List of emperors of the Ming dynasty

The emperors of the Ming dynasty ruled over China proper from 1368 to 1644 during the late imperial era of China (960–1912). Members of the Ming dynasty continued to rule a series of rump states in southern China, commonly known as the Southern Ming, until 1662; the Ming dynasty succeeded the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and preceded the Manchu-led Qing dynasty.
The Ming dynasty was founded by the peasant rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang, known as the Hongwu Emperor. All Ming emperors were of the House of Zhu. The longest-reigning emperor of the dynasty was the Wanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620), who ruled for 48 years; the shortest was his successor, the Taichang Emperor, who ruled for only 29 days in 1620. The youngest ruler at the time of his ascension was Emperor Yingzong, who was only 9 years old, while the oldest ruler at the time of his death was the Hongwu Emperor, who died at the age of 71.
The emperor of the Ming dynasty, following a practice established in the Zhou dynasty, was known as the "Son of Heaven" (天子; Tiānzǐ). He was viewed as the intermediary between humans and heaven and was responsible for conducting numerous rituals to honor the supreme deities who safeguarded the empire. In addition, he participated in various ceremonies to commemorate significant events in both his own life and that of the empire. During audiences, his subjects were expected to demonstrate their submission by prostrating themselves before him, although the majority of decisions were actually made by the Grand Secretariat and the ministries. When he traveled, he was accompanied by an impressive entourage and protected by his imperial guard.
The majority of the Ming emperors resided in the Forbidden City, a 72 ha (180-acre) complex of palaces and buildings in Beijing. Prior to the Yongle Emperor, who moved the capital in 1420, the emperor's residence was located in a similar complex in Nanjing.
The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang (the Hongwu Emperor), who was one of the leaders of the Red Turban peasant rebellion. Despite humble beginnings, he successfully built his own state, defeated other rebel leaders, and forced the last Yuan emperor to flee China proper. On Chinese New Year in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang declared the establishment of a new imperial dynasty titled Great Ming (大明; Dà Míng) and declared himself its first emperor.
The emperors of the Ming dynasty inherited the throne according to the principle of primogeniture. According to the Hongwu Emperor's Ancestral Instructions, the heir to the throne was always the eldest son of the emperor and empress, or his heir, followed by younger sons of the empress. Sons of concubines were excluded from the line of succession. Conservative officials strongly insisted on following this strict rule throughout the Ming era. Even the Wanli Emperor, who for two decades tried to appoint his third son, Zhu Changxun, as crown prince, was eventually forced to give in and appoint his eldest son, the future Taichang Emperor. The only successful violator of the succession rules was the Yongle Emperor, the third emperor of the dynasty. He gained power in a three-year civil war against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor.
The emperor, or huangdi, was the supreme head of state, a tradition that dated back to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and was continued by the Ming dynasty. In theory, he held ultimate authority over all officials and generals, and the entire country was expected to obey his decrees. However, this power came at a cost, as the Hongwu Emperor tightly controlled his power through numerous purges. As the dynasty progressed, the successors of the Hongwu Emperor lacked his decisiveness and were constrained by traditional limitations. The emperor was not expected to make independent decisions regarding the direction of the country. Instead, memoranda and demands were presented to them with proposed solutions. The emperor's role was to either confirm the submitted proposals or negotiate an alternative solution with the submitters. Similarly, the emperors appointed officials and generals based on recommendations from the Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of War. In the case of high dignitaries, the ruler was given a choice between two to three candidates. Major issues were typically discussed at official audiences or informal meetings, and it was necessary to reach a broad consensus among court dignitaries before making any significant decisions.
During the reigns of the Hongwu Emperor and his successors, China generally experienced a period of economic growth and political stability. In the 17th century, a combination of climate changes and poor economic policies led to widespread famines and epidemics. As a result, the government's authority weakened, and numerous uprisings erupted. In 1644, the rebel army successfully captured Beijing, leading to the suicide of the last Ming emperor, the Chongzhen Emperor (r. 1627–1644). The leader of the uprising, Li Zicheng, declared himself the emperor of the new Shun dynasty. To defeat the rebels, Wu Sangui, the last Ming general in the northeast, invited the Manchu-led Eight Banners of the Qing dynasty to enter the Central Plains. The Manchus then occupied northern China that same year.
Despite losing control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family continued to rule over southern China. However, they were gradually pushed out by the Manchus until the last Ming emperor, Zhu Youlang, was executed in 1662 in Burma. Later historians referred to the emperors of the Ming regimes in southern China as the rulers of the Southern Ming dynasty.
The emperor's personal name (名字; Míngzi) was tabooed after his ascension to the throne. He was referred to and addressed with titles of varying degrees of formality—Your Majesty (陛下; Bìxià), His Majesty the Emperor (皇上; Huángshang, or simply 上; Shang). After death, the emperor received an honorary posthumous name (謚號; Shìhào), usually consisting of nineteen written characters for emperors of the Ming dynasty; however, the founder of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, was honored with a name of twenty-three written characters. Another name given posthumously was the temple name (廟號; Miàohào) which, along with the posthumous name, was used for worship in the Imperial Ancestral Temple. Due to the repetition of the same temple and posthumous names for emperors of different dynasties, the dynastic name is used as a differentiator when necessary. For example, the Hongwu Emperor is frequently referred to as "Ming Taizu".
Era name (年號; Niánhào), or "reign title", was chosen at the beginning of the emperor's reign to reflect the political, economic, and/or social landscapes at the time. During the Ming dynasty, except for Emperor Yingzong, the emperors only declared one era name during their reign, whereas emperors of previous dynasties usually had multiple era names. As a result, the emperors of the Ming dynasty were commonly referred to by their single era names.