Dalmatian pelican

The Dalmatian pelican (Pelecanus crispus) is the largest member of the pelican family and perhaps the world's largest freshwater bird, although rivaled in weight and length by the largest swans. It is an elegant soaring bird, with a wingspan rivaling that of the great albatross, and flies in flocks with graceful synchrony. With a range spanning across much of Central Eurasia, from the eastern Mediterranean in the west to the Taiwan Strait in the east, and from the Persian Gulf in the south to Siberia in the north, it is a short-to-medium-distance migrant between breeding and overwintering areas. No subspecies are known to exist over its wide range, but based on size differences, a Pleistocene paleosubspecies, P. c. palaeocrispus, has been described from fossils recovered at Binagadi raion in Azerbaijan.
As with other pelicans, its diet is mainly fish, and the males are larger than the females. Its curly nape feathers, grey legs and silvery-white plumage are distinguishing features, and the wings appear solid grey in flight. The adults acquire a drabber plumage in winter, however, making them look more similar to the great white pelican. Its harsh vocalizations become more pronounced during the mating season. It breeds across the Palearctic from southeastern Europe to Russia, India and China in swamps and shallow lakes. It usually returns to traditional breeding sites, where it is less social than other pelican species. Its nests are crude heaps of vegetation, which are placed on islands or dense mats of vegetation.
The species' numbers dramatically declined during the 20th century, partly due to land use, disturbance and poaching activities. The core population survives in Russia, but in its Mongolian range, it is critically endangered. Removal of power lines to prevent bird strike or electrocution and constructing nesting platforms or rafts have reversed declines locally.
The Dalmatian pelican is among the largest flying birds in the world. Adults typically measure between 1.6 and 1.8 m (5 ft 3 in and 5 ft 11 in) in length and have an impressive wingspan ranging from 3.1 to 3.45 m (10.2 to 11.3 ft). Its average weight is approximately 11 kg (24 lb) making the species one of the heaviest capable of flight.
The species is most easily recognized by its enormous bill, which can reach up to 45 cm (18 in) in length and includes a large pouch used for catching fish. During the breeding season, this pouch becomes a vivid orange-red, contrasting with the more subdued yellow or grey tones observed during the rest of the year.The upper mandible remains greyish throughout, often with a slight orange tip.
The Dalmatian pelican has silvery-white plumage, which may appear more grey or creamy, especially in winter. A distinguishing feature is the presence of a shaggy crest of curly feathers on the nape and back of the head, giving the bird a notably unkempt appearance compared to the smooth-headed great white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus). The legs are dark grey, another feature that helps separate it from related species with pinkish legs.
In flight, the Dalmatian pelican is striking: it soars with slow, powerful wingbeats, neck pulled back in a characteristic "S" shape similar to a heron. The wings are broad and pale greyish-white, with noticeable black tips on the primaries. This bird often flies in synchronized groups, gliding gracefully and silently above lakes and wetlands.
While generally a quiet species, the Dalmatian pelican may produce deep, guttural grunts, hisses, or barking sounds during the breeding season. Its takeoff from water is energetic, requiring strong pushes with both feet and heavy flapping, especially when carrying a full pouch of fish.
Juveniles are overall greyer and duller in appearance, with less distinctive crests and darker plumage, but gradually acquire the characteristic silvery-white coloration as they mature.
Historically, the Dalmatian pelican was far more widespread across Europe than it is today. Subfossil remains dating back to the Holocene climatic optimum, approximately 7400 to 5000 years BP have been found as far north as Denmark. Additional remains dated to 1900–600 BP have been uncovered in central Europe, the Netherlands, and Great Britain. These finds suggest that the species once ranged across much of the continent during periods of warmer climate.
Currently, the Dalmatian pelican is widely distributed across southeastern Europe, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent, inhabiting large, open wetlands such as lakes, rivers, deltas, estuaries, and floodplains. Unlike the great white pelican, which remains mostly in lowlands, the Dalmatian pelican nests at various elevations and is more philopatric, typically returning to the same traditional breeding sites unless they become unsuitable due to disturbance or degradation. During the non-breeding season, the Dalmatian pelican seeks out ice-free inland waters, such as large lakes in Europe or temporary wetlands known as jheels in India, which provide essential foraging and resting habitat. As global temperatures rise and such habitats become more widely available or persist longer into the year, there is growing evidence that the species is gradually expanding its range, responding to increasingly favorable environmental conditions.
The global population of the Dalmatian pelican is estimated at between 10,000 and 20,000 individuals, with roughly 3,000 to 5,000 breeding pairs. Although the species suffered dramatic declines during the 20th century, several strongholds remain. The largest known breeding colony is found at Small Prespa Lake, which is shared between Greece and Albania and supports around 1,600 pairs. Another significant population persists in the Danube Delta, with approximately 450 pairs recorded there.
Russia now hosts the largest breeding population of the Dalmatian pelican, with estimates exceeding 3,000 pairs, representing about 70% of all breeding individuals worldwide. Other active breeding sites are scattered across southeastern Europe, including regions in Ukraine, North Macedonia, Romania, Bulgaria—particularly the Srebarna Nature Reserve—and Albania, where Karavasta Lagoon serves as a key nesting site. Although the species was considered extinct in Croatia since the 1950s, a lone Dalmatian pelican was observed there in 2011.
The Dalmatian pelican is a partial migrant, and its movement patterns vary significantly across its range. In Europe, many populations are dispersive rather than fully migratory, with individuals often remaining near their breeding sites year-round or making only short-distance movements to the Mediterranean basin in winter. For example, in the Danube Delta, birds typically arrive in March and leave by the end of August, reflecting a predictable seasonal pattern aligned with breeding and food availability.
By contrast, populations in Asia undertake more substantial migrations. Pelicans breeding in southern Russia generally migrate to the central Middle East for the winter, with many wintering in wetlands across Iran and extending through the Indian subcontinent, reaching as far south as Sri Lanka and westward into Nepal and central India. Mongolian-breeding birds follow a different route, traveling to the east coast of China, including areas around Hong Kong, to spend the winter months.
This pelican feeds almost entirely on fish. Preferred prey species can include common carp (Cyprinus carpio), European perch (Perca fluviatilis), common rudd (Scardinius erythropthalmus), eels, catfish (especially silurids during winter), mullet and northern pike (Esox lucius), the latter having measured up to 50 cm (20 in) when taken. In the largest remnant colony, located in Greece, the preferred prey is reportedly the native Alburnus belvica. The Dalmatian pelican requires around 1,200 g (2.6 lb) of fish per day and can take locally abundant smaller fish such as gobies, but usually ignore them in favour of slightly larger fish. It usually forages alone or in groups of only two or three. It normally swims along, placidly and slowly, until it quickly dunks its head underwater and scoops the fish out, along with great masses of water. The water is dumped out of the sides of the pouch and the fish is swallowed. Occasionally it may feed cooperatively with other pelicans by corralling fish into shallow waters and may even cooperate similarly while fishing alongside great cormorants in Greece. Occasionally, the pelican may not immediately eat the fish contained in its gular pouch, so it can save the prey for later consumption. Other small wetlands-dwellers may supplement the diet, including crustaceans, worms, beetles and small water birds, usually nestlings and eggs.
Among a highly social family in general, the Dalmatian pelican may have the least social inclinations. This species naturally nests in relatively small groups compared to most other pelican species and sometimes may even nest alone. However, small colonies are usually formed, which regularly include upwards of 250 pairs (especially historically). Occasionally, Dalmatian pelicans may mix in with colonies of great white pelicans. Nesting sites selected are usually either islands in large bodies of water (typically lagoons or river deltas) or dense mats of aquatic vegetation, such as extensive reedbeds of Phragmites and Typha. Due to its large size, this pelican often tramples the vegetation in the area surrounding its nest into the muddy substrate and thus nesting sites may become unsuitably muddy after around three years of usage.
The nest is a moderately-sized pile of grass, reeds, sticks, and feathers, usually measuring about 1 m (3.3 ft) deep and 63 cm (25 in) across. Nests are usually located on or near the ground, often being placed on dense floating vegetation. Nests tend to be flimsy until cemented together by droppings. Breeding commences in March or April, about a month before the great white pelican breeds. The Dalmatian pelican lays a clutch of one to six eggs, with two eggs being the norm. Eggs weigh between 120 and 195 g (4.2 and 6.9 oz). Incubation, which is split between both parents, lasts for 30 to 34 days. The chicks are born naked but soon sprout white down feathers. Aggressive behaviors between siblings are very rare and generally non-fatal. When the young are 6 to 7 weeks of age, the pelicans frequently gather in "pods". The offspring fledge at around 85 days and become independent at 100 to 105 days old. Nesting success relies on local environmental conditions, with anywhere from 58% to 100% of hatchlings successfully surviving to adulthood. Sexual maturity is thought to be obtained at three or four years of age.
Predation on Dalmatian pelicans is relatively poorly known despite the species' threatened status. Adult birds have no natural enemies and the nesting sites often insure limited nest predation, though carnivorous mammals which eat eggs and nestlings can access nests when water levels are low enough for them to cross, as has been recorded with wild boars (Sus scrofa) destroying nests in Bulgaria. Golden jackals (Canis aureus) are also known to access and destroy nests when water levels are too low and the same is possibly true of other canids such as foxes, gray wolves (Canis lupus) and dogs (C. l. familiaris), not to mention other predatory animals such as potentially Eurasian lynxes (Lynx lynx). Some eagles may attack pelicans at colonies, although this is not verified. Large gulls are known to be virulent predators of Dalmatian pelican eggs in Russia, Albania and Turkey.
Throughout the 20th century, the Dalmatian pelican underwent a dramatic decline in numbers, becoming one of the most threatened pelican species. Habitat loss due to wetland drainage and land conversion is considered one of the primary drivers of this decline.
In some regions, conflict with fisheries contributes to deliberate persecution. Dalmatian pelicans are occasionally shot by fishermen who view them as competitors for dwindling fish stocks, although such killings tend to be localized and on a small scale. Nonetheless, the perception that pelicans deplete fish populations remains widespread in many fishing communities.
Poaching represents an additional serious threat in parts of Asia, particularly in Mongolia. There, local hunters illegally kill pelicans to sell their bills, which are fashioned into pouches. These pelican bill pouches are highly valued; on a typical day in a Mongolian market, as many as 50 may be offered for sale, and their worth can be equivalent to a trade of ten horses and thirty sheep. This level of exploitation has reduced the Mongolian population to fewer than 130 individuals, making the species critically endangered in that region.
Electrocution is a frequent cause of death in areas where power lines cross known flight paths. Efforts to reduce mortality from power lines have included marking dangerous lines with visual warnings and even dismantling some infrastructure near breeding colonies.
Human disturbance at breeding sites has also been a major factor. Like all pelicans, Dalmatian pelicans are extremely sensitive to disturbance; if approached or startled, adults may temporarily abandon their nests, exposing eggs and chicks to predation or fatal exposure to the elements. In Greece, high levels of disturbance from recreational boating—particularly powerboats carrying tourists—have been linked to feeding disruptions, sometimes causing starvation and mortality in pelican populations.
Water level management, habitat restoration, and public education programs have played vital roles in improving local conditions for breeding success. However, conservation progress has been slower in parts of Asia, where poaching, shooting, and habitat destruction remain more pervasive and difficult to control.
The Dalmatian pelican is protected under the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA), and several countries have launched national initiatives to protect and restore populations. Artificial nesting platforms have been installed in Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, and Romania, encouraging breeding where natural nest sites have been lost or degraded. Additionally, floating rafts have been placed in wetlands in Greece and Bulgaria, providing secure nesting spots isolated from predators and human disturbance.
A moving example of community-driven conservation occurred in 2012, when extreme cold froze large sections of the Caspian Sea, threatening the survival of overwintering Dalmatian pelicans. Despite initial discouragement from local authorities, many residents took action, bringing fish and hand-feeding the birds to help them survive the harsh conditions. Their efforts likely saved dozens of birds from starvation and highlighted the positive impact of grassroots support in wildlife conservation.