Sultanate of Brunei (1368–1888)

The Sultanate of Brunei (Jawi: كسلطانن بروني) or simply Brunei (/bruːˈnaɪ/ broo-NY), also known as the Bruneian Empire, was a Malay sultanate centered around Brunei on the northern coast of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Brunei became a sovereign state around the 15th century, when it substantially expanded after the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese, extending throughout coastal areas of Borneo and the Philippines, before it declined in the 17th and 18th centuries. It became a British protectorate in the 19th century.
The limited evidence from contemporary sources poses a challenge in understanding the history of the early Bruneian Sultanate. No local or indigenous sources exist to provide evidence for this. As a result, Chinese texts have been relied on to construct the history of early Brunei. Boni in Chinese sources most likely refers to Western Borneo, while Poli (婆利), probably located in the Aceh region in Sumatra, is claimed by local authorities to refer to Brunei as well.
A renegade group from the kingdom of Funan in Cambodia found themselves in Borneo after escaping the Khmer invasion, which is where Brunei's historical roots lie. In honor of its ruler, Raja Kamrun, the early Arab explorers called this new country Kamrun. This name changed throughout time to become Muja, Zabaj, and finally Brunei. The history of the area was also impacted by Srivijaya, from which rulers and their supporters fled to Brunei after Raja Sailendra conquered it. When these migrants took over Kamrun, the native population was forced to flee into the interior, which may have resulted in the rise of the Murut and Bisaya peoples.
Brunei is an ancient kingdom located in the Malay Archipelago, alongside other historical kingdoms such as Palembang Tua, Tarumanagara, Perlak, Pasai, Malacca, Gersik, and Demak. The kingdom, known as P'oli or Brunei, is first mentioned in Chinese historical records in 518 situated on an island southeast of Canton, with a maritime journey from Canton to Brunei taking approximately 60 days. According to these records, Brunei was a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom at the time, governing 136 regions. In 518, the King of Brunei sent envoys to China to strengthen diplomatic relations, bringing gifts like gold mats and other local products for the Chinese Emperor. Five years later, in 523, the King sent another delegation with additional gifts, including seashells, perfumes, and other local goods.
Around 669, the King of Brunei once again dispatched envoys to China, this time alongside Siamese representatives. During this period, Brunei was referred to in Chinese history as P'olo. The records also note that P'oli or P'olo is equivalent to P'oni (Brunei), located on an island southwest of Chuan-chou. The travel time was recorded as 45 days to Java, 40 days to Palembang, and 30 days to Champa. During the Song dynasty, Brunei, referred to as Puni, was noted as a large and powerful state, ruling over 14 regions and boasting 100 warships. The people were known for their bravery in battle, wielding swords and spears, and wearing armor made of copper for protection against enemy attacks.
Rice cultivation was the main source of income for the people of Brunei, whose land was said to be extremely productive. Some also fished and reared chickens and goats. In addition to many other handicrafts, the ladies were adept at weaving fabric, creating mats, and constructing baskets. The capital of Brunei, which had around 10,000 residents, was encircled by wooden defences. Like the people's dwellings, the royal palace was covered with nipa palm leaves.
In 977, a Chinese merchant of Arab descent named P'u-lu-shieh (Fairuz Shah) arrived in Brunei for trade, receiving a warm welcome from the king and the local populace. Upon his return to China, the King requested P'u-lu-shieh to escort his envoy to the Chinese Emperor. P'u-lu-shieh agreed, and the royal delegation was led by Abu Ali (Pu Ya Li), Syeikh Noh (Shih-Nu), and Qadi Kasim (Koh-shin). They brought letters and gifts for the emperor, including 100 turtle shells, camphor, five pieces of agarwood, three trays of sandalwood, raksamala wood, and six elephant tusks. The letter included three main points: to inform the Emperor about P'u-lu-shieh’s arrival in Brunei and his assistance in repairing the damaged ship; to send envoys to the Emperor as representatives, offering gifts on behalf of the king; and to request the Emperor's assistance in notifying the Champa government to ensure the safety of Brunei's ships stranded there due to storms. Since that time, the relationship between Brunei and China became increasingly close and friendly.
Known as the "Maritime Silk Road" or "spice road," Brunei's commerce networks were essential in linking it to other areas. As evidence of Brunei's early engagement in foreign affairs, King Hiang-ta of P'oni dispatched an embassy to China in 977. Brunei's historical significance is demonstrated by the fact that it was referred to by names like P'oli and P'oni during the Liang, Sui, Tang, Song, and Ming dynasties. In the Temburong District in particular, the term P'oni is still used today. In addition, the family of Awang Alak Betatar is thought to have established the old monarchy in Garang before moving to Kota Batu in 1397.
In the 14th century, Brunei seems to have been a subject of Java. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Prapanca in 1365, mentioned Barune as the vassal state of Majapahit, which had to make an annual tribute of 40 katis of camphor.
After Majapahit invaded Brunei, its subject kingdoms in the Philippines which were formally under its control, rebelled against Brunei, chief of which was the former kingdom of Sulu which besieged and pillaged it.
After the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese, Portuguese merchants traded regularly with Brunei from 1530 and described the capital of Brunei as surrounded by a stone wall. During the rule of Bolkiah, the fifth sultan, the sultanate controlled the coastal areas of northwest Borneo (present-day Brunei, Sarawak and Sabah) and reached Seludong (present-day Serudong River, Sabah) as well as the Sulu Archipelago.
In the 16th century, the Brunei's influence extended as far as the Kapuas River delta in West Kalimantan. The Malay Sultanate of Sambas in West Kalimantan and the Sultanate of Sulu in the southern Philippines in particular developed dynastic relations with the royal house of Brunei. The Malay sultans of Pontianak, Samarinda and Banjarmasin, treated the Sultan of Brunei as their leader. The true nature of Brunei's relationship with other Malay sultanates of coastal Borneo and the Sulu Archipelago is still a subject of study, as to whether it was a vassal state, an alliance, or just a ceremonial relationship. Other regional polities also exercised their influence upon these sultanates. The Sultanate of Banjar (present-day Banjarmasin), for example, was also under the influence of Demak in Java. The growth of Malacca as the largest Southeast Asian entrepôt in the Maritime Silk Road led to a gradual spread of its cultural influence eastward throughout Maritime Southeast Asia. Malay became the regional lingua franca of trade and many polities enculturated Islamic Malay customs and governance to varying degrees, including Kapampangans, Tagalogs and other coastal Philippine peoples. Brunei gained influence in Luzon after the marriage of Salalila to the daughter of Sultan Bolkiah of Brunei and Puteri Laila Menchanai of Sulu, creating a union between the royal houses of Maynila, Brunei and Sulu. This union facilitated the spread of Islam in the coastal parts of central and southern Luzon. The Muslim rajahs of Maynila, like Rajah Matanda, for instance, had family-links with the Brunei Sultanate, as he was the grandson of Sultan Bolkiah.
Bruneian influence spread elsewhere around Manila Bay, present-day Batangas, and coastal Mindoro through closer trade and political relations, with a growing overseas Kapampangan-Tagalog population based in Brunei and beyond in Malacca in various professions as traders, sailors, shipbuilders, mercenaries, governors, and slaves.
The rising power of the nearby Sultanate of Sulu occurred due to infighting between Bruneian nobles and the king. Brunei eventually lost its authority over the Bajaus and lapsed into a collection of riverine territories ruled by semi-autonomous chiefs.
By the end of 17th century, Brunei entered a period of decline brought on by internal strife over royal succession, colonial expansion of European powers, and piracy. Brunei lost much of its territory due to the arrival of the western powers such as the Spanish in the Philippines, the Dutch in southern Borneo and the British in Labuan, Sarawak and North Borneo. By 1725, Brunei had many of its supply routes to the Sultanate of Sulu.
In 1888, Sultan Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin appealed to the British to stop further encroachment. In the same year, the British signed a protectorate agreement with Brunei and made Brunei a British protectorate, which lasted until 1984, when Brunei gained independence.
The sultanate was divided into three traditional land systems known as kerajaan (crown property), kuripan (official property) and tulin (hereditary private property).
Arab travelers who explored the Malay Archipelago referred to Brunei as "Ka Selatanga," located to the east of Java and southwest of Luzon. Other Arab explorers called it "Zabaj" or "Zabaji," indicating a land known for producing camphor. Zabaj or Zabaji is said to be situated near the Thousand Islands in the Philippines. Ahmad ibn Majid, a notable Arab navigator who sailed through the Malay Archipelago, referred to Zabaj or Zabaji as "Barni," which corresponds to Brunei. Additionally, the South China Sea, which they navigated en route to China, was also named "Laut Barni" or "Brunei Sea."
The Arab explorers described Brunei's capital as a city built on water, with a hot climate which experienced tidal changes twice a day. They noted the presence of peacocks, monkeys, and talking cockatoos, which sported feathers in white, red, and yellow. The region was rich in natural resources, producing camphor, gold, spices, nutmeg, and sandalwood. The Arab travelers also recognised Brunei as a significant kingdom within the Malay Archipelago, boasting a strong military presence. Its naval bases were strategically located at crucial river estuaries, commanded by a Pengiran and his followers, who were responsible for maintaining the safety and security of the people and the state.
Most of Brunei's population resided around Brunei Bay, engaging in various occupations such as fishing and farming, while others became skilled sailors, brave warriors, and successful traders. According to Arab explorers, Brunei's port was safe, sheltered, and prosperous, attracting merchants from diverse backgrounds, including those from China, Java, Siam, Palembang, Kelantan, Pahang, Cambodia, Makassar, Pattani, and Suluk. During this period, the goods traded at Brunei's port included camphor, gemstones, wax, honey, pearls, gold, spices, pottery, silk, tin, rattan, and various foodstuffs. The bustling trade and the wide variety of goods exchanged at the port underscore Brunei's significance in the region's commerce and its connections with different cultures.
The histories of the Liang, Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties all indicate that Brunei and China had a cordial connection. Both kingdoms' kings often dispatched envoys from their respective areas with gifts and messages. At the same time, traders also came to the ports of both kingdoms to do business. Brunei–China relations deteriorated during the Yuan dynasty. Chinese rulers of the period prioritized war and territory conquest. Under Kublai Khan's leadership, a military expedition headed by General Su P'e was sent to the Malay Archipelago in 1292 AD with the goal of attacking many nations, including Brunei. But the invading army were effectively repulsed by Brunei's soldiers. Feeling embarrassed to go back home, the vanquished Chinese troops asked the King of Brunei for permission to reside in the Kinabatangan valley, which is part of Sabah and is governed by Brunei. They founded a hamlet there when the King accepted their request.
According to the histories of the Ming dynasty, in 1370, a Chinese Emperor's ambassador on his way to Java made a halt in Brunei. The King of Brunei was titled Mahamosa, which is taken from the Chinese pronunciation of Sultan Muhammad Shah, according to this mission, which was headed by Sin Tze and Chang Ching Tze. According to Sin Tze the monarch was bold, powerful, and furious. But he also stated that Brunei's defenses were weakened because of the Suluk people's annihilation. Because of Brunei's poverty and continued tribute to Majapahit, Muhammad Shah was hesitant to follow Sin Tze's advice to seek protection from China and to deliver tribute. The Sultan eventually decided to send an embassy to China after being convinced by the envoy's logical arguments. Alongside the Chinese ambassador returning from Java in 1371, his delegation set ship for China.
Under the reign of Hongwu, the relationship between Brunei and China strengthened further. In 1375, a royal prince from China named Ong Sum Ping visited Brunei and eventually married Princess Ratna Dewi, the daughter of Muhammad Shah, earning the title Pengiran Maharaja Lela. Ong's brother also married Pengiran Bendahara Pateh Berbai. In 1397, during the reign of Jiawen, an envoy from Muhammad Shah visited China along with envoys from Annam, Siam, Java, Palembang, and Pahang. This time, the Brunei delegation was officially recognized as representing Brunei rather than P'oni, as the kingdom had relocated to Kota Batu. In 1402, the reigning king was Manajekana, also known as Sultan Abdul Majid. In 1403, the Sultan sent an envoy to inform the emperor of his father's passing. By 1405, he dispatched another envoy to request formal recognition from the emperor, who was pleased to receive this honour. In the same year, the emperor sent an official delegation led by Cheng Ho to Brunei, bringing royal seals and gifts as a gesture of goodwill.
During Abdul Majid's rule, Brunei's ties with China grew stronger. On August 20, 1408, the Sultan traveled to China with a retinue of 150 family members. After two months in China, he fell ill and died at the age of 28 October 1408, with his remains interred on the slopes of a hill named Shih-tzu Kang in Nanking. To fulfill Sultan Abdul Majid's wishes, the Chinese emperor appointed Hsia-wang, the Sultan's son, as the King of Brunei. After spending a year in China, Hsia-wang returned to Brunei, escorted by Chinese officials led by Chong Chien. During Hsia-wang’s absence, the throne was held by his uncle, Pateh Berbai, who took the title Sultan Ahmad, as Hsia-wang was only four years old at that time. Between 1415 and 1425, relations between Brunei and China remained stable, with Brunei sending four envoys to China during those years. However, after 1425, the relationship began to deteriorate, and it was not until 1530 that Brunei sent envoys to China again, alongside delegations from Siam, Champa, and Java.
An Italian explorer, Antonio Pigafetta, stopped at Brunei in July 1521 on a return trip to Spain. He recorded that the Malays had been in Brunei for a long time and had a high level of civilization. Forts were built that mounted heavy guns and were equipped with horses and trained elephants. In the house of the Sultan, there were silver candlesticks and gold spoons on the table.