davidanugraha/M4-RAG huggingface dataset:
Pore

En pore (gresk πóρος, «gang», «passasje») er en liten kanal, et hulrom eller en passasje i et materiale, ofte fylt av væske eller gass. Et materiale med mange porer sies å være porøst.
Porer kan være én av flere typer struktur som finnes i nanomaterialer.
Maurice A. Biot-medaljen blir utdelt årlig til en person som har ytt vesentlige bidrag til forskning innenfor mekanikk knyttet til porøse materialer. Medaljen er blitt delt ut siden 2002 av American Society of Civil Engineers til minne om Maurice A. Biot, som selv var en pionerene i studiet av porøse medier.
Studiet av egenskaper til porøse materialer inngår i mange fag, som akustikk, bergartsfysikk, geofysikk, geoteknikk, hydrogeologi, materialteknologi og petroleumsgeologi.
Porøsiteten er et mål for forholdet mellom volumet til porene i et materiale og totalvolumet til materialet. Den defineres vanligvis som et desimaltall mellom 0 og 1 eller som en prosentandel.
Filtermaterialer basert på polyuretan til rensing av væsker eller gasser kan måle porøsitet eller poretetthet i PPI – «pores per linear inch» eller porer per lineær tomme. Et filter på 5 PPI har relativt store porer, mens 100 PPI representerer et svært fint filter. Slik filtermateriale brukes for eksempel i akvariefilter og i mange typer luftfilter.
Porestruktur henviser til fordelingen i porestørrelse og også til forma på porene. De trangeste passasjene i porene blir kalt porehalser.
For et materiale med sammenhengende porer kan evnen til å transportere væske gjennom porene angis med permeabiliteten. Transportegenskapene avhenger ofte av porehalsene. En bergart med høy porøsitet og permeabilitet kalles reservoarbergart. På makroskopisk nivå beskrives væsketransport i et porøst medium av Darcys lov.
I bergartsfysikk er poretrykket trykket til væska i porene. Også betegnelsen porevannstrykk blir benyttet, når væska er vann. Trykket kan måles med et piezometer. Uventet høyt poretykk kan være en sikkerhetsrisiko under boreoperasjoner knyttet til petroleumsutvinning. Studier av poretrykk er også viktig for vannsikring i tunneler.
Lydhastigheten vil vanvligvis være mindre i et materiale med mange porer enn i et tilsvarende materiale uten porer. Målinger av lydhastigheten kan dermed brukes til estimere porøsiteten, og dette gjørest i brønner under oljeleting.
Porøse materialer er brukt i stor omfang til lydisolasjon og lyddemping. Poreantall og porestørrelse er viktig for den motstand lyden møter når den trenger inn i materialet.
Materialer med et lukket poresystem har svært gode isolasjonsegenskaper for varmestrøm og brukes til å isolere både mot kulde og varme.
Amagermad

Amagermad er en sandwich bestående av et stykke franskbrød og en skive rugbrød som er lagt sammen med smør eller pålegg imellom.
Noen mener at amagermaden kan knyttes til de hollendere som Christian II inviterte til Amager utenfor København i begynnelsen av 1500-tallet. Det hollandske ruggebrot er porøst og går nemlig lett i stykker. For å unngå at brødet smulet, limte man det sammen med smør og et stykke wittebroot under. En annen forklaring peker på den lydlige sammenheng mellom de eldre danske ordene hamborgermad eller hamborgermellemmad (tysk (Hamburger) Doppelschnitte) som var en tynn skive kjøtt plassert mellom to stykker brød, og nettopp amagermad.
Videospill i Norge

Video- og dataspill har hatt en plass innen norsk kultur siden 1950-årene, og har vokst til å bli en større bransje og en populær hobby.
I 2022 hadde den norske spillbransjen en netto-omsetning på 652 millioner kroner, en økning på 47 % fra foregående år (443 millioner). Det var 24 spillselskaper som hadde omsetning i 2022.
I en undersøkelse fra Medietilsynet i 2020, vises det til at 86 % av norske barn og ungdom fra ni til atten år spiller dataspill. I samme gruppe vises det til at 96 % av gutter og 76 % av jenter spiller dataspill, der sistnevnte gruppering hadde en økning på 13 prosentpoeng siden 2018. I Statistisk sentralbyrås (SSB) mediebarometer for 1999, ble det vist til at 68 % av gutter i alderen 9–15 år spilte TV-spill eller brukte en hjemme-PC daglig, i motsetning til 32 % av jenter i samme aldersgruppe. Eldre aldersgrupper spiller tilsynelatende i en mindre grad: I SSBs mediebarometer for 2021 ble det vist til at 45 % av befolkningen under 45 år spilte hver dag, og i aldersgruppen 45 år og eldre var det litt flere kvinner enn menn som spilte videospill.
I 1954 viste dosenten Ole Amble fram spillet NIM (basert på Nim) for presentasjonen av den første digitale datamaskinen i Norge, NUSSE. NIM, et «fyrstikkspill» som kan ligne noe på bondesjakk, gikk ut på at spilleren skulle «trekke et antall fyrstikker» (slukke kontrollamper) fra tre grupper. Vinneren var den av de to spillerne (hvorav én var selve datamaskinen) som trakk den siste. Spillet er ansett som det første dataspillet utviklet i Norge, og et av de første i verden.
I 2019 la kultur- og likestillingsminister Trine Skei Grande fram regjeringens dataspillstrategi, som gjaldt i årene 2020–2022. Strategien hadde fokus på spillkultur og utvikling av norsk næringsliv, samt inkludering. Den inkluderte også et budsjett på 24,4 millioner norske kroner, rettet til den norske spillbransjen, og hadde som mål å doble støtten innen 2022. Samme år ble det også åpnet for e-sport i Oddsen hos det statlige lotteriselskapet Norsk Tipping, blant annet innen League of Legends (2009), Hearthstone (2014), Rocket League (2015) og Counter-Strike: Global Offensive (2012).
I desember 2023 kunngjorde kultur- og likestillingsminister Lubna Jaffery at et nasjonalt kompetansesenter for dataspillkultur skal åpnes i 2024, underordnet Norsk filminstitutt. Dette ble kunngjort sammen med en ny dataspillstrategi for 2023–2026 som bygger på den for årene 2020–2022.
I 2022 var det 24 norske selskaper som hadde omsetning ifølge Spillrapporten 2023. Nedenfor er det listet opp spillutviklere og -utgivere i alfabetisk rekkefølge.
Akademisk grad

Akademisk grad er en kvalifikasjon en person oppnår som følge av studier og avleggelse av eksamener eller gjennom forsvar av en avhandling ved et universitet. I de fleste land er akademiske grader inndelt i lavere grader (f.eks. bachelorgrader), høyere grader (for eksempel kandidatgrader og mastergrader) og forskningsgrader (doktorgrader av ulike slag, lisensiatgrad, magistergrad m.fl.). Forskningsgrader bygger utelukkende på forskningsarbeid som holder vitenskapelig nivå. Akademiske grader er et av flere elementer som avgjør akademisk kompetanse, men stort sett på lavere- og mellomnivå.
Akademiske grader føres før eller etter innehaverens navn. Det er mest vanlig å «føre» akademiske grader på denne måten hvis man har en høyere grad eller en doktorgrad. I skandinavisk tradisjon er det vanligst å bruke tittelen foran navnet (cand.philol. Kari Nordmann), men det går også an å bruke den etter navnet (Kari Nordmann, cand.philol.). I engelskspråklig tradisjon føres graden som regel etter navnet (for eksempel Bob Bobson, PhD). Personer med doktorgrad kan føre den fulle tittelen (dr.philos. Jens Jensen) eller bare doktortittelen (dr. Jens Jensen). I Norge er det mindre vanlig å bruke bare doktortittelen og mer vanlig å bruke den formelle graden, mens det i engelskspråklig tradisjon er forholdsvis vanlig å bruke bare doktortittelen foran navnet (Dr Bob Bobson). I noen land, for eksempel Danmark, gir ikke ph.d.-grad rett til å bruke tittelen doktor/dr.
Språkrådet anbefaler å skrive akademiske titler med små bokstaver og uten mellomrom, det vil si som ph.d., dr.philos. og cand.jur.
Det er vanlig, spesielt i utlandet, å bruke («føre») den akademiske graden eller tilhørende tittel i sosiale og/eller profesjonelle sammenhenger, særlig når det dreier seg om høyere grader og doktorgrader. For eksempel vil en ingeniør med doktorgrad i de fleste tilfeller bli titulert som Dr John Smith. I noen land, deriblant Tyskland, brukes en doktortittel ofte også i sosiale sammenhenger, og den kan også føres i innehaverens pass (dr.med. Max Mustermann).
JAK

JAK Medlemsbank er en svensk bank, som ønsker å skape en økonomi uten renter. Banken eies av medlemmene, og medlemmene sparer penger uten å få renter og låner penger uten å betale renter. Navnet er hentet fra den klassiske nasjonaløkonomiens produksjonsfaktorer: jord, arbeid og kapital. JAK Medlemsbank ble grunnlagt som ideell forening i 1965 og fikk konsesjon som sparebank i 1997. Banken har en forvaltningskapital på over 1,5 milliarder SEK og rundt 40.000 medlemmer.
JAK-bevegelsen bygger på en kritikk mot renter, særlig fra et etisk, miljømessig og økonomisk ståsted, og påvirket av arbeidet til økonomen Silvio Gesell. Kritikken mot renter har lange tradisjoner fra både gresk filosofi, kristendom og islam, og innen islam praktiseres forbudet mot renter fortsatt i stor grad. JAK har en del til felles med islamsk bankvesen (Islamic banking), som også avviser renter i moderne forstand, og mange troende muslimer bruker derfor bankens tjenester. Innen det bredere feltet etisk bankvesen i Europa utgjør JAK en egen, hovedsakelig skandinavisk tradisjon ved siden av blant annet antroposofisk inspirerte banker (Cultura Bank, GLS Bank, Triodos Bank), der forskjellen er JAKs prinsipielle avvisning av renter og forankring i rentekritikken.
JAK-bevegelsen ble startet i Danmark i 1931, under den store depresjonen, med samvirket «Jord Arbejde Kapital». Foreningen utstedte en populær lokalvaluta, som imidlertid ble forbudt av de danske myndighetene i 1933. I 1934 etablerte foreningen et rentefritt låne- og sparesystem og en byttering. Begge deler måtte siden nedlegges, men gjenoppstod i 1944.
De økonomiske eksperimentene i Danmark inspirerte en svensk gruppe, som i 1965 etablerte «Jord Arbete Kapital – riksförening för ekonomisk upplysning». Målet var å øke kunnskapen om rentenes skadevirkninger og skape en rentefri økonomi. I 1969 gav foreningen sitt første lån. JAK Ekonomisk förening tok over virksomheten i 1993. JAK opplevde fra 1990 sterk vekst i Sverige, etter at Riksbanken hadde økt styringsrenten til 500%. I 1997 fikk JAK konsesjon som sparebank og skiftet navn til JAK Medlemsbank. Samtidig ble banken omfattet av statens innskuddsgaranti.
I perioden 1991–1992 forsøkte en arbeidsgruppe å etablere en JAK-bank i Norge i samarbeid med JAK i Sverige, men forsøket mislyktes ettersom Norge implementerte EU-regler i finansnæringen som forhindret et fritak fra kravet om å stille et betydelig garantibeløp.
Musikk og tradisjon

Musikk og tradisjon: tidsskrift for forskning i folkemusikk og folkedans er et norsk vitenskapelig tidsskrift som fokuserer på skandinavisk folkemusikkforskning og tradisjonell musikk og dans som et bredt definert felt, både fra musikkvitenskapelig og andre humanistiske og samfunnsvitenskapelige perspektiver.
Det oppstod i nåværende form i 2010, som en videreføring av Norsk folkemusikklags skrifter, som ble et fagfellevurdert vitenskapelig tidsskrift i 2005 og som har blitt utgitt av Novus forlag siden 2007. Norsk folkemusikklags skrifter ble utgitt fra 1984. Musikk og tradisjon er skriftet til Norsk folkemusikklag.
Crispbread

Crispbread is a flat and dry type of bread, containing mostly rye flour. Crispbreads are lightweight and keep fresh for a very long time due to their lack of water. Crispbread is a staple food and was for a long time considered a poor man's diet.
Finland and Sweden have long traditions in crispbread consumption. The origin of the crispbread came from the earlier spisbröd 'stovebread' which was a similar but thicker kind of bread. These breads were baked from at least the sixth century in central Sweden. They were usually hung above the stove to be dried. Traditional crispbread in Sweden and western Finland is made in this tradition with the form of a round flat loaf with a hole in the middle to facilitate storage on long poles hanging near the ceiling. It may also have been a way to keep the rats away from them. Traditionally, crispbreads were baked just twice a year: following harvest and again in the spring when frozen river waters began to flow. The slim crispbread that is common today originated in eastern Värmland. Sweden's first industrial crispbread bakery, AU Bergmans enka, began its production in Stockholm in 1850. Rectangular Knäckebrot was first manufactured in Germany in 1927, and has remained popular and readily available there ever since.
Crispbread in the household is most common in Sweden (figures published in 2003); in Sweden 85 percent of households have crispbread at home, while in Germany it is 45 percent and in France 8 percent.
Crispbread traditionally consists of wholemeal rye flour, salt, and water. Today, however, many kinds of crispbread contain wheat flour, spices and grains, and are often leavened with yeast or sourdough, and milk or sesame seeds can be added.
In the case of unleavened crispbread, bubbles are introduced into the dough mechanically. Traditionally, this was done by mixing snow or powdered ice into the dough, which then evaporated during baking. Today, the dough, which must contain a large amount of water, is cooled and mixed until bubbly.
Another method is to knead the dough under pressure in an extruder. The sudden drop in pressure then causes water to evaporate, creating bubbles in the dough.
Crispbread is only baked for a few minutes, at temperatures usually between 200 and 250 °C.
Crispbread itself is very dry and therefore served with a spread, like butter, and optional toppings. Crispbread is usually a part of a daily meal. In Sweden and Finland crispbread and butter or margarine are included in school meals. Crispbread might also be crushed into yogurt or filmjölk in place of cereals or muesli, and even used as a pizza base. In Sweden, crispbread is a common side dish for pea soup, as well as for pickled herring.
Different types and shapes of commercial crispbread:
Flatbrød

Flatbrød (literally "flat-bread") is a traditional Norwegian unleavened bread which is usually eaten with fish, salted meats and soups. Originally it was the staple food of Norwegian farmers, shepherds and peasants. Flat bread is dry and free from water so it is possible to store it for a long period of time.
The basic ingredients are barley flour, salt, and water, though many varieties exist which incorporate other staples.
It was once generally eaten in all meals, most often with cured herring and cold boiled potato, often along with sour cream and/or butter. It may also accompany betasuppe, a traditional meat soup or lobscouse, a traditional stew.
The thinner the bread is, the better it is. It is rolled and then cooked on a large griddle. The tradition of making flat bread used to be passed down through generation after generation by housewives, and each person had her own recipe for preparing it. It is still an important part of Norwegian food traditions, particularly in the countryside.
Wasabröd

Wasabröd is a Swedish producer of Scandinavian style crispbread (Swedish: knäckebröd). The Wasabröd company has been in business since 1919, opening its first bakery in the city of Skellefteå. Since 1983 it has been under foreign ownership, first by the Swiss pharmaceutical corporation Sandoz (later merged with Ciba Geigy to become Novartis), and from 1999 by the Italian food producer Barilla Alimentare S.p.A.
The first bakery in Skellefteå, founded by Karl Edvard Lundström, was supplemented by another, completely mechanized, one in Filipstad in 1931, which has since become the main seat of the corporation. It later acquired several other Swedish bakeries. It started exporting bread in the 1940s, with the first foreign subsidiary founded in Denmark in 1965 and the first foreign bakery built in Celle in Germany in 1967. In the early 21st century Wasabröd sells about 80% of its production outside Sweden.
K. E. Lundström, the founder of the company, had run his own bakery in Skellefteå since 1915 (Firma K. E. Lundström), with the corporation founded in 1919, AB Skellefteå spisbrödsfabrik, taking its original name from the hometown. The Filipstad subsidiary which developed into the main part of the company took the name AB Wasa spisbrödsfabrik in 1934, which was shortened to AB Wasabröd in 1964. The brand Wasa was originally that of one particular product, Vasaknäcke, featuring an image of King Gustavus Vasa. The company has used both a royal crown and the peculiar heraldic charge, the garb (Swedish: vase), which gave name to the Vasa dynasty, in its marketing. (Using the letter W instead of V is an archaism in Swedish; it is not uncommon in marketing, but does not affect the pronunciation.)
Barilla's bakery in Filipstad employs 310 people and produces 33,000 tonnes of crispbread annually. In 2009-2014, the owner invested 150 million kronor in the Filipstad factory to modernise the equipment.
Wasabröd produces a wide variety of crispbreads. The original crisp bread is made of rye, but their various products include sesame, wheat, and other grains.
The company has the status of a Purveyor to the Royal Court of Sweden.
Smörgåskaviar

Smörgåskaviar ('sandwich caviar') is the Swedish word for a fish roe spread eaten in the Nordic countries and released in the 1950s. Despite its name, smörgåskaviar is not actual caviar, i.e. sturgeon roe. Instead, it is a paste made most often from cod roe and a variable mix of other ingredients. Whole roe is aged for up to two years in barrels in which the roe is layered with sugar, salt, and a sugar-salt brine, and turned regularly. After brining, it is smoked and then processed further. It is emulsified with oil such as rapeseed, soybean or cod oil. Other ingredients are added including potato flakes, tomato sauce, vinegar, onion, sugar, salt and sometimes dill or chives. The final paste contains 30–60% roe. It is sold in tubes in smoked and non-smoked variants.
Smörgåskaviar is mostly used on bread or a hardboiled egg.
Ruisreikäleipä

Ruisreikäleipä (Finnish pronunciation: [ˈrui̯sˌrei̯kæˌlei̯pæ], rye hole-bread) is a kind of Finnish bread, a flat rye flour loaf with a hole in the middle. It is sometimes referred to as reikäleipä ([ˈrei̯kæˌlei̯pæ]), shorter term without ruis (rye) which applies also to the oat loaf with a hole.
The baking of ruisreikäleipä is a tradition in western Finland. In eastern Finland thick rye bread, usually called ruislimppu (rye loaf), is more common, but traditionally only bread baked from rye has been called bread in the Karelia and Savo (eastern) regions.
The hole had a functional purpose: the bread was baked in flat rings to be placed on poles suspended just below the kitchen ceiling to mature and dry in the relative warmth. Usually many loaves were baked at once. The poles also remained the place of storage so that the bread aged, in its many forms, over the long winter. Nowadays this kind of bread is available in all its forms and stages of aging throughout the whole of Finland, regardless of season, and is one main component of the Finnish diet.
The way it was prepared is related to the way houses used to be built in western Finland, that is with the baking oven separate from the heating oven. In eastern Finland, where the oven used to be heated every day, it was more common to eat freshly baked bread and to cook various kinds of long-stewed oven foods like the Karelian hot pot.
Unlike ruislimppu, there is no discernible difference between the skin and the core of ruisreikäleipä, as the dark outer color and the soft inner core are missing. Considerably more roughage is present, and the bread is rather dense compared to the other traditional breads. Some flour, seed and even yeast remnants can top the bread; less moisture is present; and the texture is somewhere between gummy, unyielding and downright crackery, depending on age. This reflects the bread's role as an indefinitely storable foodstuff which would last from the fertile summer through the relatively long and harsh northern winter.
As a result, ruisreikäleipä takes some time and effort to chew down properly. In the process it then acquires a peculiar culinary quality: it starts off as rather sour and earthy in taste, but by the time it is ready to be swallowed, amylase enzymes in the saliva have already broken down enough of the starch in it to make it sweeter.
Unleavened bread

Unleavened bread is any of a wide variety of breads which are prepared without using rising agents such as yeast or sodium bicarbonate. The preparation of bread-like non-leavened cooked grain foods appeared in prehistoric times.
Unleavened breads are generally flat breads. Unleavened breads, such as the tortilla and roti, are staple foods in Central America and South Asia, respectively. Unleavened sacramental bread plays a major part in Christian liturgy and Eucharistic theology.
Unleavened breads have symbolic importance in Judaism and Christianity. Jews and Christians consume unleavened breads such as Matzah during Passover and Eucharist, respectively, Jews as commanded in Exodus 12:18. Per the Torah, they were instructed, "Seven days shall there be no leaven found in your houses: for whosoever eateth that which is leavened, even that soul shall be cut off from the congregation of Israel, whether he be a stranger, or born in the land."
Canon Law of the Latin Church within the Catholic Church mandates the use of unleavened bread for the Host, and unleavened wafers for the communion of the faithful. Some Protestant churches tend to follow the Latin Catholic practice, whereas others use either unleavened bread or wafers or ordinary (leavened) bread, depending on the traditions of their particular denomination or local usage.
On the other hand, most Eastern Churches explicitly forbid the use of unleavened bread (Greek: azymos artos) for the Eucharist. Eastern Christians associate unleavened bread with the Old Testament and allow only for bread with yeast, as a symbol of the New Covenant in Christ's blood. Indeed, this usage figures as one of the three points of contention that traditionally accounted as causes (along with the issues of Petrine supremacy and the filioque in the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed) of the Great Schism of 1054 between Eastern and Western churches.
In North America, Hopi people prepared Piki bread from maize.
Unleavened bread is acknowledged as being associated with zinc deficiency, a cause of various physical and psychological problems in humans, notably anxiety and aggression.
Biga (bread baking)

Biga is a type of pre-fermentation used in Italian baking. Many popular Italian breads, including ciabatta, are made using a biga. Using a biga adds complexity to the bread's flavor and is often used in breads that need a light, open texture with holes. Apart from adding to flavor and texture, a biga also helps to preserve bread by making it less perishable.
Biga techniques were developed after the advent of baker's yeast as bakers in Italy moved away from the use of sourdough and needed to recover some of the flavor that was given up in this move. Bigas are usually dry and thick compared to a sourdough starter. This thickness is believed to give a biga its characteristic slightly nutty taste. Biga is usually made fresh every day, using a small amount of baker's yeast in a thick dough, which ranges 45–90% hydration as a baker's percentage, and is allowed to ferment from 12 to 16 hours to fully develop its flavor.
For some home bakers, biga is used to refer to naturally leavened sourdough made with a stiff starter, without using baker's yeast.
For this leavening the term "poolish" is sometimes used, which derives from the mispronunciation of the English "Polish" or the German "polnisch". It probably derives from the fact that the biga was known in Poland, and was learned by Austro-Hungarian bakers thanks to the Poles; from there it arrived in England.
Donut hole

A donut hole (also doughnut hole) is a type of donut formed out of small round pieces of dough. Donut holes can be plain, or coated in a topping such as glaze, and are a popular dessert in the United States. The name comes from the idea that the hole in a ring donut could be filled in by an appropriately sized ball.
There are several purported origins for donut holes and the "ring" shaped donut. The concept of forming donuts with a hole in the center is commonly attributed to Captain Hanson Gregory, who claimed to have invented the first ring donut after cutting the center of his mother's donut out in 1847.
Many early recipes called for the donut to be formed in the shape of a jumble, a circular cookie with a hole in the center. It has also been suggested that this was invented because donuts cook more quickly when they have a hole in the center.
In 1973, Dunkin' Donuts added "Munchkins" to their menu, selling them in the various flavors of their donuts as a way to use up the dough cuttings taken from the center of their ring donut. The name reportedly stems from the miniature "Munchkin" characters from the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. The chain had previously unsuccessfully attempted to market them as donut holes before changing their strategy to appeal to younger consumers. However, as of 2021, the company produces donut holes separately from full size donuts. This is common for most donut producers in the 21st century. In 1976, Canadian coffee chain Tim Hortons introduced donut holes called "Timbits" to their menu.
Like regular donuts, donut holes can come in many varieties. The dough itself can fall under the categories of either cake or yeast style. The main difference between the two is that cake style donut holes use a leavener like baking soda or baking powder to bring rise to the bread, while a yeast style donut uses yeast.
Hard dough bread

Hard dough bread, also called hardo bread, is a Jamaican bread similar to the Pullman loaf or pain de mie, although hard dough bread tends to be sweeter. The dough consists of flour, water, yeast, salt and sugar. Additional ingredients such as treacle, molasses, and vegetable shortening can be used. It typically has a dense consistency and is usually brushed with sugared water before baking. It is a staple food in Jamaican households.
Hard dough bread loaves are usually rectangular and can be bought sliced or unsliced. Despite being dense the bread is quite soft, and its exterior is glossy.
The bread originated from Chinese indentured labourers or immigrants who brought the recipe to Jamaica. It is said to bear similarities to Chinese mantou, and other sweet breads which they introduced to the island. Their descendants i.e. Chinese Jamaicans are known for operating most of Jamaica's bakeries, which have been baking and selling hard dough bread.
The earliest known use of the word "hard-dough" was in 1911, in the Daily Gleaner in Kingston, Jamaica. According to Jamaican writer and cultural historian, Olive Senior, traditionally the baking process involves a piece of mixing equipment called a dough break machine, which is only found in Jamaica, Cuba and Haiti.
Hard dough bread is used like pain de mie or Pullman loaf— as a vehicle for spreads such as butter, cheese or jams, for dipping into liquids such as hot chocolate, or to make sandwiches. It is also commonly paired with various kinds of Jamaican porridges (like cornmeal, green banana, plantain, peanut etc.), and is eaten by breaking a slice into small chunks and adding them to the cooked porridge after serving. Hard dough bread's soft and slightly spongy consistency makes it more resistant than Pullman bread to becoming soggy and breaking apart in sandwiches with fried, greasy fillings such as plantain and egg. The bread may be eaten on its own or as a side dish with jerked meats.
A common variation is softo or soft dough bread where milk is added to flour, similar to Japanese milk bread. Jamaican coco bread is a variation with similar consistency, made with coconut milk.
Pullman loaf

The Pullman loaf, sometimes called the "sandwich loaf" or "pan bread", is a rectangular loaf of white bread baked in a long, narrow, lidded pan. The French term for this style of loaf is pain de mie, or, less commonly, pain anglais.
European breadmakers began using square lidded pans in the early 19th century to minimize crust. Railway service pioneer George Pullman chose the loaf for use on his Pullman railcars for efficiency reasons. Three Pullman loaves occupied the same space as two standard round-topped loaves, thus maximizing the use of space in the small Pullman kitchen.
Lorne sausage

The Lorne sausage, also known as square sausage, flat sausage or slice, is a traditional Scottish food item made from minced meat, rusk and spices. Although termed a sausage, no casing is used to hold the meat in shape, hence it is usually served as square slices from a formed block. It is a common component of the traditional Scottish breakfast.
It is thought that the sausage is named after the region of Lorne in Argyll; advertisements for 'Lorne Sausage' have been found in newspapers as early as 1892. This was long before Scottish comedian Tommy Lorne, after whom the sausage has been said to be named, became well-known: he was born in 1890.
The exact origins of the Lorne sausage remain unclear. It is often eaten in the Scottish variant of the full breakfast or in a breakfast roll. The sausage is also an appropriate size to make a sandwich using a slice from a plain loaf of bread cut in half.
Sausage meat (beef, pork or more usually a combination of the two) is minced with rusk and spices, packed into a rectangular tin with a cross-section of about ten centimetres (four inches) square, and sliced about one centimetre (one-half inch) thick before cooking. Square sausage has no casing, unlike traditional sausages, and must be tightly packed into the mould to hold it together; slices are often not truly square.
Occasionally, it has a length of caseless black pudding or haggis through the middle, in the style of a gala pie.
Blue Onion

Blue Onion (German: Zwiebelmuster) is a porcelain tableware pattern for dishware. Originally manufactured by Meissen porcelain in the 18th century and the late 19th Century. It has been copied by other companies.
The "onion" pattern was originally named the "bulb" pattern.
The Blue Onion pattern was designed by Johann Gregor Herold in 1739 likely inspired by a Chinese bowl from the Kangxi period. The pattern it was modelled after by Chinese porcelain painters, featured pomegranates unfamiliar in Saxony, so the plates and bowls produced in the Meissen factory in 1740 created their own style and feel. Among the earliest Chinese examples are underglaze blue and white porcelains of the early Ming Dynasty. The Meissen painters created hybrids that resembled flora more familiar to Europeans. The so-called "onions" are not onions at all, but, according to historians, are most likely mutations of the peaches and pomegranates, modelled on the original Chinese pattern. The design is a grouping of several floral motifs, with peonies and asters in the pattern's centre, and winding stems around a bamboo stalk.
Before the end of the 18th century, other porcelain factories were copying the Meissen Zwiebelmuster. In the 19th century almost all the European manufactories offered a version, with transfer-printed outlines that were coloured in by hand. Enoch Wedgwood's pattern in the 1870s was known as "Meissen". Today, a Japanese version called "Blue Danube" is well-known and featured amongst tableware patterns.
While the design is considered to have originated from an east Asian model, likely Chinese, it also demonstrates the European influence within the abstract stylisation. It is connected with the rhythm and rules of rococo ornamentation: for instance, the asymmetrical motif is composed according to type in various areas, giving the impression of symmetry.
The onion pattern was designed as a white ware decorated with cobalt blue underglaze pattern. Sometimes dishes have gold leaf accents on them. Some rare dishes have a green, red, pink, or black pattern instead of the cobalt blue. A very rare type is called red bud because there are red accents on the blue-and-white dishes.
Depression glass

Depression glass is glassware made in the period 1929–1939, often clear or colored translucent machine-made glassware that was distributed free, or at low cost, in the United States and Canada around the time of the Great Depression. Depression glass is so called because collectors generally associate mass-produced glassware in pink, yellow, crystal, green, and blue with the Great Depression in America.
The Quaker Oats Company, and other food manufacturers and distributors, put a piece of glassware in boxes of food, as an incentive to purchase. Some movie theaters and businesses handed out pieces to patrons.
Most of this glassware was made in the Ohio River Valley of the United States, where access to raw materials and power made manufacturing inexpensive in the first half of the 20th century. More than twenty manufacturers made more than 100 patterns, and entire dinner sets were made in some patterns. Common colors are clear (crystal), pink, pale blue, green, and amber. Less common colors include yellow (canary), ultramarine, jadeite (opaque pale green), delphite (opaque pale blue), cobalt blue, red (ruby and royal ruby), black, amethyst, monax, and white (milk glass). Some depression glass is uranium glass.
Although of marginal quality, Depression glass has been highly collectible since the 1960s. Due to its popularity as a collectible, it is becoming more scarce on the open market. Rare pieces may sell for several hundred dollars. Some manufacturers continued to make popular patterns after World War II, or introduced similar patterns, which are also collectible. Popular and expensive patterns and pieces have been reproduced, and reproductions are still being made.
A prominent sub-category of Depression Glass, Elegant glass, is of considerably better quality, often including polished mold seams, and hand-decoration such as cut patterns, etched patterns, and painted patterns. It was distributed through jewelry and department stores from the 1920s and continuing after the Great Depression through the 1950s, and was an alternative to fine china. Most of the Elegant glassware manufacturers had closed by the end of the 1950s, when cheap glassware and imported china replaced Elegant glass.
Some Elegant glass manufacturers were:
National Depression Glass Association Consolidated Lamp & Glass Co History
Depression glass identification:
Whole wheat bread

Whole wheat bread or wholemeal bread is a type of bread made using flour that is partly or entirely milled from whole or almost-whole wheat grains, see whole-wheat flour and whole grain. It is one kind of brown bread. Synonyms or near-synonyms for whole-wheat bread outside the United States (e.g., the UK) are whole grain bread or wholemeal bread. Some regions of the US simply called the bread wheat bread, a comparison to white bread. Some whole-wheat loaves are traditionally coated with whole or cracked grains of wheat (illustrated below), for cosmetic rather than nutritional reasons.
Meal in the sense of "flour" is derived from Old English melu and is cognate with modern English "mill", and with Dutch meel (flour), German Mehl (flour) and Old Norse mjǫl (flour).
The exact composition of products legally marketable as "whole wheat bread" varies from country to country and even within one country. In some cases, the bread is made with whole-grain flour that contains all of the component parts of the grain in the same ratios as they occur in nature, whereas in other cases the bread may include only representative amounts of bran or wheat germ. In Canada, for example, a proportion of the wheat germ may be removed from the flour to reduce the risk of rancidity, but the term "whole-wheat bread" is still used. The common term for whole-wheat bread in Canada is "brown bread".
In the United States the term "wheat bread" is sometimes used as a marketing tactic to give the impression of a product being whole-wheat bread, but this is at best an ambiguous term and potentially deceptive because most white bread is made from wheat flour, and thus could legitimately be called "wheat bread". The majority of what is marketed in the US under the name "wheat bread" has very little whole grain content, and is made primarily of white flour, with caramel coloring added to them to give an illusion of a higher whole wheat content.
In the UK bread labelled or advertised as 'wholemeal' must contain 100% wholemeal flour, and 'wheat germ' must have at least 10% added processed wheat germ. Most flour in the UK, and consequently breads made with it, is required to be fortified with added calcium, iron, thiamine (Vitamin B1) and niacin (Vitamin B3); wholemeal flour is exempt as it inherently contains sufficient of these nutrients. The unregulated term "wheatmeal" is used to describe flour containing some but not all of the outer covering and central part of the wheat grain.
Bread roll

A bread roll is a small, oblong individual loaf of bread served as a meal accompaniment (eaten plain or with butter). Rolls can be served and eaten whole or are also commonly cut and filled – the result of doing so is considered a sandwich in English.
Rolls are common throughout Europe. Even in the same languages, rolls are known by a variety of names. Some European languages have many local and dialectal terms for bread rolls. These include German language diminutives of Brot (bread) in most of western and central Germany (where they are called Brötchen) and in Switzerland (where they are called Brötli). Other German language terms include Rundstück ("round piece") in Hamburg and Schleswig-Holstein; Weckerl or more specific Semmel in Austria, Saxony and southern Bavaria; Weck and Weckle in much of Baden-Württemberg, Franconia and Saarland; Schrippe in Berlin and parts of Brandenburg. Some of these names reappear in other European languages as well, for example as zsemle in Hungarian, or rundstykker ("round pieces") in Danish and Norwegian. In the Netherlands they are called broodje.
"Small bread" is also found as Italian panino, which also commonly denotes a stuffed small bread roll. The Kaisersemmel reappears in Italy as the Michetta or Rosetta. In Swedish, a bread roll is a (frukost) bullar ("(breakfast) buns"), franskbrödbullar ("french bread bun") or simply fralla ("bun"), comfort food eaten with butter and any kind of topping (marmalade, cheese, ham, salami) for special weekend breakfasts. The Doppelweck or Doppelbrötchen is a type of bread roll originating from the Saarland which consists of two rolls joined together side-by-side before baking.
There are many terms for a bread roll within the United Kingdom depending on region. These names include roll, and for a minority of the population (usually concentrated in specific regions) bap, barm cake, batch, breadcake, bun, cob, teacake and muffin.
A variety of rolls are found in Europe, from white rolls made with wheat flour, to dark rolls containing mostly rye flour. Many variants include spices, such as coriander and cumin, or nuts. Also common are bread rolls containing or garnished with whole seeds such as sesame, poppy, pumpkin or sunflower.
Boule (bread)

Boule, from French, meaning "ball", is a traditional shape of French bread resembling a squashed ball. A boule can be made using any type of flour and can be leavened with commercial yeast, chemical leavening, or even wild yeast (sourdough). The name of this rustic loaf shape is the reason the French call bread bakers "boulangers" and bread bakeries "boulangeries".
This bread is found especially in the regions of eastern France, such as Burgundy and Franche-Comté where a small town bears the name of Boulot.
Boule bread appears in certain Renaissance paintings by the Dutch painter Dieric Bouts. A representation of Boule bread can be appreciated in the still life works of the Spanish painter Luis Eugenio Meléndez (1716-1780), and also in the works of the French painter Jean-Baptiste Chardin.
Pandeyuca

El pandeyuca o pan de yuca es una pieza de panadería en forma de panecillo, elaborado con queso blanco molido, almidón de yuca cernido, huevo, polvo de hornear y sal; que se amasa y se forma en pequeñas porciones que posteriormente se hornean. Es una preparación típica del trópico de Sudamérica con distintos nombres: chipas en Argentina y Paraguay, cuñapé en Bolivia, pão de queijo en Brasil, pan de yuca en Ecuador y Perú, y pandeyuca (una sola palabra, escrita de manera similar al pandebono) en Colombia.​
Es un bocado presentado en forma de rosca, ovalado o redonda, y en estado sólido, seco y salado, con una cualidad un tanto arenosa y de un sabor exquisito y pegajoso. La textura ideal debe ser crocante, a diferencia del pandequeso o la almojábana, de textura más similar al pan suave.
Cuñapé

El cuñapé (en guaraní, kuñape; en quechua, kuñapi) es un panecillo elaborado a base de queso y almidón de yuca.​​​ Es tradicional de la región del Oriente de Bolivia,​ y similar a otras variedades de pan de yuca que se pueden encontrar en Paraguay, Ecuador, Brasil, Argentina y Colombia.​​​ Es de tamaño pequeño y suele ser comido a la hora del té, comúnmente junto a otros horneados y una taza de café.
La mayoría de fuentes aseveran que el vocablo «cuñapé» es un guaranismo.​​ Algunas fuentes indican su procedencia de la palabra guaraní chiriguano mbujape (‘pan’);​​ otras fuentes proponen la etimología kuña (‘mujer’) pe (‘chata’).​
En la elaboración se utilizan: almidón o fécula de yuca dulce, huevo, sal, queso blanco y leche.​ Se forma una masa homogénea que luego se amasa en forma de esfera. Finalmente se hornean. La preparación más tradicional se realiza en hornos de leña o barro, pero cada vez más ampliamente en hornos eléctricos.​
Farofa

La farofa es un acompañamiento tradicional y típico de la cocina brasileña cuyo ingrediente principal es la mandioca rallada; de la cual se extrae el almidón; no es harina de mandioca; es la mandioca rallada muy fino para extracción del almidón. Se lo conoce o recibe el nombre de "fariña de mandioca " ("fariña" - farinha- significa "harina" en portugués), es la mandioca propiamente dicha; rallada finamente y tostada. Se puede condimentar generalmente con algún alimento graso y otros ingredientes, tales como: judías carillas, mijo, tocino torrado, chorizo frito, huevos, salsas, cebollas, bananas, col entre otros.
Es un plato bastante popular en Brasil, teniendo su origen registrado en el período colonial, en varias cocinas regionales brasileñas es servido de acompañamiento a asados de carne, ave o pescados. Por ser un alimento de bajo coste y fácil de preparar, se encuentra fácilmente en los platos de las clases de bajos ingresos brasileñas.
En la Región Nordeste de Brasil (Região Nordeste do Brasil) es muy consumida la farofa tradicional, pero específicamente en Bahía se emplea como grasa el aceite de palma (azeite-de-dendê), que proporciona una coloración y sabor característicos a la farofa. Es muy frecuente que en los asados de aves, se haga con los trocitos del ave asada.
En regiones fronterizas del Noreste de Argentina con Brasil se conoce y consume este producto, en Paraguay es conocida como fariña y se consume como acompañante de sopas de puchero y es muy popular su consumo en el rancho de los trabajadores del campo.
Con la farofa de maíz se ha convertido en un plato muy popular la galinha com farofa (gallina con farofa). Consiste en cocinar en una sartén una gallina, bien sazonada y cortada en pedazos, hasta que se combine con la farofa, el plato se prepara hasta que esté bien torrado y mezclado. Este plato no necesita de refrigeración para su conservación y lo convierte en ideal para pícnic o como comida para llevar al trabajo (farnel) o de viaje.
El músico, cantante y escritor brasileño Chico Buarque menciona la Farofa en su canción Feijoada Completa. Y también el músico brasileño Seu Jorge, editó una canción en 1997 llamado "Farofa Carioca", e incluso hay un artista del mismo nombre.
Dolli Irigoyen

Dolli Beatriz Irigoyen Fontaine (General Las Heras, Buenos Aires; 19 de diciembre de 1951) es una cocinera, docente y empresaria gastronómica argentina.​
Nacida en la localidad bonaerense de General Las Heras, su contacto con la cocina comenzó en la cocina familiar a temprana edad. A los 24 años comenzó su primer emprendimiento de pastelería en su pueblo natal, trabajo que compaginaba junto a su profesión de docente en una escuela rural. Años más tarde recibió la oportunidad de encargarse del restaurante del club social de Las Heras, siendo este su inicio en el área.​
Después de aquella experiencia, fue contratada por Carrefour para el armado de la pastelería y de la fábrica de pastas de la sucursal de San Isidro.​ Para evitar los trayectos entre su pueblo y el Área Metropolitana de Buenos Aires, Irigoyen decidió establecerse en la Capital Federal junto a su familia, donde empezó a dictar clases de cocina y más tarde realizar su debut televisivo en Canal 7 y después en la señal de cable Utilísima.​
Durante la década de 1990, Dolli expandió su negocio gastronómico y abrió dos restaurantes en Buenos Aires. En agosto de 1998, decidió cerrar su restaurante en Avenida Figueroa Alcorta y Tagle, barrio porteño de Palermo, ya que en 18 meses de abierto, sufrió 18 atracos.​ Después de estos acontecimientos, Irigoyen recibió la invitación de formar parte del canal de cable El Gourmet, con la cual ganaría reconocimiento en toda Hispanoamérica.​
Asimismo, fue reconocida también con el premio Santa Clara de Asís, y durante dos años consecutivos (2001-2002) recibió el premio Martín Fierro en el rubro mejor programa de cable de cocina de la Argentina. En el ámbito internacional, Irigoyen presidió dos veces el Bocuse d'Or y es miembro de la Académie culinaire de France por su aporte a la gastronomía latinoamericana.​
Blanca Cotta

Blanca Helena Cotta de Geronés (Buenos Aires; 14 de marzo de 1925-28 de agosto de 2019), más conocida como Blanca Cotta, fue una cocinera,​​ periodista,​ profesora en Letras, guionista, humorista gráfica y dibujante argentina.​​​
Creció y vivió en Quilmes. Se recibió de maestra con medalla de oro y luego de profesora de Letras en la Escuela Normal N.° 1. Fue preceptora y profesora en las Escuelas Normales N.° 4 y 7 de la Capital Federal, hasta que en 1953 se convirtió en la Secretaria de Redacción de la revista Mucho gusto, cargo en el que se mantuvo hasta 1960. Ese año asumió la conducción y autoría del guion del programa Buenas tardes, mucho gusto, que se transmitía por Canal 13, hasta 1968.
Buena parte de su trayectoria profesional se desarrolló al interior del Grupo Clarín, donde participó como autora, guionista e ilustradora de los programas infantiles Juguemos en el patio y Juguemos en el 13. También escribió y colaboró en Clarín Revista durante cinco décadas con su emblemática columna “De aquí, de allá y de mi abuela también", y en los suplementos "Para todos", en la columna "Para la patrona" en Clarín Rural y en el suplemento "Ollas & Sartenes" del diario Clarín. Escribió, para la misma empresa, letras de canciones para los discos "Canela canta las reglas de ortografía" y "Canción para mamá". Publicó además una gran cantidad de libros de cocina, ilustrados por ella. Escribió recetas de cocina, para las cuales hizo las ilustraciones, en la sección "Comiditas" para la popular revista infantil Anteojito.​
Falleció el miércoles 28 de agosto de 2019 a los noventa y cuatro años.​ Su último artículo en la revista Viva fue publicado el domingo 25 de agosto de 2019, aunque la sección continuó publicándose luego de su fallecimiento hasta el 15 de septiembre.​
En marzo de 2023, su nieta, María Alejandra se presentó al reality culinario MasterChef Argentina para brindarle reconocimiento a su abuela pero finalmente no fue seleccionada.
Durante su carrera, Blanca Cotta fue autora de varios libros de cocina. Muchos de ellos se publicaron como fascículos para coleccionar.