa obra del geógrafo y viajero Estrabón (c. 63 a. C. — c. 23 d. C.) compuesta por 17 volúmenes sobre la geografía de su época.​​
Excepto algunas partes del libro 7, el resto ha podido llegar completo hasta nuestros días. Se compone fundamentalmente de informes contemporáneos sobre el mundo romano y recopilaciones de obras anteriores de origen griego. De manera similar a otras obras de la misma época, hay numerosas digresiones respecto del tema principal. Varias de ellas se dedican a demostrar el valor de Homero como fuente geográfica. Por el contrario, considera de poca importancia el testimonio de escritores como Heródoto. Estrabón, a menudo hace de testigo de los que otros van reportando; muestra en ciertas ocasiones una preocupación por lo detallado, a menudo capcioso y muy argumentativo, otros momentos hace crítica de otros autores de la época; muestra un estilo peculiarmente griego hacia los detalles y justificaciones de sus aserciones, haciendo un ejercicio extensivo del razonamiento: en suma, uno puede llegar a preferir más geografía y menos argumentación. Algunos de los rodeos que muestra su hilo argumentativo hacen que sea muy útil sus descripciones a los modernos investigadores, proporcionando información valiosa sobre los métodos de la geografía antigua y de como otros geógrafos antiguos averiguaban hechos relacionados con esta área de conocimiento.
Hoy en día han llegado a nuestras manos cerca de una treintena de manuscritos de la Geographika o partes supervivientes del mismo, casi todos ellos de copias repasadas de textos medievales, a través de posibles fragmentos de papiros conservados de rollos de los años 100-300. Los estudiosos han intentado elaborar una edición completa con todos los fragmentos encajados; este deseo de hace mucho tiempo ha sido posible en una edición moderna del año 2002, en la que va apareciendo al mercado a un ritmo de un tomo al año.
El tercer libro lo dedica a Iberia. Algunas descripciones del mismo:
Escribe sobre la Turdetania, culta y rica en recursos terrestres y marítimos, regada por el Betis y muy romanizada. Habitada por los turdetanos que eran grandes navegantes con sus naves, las mayores que llegaban a Roma. Habla de diferentes poblaciones como por ejemplo, Chipiona, roca de Salmedina, Coepionis Turris o Torre de Capión, que dio origen a su nombre actual.
De la Lusitania, habla sobre sus costumbres ancestrales y describe:
La Celtiberia, basándose en Polibio y Posidonio, la describe así:
Según Estrabón (3, 4, 13), la Celtiberia, sería un país pobre, de suelo y clima inhóspito y dividido en cuatro partes de las que enumera dos, habitadas por arévacos, y lusones, aunque por Polibio y Apiano, se sabe que las otras dos corresponderían a bellos y tittos. Los más fuertes son los arévacos.​
Geografía histórica

La geografía histórica es el estudio de la geografía humana del pasado. La geografía histórica estudia una variedad amplia de ediciones y de asuntos como: mapas antiguos, libros de viajeros, datos estadísticos, publicaciones periódicas, etc.​ No existe un acuerdo sobre si es una ciencia histórica, como por ejemplo Orella Unzúe, quien niega que lo sea.​
Un tema común es el estudio de la geografía del pasado y cómo un lugar o una región cambia con el tiempo. Muchos geógrafos históricos estudian patrones geográficos con el tiempo, incluyendo cómo la gente ha obrado recíprocamente con su ambiente, y creado el paisaje cultural.
La geografía histórica utiliza fuentes históricas que determinan cómo las características culturales de varias sociedades emergieron y se desarrollaron, entendiendo su interacción con su ambiente local y sus alrededores.
Esta rama secundaria de la geografía humana se relaciona de cerca con la historia y la historia ambiental .
Dentro de los teóricos más importantes de la geografía histórica podemos encontrar a Lucien Febvre, Fernand Braudel, Carl O. Sauer, Georges Duby y D.J. Gregory.​
En 1752 el jesuita Pedro Murillo Velarde y Bravo publicó su Geografía histórica en 10 tomos.
Europa Oriental

Europa Oriental o Europa del Este es una región de Europa que está al este de la región occidental y al sur de la región septentrional.
Tras la finalización de la Segunda Guerra Mundial el nuevo orden europeo y mundial resultante marcó una diferencia notoria entre la Europa Occidental (capitalista, alineada con Estados Unidos mediante la Organización del Tratado del Atlántico Norte) y la Europa Oriental (comunista, alineada con la URSS mediante el Pacto de Varsovia y con China en menor medida). Tras la disolución de la Unión Soviética, la consiguiente caída de la «cortina de hierro» y la incorporación de la mayoría de los países del Bloque del Este a la Unión Europea, algunas de estas diferencias se minoraron.
En Europa Oriental, a diferencia de su homóloga Occidental, predomina el cristianismo ortodoxo representado por la Iglesia ortodoxa y el uso de lenguas eslavas; también es notoria la escritura en alfabeto cirílico.
Europa Oriental es una de las veintidós subregiones en que la ONU divide el mundo. En ella se incluye a trece países de Europa: Armenia, Azerbaiyán, Bielorrusia, Bulgaria, Eslovaquia, Georgia, Hungría, Moldavia, Polonia, República Checa, Rumania, Rusia y Ucrania.​ Otras definiciones incluyen a las repúblicas bálticas por ser Estados postsoviéticos, más las pequeñas porciones territoriales europeas de Kazajistán y Turquía (ambos países túrquicos).
Limita al norte con el mar Báltico, Europa Septentrional y el océano Ártico; al este con el océano Pacífico a través de Asia del Norte —perteneciente a la parte asiática de Rusia, separada de la europea por los montes Urales y el río Ural; al sur con el mar Negro, la cordillera del Cáucaso, el mar Caspio (fronteras naturales entre Europa y Asia), Asia Occidental, Asia Central y Asia Oriental; al suroeste con Europa meridional y al oeste con Europa Occidental.
Europa meridional

Europa Meridional o Europa del Sur es una de las veintidós subregiones en que la Organización de las Naciones Unidas divide el mundo. Está compuesta por dieciséis países: Albania, Andorra, Bosnia y Herzegovina, Chipre, Ciudad del Vaticano, Croacia, Eslovenia, España, Grecia, Italia, Macedonia del Norte, Malta, Montenegro, Portugal, San Marino y Serbia, más el territorio británico de ultramar de Gibraltar. En ocasiones, también se incluye a Francia, o al menos, a la región lingüística y cultural de Occitania en esta.
Limita con Europa Occidental, Europa Oriental y África del Norte.
También diversos sociólogos e historiadores subdividen la región en otras categorías, como son la Europa mediterránea, la balcánica o la del Este.​
Europa Occidental

Europa Occidental es una región o subregión de Europa, cuya definición depende del uso, del contexto o del concepto que adopte un determinado organismo. Durante la época de la Ilustración se creó el concepto de Europa Oriental o Europa del Este, lo que devino en la creación del concepto de Europa Occidental por oposición.​
Limita al noroeste con el canal de la Mancha que lo separa de Gran Bretaña, y con el mar del Norte, al noreste con el mar Báltico, al este con Europa Oriental, al sur con los Alpes, el sudeste con la península balcánica, al suroeste con el mar Mediterráneo y con los Pirineos que lo separan de la península ibérica y a Oeste con el océano Atlántico.
Actualmente, los conceptos más relevantes son los siguientes:
Al término de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Europa quedó dividida en dos áreas de influencia bien definidas, en donde la apodada «cortina de hierro» o «telón de acero» separó a una Europa Oriental o «Bloque del Este», que quedó bajo la influencia de la Unión Soviética y el Pacto de Varsovia, de una Europa Occidental bajo la influencia de Estados Unidos y la OTAN (excepto Turquía).​
Es de notar que lingüísticamente, en Europa Occidental predominan las lenguas indoeuropeas de centum como las lenguas romances, celtas, germánicas y el griego. En el ámbito religioso esta parte de Europa es de tradición cristiana, principalmente en sus vertientes católica y protestante.
El geoesquema de la ONU divide a los países del mundo de acuerdo con un sistema que facilita la identificación de una área geográfica concreta. Su clasificación por tanto ni es cultural ni coincide muchas veces con las interpretaciones mayoritarias, sirviendo sobre todo para definiciones estructurales internas. Europa Occidental, una de las 22 subregiones de esta división, solo incluye a nueve países:​ Alemania, Austria, Bélgica, Francia, Liechtenstein, Luxemburgo, Mónaco, Países Bajos y Suiza.
Limita con Europa Septentrional, Europa Oriental y Europa Meridional.
Embajada de España en Francia

La Embajada de España en Francia es la máxima representación diplomática del Reino de España en la República Francesa. Tiene su sede en el nº22 de la avenida Marceau, en el Distrito VIII de París.​
El embajador es Victorio Redondo Baldrich (desde 2021).​
El embajador de España en Francia es el máximo representante legal del Reino de España en la República Francesa. Nombrado en Consejo de Ministros, dirige el trabajo de todas las oficinas que dependen de la Embajada.
Pre-Pyrenees

The Pre-Pyrenees are the foothills of the Pyrenees.
As a mountainous system the Pre-Pyrenees are part of the Pyrenees. They run parallel to the main mountain range in a west to east direction.
On the French side the Pyrenees's slopes descend rather abruptly, thus on the northern side, the Pre-Pyrenees are confined to the Corbières Massif, towards the eastern end of the mountain system. The Massif de Plantaurel further west deserves mention as well, although not as clearly a foothill.
On the Iberian side, however, the picture is very different: a large and complex system of foothill ranges stretches from Navarre, across northern Aragon, reaching the Mediterranean coast on the Catalan end of the Pyrenees. At the eastern end on the southern side lies a distinct area known as the Sub-Pyrenees.
Although the highest peaks in the Pre-Pyrenees are not as high as those in the Pyrenees proper, some of the ranges are quite massive, with summits reaching up to 2,600 m (8,500 ft).
The main ranges are:
List of European countries by population

This list of European countries by population comprises the 51 countries and 5 territories and dependencies in Europe, broadly defined, including Cyprus, Kazakhstan, Turkey, and the countries of the Caucasus.
The most populous European country is Russia, with a population of over 144 million. Turkey, with a population of about 85 million, has most of its population living within its Asian part; though within its territory in Europe, some one-tenth of its population is situated. Excluding Turkey, Germany is the second-most populous country on the continent, with a population of about 84 million.
The ranking here is according to the national figures, which may be estimates or somewhat out of date so the ranking of countries that are very close in population is approximate. The United Nations estimates are those published in the UN's World Population Prospects, which are based on censuses, population registers, surveys, and other statistics. This list also includes the partially recognized country of Kosovo.
List of countries by average wage

The average wage is a measure of total income after taxes divided by total number of employees employed. In this article, the average wage is adjusted for living expenses "purchasing power parity" (PPP). This is not to be confused with the average income which is a measure of total income including wage, investment benefit, and other capital gains divided by total number of people in the population including non-working residents. Average wages can differ from median wages; for example, the Social Security Administration estimated that the 2020 average wage in the United States was $53,383, while the 2020 median wage was $34,612.
The OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) dataset contains data on average annual wages for full-time and full-year equivalent employees in the total economy. Average annual wages per full-time equivalent dependent employee are obtained by dividing the national-accounts-based total wage bill by the average number of employees in the total economy, which is then multiplied by the ratio of average usual weekly hours per full-time employee to average usually weekly hours for all employees.
* Indicates "Economy of [country or territory]" links.
The gross average monthly wage estimates for 2023 are computed by converting national currency figures from the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Statistical Database, compiled from national and international (the CIS, Eurostat, the OECD) official sources. Wages in U.S. dollars are computed by the UNECE Secretariat using purchasing-power-parity dollars.
Gross average monthly wages cover total wages and salaries in cash and in kind, before any tax deduction and before social security contributions. They include wages and salaries, remuneration for time not worked, bonuses and gratuities paid by the employer to the employee. Wages cover the total economy and are expressed per full-time equivalent employee.
* Indicates "Economy of [country or territory]" links.
External border of the European Union

The border of the European Union consists of the land borders that member states of the EU share with non-EU states adjacent to the union. The EU shares land borders with 21 countries and 3 dependencies.
The lengths of the borders the European Union and the Overseas Countries and Territories (OCTs) share with different countries and territories are listed below. Maritime borders are not included.
The northern part of Cyprus is legally part of the EU, but the terms of the acquis communautaire, the EU's body of laws, have been suspended due to it being under the control of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, a self-proclaimed de facto state which is recognized only by Turkey. The two entities are separated by the United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus, which serves as a de facto boundary between them.
In 2004 the European Union developed the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) for the promotion of cooperation between the EU and its neighbours to the east and south of the European territory of the EU (i.e., excluding its outermost regions outside of Europe), which, in part, includes the Cross-Border Cooperation programme aimed at the promotion of economic development in border areas and ensuring border security.
The Border and Coast Guard Agency, more commonly known as Frontex, was established in 2004. Its main task is external border control of the Schengen Area. Most of its activities are coordinated with the coast and border guards of member states.
List of telephone country codes

Telephone country codes, originally termed International Codes by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (C.C.I.T.T.) in 1960, but also sometimes referred to as "country dial-in codes", or historically "international subscriber dialing" (ISD) codes in the U.K., are telephone number dialing prefixes for reaching subscribers in foreign countries or areas via international telecommunication networks. Country codes are defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in ITU-T standards E.123 and E.164. The prefixes enable international direct dialing (IDD).
Country codes constitute the international telephone numbering plan. They are used only when dialing a telephone number in a country or world region other than the caller's. Country codes are dialed before the national telephone number, but require at least one additional prefix, the international call prefix which is an exit code from the national numbering plan to the international one. In most countries, this prefix is 00, an ITU recommendation; it is 011 in the countries of the North American Numbering Plan while a minority of countries use other prefixes.
This table lists in its first column the initial digits of the country code shared by each country in each row, which is arranged in columns for the last digit (x). When three-digit codes share a common leading pair, the shared prefix is marked by an arrow, ( ↙ ) pointing down and left to the three-digit codes. Unassigned codes are denoted by a dash (—). Countries are identified by ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes; codes for non-geographic services are denoted by two asterisks (**).
The world numbering zones were defined by the C.C.I.T.T. in Recommendation E.29 in 1964. They were generally defined geographically, with exceptions for political and historical alignments. The terminology is largely obsolete.
North American Numbering Plan members are assigned three-digit numbering plan area (NPA) codes under the common country code 1, shown in the format 1 (NPA). Within an NPA, all telephone numbers have seven digits.
(but also Aruba, Faroe Islands, Greenland and British Indian Ocean Territory)
The larger countries were assigned two-digit codes starting in 1960. Subsequently, beginning in 1964, smaller countries were assigned three-digit codes, which also has been the practice since the 1980s.
Formerly assigned to the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991.
In Antarctica, telecommunication services are provided by the parent country of each base:
Other places with no country codes in use, although a code may be reserved:
Substație de tracțiune

În domeniul electrificării feroviare (sau al transportului public electric), o substație de tracțiune este o stație electrică ce transformă puterea electrică provenită din sistemul național energetic și o adaptează pentru sistemul electroenergetic necesar tracțiunii feroviare. Aceasta se face prin modificarea corespunzătoare a unor parametri ca: tensiune electrică, intensitate, frecvență etc. la valorile standardizate necesare unei linii de contact.
Alimentarea la materialul rulant se face prin intermediul liniei de contact. Aceasta este o rețea aeriană montată deasupra căii de rulare și de la care vehiculul preia energia prin intermediul unui captator sau culegător de curent (pantograf, troleu). Unele vehicule, cum este cazul trenurilor de metrou, sunt alimentate printr-o șină de contact, situată la nivelul solului. Calea de rulare (cu excepția troleibuzelor, care sunt conectate la două fire) joacă rol de închidere a circuitului electric.
Deoarece sistemul energetic este, în majoritatea cazurilor trifazat, fazele diferite sunt cuplate la porțiuni diferite ale firului de contact și care sunt izolate între ele prin zone neutrale. De asemenea, rețelele de contact alimentate de substații de tracțiune diferite sunt separate între ele prin posturi de secționare. Acestea, prin intermediul unor întrerupătoare speciale, permit și limitarea zonelor pe care se pot manifesta defecte.
Cele mai utilizate sisteme de tracțiune electrică sunt:
Focul Viu - Lopătari

Focul Viu este un fenomen natural datorat emanației de gaze naturale care ies la suprafață prin fisurile scoarței terestre formând flăcări ce ard, aprinse fiind de razele solare (sau de către oameni dacă flacăra se stinge).
În Subcarpații Buzăului pe versantul vestic a culmii Breazău , aflat pe stânga văii Slănicului la NNE de satul Terca (Comuna Lopătari) din Județul Buzău, la o altitudine de aproximativ 1030 m.
Fundamentul apariției fenomenului este reprezentat de existența depozitelor subterane de hidrocarburi.
Se pot vedea flăcări care izbucnesc din pămant înălțându-se în bătaia vântului, uneori cu o înălțime mai mare, alteori abia pâlpâinde - depinde foarte mult de presiunea gazelor din interior și de starea vremii: la fel de bine pot fi stinse temporar.
Dacă plouă puternic se poate vedea cum bolborosește apa în locurile pe unde iese gazul.
Aria pe care are loc fenomenul are suprafața relativă a unei camere - 25 mp .
Se ajunge folosind drumul de pe valea Slănicului – DJ 203 K, care pornește de pe DN2 (E85) de la Mărăcineni spre Săpoca (imediat înainte de a intra pe podul de peste Buzău), urmând ruta Beceni-Vintilă Vodă-Mânzălești-Lopătari-Terca. Pînă la Lopătari drumul este asfaltat. De la Lopătari însă, accesul la obiectivul turistic continuă pe un drum neasfaltat de aproximativ 7 km cu terasamentul degradat, lipsind indicatoarele. În apropiere relativă de Focurile Vii, drumul devine accesibil numai camioanelor mari și tractoarelor forestiere.
De la locul până unde se poate înainta maxim cu o mașină mică, se merge inițial pe lângă firul apei până la o punte de pe dreapta, drumul după locul cu pricina fiind impracticabil ulterior. De aici trebuie traversat Slănicul pe malul stâng pentru a sui coasta dealurilor.
Suprafața focurilor este destul de mică și se poate rata ușor, traseul fiind nemarcat. Drumul se realizeaza cam în 30-35 minute de mers, dar cu rătăceli și cu ocolișuri cu tot poate sui la 45-55 min.
Denumirea provine de la faptul că flăcările ard cvasipermanent fiind vizibile uneori de departe, mai ales noaptea și în perioadele în care frunzișul arboretelor este în cantitate redusă.
Trolleybuses in Vaslui

The Vaslui trolleybus system is a one route trolleybus network in the Romanian city of Vaslui.
The original 4.4 km (2.7 mi) network opened on 1 May 1994 and was operated by a fleet of five new Rocar 217E articulated trolleybuses. It closed on 7 July 2009. Construction on a depot commenced, but was never finished with buses being serviced on the street.
In August 2016, the network was extended by 2 km (1.2 mi) and the line reopened with the help of a European Union grant. Three Gräf & Stift GE112 M16 articulated trolleybuses were purchased from Salzburg. The system was soon closed down again due to bad state second hand trolleybuses, inadequate usage, lack of personnel. It was then decided to acquire new modern trolleybuses, with low floor, air conditioning and various comfort features.
In 2021, 10 new trolleybuses were contracted from the Polish manufacturer Solaris. In 2023, between January and March, all 10 trolleybuses were delivered. The model is Solaris Trollino 12M which were painted in light green. They will be put into service after training of personnel (drivers, maintenance mechanics,etc), various garage modifications and after some revisions of the overhead network and power supply station. On 4 August 2023, the system was reopened.
Palace of the National Military Circle

The Palace of the National Military Circle, also known as the Officers' Circle Palace (Romanian:Cercul Militar Național) is located on Constantin Mile street in Bucharest, Romania. It was built in 1911, based on plans drawn by chief architect Dimitrie Maimarolu, using French neoclassical style. The beneficiary was the Officers' Circle of the Bucharest military garrison, which was founded in 1876.
The palace was built on the site of the old Sărindar monastery; the fountain in front of the palace bears its name. The construction was done by a team headed by architect Maimarolu, in collaboration with engineers Anghel Saligny and Elie Radu, together with Paul Saligny and Mircea Radu; the interior decoration was supervised by architect Ernest Doneaud [ro].
During the 1916 German occupation of Bucharest in the First World War, the building's interiors were devastated. After the end of the war, the palace was officially inaugurated in 1923. During the communist period, the name was replaced with "Central House of the Army" (Casa Centrală a Armatei). In 1989, it was renamed the "National Military Circle" (Cercul Militar Național).
Today, the National Military Circle palace is considered a historic and architectural monument. It represents the central cultural institution of the Romanian army and it is also used for various cultural events and for representation and protocol purposes. The restaurant and the terrace are open to the public.
The Officers' Circle of the Bucharest military garrison was founded on December 15, 1876; its first director was General Alexandru Zefcari. For a while, the Officers' Circle was housed in rental locations, near Regina Elisabeta Boulevard [to] and Calea Victoriei.
Corneliu Mănescu

Corneliu Mănescu (8 February 1916 – 26 June 2000) was a Romanian diplomat born in Ploiești. He served as Minister of Foreign Affairs of Romania from 1961 to 1972 and as President of the United Nations General Assembly from 19 September 1967 to 23 September 1968.
After completing his secondary studies in Ploiești, Mănescu went on to study law and economics at the University of Bucharest from 1936 to 1940. He joined the Romanian Communist Party in 1936.
While a student, he began writing for leftist publications, mostly about international relations. He was the leader of the Bucharest Communist students' organization until 1940.
In 1944 he was working at the Central Statistics Bureau, and in 1948 he was appointed as one of the vice ministers of the Ministry of National Defence, with the rank of lieutenant colonel. Promoted shortly after to colonel, he served from 1950 to 1952 as head of the National Military Circle. In 1959 he was named chief of the Higher Political Division of the Army, with the rank of major general. Between 1955 and 1960 he was vice president of the State Planning Committee.
In 1960, Mănescu became Director of the Political Division in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From 1960 to 1961, he served as Ambassador to Hungary. He was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in March 1961, a post in which he remained until 1972. Other important posts he held were that of vice president of the United Socialist Front, president of the Romanian Group of the Inter-Parliamentary Union, ambassador to France (1977–1982).
Mănescu, who became a member of Romanian Communist Party's Central Committee in 1965, was the first communist elected president of the UN General Assembly.
In 1989, he became the leader of the reformist movement within the Romanian Communist Party. In March 1989, together with five other Communist dignitaries (Gheorghe Apostol, Alexandru Bârlădeanu, Silviu Brucan, Constantin Pîrvulescu, and Grigore Răceanu), he signed the open letter known as Scrisoarea celor șase—"The Letter of the Six". After the Romanian Revolution of 1989, he was part of the interim council that administered Romania in 1990 from the overthrow of the Nicolae Ceaușescu government until elections could be held.
Mănescu married Doina Dobrescu in 1950. They had a daughter, Alexandra. He died in a hospital on 26 June 2000 in Bucharest, Romania.