Turkey–United States relations

The Republic of Türkiye and the United States of America established diplomatic relations in 1927. Relations after World War II evolved from the Second Cairo Conference in December 1943 and Turkey's entrance into World War II on the side of the Allies in February 1945. Later that year, Turkey became a charter member of the United Nations. Since 1945, both countries advanced ties under the liberal international order, put forward by the U.S., through a set of global, rule-based, structured relationships based on political and economic liberalism. As a consequence, bilateral relations have advanced under the G20, OECD, Council of Europe, OSCE, WTO, IMF, the World Bank, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, and NATO.
During the interwar period (1918–1939), Turkey and the United States laid the groundwork for cooperation without a defined strategic interest. The U.S. sent a Congressional delegation to emphasize trade and business, along with non-missionary philanthropy and other cultural enterprises, such as archaeological expeditions sponsored by American universities.
During World War II (1939–1945), oil was set to become increasingly important for American interests. President Roosevelt had a geo-strategic plan in mind at the Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement in 1944. His successor, President Truman stressed the importance of Turkey's geo-strategic location and its "proximity to the great natural resources". In the following decades, as the United States has been engaged in oil wars in the Middle East, Turkey has supported the U.S. in some capacity, directly or indirectly, by giving authorization for the use of the Incirlik Air Base. After World War II, the Mandate for Palestine, which was established within the former Ottoman vilayet of Syria after the dissolution and partition of the Ottoman Empire, was terminated by the result of the Israeli Declaration of Independence on 14 May 1948. The United States recognized Israel on 31 January 1949, and Turkey followed suit on 28 March 1949. Four decades later, on 15 November 1988, Turkey recognized the Palestinian Declaration of Independence on the same day it was announced. Even before the Cold War, relations between Turkey and the United States regarding the Middle East were set to a course based on two dimensions: The first dimension was petroleum politics, and the second dimension was the fate of the Palestinians (Palestinian territories and a two-state solution).
During the Cold War (1945–1991), the Turkish Straits crisis of 1945 developed over the request by Joseph Stalin for Soviet military bases in the Turkish Straits as a part of Soviet territorial claims against Turkey, which prompted the United States to declare the Truman Doctrine in 1947. In 1947, the Office of Defense Cooperation Turkey was established as part of the United States Security Assistance Organizations to assist in modernization programs, develop interoperability, promote cooperation, and integrate Turkey into the Western system. As a result of the integration, Turkey became part of the intelligence operations (1960 U-2), and the missile systems (1962 Missile Crisis). At the same time, the geopolitical strategic foreign policy, Containment, caused a response from the Soviet Union in the form of increased communist influence in Turkey. In 1964, President Johnson disclosed the reluctance among Western powers to defend Turkey in what became known as the Johnson letter. The U.S. War on drugs created a backlash when Turkish farm workers employed in poppy production lost their jobs. Anti-Americanism developed among left-wing extremists in Turkey. In 1969, Ambassador Komer's car was set on fire by the Marxist-Leninist Dev-Genç during his visit of Mustafa Kemal Kurdaş at the Middle East Technical University, in which the nascent institution was developed using the aid given by the United States. In the coming years, Turkey became a front for the clashes between far-left and far-right militant groups, as the political violence in Turkey (1976–1980) developed as part of the worldwide incidents of left-wing terrorism aimed at overthrowing the liberal and capitalist governments and replacing them with communist or socialist regimes. According to the U.S. State Department, the United States has an interest in keeping Turkey anchored to the Euro-Atlantic community. During and after the Cold War, the U.S. supported the accession of Turkey to the European Union, as Turkey would be aligned with European norms and standards in many domains.
Over the 2010s, Turkey has evolved into a much more independent geopolitical player, but at the same time, the country became less predictable. As the instability in the region increased, Turkey was also no longer an "island of stability" for the United States, but a source of new, often unexpected impulses on a regional scale.
Following the delivery of the first S-400 missile system from Russia, Turkey was excluded from the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter program on July 17, 2019, and on December 14, 2020, the U.S. government decided to apply sanctions on Turkey, a NATO member, for violating the CAATSA law of 2017 by purchasing the S-400 missile system from Rosoboronexport, a Russian state agency in the CAATSA sanctions list. The deterioration of bilateral relations was not limited to the military in this period, as evident in the dispute over the Armenian genocide, which the United States formally recognized in 2021.
According to the U.S. Department of State, Turkey has been a key partner for U.S. policy in the surrounding region. Turkey has partnered with the U.S. for security in Afghanistan (ISAF), and serves as NATO's vital eastern and southern anchor, controlling (per the Montreux Convention of 1936) the Turkish Straits, i.e. the Bosporus and the Dardanelles. Turkey has contributed and continues to contribute to international security alongside U.S. forces in Europe (e.g. in Bosnia, IFOR, KFOR, Baltic Air Policing, etc.), and the seas bordering the Horn of Africa.
The headquarters of NATO's Allied Land Command (LANDCOM) is in İzmir, Turkey. İzmir also hosted the headquarters of NATO's Allied Air Command İzmir (AIRSOUTH) between 2004 and 2013, when the Allied Air Command (AIRCOM) at the Ramstein Air Base in Germany became the sole Allied Air Component Command of NATO.
Turkey borders Georgia (Russo-Georgian War), Azerbaijan (Nagorno-Karabakh conflict), Iraq (Iraqi conflict), Syria (Syrian civil war) and Iran (hostile to the United States since the revolution in 1979). Conflicts in the aforementioned countries have affected the relations between Turkey and the United States.
After 1780, the United States began relations with North African countries and the Ottoman Empire. In the early 1800s, the US fought the Barbary Wars against the Barbary states, which were under Ottoman suzerainty. The Ottomans severed diplomatic relations with the United States on April 20, 1917, after the United States declared war against Germany on April 4, 1917, due to the Ottoman–German alliance. Normal diplomatic relations were re-established with the Ottoman Empire's successor state, Turkey, in 1927.
The strategic partnership characterized the exceptionally close economic and military relations between 1952 and the 2010s. The 2010s were a period of deterioration over the US policies in Syria. In 2020, Turkey was added to CAATSA, and the partnership worsened from ambivalent allies of the 2010s to antagonists.
From 1952 to 1991, the relationship premised on a "mutuality of benefits".
After participating with United Nations forces in the Korean War, Turkey joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1952. The second-largest army belongs to Turkey in NATO and host of the Allied Land Command headquarters including the Incirlik (1955–present) and Konya Airbases (2000–present).
Turkey was one of the founding members of Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), which promoted shared political and military economic goals similar to and modeled like NATO. The US pressured and promised military and economic aid to be the founding member. The US was not a member. The defensive organization never became functional partly due to the lack of leadership as John Foster Dulles (United States Secretary of State) claimed that the administration could not obtain Congressional approval."
The U.S. actively supported Turkey's membership bid to join the European Union and frequently lobbied on behalf of Ankara through its diplomatic missions in EU capital cities.
In 2001, the relationship began with the premise of the United States fostering cooperation on counterterrorism, law enforcement, and military training and education. Turkey remained a close ally of the United States and provided support in the War on Terror.
In 2013, the US and Turkey created a $200 million fund to help stem extremism by undercutting the ideological and recruiting appeal of jihadists in places like Somalia, Yemen, and Pakistan. It was the first global effort to support local, community-level initiatives aimed at strengthening democratic values, empathy towards the enemies and development of countering values to prevent violent extremism. When asked Kerry defined the strategic goal "It's a different kind of challenge and we believe we need to intensify our efforts to address the underlying factors that lead down the path of violence, It's about building foundational security, challenging the narrative of violence to refuse to justify the slaughtering of people." In short, the program was based on the role of education in preventing violent extremism and deradicalizing young people.
US Congressional Research Service (CRS) stated that "Turkey's relative importance for U.S. policymakers declined in the immediate aftermath of the Gulf War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, but focus remained on a number of regional developments involving Turkey." According to CRS a "reassessment period" established between 1991 and 2002. CRS timeline for 1991–2002 showed that the US established a "No-Fly Zone" in the north of Iraq, and later withheld military loans to Turkey on alleged human rights violations in relation to PKK in 1994. In 1997, the US designated the PKK as a foreign terrorist organization and PKK's activities stopped following its leader was captured with US assistance in 1999. In 2003, the Turkish parliament didn't allow the US invasion of Iraq from Turkey, and the following year PKK resumed insurgency and attacks from northern Iraq.
Since US President Barack Obama mediated tensions between Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, 31 May 2010, over the Gaza flotilla raid, some neoconservatives have called for Turkey's expulsion from NATO. Tom Rogan from National Review promoted expelling Turkey from NATO as part of his broader efforts to reform the alliance. Ted Galen Carpenter, a senior fellow in defense and foreign policy studies at the Cato Institute, also proposed expelling Turkey from the Western alliance. A breakpoint risen in 2015. While claiming Turkey turned a blind eye to ISIL and other jihadist networks on both sides of its border, US began openly arming the People's Protection Units (a militia related to Kurdistan Workers' Party). However the US-led Operation Inherent Resolve against ISIL was on 15 June 2014, five months before Turkey performed the January 2014 Turkish airstrike in Syria. Another breakpoint had risen in 2016. Caused by the belief among most Turkish citizens that America had a hand in the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt. It was compounded by the fact that its suspected ringleader, the Islamic preacher Hoca Fethullah Gülen, lives in Saylorsburg, Pennsylvania. Shortly after the FETÖ's (the Gülen movement) purges and arrests (2016–present purges in Turkey), on October 4, 2016, Turkey moved to arrest Turkish nationals employed at American consulates (Metin Topuz on espionage and conspiracy charges), followed on the October 7, 2016, arrest of pastor and teaching elder Evangelical Presbyterian Andrew Brunson. On October 10, 2016, in regards to John R. Bass, Turkey declared: "We do not consider the ambassador a representative of the United States" which was a step short of being an unwanted person. The response came on May 16, 2017 John McCain and Claire McCaskill called for the expulsion (unwanted person) of the Turkish ambassador Serdar Kılıç, following the 2017 clashes at the Turkish Ambassador's Residence in Washington, D.C.
According to The Economist, Turkish-American relations sank to their lowest in over 40 years in October 2017. Turkey moved to establish safe zone (Syria). Turkey performed the Operation Olive Branch (25 March 2018 – 9 August 2019) against the YPG. Turkey established the Northern Syria Buffer Zone. On Aug 10, 2018, Trump tweeted that he would double tariffs (first Trump tariffs) on Turkish steel and aluminum using the "Section 232" which was imposed on countries whose exports threaten to impair national security. With both internal structural weaknesses and US sanctions, Economy of Turkey fall into Turkish economic crisis (2018–current). From October 9 to October 17, 2019, the Operation Peace Spring established the Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone. US lost trust in Turkey as the latter bombed its own military base at the Northern Syria Buffer Zone. On February 5, 2020, the US halted a secretive military intelligence cooperation program with Turkey against the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), which was listed as a terrorist organization by the US and Turkey. Turkey had observation posts in the Idlib demilitarization (2018–2019) zone which held more than 3,000,000 internally displaced Syrians (more than half of them children). On February 27, 2020, Syrian forces attacked Turkish forces at the Idlib demilitarization (2018–2019) zone, and military separation between the forces became public after a senior US State Department official argued with the Pentagon over Turkey's request for two Patriot batteries on its southern border. The request was confirmed by Turkish Defense Minister Hulusi Akar.
President Erdoğan and the AKP government in Turkey blamed the Pennsylvania-based Gülen movement (known in Turkey as FETÖ since 2016) led by the exiled cleric Fethullah Gülen for the failed coup attempt in 2016 and began to view the United States with suspicion regarding any conspiracy theory of alleged involvement, while approaching Russia as an alternative provider of military hardware such as long-range air defense systems.
In 2018, the Council on Foreign Relations recommended that "the U.S. needs to develop alternatives to Incirlik Air Base. The use of the base to advance U.S. interests is no longer assured." In 2019, the United States and Greece signed the "Revised Defense Cooperation Agreement". The agreement was described as critical to responding to new security challenges in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. In 2021, the "Greek-American Mutual Defense Cooperation Agreement" permitted the U.S. military to use the Georgula Barracks in Greece's central province of Volos, Litochoro Training Ground, and army barracks in the northeastern port city of Alexandroupoli apart from the naval base in Souda Bay in Crete which the US has been operating since 1969.
Bilateral relations between Turkey and the United States further deteriorated after the passage of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, with an amendment added by Senator John McCain requiring the Trump administration to submit a detailed report to Congress on the status of US–Turkey relations. The Department of Defense (DOD) submitted a mostly classified report to Congress in November 2018 followed by H.R. 648 which required the DOD report on the issue in 2019.
On December 14, 2020, the U.S. government decided to apply sanctions on Turkey, a NATO member, for disregarding the CAATSA law of 2017, following Ankara's decision to purchase the S-400 missile system from Russia. Turkey was also excluded from the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter program on July 17, 2019, citing risks associated with the connection of a potential Russian intelligence gathering platform with advanced radars and sensors to NATO's networks. The U.S. also imposed restrictions against the Turkish Defence Industry Agency.
In 2021, President Biden formally recognized the Armenian genocide, while emphasizing U.S. relations with Armenia. After Azerbaijani forces blocked the Zangezur corridor in 2023, American Enterprise Institute scholar Michael Rubin called Biden to act, and to start talks with Armenia to establish a military base in the Zangezur corridor. On September 11, 2023, a small contingent of U.S. special forces trained with Armenian soldiers during the "Eagle Partner" exercise in Armenia. As of 2025, Armenia still hosts the Russian 102nd Military Base in Gyumri and the Russian 3624th Airbase in Erebuni Airport near Yerevan, and still uses Soviet or Russian-made military equipment.
On October 12, 2023, President Biden declared "particularly the actions by the Government of Turkey to conduct a military offensive into northeast Syria, undermines the campaign to defeat the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, or ISIS, endangers civilians, and further threatens to undermine the peace, security, and stability in the region". Following this declaration President Biden reestablished Executive Order 13894 which stated Turkey is an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States constituted by the situation in and in relation to Syria. Following the 2023 Ankara bombing on October 1, 2023, Turkish intelligence officials established that the assailants arrived from Syria, where they had been trained, by paragliders. Six days before the declaration, on October 5, Turkey began bombing their facilities in Syria. CJTF–OIR downed a Turkish drone, while doing airstrikes on PKK militants around Hassakeh, which came within 500 m of American troops. A day before the executive order was made public, on October 11, Turkey declared to intensify strikes on the PKK in Iraq and Syria.
According to the Council on Foreign Relations, the United States needs to adjust its expectations, ask for less, and develop other options, because despite being a NATO ally, Turkey's interests do not completely align with those of the United States on all regional or global issues.
One of Turkey's most important international relationships has been with the United States since the end of the Second World War and the beginning of the Cold War.
In 1945, the Turkish Straits crisis developed over requested Russian military bases in the Turkish Straits as a part of Soviet territorial claims against Turkey. After World War II, Turkey was pressured by the Soviet government to allow Russian shipping to pass freely through the Turkish Straits, which connect the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Tensions arose in the region and led to a show of naval force from the Soviets after Turkey would not submit to the Soviet Union's requests.
In 1946, President Truman returned the body of Münir Ertegün, former Turkish Ambassador to Washington (2nd Ambassador of Turkey to the United States), back to Istanbul with the battleship Missouri. Missouri with her 1,515 officers and enlisted men honored the deceased between 21 March 1946 Washington to 5 April Istanbul, until his body was given to his family. It was a gesture not only to Turkish foreign service but also to demonstrate that the US was defending Turkey against Soviet threats.
in 1947, British assistance to Turkey ended. The U.S. dispatched military aid to ensure that Turkey would retain chief control of the passage. Turkey began to associate with the United States in 1947 when the United States Congress designated Turkey, under the provisions of the "Truman Doctrine", as the recipient of special economic and military assistance intended to help it resist threats from the Soviet Union.
The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy whose stated purpose was to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. The Truman Doctrine used adherence to democracy in its strategic goals. Democracy was used to secure congressional aid for Turkey. Truman's strategic imperatives and democratic rhetoric against communist ideology held the position that because of US assistance against the Soviets, Turkey moved away from a single-party towards a multi-party system. There is no causal link between Turkey's democratization to either the Truman Doctrine or Turkey's admission to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In Atatürk's Reforms, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk envisioned a multi-party-based system. However, Turkey was a "de facto single-party state" (the correct term is one-party period of the Republic of Turkey) as the Republican People's Party effectively prevented the opposition from winning the elections. Turkey held the first multi-party elections in 1946. Multi-party period of the Republic of Turkey began with the Democratic Party government of Adnan Menderes.
The U.S. sought the containment strategy at the beginning of the Korean War to defend Republic of Korea (ROK) from a communist invasion by Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK). In support of the US' overall Cold War strategy, Turkey contributed to the United Nations forces in the Korean War (1950–53). On October 19, 1950, with more than 4,500 troops Turkish Brigade attached to the U.S. 25th Infantry Division. The Turkish Brigade was the only foreign unit of its size permanently attached to a U.S. division (Brothers in Arms). Turkey replaced/replenished this Brigade each year (15,000 combat soldiers and a total of 21,212) until mid-summer of 1954. A mutual interest in containing Soviet expansion provided the foundation of US–Turkish relations for the next four decades.
The admission of Greece and Turkey to NATO on 18 February 1952 was preceded by extensive study and debate on extending the alliance to the eastern Mediterranean. The membership of these two countries created NATO's new southern flank. Changes were needed in the wording of the treaty to expand its territorial reach. The admission of Turkey gave NATO a much longer land frontier with the Warsaw Pact. The 1936 Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits gave Turkey control over the Turkish Straits, through which the Soviet Navy's Black Sea Fleet had access to the Mediterranean. At the same time, Turkey brought to the alliance its second-largest body of military manpower after that of the United States, in addition to access to sites for forward deployment and intelligence gathering.
Since Atatürk's Reforms, Turkey wanted to be part of the Western alliance. Turkey also intended to enter into the Western economic structure. Truman Doctrine aimed to prevent the spread of communism in Turkey. It aimed to change Turkey's isolated economy (statist structure) to move into a liberal system. Marshall subsidies created economic added value in Turkey. The Marshal Plan also directed Turkey toward higher military spending (the second largest military in NATO) due to being seen mainly as a buffer state against the Soviet Union and the Middle East.
Turkey received $111 million in economic and military aid and the U.S. sent the aircraft carrier Franklin D. Roosevelt. Marshall Plan intended to direct Turkey towards developments in agriculture, mining, and tourism sectors. Tractors and agricultural equipment entered the country and created a boom in production. The aid to the Turkish military went back to the US military-industrial complex. .
Turkey was a founding member of the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) collective defense pact established in 1955, and endorsed the principles of the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine. In the 1950s and 1960s, Turkey generally cooperated with other United States allies in the Middle East (Iran, Israel, and Jordan) to contain the influence of countries (Egypt, Iraq, and Syria) regarded as Soviet clients. Throughout the Cold War, Turkey was the bulwark of NATO's southeastern flank and directly bordered Warsaw Pact countries.
1960 U-2 incident was a U-2 spy plane shot down by the Soviet Air Defence Forces while performing photographic aerial reconnaissance deep into Soviet territory. On April 28, 1960, a U.S. Lockheed U-2C spy plane, Article 358, was ferried from Incirlik Air Base in Turkey to the US base at Peshawar airport by pilot Glen Dunaway. Fuel for the aircraft had been ferried to Peshawar the previous day in a US Air Force C-124 transport. A US Air Force C-130 followed, which carried the ground crew, mission pilot Francis Powers, and backup pilot Bob Ericson. On the morning of April 29, the crew in Badaber was informed that the mission had been delayed by one day. As a result, Bob Ericson flew Article 358 back to Incirlik, and John Shinn ferried another U-2C, Article 360, from Incirlik to Peshawar. On 30 April, the mission was delayed one more day because of bad weather over the Soviet Union. On 1 May, Captain Powers left the base in Peshawar on a mission with the operations code word GRAND SLAM. Four days after Powers' disappearance, NASA issued a very detailed press release noting that an aircraft had "gone missing" north of Turkey.
On May 13 the Soviet Union sent complaints to Turkey, who in turn protested to the United States. Turkey acquired assurances that no U.S. aircraft would be allowed for unauthorized purposes.
Turkey risked nuclear war on its soil during the Cuban Missile Crisis. It was a 13-day confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union initiated by the American discovery of Soviet ballistic missile deployment in Cuba. In response to the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961 and the presence of American Jupiter ballistic missiles in Italy and Turkey, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev agreed to Cuba's request to place nuclear missiles on the island to deter a future invasion. An agreement was reached between John F. Kennedy and Khrushchev. Publicly, the Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba, in exchange for a US public declaration and agreement to avoid invading Cuba again. Secretly, the United States agreed that it would dismantle all US-built Jupiter MRBMs, which had been deployed in Turkey and Italy against the Soviet Union.
In 2017, The Putin Interviews claimed that the placement of Russian missiles in Cuba was a Russian reaction to the earlier stationing of American missiles in Turkey in 1961–62; it was Khrushchev's attempt to achieve a balance of power.
The Cyprus Emergency was a conflict fought in British Cyprus between 1955 and 1959. The National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters (EOKA), a Greek Cypriot right-wing nationalist guerrilla organisation, began an armed campaign in support of ending British colonial rule and enabling the unification of Cyprus and Greece (Enosis) in 1955. Opposition to Enosis from Turkish Cypriots led to the formation of the Turkish Resistance Organisation (TMT) in support of the partition of Cyprus. In the mid-1960s relations worsened between Greek and Turkish communities on Cyprus. Britain wanted to hand the crisis and a peacekeeping role to either NATO or UN forces. US President Lyndon B. Johnson tried to prevent a Turkish invasion of Cyprus and war between them. American diplomat George Ball found Archbishop Makarios, president of Cyprus, difficult to deal with, as he commonly rejected the advice.
The Americans secretly talked to General Georgios Grivas, leader of the EOKA guerrilla organization. While invasion and war did not occur, the U.S. alienated both the Greek and Turkish governments and drove Makarios closer to the Russians and Egyptians. The Cyprus Emergency ended in 1959 with the signing of the London-Zürich Agreements, establishing the Republic of Cyprus as a non-partitioned independent state separate from Greece.
On June 5, 1964, President LBJ sent a letter to Turkish Premier İsmet İnönü. It is known since as the "Johnson letter." The most important point was NATO would be reluctant to defend Turkey.
Item 1 was the critical American position toward Turkey. Item 2 was the wake-up call. Johnson revealed to Turkey's political elite that the TAF overly depended on the US. Inonu knew that he would receive a strong message. The letter leaked to the press before messenger left the building. Inonu created a reference point for the nature and intention of American policy on Turkey. In the following decades, Johnson's Letter became the first level reference when an American policy regarding Turkey was analyzed. The unintended consequence of the Johnson letter showed in the public debates. What would the American assistance look like, assuming the US wanted to defend Turkey?
The US ordered the Sixth Fleet to Istanbul in August 1968. Turkish public perceived the visit as a follow-up to the Jonson letter. The labor federations and the other left-wing groups protested the fleet. Those were the same groups that presented a heartfelt welcome in the late 1950s.
The war on drugs is the policy of a global campaign to reduce the illegal drug trade in the United States. Turkey signed the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs in 1961, ratified in 1967. In 1971, Turkey imposed a ban on opium production as a result of considerable U.S. government pressure. The U.S. granted a total of $35.7 million in support for the transitioning of 70,000 farm workers to the cultivation of other types of crops. The Turkish government implemented the program under pressure from farmers who claimed lost revenue and nationalists who claimed the program was imposed with foreign pressure. During the 1973 Turkish general election, all campaigning political parties expressed dissatisfaction. In 1974, Turkey moved to a system for licensing poppy production in which the state purchased all crops (no poppy market) and used them for the legal production of pharmaceuticals by state-owned institutions (no sale to private industry).
After the 1974 Cypriot coup d'état (backed by the Cypriot National Guard and the Greek military junta), on July 20, 1974, Turkey invaded Cyprus, claiming it was protecting the safety of Turkish Cypriots following the Treaty of Guarantee. The Turkish military occupied the northern third of Cyprus (Turkish invasion of Cyprus), dividing the island along what became known as the Green Line monitored by the United Nations, defying ceasefire.
Turkey repeatedly claimed, for decades before the invasion and frequently afterward, that Cyprus was of vital strategic importance to it. Ankara defied a host of UN resolutions demanding the withdrawal of its occupying troops from the island. About 142,000 Greek Cypriots living in the north and 65,000 Turkish Cypriots living in the south, were forcibly expelled and were forbidden to return to their homes and properties. 109 Turkish villages were destroyed and 700 Turks were kept as hostages. Daily Telegraph described events as anti-Turkish pogrom.
The United States imposed an arms embargo on Turkey in response and relations between the two countries suffered significantly.The US could not achieve its desired goal by imposing an embargo on Türkiye. However, it caused Türkiye to invest in its defense industry. Soviets saw the expansion of Warsaw Pact could have a chance in the region.
In 1969, Ambassador Komer's car was set on fire by the Marxist-Leninist Dev-Genç during his visit of Mustafa Kemal Kurdaş at the Middle East Technical University, in which the nascent institution was developed using the aid given by the United States. Former CIA counterintelligence officer Aldrich Ames decoded the organization as a part of the CIA activities in Turkey.
In the coming years, Turkey became a front for the clashes between far-left and far-right militant groups, as the political violence in Turkey (1976–1980) took place simultaneously with the worldwide incidents of left-wing terrorism aimed at overthrowing the liberal and capitalist governments and replacing them with communist or socialist regimes.
NATO support manifested in the establishment of a clandestine stay-behind army, called the "Counter-Guerrilla", under Operation Gladio.
The Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA), listed as a terrorist organization by the United States Department of State, carried out attacks against Turkish diplomats and Turkish Airlines offices between 1975 and 1991. The precursor to the foundation of ASALA was the assassination of Turkish Consul General Mehmet Baydar and Turkish Consul Bahadır Demir by Armenian American Kourken Yanigian, who invited them to a luncheon on January 27, 1973, in Santa Barbara, California, United States. Yanigian was sentenced to life imprisonment, but many Armenian Americans expressed support for his views. Numerous attacks by ASALA were carried out in the United States, Europe and the Middle East.
The 1983 Orly Airport attack by ASALA in Paris, France, resulted in the deaths of 8 people and injury of 55 others, which caused widespread international condemnation. The United States, France and numerous other countries began listing ASALA as a terrorist organization. Turkish authorities have for many years investigated the possible involvement of ASALA in the earlier Turkish Airlines Flight 981 crash at Ermenonville Forest a short time after it took off from Orly Airport in Paris, France, on March 3, 1974; but an investigation by the French Ministry of Transport came to the conclusion that the explosion at the cargo door of the aircraft was likely caused by a design flaw in early production models of the McDonnell Douglas DC-10. In that crash, all 335 passengers and 11 crew on board died, making it one of the deadliest crashes in aviation history.
After the 1983 Orly Airport attack, ASALA began to reduce its activities and eventually went underground. In 1984, the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), designated as a Foreign Terrorist Organization by the U.S. State Department, declared itself as a paramilitary group and began staging attacks in the villages and towns of southeastern and eastern Turkey. Between 1982 and 1984 the PKK had received armed combat training by ASALA at the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon and by the Assad regime in Syria. PKK leader Abdullah Öcalan was hosted in Damascus until 1998, when Turkey threatened Syria with war unless Öcalan would be expelled from Syrian territory. In 1999 Öcalan was captured in Kenya with a joint operation by the MİT and CIA.
The arms embargo was silently removed a few years later with the contribution of the geopolitical changes in the Middle East like the Iranian Revolution. National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski discussed with his staff a possible American invasion of Iran by using Turkish bases and territory if the Soviets decided to repeat the Afghanistan scenario in Iran, although this plan did not materialize.
The 1978 American semi-biographical film Midnight Express was banned in Turkey under Article 301 of the Turkish Penal Code, which caused a strain on U.S.–Turkish relations. The movie was widely perceived in Turkey as a revenge for the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 and the establishment of the self-declared Turkish Federated State of Cyprus in 1975, recognized only by Turkey. It was filmed almost entirely at Fort Saint Elmo in Valletta, Malta, which had played an important role during the Great Siege of Malta (1565) by the Ottoman Navy. The selection of this symbolic location, despite the existence of more economical alternatives closer to or within the United States, led to the perception that it conveyed a veiled warning message to Turkey regarding the fate of Cyprus. Most of the villified Turkish characters in the movie were portrayed by Greek and Armenian actors.
During the 1980s, relations between Turkey and the United States gradually recovered. In March 1980 Turkey and the US signed the Defense and Economic Cooperation Agreement (DECA), in which the United States was granted access to 26 military facilities in return for Turkey's ability to buy modern military hardware and $450 million. Although Ankara resented continued attempts by the United States Congress to restrict military assistance to Turkey because of Cyprus and the introduction of congressional resolutions condemning the Armenian genocide, the Özal government generally perceived the administration of President George H. W. Bush as sympathetic to Turkish interests. At this time, Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) was established and it started to build F-16 Fighting Falcon jets under license in Turkey. Washington demonstrated its support of Özal's market-oriented economic policies and efforts to open the Turkish economy to international trade by pushing for acceptance of an International Monetary Fund program to provide economic assistance to Turkey. Furthermore, the United States, unlike European countries, did not persistently and publicly criticize Turkey over allegations of human rights violations, nor did it pressure Özal on the Kurdish problem. By 1989 the United States had recovered a generally positive image among the Turkish political elite.
The end of the Cold War forced Turkish leaders to reassess their country's international position. The disappearance of the Soviet threat and the perception of being excluded from Europe (even though Turkey was an associate member of the EEC) created a sense of vulnerability with respect to Turkey's position in the fast-changing global political environment. Turkey supported the Arab–Israeli peace process and expanded ties with the Central Asian members of the CIS. Özal believed Turkey's future security depended on the continuation of a strong relationship with the United States.
During the Gulf War, Özal modified the main principles of Turkish foreign policy towards the Middle East, which were non-interference in intra-Arab disputes and the Middle Eastern affairs. The role Turkey played during the Gulf War demonstrated to the public that it was one of the key actors in the region.
President Özal supported the United States' position during the Gulf War (2 August 1990 – 17 January 1991). Turkey's economic ties to Iraq were extensive and their disruption hurt the country. Turkey lost approximately $60 billion by closing the Kirkuk–Ceyhan Oil Pipeline during the conflict. Just before the war, Chief of the Turkish General Staff General Necip Torumtay resigned out of disagreement in involving Turkish ground forces with the conflict, which prevented Turkey's active military engagement. Turkey allowed United Nations forces (UN SC Resolution 665) to fly missions from its air bases; by doing so Turkey remained a platform for the US attacks against Iraq for the rest of the conflict. Turkey played a role in the war by restraining a sizeable proportion of the Iraqi army on the Turkey–Iraq border.
After the war, Turkey continued to support major United States initiatives in the region, including the creation of a safe zone for Iraqi Kurds over northern Iraq. Turkey received a large number of Iraqi Kurdish refugees following the 1991 uprisings in Iraq (1 March – 5 April 1991). The Iraqi no-fly zones were two no-fly zones (NFZs) that were proclaimed by the United States, United Kingdom, and France to create safe zones for the internally displaced people after the war. The US and the UK claimed authorization for the NFZ based on United Nations Security Council Resolution 688, though not in the text. The US stated that the NFZs were intended to protect the ethnic Kurdish minority in northern Iraq and Shiite Muslims in the south. Turkey opened its Incirlik and Diyarbakır air bases and became involved in the ground support and intelligence operations for the northern NFZ which was initially part of Operation Provide Comfort's relief operations before being succeeded by Operation Northern Watch.
NFZs also enabled a safe haven for PKK. Turkey performed cross-border operations into northern Iraq:
In September 1998, Masoud Barzani and Jalal Talabani signed the US-mediated Washington Agreement and established a formal peace treaty. In the agreement, the parties agreed to share revenue, share power, and deny the use of northern Iraq to the PKK. President Bill Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act into law, providing for military assistance to Iraqi opposition groups, which included the PUK and KDP.
The United States' use of Turkish military installations during the bombing of Iraq in 1991 led to anti-war demonstrations in several Turkish cities, and sporadic attacks on United States facilities in 1992 and 1993.
In January 1995, a consensus had emerged among Turkey's political elite that the country's security depended on remaining a strategic ally of the United States. For this reason, both the Demirel and Çiller governments made efforts to cultivate relations with the administrations of presidents George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton.
Syria has been on the U.S. list of state sponsors of terrorism since the list's inception in 1979 and deems it to be a "safe haven" for terrorists. Turkey condemned Syria for supporting the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), which is listed as a terrorist organization internationally by a number of states and organizations.
The Turkish government openly threatened Syria over its support for the PKK. Turkey claimed that Syria employed former Schutzstaffel officer Alois Brunner to train militants. Turkey and Syria nearly engaged in war when Turkey threatened military action if Syria continued to shelter Abdullah Öcalan in Damascus, his long-time safe haven. Öcalan was the leader and one of the founding members of the PKK. As a result, the Syrian government forced Öcalan to leave the country, who was captured in Kenya on February 15, 1999, while being transferred from the Greek embassy to Jomo Kenyatta International Airport in Nairobi, in an operation by the National Intelligence Organization (MIT) with the help of the CIA.
According to leaked diplomatic cables originating from 2004, then Prime Minister Erdoğan was described by U.S. diplomats as a "perfectionist workaholic who sincerely cares for the well-being of those around him". He was also described as having "little understanding of politics beyond Ankara" and as surrounding himself with an "iron ring of sycophantic (but contemptuous) advisors". He is said to be "isolated", and that his MPs and Ministers feel "fearful of Erdogan's wrath". Diplomats state that "he relies on his charisma, instincts, and the filterings of advisors who pull conspiracy theories off the Web or are lost in neo-Ottoman Islamist fantasies".
Turkey had remained a close ally of the United States in the War on Terror after the September 11 attacks. Turkish President Ahmet Necdet Sezer and Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit condemned the attacks and the Turkish government then ordered all of its flags at half-mast for one day of mourning. Turkey participated in the International Security Assistance Force.
According to a report by the Open Society Foundations, Turkey participated at one point or another with the CIA's extraordinary rendition program. U.S. ambassador Ross Wilson revealed the involvement of the Incirlik airbase in a diplomatic cable dated June 8, 2006, which described Turkey as a crucial ally in the "global war on terror" and an important logistical base for the US-led war in Iraq. On June 14, 2006, Turkish foreign ministry officials told reporters: "The Turkish government and state never played a part [in the secret transfers] ... and never will." According to evidence, the US base was a transit stop in taking detainees to secret prisons. The cable also stated: "We recommend that you do not raise this issue with TGS [Turkish general staff] pending clarification from Washington on what approach state/OSD/JCS/NSC [national security council] wish to take."
Turkey is particularly cautious about a Kurdish state arising from a destabilized Iraq. Turkey has fought an insurgent war against the PKK, which is listed as a terrorist organization internationally by a number of states and organizations. Iraq was a safe haven for PKK. The Iraqi Kurds were organized under the PUK and KDP, who later cooperated with American forces during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
In 2002 Morton I. Abramowitz (1989–1991 US Ambassador) said, in regards to Turkey's involvement in an upcoming war: "It is hard to believe that in the end the Turks would not cooperate with the United States if war takes place, with or without UN blessing". Vice President Dick Cheney's only trip abroad in his first three years at the office was a four-day trip to Ankara. Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit welcomed Cheney to a working dinner on March 19, who offered $228 million to aid in military efforts provided that international military operations took command of the Afghanistan peacekeeping force. Turkey's position on Iraq was presented to Cheney. In December 2002, Turkey moved approximately 15,000 soldiers to its border with Iraq. The 2003 invasion of Iraq faced strong domestic opposition in Turkey: opinion polls showed that 80% of Turks were opposed to the war. The Turkish Parliament's position reflected the public's. The March 1, 2003, motion at the Turkish Parliament could not reach the absolute majority of 276 votes needed to allow US troops to attack Iraq from Turkey (62,000 troops and more than 250 planes), the final tally being 264 votes for and 250 against. BBC's Jonny Dymond said the knife-edge vote is a massive blow to the government which has a majority in parliament. On March 11, Abdullah Gül resigned as Turkey's Prime Minister. Chief of the General Staff of Turkey Hilmi Özkök said "Turkey would suffer the effects of the war [motion also included twice as many Turkish troops to be deployed to northern Iraq]." The US did not immediately re-deploy the forces intended for staging in Turkey and the State Department asked for "clarification" of the Turkish vote. In the end, the US pulled the offer of $6 billion in grants and up to $24 billion in loan guarantees, which caused Turkey's stock market to plunge by 12%.
In connection with its invasion of Iraq, the United States requested that Turkey allow 62,000 soldiers to deploy from its territory and that 9 Turkish air bases allow United States bombers to deploy. Tension developed when the Turkish government agreed to the request, but parliament rejected it on March 1, 2003. On 20 March 2003 following a visit by United States Secretary of State Colin Powell to Ankara, an agreement was consummated to allow the United States Air Force to use Turkish airspace. Relations improved in 2009 following United States President Barack Obama's visit to Turkey.
On March 20, the 2003 invasion of Iraq began. On July 4, 2003, Turkish military personnel that were stationed in northern Iraq were captured from their station, led away with hoods over their heads, and interrogated; this later came to be known as the "hood event". Turkish military personnel had stationed military observers in "northern safe zone" after the 1991 Gulf War. The specific unit was stationed at Sulaimaniya after the civil war broke out in 1996 to monitor a ceasefire between the PUK and KDP. The unit station was a historical Ottoman Empire facility (dwelling), which held the historical archives of the Ottoman Empire. Among the destroyed documents were the deed records of the region. The hood event was strongly condemned by the Turkey's newspapers and referred to Americans as "Rambos" and "Ugly Americans". Chief of the General Staff of Turkey Hilmi Özkök declared the incident as the sign of "crisis of confidence" between the US and Turkey.
During the conflict, Ankara pressured the U.S. into subduing PKK training camps in northern Iraq. The U.S. remained reluctant due to northern Iraq's relative stability compared to the rest of the country. On October 17, 2007, the Turkish Parliament voted in favor of allowing the Turkish Armed Forces to take military action against the PKK based in northern Iraq. In response, Bush stated that he did not believe it was in Turkey's interests to send troops into Iraq. Operation Sun was executed 21–29 February 2008.
Turkey's fourth attempt at building a nuclear reactor, in 2002, was driven by concerns over dependence on Russian gas for electric generation. US companies did not produce any bids. In fact, Turkey received only bid—from Rosatom. The bid was rejected partly due to defeating the dependency problem. Turkey's build-own-transfer approach failed.
In June 2008, The United States and Turkey began to cooperate on peaceful uses of nuclear energy with a pact that aims for the transfer of technology, material, reactors, and components for nuclear research and nuclear power production in Turkey for an initial 15-year period followed by automatic renewals in five-year increments that provides a comprehensive framework for peaceful nuclear cooperation between the two nations under the agreed non-proliferation conditions and controls. A parallel U.S. bipartisan resolution highlighted the importance of the Turkish Republic's key role in safeguarding Eurasian energy security for its Western and regional allies.
The Center for Strategic and International Studies started a one-year initiative project to evaluate and enhance the Turkish Republic–United States strategic partnership, aiming for a plan of implementation of the concluded framework at the end of this phase.
After 8 years of failed attempts, due to being received as a possible nuclear proliferation front in the West (US), Turkey altered its strategy. Instead of owning a nuclear power plant, Turkey enabled vendors to own the plant. In 2010, Turkey and Russia signed an agreement for nuclear cooperation. From a Eurasian energy security perspective, US lost a NATO partner (in nuclear cooperation) as this nuclear deal did not solve Turkey's dependence on Russia's natural gas, but added a second dependence on nuclear technology.
The Gülen movement is a self-described transnational social movement based on moral values and advocacy of universal access to education, civil society, and tolerance and peace, inspired by the religious teachings of Sunni cleric (mufti) Fethullah Gülen, a Turkish Islamic preacher based in the United States. The conflict between the Turkish government the Gülen movement is a major Turkey–United States relations issue.
Gülen movement's possible involvement in the Ergenekon plot (trials) is controversial. The investigation claimed to study an organization compared to Counter-Guerrilla. Accused were claimed to be the "deep state." The Ergenekon trials were a series of high-profile trials that began on October 20, 2008, in which 275 people, including military officers, journalists, and opposition lawmakers, all alleged members of Ergenekon, were accused of plotting against the Erdogan government. The trials resulted in lengthy prison sentences for most of the accused. The US Secretary of State reported on the Turkish investigation into the Ergenekon network and concluded that "the details of the case were murky, however, and Ergenekon's status as a terrorist organization remained under debate at year's end".
In late 2007, Turkey recalled its ambassador to the United States after the US House Committee on Foreign Affairs passed a US resolution on the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire, which resulted in a delay of a full House vote on Resolution 106. Speaker Nancy Pelosi pledged to bring the resolution to a full vote, but pressure from the White House and Turkey kept her from doing so.
On 30 May 2009, A U.S. Democratic Party delegation group including U.S. Senators Robert Casey, Edward E. Kaufman, Frank Lautenberg and U.S. Congressman Timothy Walz met with Turkish officials in Ankara to confirm that "Turkey can always depend on the US, while the US can always rely on its close friendship with Turkey". Obama gave impassioned and eloquent speeches in Turkey (#2009 Obama visit) and Cairo (A New Beginning (speech)). They were seen as the advent of a new era. However, Foreign Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu said that 2013 was the year that shaped the coming decades in Turkey–US relations. According to Davutoglu, Obama's responses to the breach of his red lines (Ghouta chemical attack) and acceptance of the coup in Egypt (2013 Egyptian coup d'état) worked for the narratives of extremists, encouraged atrocities, also signaled to our (NATO) adversaries that they can count on the US's inaction at places like Crimea. Signs of strain were then displayed when Obama refused to have a formal meeting with Erdoğan when the latter visited the United States in March 2016.
In May 2009, after parliamentary debates in Belgium and Germany called for the removal of the nuclear weapons stationed in their military bases, questions were subsequently raised over the reportedly continuing presence of B61 nuclear bombs stationed at the Incirlik Air Base as part of NATO's nuclear sharing program. Bilkent University Professor Mustafa Kibaroğlu speculated that if the Obama administration would have pressed for the withdrawal of these weapons, which Turkey wished to maintain, then Turkey-U.S. relations could have been strained. In October 2009, President Obama sent a proposal (nuclear deal framework) to Erdoğan during the heated discussions in the U.S. on nuclear weapons in Turkey. However, before the completion of the framework, Turkish and Iranian diplomats were discussing a preliminary nuclear deal, which would be named the Tehran Declaration. In April 2010, while Turkish and Iranian diplomats were working on a deal, Washington stepped up its efforts to impose a new round of sanctions on Iran over its nuclear program (Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act of 2010). Iran agreed to the "Tehran Declaration" after China and Russia were in accord with the prepared UN sanctions on Iran (declared as a tactical move). In May 2010, non-permanent members of the Security Council Turkey and Brazil announced the "Tehran Declaration." The Tehran Declaration was a fuel-swap deal. It stipulated that medical isotopes (a humanitarian need of Iran) could be produced by 20-percent-enriched nuclear fuel, which was to be provided to only one research reactor. The research reactor in question was the Tehran Research Reactor, which was supplied by the U.S. under the Atoms for Peace program. In exchange, Tehran would transfer 1,200 kilograms of low-enriched uranium to Turkey. On 17 May 2010, Brazil, Iran and Turkey signed a tri-partite Joint Declaration asserting that a nuclear fuel exchange could lead to peace. The U.S. discarded the agreement because "it did not address the continued production of uranium enriched to 20 percent inside Iranian territory."
Turkey, India and China opposed the adoption of a new round of sanctions, claiming the "Tehran Declaration" could be improved, rather than discarded. Opposition in the U.S. condemned the move, with claims that Turkey is not in the Western camp. Turkey's objection to the U.S. sanctions resulted in the U.S. Congress delaying arms sales sought by the Turkish military. On 17 August 2010, a separate report presented to Obama by the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom, which had previously urged him to raise the subject of religious freedom during his 2009 presidential visit to Turkey, concluded that Turkey's interpretation of secularism "resulted in violations of religious freedoms for many of the country's citizens, including members of the majority and, especially, minority religious communities". Obama said that future arms sales would depend on Turkish policies.
Following the discredited Tehran Declaration and sanctions on Turkey, the progress on the issue stopped until the change of government in Iran. Iranian President Hassan Rouhani signaled a change and opened the way for nuclear talks. On April 2, 2015, the Iran nuclear deal framework was signed five years after the Tehran Deal. Instead of the Turkey-Brazil initiative for the "Tehran Deal", the pact was signed between Iran and the P5+1 countries.
Why were Turkey and Brazil involved in the Iranian Nuclear issues? The Turkish Energy, Nuclear and Mineral Research Agency managed the nuclear power in Turkey. In putting together the fuel-swap deal, Turkey was trying to defend the autonomy of non-nuclear weapons states (NNWS) to enrich uranium for producing electricity and strengthen the right of NNWS to develop peaceful nuclear activities. The Obama administration sanctioned Turkey albeit for different reasons than Iran. In 2013, Russian nuclear construction company Atomstroyexport and Turkey signed a construction agreement for the "Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant". Turkey did not fall into the Iranian situation. The whole operation is Russian built, owned, and operated (build–own–operate) such that even the spent fuel (high-level waste) returned to Russia. Instead of the US partnering with Turkey, leaving Turkey to the Russia's help for the NNWS will affect Russia–Turkey relations by prolonging Turkey's dependence on Russian energy, beyond natural gas. It was a critical disconnect among NATO allies.
Before November 2013 US-led nuclear sanctions passed Halkbank between March 2012 and July 2013 purchased gold on the open market. November 2013 sanctions prevented Iran from being paid in dollars, but gold was never mentioned in the sanctions regime. Halkbank exchanged gold for Iranian oil (oil trading controversy). 18 October 2015, Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action canceled the sanctions in question. In March 2017, the deputy head Halkbank, Mehmet Hakan Atilla, was arrested by the US government for conspiring to evade sanctions against Iran by helping Reza Zarrab, an Iranian-Azeri businessman who had taken Turkish citizenship, "use U.S. financial institutions to engage in prohibited financial transactions that illegally funneled millions of dollars to Iran". Zarrab was in Miami, Florida, in March 2016. Atilla's trial commenced in New York City federal court in November 2017, with Zarrab agreeing to testify after reaching a plea deal with prosecutors. In early 2018, Atilla was convicted on five of six counts against him, including bank fraud and conspiracies and acquitted on one count after four days of jury deliberation.
The 2009 U.S. Secretary of State's Country Report on Terrorism confirmed that cooperation against terrorism is a key element in America's strategic partnership with Turkey, before going on to praise Turkish contributions to stabilize Iraq and Afghanistan and highlighting the strategic importance of the İncirlik Air Base used by both U.S. and NATO forces for operations in the region. Turkey had opposed the appointment of Anders Fogh Rasmussen as NATO secretary general due to his approach to the Muhammed carricaturs in Denmark until Obama assured a Turk would be one of Rasmussen deputies.
The U.S. Secretary of State's report also contained information on the PKK and other terrorist groups operating in Turkey, whom the U.S. and Turkish authorities share intelligence on, highlighting the September 12, 2006, attack on Diyarbakır and the July 27, 2008, attack on Güngören. In 2016, Vice President Joe Biden called the PKK a terrorist group "plain and simple" and compared it to the ISIL.
The U.S. under President Obama was reluctant to get deeply involved in the Arab World and was generally supportive of Turkish efforts in the region.
Turkey was particularly cautious about a Kurdish state arising from a destabilized Syria. Turkey has fought an insurgent war against the PKK, which is listed as a terrorist organization internationally by a number of states and organizations. Until 2011, Turkey's policy was trying to preserve a neutral but constructive position because civil war and sectarian conflicts would threaten Turkey's security. Eventually war broke and Syria (refugees, spillover) impacted Turkey more directly than other actors in the conflict.
Between 2011 and 2012, Turkey absorbed 120,000 Syrian refugees, 90,000 of whom are in camps. In September 2012, Turkey asked from US to establish "safe zones" with Turkey in northern Syria to accommodate refugees and reduce the number of civilian casualties. Gen. Philip Breedlove to United States Senate Committee on Armed Services said Syria was weaponizing migration. In 2015, U.S. senators called for humanitarian safe zones in Syria, Obama administration declined. In 2016, during the European migrant crisis, Merkel asked the same question. Obama said Syrian safe zones won't work.
Beginning in 2012, Turkey and the United States supported the "Syrian opposition" which held the idea of replacing the Assad regime. In early 2012, Seymour Hersh reported that the CIA cooperated with Turkey in a covert operation named "the Rat Line", which obtained and transported armaments from Libya to rebel groups (later known as the Free Syrian Army (FSA)) in Syria via proxies and front organizations in southern Turkey. The CIA's involvement reportedly ended after the mass evacuation of CIA operatives from the American consulate in Benghazi, Libya, after the 2012 Benghazi attack. In January 2014, the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence reported specifically on "the CIA annex at Benghazi", that "all CIA activities in Benghazi were legal and authorized. On-the-record testimony establishes that the CIA was not sending weapons ... from Libya to Syria, or facilitating other organizations or states that were transferring weapons from Libya to Syria." While the Obama administration investigated the Benghazi attack in January 2014, the National Intelligence Organisation scandal in Turkey broke out. In May 2014, the editor-in-chief of the Cumhuriyet Can Dündar published pictures of agents and trucks, and was later sentenced for ″leaking secret information of the state″.
In October 2014, Vice President Joe Biden accused Turkey of funding al-Nusra and al Qaeda (FSA-identified groups), to which Erdoğan angrily responded, "Biden has to apologize for his statements" adding that if no apology is made, Biden would become "history to [him]". Biden subsequently apologized. In 2015, the International Business Times wrote that the US sent weapons shipments to FSA-identified groups through a CIA program for years. Timber Sycamore was a classified weapons supply and training program run by the CIA and supported by some Arab intelligence services, such as the security service in Saudi Arabia. It launched in 2012 or 2013 and supplied money, weaponry and training to rebel forces. According to US officials, the program has trained thousands of rebels. In July 2017, H. R. McMaster, National Security Adviser to President Donald Trump and CIA Director Mike Pompeo, decided to terminate the program.
Obama used the "red line" on August 20, 2012, in relation to chemical weapons. On the one-year anniversary of Obama's red line speech, the Ghouta chemical attacks occurred. John McCain said the red line was "apparently written in disappearing ink", due to the perception the red line had been crossed with no action. At the same time, United States Central Command (CENTCOMM) approached the YPG.
Turkey-US relations began showing signs of deterioration, particularly over the handling of the YPG. Some groups held the idea of "Syrian Balkanization" ("division of the country") in which they promoted federalizing Syria on ethnic and religious-sectarian lines, Constitution of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria. The American forces in the Syrian Civil War openly allied with the Kurdish YPG fighters and supported them militarily. The YPG was criticized by Turkey for its alleged support to the PKK, especially since a rebellion in southern Turkey began in 2015. By early 2015, voices in the US foreign policy establishment pushed to abandon the rebels. In early October 2015, shortly after the start of the Russian military intervention in Syria, Obama was reported to have authorized the resupply of 25,000 YPG militia. Erdoğan stated that he had asked Obama not to intervene on the side of the YPG: "I told Mr. Obama, 'Don't drop those bombs [meaning weapons and other supplies]. You will be making a mistake.' Unfortunately, despite our conversation, they dropped whatever was needed with three C-130's and half of it landed in [IS'] hands. So who is supplying [ISIL], then?" Erdogan also opposed any arrangements in Syria that would mirror the Iraqi Kurds' de facto state in northern Syria. He told reporters on January 26, 2015: "What is this? Northern Iraq? Now [they want] Northern Syria to be born. It is impossible for us to accept this. ... Such entities will cause great problems in the future."
According to General Raymond A. Thomas (at the time head of the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM)) at the Aspen Security Forum in July 2017, the SDF (established October 10, 2015) is a PR-friendly name for the YPG, which Thomas personally suggested because the YPG is considered an arm of the PKK. On February 1, 2016, Brett McGurk officially visited SDF commander Ferhat Abdi Şahin (also known as General Mazloum Kobani), after the Siege of Kobanî. In response, Erdoğan said: "How can we trust you? Is it me that is your partner or is it the terrorists in Kobani?" After Kobani, General Allen and Brett McGurk worked on Tal Abyad. Turkey did not permit flying off of a Turkish airbase. McGurk said: "So the picture that developed while General Allen and I were spending most of these months in Ankara is that something was not on the level [the U.S. allied with Turkey's enemy]." Turkey overtly defied American orders of ceasing Turkey's military bombardment of the YPG fighters in their bid to take the town of Azaz in northern Syria.
In summary, during the Obama years, Turkey developed its policy towards Syria in two stages. The first stage was by itself. The second stage was with the US, which was unsuccessful. However, during obama years, Turkey was unwilling to act unilaterally toward Syria.
Obama administration did not respond to the idea that Rojava conflict, which the Obama administration associated itself with, provided a launch pad for Turkish Kurdish separatists toward Turkey and might raise questions about Turkey's territorial integrity.
"Ottomanism" was primarily conceived as a reform and renewal project for the declining Ottoman Empire (Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire) in the 19th century. Ottomanism did not prevent dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. Neo-Ottomanism as associated with Ahmet Davutoğlu (Minister of Foreign Affairs 1 May 2009 – 29 August 2014) and his foreign policy was to establish Turkey as an influential power within the Balkans, Caucasia and the Middle East. 2009 Davos incident arrived on a radical domestic transformation in one member of a western alliance (NATO) and how this led to a revision of its international alliance preference. Erdogan's outburst at the 2009 Davos Summit was a critical juncture that signaled the turn in Turkey's national agenda and alignment policies.
The Gaza flotilla raid was a military operation by Israel against six civilian ships of the "Gaza Freedom Flotilla" on 31 May 2010 in international waters in the Mediterranean Sea. Israel–Turkey relations reached a low point after the incident. Turkey recalled its ambassador, canceled joint military exercises, and called for an emergency meeting of the UN Security Council. Erdoğan harshly referred to the raid as a "bloody massacre" and "state terrorism", and criticized Israel in a speech before the Grand National Assembly. On March 22, 2013, Netanyahu apologized for the incident in a 30-minute telephone call with Erdoğan, stating that the results were unintended; the Turkish prime minister accepted the apology and agreed to enter into discussions to resolve the compensation issue.
It was Turkey that set the course for terminating the alliance with Israel.
During his Ankara visit, Obama urged Turkey to come to terms with its past and resolve its Armenian issues. During the 2008 US presidential election, he had criticized former US President George W. Bush for his failure to take a stance and stated that the "Armenian genocide is not an allegation, a personal opinion, or a point of view, but rather a widely documented fact supported by an overwhelming body of historical evidence". He responded positively to an announcement from sources in Ankara and Yerevan that a deal to reopen the border between the two states and exchange diplomatic personnel would happen, and indicated that although his own personal views on the subject remained unchanged, to avoid derailing this diplomatic progress, he would refrain from using the word "genocide" in his upcoming April 24 speech on the question.
On April 22, 2009, shortly after Obama's visit, Turkish and Armenian authorities formally announced a provisional roadmap for the normalization of diplomatic ties between the two states. The U.S. responded positively with a statement from the office of U.S. Vice President Joe Biden following a phone conversation with Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan, which stated that "the Vice President applauded President Sargsyan's leadership, and underscored the administration's support for both Armenia and Turkey in this process". Turkish columnists, however, criticized the timing of the announcement, and believed it to have been made to placate Obama in advance of his April 24 speech, with Fikret Bila writing in the Milliyet that "the Turkish Foreign Ministry made this statement regarding the roadmap before midnight", as it would allow Obama to go back on his campaign promise to refer to the incident as genocide, which the Turkish government profusely denied, by pointing out to the Armenian diaspora that "Turkey reached a consensus with Armenia and set a roadmap" and "there is no need now to damage this process".
In a speech on July 29, 2016, President Erdoğan accused CENTCOM chief Joseph Votel of "siding with coup plotters" after Votel accused the Turkish government of arresting the Pentagon's contacts in Turkey. Yeni Şafak, a Turkish pro-government newspaper, claimed that the former commander of NATO forces in Afghanistan, now-retired U.S. Army General John F. Campbell, was the "mastermind" behind the coup attempt in Turkey. In late July 2016, Turkish prime minister Binali Yıldırım told The Guardian: "Of course, since the leader of this terrorist organisation is residing in the United States, there are question marks in the minds of the people whether there is any U.S. involvement or backing.
Turkey's Anadolu Agency report chief prosecutor's office launched an investigation into 17 U.S.-based individuals, including Senate Democratic Leader Chuck Schumer, former U.S. Attorney Preet Bharara and ex-CIA director John Brennan, for their alleged links to cleric Fethullah Gulen.
Due to perceptions that former US Secretary of State and Democratic Party presidential nominee Hillary Clinton is friendly towards the Gülen movement, many Erdoğan supporters reportedly favored Republican Party presidential nominee Donald Trump in the United States' 2016 presidential election.
The Turkish government had a generally warm relationship with the Trump administration, backing the Trump administration's stance against Antifa groups during the George Floyd protests, and condemning restrictions placed on Trump's social media accounts as "digital fascism".
The assassination of Jamal Khashoggi, a Saudi dissident, journalist for The Washington Post, and former general manager and editor-in-chief of Al-Arab News Channel, occurred on October 2, 2018, at the Saudi consulate in Istanbul, Turkey, and was perpetrated by agents of the Saudi Arabian government. Government officials of Turkey believe Khashoggi was murdered with premeditation. Anonymous Saudi officials have admitted that agents affiliated with the Saudi government killed him.
CIA Director Gina Haspel traveled to Turkey to address the investigation. Haspel's visit came before a planned speech by Erdoğan. She listened to audio purportedly capturing the sound of saw on a bone. On November 20, US President Donald Trump rejected the CIA's conclusion that Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman had ordered the killing. He issued a statement saying "it could very well be that the Crown Prince had knowledge of this tragic event — maybe he did and maybe he didn't" and that "in any case, [their] relationship is with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia".
On June 5, 2017, Turkey (Qatar–Turkey relations) supported Qatar in its diplomatic confrontation with a Saudi and Emirati-led bloc of countries that severed ties with and imposed sanctions on Qatar. US (Qatar–United States relations) was on the Saudi side which argued on the basis of Qatar and state-sponsored terrorism. Turkey criticized the list of demands released by the Saudi and Emirati-led bloc on 22 June, stating that they undermine Qatar's sovereignty. In December 2017, for defense of US position, US national security advisor General H.R. McMaster said that Turkey had joined Qatar as a prime source of funding that contributes to the spread of extremist ideology of Islamism: "We're seeing great involvement by Turkey from everywhere from western Africa to Southeast Asia, funding groups that help create the conditions that allow terrorism to flourish."
On June 26, 2024, H.R. McMaster and Ahmet Üzümcü (Turkish diplomat, former permanent representative to NATO) rehash the same issues at "Turkey: A Strained & Critical Alliance" discussion for the Turkey's work in advancing peace and prosperity relation to fight against ISIS.
The clashes at the Turkish Ambassador's Residence in Washington, D.C. broke out on May 16, 2017, between Turkey's Police Counter Attack Team and a crowd of protesters, some of whom carried flags of the Democratic Union Party (Syria) (a left-wing Syrian branch of the Kurdistan Workers Party). On May 16, 2017 John McCain and Claire McCaskill called for the expulsion (unwanted person) of the Turkish ambassador Serdar Kılıç for the embassy brawl.
The Turkey migrant crisis in the 2010s was characterized by high numbers of people arriving in Turkey. As reported by UNHCR in 2018, Turkey is hosting 63.4% of all the refugees (from Middle East, Africa, and Afghanistan) in the world. As of 2019, refugees of the Syrian Civil War in Turkey (3.6 million) numbered highest as "registered" refugees (2011–2018: 30 billion on refugee assistance). As the war made the return of refugees to Syria uncertain, Turkey focused on how to manage their presence in Turkish society by addressing their legal status, basic needs, employment, education, and impact on local communities. The Trump travel ban actions include two executive orders for restrictions on citizens of seven (first executive order) or six (second executive order) Muslim-majority countries. A third action, done by presidential proclamation, restricts entry to the U.S. by citizens from eight countries, six of which are predominantly Muslim. During and after his election campaign Trump proposed establishing safe zones in Syria as an alternative to Syrian refugees' immigration to the US. In the past, "safe zones" have been interpreted as establishing, among other things, no-fly zones over Syria. During the Obama administration Turkey encouraged the U.S. to establish safe zones; the Obama administration was concerned about the potential for pulling the U.S. into a war with Russia. In the first few weeks of Trump's presidency, Turkey renewed its call for safe zones and proposed a new plan for them. The Trump administration spoke with several other Sunni Arab States regarding safe zones, and Russia has asked for clarification regarding any Trump administration plan regarding safe zones.
In December 2018, Trump announced "We have won against ISIS", and ordered the withdrawal of all troops from Syria. The next day, Mattis resigned in protest, calling his decision an abandonment of the U.S.'s YPG allies. In November 2018, Trump said he would not approve any extension of the American deployment in Syria. House of Representatives condemned Trump's decision.
On October 23, 2019, President Trump ordered the withdrawal of U.S. troops from the Syrian-Turkish border to southeastern Syria for enabling Turkey to set up a new "Buffer Zone".
According to two anonymous American officials, the Central Intelligence Agency obtained original intelligence on Baghdadi following the arrests of one of his wives and a courier. The arrest of al-Baghdadi's top aide Ismael al-Ethawi was the key: al-Ethawi was found and followed by informants in Syria, apprehended by Turkish authorities, and handed over to the Iraqi intelligence to whom he provided information in February 2018. In 2019, US, Turkish, and Iraqi intelligence conducted a joint operation in which they captured several senior ISIL leaders who provided the locations where they met with Baghdadi inside Syria. According to Voice of America, the fate of al-Baghdadi "was sealed by the capture of his aide". Turkish and US military authorities exchanged and coordinated information ahead of the attack in Barisha, Harem District, Idlib Governorate, Syria. President Trump thanked Russia, Turkey, Syria, and Iraq for aiding US operation, and praised Erdoğan, claiming that he is "a big fan", a "friend of [his]" and "a hell of a leader."
In July 2016, after the failed coup attempt, Turkey demanded that the United States government extradite Fethullah Gülen, a cleric and Turkish national living in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. However, the US government demanded that Turkey had to produce evidence of Gulen's connection with the coup attempt. On 19 July, an official request was sent to the US for the extradition of Fethullah Gülen. Senior U.S. officials said this evidence pertained to certain pre-coup alleged subversive activities.
On November 8, 2016, The Hill published an op-ed by Flynn stating that US ally Turkey was in crisis and needed US support on the day of the 2016 United States presidential election. Flynn called for the US to back Erdoğan's government and alleged that the regime's opponent Fethullah Gülen, who is a Pennsylvania-based opposition cleric and the leader of the gulen movement whose members were purged in Turkey because of the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, headed a "vast global network" that fit "the description of a dangerous sleeper terror network". Flynn, who was specialized in US counterterrorism strategy and dismantling insurgent networks, argued Gulen falls into radical Islamist groups aligned with Seyed Qutb and Hasan al Bana and he finished his article stating "running a scam". On March 8, 2017, four months after the publication, General Flynn filed documents with the Federal government indicating consulting work that might have aided the government of Turkey. The Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation) ("Crossfire Razor" – a counterintelligence investigation on Flynn) was taken over by the Mueller special counsel investigation (May 17, 2017). Flynn was part of Mueller's special counsel investigation.
In 2017, the special counsel, Robert Mueller, began probing whether Michael Flynn was part of an alleged plot to kidnap the cleric for Turkey. Michael Flynn's consulting company was hired by Inovo BV, a company owned by Kamil Ekim Alptekin. Alptekin also chairs the Turkish-American Business Council, an arm of the Foreign Economic Relations Board of Turkey (DEIK). Trump transition aide Bijan Kian played key role in Flynn's connection to the case. Federal investigators probing the lobbying work of national security adviser Michael Flynn are focused in part on the role of Bijan Kian. In 2017, FBI investigated whether Fethullah Gulen skimmed money from charter schools in the US. Gülen movement schools is a network of more than 150 U.S. charter schools (as of 2017). Gulen-linked educational institutions (schools in varying categories, and classifications) are sizable with 300 in Turkey and over 1,000 worldwide.
Serkan Golge, a naturalized US citizen, was jailed in Turkey for three years on charges of participating in terrorism and conspiring against the government as a member of the Gülen movement. Metin Topuz, a US consulate employee, was charged with having links to Gülen and was arrested under "terror charges" by an Istanbul court. Topuz was the second US government employee in Turkey to be arrested in 2017. Pastor Andrew Brunson was charged with terrorism and espionage during the purges that followed the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt. The U.S-based Christian group Voice of the Persecuted took up the Brunsons’ cause, as had opposition Parliament members in Turkey and other Protestant pastors in the largely Muslim nation. Brunson's fate was determined at the Directorate General of Migration Management which gave the instruction for detention and deportation of Brunson." Selina Dogan, a member from the Republican People's Party, attempted to free Brunson. The Turkish government said the post-coup crackdown was not just on Gulen movement but also (subversive activities) links to Kurdish militants and terror coming from Islamic State.
The United States suspended all non-immigrant visas from Turkey "indefinitely" due to Topuz's arrest. Turkey retaliated against the US with suspensions of all US visas, including tourist visas, shortly after the US State Department made their announcement. On August 1, 2018, the US Department of Treasury imposed sanctions on Justice minister Abdulhamit Gül and interior minister Suleyman Soylu, who were involved in the detention of Brunson. Daniel Glaser, the former Treasury official under Obama, said: "It's certainly the first time I can think of" the U.S. sanctioning a NATO ally. On August 10, 2018, Trump imposed punitive tariffs against Turkey after an impasse over Brunson's imprisonment and other issues. On Aug 10, 2018, Trump tweeted that he would double tariffs (first Trump tariffs) on Turkish steel and aluminum using the "Section 232" which was imposed on countries whose exports threaten to impair national security. Markets responded and the lira plunged. Depending on the calculation nearly 40% year to date or 20% just after the tweet. Michael Klein said "It's not like the United States caused this, but there's probably some element of the trade spat [signaling to] investors and Turkish residents that things were not going to get better." With both internal structural weaknesses and US sanctions Turkey's economy fall into Turkish economic crisis (2018–current). Later in December 2022, the WTO ruled against the United States saying that there was no national security emergency that justified US invocation of the exception The move prompted Erdoğan to say that the United States was "[ex]changing a strategic NATO partner for a pastor" and that the US' behavior would force Turkey to look for new friends and allies.
The presidential spokesperson, İbrahim Kalın, tweeted that the US is losing Turkey, and that the entire Turkish public is against U.S. policies. In addition, the Uşak Province decided to stop running digital advertisement on United States-based social media platforms like Facebook, Google, Instagram, Twitter, and YouTube, canceling all of their ads as a response to US sanctions on Turkey. Turkey went on to say that it would retaliate against the raising of steel and aluminium tariffs by the U.S. administration (The US had already imposed 10 percent and 25 percent additional tariffs on aluminum and steel imports respectively from all countries on March 23, 2018, but on August 13, 2018, it added additional tariffs on steel imports from Turkey). Erdoğan said that Turkey will boycott electronic products from the US, using iPhones as an example. The Keçiören Municipality in the Ankara decided not to issue business licenses to American brands including McDonald's, Starbucks and Burger King. In addition, Turkey decided to increase tariffs on imports of a range of US products,
On August 20, 2018, there were gunshots at the USA Embassy in Ankara. No casualties were reported and Turkish authorities detained two men as suspects.
On the same time, relations between Turkey and the United States also worsened after the Turkish government hosted two Hamas leaders, in a move that was believed to be in response to the Abraham Accords, in which Israel normalized relations with the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain; the Abraham Accord was opposed by Ankara.
In 2018, the CFR recommended "US needs to develop alternatives to Incirlik Air Base. The use of the base to advance U.S. interests is no longer assured." US and Greece signed "Revised Defense Cooperation Agreement". The agreement was described as critical to responding to new security challenges in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Pompeo said "We have told the Turks that illegal drilling is unacceptable, and we'll continue to take diplomatic action to make sure that we do as we do always: ensure that the lawful activity takes place in every space where international law governs. ... We're working to get ... everyone to de-escalate and find a set of outcomes that are mutually agreeable," The Aegean dispute is a set of interrelated controversies over sovereignty and related rights in the region of the Aegean Sea. The United States ambassador Geoffrey Pyatt stated that all the islands have the same rights to EEZ and continental shelf as the mainlands do which is disputed.
In 2021, a new agreement the "Greek-American Mutual Defense Cooperation Agreement" permitted the US military to use Georgula Barracks in Greece's central province of Volos, Litochoro Training Ground, and army barracks in the northeastern port city of Alexandroupoli apart from the naval base in Souda Bay in Crete which the US has been operating since 1969. In short couple years, Turkey saw shifting NATO powers to its western neighbor. Anadolu Agency reported growing US military presence in Greece can lead to undesired scenarios in the Aegean ‘Deploying more US troops to Greece would disrupt NATO's powers,’
In 2019, the United States Congress, with sponsors from Saudi Arabia, issued official recognition of the Armenian genocide, which was the first time the United States has officially acknowledged the genocide, having previously only unofficially or partially recognized the genocide. Turkey, which has traditionally denied that such genocide existed, blasted the United States for inflaming tensions. Donald Trump has rejected the resolution by Congress, citing that his administration's stance on the issue had not changed.
Eliot Engel, chairman of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, called the influence of third party actors like Turkey "troubling" at the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. In a letter to Secretary of State Pompeo, Senate Foreign Relations Committee ranking member Bob Menendez, Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer, and several other lawmakers called for the Trump administration to "immediately suspend all sales and transfers of military equipment to Ankara." As for the result, relations between the United States to Turkey and Azerbaijan further worsened, with Turkey accused the United States of sending weapons and supplies to Armenia, which Washington denied.
On 15 October 2020, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo urged both sides to respect the humanitarian ceasefire and stated, "We now have the Turks, who have stepped in and provided resources to Azerbaijan, increasing the risk, increasing the firepower that's taking place in this historic fight."
The US had leverage with Turkey as Turkey's military security was largely dependent on its Western ally. Turkey depended on the US for control of its airspace. Turkey has long pursued air control radars and missile defense systems.
US Patriots that were allocated to the defense of Turkey were removed on 16 August 2015 Turkey's lack of air defense system became an issue when 2015 Russian Sukhoi Su-24 shootdown by a patrolling Turkish Air Force F-16 on 24 November 2015. Turkey stated it has the right to defend its airspace. Russia claimed U.S. knew the flight path of the Sukhoi Su-24 and it was an issue between two NATO partners, two U.S. officials claimed there was no such information.
Turkey got serious about acquiring a missile defense system early in the first Obama administration. Turkey put up a bid, which included MIM-104 Patriot. Chinese air defense was the winning system in 2013. In 2015, Turkey reversed its position to acquire China's FD-2000 long-range air defense missile system. The Chinese reportedly refused Ankara's technology transfer demands. In 2013, US did not part with valuable MIM-104 Patriot intellectual property. When Erdogan confronted (2017) "They give tanks, cannons and armored vehicles to the terror organization but we can’t procure some of our needs, although we want to pay the price." Turkey, a NATO member since 1952, reportedly saw that Russian technology transfer available. Turkey transferred the money for S-400 missile system on Sep 12, 2017. Bloomberg reported "permission" of the sale of Patriot systems to Turkey as a breakthrough on Dec 18, 2018. Turkey received its first installment of the Russian S-400 missile defense system on 12 July 2019, just short of six months of the US breakthrough. The patriots were offered to replace Russian ordinance was US$3.5 billion while Turkey paid US$2.5 billion for S-400m. In February 2019, Russia had an advance supply contract with Saudi Arabia for the S-400, Qatar was in "advanced" talks with Russia for the S-400, and India agreed to pay more than $5 billion for five S-400 squadrons to be delivered in 2023.
On July 31, 2019, the United States decided to end the F-35 deal. Acting Defense Secretary Patrick M. Shanahan had warned Turkey that such a deal with Russia risks undermining its ties to NATO. The US threatened Turkey with CAATSA sanctions over Turkey's decision to buy the S-400 missile defense system from Russia.
On July 22, 2019, Turkey claimed to retaliate against the "unacceptable" threat of US sanctions over Turkey's purchase of Russian S-400 missile defenses.
On February 5, 2020, the US halted a secretive military intelligence cooperation program with Turkey against the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK). On 8 December 2020, the House of Representatives approved a sanctions package against Turkey due to its purchase of S-400 missile system from Russia. Trump administration said that the president will veto the bill. Trump had earlier worked to delay passing sanctions against Turkey, but he lost the 2020 United States presidential election. On 14 December 2020, the US imposed Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act. The sanctions included a ban on all U.S. export licenses and authorizations to SSB and an asset freeze and visa restrictions on Dr. Ismail Demir, SSB's president, and other SSB officers.
Subsequently, doubts were raised by a number of international policy analysts that military sanctions on the NATO ally would weaken the alliance, effectively reducing Turkey's ability to obtain American technology for regional defense. For this reason, the incoming Biden administration would likely hold off on sanctions to normalize relations.
In August 2020, Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden called for a new U.S. approach to the "autocrat" President Erdoğan and support for Turkish opposition parties.
On May 22, 2022, after the US embassy issued a warning that police might respond violently to an opposition gathering in Istanbul, Turkey's foreign relations ministry summoned Ambassador Jeff Flake.
In October 2021, in the wake of the appeal for the release of Turkish activist Osman Kavala signed by 10 Western countries, Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan ordered his foreign minister to declare the US ambassador persona non grata, alongside the other 9 ambassadors. However, the ambassadors did not receive any formal notice to leave the country and Erdoğan eventually stepped back.
In Russo-Ukrainian War US supported Ukraine and sanctioned Russia; however, the conflict brought challenges to Turkey in balancing its relations with both Ukraine and Russia, with implications for US-Turkey ties.
Turkey in addition to denouncing Russia's invasion, and closing the Straits to belligerent warships (including US warships) supplied Ukraine with various types of military equipment—including armed drone aircraft and mine-resistant ambush-resistant (MRAP) vehicles—as well as humanitarian assistance. Turkey-Ukraine close ties was a response to mutual interests in countering Russian influence (they are also part of Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation) in the Black Sea region and in sharing military technology to expand and increase the self-sufficiency of their respective defense industries.
Turkey's basis for continued engagement with Russia, and desire to help mediate the conflict was based on minimizing spillover effects on Turkey's national security and economy. On March 5, 2022, the Turkish Foreign Ministry stated after discussions with NATO partners' deputy foreign ministers that Turkey and the US will continue to work in "tight coordination" to find a diplomatic solution to Russia's invasion of Ukraine. On the other hand, Turkey rejected the US economic sanctions against Russia and did not close its airspace to Russian civilian flights.
President Biden expressed consent for Turkey and the United Nations to develop parallel agreements with Russia and Ukraine to provide a Black Sea corridor for Ukrainian grain exports in solving the global supply concerns. The Black Sea Grain Initiative was achieved by Turkey as it regulates access to the Turkish Straits through the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits, so by the virtue of its strategic position has the power to mediate between the parties on various issues of contention.
Devlet Bahçeli claimed US bases pose "a threat to our security." "America is using the Greek side as a pawn ... The subject of 12 islands is our wound that has not yet healed. They have been unjustly usurped from Turkey by foot tricks", Bahçeli reiterated. Erdoğan suspended dialogue with Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis after Mitsotakis appeared to raise concern about the possible sale of 40 new F-16Vs to Turkey, while addressing a May 2022 joint session of the U.S. Congress.
The Cyprus–Turkey maritime zones dispute is a major contention in the region. For the U.S., Israel, the Republic of Cyprus and Greece, the claimed EEZ of Greece, which extends to the East Mediterranean thanks to the small island of Kastellorizo near Anatolia, is promoted as ensuring stability, economic development, and regional integration, especially regarding Israel's interests and concerns. The multilateral “3+1” initiative consisting of Israel, Cyprus and Greece, and supported by the United States, aims to diversify Europe’s energy supplies through the Leviathan gas field off the coast of Israel in the East Mediterranean. However, it ruled out Turkey's position regarding its own EEZ in the region, which conflicts with the claim by Greece. In Turkey's view, the Greek islands close to Anatolia do not provide a contiguous maritime border between Greece and Turkey, especially in the area between Rhodes and Kastellorizo, which are 78 miles apart, when the maximum internationally recognized limit for a contiguous maritime border claim is 12 miles (the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne was signed in a period when national territorial waters were limited to 3 miles). Turkey responded to its exclusion from the "3+1" initiative by signing the Libya (GNA)–Turkey maritime deal.
On 7 October 2023, Turkish support for Hamas changed position following the 2023 terrorist attacks by Hamas in Israel. The Turkish government asked the members of Hamas to leave the country, after pictures and videos of the terrorist attacks began to be published and broadcast by the international media. Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh and other top officials were “politely sent away.” On 9 October 2023, Blinken posted on X: "I encouraged Türkiye's advocacy for a cease-fire and the release of all hostages held by Hamas immediately." After protests from Israel, Blinken decided to delete his tweet which called for a cease-fire in the 2023 Gaza war. On 25 October 2023, Turkey changed position once again following reports of the "humanitarian tragedy in the Gaza Strip", and in Erdoğan's words, Hamas was now "protecting its land and people".
In 2024, Erdoğan and the AKP government in Turkey promoted the position that Hamas needs to be part of the political process. On Nov 18, 2024, the United States warned Turkey against harboring Hamas leaders.
After the previous rupture in 2010, multiple U.S. administrations worked to put the pieces of the relationship back on track between two key allies. A hot conflict between these two U.S. allies would almost certainly take the Israel-Turkey relationship across the rubicon of reparability, which in turn could trigger unresolvable problems for U.S.-Turkey relations. Erdoğan and Netanyahu met for the first time in person at the United Nations headquarters in New York City on September 20, 2023. They were slowly improving ties strained by disputes over Israel's policies toward the Palestinians. Following the handshake of the leaders, Israel's media reported an upcoming visit by Erdoğan to Israel, with a pilgrimage to the Al-Aqsa Mosque. The promise of cooperation on energy was the main topic. Israeli gas would be supplied to Europe through Turkey. If achieved, the pipeline would also enable Israel to become a transit route for additional supplies of natural gas to Europe from Egypt, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.
Turkey blocked cooperation between NATO and Israel by opposing to the Western [U.S.] position, stating that the alliance should not support Israel's Gaza war, which would be a violation of NATO's founding principles. Turkey stated that the cooperation between NATO and Israel could continue only after an end to the conflict.
On September 6, 2024, Turkish-American human rights activist Ayşenur Ezgi Eygi was shot in the head by an Israel Defense Forces (IDF) sniper during a protest against illegal Israeli settlements in Beita, Nablus, in the West Bank. Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan described the killing by Israel as "barbaric". Relations between Turkey and Israel, a major ally of the United States, continued to deteriorate.
A Pew Research poll in 2024 showed that 85% of Turks were dissatisfied with the way the U.S. president, Joe Biden, handled the Israel's war in Gaza.
Presidential candidate and former Vice President Joe Biden demanded that Turkey "stay out" of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan, in which Turkey has supported the Azerbaijanis.
On December 15, 2021, U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken announced that the U.S. supports the normalization process between Armenia and Turkey.
On October 27, 2020, the U.S. Senate designated the persecution of Uyghurs in China's Xinjiang autonomous region as genocide. On January 19, 2021, incoming U.S. president Joe Biden's secretary of state nominee Antony Blinken was asked, and he contended, "That would be my judgment as well."
On April 24, 2021, Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day, President Joe Biden referred to the massacre of the Armenians during the Ottoman Empire in 1915 as "genocide" in a statement released by the White House. Turkey has long practiced a policy of denial against the Armenian Genocide, and Biden's move was refuted by President Erdogan as "groundless" and opening a "deep wound" in U.S.-Turkey relations.
On 9 February 2024, Turkish Foreign Minister Hakan Fidan said that the international community's silence on Israel's actions in Gaza were "complicity in genocide".
President Joe Biden and his allies announced a plan to build a rail and shipping corridor. The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor is a planned economic corridor that aims to bolster economic development by fostering connectivity between Asia, the Persian Gulf and Europe. The Iraq Development Road is an undergoing project aiming to connect Asia with Europe. In September 2023, IMEEC criticised by Turkey as the existing but underdeveleoped Iraq-Turkey connection already present viable-established but underutilized corridor which could reach its potential with the Iraq Development Road. The project was envisaged to bolster the current connection through the Persian Gulf with Europe through a railway and highway via ports in the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, and Iraq, including the under-construction Grand Faw Port.
The Zangezur corridor became a flash point since the end of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War. Azerbaijan and Turkey have been promoting this trade route to connect Azerbaijan to Nakhchivan through Armenia's Syunik Province. Armenia steadily objected to this connection. The contention between Azerbaijan and Armenia extent to the terminology, the potential routes, and the modes of transport. After Armenian forces blocked the Zangezur corridor in 2023, American Enterprise Institute scholar Michael Rubin called Biden to act, and to start talks with Armenia to establish a military base in the Zangezur corridor. On September 11, 2023, a small contingent of U.S. special forces trained with Armenian soldiers during the "Eagle Partner" exercise in Armenia.
The enlargement of NATO continued with two new members during President Biden's term, Finland and Sweden. Turkey initially insisted on keeping its veto power on their membership, citing concerns over "combating terrorism" to be extended specifically to include "the PKK, PYD, YPG, and FETÖ" in the tripartite memorandum between Finland, Sweden, and Turkey during the NATO summit in Madrid in June 2022. For well over a year Turkey used this power to seek concessions from the Western block, which did not recognize the PYD, YPG or FETÖ as "terrorist entities" (but recognizes the PKK as such). Finland-Turkey negotiations ended with these issues resolved. Turkey also saw Sweden's difficult domestic membership application issues (e.g., 2023 Quran burnings in Sweden) as a moment of leverage not just for terrorism, but also for obtaining 40 new F-16Vs from the United States, as it blocked the negotiations between the parties. On May 18, 2022, the U.S. brought the issue of listing the PYD and YPG (defined as "allies" by the United States in the war against ISIS, but viewed by Turkey as affiliates of the outlawed PKK) and the Gülen movement as "terrorist organizations" to the table for clarification. Regarding the aforementioned US-Turkey discussions, President Erdoğan stated that "neither country has an open, clear stance against [the mentioned] terrorist organizations. We cannot say 'yes' to those who impose sanctions on Turkey [during our fight against our enemy], on joining NATO, which is [essentially] a security organization." On June 28, 2022, US President Joe Biden thanked Turkey for the Finland-Sweden-Turkey trilateral memorandum at NATO's 2022 Madrid summit.
According to Russian media reports (never officially confirmed by Ankara) Turkey requested BRICS membership. If admitted, Turkey would become a part of the first significant counterweight (navigating to multipolarity) to the U.S.-led global order.
During the first Trump administration, on October 2, 2020, House majority-minority leaders and Senate Foreign Relations Committee ranking member Bob Menendez, along with other senators, suspended all sales and transfers of advanced military equipment to Ankara. The U.S. Congress used its power to block sales and began slowrolling for the proposed sale of 40 new F-16Vs and 79 upgrade kits to Turkey, as well as the sale of LHTEC T800 engines for TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK attack helicopters produced by Turkey, which could not be exported to any third country without obtaining an export license for these engines from the Congress. As a result, Turkey faced issues in exporting the helicopters to Pakistan. The hold-up had also involved Ankara's overflight disputes with Athens over the Aegean Sea. This dispute was resolved with the approval for the sale of F-35A fighter jets to Greece. In December, when the final version of the FY2023 NDAA (P.L.117-263) was passed, it excluded a House-passed condition on F-16 sales to Turkey related to potential overflights above Greek islands in the Aegean Sea. Regarding the slowrolling of the issue by the Congress, in January 2024, Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Democrat Ben Cardin, stated that the approval for the sale of 40 new F-16V fighter jets and 79 upgrade kits to Turkey was contingent on Turkey's approval for Sweden's accession to NATO. A letter to the Congress at the same time stated that if unable to upgrade its F-16 fleet, Turkey might consider purchasing Eurofighter Typhoon aircraft. However, Erdoğan seized the moment to give his presidential approval for Sweden's NATO membership on January 25, 2024.
Senator Bob Menendez, who had earlier expressed his opposition to the sale of F-16Vs to Turkey, stated that he still maintained this view despite the Sweden-Turkey deal over the former's NATO membership, brokered by President Biden. On March 21, 2024, Bob Menendez announced that due to federal corruption charges (including bribery, extortion, honest services fraud, obstruction of justice, and conspiracy) he would not run in the Democratic primary. He later resigned from the Senate, and was subsequently sentenced to 11 years in prison following his conviction on bribery and corruption charges on January 29, 2025.
On June 6, 2024, the Turkish government signed a letter of acceptance (LOA) for the acquisition of 40 new F-16V aircraft. On November 26, 2024, the Turkish government announced that it intends to move forward with the acquisition of 40 new F-16V aircraft, but has decided to cancel the purchase of upgrade kits to bring 79 of its existing F-16 Block 40 and Block 50 aircraft to the Block 70 "Viper" standard, opting instead to upgrade all of its Block 30, Block 40 and Block 50 aircraft with the domestically-produced kits that were developed under the F-16 "Özgür" and "Özgür-2" upgrade programs.
On November 27, 2024, the Turkish government announced that the Turkish Air Force also intends to order 40 new F-35A aircraft, if a deal can be reached with the United States regarding the crisis caused by Turkey's purchase of the S-400 air defense system from Russia. The United States has so far presented two solutions to Turkey: On March 19, 2022, the U.S. proposed Turkey to deliver its Russian-made S-400 missile defence systems to Ukraine, in order to assist it in fighting the invading Russian forces. Two years later, during a visit to Turkey on July 1-2, 2024, Celeste Wallander, the Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs, and Michael R. Carpenter, special advisor to the President and Senior Director for Europe at the U.S. National Security Council, proposed stationing the S-400 missile systems at the U.S.-controlled sector of Incirlik Air Base, in exchange for reinstating Turkey in the F-35 fighter jet program. Both of these proposals have so far been rejected by the Turkish government.
At the first phone call between the two leaders, Turkey stressed the importance of lifting restrictions on Syria to start the reconstruction work for the return of refugees of the Syrian civil war.
Syrian YPG (Syrian-Kurdish general commander of the SDF Mazloum Abdi) expect continued military aid and defense umbralla from Trump administration. Secretary of State Marco Rubio said during his Senate confirmation hearing stated support for the idea of Syrian Kurdish forces. On January 25 2025, Turkey clerified its position to EU at the joint news conference with visiting EU foreign policy chief Kaja Kallas in Ankara. Foreign Minister Hakan Fidan’s call for resolution was; Turkey awaits US action.
President Erdoğan has expressed his willingness to collaborate with President Trump in achieving a truce that will end the Russia-Ukraine war.
Egypt, Qatar and the United States brokered the 2025 Israel–Hamas war ceasefire, with President-elect Trump's active involvement. The first phase took effect on January 19, 2025, a day before President Trump's inauguration. President Erdoğan called on the international community to fulfill its responsibilities toward ending the suffering of innocent civilians.
On January 25 2025, minister of foreign affairs Hakan Fidan stated that Turkey wanted all sanctions but importantly those under Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act to be removed.
The United States and Turkey are both members in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the G-20. The US and Turkey have had a Joint Economic Commission and a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement for several years. In 2002, the two countries indicated their joint intent to upgrade bilateral economic relations by launching an Economic Partnership Commission.
Turkey is currently the 32nd-largest goods trading partner with $20.5 billion in total ($10.2 billion; imports $10.3 billion) goods trade during 2018. US' goods and services trade with Turkey totaled an estimated $24.0 billion (exports: $12.7 billion; imports: $11.2 billion) in 2017. The trade deficit was $143 million in 2018.
The US exports of goods and services to Turkey involved 68,000 jobs in 2015.
For the Anatolian Falcon 2012 joint exercises, the United States sent the 480th Fighter Squadron to train with Turkish pilots in the operation Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses.
Turkey participated with the United States in the Korean War in 1950–53 and in missions in Somalia, Kosovo, and Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992–2004.
Turkey has commanded the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan twice since its inception. 2,000 Mehmetçik concentrated on training Afghan military and security forces and provided security at ISAF's Regional Command-Capital stationed in Kabul. An undisclosed number of Mehmetçik were deployed to the Wardak and Jawzjan provinces to give ground support to USA Air Force Operations.
During the Iraq War, Turkey established the NATO Training Mission in 2005 and sponsored specialized training for hundreds of Iraqi security personnel in a secret facility in Turkey.
Operation Gladio is the codename for a clandestine "stay-behind" operation of armed resistance that was planned by the Western Union (WU) (and subsequently by NATO) for a potential Warsaw Pact invasion and conquest in Europe.
Counter-Guerrilla is the branch of the operation. The operation's founding goal was to erect a guerrilla force capable of countering a possible Soviet invasion. The goal was soon expanded to subverting communism in Turkey. Counter-Guerrilla initially operated out of the Turkish Armed Forces' Tactical Mobilization Group (STK). In 1967, it was renamed to the Special Warfare Department before becoming Special Forces Command. Counter-Guerrilla's existence in Turkey was revealed in 1973 by then-prime minister Bülent Ecevit.
The United States and Turkey share membership in NATO, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and continue to cooperate in important projects, such as the Joint Strike Fighter program.
Since 1954, Turkey has hosted the Incirlik Air Base, an important operations base of the United States Air Force, which has played a critical role during the Cold War, the Gulf War, and the Iraq War. Turkey routinely hosts the United States for Anatolian Falcon and (with Israel, before their relationship worsened) Anatolian Eagle exercises held at its Konya airbase.
Turkish bases and transport corridors have been used heavily for military operations in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Libya as of 2011.
In the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, some of the planes used at the operation and a fueling carrier took off from Incirlik base; in response, the Turkish government arrested several high-ranking Turkish military officers at Incirlik and cut power to the base for nearly a week.
Turkey hosts U.S. controlled nuclear weapons as part of nuclear sharing policy. Its current arsenal is B61 nuclear bomb, while it formerly held MGR-1 Honest John, MIM-14 Nike Hercules, PGM-19 Jupiter, W33 and W48 artillery shells.
Turkey does not have dedicated nuclear-capable fighter aircraft that can deliver the weapons and does not train its pilots to fly nuclear missions.
The defense industry of Turkey is growing. Turkey's 240 Lockheed Martin General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcons were co-produced in Turkey by one of Turkish Aerospace Industries' predecessors (TAI). The United States and Turkey signed an FMS contract in 2009 for 30 F-16 Block 50s to be co-produced by TAI.
Turkey reportedly wanted to purchase drone aircraft from the United States to assist in its counterterrorism efforts against the PKK before its request was denied. Turkey produced Bayraktar Tactical UAS.
Turkey, a NATO member, was one of eight countries—along with the United Kingdom, Canada, Netherlands, Italy, Denmark, Norway, and Australia—partnering with the United States in the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter program. Turkey planned to purchase up to 116 F-35s (100 F-35As for the Turkish Air Force and 16 F-35Bs for the Turkish Navy), with 90 to be delivered over an estimated 10-year period (2014–2023) and to be jointly assembled and/or developed by firms from the various JSF partners. The cost was estimated to be at least $11 billion and reportedly could have exceeded $15 billion, given continued cost inflation which kept increasing the unit price of the aircraft. The Pentagon decided to end Turkey's partnership in the F-35 program on July 17, 2019, due to the latter's purchase of the S-400 missile system from Rosoboronexport, a Russian state agency in the CAATSA sanctions list. The Pentagon also cited risks associated with the connection of a potential Russian intelligence gathering platform with advanced radars and sensors to NATO's networks, and the possibility that it could be secretly used by Russia to obtain information about the F-35's stealth characteristics such as its radar signature.
Alleged cable leaks highlighted Turkish concerns that upgrades to General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcons had "precluded Turkish access to computer systems and software modification previously allowed".
To have the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense be approved, Turkey received two conditions: Iran or Syria should not be named as a threat to Turkey, and Turkey's territory was to be protected by the system (as a national defense requirement). According to U.S. officials, the AN/TPY-2 radar was deployed at Turkey's Kürecik Air Force base and activated in January 2012.
Regional problems in the 1960s, Cyprus crises in 1963 and 1967, Cyprus invasion in 1974, and the arms embargo by the US in 1975–1978 following the invasion necessitated Turkey developing a defense industry based on national resources.
Turks renowned for their accomplishments in the United States include Ahmet Ertegun (1923–2006), the founding chairman of Atlantic Records between 1947 and 2006. He discovered and championed many leading rhythm and blues and rock musicians. Ertegun also wrote classic blues and pop songs. He has been described as "one of the most significant figures in the modern recording industry." Ertegun served as the chairman of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and museum, located in Cleveland, Ohio. In 2017 he was inducted into the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame in recognition of his work in the music business. Ertegun helped foster ties between the United States and Turkey, his birthplace. He served as the chairman of the American Turkish Society for over 20 years until his death. He also co-founded the New York Cosmos soccer team of the original North American Soccer League.
Mehmet Oz (born June 11, 1960), also known as Dr. Oz, is a Turkish-American television presenter, physician, author, professor emeritus of cardiothoracic surgery at Columbia University, former political candidate, and President Donald Trump's nominee to serve as administrator of the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services during his second presidency. He was previously a member of the President's Council on Sports, Fitness, and Nutrition between 2018 and 2022. The son of Turkish immigrants, Oz was raised in Wilmington, Delaware, and graduated from Harvard University and the University of Pennsylvania. He subsequently began his residency in surgery at Columbia University Irving Medical Center in 1986. In 2001, Oz became a professor of surgery at Columbia University, and later retired to professor emeritus in 2018. In 2003, Oprah Winfrey was the first guest on the Discovery Channel series Second Opinion with Dr. Oz, and he was a regular guest on The Oprah Winfrey Show, making more than sixty appearances. In 2009, The Dr. Oz Show, a daily television program about medical matters and health, was launched by Winfrey's Harpo Productions and Sony Pictures Television, running for 13 seasons. Oz ran in the 2022 U.S. Senate election in Pennsylvania as a conservative Republican, the first Muslim candidate for Senate to be nominated by either major party. Oz lost the election to the Democratic nominee John Fetterman.
Aziz Sancar (born September 8, 1946) is a Turkish molecular biologist specializing in DNA repair, cell cycle checkpoints, and circadian clock. In 2015, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry along with Tomas Lindahl and Paul L. Modrich for their mechanistic studies of DNA repair. He has made contributions on photolyase and nucleotide excision repair in bacteria that have changed his field. Sancar is currently the Sarah Graham Kenan Professor of Biochemistry and Biophysics at the University of North Carolina School of Medicine and a member of the UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center. He is the co-founder of the Aziz & Gwen Sancar Foundation, which is a non-profit organization to promote Turkish culture and to support Turkish students in the United States.
Şafak Pavey (born July 10, 1976) is a Turkish diplomat, columnist and politician. She was a member of the Turkish Grand National Assembly from the main opposition Republican People's Party (CHP) representing Istanbul Province. She is the first disabled woman ever elected to the Turkish parliament, and is a member of the United Nations Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. In 1996, before she turned 20, her left arm and left leg were amputated after a train accident in Switzerland. One year later, she went to London, United Kingdom, to pursue her education. She studied international relations at the University of Westminster and completed her post-graduate studies at the London School of Economics. In 2012, Pavey was honored by the United States Department of State with the International Women of Courage Award.
The Turkish House (also called Türkevi Center) is a 561-foot-high (171 m), 36-floor skyscraper located at 821 United Nations Plaza (First Avenue) in Turtle Bay, Manhattan, New York City, United States, across from the headquarters of the United Nations. Turkish House serves as the headquarters of multiple Turkish diplomatic missions in New York City, as well as a center of Turkish cultural activity.
Designed by Perkins Eastman, it has 36 stories and reaches a height of 561 feet (171 m) from the ground to the roof. The building contains about 220,000 square feet (20,000 m) of usable space, of which 180,000 square feet (17,000 m) is used by the Permanent Mission of Turkey to the United Nations and the Consulate General of Turkey in New York City; the rest is residential space. The curved facade is an allusion to the crescent on the flag of Turkey, while the top of the skyscraper is shaped like a tulip, the national flower of Turkey. Construction works commenced in September 2017 and the building was largely completed by May 2021.
Established in 1863 by Christopher Robert, a wealthy American philanthropist, and Cyrus Hamlin, a missionary devoted to education, Robert College in Istanbul is the oldest continuously operating American school outside the United States. Six years after its foundation, with the permission (Ottoman Turkish: irade) of the Ottoman Sultan, the first campus (currently housing Boğaziçi University) was built in Bebek at the ridge of the Rumeli Castle. Hamlin, who became the first president of Robert College, was preoccupied with the construction of the campus such that George Washburn acted as the de facto head of the college from 1871 onwards. In 1877, he was officially named president by the trustees. During his tenure between 1877 and 1903, Washburn "gradually assembled a faculty of distinguished scholars who firmly established the college's academic reputation."
Christopher Robert died in 1878, leaving a significant portion of his wealth to the college. In that same year, a college catalog was compiled, providing general information and an outline of the courses of study. Defining the aims of the college, the catalog stated: "The object of the College is to give to its students, without distinction of race or religion, a thorough educational equal in all respects to that obtained at a first-class American college and based upon the same general principles."
After George Washburn, Robert College was administrated by Caleb Frank Gates Sr. (1903–1932). The school adopted a strictly secular educational model in accordance with the republican principles of Turkey and Atatürk's reforms since 1923. Robert College, at various points of its existence, had junior high school, high school, and university sections under the names Robert Academy, Robert Yüksek and American College for Girls. Since 1971, the present-day Robert College functions only as a high school on its Arnavutköy campus (formerly the campus of American College for Girls), yet it retains the title of "College". The Bebek campus was turned over to the Republic of Turkey for use as a public university named Boğaziçi University ("Bosphorus University"), the renamed continuation of Robert College's university section.
Bay Atlantic University (BAU) in Washington, D.C., was established by Bahçeşehir University.
The Turkish lobby in the United States is a lobby that works on behalf of the Turkish government to promote the nation's interests with the US government. The Turkish Coalition of America (TCA) is an educational, congressional advocacy, and charitable organization that was incorporated in February 2007.
The Office of Defense Cooperation Turkey is a United States Security Assistance Organization working on issues related to Turkey.
According to a survey conducted in the spring of 2017 and released in August, 72% of Turks see the United States as a threat to Turkey's security. Furthermore, the US was perceived as a greater threat to security than Russia or China. According to PBS, opinions of the US dropped steadily from 1999/2000 (52% in Turkey in 1999/2000) and in 2006, favorable opinions dropped significantly in predominantly Muslim countries, which ranged from 12% in Turkey to 30% in Indonesia and Egypt. A 2019 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center showed 73% of Turks had a negative view of the United States, with only 20% having a positive view, the lowest among countries polled. The same study also showed only 11% of Turks had confidence in the US leader at the time of the survey, President Donald Trump, with 84% having no confidence in him. A 2024 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center showed only 8% of Turks had confidence in US President Joe Biden.
The following histogram shows the percentage of Turks that viewed the United States favorably according to the PEW Global Attitudes Survey:
Results of 2017 BBC World Service:
The United States has sent many ambassadors to Turkey since October 12, 1927. Turkey has maintained many high-level contacts with the United States.
The Embassy of the United States is located in Ankara, Turkey, while the Embassy of Turkey is located in Washington, D.C., United States.
Since the relations established there were 15 official visits.
President Bill Clinton visited Ankara, İzmit, Ephesus and Istanbul on November 15–19, 1999. It was an official state visit during which he also attended the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe's (OSCE) summit meeting.
Relations between Turkey and the United States markedly improved during the Obama administration's first term, but the two countries were nevertheless unable to reach their ambitious goals. Obama made his first official visit to Turkey at Ankara and Istanbul April 6–7, 2009. There US critics who claimed that Turkey should not be rewarded by an early presidential visit as its government had been systematically reorienting foreign policy onto an Islamist axis. Former U.S. Ambassador to Turkey Mark Parris remarked: "Whatever the merits of this argument, the Obama administration, by scheduling the visit, have decisively rejected it."
Turkish President Gül later referred to the visit as "evidence of a vital partnership between Turkey and the US," whilst Turkish Foreign Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu pointed out that they were "changing the psychological atmosphere" of what was before "seen as a military relationship". Obama clarified: "We are not solely strategic partners, we are also model partners." With this change in terminology, "The President wanted to stress the uniqueness of this relationship. This is not an ordinary relationship, it's a prototype and unique relationship." A US House Committee on Foreign Affairs hearing, The United States and Turkey: A Model Partnership, chaired by Head of the Subcommittee on Europe Robert Wexler was convened after "the historic visit that Obama paid to Turkey", and concluded that "this cooperation is vital for both of the two states in an environment in which we face serious security issues in Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran, the Balkans, Black Sea, Caucuses and the Middle East, besides a global financial crisis".
After Obama's visit, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Chief of the Turkish General Staff İlker Başbuğ hosted US Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Mike Mullen in Ankara. During the closed-door meeting, they discussed the pledging of further Turkish support troops to Afghanistan and Pakistan where Turkish authorities have influence, the secure transport of troops and equipment from the port of İskenderun during the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq, and the pro-Kurdish terrorists operating in south-eastern Turkey and northern Iraq.
In May 2013, Erdoğan visited the White House and met with Obama, who said the visit was an opportunity "to return the extraordinary hospitality that the Prime Minister and the Turkish people showed [him] on [his] visit to Turkey four years ago". During their joint press conference, both Obama and Erdoğan stressed the importance of achieving stability in Syria. Erdoğan said that during his time with Obama, "Syria was at the top of [their] agenda" and Obama repeated the United States plan to support the Assad-opposition while applying "steady international pressure". When they were not discussing national security threats, Obama and Erdoğan discussed expanding economic relations between the two countries; Turkey had received over $50 billion in foreign investments, $20 billion of which came from the United States. In 2003, there was only $8 billion in U.S. investment in Turkey; both Erdoğan and Obama praised this recent increase and agreed to continue expanding the trade and investment agreements between the two countries. Erdoğan's visit culminated with talks of stability in the region. Obama stressed the importance of normalizing relations between Turkey and Israel and praised the steps Erdoğan had taken in that process. The process normalizing the Turkish-Israeli relationship had begun and Erdoğan stated that he would continue this process: "We don't need any other problems, issues in the region."
In November 2019, Erdogan visited the White House and held meetings with U.S. President Donald Trump.