Souls in Filipino cultures

Souls in Filipino cultures abound and differ per ethnic group in the Philippines. The concept of souls include both the souls of the living and the souls or ghosts of the dead. The concepts of souls in the Philippines is a notable traditional understanding that traces its origin from the sacred indigenous Philippine folk religions.
Each ethnic group has their own concept and number of the soul of a being, notably humans. In most cases, a person has two or more souls while they are alive. The origin of a person's soul have been told through narratives concerning the indigenous Philippine folk religions, where each ethnic religion has its unique concept on soul origin, soul composition, retaining and caring for the soul, and other matters, such as the eventual passage of the soul after the person's life is relinquished. In some cases, the souls are provided by certain deities such as the case among the Tagbanwa, while in others, the soul comes from certain special regions such as the case among the Bisaya. Some people have two souls such as the Ifugao, while others have five souls such as the Hanunoo Mangyan. In general, a person's physical and mental health contribute to the overall health of the person's souls. In some instances, if a soul is lost, a person will become sick, and if all living souls are gone, then the body eventually dies. However, there are also instances where the body can still live despite the loss of all of its souls, such as the phenomenon called mekararuanan among the Ibanag. Overall, caring for one's self is essential to a long life for the souls, which in turn provide a long life to the body.
Ghosts or ancestral spirits, in a general Philippine concept, are the spirits of those who have already died. In other words, they are the souls of the dead. They are different from the souls of the living, where in many instances, a person has two or more living souls, depending on the ethnic group. In some cases, when the body dies, the souls that have been lost eventually re-combine in the afterlife such as the case among the Bukidnon. In other cases, the last main soul travels to the afterlife alone such as the case of the Suludnon, while in other cases, the soul eventually goes back to its region of origin such as the case among the Bisaya. In a unique case among the Bagobo, their right soul goes to the afterlife, while the left soul becomes a creature called busaw.
Each ethnic group in the Philippine islands has their own terms for ancestral spirits or souls of the dead. Due to the sheer diversity of indigenous words for ghosts, terms like espirito and multo, both adopted from Spanish words such as muerto, have been used as all-encompassing terms for the souls or spirits of the dead in mainstream Filipino culture. Unlike in Western beliefs where ghosts are generally known for their sometimes horrific nature, ghosts of the dead for the various ethnic groups in the Philippines are traditionally regarded in high esteem. These ghosts are usually referred to as ancestral spirits who can guide and protect their relatives and community. Although ancestral spirits can also cast harm if they are disrespected. In many cases among various Filipino ethnic groups, spirits of the dead are traditionally venerated and deified in accordance to ancient belief systems originating from the indigenous Philippine folk religions.
Popular urban legends about Filipino ghosts usually include the theme of either a white lady, a phantom hitchhiker, or a headless ghost. In most instances where ghosts are harmful, Christian themes have been incorporated, as ghosts in the traditional Filipino folk religions are generally not harmful unless provoked.
The concept of soul(s) is integral to all ethnic groups in the Philippines. Each ethnic group has their own unique concept of what a soul is, how many are there, and how a soul follows the cycle of life and death or how it follows the linear path of life, death, and beyond. Among the many concepts of soul/s are as follow:
Souls have been featured multiple times in films, but most feature ghosts whose context are influenced by Christian, Western, or Chinese views, rather than traditional beliefs from the indigenous Philippine folk religions. Some of these films include Feng Shui (2004), Wag Kang Lilingon (2006), Shake, Rattle and Roll X: Class Picture (2008), The Healing (2012), and Seklusyon (2016).