Has Hlai grammar

This article is a description of the grammar of standardized Has Hlai, a Hlai language spoken on the island of Hainan, China, by the Hlai (Li) ethnic group. The parts of speech are nouns, verbs, adjectives, conjunctions, numerals, adverbs, and pronouns.
The Hlai people (or, as they are called in Chinese, the Li – 黎族) are the original inhabitants of southern Hainan. A Kra–Dai people, they are believed to have settled there at least 2,000 to 6,000 years ago, and carry genetic markers from ancient people who reached the island between 7,000 and 27,000 years ago. The Pre-Hlai language they spoke would later evolve into Proto-Hlai, and from there into the modern Hlai languages.
In June 1956, China's government implemented research on Hainan Island of the Hlai people's language.
A 1983 report, Liyu diaocha yanjiu (黎语调查研究), claimed that the Hlai language is made up of five languages: Has 侾黎, Gheis 杞黎, Hyuuen 本地黎, Moeifou 美孚黎, and Deitou 加茂黎. For education, the Lauxhuet dialect of Has (Chinese: 侾方言罗活土语) in Ledong Baoyou Baoding (Chinese: 乐东抱由镇保定村) was chosen to be the Li's standardized language. It was this language from which the "Li orthography" (Chinese: 黎文方案) was developed.
In September 1984, two organizations, Central University for Nationalities and the Institute of Minorities in Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, made some revisions to the Li orthography. The Hlai language's orthography was finalized with the publishing of a textbook entitled Basic Li Course (Pinyin: Liyu Jichu Jiaocheng; Chinese: 黎语基础教程).
At the end of 2019, a Hlai-language dictionary was officially posted online (http://www.tunhlai.com).
Has Hlai has 31 consonants. /ȶ/ is only found as a coda.
Notes:
Has Hlai has 3 tones. Each tone can take two forms, depending on whether the syllable ends in a stop ("tonic tone") or not ("level tone").
These nouns are mostly loan words. The Hlai language being both practical and concrete in nature, is not suitable for describing anything intangible.
1. Nouns usually cannot be modified by number alone; the number needs a proper classifier following the number to modify the noun.
But, nouns associated with dates (like year, month, day), are modified with numbers alone (no classifiers).
When the word "nyaen" refers to the name of a month (as May above), a number can modify "nyaen" without a classifier. However, when the word "nyaen" refers to the number of months (as below), a classifier is required to modify the word "nyaen."
2. Nouns cannot be modified by adverbs, nor can a noun be doubled (e.g., **uxaeu uxaeu, "man man"; **blongs blongs, "house house") to express the meaning of "every" as is done in Chinese. The way to present the meaning of "every" is to use the word "ranx" plus a proper classifier as below:
3. Although the Hlai language does not have declension of gender, it does have two prefixes to indicate the gender: "bais" for female and "pas" for male, e.g.
When the word "bais" exists alone, the meaning is mother; "pas" means father. "Pas" could also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
4.The Hlai language does not use suffixes or prefixes for nouns to denote plurality as in the English language. But, the Hlai language uses the word "kun" to indicate the plurality of nouns, e.g.
The word "kun" can also be used together with a number and a classifier to modify nouns, e.g.,
5. A noun can be a subject, predicate, object, e.g.
6. A noun can be an attribute, and also can be modified by attributes e.g.
7. A noun can also be an adverbial modifier, e.g.
8. A noun in relation to time can even be an adverbial modifier to modify a verb, e.g.
9. When the word "guu" is placed before a noun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.
In Hlai language, verbs never change their form. The placement of an adverb or an auxiliary word after or before a verb determines the verb's tense.
The adverbial word "faets" or "fietla" can express the action in process, and is placed before a verb, e.g.,
The verbs with the word "bhaeis" expresses an action that has already happened. If "bhaeis" is placed before a verb, it is an adverbial,e.g.,
If the word "bhaeis" is placed after a verb, it acts as a complement and means "finished", e.g.,
The word "dhuas" can also denote the perfect aspect, ("(1) v.: pass through; (2) an auxiliary word that indicates that an action has already happened, and is placed after the verb; (3) an auxiliary word that expresses a comparison, and is placed after the adjective") e.g.,
The auxiliary word "kweis" or "guu" indicates that an action is in future by being placed before a verb, e.g.,
The nuance between the two words "kweis" and "guu" is that: when two verbs are used together, if the first one is the method of the second one, or the second one is the purpose of the first one, only the word "guu" can be placed before the second verb, e.g.,
If an action only lasts for a short while, the adverbial word "zuufanx" is placed after the verb, e.g.,
Hlai verbs, including action verbs, verbs for expressing mental activities, and verbs for expressing existence, change, and development, can be predicates or predicate heads in a sentence. Most of these verbs can be followed by objects or by complements, and can be modified by adverbials, nouns of time, and auxiliary words, e.g.,
Hlai verbs, except for linking verbs, can usually be made nominal by adding a prefix "uu-"; nominal verbs can be a subject, but cannot be a major part of the predicate, e.g.,
Nominal verbs still can function as a verb with an object following it; the nominal verb and the object together can function as a subject, object or nominal predicate, e.g.,
Hlai verbs are rarely doubled as they are in Chinese; only monosyllabic action verbs and verbs for expressing mental activities can be doubled. Doubled monosyllabic verbs imply that the action is casually and carelessly done, e.g.,
A verb followed by "laeis" comes to mean "to try"; if a verb is followed by an object, the word "laeis" should be placed after the object, e.g.,
Modal verbs are usually placed before a verb forming the predicate of a sentence to express 1) the ability of the one performing the action, or 2) the possibility, obligation, or need of the action, e.g.,
Modal verbs cannot be followed by noun-objects, nor can modal verbs be doubled, except in an interrogative sentence, that a positive and negative modal verb is used to ask yes or no, e.g.,
Only in answering questions, can a modal verb act alone as a predicate, except for the modal verbs "kiemx", "guulax" and the word "guu", which cannot act as a predicate, e.g.,
Modal verbs sometimes can be followed by an object, e.g.,
The antonym of the modal verb "kweis" is "ais"; the antonym of "kueng" is "hluums", and that of "gieu" is "gax", which cannot be used in the imperative mood.
Verbs of motion can act alone as a predicate, e.g.,
Also, verbs of motion can follow a main verb to express the direction of the action forming a predicate, e.g.,
Also, verbs of motion can combine together and become compound words as can be seen in the chart below:
The compound words above can be followed by objects, e.g.,
Except for the word "luueng", the words found in the first column of the chart ("dhuas", "kaen", "luei", "hluet", "tuuen", and "beuu") and the words found along the top row ("buuen", "hei", and "beuu") can exchange positions. After exchanging positions, the compound words cannot be followed by an object, and usually are used in imperative mood.
Linking verbs are placed before nouns, noun phrases or pronouns, combining two grammatical parts as a predicate, to provide information about the objects, e.g.,
The linking verbs can be omitted, e.g.,
But, when the subject or predicate is too long, or when the predicate includes numbers, the linking verbs cannot be omitted, e.g.,
Linking verbs cannot go with words that indicate the tense (like "faets" or "bhaeis" or "dhuas"), nor with directional verbs or with the complement, nor be modified by adverbials, or be doubled.
When the suffix "toengs" is added to some verbs, the compound words become reciprocal verbs, and cannot be followed by any objects, e.g.,
Some words in Hlai language are both nouns and verbs, e.g.,
In Chinese and English, the verb "wear" can apply to different actions, like wearing a necklace, wearing a hat, or wearing earrings. However, in Hlai language these different actions are distinguished by different verbs, e.g.,
In Hlai language, adjectives cannot be a subject, nor an object, but can act as a predicate, attribute, adverbial, or complement.
The adjective goes after the subject, e.g.,
Zuu hom coem hauux long baisias.
One classifier fruit that big/large very much
"那一个果子很大，That fruit (is) large!"
Zuu zuen aeu max reek.
One classifier man/person there bad
"那一个人坏，That man (is) bad/notorious."
The adjective goes after the noun that is modified, e.g.,
dhop kieu
cloth blue/green
"蓝布，(a) blue cloth"
veengs paens
shirt/top colorful
"花衣服，(a) loud (pronounced colors) shirt"
fun long
rain big
"大雨，heavy rain"
hwous enyx
mountain small
"小山，(a) small mountain / hill"
blongs peek
house tall
"高房子，(a) tall house"
ceeng hleny
flower good
"好花，(a) pretty flower"
The adjective is placed before the verb, e.g.,
Meuu dais dais lax as.
You slow slow eat an accent
"你慢慢地吃吧！(You) Eat slowly."
Na kauuspaeis fei.
He/she swift in action walk
"他迅速地走，He walked quickly."
The adjective usually comes after the verb in a sentence, e.g.,
Na vuek reek he.
He/she do/make bad an accent
"他弄坏了，He has broken (it)."
Meuu bhaeis laix hleny hyos?
You already plow well marker of question
"你已经犁好了吗？Have you finished plowing?"
An adjective also can be modified by adverbs, which can be placed either before or after the adjective, e.g.,
da hleny
not good
"不好，not good"
da peek
not tall
"不高，not tall"
vaeu reek
most bad
"最坏，worst"
duix hlenymuuen
most beautiful
"最美丽，most beautiful"
paens dhatdhat
colorful/floral truly/really
"很花，very colorful"
hlenyfaty baisias
happy very much
"很高兴，very happy"
In Hlai language, adjectives have comparative and superlative degrees.
Either "dhuas" or "bhi", denote comparative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If the word "dhuas" is used, it should be placed after the adjective, and the adjective and "dhuas" should be placed between the two objects being compared, e.g.,
Baisdza peek dhuas hluuekbaiskaux.
Mother tall more than daughter
"母亲高过女儿，The mother is taller than her daughter."
Zuuhwuuep long dhuas zuu'ei.
Winter melon/white gourd big more than pumpkin
"冬瓜大过南瓜，The white gourd is bigger than her pumpkin."
If the loan word "bhi" is used, it is placed between the two objects being compared, and the adjective is placed after the latter object, e.g.,
Meuu bhi dhes peek.
You compare I tall
"你比我高，You are taller than I (am)."
Blongs dhes bhi blongs na hleny.
House my compare house his good
"我的房子比他的房子好，My house is better than his."
Either "vaeu" or "duix", denote superlative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If either "vaeu" or "duix" is used, it should be placed before the adjective, e.g.,
Pashlaus vaeu gieu.
Older brother most capable
"哥哥最能干，The older brother is most capable."
Baiscuty duix hlenymuuen.
Youngest daughter most beautiful
"幺妹最漂亮，The youngest daughter is most beautiful."
According to my Hlai language consultant, Mr. Liu, "The word veau could possibly imply a derogatory, an exaggerated or overstated statement." It depends on the context.
"Zuugit", instead of indicating comparative or superlative degrees, denotes "(just) a little bit", e.g.,
Zuu kuuengx cai neix peek zuugit.
One classifier tree this tall a little bit
"这棵树高一点，This three is just a little bit taller."
Veengs neix baen zuugit.
shirt/top this new a little bit
"这衣服新一点，This dress is just a little bit newer."
Except for adjectives that describe a mental/emotional status, adjectives can be made nominal by adding the prefix "uu-". Adjectives that are nominal cannot be a predicate, but can act as a subject, an object, or an attribute, e.g.,
Uu-hleny neix man guu meuu.
The good one this is a maker of possession you
"这个好的是你的，This good one is yours."
Na qieng dheuu uu-daeus.
He/she want to take the long one
"他想拿长的，He wants to take the long one."
Kai uu-long hauux man guu dhes.
Chicken the big one that is a maker of possession me
"那只大的鸡是我的，That big chicken is mine."
Adjectives for describing the forms/attributes of things, and those for describing the status of actions or emotions, can be doubled, but the adjective has to be monosyllabic. When the adjectives are doubled, the degree of the adjective increases, e.g.,
veengs kaeu kaeu
shirt/top white white
"白白的衣服，white clothes"
dzuuns dzuuns buuen
quick quick come
"快快来，come quickly"
dais dais fei
slow slow walk
"慢慢走，walk slowly" (When the Hlai people are saying farewell (bye), "dais dais fei" is the phrase they say to each other.)
Two different adjectives can be doubled like AABB, e.g.,
Blongs dhes baen baen hleny hleny.
House my new new good good.
"我的房子又新又好，My house is new and good."
Zuu hom hwous neix peek peek long long.
One classifier mountain this high high big big
"这一座山又高又大，This mountain is tall and big."
Two different adjectives also can be positioned in an ABAB pattern, e.g.,
Guen neix peek tauus peek tauus.
Road this high short high short
"这条路高高低低，This road is rough/bumpy."
Na fei aus uty aus uty.
He/she walk swing swing swing swing
"他踉踉跄跄地走着，He is walking tipsy (unsteady like a drunk)."
Zuu dhaenx guen neix muety toei muety toei.
One classifier road this straight flat straight flat
"这一条路平平直直，This road is straight and smooth."
Also, some monosyllabic adjectives express an increasing degree by the adding of a prefix, which combines the initial consonant of that adjective with a vowel like "i" or "u"; and the tone of the prefix is the first tone, e.g.,
li- loek
prefix dark
"黑漆漆，pitch-dark"
ri- raeux
prefix sparse
"稀疏，sparse"
gu- goeks
prefix concave
"黑漆漆，full of bumps and holes/uneven"
ghu- ghaeu
prefix clear
"清澈，clear"
Some adjectives can have a duplicated suffix tagged on to the ends, which cannot exist independently, to intensify the description, e.g.,
kaeu- laepplaepp
white something looks bright
"亮晶晶，something is so white as to be bright"
loek- tingting
black something looks dark
"黑漆漆，something is so black as to be dark"
tax fous-qiettqiett
rice hot something looks hot
"饭热乎乎，the hot rice"
The word "enyx" is used to describe something small, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the latter word, e.g.,
The word "long" is used to describe something big or large, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the former word, e.g.,
Another way to express something big or large is to add the prefix "bais-" to nouns related to objects/things; but, if the prefix "bais-" is added to nouns related to mankind/persons, it becomes an indicator of gender, e.g.,
Nouns that have the prefix "bais-" added on to them can be modified by the word "long" to increase the degree, e.g.,
bais-kuuengxcai long,
big tree big
"很大的树，large tree"
bais-qien long,
big stone big
"很大的石头，large stone"
If the speaker intends to increase the degree, the word "dhat" or "dhatdhat" can be added.
Numbers in Hlai language, including cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, and numbers of approximation, usually act as subjects, predicate, or objects in a sentence. When numbers are used with classifiers, together they become a phrase that can be an attribute to modify the noun phrase.
Cardinal numbers by themselves usually cannot modify nouns, but need to be placed before a classifier to modify the noun that goes after the classifier, e.g.,
However, in relation to dates (like year, month, day), numbers can modify these types of nouns without classifiers.
Cardinal numbers cannot be doubled, except for with "nguen" and "vaens"; when their pattern is AABB, and the resulting phrase means a number of great amount, e.g.,
Sometimes, the words "nguen" and "vaens" combine with "jieng" or "zuu" to form an ABAC phrase to modify a noun, synonymous in meaning to the AABB pattern, e.g.,
There are four words ("zuu", "ceuus/zeuus", and "lax") that can represent the place value of "one", but each word has its own usage.
First, when Hlai people count, they will say, "ceuus/zeuus, hlaus, fus, caus…(1, 2, 3, 4…)", they won't use "zuu" or "lax" for one.
The word "zuu" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun.
The digit 1, when it is either in the 100's, 1,000's, 10,000's, 100,000's.... place of a number, the word "zuu" should be used for 1, e.g.,
The digit 1, when it is either in the 10's or 1's place of a number, the word "ceuus/zeuus" should be used for 1, e.g.,
However, if the number is used with a classifier, then the word "zuu" should be used, e.g.,
The word "lax" cannot be used with a classifier. The word "lax" only can be used in the first digit when the number is bigger than ten. However, if the number is multiple of 10 like 100, 1000, 10000...etc., the word "zuu" should be used, instead of "lax". e.g.,
There are two words ("fuet" and "bun") that are used for the place value of "ten," but each word has its usage.
First, "fuet" is used for the number ten when counting.
"Bun" does not need to go with a classifier to modify a noun. However, if the word "bun" does go with a classifier to modify a noun, the only two classifiers that can be used are "hom" and "lang"; but when "lang" is used with people, "bun" cannot be used.
"Fuet" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun, e.g.,
However, "fuet" can be placed in front of nouns, which are also classifiers, e.g.,
In Hlai language, there is no word for the number "zero"; some areas adopted the loan word "lengs" (零，zero), e.g.,
However, the number "zero" can be represented by the conjunction "uengx" or "loms", e.g.,
In Hlai language, there are two rules to construct numbers:
(1) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed after "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is addition, e.g.,
(2) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed before "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is multiplication, e.g.,
In Hlai language, the word "ghwous" (头，head) or "ceuus" (一，one) means "first", and the word "cuty" (尾，tail) means "last"; for all numbers in between first and last, the word "tom" (中间，middle) is used.
hluuek-ghwous-ghwa
child head to plant
"老大（长子），the first born child (usually, it means "son")"
hluuek-tom
child middle
"老二，老三…，the child(ren) in the middle"
hluuek-cuty
child tail
"老幺，the youngest child"
When one's gender is needed, the word "pasmaen" (男人，man) or "baiskaux" (女人，woman) can be added, e.g.,
hluuek-pasmaen-ghwous-ghwa = hluuek-ghwous-ghwa
child man head to plant = child head to plant
"长子，the first born son"
hluuek-baiskaux-ghwous-ghwa = hluuek-baiskaux-long
child woman head to plant = child woman big
"大女儿，the first born daughter"
Usually "ghwous" indicates the oldest male; "long" the oldest female, like "kauuslong" (大姐, oldest sister), "zoulong" (大嫂，wife of oldest brother).
Moreover, the prefix "pas-" (男性，man) or "bais-" (女性，woman) can be added to the words "tom" and "cuty", to indicate gender, e.g.,
pas- tom
male prefix middle
"次子，the son in the middle"
bais- cuty
female prefix tail
"幺女，the youngest daughter"
When ordinal numbers apply to things, usually the phrase is constructed by "ghwous" + "zuu" + a proper classifier to represent the first one, e.g.,
ghwous zuu kuuengx
head one classifier for tree
"头一棵，the first (tree)"
To present the last one, usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baiscuty" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,
baiscuty zuu hom
last/tail one classifier
"最后一个，the last (one)"
To present the middle one(s), usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baistom" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,
baistom zuu lang
middle one classifier
"第二，或第三…，the 2nd, or 3rd…"
Usually, any accuracy in communication is done with loan words from Chinese, e.g.,
dhoeis-iet dus
first group
"第一组，the first group"
dhoeis-bhoeix dhuix
eighth team
"第八队，the eighth team"
dhoeis-dzis bhaenx
second class
"第二班，the second class"
In Hlai culture, people use a way similar to the Chinese Zodiac to count years, and even days, e.g.,
For counting months, in Hlai culture, there are two kinds of calendar: one is following the Han's solar calendar, e.g.,
The other is following the Han's lunar calendar, e.g.,
In Hlai language, one way to represent approximate numbers is to place two or three sequential numbers together, e.g.,
hlaus fus (hom)
two three (classifier)
"两三（个），two or three"
ba dom (hom)
five six. (classifier)
"五六（个），five or six"
hlaus fus caus (hom)
two three four (classifier)
"二三四（个），two, three, or four"
tou ghou fauus (hom)
seven eight nine (classifier)
"七八九（个），seven, eight, or nine"
Usually, the numbers one and two are not put together.
Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dzaengsloepp" (大约/大概，probably), e.g.,
dzaengsloepp zaux fuet dom hom
probably have ten six classifier
"大概有十六个，probably have sixteen (ones)"
dzaengsloepp zaux hlaus fuet boux he
probably have two ten year accent
"大概有二十岁，about twenty years old"
The word "dzaengsloepp" also can be shortened to "loepp",e.g.,
loepp zaux tou fuet ceuus kuuengx
probably have seven ten one classifier for tree
"大约有七十一棵，probably have seventy-one (trees)"
Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dza" (余，a surplus/more than), e.g.,
hlaus dza hom
two surplus classifier
"两个多，more than two (less than three)"
fuet dza boux
ten surplus year
"十多年，more than ten years (less than twenty)"
The word "dza" can also be used with "loepp" to represent approximate numbers. The construction is "loepp" + zaux + number + "dza", e.g.,
Na loepp zaux fuet dza boux da buuen he.
he probably have ten surplus year not come accent
"他大约有十余年没来了，He hasn't come (to this place) for more than ten years."
The word "zaux" in this construction can be omitted, e.g.,
Zuu hom as neix loepp fuet dza gins.
one classifier watermelon this probably ten surplus classifier, about 500g
"这个西瓜大约有十多斤，This watermelon is a little more than 10 gins."
There are some synonyms, like "zuugit", "zuugitgit", "zuugitlaei", that can be used to represent approximate numbers. These words indicate the uncertainty of a small amount, e.g.,
Na naus lax zuugit vi!
he just/only eat a little bit accent
"他才吃一点点，He only ate a little bit.)"
Hou zaux zuugitgit.
I have a little bit
"我有一点点，I have a little bit.)"
bhinx zuugitlaei
lack a little bit
"缺了一点点，lacks a little bit."
The word "zuutom" (一部分，a part/some) represents the uncertainty of a given amount, e.g.,
zuutom hei zuutom buuen
some go some come
"一部分（人）去，一部分（人）来，Some (people) go, some (people) come."
paem na dhuus zuutom guen
meet he in part way
"在半路上碰见他，meet him part way"
Sometimes, the word "zuutom" means "half",e.g.,
zuu pas zuutom
one classifier for man half
"一人一半，each one (gets) half"
Another word to represent the uncertainty of a given amount is "gei" (几, 若干, several), which implies the amount is less than ten, e.g.,
gei hwan neix
several day this
"这几天，these days"
Mansnyoengx zaux gei zuen aeu buuen.
only have several classifier man come
"只有几个人来，Only a few people come (less than ten)"
The word "hloei" (多, many/much) can represent the uncertainty of a great amount; if the amount is even greater, this word, "hloei" is repeated, "hloeihloei", e.g.,
Bhous na hauux hloei duis dhat.
village he that many water buffalo very
"他那个村牛很多，There are a lot of buffalo in his village."
Dhuix fa neix zaux uxaeu hloeihloei.
team we this have man so many
"我们这个队有许多人，We have so many people on this team."
When a certain amount is requested, the word "hloeiras" (多少，how many/much) can be used in an interrogative sentence, e.g.,
Meuu boux neix hloeiras boux?
you year this how many year
"你今年多大岁数？How old are you this year?"
Meuu zaux hloeiras zuen hluuekghueng?
you have how many classifier younger sister or brother
"你有多少个弟弟妹妹？How many younger brothers and sisters do you have?"
• 【hom，个、块、所、颗、粒、朵、元、座、盏、顶...】: most frequently used, and used with inanimate objects (including fruit, month, story, building, flower, money, mountain, light-stand, hat...), e.g.,
zuu hom waeu
one classifier bowl
"一个碗, a bowl."
• 【zuen，位】: it is only used with humans, e.g.,
hlaus zuen bhiengs
two classifier soldier
"两个士兵, two soldiers"
• 【laus，个、位】: it is only used with males whether a baby, child, boy or young man, e.g.,
zuu laus hluuek
one classifier child
"一个男孩, a boy"
• 【hauus，个、位】: it is only used with females whether a baby, child, girl or young woman, e.g.,
hlaus hauus hluuek
two classifier child
"两个女孩, two girls"
• 【lang，只】: it can be used with humans, animate objects and spiritual beings, e.g.,
fus lang kai
three classifier chicken
"三只鸡, three chickens"
• 【kuuengx，棵】: it is used with larger plants (flowers use "hom"), e.g.,
caus kuuengx cai
four classifier tree
"四棵树, four trees"
• 【fans，件】: it is used with shirts or blouses, e.g.,
ba fans veengs
five classifier shirt/top
"五件衣裳, five shirts or blouses"
• 【hyax，条、件】: it is used with trousers/pants, e.g.,
hlaus hyax kous
two classifier pants
"两条裤子, two pairs of pants"
• 【ruet，条】: it is used with skirts, e.g.,
zuu ruet riens
one classifier the traditional Hlai skirt
"一条筒裙, a skirt"
• 【tos，套】: it is used with a suit of clothes or an outfit, e.g.,
zuu tos veengs kous
one classifier shirt/top pants
"一套衣服裤子, a suit or outfit having a matching top and bottom"
• 【tut，套】: it is used with a suit or outfit of clothes, e.g.,
zuu tut veengs
one classifier shirt/top
"一套衣服, a suit of clothes"
• 【dhanx，条、根】: it is used with linear objects, e.g.,
zuu dhanx dhoei
one classifier rope
"一根绳子, a rope"
dom dhanx noms
six classifier river
"六条河, six rivers"
• 【viens，块，张】: it is used with massive or planar objects, e.g.,
tou viens noeng duis
seven classifier skin water buffalo
"七张牛皮, seven pieces of cow hides"
• 【rueis，块、张】: it is usually used with flat surfaced planar objects, e.g.,
hlaus rueis aek bou
two classifier meat pig
"两块猪肉, two slabs of pork"
fus rueis noeng loei
three classifier skin muntjak
"三张麂子皮, three pieces of chamois (small antelope) hide"
• 【ban，头、只】: it is used with cows or horses, e.g.,
hlaus ban gas
two classifier horse
"两匹马, two horses"
• 【pous/paus，堆】: it is used with a relative smaller pile (pous/paus is also a verb), e.g.,
zuu pous van
one classifier earth
"一堆土, a pile of earth"
zuu pous guns
one classifier firewood
"一堆柴, a pile of firewood"
• 【kun，堆】: it is used with a relative bigger pile, e.g.,，
zuu kun muens
one classifier rice in the husk
"一大堆稻谷, a large pile of rice"
• 【baep，把】: it is usually used with seedling (There is no wheat on the Island of Hainan/Hlai people's territory.), e.g.,
zuu baep fan
one classifier seedling
"一把秧, a handful of rice seedlings"
• 【hax，把】: it is usually used with rice, e.g.,，
zuu hax muens
one classifier rice
"一把稻子, one handful of rice"
• 【bhaeng，间】: it is usually used with a room or building, e.g.,
zuu bhaeng blongs
one classifier house
"一间屋子, a building/house"
zuu bhaeng qiafei
one classifier train
"一节火车厢, a box car"
• 【bhaengs，梭/颗、封】: it is usually used with letters (a written communication as one sent through the mail) a bullet or a firecracker, e.g.,
zuu bhaengs veji
one classifier bullet
"一梭/颗子弹, a bullet"
zuu bhaengs dienx
one classifier letter
"一封信, a letter"
• 【bhak，块】: it is usually used with flat objects, e.g.,
zuu bhak gias
one classifier glass
"一块玻璃, a piece of glass"
zuu bhak qias
one classifier paper
"一块硬纸片, a piece of cardboard"
• 【bheek，幅】: it is usually used with a picture or painting, e.g.,
zuu bheek ueix
one classifier picture/painting
"一幅画, a picture/painting"
• 【bhuek，把】: it is usually used with straw, e.g.,
zuu bhueks ngwiengs
one classifier straw
"一把稻草, a handful of straw"
• 【bhui，本】: it is usually used with books, e.g.,
hlaus bhui qias
two classifier book
"两本书, two books"
• 【cax，座】: it is usually used with mountains, e.g.,
zuu cax hwous
one classifier mountain
"一座山, a mountain"
• 【ceuus，枝、秆】: it is usually used with a pen or stick, e.g.,
zuu ceuus bhit
one classifier pen
"一支笔, a pen"
• 【cueng，枚】: it is usually used with a needle, e.g.,
zuu cueng guty
one classifier needle
"一枚针, a needle"
• 【dhien，畦or 幅】: it is usually used with farmland (rectangular plots of land in a field, separated by ridges, usually for growing vegetables), also used with cloth, e.g.,
zuu dhien van bheuudaeis
one classifier land/earth vegetables
"一畦菜地, a bed of vegetables"
zuu dhien dhop
one classifier cloth
"一幅布, a piece of cloth"
• 【dhun，户、家】: it is usually used with households, e.g.,
bhous fa zaux hlaus fuet dhun blongs.
Village our have two ten classifier households
"我们村子有二十户人家, There are twenty households in our village."
• 【gas，辆、架】: it is usually used with a car or a plane, e.g.,
zuu gas qia
one classifier car
"一辆车, a car"
zuu gas vabheny
one classifier airplane
"一架飞机, an airplane"
• 【ghoeix，行、排】: a row, a line, e.g.,
fus ghoeix cai
three classifier tree
"三行树, three rows of trees"
zuu ghoeix qias
one classifier word/letter
"一行字, one line of words"
• 【ha，缕】: it is usually used with light.
• 【hus，副】: it is usually used with playing cards, poker.
• 【hwoens，堆、块】: it is usually used with fields or objects that can be organized in a pile, e.g.,
zuu hwoens guns
one classifier firewood
"一堆柴火, a pile of firewood"
zuu hwoens dax
one classifier field
"一块水田, a field"
• 【hluut，层】: it means "layers" or "levels", e.g.,
fus hluut laeus
three classifier the floor in building
"三层楼, three floors"
Van neix zaux fus hluut na.
Land this have three classifier thickness
"这土有三层厚, This soil has three layers."
• 【ka，枝】: it is usually used with branches, e.g.,
zuu ka cai
one classifier tree
"一枝树枝, a branch"
• 【kok，棵】: it is usually used with mushrooms, e.g.,
zuu kok dhety
one classifier mushroom
"一棵菌子, a mushroom"
• 【koen，只】: it is usually used with one object in a pair, e.g.,
zuu kuen zuugoems
one classifier shoe
"一只鞋, a shoe"
zuu koen fiek
one classifier classifier
"半挑东西, a pole balanced on a shoulder by half a load being carried in the front and the other half being carried in the back (fiek: the action of carrying stuff on a shoulder becomes a classifier)."
• 【kou，张、顶】: it is usually used with mesh, e.g.,
zuu kou ghoeis hla
one classifier net fish
"一张鱼网, a fishing net"
• 【liemx，瓣】: it is usually used with a clove or segment of fruit, e.g.,
zuu liemx coembhem
one classifier grapefruit
"一瓣柚子, a piece of grapefruit"
• 【leep，叠】: it is usually used with thin objects like paper, e.g.,
hlaus leep qias
two classifier paper
"两层纸, two sheets of paper"
• 【leeps，瓣、片、层】: it is usually used with thin objects
• 【luuengs，把】: it is usually used with a saw (tool for sawing)
• 【moux，种、类】: it means a "kind, sort", e.g.,
neix zuu moux hleny
This one classifier good
"这一种好, This is a good one."
zaux hlenyhloei moux muens
have many classifier rice
"有好多种稻子, There are many kinds of rice."
• 【paeng，串】: it is usually used with fruit, e.g.,
zuu paeng zuuloengs
one classifier betel nut
"一串槟榔, a cluster of betel nut"
• 【pienx，把】: it is usually used with knives e.g.,
zuu pienx gas
one classifier knife
"一把刀, a knife"
• 【puens，杆、根】: it is usually used with tree trunks or any bar-like or rod-like objects, e.g.,
zuu puens cai
one classifier tree
"一根树干, a stump (or tree trunk)"
zuu puens bhit
one classifier pen
"一支笔, a pen"
• 【raeis，块、片】: it is used with fields, e.g.,
zuu raeis dax
one classifier field
"一片田, a field"
• 【ras，棵，株】: it is usually used with grass or rice, e.g.,
zuu ras gans
one classifier grass
"一棵草, a blade of grass"
• 【rok，块】: it is usually used with hillside fields (fields far from a water source), e.g.,
zuu rok ang
one classifier field
"一块刀耕地, a field"
(ang: specifically, a burned up plot of land that is fertilized for future farming by the remaining ashes; an ancient farming way of Hlai people, but now forbidden by the CN government)
fus rok pos
three classifier hillside field
"三块旱地, three fields on the hillside"
• 【ruets，摞】: it is usually used with massive objects
• 【taeu，批、群】: it is usually used with a batch of goods or a group of animals, e.g.,
caty zuu taeu liem
buy one classifier sickle
"买一批镰刀, buy a bundle of sickles"
zuu taeu dzeeng
one classifier goat/sheep
"一群羊, a flock of goats"
• 【tuueng，把】: it is usually used with farm tools, e.g.,
zuu tuueng rik
one classifier rake
"一把耙, a rake"
• 【vaen，梳、下】: it is usually used with comb-like, comb-shaped objects, e.g.,
zuu vaen hweek
one classifier banana
"一梳芭蕉, a bunch of bananas"
or it is used for counting the number of times of pestling, e.g.,
ceek fuet vaen
pestle ten classifier
"舂十下, pestle ten times"
• 【vans，张、页、幅、块】: it is usually used with paper products, e.g.,
zuu vans qia
one classifier paper
"一张纸, a piece of paper"
zuu vans diets
one classifier picture
"一幅照片, a photograph"
• 【voei，桶】: it is usually used with something that can be carried in a bucket, e.g.,
zuu voei ghei
one classifier rice
"一桶米, a bucket of rice"
• 【vong，嘟噜】: it is usually used with something formed as a cluster (tropical fruit is usually in clusters, such as coconuts, betel nuts), e.g.,
zuu vong coemcai
one classifier fruit
"一嘟噜果子, a cluster of fruit"
• 【mous，亩】: (Chinese acre) a unit of area to measure a land or field, about 667 square meters, e.g.,
zuu mous dax
one classifier field
"一亩田, one mu of field"
• 【dho，丈】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 dho is about 350 centimeters, e.g.
zuu dho dhop
one classifier cloth or textile
"一丈布, one zhang of cloth"
• 【qieux，尺】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 qieux is about 35centimeters, 10 qieux = 1 dho.
hlaus qieux dhop
two classifier cloth or textile
"两尺布, two feet of cloth"
• 【cuns，寸】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, about 3.5 cm, 10 cuns = 1 qieux.
fus cuns dhop
three classifier cloth or textile
"三寸布, three inches of cloth"
• 【hlaenx，庹】: the length of two arms, about the height of a person, about 5–6 feet.
• 【hwuup，拃】: the distance between the thumb and the middle finger pressed down on a surface in a straight line, about 15–20 centimeters, e.g.,
zuu hwuup daeus
one classifier length
"一拃长, one zuo length"
• 【tunx，节】: the length of a finger, about 6–9 centimeters.
• 【dhas，石】: a unit of weight, e.g., fuetdhas ghei, "十石米 (fuet: ten, ghei: uncooked rice)." 1 dhas is probably equal to 150 gins, about 75 kg.
• 【dhaeu，斗】: a unit of weight, e.g.,zuu dhaeu ghei，"一斗米 (zuu: one, ghei: uncooked rice)."10 dhaeu = 1 dhas; 1 dhaeu = 10 kax = 15 gins, about 7.5 kg.
• 【kax，升】: a unit of weight, e.g.,fus kax ghei, "三升米 (fus: three, ghei: uncooked rice)." 1 kax = 1.5 gins, about 0.75 kg.
• 【gins，斤】: a unit of weight, e.g.,zuu gins hla，"一斤鱼 (zuu: one, hla: fish)." 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 0.5 kg.
• 【luuengx，两】: a unit of weight, e.g., zuu luuengxnyaeus，"一两盐 (zuu: one, nyaeus: salt)." 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 500 g; so 1luuengx = 31.25 g
• 【dhun，吨】: a modern unit of weight, 1000 kg, e.g., fauus dhun ghoei，"九吨铁, a ton of iron (fauus: nine, ghoei: iron)."
• 【kop，捧 or 把】: the original action of holding or carrying something in both hands becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu kop ghei
one classifier rice
"一捧米, one scoop of rice"
• 【koens，捆】: the original action of tying, binding or bundling up becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu koens hya
one classifier thatch or couch grass
"一捆茅草, a sheaf of thatch"
• 【bhiek，捆】: it is usually used with a bundle of objects that is carried on one's shoulders, e.g.,
zuu bhiek guns
one classifier firewood/sticks
"一捆柴, a bundle of firewood/sticks"
• 【zeems，撮】: the original action of picking up (with all five fingers) becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu zeems nyaeus
one classifier salt
"一撮盐, one pinch (using all five fingers) of salt."
• 【jims，撮】: the original action of picking up (with the thumb and forefinger/index finger) becomes a measurement, e.g.,
jims zuugit nyaeus
pick up a little of salt
"拈一点盐, a pinch (using only two fingers) of salt"
hlaus jims nyaeus
two classifier salt
"两撮盐, two pinches of salt"
• 【fiek，担or 双】: the original action of carrying a pole (usually bamboo-made) on a shoulder that is used for measurements becomes a measurement for things that were carried on poles, e.g.,
zuu fiek guns
one classifier firewood
"一担柴a bundle of firewood"
zuu fiek zuugoems
one classifier shoe
"一双鞋, a pair of shoes"
• 【gok，杯、瓶】: a cup (or a bottle), originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu gok noms
one classifier water
"一杯水, a cup of water"
zuu gok ghweis
one classifier oil
"一瓶油, a bottle of oil"
• 【waeu，碗】: a bowl, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu waeu tax
one classifier cooked rice
"一碗饭, a bowl of rice"
• 【boux/baux，岁】: a year, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fuet ghou boux
one ten eight classifier
"十八岁, 18 years old"
• 【bhaem，围】: the original action of embracing something with two arms becomes a measurement, e.g.,
hlaus blaem cai
two classifier tree
"两围的树 tree size of two men's arms wrapped around it"
• 【comx，袋】: usually, objects that can be carried in bags that have become classifiers, e.g.,
zuu comx ghei
one classifier rice
"一袋米, a bag of rice"
• 【ding，升】: a barrel (made of coconut shells), originally a noun, becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu ding ghei
one classifier rice
"一升米, a barrel of rice"
• 【dhak，滴】: the original action is dripping; the meaning is "a drop", used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu dhak noms
one classifier water
"一滴水, a drop of water"
• 【dzuen，挂】: the stalk bananas grow on, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu dzuen hweek
one classifier banana
"一大挂芭蕉, a stalk of bananas"
• 【fas，阵】: as a noun it means sky, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fas fun
one classifier rain/shower
"一阵雨, a (rain) shower"
• 【fiens，把】: as a noun it is the handle of farm tools, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fiens gwaek
one classifier hoe
"一把锄头, a hoe"
• 【fok，块】: as a noun it is a place, area, or region, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fok gom neix
one classifier region this
"这块地方, this region"
• 【gieps，夹】: the original action is sheaving the thatch, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
hlaus gieps hya
two. classifier thatch
"两夹茅草, two sheaves of thatch"
• 【guengs，篮、框】: a basket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu guengs ghei
one classifier hoe
"一筐米, a basket of rice"
• 【guety，串】: a stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu guety hla
one classifier fish
"一串鱼, a string of fish"
• 【neny，串】: a bamboo stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu neny hla
one classifier fish
"一串鱼, a string of fish"
• 【neny，枝】: as a noun it means a little branch, but it can also be used as a classifier with a branch or flower, e.g.,
zuu neny ceeng
one classifier flower
"一枝花, a flower"
• 【ghongs，丛】: as a noun it means a grove, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu ghongs hweek
one classifier banana
"一丛芭蕉树, a grove of banana trees"
• 【hoep，盒】: as a noun it means a box, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu hoep cuax
one classifier matches
"一盒火柴, a box of matches"
• 【hwang，圈】: as a noun it means a ring, ferrule, or band, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu hwang zuu hwang noms
one classifier one classifier water
"一圈一圈的水, a ripple (of water)"
• 【hwaeng，垄】: as a noun it means a balk, that is to be heaped up with soil into ridges, e.g.,
zuu hwaeng man
one classifier a general term for potato
"一垄甘薯, a ridge of sweet potatoes"
• 【hwoens，丘、床】: as a noun it means something lined up forming a pattern, e.g.,
zuu hwoen dax
one classifier field
"一丘田, a field";
zuu hyoen haeus
one classifier quilt
"一床被子, a quilt"
• 【op，抱】: the original action is holding a baby, e.g.,
zuu op guns
one classifier firewood
"一抱柴火, an armful of firewood"
• 【puuen，代】: as a noun it means seniority in respect to age, and as a classifier it means "generations," e.g.,
fa buuen neix bhaeis zaux fus puuen bhe
We come here already have three classifier accent
"我们来这儿已有三代了, We've been here for three generations."
• 【rei，枝】: as a noun it means sprouts, and as a classifier it is used with sprouts.
• 【ruek，窝、笼、盒】: as a noun it means nest, cage, or box, and it can be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu ruek bou
one classifier pig/hug
"一窝猪, a litter of pigs"
zuu ruek kai
one classifier chicken
"一笼鸡, a cage of chickens"
zuu ruek aenx
one classifier cake
"一盒点心, a box of cakes"
Sometimes, it is also used with urine, e.g.,
zuu ruek dhou
one classifier urine
"一泡尿, a stream of urine"
• 【taen，场、趟】: as a noun it means altar (usually for worship of the demons or the ancestors), but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
bhaeis vuek zuu taen dings.
Already do one classifier demon
"已经祭了一趟鬼, (The priest) already sacrificed once to the demons."
• 【taeng，桶】: a bucket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu taeng noms
one classifier water
"一桶水, a bucket of water"
• 【tiep，夹】: the original action is picking up food up with chopsticks, but as a noun it means chopsticks, which can be used as a classifier referring to the food amount that is taken up with a pinch of the chopsticks, e.g.,
zuu tiep bheuucai
one classifier vegetable
"一夹菜, a chopstick-pinch of food"
• 【tuck，包】: the original action is to wrap up; bind up; enclose; pack, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu tuek dza
one classifier cigarettes
"一包烟, a pack of cigarettes"
• 【veeng，户】: as a noun it means lord or master, and as a classifier it can be used with households, e.g.,
zuu veeng
one classifier
"一户(人家), a household."
• 【zaemx，步】: as a noun it means step, and the verb is stepping or walking, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu ghwaen zaemx
one hundred classifier
"一百步, one hundred steps"
• 【zeeng，穗、粒】: as a noun it means kernels (husks) of rice, but it can also be a classifier to mean the husks from a stalk of rice or something with larger kernels, e.g.,
zuu zeeng muens
one classifier rice
"一穗稻子, a stalk of rice"
zuu zeeng nyaeus
one classifier salt
"一粒粗盐, a grain of coarse salt"
• 【faei，下、次、回】: time, e.g.,
taeix zuu faei
hit/beat one classifier
"打一下, to hit/beat once"
• 【gaeis，回、次、遍】: time, e.g.,
na bhaeis rien hlaus gaeis
he/she already say/speak two classifier
"他已经说了两遍了, He already said (it) two times."
• 【guen，趟、遍】: time, e.g.,
hei zuu guen
go one classifier
"去一次, go (there) one time"
• 【caety，阵、遍】: it is usually used by women, it means "time", e.g.,
bhaeis fun zuu caety
Already rain one classifier
"下了一阵雨, It already showered."
kai bhaeis hyoen fus caety
Chicken already cock crow three classifier
"鸡已叫了三遍, The chicken has already crowed three times."
• 【pienx，遍】: time, e.g.,
tak zuu pienx
study one classifier
"读一遍, read one time"
• 【caeu，阵】: it is usually used by the elderly, it means "time", e.g.,
zuu caeu fun
one classifier rain
"一阵雨, a shower (describing rain)"
zuu caeu hwoet
one classifier wind
"一阵风, a gust of wind"
• 【caens，顿】: classifier for meal, e.g.,
zuu caens tax
one classifier rice
"一顿饭, a meal"
• 【kok，脚】: feet, e.g.,
teeks zuu kok
kick one classifier
"踢一脚, give (it) a kick"
• 【boms，口】: mouth, e.g.,
gaenys zuu boms
bite one classifier
"咬一口, to take a bite"
• 【feek，口or 句】: mouth, e.g.,
lax zuu feek tax
eat one classifier rice
"吃一口饭, to take a bite of food"
na zuu feek tun ruus da rien
he/she one classifier word even not say
"他一句话也不说, He did not even say a word."
• 【pui，阵、遍】: it means "time" and is used to count sleep, e.g.,
gaux zuu pui
sleep one classifier
"睡一觉, time spent in rest/sleep"
Classifiers cannot be doubled as AA (e.g., lang lang), but can be used in a AB+AB pattern, e.g., Daty zuu kun zuu kun bheny.
bird one classifier one classifier fly
"鸟成群成群地飞，Birds fly in groups."
Classifiers cannot modify nouns alone; classifiers and numbers must be used together to modify nouns, e.g., Zuu lang ba neix long dhat!
one classifier dog this big really/truly
"这只狗真大！This dog is really big!"
Classifiers (for modifying verbs) and numbers must be used together and be placed after the verb as a complement; in some regions, the combination (number+classifier) would be placed before the verb, e.g., Raux fus gaeis =Fus gaeis raux
read aloud three classifier= three classifier read
"读三遍，read three times"
Taeix zuu guen = Zuu guen taeix
hit one classifier = one classifier hit
"打一次，to hit/punch one time"
In some occasions, the combination of numbers and classifiers exists alone, whereby they are not modifying any nouns or verbs, e.g., Hou caty zuu hom, meuu ngan caty zuu hom.
I buy one classifier you also buy one classifier
"我买一个，你也买一个，I buy one, and you buy one."
There are three kinds of pronouns: the personal pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, and interrogative pronoun.
The different usage of "hou" and "dhes":
P.S. My language consultant said: the word "kun" is a simplified form of "kunaeu". Usually, in a conversation held between those of the same gender group, "kun" is used; in a conversation held between those of different gender groups, "kunaeu" would be used to show respect. Or, if a conversation were made up of those from both the older and younger generation, the younger generation would need to use "kunaeu" to show respect toward the elderly.
Personal pronouns can be both a subject and an object, e.g.,
Personal pronouns can also act as an attribute to indicate the possessive relation, e.g.,
Reflexive pronouns can be an appositive to another pronoun to emphasize the pronoun, e.g.,
The auxiliary word "guu" can be placed before a personal pronoun to indicate the possessive relation. After placing the word "guu", the pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,
The word "neix" refers to someone, or something, at a close distance; the word "hauux" is farther away than the word "neix"; the word "max" is even farther. These three words also can be combined to the words "dhong" or "hi" and become compound words as below,
Other demonstrative pronouns are:
When a demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, it is placed before the head word, e.g.,
When a demonstrative pronoun combines with a number, a classifier, and a noun to form a noun phrase, the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, e.g.,
When a demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute in a noun phrase, it can be placed either in the beginning or at the end of the noun phrase, e.g.,
If the linking verb is placed between the demonstrative pronoun and the noun, the demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, e.g.,
The words "neix", "hauux", and "max" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and an object; the word "uughwaix" can be a subject, an attribute, and an object; the compound words "dhongneix", "dhonghauux", "hineix", and "hihauux" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and a predicate, e.g.,
There is no declension in demonstrative pronouns to indicate singular or plural. So, the demonstrative pronouns need to go with the number and classifier, or the word "zuugit" to indicate singular or plural, e.g.,
When the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, it is usually placed after the head word, e.g.,
When the demonstrative pronoun is placed after the personal pronoun, or the interrogative pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun loses its meaning, and becomes an empty word that functions as an emphasis to make it sound fluent, e.g.,
The demonstrative pronoun "ranx" is only placed before the classifier, and can be doubled for emphasis, e.g.,
The demonstrative pronoun "uughwaix" can be an attribute and an object, e.g.,
The interrogative word "uuras" ("asras") can be a subject, an attribute, or an object, e.g.,
Just like personal pronouns, when the auxiliary word "guu" isplaced before an interrogative pronoun, it indicates a possessive relation, and the interrogative pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,
The interrogative word "meshes" cannot be a subject, only an attribute or an object, e.g.,
The interrogative word "ras" cannot be a subject, only an attribute, an adverbial or an object., e.g.,
When the word "ras" acts as an attribute, it is usually used with a number and clasiifier, and is placed before a noun, e.g.,
When the word "ras" acts as an adverb, it is usually placed after the adjective, e.g.,
The interrogative word "dhongras" usually acts as an adverbial, and is most often is placed before a verb, but sometimes it can be placed after a verb, e.g.,
The interrogative word "qiras" most often acts as an adverbial, and must be placed before the verb, e.g.,
The interrogative word "hloeiras" most often acts as an object, e.g.,
These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verbs or adjectives, e.g.,
When the adverb "da" modifies verbs or adjectives, and "zo", an accentuated emphatic particle, is placed at the end of the sentence, "da" means "not yet", e.g.,
When the adverb "da" is placed at the end of a sentence, then the word "da" signals a question, e.g.,
These adverbs are usually placed before the adjectives to modify them, e.g.,
But, the adverbs "dhat" and "baisias" are placed after the adjectives. These two words also can modify verbs, e.g.,
To increase the degree of something, two different adverbs can modify the same term, e.g.,
The word "dhat" can be doubled to increase the degree, e.g.,
These adverbs are usually placed before the verbs to modify them, e.g.,
These adverbs "mans" and "nyoengx" can be linked together to emphasize the voice, e.g.,
These adverbs cannot be doubled for intensity, except for the adverb "naeus", e.g.,
Adverbs for indicating timing usually modify verbs, and are placed before the verbal phrase, e.g.,
However, the adverb "kuenx" can also be placed after the verbal phrase, e.g.,
These adverbs modify verbs; the word "loms" or "uuloms" is placed before a verb, and the word "toengs" is placed after a verb, e.g.,
The verb being modified by the adverb "toengs" can be modified by other adverbs, which are placed before the verb, e.g.,
These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,
A more unusual placement of these adverbs is at the beginning of a sentence, e.g.,
That link nouns:
That link pronouns:
That link noun phrases:
That link verb-object phrases:
These conjunctions can be added to more than two nouns, pronouns, or phrases; These conjunctions can even be placed before the first noun, pronoun, or phrase, e.g.,
These conjunctions can also function as prepositions, as can be seen in the chart below:
The word "nyuek" is used in Hlai's folk song, and can be linked with a verb, e.g.,
Some adverbs, like "loms" (又，却，again) and "hloeis" (顺便，by the way, 而且 and), can also function as conjunctions, e.g.,
Generally, the word "cas" is a synonym of "cuus." Both can be used in indicative and interrogative sentences. But, another synonym "cuusnaus" can only be used in interrogative sentences, e.g.,
The word "dagoms" also means "not only" or "or", e.g.,
Generally, the word "danyoengx" or "dagoms" is the synonym of the word "dacaux", e.g.,
The conjunction words that express a parallel relationship are "uengx" (和, and), "ku" (和, and), and "nyuek" (和, and), e.g.,
The conjunctions that express a progressive relationship are "loms" (又, again), "hloeis"(并且, 而且, and), and similar phrases like "dacaux…koms…" (不但...而且...，not only... but also...), e.g.,
In the construction of phrases like "dacaux…koms…" ("not only…but also…"), the conjunctions "but also" ("koms", "uengx", or "toep") must be placed in the second clause, between the verb and the object.
The conjunctions that express an optional relationship are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g.,
The conjunctions that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "tus" (但是, but), e.g.,
The conjunctions that express a conditional relationship are "laeis", "dalunx", e.g.,
The conjunctions that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
However, as more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, they have gradually adopted Chinese grammar, and have placed the prepositional phrase before the verb, e.g.,
The word "ueks" can be placed after the preposition "dhuus", e.g.,
The prepositional phrase being constructed by the word "ueks" can also act as a subject, e.g.,
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after the verb, and acts as a complement.
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
However, the prepositional phrase of "niens" can also be placed after averb, e.g.,
The word "cuuslax" is only used in poetry as above.
Since more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, sometimes they express the purpose by using the loan word "uis" or "uisliaeus".
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after verbs, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
However, because of the influence of Chinese grammar, the "ku" prepositional phrase can also be placed before the verb, e.g.,
When a prepositional phrase, constructed by the preposition "dhuas," modifies an adjective as a complement, it indicates a comparison.
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
However, the prepositional phrase using "uengx" can also be placed after the verb, e.g.,
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
There are three words in the category of structural auxiliary words: "guu", "uu-", and "dhaens"
When the word "guu" is placed before a noun or a pronoun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.,
However, the word "guu" can be omitted, e.g.,
The auxiliary prefix "uu-" can be added to some verbs or adjectives. After adding this prefix, the nominalized verb or adjective can be a subject, object, or an attribute, but cannot be a predicate, e.g.,
Another structural auxiliary word is "dhaens". It is usually placed after a verb or an adjective, and is followed by a complement that indicates the result or degree of the action/situation, e.g.,
The word "dhuas" is placed after a verb to indicate an action has already happened, e.g.,
Both the auxiliary words "lax" and "dheuu" are often used to indicate the relationship of acting and receiving between an agent and a patient.
The original meaning of the word "lax" is "to eat", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word; the word "lax" is usually placed after the person-object in double-object sentences, even when the thing-object is absent.
The original meaning of the word "dheuu" is "to take", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word, e.g.,
Generally, the word "lax" and "dheuu" are exchangeable.
There are several words used in the indicative mood, like "lo", "bhe", "ve/vi", "he", "zu/zo", and "rus"
This word indicates that something is in the process, or is forth coming, and it expresses the feeling of hope or surprise, e.g.,
This word indicates something has already happened, and it usually does not express the subjective feeling, e.g.,
This word indicates that the speaker is explaining something, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
This word indicates something has already happened, and it does not express the subjective feeling, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
This word indicates something is a fact or true, in which the speaker tries to persuade others, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
Sometimes the words "zo/zu" can have "ho" or "nex" added to them to put an emphasis on the mood, e.g.,
This word indicates that something is not sure, and the speaker's tone is mild and indirect, tactful, e.g.,
There are several words used in the interrogative mood, like "hos", "yos", "os", "hyos", "zuumos", "huux", "hauux", "yax", "nex/nix", "zuurasve", "bas/vixbas", and "zuuras/cuusras".
These words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,
These words are used in sentences with an interrogative pronoun, e.g.,
These words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,
These words are used in interrogative sentences where the speaker inquires by questioning closely, e.g.,
These words express a possibility, e.g.,
There are several words used in the imperative mood, like "as", "bas", "res", "bhislo".
This word is used to enjoin or to exhort someone to join in to do something, and the tone is soft and gentle, e.g.,
This word is used to command, to request, or to exhort someone to do something, e.g.,
This word is used by one with a discontented mood to command, to request, or to hasten someone to do something, e.g.,
Sometimes the word "bhislo" is also used to put an emphasis on the indicative mood, e.g.,
The usage of this word is similar with the word "bas", however, the tone of the word "res" is kind and warm, e.g.,
There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aiho", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feeling, e.g.,
Usually, these words are placed in the end of a sentence; however, sometimes these words act as one word sentences, e.g.,
Onomatopoeic words for expressing the feeling of surprise, exclamation, or agreement. Usually, these words are independent/separated from a sentence or clause, e.g.,
However, some onomatopoeic words can go with or within a sentence or clause, e.g.,
Onomatopoeic words for imitating human, animate, or nature sounds，e.g.,
More onomatopoeic words below:
There are five kinds of phrases: the coordinative phrases, the attribute phrases, the verb-object phrases, the complement phrases, and the subject-predicate phrases.
The method used to coordinate equivalent elements in a coordinative phrase is to use conjunctions, but another method is not to use conjunctions. The nouns and pronouns sometimes use the conjunctions, sometimes they do not.
Usually, the verbs and adjectives need conjunctions.
However, when the verbs and adjectives are doubled, there is no need for conjunctions.
The elements in the attribute phrases are not equivalent; one element is the head word, and the other element is the modifier that modifies the head word. Usually, the head word is a noun, a verb, or an adjective.
Usually, the modifier is placed after the noun head word.
The word "enyx" (小, small) is the exception where the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,
The modifier, which is constructed with a number and classifier, must be placed before the head word.
Like Chinese, these modifiers are placed after the head word, and most of these words are loan words, e.g.,
Noun + noun (the head word)
Adjective + noun (the head word)
Verb + noun (the head word)
The modifiers that modify verbs are the adverbs, adjectives, pronouns, nouns, numbers, or verbs. Usually, the monosyllabic modifier is placed before the head word; the disyllabic/doubled adjective, the pronoun, or the number can be either placed before or after the head word, e.g.,
dais dais fei= fei dais dais
slow slow walk
"慢慢走，walk slowly" (This is also used to say good bye.)
dzuuns dzuuns raux = raux dzuuns dzuuns
quick quick read
"快快读，read quickly"
hleny hleny rien = rien hleny hleny
good good say
"好好说，say (it) nicely"
liloek vuek= vuek liloek
dark do
"漆黑做，do (it in) darkness"
dhonghauux nyop = nyop dhonghauux
like that sew
"那样缝，sew like that"
dhongras vuek? = vuek dhongras?
how do
"怎么做？How is it to be done?"
qiras hei? = hei qiras?
When go
"何时走？When (is it time to) go?"
zuu gaeis hei = hei zuu gaeis
one classifier go
"去一趟，(make) a trip" (means to run an errand)
fus faei taeix= taeix fus faei
three classifier beat
"打三下，beat (something) three times"
zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx ghwa= ghwa zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx
one classifier one classifier plant
"一棵一棵地种，plant one by one"
zuu boms zuu boms lax= lax zuu bomszuu boms
one classifier one classifier eat
"一口一口地吃，eat one (bite) at a time"
The modifiers that modify adjectives are adjectives, adverbs, or pronouns. Usually, when the modifier is an adjective or adverb, the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,
Only few adverbs, like "dhat" (真, 很, really, very) or "baisias" (非常, 极, very much, most), are placed after the head word, e.g.,
Also, when the modifier is a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun or noun, the modifier is placed after the head word, e.g.,
The construction of the phrase above actually is: Adjective (the head word) + dhong/bhaen + noun, the word "dhong" (像, as, like) or "bhaen" (像, as, like) is omitted, e.g.,
The verb is the head word, and the object can be a noun, a pronoun, a number, or a verb. Usually, the verb is placed before the object, e.g.,
Some verbal adjectives can act as the head word with the noun as the object, e.g.,
The complement phrases include both a verb-complement phrase and an adjective-complement phrase.
The verb is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The verb is placed before the complement.
In this case, the verb must be an intransitive verb, and the phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.
The adjective is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The complement indicates the result of the head word, so usually the auxiliary word "dhaens" is placed between the complement and the head word.
In this case, the adjective acts not as an attribute to the noun, but functions as expository to the noun. The phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.
This kind of phrase is constructed by the subject and the predicate; usually, the subject is a noun or a pronoun, and the predicate is a verb or an adjective.
The construction of the subject-predicate phrase is the same as the attribute phrase.Usually, if there is an element, like an accent, an adverb, or a noun, that is either placed after or before the phrase, then it is a subject-predicate phrase. See the chart below:
The statements above are incomplete sentences. But, when we add some critical words, they become complete sentences to communicate a complete thought that makes sense to the listeners or readers, e.g.,
The chart below presents the grammatical elements that construct a sentence. These elements are a subject, a predicate, an object, a complement, an attribute and an adverbial phrase.
The subject is placed before the predicate; and either the nouns, pronouns, numbers, or phrases can be the subject.
The predicate is placed after the subject to provide information about the subject. Usually, verbs or adjectives are the predicate; however, nouns, pronouns, and phrases can also be the predicate.
In the examples above, the subjects are the actors who act out the actions; however, the subjects can also receive the actions, which is called passive voice. Auxiliary words like "ia" or "ghoems" can be used to denote passive voice, e.g.,
An object follows a verb. However, if the sentence is passive voice, the object can be placed before the verb phrase. Usually, a noun, pronoun or phrase can act as an object; sometimes, a number or verb can also be a subject, e.g.,
The construction is Verb + person-object + lax/dheuu + thing-object, e.g.,
The auxiliary word "lax" can be replaced by the verb "duuengx" (给, give), then the construction becomes Verb + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, and the objects generally cannot be omitted, e.g.,
Sometimes, the verb "duuengx" (给, for) can be placed both before the thing-object and the person-object, then the sentence construction becomes Verb + duuengx + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, e.g.,
When both speaker and listener are clear what the thing-object is, or the subject itself is the given thing, the thing-object can be omitted, but the auxiliary needs to be kept, e.g.,
Although some verbs in double-object sentences do not imply the giving-receiving relation, the auxiliary word "lax", which indicates that the subject is "helping" the person-object, is still needed. e.g.,
Hou reengs meuu lax.
I move you auxiliary word (help)
"我帮你搬，I will help you (to) move."
Meuu laix na lax.
You plow him auxiliary word (help)
"你帮他犁田，You help him (to) plow."
Baisdza caep hluuekbaiskaux lax.
Mother carry daughter auxiliary word (help)
"母亲帮女儿挑，A mother helps her daughter carry (the stuff)."
The auxiliary word "lax" can be followed by another object, e.g.,
Taeix dhes lax tax.
Put me auxiliary word (help) rice
"帮我打饭，Please help get me (some) rice."
Hou caty meuu lax bheuucai.
I buy you auxiliary word (help) vegetable
"我帮你买菜，I'll help you buy (some) vegetables."
Na rien na kueng poengs meuu lax ceengcai.
He say he would water you auxiliary word (help) flower
"他说他会帮你给花浇水，He said he would help you water the flowers."
There are three kinds of complements: sequential, directional, and quantitative complements. A complement goes after the verb or the adjective, in order to explain the sequence, degree, direction, or amount of the action. Usually, the verb, adjective, number, or phrase acts as a complement. Generally, a complement is placed after a verb, but if an object follows that verb, then the sequential complement and quantitative complement have to be placed after that object; the directional complement can either be placed after or before that object, e.g.,
Dzax ghoems taeix hlaeux bhe.
Snake by hit die accent
"蛇被打死了，The snake was beaten to death by (someone)."
Hou bhaeis lax kuuem he.
I already eat full accent
"我已经吃饱了，I have already eaten (rice) and am full."
Na lax tax kuuem he.
He eat rice full accent
"他吃饱饭了，He ate and is full."
If the sequential complement is a phrase, the prepositional word "dhaens" is needed to be placed before the phrase, e.g.,
Na gwaeng dhaens tuuen nomswoms.
He pull preposition go out sweat
"他拉到出汗，He pulled until he sweat."
Duis ghoux dhaens ngaeix noms hauux.
Water buffalo run preposition edge/bank river that
"水牛跑到那河边，The water buffalo ran to the bank of that river."
Veengs neix baen dhaens asras ruus qieng cat.
shirt/top this new preposition whoever also want wear
"这衣服新到谁都想穿，This shirt is so new that everyone wants to wear it."
The directional complement is constructed by a verb + a directional verb, e.g.,
a. Directional complement without an object
Most directional complements can act as a complement after alone verb, e.g.,
Na qieus buuen bhe.
He bring come accent
"他拿来了，He brought something here."
Duis ghoux hei lo!
Water buffalo run go accent
"水牛跑去了，The water buffalo ran (away)."
Aeudza buuen luueng bhe
Old man come go back accent
"老人回来了，The old man came back."
Uengxtoengs caep hei beuu bhe
Everyone carry go come back accent
"大家挑回去了，Everyone carried (something) back (home)."
Na ais caus. luei ba.
He is not willing to come down down accent
"他不愿意走下来吧，He is not willing to come down."
Na ghoux tuuen hos?
He run go out accent of question
"他跑出来了吗？Did he run out (from there)?"
b. Directional complement with an object
These three directional verbs, "dhuas", "kaen", and "hluet", need an object to go after them, e.g.,
Tuas zuens dhuas zuu dhanx dhaeix.
Rabbit jump over one classifier stream
"兔子跳过一条小沟，The rabbit jumped over a stream."
Uengxtoengs caem kaen hwous max.
Everyone carry on shoulders go up mountain that
"大家抬到那山上，Everyone shouldered (something) up that mountain."
Diu bhaeis ghoux hluet cuengs he.
Mouse already run go into hole accent
"老鼠已经跑进洞，The mouse already ran into the hole."
The quantitative complement, which is constructed by either (number + verbal classifier), or (number + time classifier), usually goes after a verb, sometimes goes after an adjective, e.g.,
a. Verb + (number + verbal classifier)
Hou uengx meuu hei zuu gaeis.
I and you go one classifier
"我和你去一趟，I and you (can) go (there)."
Kai bhaeis hyoen fus dzax bhe.
Chicken already crow three classifier accent
"鸡已经啼三遍了，The rooster has already crowed three times."
b. Verb + (number + time classifier)
Fa bhaeis o zuu bhoux he.
We already learn one year/classifier accent
"我们已经学一年了，We (have) already studied for one year."
Na bhaeis doengs fus hwan he.
He already stay three day accent
"他已经住三天了，He (has) already stayed (for) three days."
Na beuu blongs zaux hlaus nyaen bhe.
He go back home have two month accent
"他回家有两个月了，He has been home for two months now."
c. Adjective + (number + classifier)
Blongs neix peek dhuas blongs hauux zuugit.
House this high/tall than house that a little bit
"这房子比那房子高一点，This house (is just) a little bit taller than that house."
Waeu neix hloei fus hom.
Bowl this more three classifier
"这碗多三个，This bowl (has) three extra (ones)."
The attribute is to modify or to define the subject or object, in order to indicate the characteristics, amount, or possession. Usually, the attribute, which can be an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, a number, a verb, or different kinds of phrases, is placed after the head word, except when a number acts as an attribute, the number must be placed before the head word, e.g.,
aek duis
meat water buffalo
"牛肉，beef"
feekx hweek
skin banana
"香蕉皮，banana peel"
coem coeis
fruit litchi
"荔枝果，litchi (fruit)"
dzuuem kai
egg chicken
"鸡蛋，chicken egg"
Na kueng rien tun Hlai.
He know say/speak language/word Li
"他会说黎话，He knows(how to) speak the Li's language."
Neix man bheuu cai.
This is leaf tree
"这是树叶，This is a tree's leaf."
tau loek
pot black
"黑锅，black pot"
zuu fans veengs kaeu
one classifier shirt/top white
"一件白上衣，one white shirt"
noms neix noms ghan.
water this water cold
"这水是冷水，This water (is) cold water."
Gha Hlai zaux caqias veengzauus bhe.
We Li people have script self accent
"咱们黎族有自己的文字了，We, Li people, have our own script."
Hluuek na kweis hei zok Damxax.
Older sister his/her is going to go to/toward Sanya
"他姐姐要去三亚，His older sister is going to go to Sanya."
Zuu zuen aeu dhuus blongs max.
One classifier man in house that
"一个人在那边房子，A man (is) in that house."
Hlaus lang duis neix ghweis dhat dhat.
Two classifier water buffalo this fat very very
"这两头牛肥极了，These two water buffalos (are) very, very fat."
Dhuus max wenysnaeis fok gaux.
In/at there no place lie down
"在那里没有地方睡，At that place, (there is) no place to sleep."
Toep laty ghoux ruus zeuu loem.
Even wild boar run also shoot right
"连跑的野猪也射中，He shot even a running wild boar right on."
Neix gong lax fa.
This stuff eat our
"这是我们吃的东西，This (is) our food ."
veengs dhuus blongs hauux
shirt/top in house that
"在那房子的衣服，the shirt (that is) in that house"
hluuekueng naeus buuen hauux
girl just come that
"那位刚来的姑娘，that girl (who) just came"
zuu lang duis lax gans kuuem
one classifier water buffalo eat grass full
"一只吃饱草的水牛，a water buffalo (that) eats grass (until it's) full"
qi meuu buuen hauux
time you come that
"你来的那个时候，that time (when) you came"
The adverbial modifies or defines verbs or adjectives, in order to indicate the why, how, when, and where of the verb, or the degree of the adjective. Most often it is an adverb, an adjective, or a verb that acts as an adverbial; sometimes, a noun, a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun, a number, and various phrases can also be adverbials. Adverbials can either be placed before or after the verb or adjective. e.g.,
Most adverbs are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,
Na oms da buuen zo.
He still not come accent
"他还没来呢，He has not come (yet)."
Hwanneix fas vaeu fous hos.
Today sky mosthot accent
"今天天气很热啊，Today the weather (is) very hot."
Qi lax tax yous rien tun!
Time eat rice don't say/speak word
"吃饭时别说话！It is eating time, don't talk!"
Zuu lang aeu neix da hlenymuuen.
One classifier man this not beautiful
"这个人不漂亮！This person (is) not beautiful."
Only fewadverbs, like "dhat", "luueng", "baisias" and "dhatdhat", are placed after the verb or adjective, e.g.,
Na buuen dhat.
He come really
"他真的来了，He really came."
Na vuek luueng.
He do back
"他重新做，He (is) re-doing (it)."
Gong neix hleny dhatdhat.
Stuff this good really
"这东西真好，This is really good stuff."
Maeis neix dheeng baisias.
Sugarcane this sweet very
"这甘蔗非常甜，This sugarcane (is) very sweet."
Most adjectives are placed before verb or adjective head words. Only a few adjectives, like "hleny" (好, good/so), and "reek" (坏, bad/not so), can be adverbials to modify adjective head words, e.g.,
reek coem
bad/not so sharp
"不锋利，not so sharp"
Gas neix hleny coem hos！
Long knife this good/so sharp accent!
"这把刀好快啊！This knife is (so) sharp!"
Dais fei as, baisdza！
Slow walk accent, old lady!
"慢走啊，老大娘，Slow(ly) walk, (lady/old woman)."
Meuu dzuuns buuen bhe！
You quick come accent
"你快来吧，(You) quick(ly) come."
If an adjective is doubled, it can be placed after the verb, e.g.,
Meuu buuen dzuunsdzuuns bhe！
You come quick quick accent
"你快快来吧，(You) come double quick."
When verbs act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial verbs are placed before that head word, e.g.,
Na ngais rien.
He/she cry say
"她哭着说，She said (it while) crying."
Meuu dzok dzueis meshes?
You steal/secretly look what
"你偷看什么？What are you secretly looking at?"
Na oep lax zuuyunx.
He like eat coconut
"他爱吃椰子，He likes to eat coconuts."
When nouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial nouns are placed before that head word, e.g.,
Neix man cai vuek
This is tree make
"这是木制的，This is made of wood."
Meuu ashaux hei hyos?
You tomorrow go question accent
"你明天去吗？Are you going tomorrow?"
When pronouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial pronouns can either be placed before or after that head word, e.g.,
Na dhongneix rien. = Na rien dhongneix.
He like this say = He say like this
"他这样说，He said (it) like this."
Gong neix dhongras vuek = Gong neix vuek dhongras
work this how do = work this do how
"这活儿怎样做？How (is) this work done?"
Qiras dhaens = dhaens qiras
When arrive = arrive when
"何时到？When (will he) arrive?"
However, when pronouns act as adverbials to modify a head word that is an adjective, the adverbial pronouns are only placed after that head word, e.g.,
Gom neix bheeng dhonghauux.
Region this wide/vast like that/so
"这地方那么宽，This region (is) so vast."
Zuu zuen aeu neix hleny dhonghauux.
One classififer man this good/kind like that/so
"这个人那么好，This man (is) so good."
Zuu dhanx dhoei neix daeus ras?
One classififer rope this long how?
"这一条绳子有多长？How long (is) this rope?"
When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "ia" (被, by) or "dheuu" (被, by), act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies a head word that is a verb, and must be placed before that head word, e.g.,
Ia ba gaenys
by dog bite
"被狗咬，bit by a dog"
dheuu na taeix
by him hit
"被他打，hit by him"
When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "tuuen" (从, by), "dhuus" (在, in/at), "ku" (对, to), "uengx" (和, and),or "nyuek" (和, and) act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies the head word that is a verb, and must be placed either before or after that head word, e.g.,
tuuen max zuu dhanx guen kaen hwous
From that one classifier road go up mountain
"从这一条路上山，by that road (one can) go up the mountain"
toek tuuen deuu cai
drop from on tree
"从树上掉下来，drop from the tree"
dhuus blongs dzoeng meuu = dzoeng meuu dhuus blongs
at house/home wait you = wait you at house/home
"在家等你，(I'll) wait for you at home."
ku na rien = rien ku na
to him say = say to him
"对他说，say to him"
uengx meuu hei= hei uengx meuu
With you go = go with you
"同你去，(I'll) go with you."
meuu doengs nyuek na. = meuu nyuek na doengs.
You play with/and him = You with/and him play
"你和他玩，You play with him."
Some prepositions, like "bhi" (比, than/compare), "dhuas" (过, than), "dhong" (同/像/如, same/be like), or "bhaen" (像, be like), have nouns as adverbials to modify the adjective head word, of which some are placed before that head word, others after, and still others either before or after, e.g.,
Before the adjective head word:
Meuu bhi dhes peek.
You than/compare me tall
"你比我高，You (are) taller than me."
After the adjective head word:
Meuu peek dhuas na.
You tall than him
"你高过他，You (are) taller than him."
Ba long dhuas mieux.
Dog big than cat
"狗大过猫，A dog (is) bigger than a cat."
Before or after the adjective head word:
hloek bhaen laengs
deep like/as sea
"像海一样深，as deep as the sea."
enyx dhong guty
small like/as needle
"像针一样小，as small as a needle."
Kai neix bhaen eps ghweis. = Kai neix ghweis bhaen eps.
Chicken this like/as duck fat = Chicken this fat as duck
"这只鸡像鸭一样肥，This chicken (is) as fat as (a) duck."
The simple sentence includes subject-predicate sentence, no subject sentence, one word sentence, e.g.,
Fas fun lo.
sky rain accent
"天要下雨了，It's going to rain."
Na hei bhe.
He go accent
"他去了，He went."
Enyxlauux raeu he.
Child laugh accent
"小孩笑了，(The) child(ren) laughed."
The simple sentences above include two elements: subjects and predicates, however, other elements like objects, complements, or adverbials can be included, e.g.,
(subject + predicate + object)
Hou lax tax.
I eat rice
"我吃饭，I eat rice."
(subject + predicate + complement)
Na qieus buuen bhe.
He bring come accent
"他拿来了，He brought (it with him)."
(subject + adverbial + predicate + complement)
Enyxlauux bhaeis fei hluet blongs.
Child already walk into house
"小孩走进屋子，(The) child(ren) walked into the house."
This simple sentences look like inverted sentences, e.g.,
Tuut dhoei bhe.
Break rope accent
"断绳了，The rope (is) broken."
Hloei aeu dhat.
Many people really/very
"人真多，(There are) so many people."
Hlaeux hlai bhe.
Die fish accent
"鱼死了，The fish died."
Asras？
Who？
"谁？Who?"
Ahyo!
Oh my!
"哎哟！Oh my!"
A: "Meuu kweis da kweis？" B: "Kweis."
A: 'Are you willing (or) not willing?' B: '(Yes, I am) willing.'
A: 你愿意不愿意？B:愿意
There are two kinds of compound sentences; one is a coordinate compound sentence, the other is a subordinate compound sentence, e.g.,
The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: parallel, progressive, and optional.
Usually, there is no need of conjunctions between clauses.
Hou kweis hei kuishuix, na kweis hei ang.
I will go have a meeting he will go field
"我要去开会，他要去山栏地，I'm going to a meeting, he's going to the field."
Coem hweek hou ngan lax dhuas,
Fruit banana I also eat auxiliary past tense
zuuyunx hou ngan lax dhuas.
coconut I also eat auxiliary past tense
"香蕉我吃过，椰子我也吃过，I've eaten bananas, and I have also eaten coconuts."
Na hoen vuek veengs vuek riens,
He/she know how to do shirt do skirt
hoen vuek ang vuek dax.
know how to do hilly field do plain field
"她能做衣服做裙子，能耕田种地，She can make shirts and skirts, (she also) can work (in) hilly (and) plain fields."
The conjunction words that express a progressive relationship between clauses are "loms" (又, still),"oms" (还, 却, yet),"ruus" (都, all), "koms" (连, even/also), and their similar phrases such as "dacaux…koms/uuloms…"(不但...而且...，not only... but also...), e.g.,
Fas bhaeis cop, na loms da beuu.
Sky already late he still not come back
"天已经晚了，他还不回来，It was late, and he still (had) not come back."
Fas oms da dhenys, na bhaeis hei ang he.
Sky yet not bright, he already go field accent
"天尚未亮，他已经去田里了，It was not yet the break of dawn, and he had already gone to the field."
Meuuda man Moei, fa man Hlai, gha ruus man uxaeu Dongxgok.
You are Han, we are Li, we all are people China
"你们是汉族，我们是黎族，咱们都是中国人，You are Han, we are Li, we are all Chinese."
Na kueng rien tun Hlai,
He know how to speak language/word Li
kueng rien koms tun Moei.
know how to speak also/even language/word Han
"他会说黎话，也会说汉话，He knows how to speak the Li language, also knows how to speak the Han language."
hou dacaux dzueis bhaeis, uuloms taeis bhaeis.
I not only read finished, but also write finished
"我不仅看完了，而且写完了，Not only did I finish reading, but I also finished writing."
c. The optional relationship
The conjunction words that express an optional relationship between clauses are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g.,
Pashlaus meuu buuen, cas pasghueng meuu buuen.
Old brother your come, or younger brother your come
"你哥哥来，还是你弟弟来，(Either) your older brother (will) come, or your younger brother (will) come."
Lax man cuusnaus lax tax？
Eat potato or eat rice
"吃白薯还是米饭？Do you eat potatoes or rice?"
Meuu rien ku na, dagoms rien ku hou.
You say/tell to him, or say/tell to me
"你对他说，或者告诉我，You tell him, or tell me."
The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are not equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: transitional, conditional, and causal.
Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause, and the latter one is the major clause. The conjunction words that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), "tus" (但是, but), e.g.,
Uupans hou hei zok na, tom na hei qix.
Yesterday I go to him, but he go street
"昨天我到他家去，但是他已经上街去了，Yesterday I went to (find) him (at his house), but he had already hit the streets."
Na kweis vuek tun, oms dhas zuugheidhang.
She want sing a song, but fear shame
"她想唱歌，又怕害羞，She wants to sing, but fears embarrassment."
Kweis o goms o dhat, dagoms beuu blongs.
Want learn then learn well, otherwise go back home
"要学就真正地学，不然就回家去，(If you) want to learn, then learn (it) well, otherwise, go back home."
Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause indicating the condition, and the latter one is the major clause expressing the consequence. The conjunction words that express a conditional relationship are "laeis" (如果, if), "dalunx" (无论, no matter what), e.g.,
Dalunx na rien dhongras, hou ngan hei.
no matter what he say how, I also go
"不管他怎样说，我都去，No matter what he says, I'll also go."
Laeis na da buuen, dhes fan hei gongx na.
If he not come, I then go find him
"如果他不来，我就去找他，If he doesn't come, then I'll go find him."
Laeis zaux tax, hou goms lax.
If have/there is rice, I then eat
"如果有饭，我就吃，If there is rice, then I (will) eat."
Laeis na euu, meuu goms waeix ku hou bas.
If he agree, you then tell to me accent
"如果他答应，你就告诉我吧，If he agrees, then (you) tell me."
Sometimes, the conditional sentence does not need a conjunction word, e.g.,
Tuuen kaux vuek gong, nge zaux gan zaux jien.
Out strength do work, must have money have money
"努力工作，一定会有金钱，(If you) use strength to work, (you) will have money."
Usually, the first clause is the major clause indicating the result, and the latter one is the subordinate clause expressing the cause. The conjunction words that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,
Fas fun yous hei,dagoms ia cok.
Sky rain don't go otherwise gain/get sickness
"天下雨了，别去，不然要得病，It's raining, don't go, otherwise (you'll) get sick."
Dhes da hei, hans dhes cok bhe.
I not go because I sick accent
"我不去，因为我病了，I'm not going because I'm sick."
Hou beuu bat dhoei, hans tuut bhaeis.
I come back take rope, because break totally
"我回来拿绳子，因为全断了，I came back to take a rope, because (my rope is) totally broken."
Sometimes, the word "hans" also can be used in a conditional clause, e.g.,
Jieng, hans hloei ges fa ngan duuengx.
Success, no matter what much price/cost we also give
"能成功的话，那么多少钱我们都给，(Achieve) success, no matter how much it costs."
When the loan words "ienxuis…dosdzis"are used to present the cause-result relationship, the causal clause is placed before the result clause, e.g.,
Ienxuis boux neix fas raenx, dosdzis daenslieng aiszangs peek.
Because year this sky dry, so produce not so high
"因为今年天旱，所以产量不太高，Because this year it (is) dry, (so) the produce (is) not so much."
In view of idea expressed, the compressed sentence is a compound sentence; in view of construction, it is a simple sentence.
Dhes ghais meuu vuek meshes goms vuek meshes.
I tell you do what then do what
"我叫你做什么就做什么，Whatever I tell you to do, do (it)."
Hou kweis rien oms dhas.
I want say but fear
"我想说又害怕，I want to speak but (I) fear (to say it)."
Na faets ngop faets hlenyvis.
He more... think more... happy
"他越想越高兴，The more he thinks the more happy he is."
Bou neix luuengx bhoux luuengx ghweis.
Pig this more... feed more... fat
"这只猪越喂越肥，The more this pig is fed the fatter it is."
Na lax vuek lax dzuuns.
He more... do more... fast
"他越做越快，The more he works the faster he gets/becomes."
Aeu ceeng buuen ceeng hloei.
He more... come more... many
"人越来越多，The people coming (are) more and more."
According to the function and mood, Hlai sentences can be classified as declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, imperative sentences, and exclamatory sentences.
Hou kweis hei ang.
I will go hilly field
"我要去山栏地，I will go to the hilly field."
Neix man veengs na.
This is shirt/top her/his
"这是他/她的衣服，This is her/his shirt/top."
Sometimes, the linking verb is omitted, e.g.,
Neix veengs na.
This shirt/top her/his
"这是他/她的衣服，This (is) her/his shirt/top."
Neix ghwaix veengs na.
This is not shirt/top her/his
"这不是他/她的衣服，This is not her/his shirt."
Na da buuen zo.
He not come accent
"他还没来呢，He has not come yet."
There are several interrogative pronouns that are used: "uuras/asras" (谁, who?), "meshes" (什么, what?), "dhongras" (怎样, how?), "ras" (哪，如何, where? which? how?), "qiras" (何时, when?), and "hloeiras" (多少, How much/many?), e.g.,
Neix veengs asras?
This shirt/top who?
"这是谁的衣服，Whose shirt is this?"
Uuras uengx hou hei?
Who with me go?
"谁跟我去？Who(will) go with me?"
Neix man meshes?
This is what?
"这是什么？What is this?"
Vuek dhongras naus dhiu?
Do how just right?
"怎么样做才好？How should it be done, so that it will be done right?"
Meuu hei zok ras?
You go to/toward where?
"你去哪儿？Where are you heading?"
Na qiras buuen?
He when come?
"他何时来？When (will) he come?"
zaux hloeiras zuen uucok?
Have how many classifier sick
"有几个病号？How many (people) are sick?"
These questions require an answer: "Yes or no".
Ghwaix na bas?
Is not him accent
"不是他吧？It is not him, right?"
Neix guu meuu hos?
This belong to you accent
"这是你的吗？Does this belong to you?"
Meuu bhaeis lax tax hixhos?
You already eat rice accent
"你已经吃过饭了吗？Did you already eat (rice)?"
(There are several more words used in the interrogative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
Meuu kweis hei da?
You will go NEG?
"你要去吗？Won't you go?"
Meuu kweis da?
You be willing to NEG?
"你愿意吗？Aren't you willing?"
Meuu kweis laeis hisdhop da?
You want see movie NEG?
"你要看电影吗？Don't you want to see a movie?"
Gong neix hleny da?
Stuff this good NEG?
"这东西好吗？Isn't this stuff good?"
The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added before the negative words "da" to express a question, e.g.,
Meuu qieng dheuu cuus da?
You want take or not?
"你想拿吗？Do you want to take (it) or not?"
Meuu bhaeis lax cuus da?
You already eat or not?
"你已经吃了吗？Have you already eaten or not?"
Veengs neix hleny cas da?
shirt/top this good or not?
"这件衣服好吗？Is this shirt/top good or not?"
The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,
Meuu dheuu cuus ais?
You want or don't want?
"你要不要？Do you want (it) or not?"
Fa caem cuus bhiek?
We carry with hands or carry on shoulders?
"我们抬还是扛？Should we carry (it) with (our) hands or on (our) shoulders?"
Dhat cas tuas?
Genuine/real/true or false/fake?
"真的还是假的？Are you telling the truth, or did you make it up?"
Another related conjunction word "cuusnaus/casnus" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,
Na hei cuusnaus hou hei？
He go or I go?
"他去还是我去？Will he go or should I go?"
When a speaker demonstrates a request or a command, usually he will express it with an accent. When the subject is omitted, it can become a one word sentence, e.g.,
Buuen!
Come
"来！Come！"
Uuhaux laus zuucoeis bas.
tomorrow pick litchi (fruit) accent
"明天摘荔枝吧！Tomorrow let's (finish) pick(ing) litchi (=a kind of fruit)!"
Uengxtoengs dzuuns buuen res!
Everyone quickly come accent
"大家快来吧！Everyone, come quickly!"
(There are several more words used in the imperative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
When a speaker expresses a prohibition, usually the adverbial word "yous" (别, don't) is used.
Yous vuek!
Don't do
"别做！Quit doing that!"
There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aidzo", "aiho", "euu", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feelings.
Euu! Hauux bhe!
Yes! That is (it)!
"嗯！是！Yes! That's it!"
Aei! Dhongras vuek naus hleny?
Oh my! How do just/then good
"哎哟！怎么做才好？Oh my! What's a good way to do this?"
Cok ho!
Pain accent
"疼啊！Ouch!"
Hleny hloei ho!
good/so many accent
"好多啊！So many!"
Aidzo! Keuuhwoek ho!
Oh my! Poor accent
"哎哟！可惜啊！Oh (my)! Poor (guy)!"
Tau bhaeis poens a!
Pot already break accent
"锅已经破了！The pot broke!"
Bheuucai neix hleny lax ho!
Vegetable this good eat accent
"这菜好吃啊！This vegetable (=dish) (is) good to eat (=delicious)!"
Noms neix ghan a!
Water this cold accent
"这水凉啊！This water is cold!"
(There are several more words used in the exclamatory mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
Due to the frequent contacts made between the Li (黎族) and the Han (汉族) over a relatively lengthy stretch of time, the Hlai language has been influenced by the Chinese language and its grammar. As previously mentioned, the Hlai counting system for dates, ordinal numbers, and measurements have been influenced by Chinese. In this chapter, the Chinese influence in Hlai's word order of attribute phrases, verb-object-complement phrases, and interrogative sentences is discussed.
Nouns act as head words, and the attribute word is a number. Natively, the number should be placed before the head word. But, due to the Chinese influence, the number can be placed after the head word, e.g.,
When nouns act as head words, and the attribute words are demonstrative pronouns and numbers, the number is placed before the head word and the demonstrative pronoun after the head word. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order has become more like the word order in Chinese, e.g.,
When two nouns are placed together as an attribute phrase, the front noun is the head word, and the back one the attribute word. However, due to Chinese influence, the word order can be changed, but only when applied to loan word attribute phrases, e.g.,
Another kind of attribute phrase is where the noun is the head word and the adjective is the attribute word. When the words in the phrase are all loan words, the word order follows the Chinese one, e.g.,
However, when the words in the phrase are not all loanwords, the adjective is placed after the noun, e.g.,
When verbs act as head words, the word order is verb-object-complement. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order, verb-complement-object has also been adopted, e.g.,
The native ways to denote a question in the Hlai language are using interrogative pronouns, interrogative accents, or placing the negation word da at the end of a sentence. However, due to Chinese influence, a new word order has appeared, which is, verb (head word) + negation + verb, e.g.,
The native possessive auxiliary word in Hlai is guu. In the Chinese language, the possessive auxiliary word is gaeis, and both its usage and function have been imputed into the Hlai language, e.g.,