davidanugraha/M4-RAG huggingface dataset:
Europa Nostra

Europa Nostra, som betyr «Vårt Europa», er en europeisk samlingsorganisasjon for frivillige kulturvernorganisasjoner. Europa Nostra ble stiftet i 1963 av en gruppe frivillige kulturvernforeninger, ledet av Italia Nostra, i kontoret til Europarådet i Paris.
Europa Nostra har i tillegg til kulturvernorganisasjoner også mange lokale kommuner, byer og personer som medlemmer. Organisasjonens formål er å fremme den arkitektoniske og landskapskulturelle arv, forbedre standarden i by- og landskapsplanlegning og å fremme kvaliteten i kulturhåndverket.
Europa Nostra forsøker å være opinionsdannende. Det skjer gjennom prisutdelinger, seminarer, publikasjoner og artikler, utstillinger, studieturer og vitenskapelige tidsskrifter. En aktivitet, der skaper stor oppmerksomhet er Europa Nostra-prisen, som hvert år deler ut diplomer og i særlige tilfeller medaljer for bevaringsprosjekter til arkitektonisk og kulturelt verdifulle anlegg, bygninger og kulturhistoriske landskaper i Europa.
Fra 1997 har EU gitt økonomisk støtte til driften av Europa Nostra. I 2002 vedtok EU å gjøre Europa Nostra Awards til hele EUs kulturarvsutmerkelse.
Hvert år belønnes innsats innen europeisk kulturvern i følgende kategorier:
Gjennom årene har flere norske organisasjoner og personer mottatt Europa Nostra-prisen:
Per 2023 er operasangeren Cecilia Bartoli president for Europa Nostra; hun overtok vervet fra operasangeren Plácido Domingo i 2022, som hadde hatt dette vervet siden 2010 og fortsatte som ærespresident. I 2018 overtok tyske Hermann Parzinger vervet som executive president etter franske Denis de Kergorlay.
Europa Nostras generalsekretær er (per 2023) Sneška Quaedvlieg-Mihailović.
President for Europa Nostra Norge per 2023 er Erik Schultz, som etterfulgte Thomas Willoch. Lederen for norgeskontoret er også rådsmedlem i Europa Nostra.
Liste over flyplasser etter ICAO-kode:E

Lufthavnliste etter ICAO-kode: A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S - T - U - V - W - X - Y - Z
Enhetene er listet som følger:
Se også lufthavn etter kategori og liste.
Se også lufthavn etter kategori og liste.
Se også lufthavn etter kategori og liste.
Se også lufthavn etter kategori og liste.
Se også lufthavn etter kategori og liste.
Andre kategorier: lufthavner i England, lufthavner i Nord-Irland, lufthavner i Skottland, lufthavner i Wales
Se også lufthavn etter kategori og liste.
Se også lufthavn etter kategori og liste.
Se også lufthavn etter kategori og liste.
Se også lufthavn etter kategori og liste.
Se også lufthavn etter kategori og liste.
Se også lufthavn etter kategori og liste.
Se også lufthavn etter kategori og liste.
Se også lufthavn etter kategori og liste.
Se også lufthavn etter kategori og liste.
Se også lufthavn etter kategori og liste.
Liste over stortingsrepresentanter 2021–2025

Liste over stortingsrepresentanter i perioden 2021 til 2025 omfatter alle som ble valgt til Stortinget ved stortingsvalget 13. september 2021.
Det var totalt 169 mandater på valg. 150 av disse var distriktsmandater, og i tillegg ble det valgt ett utjevningsmandat fra hver valgkrets (i alt 19). I samsvar med Grunnlovens paragraf 68, trådte de nye stortingsrepresentantene sammen den første hverdagen i oktober, i dette tilfellet fredag 1. oktober 2021.
De 169 mandatene ble fordelt med 48 til Arbeiderpartiet (Ap), 36 til Høyre (H), 28 til Senterpartiet (Sp), 21 til Fremskrittspartiet (FrP), 13 til Sosialistisk Venstreparti (SV), 8 til Venstre (V), 8 til Rødt (R), 3 til Miljøpartiet De Grønne (MDG), 3 til Kristelig Folkeparti (KrF) og 1 til det nye partiet Pasientfokus (PF), som bare stilte liste i Finnmark. Rødt kom for første gang over sperregrensen på 4 %, og partiet fikk derfor delta i fordelingen av utjevningsmandater. KrF kom for første gang under sperregrensen, men fikk innvalgt tre distriktsrepresentanter.
De 19 utjevningsmandatene ble fordelt med fem mandater hver til SV og Venstre, fire hver til Fremskrittspartiet og Rødt og ett til Høyre.
Den nye fylkesinndelingen fra 1. januar 2020, som følge av regionreformen, gjorde at valget i 2021 i motsetning til de foregående ikke hadde samsvar mellom fylker og valgdistrikter. § 57 i Grunnloven sier fortsatt at: «Riket er inndelt i 19 valgdistrikt.» Valgloven ble endret 4. juni 2018, slik at de 19 fylkene som eksisterte før regionreformen, fremdeles er valgdistriktene i stortingsvalget.
Som følge av valget tiltrådte Jonas Gahr Støres regjering (Ap, Sp) 14. oktober 2021. Hansen, Eva KristinEva Kristin Hansen (Ap) ble valgt til stortingspresident ved Stortingets konstituering. Hun trakk seg etter kort tid, og Masud Gharahkhani (Ap) overtok embetet 25. november.
Kvinneandelen blant de valgte representantene var 45 prosent (76 kvinner og 93 menn). Gjennomsnittsalderen ved valgperiodens start var 45,7 år. De yngste representantene var Åse Kristin Ask Bakke (Ap, Møre og Romsdal) og Tobias Drevland Lund (R, Telemark), begge på 25 år. Carl I. Hagen (FrP, Oppland) var eldst, 77 år.
Gro-Anita Mykjåland sto øverst på Senterpartiets lister både i Aust-Agder og Vest-Agder. Hun ble valgt inn fra begge distriktene. Etter Grunnlovens § 63 skal representanten da velge hvilket valg hun tar imot, og Mykjåland valgte Aust-Agder.
Første kolonne i tabellen under angir hvor i stortingssalen representantene sitter (sete nummer 1 er foran til venstre sett fra talerstolen). Andre kolonne angir rekkefølgen innen den enkelte valgkrets. Utjevningsmandatene er markert med rosa farge i tabellen.
Isklar

Isklar (ice clear in Norwegian) is a brand of still and sparkling natural mineral water from the Folgefonna Glacier of Norway. It was first launched in the United Kingdom in early 2008 but has since been discontinued. The company was backed by a global conglomerate, the Indian-based Siva Group, SABCO, and Jova holdings.
Isklar is based in the Hardanger region of Norway. The source for Isklar water is the Folgefonna glacier. The bottling plant is located in Ullensvang, Hordaland.
Isklar water comes in a bottle which features a distinctive pattern, inspired by the glacier from which the water derives. This bottle design by bluemarlin Brand Design has won many awards including the following:
2008 Water Innovation awards:
2009 Pentawards
2009 Gramia Awards
2009 UK packaging awards:
Aust-Agder

Aust-Agder (Norwegian: [ˈæ̂ʉstˌɑɡdər] , English: "East Agder") was a county (fylke) in Norway until 1 January 2020, when it was merged with Vest-Agder to form Agder county. In 2002, there were 102,945 inhabitants, which was 2.2% of Norway's population. Its area was 9,212 square kilometres (3,557 sq mi). The county's administrative center was the town of Arendal.
The county, located along the Skagerrak coast, extended from Gjernestangen at Risør to the Kvåsefjorden in Lillesand. The inner parts of the area included Setesdalsheiene and Austheiene. Most of the population lives near the coast; about 78% of the county's inhabitants live in the five coastal municipalities of Arendal, Grimstad, Lillesand, Tvedestrand, and Risør. The rest of the county is sparsely populated. Tourism is important, as Arendal and the other coastal towns are popular attractions.
The county includes the larger islands of Tromøya, Hisøya, Justøya, and Sandøya. The interior of the county encompasses the traditional district of Setesdal, through which the river Otra flows to the coast.
In 2017, the Parliament of Norway voted to merge Aust-Agder and Vest-Agder counties into one large region, Agder, effective 1 January 2020.
The county was part of the Aust-Agder District Court and the Church of Norway Diocese of Agder og Telemark.
The meaning of the name is "(the) eastern (part of) Agder", since the word aust is the Nynorsk form of "east".
Until 1919, the name of the county was Nedenes amt. The amt was named after the old Nedenes farm (Norse Niðarnes), since this was the seat of the amtmann (County Governor). The first element is the genitive case of the river name Nið (now called Nidelva) and the last element is nes which means "headland". The meaning of the river name is unknown.
The coat-of-arms is from modern times. They were granted on 12 December 1958. It shows two horizontal golden bars on a red background. They symbolize the lumber trade and the recovery of iron ore that was important for Aust-Agder's growth. There are two bars to represent the two areas of the county: inland and coastal.
The system of municipalities, or kommuner, was established in Norway in 1837, based on previously existing parishes (see formannskapsdistrikt). Norway had been ceded to Sweden by Denmark in 1814, at which it promptly rebelled and won the right of self-rule, though nominally part of Sweden. In 1905, Norway declared total independence. Meanwhile, as the years progressed, the municipalities did not remain the same, but new ones were formed, old ones broken up, and land was transferred. Since the 1990s, Aust-Agder has been divided into 15 municipalities:
Since the census of 1769, Aust-Agder has experienced a steady population growth: from 29,633 to 79,927 in 1900, and to 102,848 in 2001. There was significant emigration to the United States in the 19th century and early 20th century.
List of county governors of Aust-Agder

The county governor of Aust-Agder county in Norway represented the central government administration in the county. The office of county governor is a government agency of the Kingdom of Norway; the title was Amtmann (before 1919) and then Fylkesmann (after 1919). On 1 January 2016, the office was merged with the county governor of Vest-Agder into the county governor of Aust- og Vest-Agder in preparation for the merger of the two counties on 1 January 2020.
The diocesan county called Stavanger stiftamt was established in 1669 by the king, and it had several subordinate counties (amt) including Agdesiden amt. In 1671, Agdesiden amt was divided into Lister og Mandals amt (later called Vest-Agder) and Nedenæs amt (later called Aust-Agder). In 1682, the Stavanger stiftamt headquarters was moved to the town of Christianssand and renamed Christianssand stiftamt. The seat of Nedenæs amt was in the town of Arendal. In 1919, the county was renamed Aust-Agder. In 2020, Aust-Agder and Vest-Agder counties were merged into Agder county.
The county governor is the government's representative in the county. The governor carries out the resolutions and guidelines of the Storting and government. This is done first by the county governor performing administrative tasks on behalf of the ministries. Secondly, the county governor also monitors the activities of the municipalities and is the appeal body for many types of municipal decisions.
The word for county (amt or fylke) has changed over time as has the name of the county. From 1671 until 1918, the title was Amtmann i Nedenæs amt. From 1919 until 2016, the title was Fylkesmann i Aust-Agder fylke.
Aust-Agder county has had the following governors:
Agder County Municipality

Agder County Municipality (Norwegian: Agder fylkeskommune) is the democratically elected regional governing administration of Agder county in Norway. The main responsibilities of the county municipality includes the overseeing the county's 18 upper secondary schools with about 11,000 students, about 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi) of county roadways, public transport, dental care, culture, and cultural heritage.
The Agder county council (Norwegian: Fylkestinget) is made up of 49 representatives that are elected every four years. The council essentially acts as a Parliament or legislative body for the county and it meets about six times each year. The council is divided into standing committees and an executive board (fylkesutvalg) which meet considerably more often. Both the council and executive board are led by the County Mayor (fylkesordfører).
The party breakdown of the council is as follows:
Agder Township, Marshall County, Minnesota

Agder Township is a township in Marshall County, Minnesota, United States. The population was 108 at the 2000 census.
Agder Township was organized in 1902, and named after Agder, a historical district of Norway.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has a total area of 44.3 square miles (115 km), of which 44.3 square miles (115 km) is land and 0.02% is water.
As of the census of 2000, there were 108 people, 41 households, and 33 families residing in the township. The population density was 2.4 people per square mile (0.9/km). There were 48 housing units at an average density of 1.1/sq mi (0.4/km). The racial makeup of the township was 98.15% White and 1.85% Asian.
There were 41 households, out of which 46.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.4% were married couples living together, 7.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 17.1% were non-families. 12.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 2.85.
In the township the population was spread out, with 29.6% under the age of 18, 9.3% from 18 to 24, 29.6% from 25 to 44, 25.9% from 45 to 64, and 5.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 125.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 117.1 males.
The median income for a household in the township was $34,375, and the median income for a family was $42,500. Males had a median income of $26,667 versus $22,917 for females. The per capita income for the township was $15,519. There were 10.0% of families and 16.4% of the population living below the poverty line, including 26.3% of under eighteens and none of those over 64.
Otra

The Otra is the largest river in the Sørlandet region of Norway. It begins in Setesdalsheiene mountains at the lake Breidvatnet in Bykle municipality in Agder county, just south of the border with Vinje municipality in Telemark county. The river then flows south through Bykle, Valle, Bygland, Evje og Hornnes, Iveland, Vennesla, and Kristiansand municipalities. The river empties into the Skagerrak in the center of the city of Kristiansand on the southern coast of Norway.
The Otra is 245 kilometres (152 mi) long, making it Norway's eighth-longest river. There are many large lakes along the river including: Åraksfjorden, Byglandsfjorden, Hartevatnet, and Kilefjorden. There are 12 hydroelectric power plants built along the river, which produce much of the electricity for the southern part of Norway.
The salmon do well in the Otra river because the water is not too acidic. The calcareous rocks in the catchment area at the northern end of the Setesdal valley give the water a certain buffer capacity against acidification.
Nordfjorden (Agder)

Nordfjorden is part of Søndeledfjorden in the municipality of Risør in Agder county, Norway. It lies on the north side of the island of Barmen, which is northwest of the town of Risør. Nordfjorden is a little over 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) long. The widest parts are where the Søndeledfjorden goes west and to the village of Søndeled and when the Rødsfjorden joins the Sørfjorden which is on the south side of Barmen island. The south side of the fjord is a relatively straight coastline, but on the north of the fjord there are many coves and bays. The largest of these are Kjødvika and Sivikkilen.
Åsa Haraldsdottir of Agder

Åsa Haraldsdottir of Agder (died c. 834?) was a semi-legendary Norwegian Viking Age queen regnant of the petty kingdom of Agder. According to sagas referencing the clan Yngling (Ynglingaätten), she was the mother of Halfdan the Black (Halvdan Svarte), Sigurd Ring (Sigurd Hringrr) and also grandmother of King Harald Fairhair (Harald Hårfagre) and the legendary King Ragnar Lothbrok (Ragnarr Loðbrók).
Åsa was the daughter of King Harald Granraude of Agder. King Gudrød the Hunter (Gudrød Veidekonge) of Borre in Vestfold proposed marriage to her after the death of his first wife, but her father refused the marriage. Gudrød Veidekonge then killed her father and her brother, abducted her and married her. One year later, she became the mother of Halfdan the Black. One year after this, Åsa took her revenge and had her servant kill her husband.
She left the kingdom of Borre to her stepson Olaf Geirstad-Alf and took her own son with her to the kingdom of Agder, her birth country, where she took power. Åsa ruled Agder for twenty years, and after this she left the throne to her son, Halfdan the Black. He also demanded half of his father's kingdom from his half-brother.
There are theories, proposed by Professor Anton Wilhelm Brøgger of Oslo University, that queen Åsa was the woman buried with the famous Oseberg ship shortly after 834 AD, but this has not been confirmed.
Skol Diwan Pornizh

Sol Diwan Pornizh a oa ur skol eus rouedad Diwan bet digoret e Gwengolo 2012 ha serret e Gwengolo 2013 gant renerezh Diwan.
Dipitet bras e oa tud ar vugale ha re ar c'huzul-skoazell o devoa poaniet da feurmiñ un ti, da gempenn al lec'h, graet gante dispignoù evit dafar hag arrebeuri, ha seul washoc'h ma oa erruet ar c'heloù diwezhat e deroù Gwengolo 2013 ha ma oa bet serret ur skol all e Bro-Naoned, e Savenneg. Hervez ar renerien e oa diouer a gelennerien. Hervez tud Pornizh eo renet fall Diwan, ez eus meur a dra a-dreuz en ti, hag abalamour d'an taol fall graet dezho ez eus kement a zroug er vro ouzh Diwan, ma ne vo ket gallet sevel skol Diwan ebet ken en tolead.
Priz Brezhoneger ar Bloaz a oa bet roet e miz Genver 2013 da Thierry Jamet en abadenn ar Prizioù, roet e Montroulez gant F3 Breizh hag Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg peogwir en doa poaniet da sevel Skol Diwan Pornizh.
Skol Diwan Lesneven

Skol Diwan Lesneven a zo unan eus skolioù Diwan e Leon, digoret e 1981.
E 2011 e oa bet kaoz gant maer Lesneven an ampoent, Jean-Yves Le Goff, da zistruj an ti-skol ma oa Skol Diwan ar gumun.
Louis Le Pensec

Louis Le Pensec, “Loeiz ar Peñseg” e brezhoneg , ganet d'an 8 a viz Genver 1937 e Mellag (Penn-ar-Bed) ha marvet d'an 10 a viz Genver 2024 e Kemperle, a zo ur politikour eus Breizh. Ezel e oa eus ar Strollad Sokialour Gall. Ministr e gouarnamantoù Pariz eo bet meur a wech etre 1981 (Ministr ar Mor dindan François Mitterrand) ha 1998. Maer Mellag eo bet e-pad bloavezhioù, eus 1971 da 1997, kuzulier kanton Kemperle eus 1971 da 1997, kannad pastell-vro Kemperle eus 1973 da 1997, ha senedour etre 1998 ha 2008. Brezhoneger e oa, desket ar yezh gantañ dre soubidigezh.
Kelenn (kreizenn stummañ)

Kelenn zo ur skol da stummañ skolaerien, kelennerien ha implijerien ar c'helenn e-barzh Diwan.
Krouet eo bet e 1997 evit kas war-raok ar stummadurioù a oa kaset war-eeun gant Diwan betek ar bloavezh-se. E 2013 eo renet gant Eliane Kerjoant. Pal ofisiel ar greizenn zo ""Deskiñ brezhoneg evit micherioù ar c’helenn en holl skolioù divyezhek"
Kemer a ra perzh Kelenn en ur rouedad kreizennoù stummañ liammet gant skolioù kevredigezhel ar yezhoù all (okitaneg, katalaneg, elzaseg, euskareg) holl divyezhek dre soubidigezh. Ul lec'hienn eus an ISLRF (pe Institut Supérieur des Langues de la République Française) eo.
Digoret e voe ar greizenn e Gwengolo 1997 e-barzh kreizenn skol-veur dizamkan Kemper gant 15 studier enni. Embann a reas ar renerez gentañ, Josette Gwegen,. Galvet e voe tud arbennigourien war an hentenn Freinet, ar gorollouriezh (evit kelenn ar bredloc'hadezh), war ar sinema hag war arbennigiezhoù all. Pa voe treuzlec'hiet Skolaj Diwan Jakez Riou e voe staliet en ur skol publik gozh, 3 Straed Vañde, e Kemper, asamblez gant eil skol Diwan Kemper. Miret e voe ur sal diskouezadegoù evit kaosevel ul liamm gant buhez an arzoù. Pa voe bet ar magourioù brezhonek war greskaat e voe ouzhpennet ur stummadur evit ober war-dro ar bugaligoù, he fal "stummañ tud d'ar brezhoneg ar muioc'h ma c'heller ken e vint gouest d'e implij pa vo dezho da labourat tost d'ar babigoù ".
Kinnig a ra stummadurioù pe e vefe evit kelenn er skolioù, er skolajoù, el lise, pe c'hoazh evit ober ur vicher all liammet gant ar c'helenn (skoazelle(ez), animatour(ez) eil derez...), implijerien(ezed) er magourioù.
Louiziana

Louiziana a zo ur Stad e su ar Stadoù-Unanet, war lez kleiz ar stêr Mississipi ha war ribloù Pleg-mor Mec'hiko er su. 31vet stad brasañ SUA eo, hag ar 25vet brasañ e-keñver e annezidi (4 684 333 e 2017). Baton Rouge eo e gêr-benn hag Orleañs-Nevez e gêr vrasañ. Brudet eo da vezañ ur vro ma komzer galleg, met bihan eo niver ar c'hallegerien.
E parrezioù eo rannet ar stad, pa eo rannet e kontelezhioù stadoù stadunanat all.
Dont a ra e anv eus ar galleg Louisiane (distagadur: /lwizjan/) roet da gornad-bro delta ar Mississippi gant an argerzhour gall René-Robert Cavelier de La Salle e 1682 pa embannas (hep aotre an annezidi amerindian) e oa perc'henniezh ar roue gall Loeiz XIV.
Alese an anvioù Lwizyàn e kreoleg Louiziana ha Louisiana e saozneg (distagadur IPA /luːˌiːziˈænə/ pe /ˌluːziˈænə/).
Ar saozneg a vez komzet gant an dud. Hervez niveradeg 2010 e oa 3,45 % eus an dud a gomze galleg, kreoleg pe cajun, pa oant 4,79 % en 2000, e-skoaz 3,30 % a gastilhanegerien.
E 2023 eo bet digoret ar skol dre soubidigezh kentañ e galleg cajun, e-kreiz takad ar meuriad indian Pointe-au-Chien.
Ergerzhet e oa diazad ha delta ar Mississipi gant René-Robert Cavelier de La Salle e 1682. Diazezet e oa Biloxi gant Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville e 1699. Diwezatoc'h e teuas da vezañ kêr-benn kentañ Louiziana.
Gwelet ar pennad Prenadenn Louiziana.
Ur vro blaen eo Louiziana. Un hin istrovanel c'hleb he deus, gant hañvoù hir, tomm ha gleb ha goañvoù berr ha klouar.
Er c'hornôg emañ Texas, en hanternoz Arkansas, er reter Mississippi ha pleg-mor Mec'hiko er c'hreisteiz.
Manaveg

Ar manaveg zo unan eus ar yezhoù gouezelek, a gomzer en Enez Vanav, etre Breizh-Veur hag Iwerzhon. Kar-nes eo da skoseg. Levezonet eo bet gant ar yezhoù skandinavek.
En XVIII kantved e oa bev-mat ar manaveg : komzet e veze ar yezh gant 20 000 a dud, da lavarout eo, koulz lavaret, an holl dud a oa o chom en enezenn neuze. E 1765 e voe staget an Enez ouzh Rouantelezh Breizh-Veur, ha gwasket e voe ar yezh adalek ar mare-se. E 1899 e voe savet ur gevredigezh evit mirout ar yezh, Yn Çheshaght Ghailckagh (ar gevredigezh ouezelek). Er bloavezhioù 1930 ne veze kaozeet manaveg evel yezh vamm, nemet gant un nebeud tud. O niver a yae betek 20 e 1946. Er bloavezhioù 1950 e voe kroget gant Yn Çheshaght Ghailckagh d'enrollañ ar gomzerien diwezhañ. An hini diwezhañ anezho, Ned Maddrell, a varvas e 1974.
E-keit-se e kroge niver an dud a ouie ar yezh da greskiñ, betek tizhout un nebeud kantadoù. E niveridigezh 1991 e voe kavet 634 den a gomze manaveg evel eil yezh, diwar 72 000 a enezidi. Lod eus an dud-se zo krog da zesevel o bugale e manaveg. Hervez niveridigezh 2001 e oa 27 den a oa ar manaveg o yezh kentañ ha 1689 o eil yezh, ar pezh a zo 2,2 % eus ar boblañs.
Un doare adsav splann zo. Abaoe 1992 e c’hell an holl vugale deskiñ manaveg evel eil yezh er skol. Er bloavezh-skol kentañ e oa bet 1400 skoliad o taremprediñ ar c’hentelioù-se. E kêr Balley Keeill Eoin (St John’s) ez eus ur skol dre soubidigezh zoken (Bunscoill Gaelgagh) bet savet e Gwengolo 2001. 69 bugel a oa skoliataet enni e 2012. Implijet e vez ar manaveg e Parlamant an Enez, an Tinvaal (saozneg: Tynwald), pa vez lennet al lezennoù nevez-votet e saozneg hag e manaveg.
N’eus roud skrivet ebet eus ar manaveg a-raok ar XVII kantved. Skridoù relijiel evel ar Bibl a voe troet e manaveg er XVII hag en XVIII kantved. An testennoù a zo bet embannet abaoe zo skridoù relijiel ha kanaouennoù dreist-holl.
Gwall zisheñvel eo doare-skrivañ ar manaveg diouzh hini an iwerzhoneg pe hini skoseg. Bez' ez eo un doare levezonet gant boazioù skrivañ ar saozneg.
Jean-Michel Blanquer

Jean-Michel Blanquer, ganet e Pariz e 1964, zo ur politikour gall, bet ministr an Deskadurezh.
E dad hag e vamm zo ganet en Alger . Divorset eo.
Goude e studioù e voe kelenner-enklasker e Skol-veur Panthéon-Assas e 1992, e Skol-veur François-Rabelais e 1994, hag en Institut d'Études Polítiques e Lille e 1996. E 1998 e voe anvet e penn an Institut des Hautes Études d’Amérique Latine. Etre 2004 ha 2006 e voe rektor Akademiezh Gwiana c'hall, hag etre 2007 ha 2009 en Akademiezh Créteil. E 2009 e voe anvet da rener meur an deskadurezh dindan ar ministr Luc Chatel. E 2013 e teuas da vezañ prezidant an ESSEC Business School.
Hag e 2017 e voe anvet da Vinistr an Deskadurezh, e gouarnamant kentañ Emmanuel Macron.
Abaoe m'eo ministr en deus komzet meur a wech a-enep kelennadur ar brezhoneg : e miz Mae 2019 e oa savet a-enep ar c'helenn dre soubidigezh er skolioù Diwan ; hag e miz C'hwevrer 2020 en doa kemeret ar gaoz er Vodadenn Vroadel a-enep kinnig-lezenn Paul Molac. n'eo ket bet dislâret ar ministr gant e gentañ ministr na gant e brezidant.
N'eo ket bet adkemeret evel ministr an deskadurezh
Klasket en deus ur bastell-vro ma c'hallje mont war ar renk da vont da gannad. Goulennet en deus digant ur gannadez eus e strollad leuskel he lec'h gantañ, en aner. neuze eo aet da lakaat e anv e pastell-vro Montargis ha korbellet eo bet.
Skol Diwan An Oriant

Skol Diwan An Oriant zo ur skol vrezhonek kevredet e rouedad Diwan, skol vamm ha kentañ derez asambles, lec’hiet en Oriant.
E 2021 e votas Kuzul Kêr Lannarstêr nac’hañ reiñ muioc’h evit 5 000 € d’ar skol. Embannet en deus ar c’huzulier Alexandre Scheuer, eus La France insoumise, e oa a-du gant an diviz-mañ en ur lavarout : ... ne servij Diwan da netra. .
Lec’hienn ar skol
Skolaj Diwan Beuzid-ar-C'hoadoù

Skolaj Diwan Beuzid-ar-C'hoadoù zo ur skolaj Diwan da vezañ digoret e 2025.
Abaoe bloavezhioù e oa kaoz da zigeriñ ur skolaj Diwan en Il-ha-Gwilen met diaes e oa kavout ul lec'h gant un hunva evit degemer ar skolajidi. Sañset e oa da vezañ digoret unan e 2020 e Gwipri-Mezeg met a-benn ar fin ne oa ket bet graet . E miz Meurzh 2025 ez eus bet dorioù-digor e Beuzid-ar-C'hoadoù evit dont a-benn da gaout un 20 skolajiad bennak er c'hwec'hvet klas a-benn an distro-skol e miz Gwengolo 2025. Ma teu brav an traoù e vo digoret a vloaz da vloaz klasoù el liveoù uheloc'h .
Al lec'h a vo er skolaj kozh Rey-Leroux, a zo bet serret hag adprenet gant an ti-kêr .
Gwenole Bihannig

Kelenner brezhoneg hag arzoù eo Gwenole Bihanig, Bihannic e marilhoù an ti-kêr, e skolaj Diwan Ar Releg-Kerhuon. Asambles gant e skolajidi en deus troet tri albom Titeuf e brezhoneg : Kenô bed kriz, Burzhud ar vuhez ha Lezenn ar bratell. An ti Bannoù-Heol e Kemper a embannas an tri albom-se.
Ganet e voe Gwenole Bihanig e Dieppe d'an 22 a viz Eost 1966. Mab eo da Loeiz Bihanig, skrivagner ha sekretour Al Liamm. Goude ez eas da heul e familh da chom da Sant-Maloù e 1971.
Graet en deus e studioù e Skol-Veur Roazhon m'en deus tapet ur vestroniezh war ar brezhoneg, unan all war ar yezhoù estren pleustrek evit ar c'henwerzh (L.E.A.C., Langues Etrangères Appliquées au Commerce) war ar saozneg hag ar spagnoleg.Goude se e reas e goñje soudard e Fort-de-France (Martinik). Lenner eo bet ivez war ar brezhoneg e skol-veur Galway (Iwerzhon) e-pad daou vloaz. Labouret en deus e skol-veur Freiburg im Breisgau (Alamagn) e-pad ur bloavezh, war-dro ar raktres Sonderforschungsbereich Mündlichkeit und Schriflichkeit ("Kreizenn-enklask kenlabour dre gomz ha dre skrid") diwar-benn an hengoun dre gomz ha dre skrid en Iwerzhon.Kelenner brezhoneg ha tresañ eo bremañ e skolaj Diwan ar Releg hag el lise, keit m'eo bet er Releg hag e Brest). Bet en deus e zoktorelezh war ar brezhoneg e 2005.
Embann labourioù skolajidi-liseidi Diwan dre ar gevredigezh Embannadurioù an Hemon
Gwened

Gwened a zo ur gêr eus Breizh ha kêr-benn Bro-Gwened, e foñs ar Mor Bihan. Pennlec'h departamant ar Mor-Bihan, Arondisamant Gwened ha tri c'hanton eo ivez. 53 218 annezad a oa enni d'ar 1añ a viz Genver 2016, 135 882 e Gwened Tolpad. Prizet eo ar gêr gant an douristed evit he glad hag he endro. Ur pol deskadurezh uhel eo.
Darioritum a oa he anv e mare ar Weneted hag ar Romaned. Kêr-benn Bro-Ereg e teuas da vezañ er VI kantved e mare ar brezelioù etre ar Franked hag ar Vrezhoned. Ur gêr a-bouezh e teuas da vezañ gant an Duged. Mogeriet eo ar gêr kozh c'hoazh hiziv gant ramparzhioù bras eus ar mare-se, arouez galloud Dugelezh Breizh.
Roet eo bet al label Kêrioù ha Broioù Arz hag Istor dezhi.
Karrnijourion e oant holl. Marvet int e-pad an Eil Brezel Bed, pevar anezhe e miz Du 1940, ar re all e miz Du 1942 pa gouezhas o c'harr-nij (Wellington marilhet BJ 768) e Gregam.
52 648 annezad a oa hervez niveradeg 2012, ha 53 218 d'ar 1añ a viz Genver 2016.
Diwan (school)

Diwan (pronounced [ˈdiwɑ̃n]; "seed" in Breton) is a federation of Breton-medium schools in Brittany.
The Diwan concept, which allows children to learn French and Breton through language immersion, was inspired by the Gaelscoileanna movement in Ireland, the Ikastolak movement in the Basque Country, and the Mudiad Ysgolion Meithrin movement in Wales, the Calandreta in Occitania and La Bressola of Northern Catalonia. However, as Diwan educates up to the age of eighteen, it most resembles the Welsh-medium education of Wales.
From ages two to six Breton is the sole medium of instruction. At the age of seven and a half French is introduced during two out of twenty-six school hours. When the pupils are ten, French (six hours out of twenty-three) is taught at the same level as Breton. This remains the same when they reach middle school but English and a choice of Spanish or German are taught in addition.
According to Jelle Krol, the strictness with which the Third French Republic imposed its French-only policy throughout the educational system as well as its rejection of all requests for classes in minority languages must be seen in the light of France's humiliating defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and the resulting Germanophobia and Revanchism over the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. The Government of the Republic was accordingly unwilling to tolerate the German language and other minority languages in French schools or society.
The first Diwan school was created by a few parents in 1977 at Lampaul-Ploudalmézeau (Breton: Lambaol-Gwitalmeze) near Brest, because the centralised French state schools were unwilling to offer the Breton language in the curriculum. The initial nursery school was followed by the first primary school in 1980, the first collège in 1988 and the first lycée in 1994.
In 2008, Diwan schools celebrated their 30th anniversary and organised Ar Redadeg, a non-stop foot race through Brittany in support of Breton-language learning in schools, which has little support from the French central government.
In 2019–2020 4,307 pupils attended Diwan schools throughout Brittany at all levels from preschool to the Baccalauréat. The network included 48 primary-level schools and 8 secondary schools (six collèges and two lycées).
Cours Hattemer

Cours Hattemer is a French private, secular school. It is independent of the state, and has permission to follow its own teaching approach, which is structured and places great stress on repetition to drive home what has been learned. The school has many well-known alumni including the actress Brigitte Bardot and the French President Jacques Chirac.
Hattemer is located in Paris, in the 8th and 16th districts.
The school was founded by Rose Hattemer of Alsace in 1885. The founder taught some of the great Parisian families towards the end of the 19th century, and developed a method of teaching by correspondence for the children of diplomats, which is still followed today. The school was originally located on rue Clapeyron in the 8th arrondissement of Paris. It is now housed in a five-story building erected nearby on rue de Londres in 1935 to accommodate a growing number of pupils. There is a cafeteria, gym and playground.
The school provides flexible hours, so a student may take time to practice an instrument or train for a sport. When Brigitte Bardot was admitted to the Cours Hattemer at the age of seven during World War II (1939–45) she only had to go to school three days a week, and otherwise studied at home. This gave her time to take dancing lessons. In the period after World War II the school was one of the few that encouraged art, and thereby attracted pupils from the families of actors or public figures. It catered to children who were "special cases" such as Françoise Sagan and her classmate Florence Malraux, daughter of André Malraux, who attended in the early 1950s.
There are about 1,500 students from kindergarten to the Baccalauréat (high school certificate), half of whom learn by correspondence. Classes have 15–25 students.
Hattemer is a private school that is not under contract to the government and so has freedom to set its own curriculum and teaching methods. Students and their parents are screened to ensure they agree that a child who is learning is a happy child. The school's teachers write the textbooks. The school uses structure and repetition in its classes. Constant repetition of content in oral and written questions includes reviews of what was learned in a day, a week and a year.
In 2017, Hattemer joined the international NACE Schools Archived 2019-06-18 at the Wayback Machine group.
The walls of the school are lined with photographs of famous alumni, including Brigitte Bardot, Jacques Chirac, Christophe Dechavanne, Jean d'Ormesson, Michel Polnareff, Véronique Sanson and Anne Sinclair. Other notable alumni include:
École Internationale Bilingue

The École internationale bilingue (EIB) is a French teaching establishment, primarily based in Paris. The school teaches children from 4 to 18, from kindergarten to Baccalauréat and IB Diploma Programme.
Following the war, Jeannine Manuel had a mission: to work on international understanding through bilingual education, the mixing of cultures, and a constant educational drive to listen to the world, so in 1954 she created the École active bilingue (EAB) with the two "girls' establishments" which are today the École internationale bilingue (EIB) and the École Jeannine Manuel (EABJM). The first site of the EAB was a building on avenue de La Bourdonnais, which closed at the start of the 1990s.
The kindergarten and primary classes take place at 6, Avenue Van-Dyck.
The college is located at 16, Rue Margueritte.
The lycée is at 9, Rue Villaret-de-Joyeuse.
Maduro lampreado

Maduro lampreado,​ maduro emborrajado ​ o aborrajado (sierra ecuatoriana), también lo llaman gato encerrado,​ es un plato típico de la gastronomía de ecuador.​ Se refiere a una masa de harina que se usa para freír ciertos alimentos de una manera similar a los buñuelos.​
Para elaborar el maduro lampreado se selecciona el plátano maduro o guineo para luego cortar en mitades o transversalmente, dando así que cada maduro puede rendir cuatro porciones, se mezcla leche, sal, harina hasta formar una masa homogénea para luego freír.​ La variante de la provincia de Manabí a la preparación de la masa le agregan huevo, azúcar, esencia de vainilla y colorante amarillo vegetal para darle color, se agrega queso rallado.​
El bocado se suele confundir con el aborrajado colombiano, aborrajado significa un plato de plátanos rellenos de queso rebozados y fritos como Aborrajado con Chicharrón, que incluye chicharrón, además de la receta básica de plátanos y queso, pasta de guayaba, que se incluye como parte del relleno.​
Encocado

El encocado es un plato típico de la provincia ecuatoriana de Esmeraldas y uno de los platos típicos más reconocidos de la gastronomía de Ecuador. Su nombre deriva del uso del coco como su ingrediente principal. Suele prepararse combinando mariscos como concha, camarón, cangrejo y pescado a la vez; otra de las variedades puede ser con pollo y carne de monte como guanta, venado, guacharaca o tatabra y sazonado con ajo, cebolla, chillangua y chirarán (hierbas aromáticas de la región). Este plato suele servirse acompañado con arroz y patacones o con plátano maduro, algunas personas le aumentan chifle.
El origen de este popular plato se remonta a las recetas traídas desde África en la época colonial por los africanos que se asentaron en las costas de Esmeraldas. La base de esta gastronomía son los mariscos que se encuentran principalmente en la región costa del país, como en bosques, manglares y playas, donde se obtiene una variedad de productos del mar y la tierra como el banano, el coco y el camarón que se conjuga con las tradiciones culinarias para crear la más diversa gastronomía.​
El encocado se prepara, sobre todo, con corvina, pero se puede preparar con otros tipos de pescados de preferencia. Lo primero es limpiar bien al pescado con limón y dejarlo reposar por una hora en el zumo del jugo de limón. El siguiente paso es realizar el refrito con los aliños.
Al coco hay que rallarlo, luego se lo exprime y se saca la primera leche añadiéndole media taza de agua. Esta leche se pone en un recipiente, luego al afrecho se le agrega una taza de agua y se licúa para sacar la segunda leche, entre los secretos de elaboración de este plato es licuar parte de la pulpa del coco con el agua que se extrae del mismo, y esta sería la tercera leche que se coloca para la cocción junto con los aliños. Se cocina todo junto a fuego bajo hasta que quede espeso.​
Una de las formas de servir es en un plato con arroz ya cocido y sobre este coloque inmediatamente el encocado de pescado. Se puede acompañar este plato con patacones o tostones.​
Este platillo no tiene una fecha específica para su elaboración y/o consumo, ya que forma parte de la gastronomía diaria de la costa ecuatoriana.​
Los beneficios principales de este fruto están en su semilla, la cual cuando alcanza su madurez, contiene muchas vitaminas, minerales y nutrientes esenciales para los humanos. A su vez este aporta calcio, magnesio, fósforo, hierro, sodio, selenio, yodo, zinc, flúor, manganeso y otros elementos. El fruto de la palmera cocotera se puede consumir de diferentes maneras y preparaciones, así como su agua que es muy refrescante.​
Cuisine of the Americas

The cuisine of the Americas is made up of a variety of food preparation styles.
North American cuisine consists of foods native to or popular in countries of North America, such as Canadian cuisine, American cuisine, Mexican cuisine, and Central American cuisine. North American cuisines display influence from many international cuisines, especially European cuisine, and including Native American cuisine, Jewish cuisine, and Asian cuisine. As a broad, geo-culinary term, North American cuisine also includes Central American and Caribbean cuisines. These regions are part of North America, so these regional cuisines also fall within the penumbra of North American cookery.
The term "regional" is somewhat ambiguous, however, since, for example, the cuisine of Puerto Rico can differ markedly from Cuban cuisine; Mexican cuisine spills across the border into the Tex-Mex and Mexi-Cali "sub-cuisines"; and the cuisines of Michigan and Ontario have more in common with each other than either has with the cuisines of Manitoba or Iowa.
Some of the richest products of South American cuisine come from the middle of the continent, the Amazon basin. In countries like Peru, there is a strong influence of the Inca and their cuisine. Potatoes are frequently grown as a result of this, and also plants such as quinoa. On the western coast of South America lies the Pacific Ocean, which provides a large array of seafood. Many plains are also on this continent, which are rich for growing food in abundance. In the Patagonia region south of Argentina, many people produce lamb and venison. King crab is typically caught at the southern end of the continent. Antarctic krill has just recently been discovered and is now considered a fine dish. Tuna and tropical fish are caught all around the continent, but Easter Island is one place where they are found in abundance. Lobster is also caught in great quantities from Juan Fernández. In Brazil, their most traditional dish is the feijoada.
くじ

くじ（籤・鬮）とは、正負や順序が割り当てられる対象について、その割り当て情報をあらかじめ与えずに選択させること、またはその対象のこと。割り当て情報は、対象に見えないよう封入されていてもよく、選択の後に無作為な手段で割り当ててもよい。日本語の「くじ」という言葉は10世紀頃からみられるようになり古くは「孔子」と表記された。
通常、くじ引きの確率はくじを引く順番にかかわらず平等である（確率保存）。宗教的に神の意志を問うために用いられることもあるが、世俗世界では確率の上で平等な割り当てを行うために用いられることが多い。この場合は結果について、あらかじめ公にされている単純な確率計算以上の予測を行えないことが必要である。
賭博の手段として用いられることもある。この場合は娯楽性を高めるため、戦略的な選択によって勝率を高められる可能性を持たせることもある。
「くじ」の語源には多くの説があり、串が語源であるという「串」説、結び目を解くための道具が語源であるという「抉り」説、公事を決めたことに由来する「公事」説、奇なことを起こすことに由来する「奇し」説、中国の円盤のくじの「「鬮（ク）」に小さい意味の「子（児）」を付けた「鬮子（児）」説などがある。
漢字では、籤・鬮・孔子の字が当てられる。手書きで漢字を書く場合、籖・䰗・䦰と一部分を略して書くこともある。英語では「Sortition」、漢語では「抽籤（ちゅうせん）」と訳されるが、「籤」が当用漢字に含まれていなかったため、「抽せん」とまぜ書き表記される（常用漢字でも同様である）。「抽選」という表記もあり、日本新聞協会ではこれを代用表記として定めている（ただしそれ以前から存在する表記であり、新たに作ったわけではない）。
富くじ

富くじ（とみくじ・富籤、英語：lottery、ロッタリー）は抽籤（ちゅうせん）によってくじ購入者が賞金を得、くじ発行者がくじ代金での収入を得るという構造を持つ籤（くじ）の一種。日本古来のものや漢字表記では、富籤（とみくじ）といい、日本で売られているものの名称を使って「宝くじ」と総称する場合もある。
富くじは民衆の射幸心をいたずらに煽るものと考えられ歴史的にも原則として禁止されることが多い。
刑法学などでは富くじはカジノなどの賭博とは次のような違いがあるとしている。
ほとんどの国において、富くじの販売権は、特に許可された業者や政府系機関が独占し、発行者側収益の多くは公共事業のための資金源として利用される。
世界最初の富くじは、中国で漢の張良が万里の長城建設のための債を集めるために行ったものとされる。ローマでも建設費調達のためにユリウス・カエサルが利用している。
1569年、エリザベス1世は植民地バージニアの支援やシンク港の修復資金調達のために国営富くじを発行し、その後、多くの公共目的の富くじが発行されたが、私的な富くじも盛んになり社会的弊害も発生するようになったため、1698年の法律で富くじの発行には議会の承認が必要となった。
中国では約3000年程前に万里の長城建設のためにキノと呼ばれる富くじが発行されたという伝承がある。富くじの最初の記録は唐代のもので1885年まで散発的ではあるが途絶えることなく発売された。1886年に清朝は富くじを禁止したが小規模なものは引き続き行われていた。1949年の中華人民共和国の成立で富くじは共産主義国家体制となじまないとして一切禁止された。改革開放政策を経て1987年に中国政府は社会福祉関係のプロジェクトの資金集めのために奨券（賞品付富くじ）を発行した。
日本の富籤の発祥は摂津・箕面の瀧安寺といわれている。江戸時代には公儀の許可を得た寺社が勧進のために富籤を発売したが、1842年（天保13年）の天保の改革により全面禁止された。
明治になり太政官布告により富興行は一律禁止となった。しかし、民間では違法な闇富くじが広く行われていた。
1900年5月に出された内務省令の「富籤類似其他取締ノ件」（後に廃止）では、「富籤類似行為」に関しての取締りも厳しくなった。
刑法には富くじ販売・取次・授受罪（刑法187条）の規定があり富くじの販売・取次・授受は禁止されている。なお、一般に福引と呼ばれるものは券そのものを販売するのではなく買物時などに無料配布するもので落選者が財産を失う関係にないから刑法の「富くじ」には該当しない。催事によってはくじを無料配布する福引が「富くじ」と呼称されていることもある。ただし、くじが有料で販売されたもので、それにより落選者が財産を失う関係にある場合には刑法に抵触するおそれがある（福引を参照）。
1937年（昭和12年）9月、臨時資金調整法が施行され福券などのいわゆる戦時債券が発行されたが、売れ行きは不振で発券事務の簡素化も必要とされており、国による富くじ発行の機運が高まった。
第二次世界大戦中の1945年（昭和20年）4月に臨時資金調整法は改正され、同年7月16日に政府くじ「勝札」が発売された（額面は10円で1等は10万円）。 物資不足のため、副賞の賞品（タバコやカナキン（純綿のキャラコ））がもてはやされたが、抽せん前に敗戦したため、「負札」と揶揄された。
現代でも当せん金付証票法に基づく「宝くじ」のように法令による行為（刑法35条）として特例的に認められているものもある。
1948年に施行された当せん金付証票法により、地方公共団体による宝くじの発売が認められた。
日本以外の国では、1等賞の賞金に関する上限規定がない国も多いため、日本のロト6のような数字選択式（ただし、日本のロト6の数字2桁×6組より桁数や組み合わせ数が多い）のものでは、キャリーオーバーが積み重なって、日本円で数十億 - 数百億円相当の高額当せんが時折報道される。高額な富くじとしては、アメリカのメガ・ミリオンズなどが有名である。
このためか、日本国内において、「海外宝くじ」と称して、購入代行をダイレクトメールなどで宣伝する悪徳業者が後を絶たないが、当選金額や払い戻し率が高いことが大きな理由である。
ちなみに、刑法第187条第3項（富くじ授受罪）の規定により、外国政府および外国機関が発行する富くじ（海外宝くじ）を日本国内で購入することは出来ない。宝くじ発売自治体・受託銀行・日本宝くじ協会等の広告でも、根拠法こそ示されないものの、その旨が書かれている。
メキシコのロテリア・ナシオナルは18世紀末に遡ります。ロテリアの目標は、雇用を創出し、「富の再分配プロセス」を推進することです。 ロテリアはまた、北米州および州立宝くじ協会のメンバーでもあります。
日本の租税

日本の租税（にほんのそぜい）は、国税と地方税からなる。日本において租税は、「国民は、法律の定めるところにより、納税の義務を負ふ。」と日本国憲法第30条で規定されている。
租税の多くは申告納税制度が採用されている。納税者は年末調整・確定申告などを行うことにより、自ら税を納税する。
日本国憲法第30条では、「国民は、法律の定めるところにより、納税の義務を負う。」と納税の義務について規定している。同条は国民に納税の義務を課したものとして国家による徴税の根拠となっている。
租税法律主義とは、租税は、民間の富を強制的に国家へ移転させるものなので、租税の賦課・徴収を行うには必ず法律の根拠を要する、とする原則。現代では、ほとんどの民主的な国家で租税法律主義が憲法原理とされており、大日本帝国憲法では第62条が、日本国憲法では第84条がこれを定めている。伊藤博文著憲法義解は大日本帝国憲法第62条の租税法律主義を次のように解説している。
この原則が初めて出現したのは、13世紀イギリスのマグナ・カルタである。近代以前は、君主や支配者が恣意的な租税運用を行うことが多かったが、近代に入ると市民階級の成長と法治主義の広がりに伴い、課税に関することは課税される国民側の代表からなる議会が制定した法律の根拠に基づくべしとする基本原則、すなわち租税法律主義が生まれた。
租税公平主義とは、租税は各人の担税力（租税負担能力）に応じて公平に配分されるべきであり、租税に関して全ての国民は平等に扱われるべきだという原則である。この原則は、日本国憲法第14条第1項が定める平等原則が、租税の分野に適用されたものである。
日本の税制はほぼ毎年改正されている。通常のスケジュールでは、所得税や法人税の場合は財務省主税局が原案を作成し、12月末に税制改正大綱が示される。翌年1月に内閣が法律案綱領を閣議決定し、内閣提出法案の形で国会に提出、3月末に成立する。
租税法の成立・改正過程では税制調査会が大きな影響を与えている。通常、税制調査会は内閣総理大臣の諮問機関（審議会）・政府税制調査会（政府税調）と政権党（主に自由民主党）の党組織たる自由民主党税制調査会（党税調）がある。政府税調が基本的な事項の調査内容を示し、党税調が細部（特例・免除、租税特別措置法）を決めていくという方法が採られている。60年代には政府税調が中心的な役割を果たしていた。高度経済成長が終わり、税収の自然増がなくなると政権党の自民党税調の影響力が増大する。しかし、21世紀には党税調の力も落ち、総理大臣官邸が自民党の党税調を押し切ったとする報道も見られるようになった。
税制の改正は利害関係者から与党・省庁などへの要望（インプット）を受けて、租税法令の形で制定（アウトプット）される。施行された法律は様々な利害関係者に影響を当たれるため、彼らが与党・省庁などに要望（インプット）をする。このようなサイクルが毎年繰り返されている。
財務省の外局で国税の賦課徴収を担当する国税庁は国税徴収を行う執行機関であり、適切・公平な賦課徴収を実現するために法令解釈や事務手続きなどで周知・広報を行っている[1]。このうち、法令解釈通達は国税庁長官から職員への命令で、法規ではなく形式的には行政組織内のみを拘束するが、実質的には納税者に大きな影響を与える。文書回答事例では、課税関係が不明な場合、納税者が税務署に紹介して文書による回答を得ることができる。
賦課された租税を徴収（納税）する方法として、普通徴収・特別徴収・源泉徴収などの方法がある。賦課された租税が滞納された場合、徴収権者は一定の要件により、滞納者の財産を差し押さえ換価するなどの方法により、滞納された租税を強制的に取り立てることができる。詳細は滞納処分を参照のこと。
ここでは日本の租税の概要を、主として内部リンクを区分して示す。
廃止されたものなど
財務省の統計を参照（単位:億円）
総務省の統計を参照（単位:億円）
ここでは、「中央政府の財源となるもの」と「地方政府の財源となるもの」を合わせて示す。
江戸時代後半の発展の理由の一つに、抜け穴だらけの検地（山奥の隠し田・米以外の畑は対象外）の結果、低税制であったからという事実がある。
明治時代初期には、税収に占める地租の割合が圧倒的であった。その後、1899年（明治32年)には、酒造税が税収に占める割合がトップに立った（28%）。また、消費税や課税等を合せた広義の消費税は、1907年には過半数を占めるまでになった。すなわち、明治年間を通じた税収の変化としては、地租優位から間接税優位の時代への移行が見られたといえる。
軍事費確保のために、可能な限り税収を増やすため1940年度の税制改正で、直接税（法人税・所得税）の比重が高まった。
あみだくじ

あみだくじ（阿弥陀籤）とは、線のはしに当たりはずれなどを書いて隠し、各自が引き当てるくじのこと。現在は、平行線の間に横線を入れ、はしご状にすることが多い。
もともとは、人数分の線を引き、一端にそれぞれ異なる金額を書いて隠し、各自が引き当てた金額を出させ、集めた金で茶菓子などを買い、平等に分配する仕組みだった 。現在では、用途は広がっており、何かの順番を決めたり、何かで言い争った場合に○を引き当てた方が勝ちとしたりして、幅広く利用されている。
数学的には横線が何本あっても、重複することはない。このことは数学的帰納法や背理法で証明できる。
あみだくじは、室町時代から行われていたが、現在のあみだくじと違い、真ん中から外に向かって放射線状に人数分の線を書いて、それを引いたものであった。 これが阿弥陀如来の後光に似ていたことから、古くは「あみだのひかり」と呼ばれていたが、のちに「あみだくじ」とも呼ばれるようになった。
一般的に行われている方法は以下の通り。
隣の縦線を結ぶ横棒のみを書くという標準的なルールでは、横棒がランダムに書かれたとしても、あみだくじでそれぞれのくじに当たる確率は等しくない 。
これは、横棒が非常に少ないケースを考えればわかりやすい。もし横棒が1本もなければ、真下のくじが確率1 (100%) で当たる。1本なら、当たりうるのは真下かその隣のみで（それぞれの確率はくじの本数による）、ほかのくじの確率は0である。
横棒によるくじの入れ替えは1次元ランダムウォークなので、横棒の数が十分に多いと、確率分布は正規分布に漸近し、その平均は真下、標準偏差は通過する横棒の本数の期待値の平方根となる（ただし、分布の裾野が右か左の端に達すると、より複雑な挙動を見せる）。つまり、真下が最も確率が高く、離れるにつれて確率が低くなる。これは横棒が増えるほど平坦になるが、決して完全に平坦にはならない。
確率をおおよそ（完全にではない）等しくするには、上で述べた標準偏差 σ が、くじの本数を N として N － 1 程度より大きければよい（正確な計算をするには適切な定数係数を求める必要があるが、ここでは定数係数を省略しておおざっぱな推算をする）。1本の横棒に着目すると N 人中2人がその横棒を通過するので、おおよそ必要な横棒の本数を n とすると、
となり（ここでも定数係数を省略した）、これから
となる。くじが5本でも、100本程度は横棒を引かないと、確率はほぼ等しくはならない。実際のあみだくじではそんなに多くの横棒を引かないので、確率の不均等はかなり残ることになる。
またもうひとつの問題として偶奇性がある。1人1本ずつの横棒を書くなど横棒の数が決まっているなら、偶数本なら偶置換、奇数本なら奇置換しかおこらない。たとえば、横棒が奇数本なら、全員が真下のくじを引くという結果は決して起こらない。ただし、意味が同じくじがある（外れはどれでも同じなど）ケースではこれは問題とはならない。
おみくじ

おみくじ（御神籤・御御籤・御仏籤またはみくじ・神籤・御籤・御鬮・仏籤）とは神社・仏閣などで吉凶を占うために引く籤である。
「みくじ」は「くじ」に尊敬の接頭辞「み」をくわえたもので、漢字で書くときは「御籤」とするか、神社のものは「神籤」、寺のものは「仏籤」とする。ただし厳密には問題があるが、区別せず「神籤」とすることもある。現在では、みくじ箋（みくじ紙）と呼ばれる紙片を用いるものが一般的である。
古代においては国の祭政に関する重要な事項や後継者を選ぶ際に神の意志を占うために籤引きをすることがあり、これが神籤の起源とされている。多くの神社仏閣でみられる現在のおみくじの原型は元三慈恵大師良源の創始とされている（比叡山の元三大師堂は「おみくじ」発祥の地として知られる）。元三大師が観音菩薩より授かったとされる五言四句の偈文100枚のうち1枚を引かせ、偈文から進むべき道を訓えたのが原型とされる。籤に番号と五言四句が記されているのはこの偈文100枚が由来である。
おみくじも籤の一種だが特に神仏の霊威を意識したものを「みくじ」や「おくじ」、それ以外の日常的趣向的なものを「くじ」と呼ぶようになった。現在の神籤は参詣者が個人の吉凶を佔うために行われるもので、これは鎌倉時代初期から行われるようになった。当時は自分で籤を用意するのが一般的であった。
現在でも、神の意志を占うために各地の神社での神事に神籤が使われているところもある。例として、山梨県富士吉田市の冨士山下宮小室浅間神社では例祭の流鏑馬祭りの一連の神事にて、流鏑馬の参加資格、担当する神馬、走らせる順番、使用する鞍などの道具が神籤によって決められている。
おみくじの7割近くは女子道社（山口県周南市）によって奉製されている。英語版は外国人観光客向けに日本国内の寺社に奉製されるほかハワイなど日本国外への輸出も行われている。おみくじは各神社で独自に宮司などによって作られている場合もある。
籤引きの方式には色々あるが、代表的なものには次のようなものがある。
みくじ箋の内容は番号、吉凶、本文（願事、病事、待人、争事、縁談、学問、商売など）などで構成されている。
引いた後の神籤を、境内の木の枝などに結ぶ習慣がある。「結ぶ」が恋愛の「縁を結ぶ」に通じることから江戸時代から行われてきた。その後、神様との「縁を結ぶ」として木に結びつけられるようになった。二月堂のように千枚通しのようなものに神籤を刺すところもある。
また、「凶のおみくじを利き腕と反対の手で結べば、困難な行いを達成つまり修行をしたことになり、凶が吉に転じる」という説もある。だが近年、木に結ぶと生育が悪くなるため、参拝者が神籤を結ぶための専用のみくじ掛（2本の柱の間に棒や縄を渡したもの）を設置している寺社もある。
中国のおみくじ（zh:籤）は、香港の黄大仙祠などで見られる。籤とは、日本のおみくじに相当する卜具。中国の至るところの寺廟には、神籤（台湾では一般に、聖籤と称す）、または薬籤、杯珓が備えられており、人々は、これらによって神意を占い、この結果によりものごとを決める。日本では横浜中華街の関帝廟などで見られる。
主に病疾・転居・蔡墓・財利・婚姻・尋人・旅行・利禄・求雨・失物・試験・仕事などに係わる吉凶・禍福・祈願などの際に、神意の如何を聴く場合に用いる。竹の筒の中に50 - 100本の籤入っていて、それぞれ先端に干支や番号が記入されている。神意を問うべきものを心に浮かべながら竹筒を動かしていく。籤は、筒の穴から取り出すのではなく、筒の上の口が開いていて、斜めに向けて振り続けていると、籤がだんだん動いてきて、そのうち中の1本が外に落ちる。さらにこの籤が正しいことを確かめるために神筈（しんばえ、ポエ）という2個の三日月形の神具を投げる。2個が表と裏になれば正しい籤とされる。両方とも表、または、両方とも裏の場合は、もう一度おみくじを引き直す。正しい籤となったら、竹の棒に書かれている干支や番号と同じ籤札を受け取る。
2004年の調査で合計134人の若年層（18 - 25歳）と壮年層（45 - 65歳）では、おみくじを信じるかというアンケートについて、信じると回答した率は、若年28%・壮年46%と、壮年層に信奉傾向がある。