davidanugraha/M4-RAG huggingface dataset:
2024–25 Premier Volleyball League All-Filipino Conference

The 2024–25 Premier Volleyball League All–Filipino Conference is the twentieth conference of the Premier Volleyball League and its eleventh conference as a professional league.
This is the first conference for the 2024–25 season. This is considered the longest conference of the league as it is estimated to take up to 5 to 6 months, as the league aligns with the FIVB calendar. Starting this tournament, referees from nearby countries will officiate semifinals and finals matches in a bid to mitigate bias.
The champions of this conference was originally intended to represent the Philippines in the 2025 AVC Women's Champions League, formerly known as the Asian Women's Club Volleyball Championship. Sports Vision will sponsor the team's participation after previous failed attempts of sending the top teams in previous iterations due to a lack of finances from team owners or players' injuries. On March 1st, the league announced that Creamline and Petro Gazz, the leaders in the preliminary round are set to represent the Philippines in the Champions League, as the drawing of lots are set to commence way before the conference ends. At the day of the drawing of lots, the league announced that PLDT High Speed Hitters will also suit up in the Champions League after the Asian Volleyball Confederation granted the host nation another berth.
The following are the players who transferred to another team for the upcoming conference.
The following format will be conducted for the entirety of the conference:
Individual awards
Statistics leaders correct at the end of the qualifying round.
One Sports is the official broadcaster of the 2024–25 Premier Volleyball League All-Filipino Conference games.
Komazawa Volleyball Courts

The Komazawa Volleyball Courts are a volleyball venue located in Tokyo, Japan. It hosted some of the volleyball preliminaries for the 1964 Summer Olympics.
Originally an outdoor venue for the 1958 Asian Games, the venue was modified into an indoor arena between December 1962 and June 1964. It seated 3,908 during the Olympics, including 1,300 temporary.
35°37′23″N 139°39′46″E﻿ / ﻿35.623043°N 139.662867°E﻿ / 35.623043; 139.662867
Sitting volleyball

Sitting volleyball is a form of volleyball for athletes with a disability organized by World ParaVolley. As opposed to standing volleyball, sitting volleyball players must sit on the floor to play.
Sitting volleyball was invented in the Netherlands by the Dutch Sport Committee in 1956 as a rehabilitation sport for injured soldiers. In 1958, the first international sitting volleyball contact was held between Germany and Dutch clubteams.
It was created as a combination of volleyball and sitzball, a German sport with no net and seated players. Sitting volleyball first appeared in the Toronto 1976 Paralympic games as a demonstration sport for athletes with impaired mobility, and both standing and sitting volleyball became officially included as medal sports in the Paralympic games at Arnhem in 1980. Women’s sitting volleyball was added for the Athens 2004 Paralympic Games.
After the London 2012 games, VolleySLIDE was founded by Matt Rogers to promote and develop the sport globally. Eight men's and eight women's teams competed in the 2020 Tokyo Paralympic Games.
In sitting volleyball, a 7-metre-long (23 ft), 0.8-metre-wide (2 ft 7 in) net is set at 1.15 metres (3.8 feet) high for men and 1.05 metres (3.4 feet) high for women. The court is 10 by 6 metres (33 by 20 feet) meters with a 2-metre (6.6-foot) attack line. The rules are the same as the original form of volleyball with the exceptions that players must have at least one buttock in contact with the floor whenever they make contact with the ball and it is also possible to block the serve.
Athletes with the following disabilities are eligible to compete in sitting volleyball: athletes with amputations, spinal cord injuries, cerebral palsy, brain injuries and stroke. Classifications of these athletes by disability are placed into two categories: VS1 and VS2 formerly D and MD. While VS2 athletes have lost only a fraction of their muscular strength and flexibility in a joint preventing them from successfully playing standing volleyball, VS1 athletes have lost all of their muscular strength and flexibility in that joint.
Only two VS2 players are allowed on the court at a time; this is to keep the competition fair between rival teams. The rest of the team must be classified as VS1 players.
Skills are largely identical to the sport of volleyball and the following game terminology apply:
List also includes former members (national teams that took part in previous major tournaments).
Sitting volleyball was first demonstrated at the Summer Paralympic Games in 1976 and was introduced as a full Paralympic event in 1980. The 2000 games was the last time standing volleyball appeared on the Paralympic programme. The women's sitting volleyball event introduction followed in the 2004 Paralympic Games.
Euro Federation
https://paravolley.eu/
https://paravolley.eu/competitions
https://paravolley.eu/competitions/history/roll-of-honour
NATIONS LEAGUE 2024
Volleyball at the 2024 Summer Olympics – Women's tournament

The women's tournament in volleyball at the 2024 Summer Olympics was the 16th edition of the event at the Summer Olympics, organised by the world's governing body, the FIVB, in conjunction with the IOC. It was held in Paris, France from 28 July to 11 August 2024. This was the first time in the history competition, each team participating was entitled to include one non-competing (AP) athlete to replace an athlete for medical reasons. As such, team rosters increased from 12 to 13 athletes.
The match schedule was announced on 26 June 2024.
In a change of format compared to the previous nine editions of the Olympic Games, this tournament featured three groups with four teams each during the preliminary round (between 1972 Summer Olympics to 2020 Summer Olympics the teams were placed in two groups). At this round, the teams competed in a single round-robin format. The two highest ranked teams in each pool and the best two third-placed teams advanced to the knockout stage (quarterfinals).
The knockout stage followed the single-elimination format. The match-ups were determined by teams combined ranking system, #1 vs #8 (QF1), #2 vs #7 (QF2), #3 vs #6 (QF3), #4 vs #5 (QF4). The winners advanced to semifinals, QF1 vs QF4, QF3 vs QF2. The losers competed for bronze medals and the winners competed for gold medals.
The twelve qualified teams were seeded according to their position in the FIVB World Ranking as of 17 June 2024. As the host team, France was seeded first and placed in the top position of Pool A. The two top ranked teams seeded second and third were placed at the top of Pools B and C respectively. The remaining nine teams were distributed across three bowls of three teams each based on their position in the World Ranking and drawn for their seed line by line applying the serpentine system. The draw took place on 19 June 2024. Rankings are shown in brackets except the hosts who ranked 19th.
Pool standing procedure In order to establish the ranking of teams after the group stage, the following criteria was implemented:
Match won 3–0 or 3–1: 3 match points for the winner, 0 match points for the loser Match won 3–2: 2 match points for the winner, 1 match point for the loser
Teams combined ranking system In order to determine teams playing in quarterfinals and their match-ups:
The following referees were selected for the tournament.
The awards were announced on 11 August 2024.
NU Lady Bulldogs volleyball

The NU Lady Bulldogs volleyball is the women's collegiate varsity volleyball team of the National University. The team competes in the University Athletic Association of the Philippines (UAAP).
NU Lady Bulldogs Spikers won their first in season 16 (1953–54). As of UAAP Season 86, NU Lady Bulldogs have won 4 UAAP championships (Season 16 (1953–54), Season 19 (1956–57), Season 84 (2021–22) and Season 86 (2023–24).
In Season 86, the NU Men’s and Women’s volleyball teams dominated and emerged as champions after both defeating the University of Santo Tomas Men’s and Women’s teams respectively.
The team would play as a club under the name NU–Monolith Sky Risers at the 2024 Asian Women's Club Volleyball Championship. They finished sixth.
The following is the roster of the NU Lady Bulldogs playing under the club name Monolith Sky Risers in the 2024 Asian Women's Club Volleyball Championship.
Head coach: Sherwin Meneses
Sarah Franklin (volleyball)

Sarah Franklin (born February 27, 2002) is an American professional volleyball player who currently plays for LOVB Madison. An outside hitter, she played college volleyball for the Michigan State Spartans and the Wisconsin Badgers. She was named the AVCA National Player of the Year in 2023 and Big Ten Player of the Year in 2023 and 2024.
Franklin was raised in Lake Worth Beach, Florida, the daughter of engineers Todd and Michelle Franklin, and has three siblings. She played soccer as a goalkeeper before taking up volleyball at age 11, which her mother played collegiately at Virginia. She played high school volleyball for Lake Worth Christian School beginning in eighth grade, winning state championships in 2015 and 2019, and was named the Sun Sentinel player of the year in 2019. She played club volleyball for Palm Beach Juniors.
Franklin spent two seasons with the Michigan State Spartans. In her sophomore year in 2021, she led the team with 3.96 kills per set on a .224 hitting percentage, receiving first-team All-Big Ten Conference honors. Following that season, she transferred to the reigning NCAA champion Wisconsin Badgers. Franklin led the Badgers with 3.51 kills per set on .246 hitting in the 2022 season, helping the team earn a number-one seed in the 2022 NCAA tournament, where they fell to Pittsburgh in the regional finals. Later that school year in June 2023, Franklin underwent seven-hour surgery for blood clots caused by quadrilateral space syndrome, recovering before the fall season.
Franklin recorded 4.15 kills per set on a career-high .298 hitting in the 2023 season. She led the Badgers to a number-one seed and the Final Four of the 2023 NCAA tournament, where they lost to eventual champions Texas. Franklin received multiple honors, including Big Ten Player of the Year, AVCA first-team All-American, and AVCA National Player of the Year. She was nominated for the Best Female College Athlete ESPY Award. She had a fifth season of eligibility due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In her fifth season, Franklin hit a career-high 4.46 kills per set on .289 hitting as Wisconsin reached the NCAA tournament regional finals. She repeated as the Big Ten Player of the Year and first-team All-American.
Franklin joined LOVB Madison ahead of LOVB Pro's inaugural 2025 season.
موہنجوداڑو ریلوے اسٹیشن

موہنجوداڑو ریلوے اسٹیشن پاکستان کے صوبہ سندھ کے تاریخی مقام موئن جو دڑو میں واقع ہے۔ یہ اسٹیشن کوٹری-اٹک ریلوے لائن پر واقع ہے۔
ارنسٹ جے ایچ میکے

ارنسٹ جان ہنری میکے (5 جولائی 1880 – 2 اکتوبر 1943) برسٹل کے رہنے والے ایک برطانوی ماہر آثار قدیمہ تھے جو موہنجوداڑو اور وادی سندھ کی تہذیب سے جڑے مقامات کی کھدائی اور مطالعہ کے لیے جانے جاتے ہیں۔
این جی مجمدار

این جی مجمدار (انگریزی: N. G. Majumdar)، (پیدائش: یکم دسمبر،1897ء - وفات: 11 نومبر، 1938ء) بنگال سے تعلق رکھنے والے برطانوی ہند کے ماہرِ آثار قدیمہ تھے جس نے سندھ، پاکستان میں لوہے اور تانبے کے دور کے 62 آثار قدیمہ درریافت کیے۔
این جی مجمدار یکم دسمبر،1897ء جیسور، برطانوی ہندوستان (مودہ بنگلہ دیش) کو ان کا اصل نام نینی گوپال مجمدار تھا۔
1920ء میں یونیورسٹی آف کلکتہ سے ایم اے کی ڈگری فرسٹ کلاس پوزیشن میں حاصل کی اور گولڈ میڈل کے حقدار ٹھہرے۔
22 اپریل سے 9 مئی، 1929ء تک آرکیالوجیکل سروے آف انڈیا کے سینٹرل سرکل میں سپریٹنڈنٹ مقرر ہوئے۔ 11 مئی ،1929ء میں وہ انھیں کلکتہ میں اسٹنٹ سپریٹنڈنٹ آرکیالوجیکل سروے آف انڈیا مقرر کیا گیا۔ انھیں 1 اکتوبر، 1938ء میں وادی سندھ کی تہذیب سے تعلق رکھنے والے آثار قدیمہ قبل از تاریخ دورانیے کے سروے پر مقرر کیا گیا۔ مجمدار نے سندھ میں لوہے اور تانبے کے دور کے 62 آثار قدیمہ درریافت کیے، موہنجو دڑو میں کھددائی میں سر جان مارشل کی مدد کی اور اس علاوہ انھوں نے وادی سندھ کی تہذیب کے آثار قدیمہ آمری، کاہو جو دڑو ، چانہو جو دڑو اور دیگر کئی مقامات دریافت کیے۔
مجمدار نے پہلی بار 1927ء میں سندھ کی سیر کی ۔ ایک چھوٹی گرانٹ کی مدد سے، 1927-28 میں، مجمدار نے موہنجوداڑو کے قریب جھوکر کی وادی سندھ کی جگہ کی کھدائی کی۔ مارچ 1930ء میں، مجمدار نے تھرو ہل اور چنہوداڑو کے دو نئے مقامات کی کھدائی کی ۔
اکتوبر 1930ء میں، مجمدار نے موہنجوداڑو کے قریب ڈوکری چھوڑی اور کیرتھر پہاڑوں کے ساتھ جنوب مغرب کی طرف روانہ ہوئے ۔ مارچ 1931ء میں جب وہ واپس آئے، مجمدار نے 32 سے زیادہ پراگیتہاسک مقامات دریافت کر لیے تھے۔ مجمدار نے اپنی کتاب ایکسپلوریشن ان سندھ (1934ء) میں اپنی تلاش اور کھدائی کی تفصیلی رپورٹ لکھی۔
یکم اکتوبر 1938ء کو، مجمدار کو ایک بار پھر سندھ میں وادی سندھ کے مقامات کی تلاش کے لیے چھ ماہ کے لیے تعینات کیا گیا۔ مجمدار نے 200 میل سے زیادہ پیدل سفر کیا اور چلکولیتھک دور کے نصف درجن مقامات دریافت کیے۔
وادیٔ سندھ کی قدیم تہذیب کی کھوج میں 1926ء سے 1930ء تک مجمدار نے اپنی ٹیم کے ساتھ کئی قدیم مقامات دریافت کیے جن میں کاہو جو دڑو، چنہیوں جو دڑو، کوٹ ڈیجی، روہڑی، لوہم جو دڑو، واہی پاندھی کے ٹیلے، غازی شاہ دڑو، گورانڈی کے ٹیلے، جھکر کے ٹیلے، علی مراد دڑو، ٹنڈو رحیم ٹیلہ، منچھر جھیل کے کناری پیر لاکھیو دڑو، پیر مشاخ، لہڑی، ٹہنی کے ٹیلے، نئیگ وادی میں لکھمیر کا ٹیلہ، آمری تہذیب کے ٹیلے وغیرہ شامل ہیں۔ سندھ میں ضلع ٹھٹہ میں واقع تھارو پہاڑی کے آثار اور سیہون کے قریب جھانگارا کے قدیم آثار بھی انہی کی دریافت بتائے جاتے ہیں۔
این جی مجمدار کو 11 نومبر، 1938ء میں ضلع دادو کے تحصیل جوہی کے قریب کھیر تھر پہاڑی سلسلے میں قتل کیا گیا۔
Archaeology of Pakistan

Pakistan contains many of the oldest archaeological discoveries of the world. The country is home to many archaeological sites dating from Lower Paleolithic period to Mughal empire. The earliest known archaeological findings belong to the Soanian culture from the Soan Valley, near modern-day Islamabad. Soan Valley culture is considered as the best known Palaeolithic culture of Central Asia.
The Mehrgarh culture was amongst the first cultures in the world to establish agriculture and livestock and live in villages. Mehrgarh civilization lasted for 5000 years till 2000 BCE after which people migrated to other areas, possibly Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro are the best known sites from the Indus Valley civilization (c 2500 – 1900 BCE). The earliest evidence of civilization in Pakistan can be found on the west banks of the Bolan River and the plains of Kachhi at Mehrgarh. Artifacts found in a 1979 excavation by the Pakistan Archaeology department and a team of French archaeologists can be dated back to 7000 BC. They were able to divide the Mehrgarh culture into three categories:
Mehrgarh Period I- 7000 to 5500 BC, was an aceramic settlement with primitive means of agriculture and livestock. They lived in simple mud buildings and buried their dead with many elaborate goods.
Mehrgarh Period II- 5500 to 4800 BC, was a ceramic settlement that showed strong evidence of having manufacturing activity such as copper and stone drills and more technological kilns. The amount of riches buried with the dead decreased over time.
Mehrgarh Period III- 4800 to 3500 BC, many similarities to Period II.
Mehrgarh Period IV- 2600 to 2000 BC, much of the city was abandoned as the Indus Valley civilization was being born and its inhabitants migrated there.
Twenty miles north of Islamabad the ancient city of Taxila can be found. Taxila, also known as the city of stones, thrived between the years of 518 BC and 600 AD, and in its prime was one of the most flourishing civilizations between the Indus and Jhelum rivers. Alexander the Great led troops through Taxila in 326 BC and he claimed it as part of his vast kingdom until it was conquered by the Mauryan Empire in 300 BC. After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, Taxila was taken back by followers of Alexander in 190 BC. Taxila owed much of its success to the fact that it was located at the intersection of the three major trade routes of India and Central and Western Asia.
Archaeology in Pakistan is conducted under the direction of Department of Archaeology and Museums (DOAM) of Ministry of Heritage and National Integration of Pakistan.
Mohammad Rafique Mughal

Muhammad Rafiq Mugal (born 1936) is a Pakistani archaeologist, engaged in investigating of ethnoarchaeological research in Chitral, northern Pakistan. He has been responsible for the direction, technical support and supervision for restoration and conservation of more than thirty monuments and excavated remains of the Islamic, Buddhist and Proto-historic periods, in Punjab, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and Gilgit-Baltistan of Pakistan. He served as a professor of archaeology and heritage management and the director of undergraduate studies at Boston University. He is now Professor Emeritus of Archaeology at Boston University.
Mughal supervised the preparation of a number of conservation and restoration projects of archaeological and architectural heritage of Pakistan. He also planned, organized and directed archaeological fieldworks and research projects of extensive surveys involving documentation of sites, monuments, and excavations across the world on locations of diverse cultural contents ranging in date from the Prehistoric to Islamic periods. He also conducted extensive surveys in co-ordination of various international archaeologists for explorations in Sindh, Balochistan, Punjab, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and Northern Areas of Pakistan that led to the discovery of various settlements of the Indus Civilization and of other cultural contents.
Mughal has contributed to the development of several museums in Pakistan. This includes contributing to establishing the Islamabad Museum in 1994. He also helped to reorganize Swat Museum, Saidu Sharif in collaboration with Japanese museologists. He was also a leading figure in proposing the establishment of the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology at Gilgit in 1993, the Museum at Rohtas Fort (1994), the Ethnological and Archaeological Museum at Multan (1995) and for the expansion of Taxila Museum (1994).
Rafique Mughal has been involved in archaeological conservation of the following sites and monuments:
Mughal was also the project director of two major schemes for "Survey and Documentation of Sites and Monuments in Sindh and Punjab" between 1993 and 1996.
Books and Edited Volumes:
Articles:
Harappan language

The Harappan language is the unknown language or languages of the Bronze Age (c. 2nd millennium BC) Harappan civilization (Indus Valley civilization, or IVC). The Harappan script is yet undeciphered, indeed it has not even been demonstrated to be a writing system, and therefore the language remains unknown. The language being yet unattested in readable contemporary sources, hypotheses regarding its nature are based on possible loanwords, the substratum in Vedic Sanskrit, and some terms recorded in Sumerian cuneiform (such as Meluhha), in conjunction with analyses of the Harappan script.
There are some possible loanwords from the language of the Indus Valley civilization. Meluḫḫa or Melukhkha (Sumerian: 𒈨𒈛𒄩𒆠 Me-luḫ-ḫa) is the Sumerian name of a prominent trading partner of Sumer during the Middle Bronze Age. Its identification remains an open question, but most scholars associate it with the Indus Valley Civilisation. Asko Parpola identifies Proto-Dravidians with the Harappan Culture and the Meluhhan people mentioned in Sumerian records. In his book Deciphering the Indus Script, Parpola states that the Brahui people of Pakistan are remnants of the Harappan culture. According to him, the word "Meluhha" derives from the Dravidian words mel ("elevated") and akam ("place"). Parpola also relates Meluhha with Balochistan, which he calls the "Proto-Dravidian homeland". He also relates Meluhha with the transient word Mleccha, a Vedic word used to mean "barbarian" and used by the incoming Aryan speaking population for the native Harappan population.
There are a number of hypotheses as to the nature of this unknown language:
The Indus script only indicates that it was used to write one language (if any), but it is quite possible that multiple languages were spoken in the IVC, much as Sumerian and Akkadian co-existed in Mesopotamia for centuries. Jane R. McIntosh suggests one such possibility: Para-Munda was originally the main language of the civilization, especially in the Punjab region. Later, the proto-Dravidian immigrants introduced their language to the area in the 5th millennium BC. The Dravidian language was spoken by the new settlers in the southern plains, while Para-Munda remained the main language of those in Punjab.
Ibiti byimeza

U Rwanda rucumbikiye ibimera by’amoko menshi anyuranye kubera urusobe rw’imiterere y’igihugu n’urw’ikirere ruhanitse kuva mu burengerazuba kugera mu burasirazuba. Ibimera bito bizamura amazi mu miheha yabyo (plantes vasculaires) bibarirwa hafi mu moko 3000 aturuka mu turere dutandukanye bitewe n’imiterere nyabuzima y’ahantu.
Amoko hafi 280 y’ibimera bigira uburabyo bituruka mu Rwanda abonwa nk’akomoka muri Albertine Rift. Muri ayo moko cyimeza, hafi 20 yihariwe n’u Rwanda, amoko 50 aboneka gusa mu Rwanda no muri Kongo y’Uburasirazuba ,naho amoko 20 yabonetse gusa mu Rwanda no mu Burundi. Ingero z’ayo moko ni Impatiens bequaertii (Balsaminacea), Impatiens mildbraedii (Balsaminacea), Monathotaxis orophila (Annonaceaa) ou Liparis harketii (Orchidaceae) (Fischer na Killmann 2008).
U Rwanda rufite ibimera bigira uburabyo 56 byo mu gihugu, harimo 47 biboneka gusa muri Pariki y’Igihugu ya Nyungwe (no mu ishyamba rya Cyamudongo). Ingero z’ibyo bimera ni amoko aherutse kuvumburwa nka Impatiens nyungwensis Eb.Fisch Umubare w’aya moko amenyekanye vuba werekana ko umubare w’amoko y’ibimera uboneka mu Rwanda utaramenyekana wose uko wakabaye. Kuba hafite amoko y’uburabyo arenga 104, ahantu hahehereye n’ah’urusobe rw’ibihumeka n’ibidahumeka bikoze ireme n’umwimerere by’ahantu h’amazi na ho hakize ku rusobe rw’ibinyabuzima. Ibiyaga bimwe na bimwe nk’Ikiyaga cya Kivu, Bulera na Ruhondo bifite ibimera mu mazi cyangwa mu nkengero zayo (macrophytes) bikeya.
Urusobe rw’ibihingwa rufite amoko y’ibihingwa bitanga ibiribwa nk’Amasaka (Sorghum), Phaseolus vulgaris, Eulisine corocan, Colocasia antigonum, Zea mays, Oryza sativa, Triticum sp., Hordeum vulgare, Pisum sativum, Soja hispada, Arachis hypogea, Ipomea durcis, ibirayi, Manihot esculenta n’insina (Musa). Hari n’ibihingwa bigenewe ubucuruzi nk’ikawa, icyayi n’ibireti. Uburyo bw’imikorere bugamije kongera ibikomoka ku bihingwa na bwo bwazanye amoko menshi yo mu ishyamba, akunze kuboneka akaba ari Eragrostis sp., Bidens pilosa, Digitaria sp., Conyza sumatrensis, na Cyperus sp. - Amoko y’ibiti yabonetse mu Rwanda agizwe na Ficus thoningii, Euphorbia tirucalli, Erythrina abyssinica, Verminia amygdalena, Dracaena afromontana, mu bindi. Gutera ibiti byashyizwemo imbaraga bwa mbere hagati ya 1920 na 1948. Ni muri icyo gihe bazanye Inturusu. Andi moko yaje nyuma cyane, harimo Pinus sp, Callistris sp, Grevillea robusta, Cedrella sp, n’amasipure (Cupressus).
Umqombothi (song)

"Umqombothi" ("African Beer"; Xhosa pronunciation: [um̩k͡ǃomboːtʰi]) is a song performed by South African singer Yvonne Chaka Chaka. It was composed by Sello "Chicco" Twala and Attie van Wyk. Umqombothi, in Xhosa, is a beer commonly found in South Africa made from maize, maize malt, sorghum malt, yeast and water.
Hotel Rwanda featured "Umqombothi" in the beginning of the film.
Battle for Grain

The Battle for Grain (Italian: Battaglia del grano), also known as the Battle for Wheat, was a propaganda campaign launched in 1925 during the fascist regime of Italy by Benito Mussolini, with the aim of gaining self-sufficiency in wheat production and freeing Italy from the "slavery of foreign bread". This campaign was successful in increasing wheat output and lowering the trade balance deficit, but was ultimately economically counter-productive for Italy's agricultural sector as farmers who grew other produce had to clear their land for grain cultivation which decreased exports and thus resulted in higher food prices which placed Italian families under financial strain.
Some of the policy's aims included:
In the year following the announcement of the Battle for Grain, wheat production levels stood at 50% higher than those in 1914 and this was because farmers were encouraged to ditch traditional farming methods in favour of purchasing modern equipment and adopting new techniques in order to increase efficiency and maximise wheat yields. However, this programme depended on farmers clearing their land for grain cultivation which many did, but this resulted in a sharp decline in Italy's chief exports such as wines, cheeses and fruits as well as meat and dairy products since there was limited agricultural space for viticulture and livestock rearing and other European rivals such as Spain and Greece subsequently took over and prospered from their trade. Consequently, there were food shortages which meant the price for these products soared and families were placed under considerable financial difficulty as each household had to pay an extra 400 lire per year in food costs. This meant that Mussolini was forced into increasing imports to appease the discontented Italian population and these rose to over 500 million tonnes by 1933. Furthermore, to ensure wheat grew en masse, fertilisers were required which needed to be imported from elsewhere. Therefore, it is clear that the Battle for Grain was merely a propaganda initiative designed to project an image of a hard-working, ruralised Italian populace who were loyal fascists successfully fulfilling Mussolini's fanatical policies of Italy being a self-sufficient, autarkic state. In reality, Italy lacked the necessary infrastructure and development to achieve this goal which was compounded by apathy from Italian farmers to carry out Mussolini's wish. This farcical campaign was merely a façade to disguise Italy's internal weakness from being known by other more powerful and developed countries such as Germany and Britain, which profoundly intimidated Mussolini.
اپریل 2019ء میں وفیات

یہ اپریل 2019ء میں وفیات کی وقائع نگاری ہے۔ نام بلحاظ تاریخ وفات شامل ہیں۔ ہر تاریخ کے نام بلحاظ الف بائی ترتیب ہیں۔
تمام معلومات کی ترتیب یہ ہے :
سیپ (جریدہ)

ماہنامہ سیب کراچی، پاکستان سے شائع ہونے والا ایک ادبی جریدہ ہے جسے نسیم درانی نے ستمبر 1964ء میں جاری کیا تھا۔ سیپ کے پہلے شمارے میں جن ادیبوں کی تخلیقات شائع ہوئیں ان میں عصمت چغتائی، بلونت سنگھ، ڈاکٹر وزیر آغا، شمیم احمد، الطاف فاطمہ، الیاس احمد گدی، شاذ تمكنت، عبدالعزیز خالد، محبوب خزاں، ڈاکٹر جمیل جالبی اور بلراج کومل شامل تھے۔
معراج نامہ (سید بلاقی)

معراج نامہ سید بلاقی نامی قطب شاہی دور کے شاعر کی تصنیف ہے۔ بلاقی نے 1641ء میں معراج نامہ لکھاجو بہت مقبول ہوا۔ معراج نامہ داستان کے پیرائے میں لکھی گئی نظم ہے۔ اس نظم میں ایک یہودی کے، جس کو معراج سے انکار تھا، مسلمان ہونے کا قصہ بیان کیا گیا ہے۔ بلاقی کہتے ہیں کہ انھوں نے ایک فارسی معراج نامے سے یہ قصہ اخذ کیا ہے۔ بلاقی کا معراج نامہ مقبول ہوا، جو اپنے دور کی محافل مولود کی مذہبی و مجلسی ضرورت کو مدنظر رکھ کر لکھا گیا تھا۔
اس کے مخطوطات کتب خانہ آصفیہ، کتب خانہ جامعہ عثمانیہ، کتب خانہ ادارہ ادبیات اردو، کتب خانہ خانہ سالار جنگ کے علاوہ تین مزید مخطوطے شاہان اودھ کے کتب خانون میں بھی ہیں۔ جمیل جالبی نے اس معراج نامے کے مزید آٹھ مخطوطات کا ذکر کیا ہے۔ ان مخطوطات پر 1056ھ کی تاریخ درج ہے۔ دیگر مخطوطات میں تین مخطوطات جامعہ پنجاب میں اور دو قومی عجائب گھر، کراچی میں موجود ہیں۔
قومی انگریزی اردو لغت

قومی انگریزی اردو لغت ڈاکٹر جمیل جالبی کی ادارت میں تیار ہونے والی پاکستان کی ایک ذولسانی لغت ہے جسے مقتدرہ قومی زبان اسلام آباد نے 1992ء میں پہلی بار شائع کیا۔ اس لغت کو انگریزی کی ویبسٹر ڈکشنری (انسائیکلوپیڈک ایڈیشن) کی طرز پر تیار کیا گیا ہے۔ یہ لغت نہ صرف عہدِ حاضر کی جدید ضروریات اور تقاضوں کو پورا کرتی ہے بلکیہ سائنسی اور تکنیکی الفاظ کا بھی وسیع تر احاطہ کرتی ہے۔ یہ لغت صرف کسی ایک پیشے یا علم سے وابستہ لوگوں کے لیے ہی نہیں بلکہ ہر علم، ہر پیشے اور ہر اس شخص کی ضروریات کو پورا کرنے کے لیے تیار کی گئی ہے جو کسی بھی جدید تر علم یا فن پر اردو زبان میں کام کرنا چاہتا ہے۔
نعت رنگ (جریدہ)

نعت رنگ پاکستان سے جاری ہونے والا نعتیہ ادب کا تحقیقی، تنقیدی اور علمی جریدہ ہے، جس کے مدیر معروف نعت خواں، نعت گو شاعر اور نعتیہ ادب کے نقاد سید صبیح الدین رحمانی ہیں۔ جبکہ ڈاکٹر عزیز احسن معاون مدیر کے طور پر خدمات انجام دے رہے ہیں۔
اس جریدے کا پہلا شمارہ اپریل 1995ء میں نعت ریسرچ سینٹر کے زیرِ اہتمام کراچی سے جاری ہوا۔ اب تک اس جریدے کے 30 شمارے جاری ہو چکے ہیں۔ نعت رنگ اب کئی خصوصی شمارے جاری کر چکا ہے جن میں تنقید نمبر 1995ء، حمد نمبر 1999ء، امام ا حمد رضا نمبر 2005ء اور سلور جوبلی نمبر 2015ء شامل ہیں۔ اس جریدے کے لوازمے میں نعتیہ ادب سے متعلق نقد و نظر، صنفِ نعت پر تحقیقی مضامین اور مختلف شعرا کی نعتیہ شاعری، شعرا کے وفیات، اہلِ علم اور قارئین کے خطوط اور نعت پر شائع ہونے والی کتب پر تبصرے شامل ہیں۔ نعتیہ ادب کی خدمات کے صلہ میں مجلہ نعت رنگ کو وزارت مذہبی امور حکومت پاکستان کی جانب سے دو مرتبہ 2004ء اور 2013ء میں صدارتی سیرت ایوارڈز سے نوازا گیا ہے۔
جریدہ نعت رنگ کی بدولت صنفِ نعت کے باقاعدہ قواعد و ضوابط مرتب ہوئے ہیں۔ اردو زبان کے علاوہ علاقائی و غیر ملکی زبانوں کی نعتوں کے منظوم تراجم شائع کرنا نعت رنگ کی ایک اضافی خصوصیت ہے۔ نعت نگاری کو تحریک بنانا اور اس حوالے سے تخلق، تنقید اور تحقیق کی سہ جہتی وسعتوں کو سمیٹنا، نعت کو بین الاقوامی سطح پر متعارف کرنا، نعت کے تاریخی و تہذیبی عوامل کو سامنے لانا،ہر زبان کے نعتیہ ادب کو یکجائی عطا کرنا، نعتیہ ادب اور شاعری سے تعلق رکھنے والے خدامِ نعت کے کلام کو شائع کرنا اور ان کی ادبی خدمات کو سامنے لانا نعت رنگ کے منشور کے اہم نکات ہیں۔ نعت رنگ کراچی وہ ہمہ جہت موضوعی رسالہ ہے جس نے نعتیہ ادب کی خدمات کا فریضہ احسن طور پر انجام دیا ہے۔نعت رنگ نے نعت کی تشہیر و توسیع، تحقیق و تنقید، ترویج و تفہیم میں رجحان ساز کردار ادا کیا ہے۔
آسان چینی حروف

آسان چینی حروف (Simplified Chinese characters) (آسان چینی: 简体字، روایتی چینی: 簡體字؛ پنین: jiǎntǐzì) سرزمین چین میں استعمال کے لیے معیاری چینی حروف ہیں۔ روایتی چینی حروف کے ساتھ یہ معاصر چینی تحریری زبان کی دو معیاری حروف تہجی میں سے ایک ہے۔ سرزمین چین میں عوامی جمہوریہ چین کی حکومت خواندگی میں اضافہ کی کوشش میں 1950 اور 1960 دہائیوں میں طباعت میں استعمال کے لیے اس کو فروغ دیا ہے۔ انھیں سرکاری طور پر عوامی جمہوریہ چین اور سنگاپور میں استعمال کیا جاتا۔
انگریزی تلفظ: /O ua '/}}
روایتی چینی حروف

روایتی چینی حروف (Traditional Chinese characters) (روایتی چینی: 正 体 字 / 繁体字، آسان چینی: 正 体 字 / 繁体字؛ پنین: Zhèngtǐzì ​​/ Fántĭzì) وہ حروف ہیں جن میں 1946ء کی اصلاحات کے بعد کے حروف شامل نہیں ہیں۔ یہ ہانگ کانگ، مکاؤ اور تائیوان میں زیادہ عام مستعمل حروف ہیں۔
روایتی چینی حروف تائیوان، ہانگ کانگ اور مکاؤ کے ساتھ ساتھ جنوب مشرقی ایشیا سے باہر زیادہ تر بیرون ملک مقیم چینی کمیونٹیوں میں عام استعمال میں رہتے ہیں [[8] اس کے علاوہ ، کورین زبان میں ہانجا روایتی شکل سے عملی طور پر یکساں رہتا ہے ، جو اب بھی استعمال کیا جاتا ہے کچھ حد تک جنوبی کوریا میں۔ اگرچہ ان علاقوں کے درمیان معیاری روایتی کرداروں میں جن میں سے مختلف اقسام کو اپنانا ہے ان میں کچھ فرق ہے۔ تائیوان میں ، روایتی کرداروں کے معیار کو قومی کرداروں کے معیاری فارم کے اجرا کے ذریعے مقرر کیا گیا ہے ، جو تائیوان کی وزارت تعلیم کے زیر انتظام ہے۔ اس کے برعکس ، سرزمین چین کے حروف سرکاری مطبوعات میں مین لینڈ چین ، ملائیشیا اور سنگاپور میں استعمال ہوتے ہیں۔ روایتی اور سادہ چینی کرداروں پر بحث چینی کمیونٹیوں کے درمیان ایک طویل عرصے سے جاری رہا ہے۔ [9] [10] فی الحال، بہت سے چینی آن لائن اخبارات صارفین کو دونوں کیریکٹر سیٹ کے درمیان سوئچ کرنے کی اجازت دیتے ہیں۔
روایتی چینی حُرُوف کی جدید شکلیں سب سے پہلے ہان خاندان کے دوران علمی رسم الخط کے ظہور کے ساتھ نمودار ہوئی اور 5 ویں صدی سے (جنوبی اور شمالی خاندانوں کے دوران) کم و بیش مستحکم تھیں
"روایتی چینی" کا مخفف روایتی کرداروں کو "آسان چینی حروف" کے ساتھ استعمال کرنے کے لیے استعمال کیا جاتا ہے، یہ معیاری حروف تھے جو 1950 کی دہائی میں عوامی جمہوریہ چین کی حکومت نے مین لینڈ چین میں متعارف کرایا تھا۔
انگریزی تلفظ: /O ua '/}}
مینڈارن چینی

مینڈارن چینی (چینی، 官話 یا 官话) ایک چینی زبان ہے جو چین میں سب سے زیادہ بولی جاتی ہے۔ یہ زبان دنیا میں اول نمبر پر سب سے زیادہ بولی جاتی ہے۔
چینی تائپے

چینی تائپے (Chinese Taipei) کچھ بین الاقوامی تنظیموں اور تقریبا تمام کھیلوں کے مقابلوں میں حصہ لینے کے لیے بشمول اولمپک کھیل، پارالمپک کھیل، ایشیائی کھیل، ایشیائی پارا کھیل، یونیورسیئڈ، ورلڈ بیس بال کلاسک، لٹل لیگ ورلڈ سیریز اور فیفا عالمی کپ میں تائیوان، باضابطہ طور پر جمہوریہ چین کی طرف سے استعمال کیا جاتے والا نام ہے۔
Ishq Jalebi

Ishq Jalebi is a 2021 Pakistani romantic comedy television series, directed by Syed Wajahat Hussain and written by Saima Akram Chaudhry for 7th Sky Entertainment produced by Abdullah Kadwani and Asad Qureshi. It premiered on 14 April 2021 on Geo Entertainment and aired during Ramadan and Eid al-Fitr. It features Wahaj Ali and Madiha Imam as leads. Noor ul Hassan, Qavi Khan, Mehmood Aslam and many others were also part of the cast. The drama emerged as a huge critical success and was highly appreciated by the audience.
Muhammad Boota owns a decades old family business of catering. His wish to make both of his sons, Rafaqat and Sadaqat a part of his business, remains unfulfilled as his sons along with their families settle abroad. Disheartened by his sons, Muhammad Boota gives away his family business in the care of his only son in law, Ashiq Hussain and grandson, Basim.
Basim, a handsome young man dreams of moving abroad but is quite frustrated and complains about every inconvenience in his life. On the other hand, Bela is a beautiful young girl who has been living with her grandfather after the death of her parents. Being a sensible and hardworking girl, Bela disregards the attitude of her cousin, Basim and the two of them are always arguing with each other.
The story takes a turn when everyone finds out about the split in ownership of the family business leading Rafaqat and Sadaqat just to visit Pakistan with their families but they get trapped due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan.
What begins as an unusual family reunion slowly escalates into a series of realizations, family bonding and a chance of young love. Amongst this family dramedy, will Basim and Bela realize their true love for each other.
The original soundtrack of Ishq Jalebi "Piya Piya Re" was written and sung by Wajhi Farooki. The lines of the song are frequently used during the course of the show. The original soundtrack was released on 14 April 2021. The song along with production is produced by Abdul Kadwani and Asad Qureshi.
Asrar (musician)

Syed Asrar Shah better known as Asrar (born 20 April 1985) is a Pakistani singer-songwriter, musician, composer and writer based in Lahore. He is known for his bollywood debut with Afghan Jalebi in Phantom (2015 film).
Asrar was born on 20 April 1985 in Azad Kashmir and later in 1992 his family moved to Hyderabad, Sindh, and then to Lahore in 2007. From an early age, he was inspired by Sufi music and started writing his songs.
Asrar received training from Ustad Sultan Ahmed Khan in Hyderabad then in 2007 he moved to Lahore where he participated and stood first in Pakistan Musical Conference.
In 2011 he released his debut single "Nai Saiyyo". He joined the television program Coke Studio in 2014 and released his song "Sub Aakho Ali Ali" during the show.
He made his Bollywood debut in July 2015 with a song Afghan Jalebi for the film Phantom (2015 film).
In 2018 he recorded a track from Bang-e-Dara by Muhammad Iqbal, "Tere Ishq Ki Inteha Chahta Hoon".
Asrar has also started his own music production company named Soul Speaks and Raagbaaz.
He also sang for famous Pakistani drama serials Cheekh and Parizaad's OST.
Irsa Ghazal

Irsa Ghazal is a Pakistani television actress known for her roles in television serials such as Mirat-ul-Uroos (1988), Ullu Baraye Farokht Nahi (2013), Yeh Mera Deewanapan Hai (2015), O Rangreza (2017), Aangan (2018) and Ishq Jalebi (2021).
Ghazal is the daughter of former actress, Syeda Ismat Tahira. Her half sister Ushna Shah is also an actress.
Ghazal made her acting debut from PTV's Mirat-ul-Uroos in 1988. Then, she appeared in television serials such as Samjhauta Express, Ullu Baraye Farokht Nahi and Kahi Unkahi, the second one of which earned her nomination of Lux Style Award for Best TV Actress. She further appeared in television serials such as O Rangreza, Aangan, Ruswai and Ishq Jalebi. From 2023 to 2024, she played Razia Sultana, a dominant matriarch in Mannat Murad, and received praise for her portrayal.
Laung lata

Laung lata, also Lavang lata/ Lobongo Lotika, is a traditional sweet from the regions of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, Odisha, and Bihar.
A typical labanga latika is made of maida, khoya, nutmeg powder, grated coconut, ghee, nuts, raisins, cardamom, cloves, and sugar ingredients.
Labanga latika consists of filling, dough, and sugar syrup. The dough is rolled out first and then the filling is placed in the center. The dough is then folded to enclose the filling completely and cloves are pressed over it to ensure that the fold doesn't open up while preparing. Then it's cooked in hot ghee until golden brown and crispy. Lastly, it is placed in sugar syrup to cool down and absorb the syrup
The dough is prepared in maida with water and ghee until the desired consistency is reached.
Sugar syrup is a mixture of sugar and water, prepared by adding sugar to boiling water and stirring as to prevent burning. This continues until the mixture reaches a thick consistency.
The filling is a mixture of khoya, sugar, and grated coconut. These are to be cooked and adorned with dried fruits and nutmeg.
말죽거리

말죽거리는 서울특별시 서초구 양재동 양재역사거리 일대를 부르는 지명이다.
옛 지도에서는 '마죽거리(馬竹巨里)' 또는 '마죽거(馬竹巨)'라고 표기되기도 하였다. 서울 서초구의 '양재동(良才洞)'은 조선 시대에 양재역이 있어서 나온 땅이름이다. 여기서 역(驛)은 현대의 지하철역이 아니라, 여러 마리의 말을 마련해 두고 공문을 전달할 목적으로 다니는 사람에게 말을 제공해 주거나 바꾸어 주던 일을 했던 곳을 말한다.
조선시대에는 서울에서 충청도나 경상도를 가려면 남대문을 나와 동작나루(동작진, 銅雀津)나 한강나루(한강진, 漢江津)를 건너 남도길에 올랐다. 당시 동작나루를 건너서 첫 번째 만나는 역은 과천역이고, 한강나루를 건너서 첫 번째 닿는 역은 양재역이었다. 한강나루는 옛날 두뭇개(두모포, 豆毛浦) 근처의 나루로, 지금의 옥수동에서 압구정동 방향으로 건너는 나루였다. 즉, 지금의 동호대교 근처에 있던 나루이다.이 양재역 근처의 마을이 '역말'로, 한자로는 '역촌(驛村)'이라고 했다. 이 마을에선 말에게 죽을 먹이는 집이 많아서 길손들은 이 곳을 주로 '말죽거리'라고 불렀다. 즉, '말죽거리'라는 지명은 말 그대로 '말에게 죽을 먹이는 거리'라 해서 나온 것이다.
이 유래와는 달리 '말'과 '죽'과 관련한 사실이 있어 이것이 '말죽거리'라는 이름을 낳게 했다는 이설도 있다. 조선 인조 2년(1624) 2월 8일에 인조(仁祖)가 이괄의 난을 피해 남도로 가는 길에 양재역에 이르러 기갈을 못 이기자, 유생 김이(金怡) 등이 급히 팥죽을 쑤어 임금에게 바치니, 인조가 말 위에서 그 죽을 다 마시고 과천 쪽으로 갔다. 그래서 '임금이 말 위에서 죽을 마시다'의 뜻으로 '말죽거리'라고 했다는 것이다. 그 밖에 다른 설은 병자호란과 관련된다. 병자호란 때 인조가 청나라의 침입을 피하기 위해 남한산성에 들어가자 청나라는 이 성을 완전히 포위하였다. 이때 이곳은 청나라의 장사 용골대가 지휘하는 우익군의 병참기지였다. 즉 청나라의 기마병들이 산성을 향하여 공격을 가한 후에는 교대로 이곳 병참기지에 물러나 말의 피로를 회복시키고 말죽을 쑤어 먹였다 하여 말죽거리라 칭하였다는 것이다. 그러나, 이것은 속설로 여겨지고 있다.
과천여객

과천여객(果川旅客)은 경기도 과천시의 시내버스 회사이고, 계열사로는 인근 안양시의 마을버스 회사인 호계운수와 과천시 소속 마을버스 업체 과천운수가 있다.
2021년 1월 기준이다.
불암산역

불암산(당고개)역(Buramsan(Danggogae)Station, 佛巖山(堂고개)驛)은 대한민국 서울특별시 노원구 상계동에 있는 수도권 전철 4호선의 전철역이다. 이 역부터 창동역까지 지상 구간이다. 이 역부터 남태령역까지 서울교통공사 구간이다. 심야에 2편성이 주박한다.
이전 역명인 당고개역(당고개驛)은 예부터 산짐승들이 많아 나그네들이 돌을 들고 넘었다는 의미인 당고개에서 유래되었으며, 불암산역(佛巖山驛)은 근처에 있는 산인 불암산의 이름을 따 지었다.
심야에 수도권 전철 4호선 2편성이 주박한다.
개찰구, 역무실은 지상 2층에 있고, 승강장은 지상 3층에 있다. 블암산(당고개)~진접역 구간(풍양역 제외) 연장 개통 전까지는 이 역 진입 전에 건넘선이 존재했다. 과거엔 반대편 승강장 횡단이 가능했으나, 현재는 양쪽 승강장의 운임구역이 분리돼 있어 개찰을 거치지 않고는 왕래할 수 없다. 출입구는 6개다.
2면 2선의 곡선 상대식 승강장을 갖춘 고가역이며, 반밀폐형 스크린도어가 설치돼 있다.
당고개순교성지

당고개순교성지(堂峴殉敎聖地, 영어: Danggogae Martyrs' Shrine)는 서울특별시 용산구 신계동에 있는 한국 로마 가톨릭교회의 순교 성지이다. 이 성지는 3면이 아파트 단지로 둘러싸였고 왼쪽에 신계역사공원과 연결 돼 있다. 한옥 건물 내에 천주교 처형 신자 10명을 기리고 있다. 인근 삼각지 성당에서 관리하고 있다. 같은 이름인 당고개역과는 관련이 없다.
이 성지는 기해박해로 1839년 12월 27일과 28일(음력) 이곳에서 처형된 신자 10명인 이인덕(마리아), 홍병주(베드로), 홍영주(바오로), 이경이(아가타), 권진이(아가타), 최영이(바르바라), 이문우(요한), 손소벽(막달레나), 박종원(아우구스티노), 이성례(마리아)를 기리고 있다. 이곳에서 처형된 이유는 본래 처형지인 서소문 밖 네거리 광장 인근 상인들이 장사가 잘되는 명절 설날을 앞두어 장소 이동을 요청한 까닭이다. 서소문성지, 새남터 다음으로 많은 한국 가톨릭 성인이 탄생한 곳이다.
용산전자상가 북쪽에 위치한 이 성지는 3면이 용산 e편한세상 아파트 단지로 둘러싸였고, 왼쪽에 신계역사공원이 연결 돼 있다. 1986년 준공했고, 2010년 신계역사공원 조성과 함께 재개발하면서 재준공하였다. 성지 건물은 한옥이며, 벽은 황토 토담에 옹기, 도자기 조각으로 꾸며졌다. 성모 마리아상은 아이를 안은 한복 차림 어머니 모습이다. 화가 심순화가 '어머니의 성지, 어머니의 품'이라는 주제로 디자인한 이곳 성지는 한국 전통적 분위기와 순교 정신을 함께 표현했다. 인근 삼각지 성당에서 관리하고 있다. 2013년 조성한 서울대교구 성지순례길 중 '일치의 길' 경로에 속해있다.
진접선

진접선(榛接線)은 서울특별시 노원구 상계동 불암산역과 경기도 남양주시 진접읍 진접역을 잇는 광역 철도 노선이며 수도권 전철 4호선의 일부다. 수도권 동북부에 개발된 별내지구, 오남지구, 진접지구 등과의 연계와 창동차량기지의 이전을 위하여 건설된다. 통행방식과 전력 공급 방식은 수도권 전철 3호선의 일부 구간인 일산선처럼, 전 구간 우측통행 및 직류를 그대로 사용한다. 치안 서비스는 대한민국 국토교통부 산하의 서울지방철도특별사법경찰대에서 전담한다.
노선이 살짝 특이한데 불암산역 출발 후 회차선으로부터 진접선이 분기되어 나간 형태다. 그리고 진접차량기지가 완공되기 전까지 이 노선을 운행한 열차는 모두 사당역, 안산역, 오이도역까지만 열차로 환승해야 하는 번거로움이 있을 수 있다. 다만, 서울교통공사, 한국철도공사에서 단거리 위주로 직교류 차를 진접선에 투입할 계획이 있다.
모스크바 지하철

모스크바 지하철(러시아어: Моско́вский метрополите́н 모스콥스키 메트로폴리텐)은 모스크바 지하철 공사에서 운영하는 러시아 모스크바의 지하철이다. 1935년 5월 15일에 개통되었으며, 소비에트 연방의 첫 번째 지하철이다. 모스크바 지하철의 길이는 총 447 km에 달하며, 15개 노선에 265개 역을 가지고 있다. 지하철은 오전 5시 30분에 개장, 다음날 오전 1시까지 영업한다. 열차 간 간격은 보통 약 2분 간격이나 출퇴근 시간에는 90초마다 한 대꼴로 오기도 한다. 일일 이용자는 평균 655만에 달하며 모스크바의 대중교통 중 가장 높은 이용률을 자랑한다. 주중에는 700만 명을 초과할 때도 있으며, 주말에는 그보다 낮아진다.
모스크바 지하철은 1935년 5월 15일 개통되었다. 처음 완성되었을 당시, 지하철 노선은 11.5 km에 13역이 있었으며, 14개의 열차가 운행되었다. 첫 노선은 소콜니키역에서 파르크 쿨투리역까지 이어졌고, 중간에 스몰렌스카야역으로 가는 분선이 있었다. 이 선은 나중에 아르바트 선이 되었으며, 1938년 키옙스카야역까지 확장되었다. 독소전쟁이 발발하기 전까지 1938년 5월에는 아르바트선에 쿠르스카야 역(현재 아르바츠코 포크롭스카야 선 소속)이 추가되었다. 1938년 9월에는 플로샤디 스베르들로바 역(1990년 테아트랄나야(러시아어: Театральная)역으로 개칭되었다)에서 출발해 소콜역까지 운행되는 고리콥스키-자모스크보레츠카야 선(현재의 자모스크보레츠카야 선)이 열렸다.
제2차 세계대전 동안 모스크바 지하철은 독일군의 공습을 피하기 위한 대피소로 사용되었다. 독일군이 모스크바 근처까지 진격한 1941년 10월 15일에는 모스크바 지하철의 책임자인 카가노비치는 비밀리에 지하철 폭파 명령을 내렸다. 모스크바 지하철은 전 구간에 걸쳐 독일군이 지하철을 사용하지 못하도록 제거를 지시하는 한편, 차량은 대피시키기로 계획했다.
이 때문에 다음날인 16일 오전 모스크바 지하철은 역사상 처음이자 마지막으로 운행하지 않았다. 하지만 당일 저녁에 독일군이 모스크바 근교에서 진격을 멈춤에 따라 폭파 명령은 취소되었고 지하철은 다시 운행을 시작했다.
모스크바 지하철의 3차 공사는 독소전쟁 중 계속되었다. 지하철 건설은 1942년 5월에 재개되었다. 1943년 1월에는 플로샤디 스베르들로바 역(현재의 테아트랄나야 역)에서 자보드 이메니 스탈리나역(1956년 압토자보드스카야(러시아어: Автозаводская)역으로 개칭되었다)이 개통되었으며, 파벨레츠카야역과 노보쿠즈네츠카야역은 훨씬 나중인 1943년 11월에 개통되었다. 1944년 1월에는 쿠르스카야 역에서 파르크 이즈마일롭스키 역(2005년 파르티잔스카야(러시아어: Партизанская)역으로 개칭됨.)을 잇는 부분이 완성되었다.
제2차 세계대전 이후 콜체바야 선과 키옙스카야 역에서 플로샤디 레볼류치 역(러시아어: Площади Революции)까지 이르는 공사가 재개되었다. 파르크 쿨투리 역에서 쿠르스카야 역에 이르는 첫 번째 선은 모스크바를 원형으로 가로지르는 순환도로 밑에 있었다. 하지만 콜체바야선의 북쪽 부분은 순환 도로에서 1km에서 1.5km 떨어져 짓기로 결정되었고, 역의 개수도 일곱 역에서 아홉 역으로 늘려 짓게 되었다. 콜체바야 선은 1950년 개통되었으며, 개통 당시 쿠르스카야 역에서 벨로루스카야 역을 이었다. 콜체바야 선은 1954년에는 지금과 같은 모습을 갖추게 되었다.
아르바트선이 지하 깊숙이 건설된 이유는 당시 냉전이 시작되기도 해서였다. 깊은 곳에 지하철을 짓는 것은 적의 공습과 핵전쟁으로부터 방공호로 쓸 수 있는 효과가 있었다. 아르바트 선의 1953년 새로운 구간이 완공된 이후에는 기존에 건설하고 있던 부분(현재의 필룝스카야 선의 알렉산드롭스키 사드역부터 키옙스카야역까지의 부분)을 폐쇄했다. 이 구간은 필룝스카야 선의 일부로 1958년 다시 개장되었다.
2009년 12월, 아르바츠코 포크롭스카야 선은 키옙스카야역에서 미티노역까지 연장되었다. 같은 해, 류블린스코 드미트롭스카야 선은 츠칼롭스카야역에서 마리나 로샤역까지 노선을 확장했다. 2010년 5월 15일 모스크바 지하철은 개통 75주년을 맞아 모든 역에 해당 역이 건설된 날짜와 건축가의 이름이 새겨진 청동 기념판을 세웠다.
현재 모스크바 지하철에는 총 13개의 지하철 노선(경전철 노선 1개 포함)과 1개의 모노레일 노선을 포함한 4개의 기타 철도 노선이 있다.
Buramsan station

Buramsan station (Korean: 불암산역) is a station on Line 4 of the Seoul Metropolitan Subway network. It was the northern terminus of Line 4, until 19 March 2022, when the line was extended to Jinjeop. It is an elevated station. The name of the subway station comes from its local name. Regional names refer to the pass that travelers carried over because of wild animals.
It is a three-story elevated station. The turnstile and station office are located on the second floor above ground, and the platform is located on the third floor above ground. There is a crossing line before entering this station. In the past, it was possible to cross the platform on the other side, but now the freight areas on both platforms are separated, so you cannot travel without going through the opening. There are five exits.
This station is located in Sanggye-dong, Nowon District, Seoul.
37°40′10.5″N 127°4′45.72″E﻿ / ﻿37.669583°N 127.0793667°E﻿ / 37.669583; 127.0793667
Seoul Metro Corporation

Seoul Metro Corporation (Korean: 서울메트로) was a municipal-owned corporation owned by the Seoul Metropolitan Government. Established in 1970, it was, with Seoul Metropolitan Rapid Transit Corporation and Korail, one of the major operators of Seoul Metropolitan Subway. The company merged with Seoul Metropolitan Rapid Transit Corporation in 2017.
Seoul Metro's service covers a part of Seoul Subway Line 1, and the whole Seoul Subway Line 2, Seoul Subway Line 3, Seoul Subway Line 4. For lines 1, 3, and 4, Korail jointly participates in the service. Seoul Metro controls the railways and stations which are owned by Seoul Metropolitan Government.
Nowon station

Nowon station is a station on the Seoul Subway Line 4 and Line 7. The station on Line 4 is elevated whereas the station on Line 7 is underground, owing to the elevated tracks of Line 4 between Danggogae station and Chang-dong station. In addition, the two stations are far apart, making passengers walk a considerable distance for transfers.
Many restaurants, bars, pubs, as well as many clothing shops, accessory shops, beauty salons are located around Nowon Station. The Lotte Department Store is directly accessible from the Line 7 station.
Both the Line 4 and Line 7 stations are located in Sanggye-dong, Nowon-gu, Seoul.
37°39′23″N 127°03′48″E﻿ / ﻿37.65637°N 127.06345°E﻿ / 37.65637; 127.06345
Seoul Grand Park station

Seoul Grand Park Station is a station on Line 4 of the Seoul Subway network.
A shuttle bus from the station runs to the Seoul Museum of Modern Art and the upper entrance to Seoul Grand Park.
37°26′08″N 127°00′23″E﻿ / ﻿37.43564°N 127.00651°E﻿ / 37.43564; 127.00651
Gwanaksan

Gwanaksan (Korean: 관악산) is a mountain in southern Seoul, South Korea. Portions lie in the Gwanak District and Geumcheon District of Seoul; other portions lie in the neighboring cities of Anyang, Gyeonggi and Gwacheon.
The name gwanak means "hat-shaped peak," and refers to its gat-like profile. Thus Gwanaksan literally means "mountain of the hat-shaped peak". Together with Songaksan in Kaesong, Gamaksan in Paju, Uaksan in Pocheon, and Hwaaksan in Gapyeong, Gwanaksan was long considered one of the five representative peaks of Gyeonggi Province (gyeonggi o-ak).
The main campus of Seoul National University is located just northwest of the mountain, and the Gwacheon national government complex lies to the east. Also nearby is the Anyang Resort Area, a popular local tourist attraction. On the mountain itself lie numerous Buddhist temples, including Wongaksa. Most of the mountain slope is protected land. The mountain is very popular with older climbers, since it can easily be reached by Seoul's public transportation. Annual hiking traffic is close to 5 million people. The Seoul side was designated a city park in 1968.
Seoul National University Entrance (11.3 km, 4 hours) Siheung-dong (11 km, 3 hours, 30 minutes) Anyang amusement park (12 km, 4 hours, 30 minutes)