davidanugraha/M4-RAG huggingface dataset:
Grăsime animală

Grăsimea animală este un amestec de lipide obținute de la animale, și pot fi atât uleiuri, cât și grăsimi solide. Din punct de vedere chimic, ambele tipuri sunt compuse din trigliceride.
Grăsimile de origine animală sunt consumate în dieta vestică, prin intermediul laptelui, untului, unturii, etc. Pot fi introduse și ca aditivi în carnea procesată, în fast food sau în mâncarea destinată animalelor de companie.
Ferma animalelor

Ferma animalelor este o nuvelă distopică scrisă de George Orwell. Publicată în Anglia în 17 august 1945, cartea reflectă evenimentele care au dus la și din perioada numită era lui Stalin (1927–1953) înainte de al Doilea Război Mondial. Orwell, fiind un socialist democrat și membru al Partidului Independent al Clasei Muncitoare timp de mulți ani, l-a criticat pe Iosif Stalin și a suspectat Stalinism-ul de la Moscova după experiențele sale cu NKVD în timpul Războiului Civil Spaniol. Într-o scrisoare către Yvonne Davet, Orwell a descris Ferma animalelor ca fiind romanul său „contra lui Stalin”.
Titlul original era Ferma animalelor: O fabulă, însă editorii din Stalele Unite au renunțat la O fabulă în ediția din 1946. Dintre toate traducerile din timpul vieții lui Orwell, numai Telugu a păstrat titlul original. Alte variante ale titlului includ: O satiră și O satiră contemporană. Orwell a făcut sugestia ca traducerea în franceză a titlului să fie Union des républiques socialistes animales, amintind de numele francez al Uniunii Sovietice, Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques, care se abreviază URSA, ceea ce înseamnă „urs” în latină.
Revista Time a ales cartea ca fiind una dintre cele mai bune 100 de romane scrise în limba engleză (între 1923 și 2005), la numărul 31 pe lista celor mai bune romane din secolul XX. A câștigat un Premiul Hugo retrospectiv în 1996 și este inclusă între Marile cărți ale Occidentului.
Romanul critică nu numai coruperea revoluției pe care conducătorii ei o practică, dar și modul în care indiferența, răutatea, ignoranța, lăcomia și miopia distrug orice posibilitate a unei utopii. În timp ce acest roman înfățișează conducătorii corupți ca fiind un defect al revoluției (și nu revoluția însăși), arată și modul în care ignoranța și indiferența posibilă față de problemele din cadrul unei revoluții pot permite să se întâmple orori dacă nu se face o trecere calmă către un guvern al clasei muncitoare.
Animalismul este o oglindire prin alegorie a Uniunii Sovietice, mai ales între anii 1910 și 1940, dar și evoluția modului în care au practicat-o revoluționarii și guvernul din Rusia. Acest termen a fost inventat de mult respectatul porc Seniorul cel bătrân. Porcii Snowball, Napoleon și Squealer adaptează ideile Seniorului cel bătrân sub forma unei așa-zise filozofii, pe care o numesc Animalism. La scurtă vreme, Napoleon și Squealer încep să se răsfețe cu vicii și obiceiuri umane (consumul de alcool, dormitul în pat, schimbul de mărfuri). Squealer primește sarcina de a modifica Cele Șapte Porunci pentru a legitima această umanizare, care reprezintă optimizarea teoriei comuniste de către guvernul sovietic pentru a o face mai degrabă o reformare a capitalismului decât un substitut al acestuia.
Evenimentele și personajele din Ferma animalelor satirizează Stalinismul („Animalism”), guvernul autoritar și prostia omenească în general; Snowball este considerat a fi Leon Trotsky iar conducătorul porcilor, Napoleon, este Stalin.
Sulfat de cobalt

Sulfatul de cobalt este un compus anorganic cu formula chimică CoSO4. Aceasta este sarea divalentă a cobaltului cu acidul sulfuric. Cele mai cunoscute forme de sulfat de cobalt sunt cele hidratate, anume CoSO4·7H2O (monohidrat) și CoSO4·H2O (heptahidrat). Sulfatul de cobalt și formele sale hidratate sunt cele mai cunoscute sări folosite ale metalului cobalt.
Sulfatul de cobalt apare sub formă de cristale roșii-rozulii, monoclinice, care se topesc la temperatura de 100 °C și devin anhidre la 250 °C. Este solubil în apă, slab solubil în etanol, și solubil în special în metanol. Se formează prin reacția cu cobaltul metalic (sau oxizii, hidroxizii sau carbonații de cobalt) cu acidul sulfuric.
Sulfatul de cobalt este folosit la prepararea pigmenților, precum și fabricarea altor săruri de cobalt. Pigmentul de cobalt este folosit la porțelan și sticlă, depozite de baterii și băi de electroplacare, cerneluri invizibile, și aditivi pentru mâncarea animalelor.
Sulfatul de cobalt este toxic și ușor cancerigen, în cazul inhalării. Este, de asemenea, un mutagen în bacteria salmonela.
Haystack Dam

Haystack Dam (National ID # OR00287) is a dam in central Oregon, about ten miles south of Madras.
The earthen dam was constructed in 1957 by the United States Bureau of Reclamation, with a height of 105 feet (32 m) and 1,200 feet (370 m) long at its crest. It serves as an offstream storage facility as part of the larger Deschutes Project, which also includes the Crane Prairie Reservoir and the Wickiup Reservoir. The dam is owned by the Bureau and operated by the local North Unit Irrigation District.
The reservoir it creates, Haystack Reservoir, has a water surface of 233 acres (94 ha), about five linear miles of shoreline, and a maximum capacity of 5,600 acre-feet (6,900,000 m). Recreation includes fishing (for largemouth bass, crappie, rainbow trout, kokanee, brown trout, and brown bullhead), camping, boating, and hunting.
Gürün

Gürün is a town in Sivas Province of Turkey. It is the seat of Gürün District. Its population is 10,657 (2022). The mayor is Nami Çiftçi (MHP).
The city was inhabited during the Old Assyrian Kingdom and Hittite Empire. Ancient rock caves dating to 2000 BC are located in the district. The caves would have been in use, possibly as a kind of apartment complex, during the Hittite period. The caves were also "used as a cold storage area, woodshed and animal feed storage area by local people until a short time ago", and are now open to visitors. Nami Çiftçi, the town's mayor, told Daily Sabah that they "don't have a precise date determined by expert engineers or by people who are well-versed in this field, so I invite our historians to Gürün. Come, bring your knowledge and your tools, study these caves so that we can have the data regarding their age, and we can announce it to the world".
During the Armenian Genocide, a sizable portion of the city's Armenian population was deported and killed. According to the memoir Goodbye, Antoura, during the pre-genocide years the Armenian population had achieved a level of stability in Gürün, with at least one Armenian family owning large swathes of land and orchards. In 1915, the Ottoman government appropriated these lands, and the Armenian population was deported southward and westward into the Syrian desert, eventually reaching the cities of Homs and Hama.
A student association of Armenians from Gürün was founded in Boston in 1899, which later became the Compatriotic Union of Gurin. The union's initial purpose was to assist survivors of the genocide and their families, and it established chapters across the world. The compatriotic union published two periodicals, one from 1930 to 1933 in New York and another from 1976 to 1981 in New Jersey, as well as a book titled Badmakirk' Gurini ("History Book of Gurin", 1974, Beirut). The union cooperated with Armenians from Gürün in Yerevan to found the village of Nor Kyurin in Soviet Armenia. The organization was dissolved in the late 20th century, as the last Armenians born in Gürün died of old age.
In September 2018, it was announced that a dilapidated Armenian church in Gürün would be renovated.
In his Seyahatname, Evliya Çelebi claimed that the town's population then was wholly made up of Turkomans. In 1914, there were 13,874 Armenians living in the kaza of Gürün, which contained five villages that were exclusively Armenian and a few scattered settlements. Gürün, the kaza's seat, had 12,168 residents, 8,406 of whom were Armenian.
Borșa

Borșa (Romanian pronunciation: [ˈborʃa]; Hungarian: Borsa, German: Borscha, Yiddish: בורשא, romanized: Borsa or Borsha) is a town in eastern Maramureș County, Maramureș, Romania. It administers one village, Băile Borșa.
The town is located at the eastern extremity of Maramureș County, 123 km (76 mi) from the county seat, Baia Mare. Covering 12% of the county's area, it borders Ukraine to the north, Suceava County to the east, Bistrița-Năsăud County to the south, and Moisei commune to the west.
Borșa lies in the valley of the river Vișeu and near the Prislop Pass. Linking Transylvania to Bukovina, Prislop Pass is surrounded by the Rodna and Maramureș Mountains, both ranges of the Carpathians. The highest peak in the region is Pietrosul Rodnei, at 2,303 metres (7,556 feet). The Rodna National Park, which has an area of 463 km (179 sq mi), can be accessed from Borșa.
The town is crossed by national road DN18 [ro], which connects it to the west to Sighetu Marmației and Baia Mare and to the east to Iacobeni, Suceava through the Prislop Pass.
The town is home to a wooden church, built in 1718. In 1891, there were 1,432 Jews living in Borșa. The area has lost much of its population following the collapse of the communist regime. In the past, the town of Borșa was also home to a Zipser German community.
At the 2021 census, Borșa had a population of 27,711, with an absolute majority (94%) of ethnic Romanians.
Carpathian Shepherd Dog

The Romanian Carpathian Shepherd Dog (Romanian: Ciobănesc Românesc Carpatin) is a large breed of livestock guardian dogs that originated in the Carpathian Mountains of Romania.
Historically livestock guardian dogs were used by Romanian farmers, each farmer would breed the dog to his own need and there was no standard.
In 1979 a dog show in Bucharest would feature 18 dogs of the Carpatin breed, which would become the Carpathian Shepherd Dog. Following this the standard would be modified until the current standard was finalised.
In March 1998, a group of fans of the Carpathian Shepherd Dog founded the Carpathian Shepherd Dogs Club. The club was later renamed the National Club of Carpathian Shepherd Dog Breeders. The club observed that there many Carpathians in Rucăr, Argeș County that are considered ancestors of today's Carpathians.
A conference on the factors involved in the Romanian breeds took place in Bistrița in March 2003. The provisional homologation of the Carpathian Shepherd Dog was approved on July 6, 2005 in Buenos Aires, and it was fully recognized by the FCI in 2015.
Romanian Mioritic Shepherd Dog

The Romanian Mioritic Shepherd Dog (Romanian: Ciobănesc Românesc Mioritic) is a breed of large livestock guardian dog that originated in the Carpathian Mountains of Romania.
The male Mioritic stands about 70–75 centimetres (28–30 in) tall at the withers with the female slightly smaller at 65–70 centimetres (26–28 in). This massive dog is covered in thick fluffy hair. It may be white, with or without pale grey or cream patches, or pale grey or cream all over. The dog should have a "vigorous" appearance. Sexual dimorphism is evident in this breed, with males being significantly larger than females.
This breed has discipline as one of its main characteristics. It is a calm and well-mannered dog. As this dog was used as a herd protector, it is very attached to family and goes all the way when protecting those it is attached to. Because of this dog's ability to bond strongly with his master, training should only be started once the Mioritic puppy is already accustomed to the owner/trainer.
The breed was provisionally recognized by the FCI on July, 6th, 2005 in Buenos Aires. Nowadays it has reached the state of definite recognition.
Its name comes from the Romanian word mioară, which means young sheep.
The breed has a life expectancy of about 12–14 years.
Romanian Raven Shepherd Dog

The Romanian Raven Shepherd Dog (Romanian: Ciobănesc Românesc Corb) is a livestock guardian dog originating in the southern and sub-Carpathian regions of Argeș County, Brașov County, Dâmbovița County, and Prahova County in Romania. They have been known for generations as "Corbi" because of their black coat. The dog was officially recognized by the Romanian Kennel Club on November 14, 2008 and by the FCI on September 17, 2024.
The Romanian Raven Shepherd Dog is a natural breed originating in the Meridional Carpathian and Subcarpathian areal (old Muntenia region of Wallachia, within the Dâmbovița, Argeș and Prahova counties, and around Brașov). These dogs are used as watch dogs for properties and cattle herds.
They are also known as Corbi. The word "corb" means "raven" and the name bespeaks the dog's fur colour, which is a clear black.
It is an intelligent, jolly, active dog. It is brave, proud, well-balanced, calm, with a very well developed guard instinct. It is courageous when facing wolves or bears. Its bark is very strong, travelling over great distances. It is submissive, friendly and devoted to its master and family, but doubtful around strangers.
The Romanian Raven Shepherd Dog is a large-sized, strong, robust and imposing breed of dog. The head is strong and solid, with a conical, well-developed snout which is shorter than the cambered skull. It has a moderate stop. The eyes are small compared with the rest of the head, almond-shaped and oblique, amber coloured, with strong pigment on the eyelids. The ears are V-shaped, caught higher than the head's level, round-tipped and floppy. The neck is thick and strong.
The body is massive and sturdy, rectangular, rather long, a bit tall and has a strong skeleton with a wide-tall chest. The tail is bushy, covered with long and thick hair. It is caught up, when it is in rest, it is floppy with the tip a bit bent and arrives until the hock's level; in alert it is upped and could surpass the back level. The nails are black or grey. The fur is double, with an underneath coating, short and bushy and an external flat one, harsher and bushier. On the head and the front side of the legs, the fur is short, while on the body it is abundant. The hair on the neck is shaggy and mane-like. The colour is black on at least 80% of the body, possible patches of a clean white may appear on the chest and legs. If overexposed to the sun during summer, the fur acquires scant reddish shades.
Romanian buffalo

The Romanian buffalo, Romanian: "Bivol românesc", is a water buffalo breed from Romania.
The coat colour is unicoloured in black, and the skin colour is also black. Back line is sinuous, i.e. loin and tail point come lower than wither and crump height. Typical number of horns is two for both male and female; the horns are directed to the back, being 50-70 cm long. In adult animals (males/females) the wither heights are 140-142 / 131-133 cm. Live weights of adult animals (males/females) are 650-680 / 530-560 kg.
The Romanian buffalo breed originates from the Mediterranean type of water buffalo. Introgression has been made since 1960 from Murrah buffalo stock from Bulgaria. A herdbook was established in 1987.
The Romanian population consists of three different buffalo types: Carpathian type, Danubian buffalo and one improved through the Indian Murrah buffalo. The most numerous Romanian buffalos are the Carpathian type, which presents a valuable genetic resource, being well adapted to the cold climate.
Their number is slightly decreasing. In 1994 the number of breeding female/male used for artificial insemination was 11800 (1,628 in herdbook)/ 5 bulls. In 1996 the number of total buffalo was 209,432, which were raised in 86,480 herds; the number of adult females was 97,320 and the number of adult males 2510. In 2003 the number of females in the herdbook was 275.
Main uses are milk, meat and draught power. Milk yield varies according to season of calving, lactations number, level of feeding, and length of lactation. Lactation milk yield (kg) is between 958-1455 kg. The number of days lactation per year is 252-285; age at first calving is 38-42 months; average lactations number is 6-9; age at slaughter for young stock is 22-24 and 350-400 kg or at 3-4 months and 60-100 kg for males and the females are slaughtered at 500-600 kg, usually after the first lactation or after the productive life.
In 2003 the female that was included in herd book had 1831 kg milk, with 136 kg fat (7.48%) and 71 kg (3.93%) protein. Age at first calving was 38 months and calving interval of these female was 456 days. The average of calves/year is 0.85.
The breed is very well adapted to the local environment. Type of management is stationary, housing is over 6-8 months / year and feeding is mixes. In most smallholders buffalos are maintained tied in closed barns in winter, while in warm seasons a combination between stable housing with grazing is practiced. The young buffaloes are kept for grazing on pasture. When pastured together, cattle and buffaloes coexist satisfactorily. Romanian buffalos are powerful swimmers.
Shiny object syndrome

Shiny object syndrome is the situation where people focus undue attention on an idea that is new and trendy, yet drop it in its entirety as soon as something new can take its place.
Shiny object syndrome (SOS) is a pop-cultural, psychological concept where people focus on a new and fashionable idea, regardless of how valuable or helpful it may ultimately be. While at the moment it seems to be something worth focusing one's attention upon, it is ultimately a distraction, either a personal distraction or something that is done intentionally to distract others. People who face a fear of missing out are especially susceptible, as the distraction of shiny objects in themselves clouds judgment and focus.
The term shiny object syndrome is often used when people mistake something small and focused and fixate on it to the extent that they lose the big picture. This is used within management literature, popular psychological literature, and across the social and computer sciences.
Filler (animal food)

In animal feed, a filler is an ingredient added to provide dietary fiber, bulk or some other non-nutritive purpose. Products like corn fiber (corncobs), fruit fibers (pulp), rice bran, and whole grains are possible fillers.
As sources of dietary fiber, a filler has little inherent nutritional value for a monogastric (non-ruminant) animal insofar as calories are considered. On the other hand, this property makes it useful for managing the caloric density of a food formula, so that the animal does not overeat. Cheaper fillers like corncobs may also serve to adjust the price of food.
Adding too much fiber makes the food less palatable, so a balanced amount should be given, or else there will be reduced nutrient intake and poorer coat and skin quality. Like in humans, fibers add bulk to stool, so too much fiber can lead to an uncomfortably large amount of bowel movement for the animal. Again like in humans, fermentable fibers feed the gut microbes, and too much of it would cause flatulence, soft stools, even diarrhea.
According to critics , many commercial pet foods contain fillers that have little or no nutritional value, but are added to decrease the overall cost of the food, especially when pet food manufacturers attempt to keep their pet foods at a desired price point despite rising manufacturing, marketing, shipping, and related costs. Critics allege that low-grade fiber fillers actually aggravate the intestinal walls instead of promoting health, and that carnivores such as cats are not able to effectively digest plant-derived fibers in their hindgut.
In rare cases, contaminated fillers have led to large-scale recalls at significant expense to the pet food companies. Two examples are aflatoxin on corn in the 2006 Diamond Dog Food Recall and melamine, which may have contaminated wheat gluten and other protein concentrates in the 2007 pet food recalls. (Wheat gluten does have a nutritive purpose in providing protein, so its status as a filler is dubious.)
Adding water to dry food reduces the energy density of food, but does not produce any reduction in obesity of dogs. Doing the same works on adult neutered cats.
Refajo (bebida)

El refajo es una bebida colombiana que resulta de mezclar cerveza y gaseosa de cola roja. El refajo más popular se hace con gaseosa Colombiana. Algunos le agregan aguardiente para aumentar la graduación alcohólica sin perder su dulzor.​
Se consume como acompañante de una gran variedad de alimentos y como bebida refrescante.​
Tiene sus antecedentes en la shandygaff o simplemente shandy, mezcla de cerveza con limón almibarado preparada por los ingleses en el siglo XVII.​
A principios de los años 1990, la Cervecería Bavaria introdujo la marca Cola y Pola.​
En 2006, el refajo fue nominado como símbolo cultural de Colombia en el concurso organizado por la revista Semana con el apoyo de Caracol TV, el Ministerio de Cultura y Colombia es pasión.​
El 23 de septiembre de 2020 la Cervecería Bavaria lanzó un nuevo sabor de la marca Cola y Pola reemplazando la bebida gaseosa por refresco con sabor a lulo.​
Radler

Radler (denominado también Alster (del río Alster), Panaché, Panasch o Wurstwasser) es una mezcla muy popular de cerveza con soda o limonada, muy típica en los restaurantes y bares de Alemania. El radler se considera una mezcla de 60% de cerveza pura y 40% de limonada. Se denomina también Gespritztes en Austria. También las hay sin alcohol 0.0 (SL&Dj.Nat)
Se presume que el Radler se preparó por primera vez en el año 1922 por Franz Xaver Kugler, propietario de una especie de restaurante denominado Kugler Alm en la comarca de Oberhaching al sur de Múnich. El lugar era entonces muy frecuentado por ciclistas (Fahrradfahrer, coloquial en el dialecto alemán: "Radler").
Una conocida leyenda indica que en un día sin precisar de junio de 1922, una gran afluencia de ciclistas ("Radler") apareció en el bar de Kugler y al ver que se iba agotando la provisión de cerveza, este tomó la decisión de mezclarla con limonada para hacer rendir lo que quedaba. La mezcla agradó a los clientes y poco a poco fue sirviéndose una bebida denominada "Radlermaß" (en Baviera es una medida grande de cerveza).
Véase: Refajo
En Colombia recibe el nombre de refajo, el cual resulta de la mezcla de cerveza con gaseosa o refresco (cola roja como la cola Postobón o la Kola Román, Colombiana o Pony Malta).
En España, a pesar de contar con diferentes marcas de radler, existe también una mezcla de cerveza con limón que recibe el nombre de "shandy" o "mixta", la cual contiene menos cantidad de alcohol. Asimismo, hay otra variedad con gaseosa (especie de soda) a la que se denomina "clara"; así se le conoce en Valencia, en Galicia y en Asturias. En Mallorca, la bebida equivale a un "xopet" o "shandy" también. Al norte, en el País Vasco se pide una "pica/pika", mientras que en Guipúzcoa, concretamente, se refieren a una "lejía". En Navarra, se llama caña con limón o también "radler" (actualmente).
En Madrid y Castilla-La Mancha se pide como "clara de limón" o "clara con limón" y en Cataluña se pide como "champú", excepto en Barcelona, que se pide como "clara".
En Uruguay la costumbre es mezclar 70% de cerveza y 30% de gaseosa tipo 7Up. A esta bebida se le llama usualmente cerveza cortada, aunque hay quienes le dan ese mismo nombre a otra mezcla, no tan popular, de cerveza con coca-cola.
SABMiller

SABMiller (South African Breweries - Miller) fue una corporación británico-sudafricana surgida, en 2005, con la fusión de las corporaciones South African Breweries y Miller Brewing en 2002. En su momento llegó a ser la segunda cervecera por volumen en el mundo, solo detrás de InBev. Esta última compró a SABMiller en 2016 por un monto de 93,852 millones de euros.​
La compañía dominó los mercados de África, Norteamérica, Europa Oriental y Sudamérica. Sin embargo, la sede de la empresa estaba ubicada en Londres, Inglaterra.
El 19 de julio de 2005, SABMiller se fusionó con Bavaria S.A., la mayor cervecera de Colombia y la décima del mundo (Bavaria era también accionista mayoritario de Unión de Cervecerías Peruanas Backus y Johnston) y la segunda de Sudamérica. También adquirió parte de Industrias La Constancia de El Salvador, y de la Cervercería Hondureña en Honduras.
En febrero de 2008 aumentó su participación en la cervecera neerlandesa Royal Grolsch N.V. del 14,76% al 94,65%, haciéndose con el control absoluto. La cantidad desembolsada fueron unos 816 millones de euros.
La empresa fue propietaria del 100% de la polaca Kompania Piwowarska cuando comprara en mayo de 2009 la adquisición del restante 28,1% con 1100 millones de dólares.​ Sin embargo, a partir de 2016 Kompania Piwowarska fue vendida a Asahi Breweries.
En noviembre de 2010, SABMiller compra el 100% de la firma CASA (Cervecería Argentina Sociedad Anónima) Isenbeck en 43 millones de dólares, por la cual SABMiller se hizo cargo de la producción y distribución de la marca Warsteiner e Isenbeck para el mercado argentino. En junio de 2012 Miller Genuine Draft es lanzada en el mercado argentino.
El 11 de octubre de 2016, AB Inbev asumió el control de SABMiller, convirtiéndose esta última en una división comercial de AB InBev.
Si bien SABMiller tenía una buena cantidad de accionistas menores, los principales eran dos: El estadounidense Grupo Altria, antiguo dueño de Miller Brewing, quien tenía la mayoría accionista, y la familia colombiana Santo Domingo, en cabeza de Alejandro Santo Domingo, quien reemplazó a su padre Julio Mario Santo Domingo al fallecer este, los cuales tenían el segundo paquete mayoritario de acciones por medio de su conglomerado empresarial Grupo Valorem.
Las principales marcas de la empresa son:
En Argentina:
En Bolivia:
En Brasil:
En Chile:
En Colombia:
En Ecuador:
En El Salvador:
En España:
En Honduras:
En Perú:​
En Panamá:​
Colita (refresco)

La colita o kolita (también llamada kola o cola roja) es un tipo de bebida gaseosa dulce de color rojo con un tinte naranja. Su sabor es una mezcla entre fresa, vainilla y chicle.​
En forma de jarabe concentrado, se suele utilizar también para preparar congeladas y/o granizados.
Si se mezcla con cerveza tipo Pilsen se obtiene una bebida que en Colombia se conoce como refajo.
La primera bebida de este tipo se llamó Crema Soda, la cual obtuvo fuerte popularidad en los Estados Unidos. Con el paso del tiempo se fue extendiendo por varios países del continente americano, con especial popularidad en la cultura Latinoamericana, principalmente en Venezuela y Costa Rica.
No debe confundirse con cola, ya que son completamente diferentes. Aquella proviene del extracto de nuez de cola proporcionando otro sabor, amén de contener cafeína.
Refajo

Refajo y zagalejo denominan diversos tipos de prendas tradicionales de ropa de mujer similares a las faldas.​ Para uso exterior, sobre las enaguas, se llama así a la saya de paño, corta y de vuelo por detrás; y para uso interior, a las faldas de abrigo confeccionadas en bayeta o tela tupida, como el zagalejo de algodón (también de muselina y percal) y colores vivos, o algunos manteos.​ La denominación de refajo, asimismo, se asocia o identifica en ocasiones con otras prenda de función similar en la vestimenta femenina, como la pollera y la basquiña.​
La presencia del uso de la falda popularmente denominada refajo ha sido durante siglos tan común en la Meseta Central española, la cornisa Cantábrica, el Levante y Andalucía, que la herencia tradicional del cancionero es pródiga en versos, coplas y decires con aire de refrán como recuerdan estos ejemplos:​
Como uno de los diversos ejemplos del protagonismo del refajo en los distintos trajes típicos, folclóricos y populares españoles, pueden describirse los tipos que esta prenda presenta en la Región de Murcia:​
Pedro Antonio de Alarcón en sus Viajes por España (1883) y describiendo la indumentaria de las mujeres de las Alpujarras granadinas cuenta que:​
Clara (cerveza)

Una clara es tradicionalmente un combinado de cerveza y gaseosa​ a partes iguales en volumen. La añadidura de gaseosa aclara el color de la cerveza, de ahí su nombre. En España es entendida como cualquier mezcla de cerveza con un refresco gaseoso de sabor dulce (con el objeto de reducir el sabor amargo del lúpulo). Se suele servir como refresco en los calurosos meses de verano, siendo una bebida muy popular.
La cerveza se introduce como bebida popular en España a comienzos del siglo XX. Se sabe que se vendía en grandes recipientes de litro por aparecer en un cuadro de José Gutiérrez Solana un conjunto de tertulianos en el Café Pombo a comienzos del siglo XX, sobre la mesa aparece una botella de litro de la marca Mahou, indicando por el número de vasos que se repartía de la botella, e incluso se mezclaba con limonadas y otras bebidas frías.​ No es hasta los años cincuenta que aparece La Casera y posteriormente, cuando, ya en los 60, se crean nuevos sabores, aparecen La Casera Limón y La Casera Naranja. Es en este periodo de tiempo de mediados del siglo XX cuando surge la mezcla de ambas bebidas.
La popularidad de la bebida se incrementó en las décadas posteriores, y debido a la existencia de una demanda fija en el mercado español, se comenzó a producir marcas de combinados de cerveza, ya embotellada a finales del siglo XX.
En Colombia se bebe una mezcla de cerveza similar llamada Refajo.
En Estados Unidos está la Beer Shandy, combinación de cerveza con ginger ale o con limonada.
En Chile existe el ”Fan Schop”, que combina la bebida gaseosa “Fanta” con cerveza, igualmente se registran variantes de la mezcla con otras bebidas de fantasía y de preferencia sabor dulce.
Manteo de debajo

Manteo de debajo o faldellín​ es la denominación popular para una prenda de mujer, similar a una falda, usada desde la segunda mitad del siglo XVI y conservada en el medio rural como falda exterior hasta bien entrado el XX.​​ En el conjunto de la indumentaria femenina tradicional aparece a veces asociado o identificado con otras prendas como la "pollera" y distintos tipos de refajos.​​
En su origen, el manteo fue una falda interior confeccionada con bayeta o paño de lana basta, solapada por delante y muy usada en el medio campesino español, como alternativa de la saya o para abrigo por debajo de la basquiña. Con el tiempo su uso en la indumentario popular lo convirtió en falda exterior.​ Algunos investigadores consideran que en la práctica los manteos y refajos serían una misma prenda, con posible diferenciación a partir de su uso 'para debajo' o como prenda de abrigo usada interiormente. Se anotan incluso fechas -en el norte de la Meseta Central y en general la España septentrional- como el año 1791 limitando la denominación de manteo para las prendas de ropa interior. También se cita el Diccionario de la Real Academia, donde a partir de 1803, el manteo ya no se especifica como prenda de ropa interior.​
Se menciona como color más habitual el encarnado, aunque también abundan los manteos de tonos marrones, amarillos y blancos.
En el entorno geográfico de la Peña de Francia y la Sierra de Béjar, en la provincia de Salamanca, se han conservado interesantes ejemplos de vestimenta, con modelos tradicionales de manteo tan singulares como los de La Alberca o Candelario. La investigadora Álvarez Curto describe el traje de manteo albercano -menos majestuoso y típico que el de Candelario- con las siguientes características esenciales:​
Las referencias al manteo menudean en la literatura española e hispanoamericana en sus muy diversas manifestaciones. Asimismo ha quedado recogida con generosidad en refraneros, coplas, coplillas y cantares, como puede leerse en este ejemplo:
Es decir, un periodo de tiempo que comprende principalmente los siglos XVI y XVII. En esta época el manteo se conocía también con el nombre de enaguas, aunque esta denominación ha ido designando prendas distintas.​ Se tiene muchas referencias por las descripciones que Lope de Vega hacía en sus obras. Según este autor, el manteo se usaba debajo del monjil, que era una especie de hábito completo que llegaba hasta los pies.​
El manteo cubría desde la cintura a los pies.​ En esta época era una prenda lujosa que alcanzaba precios elevados, hecha de tejidos de seda o brocatel, prevaleciendo los adornos caros de oro y plata, aunque también los había más pobres, aquellos que usaba la clase popular, de telas más bastas pero con el lujo añadido de la buena pasamanería. En un pasaje de Guzmán de Alfarache de Mateo Alemán se dice:
Los inventarios que se conservan tanto en archivos particulares como estatales son un buen testimonio de la presencia de esta prenda en la indumentaria femenina. Éste puede ser un ejemplo de los muchos que existen:
Piqueteadero

Piqueteadero es una acepción local (en Colombia) del término «piquete», que en tal país tiene un significado relacionado con departir un almuerzo rústico y campestre en compañía de muchas personas y no el significado más comúnmente utilizado en la península ibérica para referirse a la agrupación de personas que protestan o se rebelan contra la autoridad por algún motivo.​
Piqueteaderos son entonces restaurantes donde venden comida que se suele consumir en un piquete, aunque también suelen disponer de mesas para consumir allí mismo los alimentos, que generalmente consisten en fritanga: chorizos de cerdo, rellena (arroz, sangre de cerdo cocida, arvejas en envuelto en tripas), pepitoria de cordero, y frituras varias de órganos de vaca como el pulmón (bofe), el hígado, el cerebro (torta de seso), o testículos de toro (criadillas), gallina, consome (caldo de gallina preferentemente consumido con pan), papa criolla, papa pastusa, yuca, envueltos de maíz, y plátano maduro, este plato se acompaña con bebidas como gaseosa, limonada, cerveza, o refajo (mezcla de cerveza con gaseosa en especial con gaseosa Colombiana).
Este es un plato típico del altiplano Cundiboyacense.
Cola & Pola

Cola & Pola is a Colombian brand of drink. It is a type of shandy, known in Colombia as refajo, that mixes Champagne cola and beer. The drink was introduced in 1993 by Bavaria Brewery. It has an ABV of 2%, making it a low alcohol beer.
Apparently the drink is named after the two components the drink is made of. While the origin of the component cola is obvious, the word 'pola' is widely used in colloquial language to refer to beer. In 1910 Bavaria introduced a beer called 'La Pola', named in honor of a Colombian heroine, Policarpa Salavarrieta, who is known as "La Pola". Its popularity over the years has made "la pola" an informal synonym for beer, regardless the brand.
Taxation in Colombia

Taxation in Colombia is determined by the Congress of Colombia, every Department Assembly and every City Council, which determine what kind of taxes can be levied and which rates can be applied. The country inherited a harsh and diffused taxation policy from the Spanish Empire characterized by a heavy reliance on customs duties.
National taxes are administered by the National Directorate of Taxes and Customs (Spanish: Dirección de Impuestos y Aduanas Nacionales, DIAN). Some of these taxes include:
The value-added tax (VAT) is the main indirect tax. This rose to 19 percent in 2017; up to the end of 2016 the tax was 16 percent of the price of merchandise, goods and services with some exceptions: public transportation, water supply and sanitation and the transportation of natural gas and hydrocarbons. The DIAN recognizes two separate categories (regimenes) of VAT: common and simplified. The first refers to businesses with estimated patrimony over 68 million Colombian pesos (about 34,000 USD), and the second refers to those with patrimony less than that. Although both are obligated to pay the same percentage, the simplified taxpayers are not obligated to conduct separate bookkeeping for the VAT or to generate invoices.
A 0.4% tax rate is imposed on all financial transactions, including withdraw money from ATM, promissory notes, wire transfers, internet banking, bank drafts and bank checks, money on term deposit, overdrafts, installment loans, securities underwriting commitments and other forms of off-balance sheet exposures, safekeeping of documents and other items in safe deposit boxes, currency exchange or unit trusts.
This tax requires the annual payment of 1% of the total patrimony of people with patrimony estimated over 5 thousand million pesos (about 1,4 million USD as of February 2021).
The table below shows the tax rate in units of UVT (Unidad de Valor Tributario), in which 1 UVT = $33,156 COP for 2018. See UVT.
In Colombia the natural persons who must present income declaration are classified on the next table.
For 2019 are:
See UVT.
Both the employer and the employee are subject to monthly payroll taxes from the employee's gross salary, as follows:
The local taxes are fixed by Local Councils through Acuerdos. This group of taxes includes:
The local council on each city fix the rate between this parameters:
UVT (Unidad de Valor Tributario) means Tax Value Unit. Instead of setting a range in Colombian pesos, DIAN has the UVT value which represents a variable amount of pesos, and is updated at least every year. The next table shows the variation of this index in Colombia per year.
Viche (drink)

Viche is a traditional home-brewed alcoholic drink made from sugar cane popular on Colombia’s Pacific Coast. It used to be illegal but in September 2021 Colombia's senate passed a law declaring the beverage a part of the country’s "cultural and ancestral heritage," allowing also commercial production.
Viche has long been used in traditional communities as a ceremonial intoxicant and for medicinal purposes, notably to purge stomach bugs and parasites, and as an aphrodisiac.
Viche contains approximately 35% of alcohol. It can be consumed on its own but it is often mixed with sugary fruit juices.
Colombia in popular culture

The depiction of Colombia in popular culture, especially the portrayal of Colombian people in film and fiction, has been asserted by Colombian organizations and government to be largely negative and has raised concerns that it reinforces, or even engenders, societal prejudice and discrimination due to association with narco-trafficking and other criminal elements, terrorism, illegal immigration, and poverty.
The Colombian Government-funded Colombia is Passion advertisement campaign is an attempt to improve Colombia's image abroad, with mixed results, hoping to promote more positive views of Colombia. Aside from the Colombia is Passion campaign, association football has been a major part in creating positive views of the country.
Failings in the background research and the reproduction of the country are very common in films depicting Colombia. Some of these mistakes include showing Bogotá or Medellín as sylvatic or coastal regions, using Mexican or Puerto Rican actors (with noticeable accents), Mexican costumes, anachronisms and a general inaccuracy regarding the depiction of how the conflicts between government and drug-trading cartels work.
Some examples of fictional Colombian settings are:
The mainstream of Colombian cinema follows the trend of the foreign cinema, depicting mostly narcotrafficking related issues, hit men stories, and films with a high content of poverty and human misery. Criticism of this type of film-making argued that these films did not treat their subject with profoundness, instead taking a superficial approach to the issues. Some examples are:
Television in Colombia consists mostly of soap operas which are known in most countries of Latin America, the most famous and the one that had biggest reception by international audience was Yo Soy Betty, La Fea, which starred Ana Maria Orozco as Beatriz Aurora "Betty" Pinzon Solano and Jorge Enrique Abello as Armando Mendoza Saenz. The story was set in Bogota, Colombia and revolved around the relationship between the two main characters. The soap opera originally premiered in Colombia on October 25, 1999, but was later adapted from half-hour episodes to full-hour episodes that were shows in the United States. Yo Soy Betty, La Fea was adapted and remade in over 50 countries in many different languages including English, Japanese, and Chinese. The soap opera inspired the very popular American hit Ugly Betty.
Lately, there has been a rise in shows that portray drug dealing which have been controversial in the country because the characters are law breakers who are glorified; some examples are:
As consequence of the negative depiction of Colombia and the Colombian people, Colombians are often subject of prejudice and discrimination in several countries. Some examples include:
Colombian necktie

A Colombian necktie (Spanish: corbata colombiana) or tie-cut (Spanish: corte de corbata) is a form of execution or post-mortem mutilation in which the victim's tongue is pulled through a deep cut beneath the jaw and left dangling on the neck. It first appeared in Colombia during the period known as La Violencia (1948–1958) as a method of psychological warfare designed to scare and intimidate. It was one of several documented types of public mutilation in the conflict used to terrorize people away from their land. Others included killing a pregnant woman, extracting the fetus and placing it on her body and replacing it with a rooster; stuffing the genitals of dead men into their mouths; and the "flower-vase-cut" where the victim's limbs were cut off and stuffed into their torso. The methods served to dehumanize victims, as can be seen in terms used by perpetrators such as bocachiquear and picar para tamal, which refer respectively to the preparation of fish and tamales.
Its invention is sometimes erroneously attributed to drug kingpin Pablo Escobar. During the murder trial of O. J. Simpson, defense lawyers claimed that hitmen hired by drug dealers gave Nicole Brown Simpson a Colombian necktie, but this was barred from testimony due to a lack of supporting evidence.
List of countries by alcohol consumption per capita

This is a list of countries by alcohol consumption measured in equivalent litres of pure alcohol (ethanol) consumed per capita per year.
A standard drink is about 17 milliliters of ethanol, putting one liter at about 59 drinks.
The World Health Organization periodically publishes The Global Status Report on Alcohol:
Worldwide consumption in 2019 was equal to 5.5 litres of pure alcohol consumed per person aged 15 years or older. This is a decrease from the 5.7 litres in 2010. Distilled alcoholic beverages are the most consumed, followed by beer and wines. The regions with the highest consumption are the WHO European Region (9.2 litres) and the Region of the Americas (7.5 litres).
The table below for 189 countries uses 2019 data (three-year average of 2017, 2018, and 2019) from the WHO report published in 2024. The recorded consumption values were based on data from government sources, statistics from economic operators, and FAOSTAT data and estimates the amount of alcohol consumption (in litres of pure alcohol) by persons 15 years of age or older. Unrecorded consumption (homebrew, moonshine, smuggled alcohol, surrogate alcohol etc.) was estimated using expert judgements and surveys. The total consumption (sum of recorded and unrecorded) is then broken down by type of alcoholic beverage. Beer refers to malt beer, wine refers to grape wine, spirits refers to all distilled beverages such as vodka and similar products, and the column "other" refers to all other alcoholic beverages, such as rice wine, soju, sake, mead, kumis, cider, kvass, and African beers (kumi kumi, kwete, banana beer, millet beer, umqombothi etc.). The last two columns represent projections for total consumption (sum of recorded and unrecorded) for the years 2025 and 2030, which are estimated using an ARIMA regression analyses.
Guarapo (drink)

Guarapo (from the Quechua warapu) is a Latin American fermented alcoholic drink derived from sugarcane juice.
"Guarapo" is also a Spanish word for sugarcane juice itself, but in much of Latin America it is used to refer specifically to the fermented product. The Quechua word warapu signifies the juice of crushed cane.
In the Mexican state of Tabasco, during the Spanish colonial period in the 16th century, when sugarcane was introduced from the Caribbean, the Chontal Maya people began to produce the drink by fermenting sugarcane juice. It became very popular among the Indigenous population, who consume it primarily at parties and celebrations, including Day of the Dead. They also produce guarapo de maíz, or corn guarapo, which is made by fermenting toasted corn, panela, and water.
In Cuba, the drink is prepared in rural communities by dissolving honey or panela in water and fermenting it with a type of yeast commonly referred to as cunchos or supias. This yeast is often shared among those who produce the beverage. It is also common to produce the beverage by crushing sugarcane in a trapiche or mill, either drinking it fresh or fermenting it. This is also how the typical Cuban drink aguardiente is produced.
Guarapo is particularly well known the Latin American nations of Panama, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru. Venezuelans also refer to coffee mixed with a large amount of water as guarapo. Colombians generally drink guarapo, fermented with yeast known as cunchos in clay vessels. The Festival of Guarapo is held in the Colombian town of Tuluá.
Masato (drink)

Masato is a beverage made from cassava, rice, corn, oats, or pineapple. Its preparation involves fermenting these ingredients in a pot with water for approximately 8 days, until the mixture begins to foam. Like other alcoholic beverages, it is produced through microbial fermentation, especially by various types of Lactobacillus.
Masato is a widely consumed indigenous beverage in the departments of Cundinamarca, Santander, Tolima, Norte de Santander, and Boyacá in Colombia. The recipe has been passed down through the tradition of grandparents, and its production has spread to other regions within the country, including the Northern Coast.
It is a fermented drink made from corn, usually sweetened with molasses. The variety most consumed in the Altiplano Cundiboyacense highlands is prepared with rice and panela, often adding cloves and cinnamon. Other variations use wheat flour, and there are also preparations with arrowroot flour, rice, pumpkin, cassava, sorghum, and plantain. In recent years, industrial production has expanded.
Masato is often used to accompany various snacks, such as pastries, butter cookies, almojábanas, garullas, pandeyuca, or, in some cases, meat or chicken empanadas. Its consumption increases at the end of the year, as it is served with snacks typical of that season, such as buñuelos, natilla, and tamales.
Masato in Peru is a fermented beverage traditionally made with boiled cassava and is known as masato de yuca. It has been made for at least a thousand years in the Amazon region. The cassava is mixed with water, chewed in the mouth, spat out, and left to rest so that the cassava starch converts into sugar and eventually ferments into alcohol. This method is prevalent among native Amazonian ethnicities. However, commercially, it is prepared by grinding cassava and adding bread yeast for fermentation, making it more accessible to those outside Amazonian ethnicities who might "reject" its consumption due to the unconventional chewing of cassava. Along with chicha de jora, it is one of the ancient beverages deeply rooted in Amazonian traditions.
Probiotic bacteria may potentially be isolated from masato de yuca.
Masato in Venezuela is made from rice, panela, and spices. It is typically consumed before fermentation, although some believe it is better when fermented as it becomes effervescent. It should be refrigerated to prevent it from becoming too strong. In the state of Táchira, it is common to blend the cooked rice with a syrup made from a geranium branch, giving it its characteristic flavor. Instead of panela, refined sugar is used to keep the drink white. Indigenous communities in the Amazonas state consume yuca chicha.