Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda conflict (2022–present)

A conflict began between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda in 2022 after Rwandan forces entered the country to provide military support to the March 23 Movement (M23) rebel group, including fighting alongside them against the Congolese military (FARDC) and pro-government militias.
Since the Second Congo War the eastern provinces of the DRC have been the site of an ongoing insurgency by various rebel groups, most notably the March 23 Movement (M23) in North Kivu and its Twirwaneho affiliate in South Kivu, and the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) in Ituri and North Kivu. The current stage of the conflict is related to an ongoing campaign that began in March 2022 by the M23 Movement, which the DRC, United Nations, United States, and other Western countries accuse Rwanda of not only supporting but actively fighting for. Rwanda and M23 have also accused the DRC of working together with the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), an ethnic Hutu paramilitary group that took part in the Rwandan Genocide. Both the Congo and Rwanda deny they support the FDLR and M23, respectively, contrary to research and reports that confirm both sides' allegations.
Burundi, which has accused Rwanda of orchestrating a 2015 coup attempt, deployed troops to assist the DRC against the M23 offensive. There were as many as 12,000 Burundian troops in eastern Congo until early February 2025, when the majority withdrew, leaving around 3,000. The MONUSCO peacekeeping mission has maintained that it is not involved in the conflict apart from its role in defending the region from militants, but has been accused by Rwanda of taking sides due to its cooperation with the Congolese armed forces. Meanwhile, the Congolese government has asked MONUSCO peacekeepers to leave the DRC due to a "failure to protect civilians from armed groups."
There were two efforts at peace negotiations organized between the DRC and Rwanda: one hosted by Kenya in 2022, which failed, and another hosted by Angola in 2024, the latter leading to a ceasefire agreement in August. Fighting between Congolese forces and Rwandan-backed M23 rebels resumed in October 2024 after having slowed down, and intensified towards the end of the year. Planned negotiations between Rwandan president Paul Kagame and Congolese president Félix Tshisekedi in December were cancelled over disagreements about preconditions. The Rwanda Defence Force had up to 4,000 troops in the DRC by a UN estimate in December 2024, and this increased to as much as 12,000 by March 2025.
During January 2025, the rebels carried out a successful offensive on Goma, the capital of the DRC's North Kivu province, displacing over 400,000 people and causing the DRC to cut off its diplomatic ties with Rwanda. The Congolese government called Rwandan military support for the rebels a "declaration of war." The fall of Goma after several days of fighting in late January has been the largest escalation of the Kivu conflict since M23 first occupied the city in 2012. M23 continued its advance into the rest of North Kivu and into South Kivu during February, capturing the latter's capital Bukavu. The African Union has called on M23 to withdraw to prevent the "balkanization" of the DR Congo and the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 2773 that also called on Rwanda to end its support for M23.
When the Rwandan Civil War ended in 1994 as a victory for the Rwandan Patriotic Front, a Tutsi-led army founded by Rwandan exiles in Uganda with the support of Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni, the Hutu extremists that perpetrated the genocide against Tutsis in Rwanda fled across the border of neighboring Zaire. These elements, consisting of the former Rwandan armed forces and the Interahamwe paramilitary group, entered the Kivu region in eastern Zaire along with 1.5 million Hutu civilian refugees from Rwanda. There the Hutu militants established militia groups to wage an insurgency against the new RPF-led government. Zaire, led by the regime of Mobutu Sese Seko, had been undergoing economic and political decline, and its weak state institutions were not capable of maintaining order in the vast country. There is also evidence that the state provided support to the Hutu militias.
Also present were the Banyamulenge, a community of ethnic Tutsis from Rwanda that represented a minority in the South Kivu province of Zaire and had been discriminated against. During late 1995 and early 1996, large-scale fighting broke out involving the Hutu refugees, the Banyamulenge, the rest of the population in Kivu, and the Zairian military. The Banyamulenge took up arms during the summer of 1996 and Rwanda started providing training and other support. This assistance allowed Rwanda to strengthen its influence in the region, secure economic interests, and establish de facto control through its local allies. Its military became involved in border clashes with Zairian troops. These events, beginning the First Congo War, have been described as "to a large degree an extension of the Rwandan civil war," due to the close relations that developed between the Banyamulenge and other Congolese Tutsis involved in the rebellion with the Rwandan government. General Paul Kagame stated in a media interview in July 1997 that Rwanda planned and directed the Banyamulenge rebellion in eastern Zaire and that its troops had participated in the capture of multiple cities.
The Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL) was founded by a leading member of Mobutu's political opposition, Laurent-Désiré Kabila, in October 1996. The AFDL recruited fighters in Zaire and consisted of both Tutsi and non-Tutsi members. Rwanda leveraged the presence of Hutu extremists as a diplomatic pretext to pursue broader political and economic objectives. AFDL and Banyamulenge offensives targeting Hutu extremist factions resulted in widespread sexual violence, extrajudicial executions, forced recruitment of child soldiers, and abductions of civilians. Between February and May 1997, the AFDL advanced westward in its campaign to overthrow Mobutu. The Zairean military offered little resistance, and Kabila's forces, supported by multiple African nations, reached Kinshasa in May 1997. Mobutu fled into exile, and Kabila assumed the presidency, renaming the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Following Kabila's ascension, Rwandan troops withdrew from the DRC and encouraged Congolese Tutsis from North and South Kivu to return to Rwanda. However, this directive was met with suspicion among Congolese Tutsis, who, despite their reliance on Rwandan support, maintained a strong sense of independence. Tensions between the Rwandan Defense Force (RDF) and Congolese Tutsi officers who had fought alongside Rwandan forces also emerged. While the Rwandan government considered these officers part of its military due to prior collaboration, many Congolese Tutsi fighters asserted that they had only joined Rwandan forces to "liberate" the DRC. One notable episode illustrating this friction was the Murekezi mutiny in May 1997. Lieutenant Murekezi, a Tutsi from Masisi, led a rebellion against the withdrawal of Rwandan forces, arguing that Congolese Tutsis should not be compelled to relocate to Rwanda. His mutiny was brutally suppressed, culminating in his execution by a Rwandan commander in Goma in November 1997. Many of his followers were killed, imprisoned, or redeployed under diminished conditions.
Despite coming to power with external support, Kabila soon distanced himself from his former allies. He continued Mobutu's authoritarian governance style, appointed AFDL members to key positions, and failed to hold elections. Increasingly portraying himself as a Congolese nationalist, Kabila became wary of Rwanda's influence and suspected that some Tutsi members of the AFDL were advancing Rwandan rather than Congolese interests. In July 1998, fearing a coup d'état, Kabila dismissed Rwandan General James Kabarebe from his position as Chief of Staff and ordered all Rwandan soldiers to withdraw from Congolese territory. This decision prompted Rwanda and Uganda to back a new rebellion to depose Kabila. On 2 August 1998, a mutiny within the Congolese military, the Forces Armées Congolaises (FAC), was announced on state television in Goma, leading to the formation of the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD-Goma), a Tutsi-led rebel group backed by Rwanda. That same day, Goma fell under RCD-Goma and RPA control without significant resistance. The rebels quickly seized large portions of South Kivu, North Kivu, and northern Katanga. The Rwandan army exploited the situation to facilitate large-scale looting of Congolese mineral resources, while crimes against civilians escalated. Goma remained under rebel control for nearly three years, from August 1998 to January 2001.
Soon after the beginning of the offensive, the Democratic Republic of the Congo claimed that Rwanda supported the insurgent operation, a claim which was denied by the Rwandan government and the rebels. International Crisis Group researcher Onesphore Sematumba argued that claims about Rwandan aid were believable. He suggested that the resurgence of M23 was probably influenced by Rwanda's wish to stop an infrastructure project which would link the DR Congo and Uganda.
Congolese forces said that they had captured two Rwandan soldiers that had been sent into the DRC in disguise in May. Both were released on 11 June. On 23 May, FARDC troops reportedly shelled Musanze District, in the Northern Province of Rwanda, injuring several people. Two days later, the DRC ordered the suspension of all RwandAir flights. Rwanda condemned the action, and RwandAir decided to retaliate by cancelling flights to Kinshasa, Lubumbashi, and Goma.
In response to these conflicts, African Union Chairman and President of Senegal Macky Sall said on 29 May that the African Union was supporting a "peaceful resolution" to the tensions.
Mediation attempts continued into the following month; on 2 June, Angolan President João Lourenço attempted to mediate a resolution between the two countries in Luanda. On 8 June, Alexander De Croo, the Prime Minister of Belgium, compared the situation in the eastern DRC to that of Ukraine in a visit to Kinshasa, additionally making comments implying his support for the Congo in its border crisis with Rwanda.
On 9 June, the DRC said it had discovered that 500 Rwandan special forces in disguise had been sent into the area near the town of Tshanzu in North Kivu. The day afterwards, the DRC accused Rwanda of firing rockets at a school in Biruma, killing two children and seriously injuring another person of unspecified age. Rwanda also said that the Congo had fired rockets into Western Rwanda from the direction of Bunagana.
The UN called for a ceasefire between the two countries, but on 12 June, the DRC alleged that Rwanda intended to occupy the city of Bunagana, which M23 forces would then capture one day later. The arrival of the M23 forced about 30,000 people to flee to Uganda. The DRC claimed that Rwandan forces were helping to occupy the city. The rebels claimed that taking Bunagana wasn't their goal, but decided to do it after repeated attacks by the Congolese army. They also said that they were open to doing direct negotiations with the government. The DRC described the fall of Bunagana as "no less than an invasion" by Rwanda. Two senior Congolese security sources claimed that Uganda was also helping the M23 in their offensive. That same day, Rwanda charged the MONUSCO mission of taking sides in the conflict, which it said was allowing the Congo to carry out cross-border attacks in Rwanda.
The heavy fighting also caused about 137 Congolese soldiers and 37 police officers to flee into Uganda, where they surrendered to Ugandan forces. A Kinyarwanda-speaking lieutenant colonel was attacked and beaten by a mob in Kisangani.
On 15 June, thousands of demonstrators organized a protest against Rwandan actions in Goma. The protest quickly turned into an anti-Rwandan riot, as an angry mob pillaged and attacked shops owned by Rwandans, seizing vehicles to check if Rwandans were inside. Congolese riot police fired tear gas at protesters after some tried to enter a border checkpoint at the Rwandan border. Several Rwandans in Goma responded by fleeing the country. On the same day, the DRC suspended all "memoranda of understanding, agreements, and conventions concluded with Rwanda", demanding the withdrawal of all alleged Rwandan military personnel within the boundaries of the country.
Just a few hours after Congolese security officials called for the DRC to cut all ties with Rwanda, a Congolese soldier crossed into Rubavu District carrying an AK-47 and was shot to death by a Rwanda National Police officer on 17 June. The RDF said that the soldier was killed after he started shooting at civilians and security forces, and had injured two officers. The Congo shut down the two countries' border in response to the officer's death, adding that it would open an investigation into the events. As a vehicle brought back the officer's body to Goma, a crowd made up of hundreds of people followed the vehicle shouting "hero, hero" and describing President of Rwanda Paul Kagame as an assassin. Some members of the crowd were documented yelling hateful slogans against Tutsis.
Representatives of Rwanda and the DRC both came to an agreement held in Angola on 6 July to begin a "de-escalation process" between the two nations. M23 leader Willy Ngoma ordered a new offensive the next day, asserting that "Only the M23 can sign the cease-fire with the government."
In early August, a report for the United Nations by independent experts was leaked to the press. The report provided evidence that Rwandan troops had entered Congolese territory to support M23, fighting alongside the insurgents. These findings led to calls by journalists and officials in the DRC for the UN to sanction Rwanda.
On 24 October, a Rwandan soldier running away from the Rwandan military's 401st battalion surrendered himself to a MONUSCO base in Kiwanja, saying that he had been sent to Rwanda as part of a military operation and begged the UN troops not to send him back to Rwanda. He was handed over to FARDC forces on 4 November.
The Kivu Security Barometre, a project of the New York University's Congo Research Group, found that satellite photos showing a battle from late October 2022 in Rugari, Rutshuru Territory revealed soldiers with insignias similar to those of the Rwandan Defence Force.
On 19 November, a Congolese soldier was shot dead as he crossed a border post near Rubavu. The Rwanda Defence Force said that he had been killed after shooting at the guard towers. The FARDC confirmed that the soldier had been killed, identifying him as a recent recruit to the armed forces who went missing after he had gotten lost during an army patrol. The DRC and Rwanda both say they are investigating the incident.
At the 2022 Francophonie summit in Tunis, the DRC representative Jean-Michel Sama Lukonde refused to take part in a group photo with other Francophone leaders (including the Rwandan representative) as a protest against Rwanda's actions in the Congo.
The East African Community demanded, on 24 November, for both a ceasefire between Rwanda and the DRC as well as ordering the M23 movement to withdraw from all occupied territories. The EAC stated it would lead a military intervention to quell the unrest in Kivu if the orders were not obeyed. At a summit in Luanda, Angola, both Rwanda and the DRC agreed to hold a ceasefire which was officially enforced on 25 November at 16:00 GMT.
The M23 rejected the ceasefire, since they had not been invited to participate in the dialogue. A spokesman for the rebel group told Agence France-Presse that "M23 has seen the document on social media. […] There was nobody [from the M23] in the summit, so it doesn't really concern us... Normally when there is a cease-fire it is between the two warring sides."
On 5 December, the DRC announced that 272 civilians were killed in a massacre in the eastern town of Kishishe, North Kivu. The Congolese government blamed the killings on the M23, though M23 themselves denied culpability. An investigation was opened by Jean-Paul Mukolo, attorney general of the DRC.
On 19 January 2023, The Rwandan government claimed that the DRC had a "clear indication" that it was "preparing for war." Rwanda also claimed that the DRC had imported European mercenaries on their behalf. Five days later, on 24 January, a Congolese Su-25 was damaged by MANPAD fire by Rwandan forces after Rwanda claimed it violated its airspace. The attack, which happened between the cities of Gisenyi and Goma, was responded to with a statement that said, "The government considers this umpteenth attack by Rwanda as a deliberate action." It was also said that the plane suffered only minor damage.
The DRC claimed on 27 July that it had repelled an incursion by the Rwandan army north of Goma. According to local sources, a Rwandan soldier was killed in the clash.
On 18 October, the UN expressed concern about the risk of a direct war between both countries.
On November 6, U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken called on Congolese President Félix Tshisekedi and Rwandan President Paul Kagame to de-escalate the conflict after a surge of rebel clashes in Kinshasa. On 21 November, the two leaders agreed on steps to deescalate the tensions between both countries, according to U.S. intelligence. The following day, M23 rebels claimed that they captured the town of Mweso.
In a speech made on 9 December, Tshisekedi said, "if Kagame [wants] to behave like Adolf Hitler by having expansionist aims, I promise he will end up like Adolf Hitler". A Rwandan government spokesperson condemned this statement, accusing Tshisekedi of making "a loud and clear threat".
On 20 December, Tshisekedi threatened an invasion of Rwanda, stating "I've had enough of invasions and M23 rebels backed by Kigali," being met with chants of "Kagame out!"
In the first incident of the year, a Congolese soldier was killed by Rwandan forces on January 16 in Rwanda's Rubavu District. The soldier allegedly opened fire on Rwandan soldiers before being shot dead. Two other Congolese soldiers were arrested in the same event.
Félix Tshisekedi was sworn into his second term as president having promised to deal with the unrest in the east of the country.
On 17 February, the U.S. Department of State published a statement condemning Rwanda's alleged support of M23, while calling for the Rwandan government to remove all RDF personnel and surface-to-air missile systems from the DRC. The Rwandan Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation (MINAFFET) responded with a rejection of U.S. demands, stating their recent moves were justified as defensive measures against the FDLR, and questioned the ability of the U.S. to act as a credible mediator in the African Great Lakes. The Rwandan statement ended with an assertion that the FDLR must be demobilized and repatriated to Rwanda, with MINAFFET furthermore proclaiming, "Rwanda reserves the right to take any legitimate measures to defend our country, so long as this threat exists."
The DRC accused Rwanda of carrying out a drone attack that damaged a civilian aircraft at Goma International Airport. Protests were held in the city and western flags were burned.
M23 rebels took control of the town of Nyanzale.
On May 4, refugee camps near Goma were struck by bombs in coordinated attacks that killed 12 and injured at least 20. Both the Congolese administration and the U.S. Department of State blamed the Rwandan military and M23 for the attack. Yolande Makolo, spokeswoman for the Rwandan government, denied Rwandan culpability, saying on X, “The RDF, a professional army, would never attack an IDP camp. Look to the lawless FDLR [and] Wazalendo supported by the FARDC, for this kind of atrocity.”
On August 30, 2024, the Democratic Republic of Congo committed to suing Rwanda before the East African Court of Justice.
A planned summit between Tshisekedi and Kagame on 15 December 2024, meant to address the disarmament of the FDLR, was canceled after Kagame withdrew. This development reinforced suspicions that Rwanda's presence in eastern DRC was less about security concerns and more about economic exploitation. The Congolese government stated that "If Kigali is in good faith in the negotiations and on its promise to withdraw ... its troops from Congolese soil, the conflict will end with the M23, and at the same time it will stop with Rwanda."
A rebel advance towards the city of Goma, the North Kivu provincial capital, during January 2025 displaced over 178,000 people. The town of Minova in South Kivu, a key point on the supply route to Goma, was captured on 21 January by M23. The Congolese government accused a Rwandan sniper of killing North Kivu's military governor.
As the rebels approached the city, on 25 January the DRC ended diplomatic relations with Rwanda, recalling its embassy staff from the country and ordering the Rwandan embassy in Kinshasa to end its operations. A spokesman for the Congolese military claimed that "Rwanda is determined to seize the city of Goma." The UN estimates that 4,000 Rwandan soldiers are in the DRC assisting the rebel group, and the Rwandan military command set up a headquarters one mile away from the Congolese border, although Rwanda denies involvement in the conflict.
On 26 January fighting started between Congolese army and M23 troops in the outskirts of Goma. UN sources estimated that around 500–1,000 Rwandan troops are helping the M23 rebels in the Goma area. An emergency session of the UN Security Council was held, where Congolese foreign minister Thérèse Kayikwamba Wagner called Rwanda's actions a "declaration of war." She also asked the UN Security Council to impose sanctions on Rwanda.
Shelling by Congolese army troops killed five civilians in Gisenyi, Rwanda, on 27 January.
On 5 February 2025, the M23 captured Goma, and vehicle wreckage was seen from the heavy fighting.
On 7 February 2025, the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) condemned Rwanda’s support for M23 rebels in eastern Congo and launched an investigation to examine rights violations. The council urged M23 and Rwandan forces to cease abuses and allow humanitarian aid. Volker Türk said that estimated 3,000 people were killed and nearly 2,900 injured since 26 January 2025.
On 18 February 2025, Volker Türk accused Rwanda-backed M23 rebels of executing and recruiting children and attacking aid facilities after seizing Bukavu and Goma. While they claimed to protect Tutsis, critics saw their actions as a cover for Rwandan influence. Meanwhile, Ugandan troops entered Bunia to curb ethnic violence.
On 21 February 2025, Rwanda’s government expressed solidarity with General James Kabarebe, who was sanctioned by the U.S. over his alleged role in the violence in eastern Congo. Rwanda rejected the sanctions as “unjustified and unfounded” emphasizing that border security with Congo was a national priority. Despite Rwanda's denials, the U.S. and UN have linked Rwanda to M23's actions, urging dialogue between Congo and the rebels. However, Congo's President Tshisekedi has refused talks, seeing M23 as a proxy of Rwanda.
On 25 February 2025, the UK announced to suspend bilateral aid to Rwanda and impose sanctions on Kigali due to its involvement in Congo conflict.
On 1 March 2025, the Congo River Alliance and M23 formally turned over to Rwandan custody several alleged FDLR militia fighters at the border along Rwanda's Rubavu District. The Rwandan Ministry of Defense claimed that captured FDLR members had worked closely with the Congolese military (FARDC) and other government forces. A spokesman for the FARDC said that this was a "setup" to discredit the FARDC and an attempt to justify the invasion of the Congo, using former FDLR members from Rwandan prisons and dressing them in captured Congolese uniforms. He also accused Rwanda of being responsible for war crimes in Goma and for having previously ordered an FDLR commander to attack Congolese.
On 9 March 2025, the M23 fully captured Goma and Bukavu, pushing deeper into the mineral-rich DRC. The DRC offered USD$5,000,000 for M23 leaders’ arrest AND USD$4,000,000 for accomplices.
On 18 March 2025, Presidents Félix Tshisekedi of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Paul Kagame of Rwanda met in Doha, Qatar, to discuss the ongoing conflict in eastern DRC. The leaders, alongside Qatar's Emir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani, called for an "immediate and unconditional ceasefire" in the region. Despite this, M23 rebels, supported by Rwanda, seized the town of Walikale on 20 March 2025, pushing further into DRC’s interior. M23 leaders rejected the ceasefire, citing unresolved issues.