davidanugraha/M4-RAG huggingface dataset:
Bolu

Bolu nyaéta ngaran kuéh bakar sarta hipu saperti roti, bahan anu dijieuna nyaéta tipung tarigu campur endog jeung gula bodas. Sangkan ngahasilkeun kuéh bolu anu ngeunh tur alus bentukna aya sababaraha hal anu kudu ditengetan saperti endog, tipung tarigu, oven jeung kumaha mastikeun kuéh asak. Kudu diperhatikeun kumaha cara ngocok endog anu bener lantaran lamun dina ngocokna salah balukarna kuéh bolu bakal teu beukah. Tarigu ogé mangaruhan kana beuhkahna kuéh lantaran lamun tariguna baseuh kuéh moal beukah nalika di oven na. Jadi saencan dipaké tarigu kudu dihéarkeun sangkan teu baseuh. Saméméh ngasupkeun loyang kana oven sakuduna oven dipanaskeun heula sangkan adonan jadi beukah moal bantét. Suhu oven kudu 180darajat selsius. Mikanyaho kuéh asak atawa henteuna nya ta carana tojos bagian tengah kuéh ku nyéré lamun garing tandana éta kuéh geus asak.
Bahan-bahan : :
Alat:
Carana mimiti siapkeun alat jeung bahan-bahan anu geus dibéréndélkeun di luhur, sanggeus kitu campur endog jeung gula 3/4 gelas jeung panili galo lalaunan nepi ka rata. Cairkeun mantéga. Sanggeus cair, tiiskeun ulah panas teuing. Galokeun campuran endog, gula jeung panili nu di mixer nepi ka beukah tuluy tambahan TBM. Asupkeun tarigu jeung mantéga cair kana adonan lalaunan kalayan bareng sangkan adonan rata. Asupkeun adonan kana loyang, ulah poho saméméhna loyang téh di mantégaan heula. Sanggeus kitu asupkeun kana oven listrik. Tungguan nepi ka asak.
5 Star (chocolate bar)

5 Star is a chocolate bar produced by Cadbury and sold in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Brazil, South Africa, the Philippines and Egypt. It is described as a "caramel and nougat" mix covered with "smooth milk chocolate" and is sold in a golden wrapper decorated with stars.
5 Star was launched in India in 1969. In 2016 it was launched in Malaysia and the Philippines in 15g 'mini-bars', 45g standard bars and 150g sharepacks (of 10 mini-bars). It was launched in Brazil the same year but under Cadbury's sister brand Lacta.
5 Star has also been widely distributed in South Africa since 2017 as a replacement for the defunct Tempo bar.
In 2019, 5 Star was released in UK shops and supermarkets for a limited time only.
In India, 5 Star is also available in Fruit & Nut, Crunchy and Chomp flavours.
IGIHUGU N'INTORE

INYOBORABATOZA
INDANGAGACIRO 7 Z’IBANZE ZIFASHA U RWANDA KUGERA KU CYEREKEZO RWIYEMEJE
UBUNYARWANDA
KWIHESHA AGACIRO
GUKUNDA IGIHUGU
UBUNYANGAMUGAYO
UBUTWARI
UBWITANGE
GUKUNDA UMURIMO NO
KUWUNOZA KWIHESHA
Laptop imwe kuri buri mwana (OLPC)

Mudasobwa imwe kuri buri mwana (in English One Laptop per Child or OLPC) ni gahunda ya Leta idaharanira inyungu yashyizweho ifite intego yo guhindura uburezi bw’ abana ku isi. Iyi ntego yari kugerwaho aruko hakozwe kandi Hagakwirakwizwa ibikoresho by’uburezi mu isi ikiri munzira y’amajyambere ndetse hagashyirwamo porogaramu ninyigisho muribyo bikoresho.
Intego yayo nyamukuru ikomeje kuba guhindura uburezi muguha ubushobozi abana bo mubihugu bikiri munzira y’amajyambere kugira uburenzira kunyigisho, amakuru, naho gukorera porogaramu za mudasobwa. Mugihe iyi gahunda yatangizwaga, igiciro fatizo kuri mudasobwa yari amadolari arenga igihumbi y’Amerika ($1,000 US), bityo ntibyari gushoboka kugera kuriyi ntego uretse gukora imashini zihendutse. Iyi yabaye mudasobwa ya OLPC XO, ifite igiciro gito kandi zikoresha n’umuriro muke. Mwitangira umushinga waterwaga inkunga itagizwe n’amafaranga n’abagize imiryango nka AMD, eBay, Google, Marvell Technology Group, News Corporation, Nortel. Chi Mei Corporation, Red Hat, na Quanta.
Umushinga wa OLPC washimwe henshi ndetse uba ntamakemwa. Uyu mushinga washimwe kubw’imashini zigiciro gito, zikoresha umuriro muke, ndetse wizeza ubufatanye mu rwego rwa za Minisiteri mu bihugu byinshi aho za mudasobwa zikoreshwa nka kimwe mu ishingiro ry’uburezi, gushyiraho ahantu hafasha gukoresha mudasobwa nta kijijinganya mu rurimi urwo arirwo rwose ndetse byumwihariko nta bumenyi mu rurimi rw’icyongereza. Bakiriye ibitekerezo byinshi harimo ibirebana na gahunda yabo, ndetse nibijyanye n’uburyo bwabo nk’imfashanyo, kuzikoresha muburyo bworoshye, umutekano wazo, ibizikorerwaho nubuzima bwite bwabyo.
Abayobozi b’Ibihugu bimwe na bimwe bavugiye kumugaragaro kubijyanye numwihariko w’igiciro cyuyu mushinga, kubijyanye n’umuco ndetse nibihabwa agaciro ugereranyije nibikenewe n’abaturage by’ibanze mubihugu bikiri munzira y’amajyambere.
Umuco nyarwanda w'umwimerere

Kuva kera na kare, uhereye isi yabaho, mu mpande zayo uko ari enye, yemeye kwakira ibintu n’abantu, yemera kwakira ibihumeka n’ibidahumeka, yakira inyamaswa zose n’ibidukikije, ikikira umucyo n’umwijima byombi ibisimburanya uko ibihe bihora bisimburana iteka ryose! Muri urwo ruhererekane rw’ibihe n’ibindi, ahantu hose hagiye hagaragara ko icyo bamwe bita ikiremwa-muntu, abandi bakacyita inyoko-muntu, cyahanikiye ibindi biremwa byose mu buryo bw’ubwenge, imibereho n’imyitwarire. Iyi nyoko-muntu yahebuje ibibaho byose umugisha n’ubwenge, bwa bundi yegukanye ubutware bw’isi n’ibiyirimo byose, ibikesha Nyilibiremwa. Ni muri urwo ruhando rw’ubuzima rusange dusangamo umwihariko w’umuco ku muntu, bigahwana na ya nkongoro ya Dede inyweraho Dede wenyine.[1]
Umuco uzasanga ko ugenda uhinduka uko ibihe bihaye ibindi, bitewe n’ibigezweho bisimbura ibishaje, bimwe bizwi neza ko agaharaye gahabwa agahari, kaharurukwa kagahabwa agahini da! Ariko umuco uvugwa si ugusambira ibyo hirya no hino, ngo ibyo ubonye byose ubiyongobeze utabanje ‘gushungura’, ukeka ko wasakiwe. Ntabwo umuco ari ugupfa kuyora ibyo ubonye wigana ibyo ahandi, bwa bundi ‘urwiganwa rwa mushushwe rwamaze abana b’imbeba mu rubariro’ kandi ngo n’ingendo y’undi iravuna. Ahubwo umuco uboneye kandi ushimwa ni uwo kwimenya: ntiwisumbukuruze cyangwa ngo wibonabone, wiyobagize, wiryagagure, wimocamoce. Umuco mu bantu ni ukumenya uko uri n’aho uri, ukiyubaha ndetse ukubaha n’abandi. Umuco ni nk’agati gakubiranye, bene wo bawukwirakwiza aho bari hose, bakishimira uko bameze, bakivuga ibigwi bimwe by’usingiza intwari ahera ku z’iwabo. Ariko byarimbanya, indakuzi ikabuza umugabo kwivuga kandi icyenewabo kikagaruza imfizi urushyi. None se tubivuge ngw’iki? Ko hariho umuco-nyarwanda w’umwimerere.[2]
https://mobile.igihe.com/umuco/
https://web.archive.org/web/20241204003146/https://rw.amateka.net/category/umuco/
Imbyino Nyarwanda

Imbyino Nyarwanda ni imbyino zigaragaza umuco nyarwanda, nkuko mu muco habamo n'umurage, izi mbyino zigenda zihererekanywa uko imyaka iza indi igataha. Abiga kubyina akenshi babikoreraga mu Itorero ryari kandi rikomeje kuba irerero ry’umuco gakondo. Usibye kubyina no gutozwa umuco, mu itorero ni ho higirwaga indirimbo kandi akenshi imbyino zijyana n’umuziki by’umwihariko indirimbo.
Imbyino nyarwanda hakunda kuzamo nk'imushayayo ni imbyino izwi cyane ku gitsina gore. Intore ni mbyino yabyinwaga n’abasore bashaka kwerekana ko bakereye itabaro. Iyi mbyino yerekanaga ko bashabutse .
Gusuhuzanya mu muco nyarwanda

Gusuguhuzanya mu muco nyarwanda ni kimwe mu bintu biranga umuco nyarwanda, aho bamwe babifata nk'ibigaragaza urukundo ndetse n’umubano mwiza waranze kandi ukiranga abantu. Umuco nyarwanda urangwa n'ibintu bibyitsi bitandukanye nk’indangagaciro,ndetse na zakirazira bifasha abanyagihugu kubana neza, no kugira irangamuntu y’ubunyarwanda. Hari amagambo yaherekezaga iyo ndamukanyo. Amwe muri ayo magambo ni amashyo, gira so, gira inka cyangwa gira abana n’ibindi. Ibi byose byagaragaza urukundo.
gusuhuzanya umuntu aha mugenzi we ukuboka ni bimwe mu byagaragazaga urukundo mu banyarwanda bo hambere, kuko mwakoranaga mu intoki, yo waherezaga umuntu ukuboko wamubazaga amakuru ye nawe akakubwira uko ameze, ibi byagaragazaga ko ushaka kumenya uko mugenzi wawe amerewe.
Guhoberana biri mubigize umuco nyarwanda, wahurazaga n’umuntu kubera urukumbuzi wabaga umufitiye ukamusuhuza cyane, bikagaragazwa nuko wamuhoberaga. iyo wasuhuzaga umuntu byaterwaga nuko wabaga utamuheruka, hanyuma muguhura nawe ukamugwa mu byano.
Gukoma amshyi no gupfukama bwari mu buryo bwakoreshwaga mu gusuhuzanya, kuko byakorwaga iyo wabaga uhuye n’abantu babanyacyubahiro bakuru. Iyo wahuraga n’umuntu mukuru nk’Umwami, ntabwo byashobokaga ko umukora mu kiganza cyangwa ngo umuhobere, ariko kumusuhuza byo wabikoraga ukoma amashyi kandi wapfukamye .
Kuzunguza ibiganza nabyo byageze mu umuco nyarwanda aho abantu batangiye gusuhuzanya bazunguza ibiganza. umuco nyarwanda muri iki gihe wahinduye isura mu gusuhuzanya. ubona umuntu agiye gusuguza undi bagahuza imisaya ukumva arimyoje, cyangwa ukabona barahuza ibipfunsi .
Umuco gakondo

Umuco gakondo wurwanda wiganjemo ibice byinshi byiganjemo:ibisigo,imigani,imiziririzo n'umuco uranga abanyarwanda,ukabahuza bityo bigatuma babana kandi bahuje imico.
Igikoni ni ibiryo bya kinyarwanda bishingiye ku biribwa by'ibanze bikomoka ku buhinzi gakondo.Mu mateka,ibijyanye n'imirire bigenda bihinduka bitewe n'ubwoko butandukanye bw'abantu sibyo gusa mumuco gakondo harimo nubanzi nimbyino gakondo ibi nibice byingenzi bigize umuco wabanyarwanda
iminsi mikuru guhurira hamwe kwabanyarwanda bagasangira ndetse hakaba hari nintore zabitozwe zikabyina gitore zigahamiriza ibyo bigatuma umuco
nyarwanda utera imbere ugasigasirwa.
mumuco nyarwanda habamo nibindi bice byingenzi bikurikira;imigani miremire nimigufi ,ibisakuzo,ibyivugo nibindi.........
indirimbo gakondo nizisaza bityo bigatuma umuco gakondo uhora usugira.
Rugero

Rugero is a colline in Kirundo Commune, Kirundo Province, Burundi.
Rugero is about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) southeast of the center of Kirundo town. It is one of 24 collines in Kirundo Commune. Shinge is southeast of the center of Rugero. The Köppen climate classification is Aw: Tropical savanna, wet.
Shinge and Rugero are two distinct but neighboring hills in the Bugesera region of northern Burundi. They were contested during a war of 1763 between Mutaga Senyamwiza, ruler of Burundi, and Yuhi III Mazimpaka, ruler of Rwanda, in which the forces of Burundi prevailed. In 1775 the war resumed, and the Rwandan troops camped on Mount Shinge. The Burundian troops had divided into three units, one between the two hills, one hidden behind Mount Rugero, and one that circled behind the Rwandan position on Mount Shinge. The Rwandans attacked and defeated the first unit, but found themselves caught in the crossfire between the other two, and were defeated.
At the time of the war the area was called Muharuro. It was renamed "Kirundo"" ("piles") to commemorate the piles of dead Rwandans after the battle. The term "Kubura Shinge na Rugero", meaning "to lose Shinge and Rugero" refers to the Rwandan loss, but has come to mean having nobody to rely upon, to have no fire or home. Recently a festival has been held on the site to commemorate the victory.
Xaveri Rwanda

Xaveri Rwanda is a Catholic youth organization in the Rwanda. Xaveri Rwanda is part of the African Xaveri Movement and a member of the Catholic umbrella of youth organizations Fimcap.
On 31 October 1990 Xaveri signed together 16 other youth movements and the Episcopal Pastoral Commission in Rwanda a joint statement condemned the aggression of armed gangs of the NRA and the Ugandan regular Army and especially also the forced enlistment of children for these violent activities.
In 2015 Xaveri Rwanda hosted the Fimcap World Camp. The camp thematized Children's Rights as well as the recent dark chapter in the history of Rwanda, the Genocide in Rwanda.
Road signs in Uganda

Road signs in Uganda are regulated in the Traffic Signs Manual and governed by the Ministry of Works and Transport (formerly the Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications). They closely resemble road signs used in the United Kingdom since Uganda was a British colony until 1962, with the exception that Uganda uses metric system units instead of the Imperial System of units (miles and yards).
Road signs in Uganda generally use the same pattern of colors, shapes, and symbols set out in the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals, which are also used in most countries of Europe and Africa (except Ireland and Liberia which they both use diamond MUTCD warning signs instead of triangular). Partner states of the East African Community take measures to ratify or accede to international conventions on road traffic and road signs and signals. On August 23, 2022, Uganda acceded to the Convention. Other partner states of the East African Community such as Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan and Tanzania have yet to ratify or accede to the Convention. Uganda drives on the left.
Le Télégramme

Le Télégramme (pe "An Telegramm" e brezhoneg) zo ur gazetenn bemdeziek vreizhat e galleg, graet e Montroulez. Skignet e vez e Penn-ar-Bed dreist-holl, hag ivez en Aodoù-an-Arvor, er Mor-Bihan hag e Bro-Sant-Maloù.
Talvezout a ra he anv kement hag “ar pellskrid”. A-raok hag e-pad ar brezel e oa anvet La Dépêche de Brest et de l'Ouest. Savet e oa bet La Dépêche e 1866 hag aet eo da get e 1944. Goude bombezadeg Brest gant ar re gevredidi e voe kaset ar gelaouenn da Vontroulez e 1941. E miz Gwengolo 1944 e voe difennet embann anezhi dre m'he doa kemeret perzh er c'henlabour gant ar melestradur nazi ha kemmet e voe da heul se hec'h anv a-benn lakaat hini "Le Télégramme de Brest et de l'Ouest" (“Pellskrid Brest hag ar C'hornôg"). "Adgrouet" e voe ar gelaouenn d'an 18 a viz Gwengolo 1944, hag eizh kazetenner a oa d'ar poent-se.
D'ar 25 a viz Ebrel 1968 eo bet embannet ar skouerenn gentañ e liv. Kroget o deus gant al lec'hienn internet letelegramme.com e 1996. Krouet eo bet Le Télégramme-Dimanche (ar skouerenn evit ar sul) e 1998.
A-wechoù e vez anvet An Telegramm e brezhoneg, hag An Telebramm dre fent.
Perc'hennet eo gant an tiegezh Coudurier. Ur 600 bennak a dud a labour eno, en o zouez ouzhpenn 200 kelaouenner. Embannet e vez 208 000 skouerenn anezhi bemdez. Lennet e vez ar gelaouenn gant 570 000 den pe war-dro. An Télégramme a zo kevezer gwirion diwezhañ Ouest-France e kornôg Breizh. Unan eus kelaouennoù nemetañ Frañs gant ur c'hresk eus ar skignerezh war ar pemp bloaz tremenet eo ivez (kresk gwellañ ar c'hazetennoù e 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 ha 2008).
Resevet en deus an Telegramm ar priz "Pemdezieg gwellañ 2009" d'ar 15 a viz Even 2009. En 8vet renk eus ar pemdeziegoù eo e Frañs. D'ar 15 a viz Here 2009 eo bet embannet an 20 000vet niverenn eus ar gazetenn, evit lidañ he 65 bloaz .
Keleier hag a denn d'al Liger-Atlantel a gaver a-wechoù er pajennoù Breizh, er c'hontrol da Ouest-France.
Ouzhpenn ar pajennoù lec'hel, rannvroel, broadel hag etrevroadel e vez roet en Telegramm un tamm plas d'ar yezh. Bep Yaou e vez ur bajenn vrezhonek, anvet Spered ar vro.
Bep bloaz e vez roet ar priz "Breizhad ar bloaz" gant an Télégramme diwar vot al lennerien.
Le Télégramme de Brest a zo ivez titl ur ganaouenn gant ar Wampas.
Stad Brest 29

Ur c'hlub mell-droad bet krouet e 1950 eo ar Stade Brestois 29 (Stad Brest 29 e Brezhoneg).
Kampion Frañs an D2 : 1981.
Beskampion Frañs D2 : 1979 ha 2010.
Beskampion Frañs D3 : 2004.
Betek 1950 e oa Paeroniezh an Arvorik anv klub Brest. E 1926 ez eas ar maout gant ar Vrestiz ouzh skipailh Saint-Jean-de-Luz (3-0) ha titl Frañs ar baeroniezh ganto.
E 1950 e voe bet krouet Stad Brest dre gendeuziñ 5 klub a baeroniezh katolik.
E 1970 ez eas gant an eil rummad micherel hag e 1979 gant ar rummad micherel kentañ. E 1986 e teuas ar bravañ ganto (8vet) pa oa ganto c'hoaererien vrudet goude Kib mell-droad ar bed : Jose Brown ha Julio Cesar. Siwazh ez eas da fall an darempredoù etre ar Prezidant Fañch Ivineg ha sponsor ar c'hlub : ar stalioù Leclerc hag ar c'hlub a ziskennas en eil rummad e 1988.
Ur bloavezh hepken e chomjont eno avat a-drugarez da c'hoarierien a-feson evel Paul Le Guen pe Roberto Cabanas. 2 vloavezh brav a voe bet kaset er rummad kentañ kampionad mell-droad Frañs dindan ar gourdoner Slavo Muslin : David Ginola, Bernard Lama, Claude Makelele, Stefan Gwivarc'h a c'hoarie asambles e Brest d'ar c'houlz-se.
Abalamour da gudennoù arc'hant ez eas ar stal da stalig. Graet freuz-stal gant ar c'hlub e chomas 10 vloaz gant ar c'hluboù amatourien a-raok adkavout an eil rummad micherel e 2004. C'hwec'h vloaz goude, e 2010 ez achu ar c'hampionad en eil plas hag e adkav ar rummad kentañ.
Diwallerien :
Difennerien :
Kreizerien
Tagerien
C'hoarerien all : Robin Le Normand en deus c'hoariet e KEvre 2 e 2016, a-raok mont d'ar Real Sociedad.
E miz Gwengolo 2011 oa sinet etre Stad Brest ha BZH New York ur sponsorship evit krouiñ ur skipailh gant Bretoned e Amerika. BZH New York zo ur gevredigezh e lec'h ma en em degouezont asambles Bretoned ar gêr vrasañ e Stadoù Unanet. Neuze bremañ eo gwisket skipailh BZH New York evel an hini a-vicher e Penn-ar-Bed hag anvet evelti Stade Brestois New York.
Julien Lachuer

Julien Lachuer a oa ur c'hoarier mell-droad ganet d'ar 15 a viz Du 1976 e Saint-Maur-des-Fossés (Val-de-Marne). Diwaller a oa pa oa c'hoarier ha gourdoner diwallerien Stad Brest 29 eo bet etre 2010 ha 2023. Abaoe 2023 eo eil gourdoner Stad Brest. A-drugarez d'o orinoù breizhat eo bet dibabet Julien hag e vreur Yann gant skipailh Breizh e 2008.
Miss Kittin

Miss Kittin (ganet Caroline Hervé e Grenoble e 1973) zo anezhi un DJ war ar sonerezh elektronek, ur ganerez hag un oberourez. Levezonet eo he sonerezh gant an electronica, an elektro hag an tekno. Troet eo ivez war an arzoù gwelet (studiañ a reas an arzoù grafek hag a vremañ en École Supérieure d'Art et de Design en Amiens). Deuet eo da vezañ dedennet gant levezonoù liesseurt evel ar sonerezh klasel, ar jazz, ar funk, an disco ha ar sonerezh pop saoz. Unan eus DJed vrudetañ al sonerezh tekno eo deuet da vezañ.
Kregiñ a reas gant he micher DJ e-pad troiadoù e Frañs, Moskov ha Chicago asambles gant Mike Dearborn. Kejañ a reas gant DJ Hell e Marsilha un nebeud amzer goude. Fellout a reas dezhañ enrollañ ganti evit e label alaman International DJ Gigolo.
Miss Kittin hag an Hacker a embannas First Album e 2001. Meur a don a zeuas da vezañ tonioù diazez en electroclash, en o zouez "1982" ha "Frank Sinatra". Adalek 1991 e zeas da sonveskañ e Europa a-bezh. Kuitaat a reas Bro-C'hall e 1996 ha mont a reas da chom e Jeneva e Suis. E Berlin emañ o chom hiziv an deiz.
Deuet eo da vezañ unan eus sonerien bouezusañ an electroclash. Labourat a ra gant The Hacker met ivez gant Felix da Housecat, Chicks on Speed ha Golden Boy. Embann a reas ur c'hendastumad tekno dindan he anv dezhi (Miss Kittin on the Road) e 2002. He fladenn solo I Com he deus elfennoù eus doareoù elektronek disheñvel. Arnodeloc'h eo eget he flanedennoù diaraok.
Kenlabouret he deus ivez gant Sven Vath, Steve Bug hag Ellen Allien (evit adsonveskoù).
Embannet e voe Miss Kittin Live at Sonar e 2006, enrollet e-pad ar festival sonerezh elektronek brudet Sónar e Barcelona. Seniñ a reas he zonioù dezhi ha re Aphex Twin, Modeselektor ha Boom Bip. 2006 a voe ivez bloaz embannadur ar bladenn doubl Miss Kittin: Bugged Out. Hec'h eil albom BatBox a erruas e miz C'hwevrer 2008. Meur a wech eo bet o seniñ e Breizh, da geñver festival Astropolis e Brest pe festival Scopitone e Naoned e 2005.
Jean Baron

Jean Baron, ganet d'ar 26 a viz Gwengolo 1951 e Sant-Maloù, a zo un talabarder hag ur biniaouer breizhat. Pa oa 18 vloaz e krogas da zeskiñ ar sonerezh gant Jean-Yves Blanchard ha Jackez Philouze, daou soner eus Kelc'h Keltiek Roazhon ha «kampioned Breizh». Da gentañ e sonas Jean Baron asambles gant Georges Epinette hag e teuas da vezañ ur mestr war donioù Bro-Wened (Jean Magadur). Kejañ a reas gant Christian Anneix er c'helc'h Outre-Ille e Sant-Gregor war-dro 1975. Sevel a reas ar strollad La Godinette ha La Gallésie en Fête, fest bras Mousterfil, nepell diouzh Roazhon. E 1978 e krogas da seniñ asambles gant ur pianoour (Michel Téphaine) ha diwezhatoc'h gant un ograouer (Michel Ghesquière). Seniñ a ra ivez an okarina o tiskanañ gant an ograoù. «Kampion Breizh» e oa bet e 1974, 1975 ha 1976, setu perak e tilezas e vicher a liorzher e Kêr Roazhon evit kaout muioc'h amzer da seniñ. Etre 1981 ha fin 1986 e oa kelenner war ar sevenadur keltiek ha dañsoù Breizh e skol-rannvro Plañvour. E 1988 e tivizas mont da soner a vicher. Un diplom Stad sonerezh hengounel en deus tapet. Gant e gompered en deus graet troiadoù en Alamagn, en Aostria, e Burkina Faso, e Gres, en India, en Italia, en Iwerzhon, e Kebek, e Kembre, e Luksembourg, e Maroko, e Pologn, e Roumania, e Bro-Saoz, e Siberia, e SUA hag e Tchekia.
Aet eo ar maout gantañ:
Oaled Sant Erwan

Oaled Sant Erwan oa bet diazezet gant Youenn Souffes-Després e oa ur staliet nepell diouzh koc'hu sant Varzhin Brest, 28 straed Charles Berthelot. Div sal a oa, gant ur gwitrin vras a servije d'ober bruderezh evit ar brezhoneg hag ar feiz katolik. Ezel e oa Oaled Sant Erwan eus ar gevredigezh Emglev An Tiegezhioù. Diazezet e oa bet e 1969 hag e padas betek 1998. Kinnig a rae kentelioù brezhoneg dreist-holl hogen ivez beilhadegoù pe bodadegoù miziek. Ar brezhoneg a oa ar yezh nemeti.
Aozañ a rae ivez oferennoù met ret e oa bet gortoz 1985 a-benn kaout un oferenn vrezhonek bep sul e Brest. Diwar intrudu OSE eo ez eus bet aozet oferenn ar pemp sul er Folgoad e brezhoneg.
Ur c'helc'h katolik a studi a voe herberc'hiet e stal OSE : bodadegoù divareadek bet lusket gant an Tad Chapel s. j. hag goude gant ar beleg Maoris Ar C'hollo (izili : Youenn souffes, Ivona Martin, Ronan Huon hag e wreg, Ronan ar Glew, Tepod Gwilhmod, R. Provost (teñzorer). Katekiz a voe graet ivez e-tro ar bloavezhioù 1994-96 hag ul levraoueg gant dreist-holl Imbourc'h Al Liamm ha Gwalarn a veze kinniget da lenn. Bruderezh war ar straed a rae : reiñ traktoù, derc'hel standoù er pardonioù, er foarioù. Gant OSE eo e voe moulet pegsunioù "Pellgomz" da begañ war logelloù Pellgomz ar vro gant ar mennad da skignañ ar yezh a wel d'an holl ha diskouez ur ger "nevez" e brezhoneg.
E berr, Oaled Sant Erwan a zo bet unan eus ar c'hreizennoù hollvrezhonek o deus stourmet war an dachenn lec'hel. Ouzhpenn-se e oa chomet stag mat ouzh ar feiz katolik e-keit ha ma veze dilezet gant ar gevredigezh hag an Emsav e-unan da heul.
Dre ziouer a genlabourerien e voe serret ar stal-se ma rene un aergelc'h 'tiegezhel', koulz lavaret. Danevelloù obererezh OSE a gaver er gelaouenn Al Liamm.
FC Dynamo Brest

FC Dynamo Brest (Belarusian: ФК Дынама Брэст, FK Dynama Brest; Russian: ФК Динамо Брест) is a Belarusian professional football club based in Brest. The club plays in the Belarusian Premier League, the top division in Belarusian football.
In 2019, Dynamo won its first Belarusian Premier League title. The club has also won the Belarusian Cup in 2007, 2017 and 2018.
The club was founded in 1960 as Spartak Brest and joined Soviet Class B (second-tier league) the same year. After the 1962 season, they were relegated as a result of league reorganization. They came close to promotion twice in 1964 and 1967 but lost the final round both times. They were finally promoted on their third attempt in 1969, but the following year they again dropped to the third tier due to league reorganization. In 1972, the team was renamed Bug Brest and finally, in 1976 Dуnamo Brest. From 1970 until the end of the Soviet era, the club was playing in the Soviet third-tier league. Dynamo Brest had a strong connection with Dinamo Minsk during these years (as both clubs were affiliated to Dinamo Sports Society) and often accepted young Minsk team players on loan.
In 1992, Dynamo Brest joined the Belarusian Premier League and have been playing there ever since. Their best result was a title in 2019 season, with 5 points of difference to BATE Borisov. In 2007, Dynamo Brest won the Belarusian Cup, also securing their only UEFA Cup participation. During the 2012 season, they were using the name FC Brest due to legal issues with using a Dynamo brand name the rights to which were claimed by Belarusian Dynamo Sport Society. This issue was resolved only by the end of the year. In the 2017 season, Dinamo Brest drew an average home league attendance of 5,689, the highest in the league.
The first organised fan group was created on 1 August 1998, and the fan-dedicated stand can hold around 200–500 fans. An ultras group was created in 2008. The fans call themselves the Blue White Devils. They are politically right-wing.
The club have two fan-clubs: in Pinsk and Kobrin. The one official friendship, with fans of Orlęta Radzyń Podlaski, and good contacts with fans Dinamo Minsk and BATE Borisov. Their rivals are all left-wing fans, FC Gomel, Dnepr Mogilev, Shakhtyor Soligorsk, Slavia Mozyr, Belshina Bobruisk, Torpedo Minsk and Neman Grodno.
As of March 2025
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules; some limited exceptions apply. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Ivlia (ship)

Ivlia (bireme) is a modern reconstruction of an ancient Greek rowing warship (galley) with oars at two levels, and is an example of experimental archaeology. Between 1989 and 1994, this vessel undertook six international historical and geographical expeditions, tracing the route of the ancient seafarers.
After processing the available scientific data using ancient illustrations on vases and reliefs, as well as written and archaeological sources, members of the Odesa Archeological Museum, under the direction of Prof. Vladimir N. Stanko, Ph.D., proposed the building of a bireme because, in antiquity, it had been the most widely used vessel in the northern Black Sea region.
The ship was constructed in 1989 at the Sochi Naval Shipyard by a team led by shipwright Damir S. Shkhalakhov. Ivlia was built from Durmast oak and Siberian larch, while the oars were made of beech. The technical design of the project was carried out by specialists of the Nikolayev University of Shipbuilding. The main sponsor of the construction of the ship was the Black Sea Shipping Company.
Starting from Odesa in Ukraine in 1989, Ivlia followed the routes of the ancient mariners on the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea as well as the Atlantic Ocean, covering more than 3,000 nautical miles in six expedition seasons and visiting over 50 European ports, finally sailing up the river Seine to reach Paris. To celebrate the completion of the voyages, the Mayor of Paris and future President of France, Jacques Chirac, was received on board the Ivlia. The expedition's progress was widely covered by international media. During the time of the voyage, hundreds of articles were published, along with dozens of TV and radio reports. The ship was regularly visited by official delegations and thousands of tourists. Ivlia also took part in international maritime festivals: Colombo'92 in Genoa (Italy), Brest’92, Cancal’93, and Vieux Greements’94 (France). Over six seasons the crew members included more than 200 people – citizens of Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, France, Greece and Georgia.
The authors of the project, Igor Melnik, Mikhail Agbunov and Pavel Goncharuk, together with the staff of the Odesa Archaeological Museum and the Nikolayev University of Shipbuilding, developed the research program of the expedition primarily to address the following objectives:
The practical experience gained on Ivlia's expeditions enabled the project authors to affirm:
In addition, the research program conducted on board Ivlia included the participation of the Institute of Biology of the Southern Seas. In accordance with the research program, developed under the leadership of the Acad. Y. P. Zaitsev. During the expedition, density, salinity, transparency and contamination of seawater were regularly measured. Also, regular measurements were made of environmental parameters and the level of pollution of the seawater, assessments of the state of marine flora and fauna, and a variety of medical experiments were conducted. The data obtained during the six years of voyages are summarized in the articles and books subsequently published by the authors of the project.
Santa Maria Manuela

Santa Maria Manuela is a Portuguese four-masted schooner. Originally a codfish fishing ship, Santa Maria Manuela is now used for sail training, hands on sailing holidays, environmental expeditions and team development programs. It belongs to Grupo Jerónimo Martins and is the sistership of the Portuguese Navy's Creoula.
Santa Maria Manuela was built in the CUF shipyards at Lisbon in 1937, as a lugre bacalhoeiro (codfish fishing lugger). The similar Creoula was built in the same shipyards at the same time. Another similar and still existent ship, Argus was built in 1938 by the shipyard De Haan & Oerlemans, Heusden, Holland.
Since its building and until the late 1980s, Santa Maria Manuela was employed in the codfish fishing in the seas of Newfoundland and Greenland, being one of the ships of the White Fleet (as the Portuguese fishing fleet was known in Newfoundland, because of the white color of most of their ships).
The ship was owned by Empresa de Pesca de Viana fishing company, until 1963, when it was sold to Empresa de Pesca Ribau. During the 1960s, Santa Maria Manuela underwent several modifications and technological improvements in order to be able to continue in fishing activity. Finally in 1993, definitely been considered obsolete, the ship was partially demolished, only her hull being preserved.
In 2007, Pascoal S.A. bought the remainings of the ship and started a long and well documented restoration process in the Aveiro shipyards, returning it to its original state in 2010.
She took part in the Fete-Maritime-de-Brest-2016 (Tall ships Race) on 19 July 2016.
Sail training and adventure sailing voyages are offered for up to 44 paying guests.
French ship Louis-XIV (1854)

Louis XIV was an Océan-class 118-gun ship of the line of the French Navy.
Laid down as Tonnant in 1811 at Rochefort, she was renamed Louis-XIV in 1828, still on keel. She was launched only in 1854, and was put in the reserve the next year.
On 28 January 1855, she departed Toulon to take part in the Siege of Sevastopol as a transport ship. From September 1856 to 1857, she was converted to combined sail/steam propulsion in Brest harbour, using machinery supplied by Robert Napier of Glasgow, to reenter service on 25 October 1857.
Louis XIV was decommissioned between 1858 and 1861, and was affected to the École Navale as a gunnery training ship from 1861 to 1865. That year, she was sent to Toulon. In 1870, her crew was sent to Paris to defend the city against the advancing Prussian armies. Training resumed in November 1870.
In 1873, Louis XIV was decommissioned again. She was struck on 3 May 1880, and sold for scrap in 1882.
French ship Valmy (1847)

Valmy, named after the Battle of Valmy, was the largest three-decker of the French Navy, and the largest tall ship ever built in France.
The design of Valmy was decided by the Commission de Paris, as a way to modernise the 118-gun Océan class design and its derivatives. The most radical departure from previous designs was the shedding of tumblehome and adoption of vertical sides, shared by the Hercule and Suffren classes; this significantly increased the space available for upper batteries, but reduced the stability of the ship.
Valmy was laid down at Brest in 1838 as Formidable and launched in 1847.
She displayed poor performances during her trials, especially with a tendency to roll, and was generally considered a failure. Stability problems were to some extent improved by the addition of a 3 m (9.8 ft) high belt of wood sheathing at the waterline. The outcome of the project led the French Navy to return to a more traditional design with the next generation of ships, which would lead to Bretagne.
Valmy participated in the Crimean War, where she proved difficult to manoeuvre and, like other sailing vessels, often had to be towed by steam ships. During the bombardment of Sevastopol, the only time Valmy fired her guns in anger, she was towed by the new steam two-decker Napoléon.
On 13 November 1855, Valmy collided with the French schooner Etoile du Nord in the Mediterranean Sea. The schooner was dismasted and Valmy put in to Málaga, Spain. She returned to Brest in 1855, where she was disarmed. In 1864, she was renamed Borda and became a training hulk for the French Naval Academy. Upon her replacement in 1890, she was renamed Intrépide. She was stricken from the navy list in 1891 and scrapped soon afterwards.
Béatrice Dalle

Béatrice Dalle (born 19 December 1964) is a French actress and model. She has appeared in over fifty films and is best known internationally for her debut role in the 1986 film 37°2 le matin (also released as Betty Blue). Béatrice Dalle is renowned for her intense and unconventional roles, often portraying characters that are both provocative and transgressive.
Dalle was born in Brest, Finistère, France, as Béatrice Cabarrou. She grew up in Le Mans with her mother, father, and an older sister. At age 15, Dalle ran away from home to live in Paris. In 1985, she married the painter Jean-François Dalle, whom she divorced in 1988. In 2005, Dalle married an inmate she met while acting in a short film that was being shot in a prison. They divorced in 2015.
Dalle was working as a model when she met filmmaker Jean-Jacques Beineix. Beineix cast her in the lead role of the 1986 film 37°2 le matin (released in the UK and USA as Betty Blue) which received BAFTA and Oscar nominations for Best Foreign Language Film, and made a star of Dalle.
She went on to appear in a series of major roles in French films, including the 1989 film Chimère, which was entered into the 1989 Cannes Film Festival.
She featured in the 1987 music video for Buster Poindexter's version of "Oh Me Oh My (I'm fool for you Baby)" and in the 1991 music video for "Move to Memphis" by Norwegian band a-ha.
She starred in Jim Jarmusch's Night on Earth in 1991. In 1997, she was cast in The Blackout, her first film made in the United States.
In 2001, Dalle appeared in the controversial film Trouble Every Day, in which she played a vampire. She starred in the 2007 film À l'intérieur, in which she played a cruel psychopath stalking a pregnant woman.
In 1988, Dalle was interviewed by Clive James in "Postcard from Paris" where she said she was tired of Paris and wanted to move to New York.
Dalle has been arrested on several occasions for shoplifting, drug possession and assault. In January 2005, while making a film about prison life in Brest, Dalle met Guenaël Meziani, serving a 12-year prison sentence for assaulting and raping his ex-girlfriend. She married him after 24 one-hour visits, and spoke on his behalf at hearings for his early release. According to a 2015 profile of Dalle, she said the marriage was "a complete disaster" once Meziani was released from prison, and their divorce was apparently finalised in July 2014.
Interviewed on the French TV programme Divan in 2016, Dalle stated that when she used to work in a morgue with her friends, they sold body parts of corpses, and while on acid, they ate a dead man's ear.
Mercator (ship)

Mercator is a steel-hulled barquentine built in 1932 as a training ship for the Belgian merchant fleet. She was named after Gerardus Mercator (1512–1594), a Belgian cartographer. She was designed by G.L. Watson & Co. and built in Leith, Scotland and launched in 1932.
Besides being a training ship, she was also used, mainly before World War II, for scientific observations, or as ambassador for Belgium on world fairs and in sailing events.
In 1961, she became a floating museum, first in Antwerp and, from 1964, in the marina of Ostend, just in front of the city hall. As of 2019, she remains open to visitors.
Mercator was launched in 1932 as a steel-hulled barquentine, with composite rigging. The foremast carries square sails, the main mast and the mizzen mast are rigged with fore and aft-sails. Usually the Mercator carried 15 sails with a total surface of about 1,600 m (17,000 sq ft). With a fair wind she could easily make 13 knots.
Mercator made her seventh cruise in 1934, sailing from Pitcairn Island, Tahiti, Papeete, to the Marquesas Islands and Honolulu for a Belgo-French scientific expedition. It proved to be a fairly remarkable one to those preceding World War II. At the end of this expedition, two of the famous Easter Island statues, that had transported back to Europe on board the Mercator, were donated by the Chilean government, one to France and one to Belgium.
In 1936 Mercator had the honor of bringing home the remains of the Flemish missionary and apostle of the lepers, Pater Damiaan, from Molokai island in Hawaii.
On February 21, 1940, Mercator set out for her last cruise before World War II. She sailed to Rio de Janeiro and afterward arrived in Boma in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
From early 1945 to mid 1947, the ship was under the control of the British Admiralty as a submarine depot ship. After her release from naval duties, the ship went back to Belgium to receive extensive maintenance work. On 20 January 1951, she returned to service as a training ship and completed 41 voyages, sailing almost all seas. After that she performed quite a few scientific missions. In addition she competed in Tall Ships Races from Torbay-Lisbon (1956), Brest-Canary Islands (1958) and winning line honours in the Oslo-Ostend (1960) race.
From 1932 to 1960 she had just two commanders: Captain R. Van de Sande (from 1932 till 1955), Captain R. Ghys (from 1955 till 1960).
In 1964, Mercator became a floating museum in Ostend, moored in front of the City Hall, and since 1996 has been given National Heritage status. On 30 September 2016, Mercator was removed from her usual mooring and dry-docked for an extensive overhaul elsewhere in Ostend harbour. She returned on 29 March 2017 to her usual berth and role as a museum ship.
Media related to Mercator (ship, 1932) at Wikimedia Commons
51°13′38″N 2°55′14″E﻿ / ﻿51.22722°N 2.92056°E﻿ / 51.22722; 2.92056
List of fatal accidents in motorboat racing

As motorboat racing is a dangerous sport, many individuals (including drivers, crew members, officials and spectators) have been killed in crashes related to the sport, either in a race, in qualifying, in practice or a private testing session. For example, in offshore powerboat racing, one racer dies each year from accidents. Although a push for safety in recent years has led to the decrease in deaths and serious injuries as closed cockpits, safety cells and harnesses more common in automobile racing have become more common among the top and fastest classes.
Whilst being the 2nd from last with the highest number of fatal accidents of the four parimutuel betting sports in Japan, 34 drivers (including one trainee) have lost their lives since the first death in 1953. This is caused by collisions with the quay or one of the competing boats. It is estimated that there is one death for every 2 years.
Kyōtei boats, which are similar to C Stock Hydro (APBA) or OSY 400 (UIM) in specifications worldwide, do not feature seat belts, safety capsules, or other forms of required safety devices such as flotation devices and oxygen masks, which are required in most powerboat classes (offshore, F1H20, H1 Unlimited) after a series of early 1980's Unlimited Hydroplane fatalities.
Библиография Льва Толстого

Библиография писателя Льва Толстого.
Современное Полное (академическое) собрание сочинений в ста томах готовится Толстовской группой Института мировой литературы им. А. М. Горького Российской Академии Наук при участии учёных Института русской литературы (Пушкинский Дом) РАН, Государственного музея Л. Н. Толстого в Москве, Музея-усадьбы «Ясная Поляна», а также зарубежных специалистов по творчеству Толстого из США, Канады, Японии, Великобритании, Германии, Франции, Италии, Нидерландов и др. Публикуется издательством «Наука» с 2000 года (ISBN 5-02-011823-0). По состоянию на 2022 год изданы следующие тома:
Помимо двух указанных серий, в состав Собрания также войдут: «Третья серия. Публицистические произведения в двадцати томах»; «Четвёртая серия. Дневники и записные книжки в тринадцати томах»; «Пятая серия. Письма в тридцати двух томах». Ряд томов планируется издать в нескольких книгах, в результате чего общее количество книг в Собрании достигнет ста двадцати.
В 2012 году доктором филологических наук, профессором Н. И. Бурнашёвой был подготовлен и опубликован отдельной книгой (в сообразном с томами Собрания оформлении) свод исправлений и дополнений к Тому 3 (3):
Детство (Толстой)

«Де́тство» — первая повесть автобиографической трилогии Льва Толстого, впервые напечатана в 1852 году в журнале «Современник», № 9. Эта книга описывает психологические переживания, которые испытывают многие мальчики в детстве: первая влюблённость, чувство несправедливости, обида, стеснение.
Несмотря на то, что «Детство» — это автобиографическое произведение, это всё же литературное произведение, а не мемуары. Толстой, потерявший мать в два года, по сути, придумал образ матери и центральное для «Детства» переживание её смерти. Фигура отца в «Детстве» также не имеет ничего общего с собственным отцом Толстого и списана с соседа Толстых Александра Исленьева, который даже узнал себя в персонаже. Основным прототипом брата Николеньки Володи нередко называют Владимира Иславина — незаконорожденного сына Александра Исленьева, но, по другой версии, Володя списан с брата Толстого Сергея. Даже образ самого Николеньки Иртеньева — тоже составной, в нём отразились черты незаконорожденного сына Александра Исленьева — Владимира Иславина.
Толстой, Никита Алексеевич

Ники́та Алексе́евич Толсто́й (27 февраля (12 марта) 1917, Москва, Российская империя — 19 октября 1994, Санкт-Петербург, Россия) — советский и российский физик, профессор, общественный и политический деятель.
Сын писателя Алексея Николаевича Толстого (1883–1945), который посвятил ему повесть «Детство Никиты» и Натальи Васильевны Крандиевской (1888–1963).
Родился 27 февраля (12 марта) 1917 года в Москве. Братья — физикохимик Фёдор Фёдорович Волькенштейн (единоутробный) и композитор Дмитрий Алексеевич Толстой. Единокровная сестра — химик Марианна Алексеевна Толстая (1911—1988).
Умер 19 октября 1994 года. Похоронен на Литераторских мостках рядом со своим тестем, поэтом М. Л. Лозинским.
Окончил физический факультет (1939) и аспирантуру ЛГУ имени А. А. Жданова (1941). Препаратор Ленинградского энергофизического института (1932), ассистент ЛГУ (1941—1942). Участник Великой Отечественной войны (1942—1945): с мая 1942 года проходил военную службу в 18-й запасной бригаде, а затем до 13 октября 1944 года — в Ленинградской Военно-воздушной академии Красной Армии, в августе 1941 года эвакуированной из Ленинграда в Йошкар-Олу).
Учился в докторантуре ФИАН имени П. Н. Лебедева (научный руководитель — академик АН СССР С. И. Вавилов), откуда был прикомандирован в ГОИ имени С. И. Вавилова (1945—1948), старший научный сотрудник лаборатории С. И. Вавилова в ГОИ (с 1948).
Работал в ЛИТМО (по совместительству): старший преподаватель (1951), доцент (1951—1954) кафедры физики, заведующий кафедрой физики (1951—1954). Профессор. Доктор физико-математических наук. C 1962 года работал в должности профессора на кафедре общей физики № 1 физического факультета ЛГУ.
Был одним из основателей научно-педагогической школы в области магнитооптических явлений и квантовой оптики. Соавтор одного из открытий, сделанных на физическом факультете ЛГУ/СПбГУ — «Явление образования макроскопического поверхностного постоянного электрического дипольного момента у частиц, диспергированных в полярных жидкостях» (диплом № 358, 1988 г., соавторы А. А. Спартаков, А. А. Трусов, Г. И. Хилько).
По воспоминаниям коллег и выпускников, был одним из лучших лекторов на физическом факультете.
В 1990—1993 годах — народный депутат РСФСР; был избран при поддержке блока «Демократические выборы-90».
Один из основателей и первый президент Всемирного клуба петербуржцев.
Жена — Наталья Михайловна Лозинская (1915—2007), дочь Михаила Леонидовича Лозинского. У них было семеро детей, в том числе:
Верхняя одежда

Верхняя одежда — группа товаров, объединённых по общему признаку «предметы одежды для ношения на улице». Верхняя одежда обычно надевается поверх нательного белья («нижней одежды»), корсетных изделий и/или одежды из костюмно-платьевой группы. Верхняя одежда имеет как эстетическую, так и утилитарную роль (защиту от климатических воздействий).
Различия между нижней и верхней одеждой отражают разделение личного и общественного пространств.
На практике, верхняя одежда очень разнообразна; чёткая граница между верхней (уличной) одеждой и одеждой для дома (например, исторической «горничной одеждой» у восточных славян или современной англ. loungewear в западной культуре) часто отсутствует. Некоторые авторы используют термины «верхняя уличная одежда», «верхняя домашняя одежда».
Понятие о том, что является верхней одеждой, варьирует с культурой. Яркие примеры — кимоно у японцев, налобная повязка у американских индейцев, саронг, африканские головные уборы.
Жёсткие ограничения на верхнюю одежду налагает ислам: на людях должен быть прикрыт аврат; в домах жёстко выделяется пространство, где верхняя одежда не обязательна (тем самым предназначенное только для близких родственников) и более публичные части дома, где в верхней одежде можно принимать гостей.
В античные времена различие между нижней и верхней одеждой было слабым: гиматий, тога, стола все использовались как домашняя и уличная одежда, с дополнительными слоями или накидкой-лацерной в случае сырой или холодной погоды. Туники и набедренные повязки, которые обычно носились под другой одеждой, в определённых ситуациях мужчины могли носить сами по себе. В III—IV веках нашей эры вошло в обычай носить две туники, внутреннюю с длинными рукавами и внешнюю — с короткими. Военные имели более развитую верхнюю одежду: плащи палудаментум и сагум, накидку-пенулу , различные типы тёплой верхней одежды носили также жители северных провинций.
В Средневековье продолжилось позднеримское использование толстой туники как верхней одежды с поддетой под неё туникой из более тонкой ткани; в течение XIV века туники стали подгоняться по фигуре и перешли в дублеты.
Дифференциация нижней и верхней одежды ускорилась в XVIII веке, когда в культуре чётко оформилась граница между личным и общественным.
Дублет (одежда)

Дублет (фр. doublet) — мужская верхняя одежда, распространённая в Западной Европе в период с 1330-х по 1660—1670-е годы.
Это был первый образец одежды, который плотно сидел на теле. Первые дублеты были до середины бедра, позже они стали укорачиваться, и в моду вошли сшивные шоссы (взамен раздельным шоссам-чулкам) и дублет соединялся с ними рядом завязок, доходя ниже паховой впадины.
Иногда изготовлялся с раздельными рукавами, которые пришивались в районе плеч.
С XV века появлялся стоячий ворот.
Делался из шерсти и льняной подкладки. Позже появились вариации с пуфами на рукавах и изготовлялись ворот и рукава из более дорогих материалов, так как дублет был обычно скрыт под верхней одеждой, такой как уппеланд, к примеру.
Так же (в XV—XVI веках) использовался как поддоспешник или самостоятельный доспех с нашитыми кусками кольчуги, металлическими пластинами или толстой кожей. Изначально был просто кожаной рубашкой, со временем превратившись фактически в кожаную куртку со стёганой подкладкой, нередко обшитую изнутри льном, а в дорогих вариантах — шёлком, и стоячим воротником, защищающим шею. Впоследствии кожа стала необязательной, а в XV веке на него стали нашивать кусочки кольчуги с целью защиты уязвимых мест (подмышки, внутренняя сторона локтя) у лат (дублет с нашитой кольчугой весил существенно меньше, чем кольчуга + поддоспешник).