davidanugraha/M4-RAG huggingface dataset:
中国当代文学

中华人民共和国文学是指1949年中国共产党在中国大陆夺取政权建立中华人民共和国之后的文学。中国共产党取得政权之后，颁布了一系列规章制度，其中“文艺必须为政治服务”、“坚持党管文艺不动摇”是典型代表。
1942年，毛泽东在中国共产党的根据地延安发表了《在延安文艺座谈会上的讲话》，毛泽东提出“文艺要为工农兵服务”的理念，深深影响了中国共产党以及跟随中国共产党走的文人。
1949年，毛泽东及其团队建立中华人民共和国，文学转变为讴歌毛泽东、讴歌中国共产党，这些是这一时期的主旋律。
1953年，毛泽东提出要“百花齐放百家争鸣”和“大鸣大放”，鼓励作家写作，鼓励作家指出社会上和生活中的问题。 这一时期，中国共产党批判《武训传》、批判俞平伯《红楼梦》研究、批判“胡风反革命集团”，用行政力量解决文学争议问题。
1960年代初期，中国共产党制定了《文艺八条》，文学走向狭窄化，只能写社会主义、共产主义，题材是革命、农村、中国共产党的丰功伟绩等，这时期的文学奔放刚健，但政治化题材狭窄，人物类型化，都是中国共产党的英雄烈士等人物。
1966年，毛泽东由于对国内政治形势作出错误判断，认为中国共产党党内有“走资本主义道路的当权派”（刘少奇、邓小平等），为夺回“党内走资派”的权力，他发起了文化大革命，导火线是上海《文汇报》的《评新编历史剧<海瑞罢官>》，毛泽东的文章是《炮打司令部》，指出打倒“走资派”头目刘少奇、邓小平，红卫兵诞生后，他们又打倒“走资派”、“黑帮分子”、“反动学术权威”，一大批知识分子、中国共产党老干部、社会名人等被批斗、抄家、迫害致死。
王洪文、江青、张春桥、姚文元“四人帮”趁机，把文学推向“法西斯文化专制主义”，中华人民共和国文化部被斥为“帝王将相部”、“才子佳人部”，最终被撤销，中华人民共和国文联（中国文联）、中华人民共和国作家协会（中国作协）都被解散，文学刊物停刊，文学作品被封存、焚毁，作家的作品被抄家时焚毁，作家则被迫害致死。 文化大革命的10年里，文学作品很少，只有“八个样板戏”，即：《红灯记》、《沙家浜》、《智取威虎山》、《红色娘子军》、《奇袭白虎团》、《海港》、《白毛女》、《龙江颂》。
中华人民共和国建国初期，诗歌主要用来歌咏毛泽东和中国共产党，如诗人贺敬之根据陕北民歌写成“东方红，太阳升，东方出了个毛泽东，他为人民谋幸福，他是人民大救星”；诗人柳亚子《浣溪沙》赞美毛泽东“不是一人能领导，那容百族共蹁跹”；诗人郭沫若《满江红》赞美毛泽东“太阳出，冰山滴，真金在，岂销铄，有雄文四卷，为民立极……迎东方革命展红旗，乾坤赤。”
中华人民共和国建国初期，小说主要反映中国共产党领导建设社会主义和共产主义，如梁斌的《红旗谱》、吴强的《红日》、杨沫的《青春之歌》、欧阳山的《三家巷》、柳青的《创业史》、罗广斌和杨益言的《红岩》、魏巍的《谁是最可爱的人》、何其芳的《我们最伟大的节日》等。
戏剧题材则走向历史，如老舍的《龙须沟》和《茶馆》、郭沫若的《蔡文姬》、《武则天》，田汉的《关汉卿》、《文成公主》等。
1978年，邓小平执掌中国大陆政权之后，文学创作开始出现勃勃生机，数量巨增，题材广泛，形成了刘心武为代表的“伤痕文学”，主要描写知青、知识分子、老党员老干部被文革迫害的悲惨遭遇，情感压抑、呻吟，显得过于文弱，邓小平并不认同该文学派系，指出其是“哭哭啼啼，没有出息”。这一时期里，优秀的文学作品有：《许茂和他的女儿们》、《黄河东流去》、《丹心谱》、《报春花》、《归来的歌》。
江泽民、胡锦涛执政的新时期，文学更加繁荣璀璨，各类各题材作品走出国门，享誉世界。著名作品有余华的《許三观卖血记》、《活着》，莫言的《丰乳肥臀》、《酒国》、《檀香刑》、《蛙》。2012年，莫言荣获诺贝尔文学奖。
邓小平上台，文学领域诗歌最先获得解放，早在1976年就出现了天安门诗抄，以讽刺四人帮的末日即将到来和呐喊出人民反对专制和暴政声音。 1980年，诗人艾青复出，写出了《归来的歌》，穆旦、公木、公刘、流沙河等“右派”诗人纷纷复出；七月派诗人绿原、牛汉、曾卓；九叶派诗人辛笛、陈敬容也纷纷复出，歌咏“归来”。
1985年，拉丁美洲的魔幻现实主义走入中国大陆，影响了一部分作家，如莫言。 这时期的文学作品有明显的现代意识、西方写作技巧（意识流之类）、时空变幻立体交叉，著名作品有王蒙的《春之声》、莫言的《红高粱》、刘索拉的《你别无选择》、徐星的《无主题变奏》。
1980年中期开始，文学出现“先锋派”，代表人物是莫言、余华、马原等，文化上反对意识形态斗争、颠覆传统的写实主义，叙述方式展开革命，语言结构有长句、短句变幻，使得文学多元化，缺点是过于照搬西方文学技巧。著名作品有马原的《冈底斯的诱惑》、余华的《现实一种》。
1980年代中期，诗歌开始展现探索精神，学习西方现代诗歌，出现了“朦胧诗”，《今天》是朦胧诗的阵地，著名诗人有北岛、顾城、舒婷、江河、杨炼、食指，其重要作用是促进了中国人对“人”的重新审视，对历史的审视，由于看到中国共产党的新一轮执政危机以及1989年六四事件，使得北岛出走成为美国公民，杨炼出走欧洲，顾城在大洋洲自杀，海子卧轨自杀。
1990年代开始，小说出现“新写实小说”，也名叫“现代现实主义”、“后现实主义”等，重返现实，“生活原生态”和“零度情感”来写作，著名作品有池莉的《你是一条河》、方方的《纸婚年》、刘恒的《教育诗》、刘震云的《一地鸡毛》。 这一时期，散文开始恢复生机，伴随着旅游业的兴起，散文开始追求历史文化反思，展现出美学和诗意，主要散文家有汪曾祺、张中行、余秋雨《文化苦旅》、季羡林、金克木、张承志。
2000年代开始，80后作家开始登场，其特点是思想更加无拘无束，不再拘束于意识形态斗争，也没有受过文化大革命的苦楚和辛酸，虽然有六四事件但是由于这一代人当时年幼也没有太多震撼或其他情感，这批作家的写作手法更加西方化、语言和词汇结合世界各国文学也有创新，敢写敢披露社会现实，关注民主、人权等权利，主要作家和作品有韩寒《三重门》、蒋方舟等。
此外，一些科幻小说也引起了人们的关注。刘慈欣的《三体》、郝景芳的《北京折叠》等作品迅速畅销并荣获雨果奖。但在获得成就的同时，也导致了一部分人过度引以为豪、吹捧过度的现象，并招来了批评和争议。
现代诗人

现代诗人是创作现代诗歌作品的作家。
对于现代诗人来说，无论是西方还是中国的诗人，现代诗歌一般大都采用自由体裁，诗歌的格律和形式已经不再重要。
现代诗人还可以进一步分为现代诗人和当代诗人，一般的分法是将20世纪上半叶的诗人定义为现代诗人；20世纪下半叶及以后的诗人定义为当代诗人；这种分类法在中国已经被普遍接受。
西川 (诗人)

西川（1963年—），本名刘军，江苏徐州人，中国当代诗人。與駱一禾與海子合稱為“北大三劍客”。
西川1985年毕业于北京大学英文系。从1980年代开始从事诗歌创作，曾参加《倾向》、《现代汉诗》等职诗歌刊物的编辑工作。西川是知识分子写作诗群的代表人之一，其作品对中国当代诗歌的发展有重要影响。
诗人

诗人是创作诗歌的人，屬於文学家一類。詩人創作的作品可以是紀事性的，描述人物或故事，如荷馬的史詩；也可以是比喻性的，隱含多種解讀的可能，如但丁的《神曲》、歌德的《浮士德》。歷史上自從有文字以來就開始有詩人，而不同國家和時代產生出許多不同的詩詞體裁。
英文的詩人（poet）一字來自於拉丁語的「poeta, poetae」，意指寫詩的人，或關於詩人的事。在中國，詩經和楚辭是現時所知的最早的詩詞集，孔子和劉向分別是詩經和楚辭的編撰者。中國的詩詞在唐朝和宋朝大盛，詩人輩出，唐代以詩仙李白和詩聖杜甫最為人所熟知。宋代詩人以寫詞為多，故又稱作「詞人」。古代的詩人對格律非常熟悉，無論在中國或西方詩詞都有特定的格式，例如唐代盛行的律詩，其對偶、押韻、聲調平仄的要求，都比小說或是散文來的嚴格。
诗人是通过在想象或现实或两者的结合中传达一个或多个主题的独特思想的悠扬、创造性、有节奏的话语来捕捉和吸引读者心灵的人。
中國的詩人通常賴以其它職業為生，如蘇軾本為翰林學士，而岳飛本為將軍，但同時亦以詩作傳世。不少詩人亦是書法家，在不少中國建築，門柱上常常會有對聯，無論宮庭或一般文人皆愛在室內掛上字畫。每逢節慶喜喪之時，文人都喜歡題詩，亦常常立碑以紀念人物和事跡，這種傳統至今不絕，故此中國詩詞得以廣泛流傳。不少詩詞都是可以唱誦的，在宋代勾欄和教坊都是唱誦詩詞的地方。不少詩人對音樂亦有認識，如姜夔的《白石道人歌曲》的音樂是詩人自己譜寫。
彻尽万法根源智经

《彻尽万法根源智经》，又称《生命福音》（英語：Gospel of the Living 或 Gospel of Mani），摩尼教的七部大经之一。这部经书在《仪略》中音译为“大应轮部”。来源于科普特文「euaggelion」、希腊文「εὐαγγέλιον」，意为“福音”。
此经统称《生命福音》，或《伟大的生命福音》，或简称《福音》。
这部经书分为22章，每章以叙利亚文的一个字母起头，按照叙利亚文的字母表顺序排列。经文论述智慧和属灵生命的意义，赞颂三位一体的至高神。
在《科隆摩尼古卷》中引用了此经的开头内容：“摩尼在福音中撰述了他最神圣的希望：‘我，耶稣基督的使徒，贯彻神——真理之父的意志，我也是从他而生的。他就是永恒。他存在于万有之先，亦存于万有之后。已有之万有，将有之万有，皆由父之力量所造。祂使我诞生，因祂之意志，我存在于此；他将所有的真实启示给我，我以他的真理而在。我看到了他宣讲的永恒圣言。我向我的同道宣扬真理，我向和平之子宣扬和平，我给予未被玷污的一代希望。我挑选选民，向那些将根据这真理向上攀登的人们指出通往顶峰的道路。我指出了希望，给予了这个启示，写下了这本不朽的福音。在此，我记下了这些神圣的仪式，陈述了伟大的活动——这是这力量的最伟大和神圣之处。我将他启示给我的这些告诉人们，让他们根据我所看到的无上真理和给予我的光辉启示而生活。’”
这段话着重强调至高者的超越性，以及摩尼直接从祂获得真理的启示。摩尼自称“耶稣基督的使徒”，将他的第一部经书命名为福音书，有和教会福音媲美之意。
波斯文-粟特文文书M172中提到了这部福音的另一部分：“祂已被赞颂，祂将被赞颂；亲中之亲的圣子，给予生命的救主耶稣。一切生命之首，智慧的纯粹与理智。她已被赞颂，她将被赞颂；光明处女，创造奇迹的卡尼罗香——智慧之首。它已被赞颂，它将被赞颂；神圣的教会——它被圣父的大力、圣母的赞颂和圣子的智慧所赞美。吉祥和祝福将赐予善良之子，赐予真实言辞的演说者和聆听者；赞颂和荣耀归于圣父、圣子、圣灵和生命的经典；生命福音的言辞指导眼睛与耳朵，教导真理的果实！”
在敦煌文书《摩尼教残经》中也引用了福音书的内容：“《应轮经》云：若电那勿等身具善法，光明父子及净法风，皆于身中每常游止。其明父者，即是明界无上明尊；其明子者，即是日月光明；净法风者，即是惠明。”明父即是明尊（察宛神），明子是日月光明（耶稣），净法风是惠明（圣灵、大诺斯）。
齋戒 (伊斯蘭教)

齋戒、又称为伊斯兰斋月，是伊斯蘭教的五功之一。完成齋戒的條件是在賴買丹月（رمضان，Ramadan，伊斯蘭曆的九月）太陽出現的時段內禁止飲食與行房，來以此贖罪。
符合條件的穆斯林必須於該月份恪守齋戒如下：
齋戒月一直進行到開齋節才結束。在開齋節到來前，穆斯林會粉刷房子，打掃房屋內外，準備開齋節盛宴的食物，並準備開齋節當天要穿的新衣，整理個人儀表門面，並且會在開齋節前清潔沐浴。穆斯林期望透過齋戒月的反省與學習自我控制的自律精神，讓身心靈重返最純淨的狀態。
《古兰经》第2章第185節：「賴買丹月中，開始降示《古兰经》，指導世人，昭示明証，以便遵循正道、分別真偽，故在此月中，你們應當齋戒；害病或旅行的人，當依所缺的日數補齋。真主要你們便利，不要你們困難，以便你們補足所缺的日數，以便你們讚頌真主引導你們的恩德，以便你們感謝他。」
《可蘭經》2章185節說：「……害病或旅行的人，當依所缺的日數補齋。真主要你們便利，不要你們困難，……」害病是指生病的人或生理期、懷孕、哺乳的婦女。害病的人等身體恢復正常及旅行者結束旅行後都須補齊欠齋日數。
《可蘭經》2章184節：「……難以齋戒者，當納罰贖，即以一餐飯，施給一個貧民……」
老人、病人（含生理期女性、孕婦及產婦、殘障人士）等都可受減免無須封齋，而健康的旅宿者則該在旅途結束後，適時補齊欠齋的日數。對於在傳統伊斯蘭社會之外所生活的部份穆斯林，倘若未能在齋月守齋，可被允許在往後相對固定的規限時段內進行，直到當季齋戒完成為止，具體執行情況則視乎個人自身的健康條件以及所在區域的氣候時差而定。
根特祭坛画

根特祭坛画（Ghent Altarpiece），又名神秘羔羊之爱（Adoration of the Mystic Lamb），是现存最早的带有签名的早期尼德兰绘画作品，是一种多翼式“开闭形”的祭坛画，外面9幅。闭合的祭坛内12幅，位于天主教根特教区圣巴夫主教座堂内。只有当节日的礼拜盛会，祭坛的两翼伴随着音乐打开时，人们才得以见到内层的12幅杰作。
这一组祭坛画完成于1415年至1432年之间，共包括21幅作品。当时画家休伯特·范·艾克应根特市长多库斯·威德之邀为根特的圣贝文教堂绘制一组祭坛画。由于这位伟大画家于1426年去世，他的弟弟揚·范·艾克接手将其完成。这组盖世佳作自从它完成后就历经磨难，不是招损于火灾，就是被侵略者掠夺，要么就是被盗，直到1951年经过彻底修缮后才重新回到圣贝文教堂中。根特祭坛画的题材是取自《圣经》，表现了对耶稣牺牲自己挽救人类的上帝之爱的祈求与赞颂。
沒有他我們無法活

《沒有他我們無法活》，或译《没有他会死》（朝鮮語：그이 없인 못살아），朝中社中文网译《我们离不开您》，是朝鮮民主主義人民共和國官方推出的一首歌頌最高領導人金正恩的歌曲。歌曲的樂譜和歌詞於2013年12月21日在《勞動新聞》頭版整版彩印刊登，該版正中間有一金正恩微笑的肖像。歌曲樂譜還提醒到要“深切地歌唱”。歌曲以抒情的女高音演唱，其曲调類似於情歌。牡丹峰樂團曾現場表演這首歌曲。
《勞動新聞》於2013年12月22日報道表示，歌曲“道出了千萬軍民視敬愛的元首（金正恩）為天的內心”。万寿台艺术团的趙一龍（音）稱贊歌曲“歌詞也非常優秀，但旋律更是精品旋律，到處都體現了無限的魅力和信賴，以及對歡喜和美好未來的信念”。而許多高層人士亦爭先稱贊這首歌曲，朝鮮居民們也在朝鮮組織內部練習唱這首歌。然而，歌曲在中國大陸網路迅速走紅，引起了許多中國大陸網友的嘲諷。有网友還将该歌曲音樂錄影帶中的朝鲜文歌词空耳出中文字幕。而世界朝鮮研究中心所長安贊一（音）則表示這是張成澤被處決事件後金正恩開展的“歌謠政治”，以歌曲來引導因該事件倍受沖擊的朝鮮居民對他效忠。
盧坎

盧坎（Marcus Annaeus Lucanus，英文稱Lucan，39年—65年）是羅馬詩人。
他最著名的著作是史詩《法沙利亞》（Pharsalia），描述凱撒與龐培之間的內戰。這部史詩雖是未完成作品，卻被譽為是維吉爾《埃涅阿斯》之外最偉大的拉丁文史詩。第七章完全在描述前48年發生於希臘北部法沙利亞的戰事，全書也以此地為名。
据斯塔提乌斯及6世纪语法学家瓦卡（英语：Vacca (grammarian)）的作品《卢坎生平》（Vita Lucani），卢坎的著作有：
流传至今的作品：
署名为卢坎的作品（也有抄本署名为其他作者）：
已佚作品：
鹿威

鹿威（日语：鹿威し／ししおどし），即中国的竹笕，传入日本后又称如“案山子”（即稻草人）、“鳴子”（似乎是一种钟或铃铛）以及“添水”等。
添水是一種常由竹子製成，通過水力驅動發出響聲驅趕動物的裝置。起構造為一個截半的竹筒被至於軸上，軸心在竹筒中部，竹筒為空時開口朝上，可接泉水，水滿後竹筒翻轉將水倒出復位到原位置時竹筒底部敲打石頭發出清脆優雅的響聲。
雖然本為驅散鳥類動物用具，但現常見於日本庭園，起裝飾作用，並成為代表寧靜、閒適、恬靜的風物（尤其是表現夏日的寧靜風情）。
Chang'an (film)

Chang'an (Chinese: 长安三万里), also known as 30,000 Miles from Chang'an, is a 2023 Chinese 3D animated historical drama film directed by Xie Junwei and Zou Jing. It follows the story of the decades-long friendship of poets Li Bai and Gao Shi amid the Tang dynasty's transition from peak prosperity to the turmoil of the rebellion led by An Lushan, one of Emperor Xuanzong's most favored generals. The film was produced by Light Chaser Animation Studios, Alibaba Pictures, Tianjin Maoyan Weiying Culture Media, Weibo Corporation, in association with China Film Co., Ltd.. The film premiered in China on 8 July 2023. At 168 minutes long, the film is tied with In This Corner (and Other Corners) of the World as the longest theatrically released animated films.
A total of 48 poems by various Tang period poets appeared in the film.
Chang'an was released on 8 July 2023 in mainland China and on August 25 2023 in Hong Kong and Macau. The movie then opened in the US and Canada on 6 October 2023, distributed by Niu Vision Media.
The Chinese film reviews website Douban gave the drama 8.3 out of 10 rating, one of the highest for wide-release animated films.
Chang'an grossed 1.823 billion yuan in Chinese box office, making it the 4th highest-grossing Chinese animated film ever.
Liu Fangping

Liu Fangping (Chinese: 劉方平) (c.742 in Luoyang – c.779) was a Tang dynasty poet. Among twenty-six extant poems Moonlit Night (月夜) and Spring Grief (春怨) are among the best known.
The Three Hundred Tang Poems is an anthology of poems from the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907) first compiled in or around the year 1763 by Sun Zhu (1722–1778), a Qing dynasty era scholar, who was also known as Hengtang Tuishi (衡塘退士 "Retired Master of Hengtang"). The inclusion of 2 of Liu Fangping's poems in this popular and best-selling collection of poetry gives proof of this poet's notability.
Jiaoran

Jiaoran (Chinese: 皎然; pinyin: Jiǎorán; Wade–Giles: Chiao-jan; 730–799), also known by his courtesy name Qingzhou (Chinese: 清昼), was a Tang dynasty Chinese poet and Buddhist monk. Jiaoran wrote more than 470 poems and was one of the three major Tang dynasty poet-monks (诗僧), along with Guanxiu (832–912) and Qiji (863–937). He was the 12th generation grandson of Xie An (320–385), a Jin dynasty (266–420) statesman who, despite his lack of military ability, led Jin through a major crisis—attacks by Former Qin (351–394). His friend, Lu Yu, is venerated as the Sage of Tea for his contribution to Chinese tea culture and the writer of The Classic of Tea.
Jiaoran was born in 730 in Wuxing District of Huzhou city, Zhejiang province. During the An Lushan Rebellion (755–763), he dwelt in seclusion and studied Taoism. When he was about forty, the Yuan-Chao Rebellion broken broke out. He received ordination as a monk in Tianzhou Temple (天竺寺) in Hangzhou, in 767, the second year of the Dali period (766–779) of the Tang dynasty (618–907). He studied Risshū school at first and then converted to Chan Buddhism. He was the abbot of Miaoxi Temple (妙喜寺).
Three Hundred Tang Poems

The Three Hundred Tang Poems is an anthology of poems from the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907). It was first compiled around 1763 by Sun Zhu (1722–1778), who was a Qing Dynasty scholar and was also known as Hengtang Tuishi (蘅塘退士, "Retired Master of Hengtang"). Various later editions also exist. All editions contain slightly more than 300 total poems. The number 300 (or more exactly 305) was a classic number for a poetry collection due to the influence of the Classic of Poetry (詩經, Shijing), which was generally known as The Three Hundred Poems.
Dissatisfied with the anthology Poems by a Thousand Masters (千家詩, Qianjiashi) compiled by Liu Kezhuang in the late Southern Song, and influenced by Ming Dynasty poetry anthologies, Sun selected the poems based on their popularity and educational value. The collection has been popular ever since and can be found in many Chinese households. For centuries, elementary students memorized the poems and used them to learn to read and write. It contains poems by Du Fu, Li Bai, Wang Wei, Chen Zi'ang, Meng Haoran, Han Yu, Du Mu, Bai Juyi, Liu Zhangqing, Cen Shen, Wang Changling, Wei Yingwu, and more.
The original Qing Dynasty version of the 300 Tang Poems was organized by the poem's formal type, of which there were seven:
Out of 317 poems in one edition, 90 were in the gushi form and 227 were in the lüshi or the jueju forms.
The poets of the Tang shi include a number of authors ranging from the well-known and famous to obscure or anonymous poets, and even include at least one emperor. The poet with the most pieces included in this collection is Du Fu, with thirty-nine. Li Bai is a close runner-up, with thirty-four. Wang Wei has twenty-nine poems included in the anthology and Li Shangyin has twenty-four. Meng Haoran has fifteen, Wei Yingwu twelve, Liu Zhangqing eleven, and Du Mu ten. After that, each of the other poets' included pieces number in the single digits; however, some of these poets are quite important, such as Liu Zongyuan or Bai Juyi. Some important poets, such as Li He, are not represented at all.
The first complete translation of the Three Hundred Tang Poems into English was published as The Jade Mountain, translated by Witter Bynner and Jiang Kanghu. From 1929 through 1972 it went through ten editions. A new translation of the anthology by Peter Harris was published in 2009.
Thirty-Six Immortals of Poetry

The Thirty-Six Immortals of Poetry (三十六歌仙, Sanjūrokkasen) are a group of Japanese poets of the Asuka, Nara, and Heian periods selected by Fujiwara no Kintō as exemplars of Japanese poetic ability. The oldest surviving collection of the 36 poets' works is Nishi Honganji Sanju-rokunin Kashu ("Nishi Honganji 36 poets collection") of 1113. Similar groups of Japanese poets include the Kamakura period Nyōbō Sanjūrokkasen (女房三十六歌仙), composed by court ladies exclusively, and the Chūko Sanjūrokkasen (中古三十六歌仙), or Thirty-Six Heian-era Immortals of Poetry, selected by Fujiwara no Norikane [ja] (1107–1165). This list superseded an older group called the Six Immortals of Poetry.
Sets of portraits (essentially imaginary) of the group were popular in Japanese painting and later woodblock prints, and often hung in temples.
Main article↗︎
Nyōbō Sanjūrokkasen (女房三十六歌仙), composed in the Kamakura period, refers to thirty-six female immortals of poetry:
There are at least two groups of Japanese poets called New Thirty-Six Immortals of Poetry (新三十六歌仙, Shinsanjūrokkasen):
The term usually refers to the second, as this is still extant:
List of goddesses

This is a list of goddesses, deities regarded as female or mostly feminine in gender.
Ethiopian
Kafa
Akan (inc. Ashanti)
Asase Yaa (Asaase Afua, Asaase Yaa, Asase Yaa)
Afua Kranka
Amelenwa
Ambundu
Baganda
Edo (Bini)
Fon (Dahomey)
Ga-Adangbe
Igbo
Ngombe
Kalenjin (inc. Pokot)
Songhay
Candomblé
Umbanda
Dominican (21 Divisions)
Haitian
Nabataean
Sabaean
Adnyamathanha
Gamilaraay
Karajarri
Wotjobaluk
Wurundjeri
Yolngu
Latvian
Lithuanian
Old Prussian
Bimbache
Guanche
(for Japanese Buddhist and syncretic deities, check #Japanese)
Tibetan
Fir Bolg
Fomhoraigh
Gairthear Mílidh Easpáinne
Tuatha de Danann
Kalasha
Nuristani (formerly "Kafir")
(inc. creation, Takamagahara, Izumo, Hyuga, etc.)
(inc. Nichiren, Pure Land, Tendai)
(inc. Shingon)
temporarily unsorted
Buryat
Mongolian
Amis mythology [zh]
Yami mythology [zh]
Puyuma mythology [zh]
Paiwan mythology [zh]
Paiwan mythology [zh]
SaySiyat mythology [zh]
Sakizaya mythology [zh]
Tsou mythology [zh]
Kebalan mythology [zh]
Siraya mythology [zh]
Khevsurian
Mingrelian
Svan
Alemannic - Alpine - Swabian
Dutch - Frisian - Low German
Ásynjur
Jötnar
Vanir
Norns
Valkyries
Other Norse divinities and spirits
(inc. Upanishads) (1500-500 BCE onward)
(inc. Ramayana, Mahabharata) (1000-250 BCE onward)
Kannada
Khond (Kui - Kuvi)
Kurukh - Oraon
Tamil
Assamese
Balochi
Bengali
Bhil
Dhangar
Gujarati
Kutchi
Marwari
Newari
Odia
Saharia
temporarily unsorted
Hattian
Hittite
Luwian
Carian
Lydian
Hmong
Yao
Balinese
Javanese
Nias
Seram
Sundanese
Toraja
Iglulingmiut
Iñupiat (Alaska)
Kalaallit (Greenland Inuit)
Kitlinermiut (Copper Inuit)
Netsilingmiut (Netsilik Inuit)
Yupighyt (Siberian Yupik)
Iranian
Iranian - Zoroastrian
Kushan
Ossetian
Scythian
Mariote
Fijian
Solomon Islands - Kwaio
Vanuatu - Malekula
Kiribati
Nauruan
Abenaki (Penobscot)
Algonquin
Lenape (Delaware)
Menominee
Ojibwe (Chippewa, Ojibway)
Shawnee
Chilote
Mapuche
Taíno
Arikara
Pawnee
Muisca
Quileute
Chinook
Multnomah
Chumash
Cherokee
Iroquois
Iroquois - Onondaga
Iroquois - Seneca
Tuscarora
Wyandot (Huron)
Chontal
K'iche
Lacandon
Yucatec
unnamed
Choctaw
Athabaskan
Diné (Navajo)
Gwich'in
Tahltan (Nahanni)
Tlingit
Otomi
Klamath-Modoc
Sahaptin (Tenino / Umatilla / Walla Walla / Yakima)
Pomo
Incan
Chehalis
Nuxalk (Bella Coola)
Salish - Spokane - Kalispell
Sduk-al-bixw (Snoqualmie)
Syilx (Okanagan)
Ho-Chunk (Winnebago)
Iowa - Missouria - Otoe
Lakota
Osage
Kiowa
Tewa
Tiwa
Tsimshian
Guarani
Aztec
Cahuilla
Hopi
Payómkawichum (Luiseño)
Taaqtam (Serrano)
Tarahumara (Rarámuri)
Tlaxcalan
Tongva (Gabrieleño)
Kwakwaka'wakw (Kwakiutl)
Wintu
Mohave
Quechan (Yuma)
Illyrian
Liburnian
Thracian
Bikolano
Cuyunon
Ibaloi
Ifugao
Isnag
Itneg
Kankanaey
Kapampangan
Mangyan
Manobo
Palawan
Sambal
Tagakaulo
Tagalog
Tboli
Tiruray
Visayan
Hawaiian
Mangaian
Māori
Marquesan
Moriori
Niue
Rapa Nui
Samoan
Tahitian
Tuamotu
Jurchen - Manchu
Estonian
Finnish (inc. Karelian)
Sami
Erzya
Komi
Udmurt
Hungarian
Khanty
Mansi
(inc. Chechen, Ingush, Kist)
(inc. Vietnamese folk religion, Cao Đài, Đạo Mẫu)
Canaanite - Phoenician
Moabite
Ugaritic
Dragonlance
Forgotten Realms
Fregata magnificens

La fragata común,​ fragata real o rabihorcado real (Fregata magnificens) es una especie de ave suliforme de la familia Fregatidae.​​
Está ampliamente dispersa en el océano Atlántico tropical, criándose en colonias arbóreas en Florida, las Antillas e islas de Cabo Verde. También se encuentra en las costas del Pacífico americano, desde México hasta el extremo noroeste del Perú,​ además de las islas Galápagos.
Se encontró como divagante en 1998, en la Isla de Man, en Dinamarca y en España. Un macho fue hallado exhausto en Winterborne Whitchurch, a mucha distancia marina, en noviembre de 2005. Dicho individuo fue llevado al "Zoo de Chester", pero murió días después.
Con una longitud de 89–114 centímetros (35–45 pulgadas) y una envergadura de 2.17–2.44 m (7.1–8.0 pies) es la especie más grande de fragata.
El macho adulto es negruzco; presenta a lo sumo una leve franja parduzca cruzada en las coberteras alares superiores. Tiene el pico gris. Su piel orbital es negruzca. Su bolsa gular es rosada encendida (roja e inflada en los despliegues en el periodo de reproducción). Sus patas son de negruzcas a castañas.
La hembra posee cabeza y cuello negros, pecho blanco, y una franja castaña clara llamativa en las coberteras alares superiores. Su piel orbital es azul violácea. Su bolsa gular es de gris a morada. Sus patas son rojizas.
Los ejemplares jóvenes presentan cabeza y pecho blancos, y una franja clara llamativa sobre el ala. Su pico, piel orbital y patas son de color azul claro.
Esta especie es muy similar a otras fragatas (Fregata), salvo el rabihorcado chico (Fregata ariel). Sin embargo, la fragata magnífica carece del escamado blanco axilar, y los jóvenes muestran un parche de forma de diamante en la barriga. Es diagnóstica la posible presencia de un escamado blanco en los axilares.
Es silente en vuelo, pero hace sonidos varios en su nido.
Come principalmente peces, y también ataca a otras aves marinas para forzarlas a regurgitar su comida. Dado que carece de plumas impermeables (característica poco común en aves acuáticas) siempre captura sus presas en vuelo.
Debido a lo corto de sus patas, esta ave duerme en lugares altos lo que le facilita emprender vuelo. De aterrizar en nivel bajo le sería casi imposible emprender vuelo.
Latrodectus apicalis

La viuda negra de las islas Galápagos (Latrodectus apicalis) es una especie de araña araneomorfa terídida del género Latrodectus, cuyas integrantes son denominadas comúnmente viudas negras. Habita en las islas Galápagos.
Esta especie fue descrita originalmente en el año 1877 por el aracnólogo británico Arthur Gardiner Butler, con el mismo nombre científico.​
Como en otros integrantes del género Latrodectus, en L. apicalis los ojos se posicionan en dos filas, cada una cuenta con 4; los tarsos concluyen en 3 uñas; en la cara ventral del tarso IV, gruesas cerdas integran una estructura con forma de peine y en la hembra su abdomen es globoso.
Esta especie es endémica del archipiélago de las Galápagos, perteneciente a Ecuador, y ubicado en el océano Pacífico, a 1000 km al oeste de América del Sur.​​​​​
Habita en las islas Santa Cruz, Fernandina, Genovesa, Marchena, Pinzón, San Cristóbal,​ Floreana, Isabela, Pinta, Santa Fe y Santiago.​
Esta araña de cuerpo redondeado es poco común. Vive bajo corteza, piedras o troncos.​
Esta araña no es agresiva, solo puede morder si se la intenta capturar o accidentalmente se la comprime sobre la piel. Es peligrosa para los seres humanos ya que cuenta con glándulas venenosas que producen latrotoxinas (una neurotoxina) las que son inoculadas en caso de una mordedura, especialmente si se trata de una hembra, ya que esta posee quelíceros de mayor tamaño, los que son más adecuados para penetrar en la piel humana.
Volcán Alcedo

Volcán Alcedo​ es uno de los seis volcanes de escudo coalescentes que forman la isla Isabela en las islas Galápagos, Ecuador.​ Su nombre hace honor al geógrafo Antonio de Alcedo, que desarrolló sus estudios durante la ilustración en la Real Audiencia de Quito. La ubicación remota del volcán ha significado que incluso la más reciente erupción en 1993 no se registró hasta dos años después.​
El Volcán Alcedo es uno de los siete volcanes escudo occidentales de Galápagos y es el único volcán activo de Galápagos conocido por haber hecho erupción tanto de riolita como de basalto. El volcán se eleva 4 km sobre el fondo marino y tiene un volumen subaéreo de 200 km³, casi todo de basalto. A medida que el Volcán Alcedo creció, construyó un escudo domal alargado, que fue parcialmente truncado durante repetidos episodios de colapso de caldera y relleno parcial.​
Una secuencia de flujos de basalto con inclinación hacia afuera de al menos 250 m de espesor forma los flancos más empinados (hasta 33°) del volcán y no está inclinada; por lo tanto, se favorece un origen constructivo para los flancos superiores empinados. Aproximadamente 1 km³ de riolita hizo erupción tardíamente en la historia del volcán desde al menos tres respiraderos y en 2-5 episodios. El más explosivo de estos produjo una capa de tefra que cubre la mitad oriental del volcán. La pómez riolítica homogénea está cubierta por pómez mezclada de dacita-riolita, sin ruptura estratigráfica. La tefra es notable por su baja densidad y granulometría gruesa.​
La altura calculada de la columna de erupción es de 23-30 km, y la intensidad se estima en 1.2x10⁸ kg/s. Las lavas riolíticas emitidas desde el fondo de la caldera y desde fisuras a lo largo del borde cubren la tefra de la fase pliniana. La edad de las erupciones riolíticas es < 120 ka, según las edades de K-Ar. Entre diez y veinte flujos de lava basáltica son más jóvenes que las riolitas. Fallas recientes resultaron en un foso alrededor de parte del suelo de la caldera. Alcedo hizo erupción más recientemente en algún momento entre 1946 y 1960 desde su flanco sur. Alcedo mantiene un sistema hidrotermal activo y transitorio. La actividad acústica y sísmica en 1991 se atribuye a la interrupción del sistema hidrotermal.​
El volcán tiene el mayor número de tortugas silvestres de cualquiera de los volcanes en las islas Galápagos, a pesar de su diversidad genética se encuentra entre los más bajos de cualquiera de las razas en el archipiélago. El hábitat de las tortugas fue amenazada cuando las cabras salvajes cruzaron desde el sur de la isla Isabela, en la década de 1970 y luego se reprodujeron rápidamente.​
Islas de Guinea Ecuatorial

Las islas que forman parte integrante de Guinea Ecuatorial son Bioko, Annobón, Corisco y las Elobey. Bioko y Annobón conforman la Región Insular de Guinea Ecuatorial; Corisco y las Elobey están adscritas a la Región Continental. Ubicadas las dos primeras en el golfo de Guinea, Corisco y las Elobey se encuentran en la bahía de Corisco.
En la isla de Bioko se encuentra Malabo (antigua Santa Isabel): la capital nacional.
Esta región posee una superficie de 2034 km² y una población de 612 807 habitantes según el censo de 2013.​ Políticamente está subdividida en tres provincias ecuatoguineanas:
Las islas ubicadas en la bahía de Corisco están administradas por la Región Continental (Provincia Litoral).
La ciudad más grande es Malabo, pero existen otras localidades de importancia como: Luba, Riaba, Rebola, Santiago de Baney y San Antonio de Palé.
La isla de Bioko se encuentra a una distancia de alrededor de 40 km de la costa de Camerún. Bioko cuenta con la ciudad de Malabo, la capital del país. La isla de Bioko, llamada Fernando Poo hasta los años 70, es la isla más grande del golfo de Guinea y la cuarta del continente africano, con unos 2017 km².
Con apenas 17 km², Annobón es el territorio más remoto de la República de Guinea Ecuatorial. Es una pequeña isla de origen volcánico situada a 670 km de Malabo, 580 km de Bata y al otro lado del ecuador, incluye en el noreste los pequeños islotes llamados Tortuga y Ye Cuín. Entre Annobón y Bioko se encuentran las islas de Santo Tomé y Príncipe, es además la isla más alejada del golfo de Guinea.
La isla de Corisco tiene una superficie de aproximadamente 15 km², está situada a 29 km del estuario del río Muni y posee 6100 m de circunferencia. Su población es de aproximadamente 150 habitantes, la mayoría de ellos radicados en Gobe y pertenecientes a la etnia benga. Debido a la legendaria belleza de las mujeres benga, durante mucho tiempo la isla se llamó la Isla del Amor. Casi todos los habitantes de la isla son mestizos.
Emergiendo en el vasto estuario del río Muni, las islas de Elobey tienen una superficie conjunta de 2,46 km² (de los cuales Elobey Grande posee 2,27 km² y Elobey Chico 0,19 km²). Estos dos pequeños puntos apenas perceptibles en un mapa de África Central se sitúan en el primer paralelo al norte del ecuador, a menos de 10 km de Gabón. Elobey Grande conserva un puñado de habitantes, esencialmente pescadores que viven en el pequeño poblado de M’Belobi. Elobey Chico está completamente deshabitada.
Al sur de las Islas Elobey se encuentran tres islotes disputados con Gabón (Mbañe, Cocoteros y Conga) de los cuales el más grande, Mbañe (también llamado Banyé o Banian) tiene una superficie de 30 hectáreas (0,30 km²). El conflicto sobre su posesión sigue sin resolverse, aunque recientemente en noviembre de 2016 ambas partes firmaron un acuerdo que establece que la disputa pasará a la Corte Internacional de Justicia de La Haya.​​
Christmas frigatebird

The Christmas frigatebird (Fregata andrewsi), or Christmas Island frigatebird, is a seabird of the frigatebird family Fregatidae which is an endemic breeder to Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean. Apart from the Ascension frigatebird, the three other species of frigatebird have much more widely distributed breeding locations.
The Christmas frigatebird is a large lightly built seabird with brownish-black plumage, long narrow wings and a deeply forked tail. It has a wingspan of around 2.15 m (7.1 ft). The male has an egg shaped white patch on his belly and a striking red gular sac which he inflates to attract a mate. The female is slightly larger than the male and has a white breast and belly. They feed on fish taken in flight from the ocean's surface (mostly flying fish), and sometimes indulge in kleptoparasitism, harassing other birds to force them to regurgitate their food. The species is listed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
The Christmas frigatebird was once considered to belong to the species Fregata aquila but in 1914 the Australian ornithologist Gregory Mathews proposed that the Christmas frigatebird should be considered as a separate species with the binomial name Fregata andrewsi in honour of the English paleontogist Charles Andrews. Of the four other species within the genus Fregata, genetic analysis has shown that the Christmas frigatebird is most closely related to the great frigatebird.
The Christmas frigatebird measures 89–100 cm (35–39 in) in length, has a wingspan of 205–230 cm (81–91 in) and weighs around 1,550 g (3.42 lb). The adult male of this species is easily identified, since he is all black except for a white belly patch. Other plumages resemble those of the smaller lesser frigatebird, but have whiter bellies and longer white underwing spurs.
The Christmas frigatebird is endemic to Christmas Island and breeds in only four main nesting colonies. In 2003 there were 1,200 breeding pairs but as frigatebirds normally breed every other year, the total adult population was estimated to be between 3,600 and 7,200 individuals. The species has a small population and breeds on just one island. It was formerly listed as critically endangered by the IUCN, and is now listed as vulnerable. Populations, however, continue to decline due to persecution by fishermen, loss of breeding habitat associated with phosphate mining, marine pollution and entanglement in fishing equipment.
Booby

A booby is a seabird in the genus Sula, part of the family Sulidae. Boobies are closely related to the gannets (Morus), which were formerly included in Sula.
The genus Sula was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. The type species is the brown booby. The name is derived from súla, the Old Norse and Icelandic word for the other member of the family Sulidae, the gannet.
The English name booby may derive from the Spanish slang term bobo, meaning "stupid", as these tame birds had a habit of landing on board sailing ships, where they were easily captured and eaten. Owing to this, boobies are often mentioned as having been caught and eaten by shipwrecked sailors, including William Bligh of the Bounty and his adherents during their voyage after being set adrift by Fletcher Christian and his followers.
Six of the ten extant Sulidae species called boobies are in the genus Sula, while the three gannet species are usually placed in the genus Morus. Abbott's booby was formerly included in Sula but is now placed in a monotypic genus Papasula, which represents an ancient lineage perhaps closer to Morus. Some authorities consider that all ten species should be considered congeneric in Sula. However, they are readily distinguished by means of osteology. The distinct lineages of gannets and boobies are known to have existed in such form, since at least the Middle Miocene (15 mya).
The fossil record of boobies is not as well documented as that of gannets, either because booby speciation was lower from the late Miocene to the Pliocene (when gannet diversity was at its highest), or because the booby fossil species record is as yet incomplete due to most localities being equatorial or in the Southern Hemisphere.
Boobies hunt fish by diving from a height into the sea and pursuing their prey underwater. Facial air sacs under their skin cushion the impact with the water. Boobies are colonial breeders on islands and coasts. They normally lay one or more chalky-blue eggs on the ground or sometimes in a tree nest. Selective pressures, likely through competition for resource, have shaped the ecomorphology and foraging behaviours of the six species of boobies in the Pacific.
Lesser Antillean dry forests

The Lesser Antillean dry forests ecoregion (WWF ID: NT0220) covers the dry forests of the coastal lowlands of the Lesser Antilles, where the eastern Caribbean Sea meets the Atlantic Ocean. These forests generally form a band around the interior wet forests of higher elevations, and because they are often flat, they are under the most pressure for human settlement and agriculture.
The primary islands in this ecoregion with drye forests are Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Grenada. The islands are part of a volcanic arc; their interiors generally have mountainous highlands that catch more rainfall, and thus support moist forests of the Windward Islands moist forests ecoregion. The largest area of dry forests on the islands is on Saint Lucia, where the dry forests ring the coast to about 3 km into the interior, where higher elevations grade into moist forest. The same pattern holds on the island of Grenada. On the islands of Saint Vincent and Martinique, the dry forests occur in the thin transition band between the coastal dry shrubland and the upland moist forest.
The climate of the ecoregion is Tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification (Af)). This climate is characterized as hot, humid, and having at least 60 mm of precipitation every month. Precipitation is slightly higher than that of the coasts, which range from 1,000 mm/year on Dominica to 1,600 mm/year on St. Vincent.
The dry forest ecoregion is 35% closed canopy, 20% open forest, 15% built-up urban area, 10% in agricultural use and the remainder in shrubs or open water. Characteristic tree species of the dry forest include those of genus Didymopanax and Miconia. Mosses and ferns are common. The soils are often disturbed by past agricultural use.
Lipochaeta lobata

Lipochaeta lobata is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae known by the common name shrubland nehe. It is endemic to Hawaii, where it can be found in coastal dry shrublands and dry forests on Oʻahu, Maui, and Niʻihau.
There are two varieties of this species. One, var. leptophylla, is a federally listed endangered species of the United States.
Media related to Lipochaeta lobata at Wikimedia Commons Data related to Lipochaeta lobata at Wikispecies
Hibiscus quattenensis

Hibiscus quattenensis is a species of flowering plant in the genus Hibiscus, in the family Malvaceae. It is endemic to the island of Socotra in Yemen. It is common on the coastal plains and dry limestone foothills and plateaus of southwestern Socotra from sea level to 600 metres elevation, where it grows in Croton socotranus shrubland and succulent shrubland.
Megadiverse countries

A megadiverse country is one of a group of nations that house the majority of Earth's species and high numbers of endemic species. Conservation International identified 17 megadiverse countries in 1998, all of which are located at least partially in tropical or subtropical regions.
Megadiversity means to exhibit great biodiversity. The main criterion for megadiverse countries is endemism at the level of species, genera and families. A megadiverse country must have at least 5,000 species of endemic plants and must border marine ecosystems.
In alphabetical order, the 17 megadiverse countries are:
Ayampe

Ayampe is a small coastal town located in the canton of Puerto Lopez, in Manabí province, approximately 301 km away from Quito, Ecuador.
Ayampe is a coastal town with a population size of approximately 400. While originally economically relying on the fishery, the last 2 decades evolved the town into a touristic hotspot. Although the area around Ayampe is not a protected area, it does provide a valuable area for the study around Ecuadorian coastal biodiversity due to its connectivity with the Machalilla National Park. Ayampe is part of the Ecuadorian Ruta del Sol.
Brown noddy

The brown noddy or common noddy (Anous stolidus) is a seabird in the family Laridae. The largest of the noddies, it can be told from the closely related black noddy by its larger size and plumage, which is dark brown rather than black. The brown noddy is a tropical seabird with a worldwide distribution, ranging from Hawaii to the Tuamotu Archipelago and Australia in the Pacific Ocean, from the Red Sea to the Seychelles and Australia in the Indian Ocean and in the Caribbean to Tristan da Cunha in the Atlantic Ocean. The brown noddy is colonial, usually nesting on elevated situations on cliffs or in short trees or shrubs. It only occasionally nests on the ground. A single egg is laid by the female of a pair each breeding season. In India, the brown noddy is protected in the PM Sayeed Marine Birds Conservation Reserve.
The first formal description of the brown noddy was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Sterna stolida. The genus Anous was introduced by the English naturalist James Francis Stephens in 1826. The genus name Anous is Ancient Greek for "stupid" or "foolish". The specific name stolidus is Latin and also means "stupid" or "foolish".
Four subspecies are recognised:
The brown noddy is 38–45 cm (15–18 in) in length with a wingspan of 75–86 cm (30–34 in). The plumage is a dark chocolate-brown with a pale-grey or white crown and forehead. It has a narrow incomplete white eye-ring. The tail is long and wedge-shaped, and the feet and legs are dark.
The brown noddy is a colonial bird, usually nesting on cliffs, trees, or bushes. It occasionally lays its eggs on the bare ground. The nest itself is usually a platform nest, made of sticks and twigs.
In their nuptial displays, the female and male bow and nod to each other. Courtship feeding and flights accompany this, in addition to the transfer of a small, freshly caught fish from the male to the female.
This bird lays a clutch of one pink cream egg with lilac and chestnut maculation. The egg usually measures around 52 by 35 millimetres (2.0 by 1.4 in). This egg is incubated by both sexes for 33 to 36 days, with each parent incubating for one or two days while their mate is feeding at sea. After the chick hatches, it grows quickly; usually reaching the weight of the parents in three weeks. When it fledges, about six to seven weeks after hatching, it can sometimes weigh more than the parents, although this weight is lost quickly once it starts to fly. At this point, the fledgling is starting to rely on its parents less and less as it learns how to provide for itself.
The brown noddy forages by swooping over the water and dipping down to catch small squid, other molluscs, aquatic insects and fish (such as sardines, anchovies, etc.). It will also feed on fruit, mostly the screw pine fruit.
Aci sampeu

Aci sampeu (sok disebut ogé: aci hui); tapioka nyaéta tipung pati sampeu anu utamana dipaké dina nyieun puding sarta minangka jadi bahan pikeun ngandelan kadaharan anu éncér. Aci sampeu asalna tina akar hiji pepelakan perdu anu tumuwuh di nagara-nagara nu hawana panas, di sakumna dunya. Pepelakan éta disebut "manic" atawa "cassava" jeung deui diwanoh kalayan ngaran "yuca" atawa "mandioca". Di Indonésia unggal jalma biasa wanoh kalayan sebutan "ubi kayu" atawa "sampeu". Akar pepelakan sampeu ieu ngandung kurang leuwih sapertilu zat kanji tipung sarta dua pertilu cai. Ngabutuhkeun waktu nu rada lila pikeun ngolah akar sampeu ieu nepi ka siap jadi bahan tipung pikeun nyieun kadaharan. Mimitina pisan akar éta dikumbah sarta dipesékan. Saterusna dikeueum dina cai salila tilu poé. Bisa ogé diparud atawa digiling jadi bubur tipung. Bubur tipung ieu bisa dipasak sarta di dahar, atawa bisa dipoé jadi tipung nu garing. Pikeun meunangkeun tipung aci sampeu tina sampeu nu geus diparud atawa digiling éta, tuluy bubur tipung éta dicampur jeung cai bersih, nu saterusna diingkeun méh namper. Tipungna bakal namper sacara lalaunan dina dasar wadah, sedengkeun sagala kokotor bisa ngalir kaluar babarengan jeung cai panyaringna. Tipung sari éta dikaluarkeun terus dicampur deui jeung cai sarta diingkeun namper deui. Prosés ieu bisa lumangsung nepi ka opat atawa lima kali. Lamun tipung ieu geus katingali bersih pisan, biasana dipoé sangkan jadi tipung garing nu bodas. Bisa ogé disebarkeun di luhur hiji wadah besi kalayan seuneu nu panas sarta dipasak. Sabari dibeuleum eta, tipung terus-terusan diaduk. Samentara tipung-tipung éta diasakkeun mangka butir-butir tipung éta bakal saling raket sarta ngawangun bal-bal leutik anu teu kaatur wangunna.
Baso aci

Baso Aci nyaéta kadahareun khas Jawa Barat nu sarua jeung baso, tapi bahannar tina tipung aci. Baso aci mah dijieunna teu di campur daging giling kawas baso biasana. Baso aci jadi salah sahiji kuliner favorit, utamana keur nu resep masakan khas nusantara, hususna nu resep lada. Biasana baso aci disajikeun ku kuah nu beunghar ku bumbu dibarengan ku rasa lada nu nyegerkeun. Salian ti éta, baso aci ogé dilengkepan ku rupa-rupa topping. Topping nu biasa dipaké yaéta sukro cikur, baso cuanki, cuanki lidah, cuanki siomay, baso daging, pangsit, tulang, cékér, mie jeung sajabana.
Tina sajarahna, baso aci téh geus aya ti abad ka-19. Baheula mah disebutna cilok. Sajalan jeung waktu, cilok beuki dikenal jadi baso aci. Baso aci téh olahan pangan anu dijieun ku masarakat di wewengkon Priangan Wétan. Asal-muasalna, baso aci dijieun ku urang Sunda salaku gaganti sangu, sabab bahan bakuna murah jeung gampang dipibanda. Biasana, baso aci disajikeun jeung kaldu sapi atawa kaldu hayam, ditambah rasa lada nu nyugemakeun.
Baso aci tuluy jadi salah sahiji kadaharan beurat nu dipikaresep ku masarakat Tatar Sunda. Kiwari, baso aci geus jadi salah sahiji sumebar ka mana-mana, lain ukur di Jawa Barat wungkul, tapi nepi ka sakuliah Indonesia. Ayeuna mah loba inovasi baso aci, kawas baso aci instan nu gampang didahar iraha waé, ogé variasi rasa jeung tingkat lada nu béda-béda. Kusabab rasana nu gurih jeung cara nyieunna nu henteu ribet, baso aci terus jadi kadaharan karesep loba jalma, ti barudak nepi ka kolot.
Féstival baso aci dilaksanakeun pertama kali di Kapubaten Garut, Jawa Barat nyaéta di tahun 2019 keur ngarayakeun kuliner khas daerah jeung ngeunalkeun yén baso aci téh kadaharan khas ti Kabuten Garut. Acara ieu digelar di pakarangan pendopo Kabupaten Garut. Féstival baso aci mangrupa acara tahunan, ngan tahun 2020 - 2021 teu kalaksana kusabab kahambat ku wabah COVID-19.
Polisakarida

Polisakarida nyaéta karbohidrat "teu amis" nu kawilang pajeulit. Polisakarida mangrupa polimér nu diwangun ku loba monosakarida nu silihsambungkeun (nyaéta poli-sakarida). Ku kituna polisakarida mah kaasup molekul badag pisan, malah ngarangkadak. Sipatna teu leyur na cai sarta teu ngabentuk kristal, contona nyaéta aci, selulosa, jeung glikogén.
Struktur
Polisakarida mibanda rumus umum:
nu mana y biasana = x - 1.
Aci mangrupa polimér glukosa nu unit glukopiranosana kabeungkeut ku tumbu-alfa. Amilosa diwangun ku sababaraha ratus molekul glukosa ranté-lempeng. Amilopéktin nyaéta molekul rangkadak nu disusun ku sababaraha réwu unit glukosa.
Aci teu leyur na cai, bisa disiksik ku hidrolisis nu dikatalisan ku énzim nu disebut amilase, nu bisa megatkeun tumbu-alfa. Manusa jeung sato séjénna boga amilase, sahingga bisa nyerna aci. Kentang, béas, gandum, jagong, jeung sampeu mangrupa sumber aci na dahareun manusa.
Glikogén, polimér rangkadak glukosa, mangrupa bentuk simpenan glukosa dina sato. Glikogén bisa dibeulah jadi substrat pikeun réspirasi ngaliwatan prosés glikogénolisis. Ieu ngawengku megatkeun beungkeut C-O-C antarmolekul glukosa ku ditambahkeunana fosfat, gaganti cai na hidrolisis. Prosés ieu ngahasilkeun molekul glukosa kafosforilasi, nu métabolismena bisa ngahasilkeun hiji molekul ATP.
Komponén struktural tutuwuhan diwangun utamana ku sélulosa. Kai diwangun ku sélulosa jeung lignin, sedengkeun kertas jeung kapas méh murni sélulosa. Sélulosa mangrupa polimér nu dibentuk ku ulangan unit glukosa nu kabeungkeut ku tumbu-béta. Manusa sarta lolobana sato séjénna teu boga/kakurangan énzim pikeun megatkeun tumbu-béta, sahingga teu bisa nyerna sélulosa. Sababaraha sato bisa nyerna sélulosa sabab boga sélulasena.
Polisakarida asam nyaéta sagolongan polisakarida nu ngandung gugus karboxil jeung/atawa gugus éster sulfat.
Cibay

Cibay (aci ngageubay) ieu kadaharan téh dijeunna tina aci sampeu. Kiwari loba kapanggih diwarung-warung sakola atawa dijual maké goroobag surung. Antukna hargana ogé murah, kahontal ku balaréa. Loba pisan nu mikaresep kadaharan ieu, komo budak leutik mah.
Siapkeun cai tuluy digolotrok dina cai panas kalawan campurkeun aci jeung sababaraha samara saperti bawang daun, uyah jeung pecin. geus kitu ieu adonan aci sampeu anu geus asak. Mun ditilik tilik mah nyarupaan lem kertas, anu berarti ieu adonan téh geus asak jeung siap di jieun ka proses salajeung na.. Keur kulit cibay, biasana ngagunakeun kulit paranti lumpia, salembar kulit lumpia dibeberkeun terus satengah sasendok adonan cibay téh di abuskeun kana kulit lumpia terus kulit lumpia anu geus diisian ku adonan cibay digulungkeun jeung ditilepkeun nepika ngabentuk pasagi opat.. Geus kitu cibay digoreng dina minyak nu teu pati panas. teu butuh waktu lila pikeun cibay asak. geus asak mah kari bleum we huapkeun.
Sampeu

Sampeu atawa dangdeur (sok disebut ogé hui tangkal; basa Inggris: cassava) nyaéta tangkal ti kulawarga Euphorbiaceae. Beutina dipikawanoh minangka kadaharan poko anu mibanda karbohidrat sarta daunna minangka sayuran. Sampeu tumuwuh di daérah tropis jeung daérah subtropis.
Sampeu mangrupa beuti atawa akar tangkal anu panjang jeung boga garis tengah rata-rata 2–3 cm sarta panjang 50–80 cm, gumantung kana jinis sampeu anu dipelak. Daging beutina boga kelir bodas atawa semu konéng. Beuti sampeu henteu bisa lila disimpen sanajan ditempatkeun dina lomari és. Gambaran karuksakan ditandaan ku kaluarna warna biru kolot alatan kawangunna asam sianida anu boga sipat racun pikeun manusa.
Beuti sampeu mangrupa sumber énergi anu beunghar ku karbohidrat tapi kacida kurang ngandung protéin. Sumber protéin anu alus malahan aya dina daun sampeu alatan ngandung asam amino métionin.
Jinis sampeu Manihot esculenta mimiti dipikawanoh di Amérika Kidul, saterusna dibudidayakeun dina mangsa pra-sejarah di Brasil sarta Paraguay. Wangun-wangun modéren tina spésiés anu geus dibudidayakeun bisa kapanggih tumuwuh liar di Brasil kidul.
Produksi sampeu dunya dikira-kira ngahontal 184 juta ton dina taun 2002. lolobana produksi dihasilkeun di Afrika 99,1 juta ton sarta 33,2 juta ton di Amérika Latin sarta Kapuloan Karibia.
Sampeu dipelak sacara komérsial di wewengkon Indonésia (waktu éta Hindia Walanda) dina kira-kira taun 1810 Payer, M. HBI weltweit. 5.3. Zur Geschichte Indonesiens. Édisi 1997-03-18. Diaksés 18 Méi 2007, sanggeus saméméhna diwanohkeun ku urang Portugis dina abad ka-16 (beunang mawa ti Brasil).
Beuti akar sampeu réa ngandung glukosa sarta bisa didahar atah-atah. Rasana rada amis, aya ogé anu pait gumantung kana kandungan racun glukosida anu bisa nyieun asam sianida. Beuti anu rasana amis ngahasilkeun paling saeutik 20 mg HCN pér kilogram beuti akar anu seger kénéh, sarta 50 kali leuwih réa dina beuti anu rasana pait. Dina jinis sampeu anu amis, prosés ngasakkeun pohara diperlukeun pikeun nurunkeun kadar racunna. Tina beuti ieu bisa ogé dijieun tipung aci.
Sampeu dikokolakeun ku sagala rupa cara, sampeu réa dipaké dina sagala rupa macem asakan. Dikulub pikeun ngagantikeun kentang, sarta palengkep asakan. Tipung sampeu bisa dipaké pikeun ngaganti tipung gandum, alus pikeun panyandang alergi.
Sampeu ilahar dipaké minangka kadaharan pikeun ingon-ingon di nagara-nagara kawas di Amérika Latin, Karibia, Tiongkok, Nigéria sarta Éropa.
Bubur bodas

Bubur bodas nyaéta hiji makanan tradisional anu pembuatana dijieun tina beas. Aya bedana antara bubur bodas jeung bubur béas, bubur bodas biasana dina racikanana sok ditambahan ku cikalapa, daun pandan, jeung uyah. Pikeun tradisi masarakat Sunda basisir (Kacamatan Pameungpeuk, Kabupaten Garut), bubur bodas disuguhkeun dina acara hajatan atawa syukuran pikeun nu ngalahirkeun, utamana nalika kakandungan tilu bulan. Biasana kadaharan ieu disuguhken oge jeung bubur beureum, jeung jajanan nu sanésna. Bubur Bereum ogé biasa dijadikeun sasajen tambahan minangka bagian tina tradisi Nyalin pikeun masarakat di Dusun Kubang, Désa Sidamulya, Ciamis. Kadaharan tradisional ieu disuguhkeun bareng jeung bubur bereum, cara bereum, cara bodas, lauk goreng, awug, papais, saroja atawa tumpi, ranginang, bolu, cau, kupat salamet, kupat tangtang angin, tumis, apem, manisan. papaya, rokok, jeung cai bodas.
Hanjuang

Hanjuang (baca: 'hanyjuang') (Cordyline fruticosa) nyaéta tutuwuhan kembangan ti kulawarga Laxmanniaceae, saméméhna diasupkeun kana kulawarga Agavaceae, nu jangkungna bisa nepi ka 4 m, panjang daunna 30–60 cm, kalawan lébar 5–10 cm. Kembangna semu konéng-beureum, nu gagangna panjang (40–60 cm), nu terus jadi buah laleutik kelir beureum. Ieu tutuwuhan téh pituin Asia Tenggara, Papua, Mélanésia, Australia kalér-ngétan, jeung sabagian Polinésia. Aya ogé di Hawai atawa Selandia Baru, tapi da beunang melak.
Ku urang Sunda, ieu tutuwuhan sok dipelak di juru-juru wates tanah pikeun tanda, sedengkeun daunna sok dipaké mungkus rupa-rupa katuangan. Hasil panalungtikan nunjukkeun yén daun hanjuang boga watek antibaktéri.
Ongol-ongol

Ongol-ongol nyaéta kadaharan tradisional nu dijieun tina bahan aci kawung, dilimpudan ku kalapa beunang marud, tur mibanda rasa amis. Aci kawung mah gancang leyur jeung leuleus liat mangsa geus jadi adonan, sagigireun kitu rasa jeung teksturna mibanda ciri nu mandiri. Bisa waé maké bahan tina tipung séjén, ngan baé rasa jeung teksturna kurang pas, kenteu kawas tipung aci kawung. Sangkan leuwih alus tur pikaresepeun, ongor-ongol sok dijieun dina rupa-rupa kelir nu moronyoy.
Bahan-bahan pikeun nyieun ongol-ongol kayaning:
Simping

Simping atawa opak gambir nyaéta kadaharan garig kawas kurupuk nu asalna ti daérah Purwakarta. Rupa-rupa rasa jeung kelirna, dijual utamana di warung-narung jeung toko nu ngahaja dagang oléh-oléh. Wujudna buleud tur ipis, gedéna sagedé tutup gelas, rasana rupa-rupa kayaing cikur, pandan, ganas, kadu malahan rasa nangka ogé aya.
Kue simping
Bubur lemu

Bubur lemu atawa Bubur sumsum nyaéta kadaharan anu dijieun tina tipung béas. Diolahna aya ogé nu sok dicampur cipati jeung gula beureum.
Aya sababaraha bahan anu kudu disiapkeun, nyaéta.
Pikeun nyieun cai gula, dubuthkeun bahan-bahan di antarana:
Bubur:
Cai gula: