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Sfonehenge, the ruins of on ancient religious center Pbsitions and along the various stones were used to ONEHENGE, stdn‘henj, is the ruins of a Stone Age monument situated on Salisbury Plain in sputhem England. It is one of the most imposing ahd complex of the 40 tu 50 prehistoric circular ehclosures or “henge” monuments known in the Hritish Isles. The niost striking features of Stonehenge are the remains of a great circle of lintel-capped rectangular stone columns surrounding a. still Ner “horseshoe” of trilithons, each trilithon nsisting of two columns supporting the ends of al horizontal top piece, or lintel. The tallest thilithon rises 24 feet (7.3 meters) above ground, d each of the uprights weighs up to 50 tons. ther conspicuous features of the monument itclude the Slaughter Stone, the Heel Stone, the luestones, and ditches. Many of the elements have changed through tlme as the result of natural forces or human tivity. Standing stones have toppled, ditches ave silted, and additions and changes have been bade by the prehistoric peoples to whom this stte was an important religious center during the ‘Feolithic Period and the Early Bronze Age, bughly from 1900 to 1400 8. c. Speculation on and study of Stonehenge have ntinued unabated from the time that it was Hirst mentioned in the literature shortly after the Forman Conquest of 1066. Its construction has Ween attributed to many of the various peoples tho have inhabited the British Isles. The most Widely held belief was that Stonehenge was built y the Britons, a Celtie people, for druidical rites. is now known, however, that the Celts and their driid priests did not come to Britain until $000 vears after Stonchenge was abandoned. The first urchitectural study of the site was wade in the [7th century by the Enylish archi- ct Inigo Jones at the conmmand of King James More accurate surveys and observations were onal il “paaremorenger Approved F ame or Release and astronomical observatory. Sightings from different predict astronomical events with remarkable accuracy. conducted subsequently by such British anti- quaries as John Aubrey, Sir Richard Colt Hoare, and William M. Flinders Petrie. The numbers assigned by Petrie to the various holes and stones are still employed in identifying them. Archaeological research has provided the most trustworthy evidence concerning not only the several phases of construction and their dates, but also the cultures to which they belong. In- terpreting the original function of Stonchenge is partly an archaevlogical matter and partly an astronomical problem. Scientific excavation and restoration began in the 20th century, especially with the work of William Hawley from 1919 to 1926. The most meticulous investigations were conducted jointly by Richard J. C. Atkinson, Stuart Piggott, and John F. S$. Stone from 1950 to 1954. The result of these excavations was an extremely complicated picture of successive pe- tiods of construction. Construction. The history of Stonehenge may be, divided into three main periods. The first major construction, or Period 1, took place be- tween 1900 and 1700 p.c. It was accomplished by people belonging to the secondary Neolithic culture, a blend of earlier hunting and gathering peoples and the first groups with an agricultural economy to appear in the British Isles. This construction consisted of a circular ditch and hank about 320 feet (97 meters) in diameter, broken by an entrance cuuseway from the narth- east. Just inside the bank and concentric with it was dug a circle of 36 equally spaced holes— called the Aubrey holes for their 17th century discoverer John Aubrey. The holes were filled with chalk rubble and, in some instances, with cremated human bones. Charcoal from one hole vielded a radiocarbon date of 1848 p.c. 275 years. The 16-foot (4.9-meter) tall Heel Stone was erected at this time or carlier, a short  dis- 751 ee ae eae 2000/08/08 : CiA-RDP96-00789R001 602150001-6 -
T ey element rt carr fag rat Fat by sorb ame bs = i t £ * 752 STONEHENGE tance outside the ditch to the northeast. The Hee) Stone is a block of sarsen stone, a type of sandstone used fur many of the larger stone elements in the monument. The structure of Period 1 (about 1700-1500 B.C.) does nat now exist but can be inferred from the existence within the ditch and the Aubrey hole circle of the “Q" and “R” holes. These holes forns a double circle, 86 feet (26.2 meters) and 74 feet (22.5 meters) in diameter, each circle originally containing about 38 blue- stones. Many of these stones were removed and used for later constructions. Two parallel ditches were dug outward from the main entrance, form- ing an avenue running northeast toward the point on the horizon at which the sun rises on mid- summer day, or the summer solstice. Because of the absence of holes in the western part of the double circle, it would appear that Stone- henge I] was never completed. The architects must have belonged to the Beaker culture, col- onizers who came from the European continent at the end of the Neolithic Period, for shards of Beaker pottery have been found in association with the traces of this structure. Period H] (about 1500-1400 8. c.) wituessed the final and most spectacular phases of constrac- tion. One of the principal features is the 100- foot (30.5-meter) circle of 30 sarsen stone columns. Each column weighs about 25 tons; measures about 3 to 4 feet (0.9-1.2 micters) thick. 7 feet (2.) meters) wide, and 13 feet (4 meters) high; and is capped by a continuous circle of horizontal lintels held in position by mortise and tenon jotits. Within this circle Js the central horses} of five sarsen trilithons referred to previog in Other features, such as the circles of ny ~ “Z holes outside the sarsen circle and y sina horseshoe of bloestones within the trilithan “ale, appear to represent Jater modifications of th, plan. The largest of the blnestones, called i, Altar-Stone, now lies under two fallen trilithey: stones. Its original location and functioy " unknown. The builders of Stonchenge alinost certainly members of the Early Bronz, Age Wessex culture, at the time one of the mos advanced European ¢ultures outside of the Med; terrancan area. Other sites of this culture, large ly graves, have produced bronze ax blades ayy other artifacts resembling strikingly in detail many objects from central Europe and 4,1 cenaean Greece. In 1953 a carving of a bronz, dagger similar in form to those used at Myconay during the period of the shaft graves was foun; on one of the sarsen stones. As for the construction technigues of Storr henge, much practical experimentation has bee done with simple equipment to determine pos sible methods of transport and the size of ty labor force needed to move and erect the largi sarscns. Geological studies have shown that thy sarsens carne from) Marlborough Downs, same 2¢ miles (32 km) north of Stonchenge. The bhuic stones were brought from the Prescelly Moun tains of southwestern Wales, probably by sea anc then overland by sledges running on rollers, J has been estimated that it might require upward of 500 men to pull a 50-ton stone up the steepes # Standing stone @ Fallen or missing stong ie) 50 F vet Loe ee 0789R001602150001-6
» - potral horse)... red to DPIEV YS}, irdles of “Yang “iple and a siall tlle trilithos are difications of the -stbnes, called the vd fallen trilithar ald fanetion um audhenge JH were the Early Bronze cfoue of the mast tsfde of the Medi. his culture, large. z@ ax blades and kingly in detai), =yrope and My. ming of a bronze Used at Myconae wypaves was found apignes of Stone. yftation has bec, a} determine pos. the size of the J crect the large. Jshown that the owns, Sone 20 nge. The blue. -rescelly Manna. Hably by sea and ig on rollers. 1k equire upwards f up the steepest stone Jing stone m or missing stone 50 Feet STONE'S RIVER, BATTLE OF-STONEWARE slope along the route. Timber cribwark. levers, and ropes were considered adequate for raising stones to vertical positions and placing lintels on their tops. Function. The original function of this ex- traotdinary monument has been the subject of much speculation. It has been thought of as a monument, funeral or othenvise, to various Jeg- endary or historic personages. Ho has also been considered to be the center of a religions cult. Because of its orientation toward the rising sun, scientists have seen it as an astronomical observa- tory of some kind. Archacologists are iu general agreement that the site had both a religious and an astronomical function. It is likely that the monument at Stonchenge, hallowed by its early use as a purely religious structure, became modi- fied gradually in its carly phases to perform astronomical functions as well—first to record the advent of the summer solstice, then to predict sunrise, moonrise, and probably eclipses, all as part of a religious and agricultural ritual. In 1963, Gerald Hawkins, an astronomer, used a computer to work out all observations that could be made by sighting along and through the various markers, stone posts, and openings be- tween uprights, including four “station” stone jocations that form a rectangle on the line of the - Aubrey holes. His calculations indicated with al- most perfect probability that Stonehenge can be used as an astronomical instrument to predict accurately, with adjustment of movable marking stones once a year, the movements of both sun and moon as wel] as eclipses. Varions objections to the theory and its implications have been raised by archaeologists. One of the important ones is the unlikelihood of the existence of such a sophisticated device, requiring the passing on of accumulated observational data over a long period of time, in a culture that was othenvise on a con- siderably lower Jevel of development than the heart of Bronze Age culture in the eastem Mcditcrranean. DonaLp F. Brown Boston University Further Reading: Atkinson, Richard J.C.,  Stone- henge (Macmillan 1956). Hawkins, Gerald §.. and White, John B., Stonehenge Decoded (Doubleday 1965); Petne, William Flinders, Stonehenge (1881); Stone John F.S., Wessex Before the Celis (Praeger 1958). STONE'S RIVER, Battle of, in the Amcrican Civil War, fought Dec. 31, 1862-Jan, 2, 1863, about 30 miles (48 km) southeast of Nashville, Tenn. Jt is often called the Battle of Murfreesboro. A hajd-fought but indecisive conflict, it had no apparent influence on the strategic situation, but President Abraham Lincoln observed that if the Union Amy had been defeated, “the nation could scarcely have lived over it.” After Gen. Braxton Bragg led an unsuccessful invasion of Kentucky in the autumn of 1862, he retired to Murfreesboro, in southeastern Tennessee. Maj. Gen. William S. Rosecrans, the new com- mander of the Union Army of the Cumberland, was based at Nashville. Eastern Termessee was favorably inclined to the Union, and the high command in Washington was determined to drive the Confederates from the region. Under strong pressure for action, Rosecrans led his army out of Nashville on Dec. 26, 1862. Rain, fog, and Confederate cavalry patrols hin- dered his advance, and his leading elements did not approach Murfreesboro until the evening of the 29th. The next day, the two armies con- fronted cach other in’ strength. Rosecrams had about 45.00%) men; Bragg a little Jess than 40,000. Brage deployed his forces astride the west fork of Stone's River, a few miles northwest of the town. The bulk of them were on the west bank, but one division, about 5,000 mien, was on the cast. Rosecrans concentrated entirely on the west side of the river. The battle plans of the opposing commanders were identical in principle. Each planned to hold with his right wing and attack with his left wing, secking an envelopment of the enemy. Bragg struck first, about 6 a.M. on Dec. 3]. He surprised the Union troops at the right end of the line; many were cooking breakfast. His assault gathered momentum as- reinforcements ar- rived. The Union right was bent back at right angles to the left, and by midafternoon the Union army was compressed into a tight horseshoe with its back to the river. But stout resistance and minor counterattacks had jolted the Confederates. Bragg called for the division on the east bank of the river to strength- en a last blow, but its commander did not move, fearing a Union attack. At a counci) that night, some Union generals wished to retreat to Nash- ville, but Rosecrans decided to hold. On Jan. 1, there was littl fighting. Both arinies were exhausted and had suffercd heavy losses. The next day, the only inyportant action was east of the river, where a Union force that had crossed there repulsed a Confederate attack. Bragg realized that Rosecrans liad received ammunition and supplies, and on Jan. 3 he with- drew through Murfreesl.vro aud proceeded south. Rosecrans occupied the town but did vot pursue his foe. The situation in Tennessee remained static for six months, but by holding fast Rosc- crans had averted what would have been a serious defeat for the Union at that stage of the war. The Union losses were about 12,800 men killed, wounded, and iissing. The Confederate casualties totaled about 11,600. The Stones River National Battlefield now occupies part of the hattle site. In the Stones River (or Murfreesboro} National Cemetery are graves of soldiers of both anes. STONEWARE is a hard, nonporous ceramic. H is made of a highly siliceous paste, cither a special clay or clay mixed with other materials, such as ground flint, feldspar, or marble. The paste is fired at a high temperature until it vitrifes (fuses) ta form a nonporous, glassy sub- stance that gives a ringing sound when struck. Stoneware thas differs from soft, low-fired porous earthenware. Ht closely rescinbles hard, high- fired, nonporous porcelain and is often called por- celaneous ware. However, lecause stoneware is usually heavy and apaque, with a bluish gray or reddish Lrown color, Wester authorities have tended to distinguish it from porcelain, which they characterize as thin, translucent, and white. ' Stoneware may have incised, impressed, or applied relief decorations. It may be unglazed, or it may be glazed to resist acidic liquids or for decoration. A thin, slightly pitted sal glaze is common. Thicker, colored lead glazes are also found. Stonewares were made in Shang China be- fore 1000 n.c. Heavy, porcelaneous stonewares of the Han, Tang, Sung, and Yuan dynasties had black or brown painted decoration or relief decora- tion with celadon green glaze. 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