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Nonliving systems change their visible form through time in response to Physical and
Nonliving sysrems cn
*
Qf many of the reactions involved
in these changes
temperature.
This allows
us to distinguish living systems as those which change measur^ly
in
resooi^ to eXSoS stimuU within the time span of human Nervation
Challenging
SsrifTniSlT^teresting.
A bacterium
falls
in
the
category
of
living, and a
tnese
oeiimuwi»
o
separation
is that we can, at least in theory,
macromolecule does not.
The Key xo xne
h
result
of
environmental
by
i,se“
fe become
gf*SS
unless
the
data
extends many
times
the
length
of
the
longest
cycie,
randomly distributed in time.
The general question of rhythmic changes wM* could P«*b* be
participant
in
a
p si
experiment
"mst
re, earch
g
w(. ,^ve sought for, but failed to
experiments which have paralleled ou
p
"diurnal"
This was an important
find replicable rhythms other than ^circadian or
c^urnaK
Analysis
prerequisite to the
; experiments to bed»o^ ^^nu^perloS,
thfs information
had revealed a subtle
replicable
wished to create an artificially high score to
would allow an informed participant wto watedto
v
has
execute psi rumlatten, minut
I
manifest in the
such a long period (24 hours) that it cann
choose tQ ^rork in the mornings at
Sro "mate? S«"SL drcadlan phase 'angle.
The data is detrended by our statistical
protocol.
The most
relevant reference
to other «rrS
«*™-k «ems » ^
(1985),
and
references
“sort- locaUy deviant
w^^t^^or^^r^dom^qu^ce^nt^agr^lcant ^nd non-slgnUiMnt bim.
o?data.
sSondary references within these two papers are also useful.
RESULTS
Since the statistical results developed^
^fet
"ysLf^d
0 ^'s^y
^W-mati^compiernents
the
description
of
the
laboratory and the method given in Pleass and Dey (19
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Baseline Data Properties
The understanding of the statistical properties of our baseline data stream
is an
essential and ongoing endeavor.
Baseline data, meaning a stream
of
velocity readings
taken
by
the computer when
neither
participant no£ experimenter
are present
in the
laboratory, have been collected and subjected to numerous visual inspections (via time
plots) and more quantitative analyses.
Note that the examples given in this section are
chosen
to
represent extreme
cases.
With that
caveat,
the
following
properties
have
been found to exist in our "normal" baseline:
A.
Noise
-
the
variation
of
velocity
readings around
an
average
value.
This
variation
is neither a constant
nor a
constant percentage
of
the
average.
Standard
deviations
(a)
of
baseline
velocity
readings
range
from
to
35x10"® msec-1
with
coefficients of variation 100 o/x from
10 to 60
percent.
A
particularly disconcerting
example
of
baseline
noise
is shown
in Figure
3, where
noise appears
to
consistently
increase for approximately two hours.
B.
Trends - where velocity is consistently increasing or decreasing for periods of
several hundred
to several thousand readings.
Figure
4 shows two examples
of
long
term (decreasing) trends in baseline velocity readings.
C.
Periodicity
-
repeating
cycles
of
varying
frequency.
Periodicity
includes
strings of velocity readings with significant autocorrelation.
Figure 5
is an interesting
example.
In the raw
velocity
readings, Figure 5A,
periodicity, is nearly obscured
by
noise.
However, Figure 5B shows significant autocorrelations) in the same series even
after 20 lags.
Finally, Figure 5C, a plot of cumulative Z score versus time, shows
a
definite cycle in the data with a period of approximately 450-500 readings.
Note that
no replicable frequencies characteristic of the organism or
its environment (other than
the diurnal or circadian) have been found.
D.
Trends and periodicity
- combinations
of repeating cycles with consistently
increasing
or
decreasing
average
velocity
readings.
Figure 6A
shows
both
trend
(increasing) and
cycles
in a sample of over
1300 baseline
readings.
Also,
Figure 6B
shows significant autocorrelations through 50 lags for the same series, with some slight
periodicity visually apparent in the correlogram itself.
E.
Mean Shift - an obvious and relatively abrupt shift
in the average
velocity.
This characteristic may be a "discontinuity" in an apparent long range trend and may or
may not include periodicity. An example is shown in Figure 7.
General Observations of Baseline Data
•
All
of above, items A thru
E, exist, or can exist in the data stream
at an^
given time.
•
Existence of one or more of these phenomena can only be determined after the
fact, i.e., after the data have been collected and analyzed.
•
No
a
priori
adjustment
of
data
to
"compensate"
for
these
phenomena
is
conceivable. They must all be treated as inherent properties of the "baseline".
•
Statistical treatment of the
data,
e.g.,
to test the
null hypothesis of no
psi,
must be "robust" enough to cope with these issues.
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oor-MC
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I
T
Y
Basel ine •JTOULn-. of
10)
Datum Number
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ricufiz
A
Datum Humber
FIGURE SB - Baseline Data
r l CUKE SC
- Baseline Data
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r>ot-wC
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ricusx 7
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•
All of the above points argue for the use of ’'global" comparisons and relatively
large sample sizes to provide meaningful statistical tests of the null hypothesis.
Statistical Analyses
Two
experiments
known
as
PK85
and Wave
will
be
discussed.
Both
involve
marking
the
ongoing
data
string
in
similar
formats,
illustrated
in
Figure
8,
using
preprogrammed
keys
on
the
computer
keyboard.
The
psi
interval
is
followed
immediately
by
a
control
interval
of
the same
length.
After
a
pause
of
random
duration, pseudo psi and pseudo control intervals which have identical dimensions to the
real run are automatically marked in the data file.
In each analysis the null hypothesis
was
that
there was no
psi
effect
extant, and the data were detrended by using the
double difference
v
control
“
psi
'
~
pseudocontrol
'
pseudopsv
as the score for the run.
PK85
Additional
details of the PK85 protocol are given in Pleass and Dey (1985).
The
participants
were
asked
to
try
to
visualize
the
algae
in
the
vicinity
of
the
laser
crossover during the
psi period using informal, light-hearted imagery, while excluding
all unrelated conscious thoughts.
The initial procedure required ten runs to complete a
set.
The random interval (Figure 8A) was limited to a maximum of up to 5000 raw data
{joints.
After one run cycle was completed, a symbol wouid appear in the bottom left
corner
of
the
monitor,
indicating
that
another
run
could be
initiated whenever
the
participant elected.
The
time
required
to
complete
a
set
of
ten
runs
was
1.5
-
hours.
The
participants soon learned that selecting the shortest
psi period possible would shorten
the length of the set.
Typical psi intervals ranged from 30 seconds to 2 minutes.
After
discussions with participants the number of runs
in a set was reduced to five, which
could be completed in approximately one hour.
This helped to eliminate the "mid-set
blues": the feeling that there were still many more runs to do.
The statistics routinely calculated were the differences in the means and standard
deviations. The results were presented to the participant at the conclusion of each set,
and saved
to
file
with
the raw
data.
To accumulate from
set
to
set
scores were
calculated for each run from the double difference (mean control - mean
psi) - (mean
pseudocontrol - mean pseudopsi) and these scores were developed into histograms with
the best fitting Gaussian overlaid.
Figure 9 reports the results of 22 sets, treated as
205 runs.
A significant step forward occurred when the results of these experiments were
compared to results artificially generated from data collected when no psi experiments
were in process.
In this additional level of control, which will be referred to as "global
control", the data file dimensions of the sequence psi/control/spacer/pseudo-psi/pseudo-
control were taken from the markers identifying the real psi experiment data string and
transferred to data taken without psi intent, either before or after the set.
Note that
although overnight data were
available, we chose not to use these for global control
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Figure 8
PK85 and Wave Procedures
Null hypothesis: no significant difference between
- ^control ” S psi
) “ “
< S pseudocontrol " S pseudopsi
>
where S
is any statistic such as the mean
A. PK85
RUNX
RUNX+1
Ft
p 2
B. WAVE
RUNX
Fl
m PSI Period
Random Space
Control Period
Pseudo PSI Period
Pseudo Control Period
RUNX+1
m,MV
Same data dimensions as RUN*
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F1QJEI
9:
PK83
I»sults
FIGUEI 10:
Global
PX85 Ixp«ri#»nt Besults
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since the circadian phase angle differs so much from that extant during the sets, which
were carried out during the day.
Figure 10 illustrates the global control "scores".
To develop a probability value we compared the best
fit Gaussians representing
the scores from the real experiment with the global control, using an F test.
cr
global
* 1.54
<r
2ps1
With 204 degrees of freedom
this gave a probability of a chance difference less
than 2x10-4, suggesting that the null hypothesis should be rejected.
WAVE
This modification to the PK85 protocol was a consequence of discussions with our
participants
during
the
informai
debriefing
period
which
normally
followed
each
session.
It
is illustrated
in Figure 8B.
In it the participant was asked to begin his psi
effort at his own pace, at any time after the computer signaled its readiness to accept
another run.
This warm-up and psi period had no set length; indeed participants often
took several minutes warming up to their psi effort. We asked them to touch the FI key
on the computer keyboard when they felt their psi effort was at a strong peak, and to
immediately turn away
to the
trivial
control period
task.
Reading a
dictionary was
found to be an effective way of quickiy transferring attention.
In this way, we hoped to
observe the release of psi pressure.
It was suggested that the movement to press the FI
key be a response to a subconscious cue, and none found this difficult. Once the FI key
was pressed, the monitor screen was turned blue during collection of the control, the
spacer segment, the pseudo-psi and the pseudo-control data.
At the conclusion of this
period, the monitor screen turned grey, signaling readiness for another run.
The peak
psi period was taken to be the 25 data records (2500 raw data points) preceding the FI
keypress;
thus
ail Wave
runs have the same data dimensions.
As
usual,
the
control,
pseudo-psi and pseudo-control
all had the same dimension as the psi. We continued to
use the same null hypothesis, algorithm, and format for feedback.
Initially, participants were asked
to complete
ten
runs
for each set
during one
visit to the laboratory.
This took nearly two hours, due
to the manner In which most
participants chose to undertake their psi effort.
As a consequence, the required effort
for a set was shortened to five runs
per
set.
Preliminary
analysis of
this
data was
conducted at the conclusion of each set, and graphical displays of differences in means
were provided as feedback, just as in PK85.
Quite
striking results were obtained from
indiviudal sets (Pleass and Dey
1985).
Run scores were then compared with global controls.
Figures 11 and 12 show the data,
with best fit Gaussians.
In this case the experimental results have a much larger range
than the global results:
,
a
psi
F
=
* 5.99
a-
global
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riCUKC
11:
UttUI Experiment Jesuits
TIGUKE
12:
Global
UAVE Experiment Jesuits
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The
probability
o,
obtaining
the
by
»
vary
low,
P
- ««.
again
suggesting that the nuU hypothesis should be rejecte
» ^ a^
r°Pr * at^nce^he^sar^l^nurnb^*^«
n
q
r
oite^gb?
)
and
r
ii Z£fiSi&
experimental error, since the
P
—
them we find
to explain any difference.
Applying an F test to them we
o 2Wave global
control
^
^
F
*
-
o^PK85 global
control
p
= 0.2
This gives us substantial confidence in the chosen procedur
DISCUSSION
.
,
i.
•_ nf-~ in and in the method of defining
Since PK85 and Wave
differ substantially
in
£ ^ unreasonable.
There
is
the psi and control periods, tte inversion
the
.
reduce mean velocities
also evidence that some participants have a general
r
erties.
only
three
and
biological
"noise",
while
others
,b
ith a rUn ratio of 20:1:1, and
it may
iTSrZ ra redone P-m ;sign«ure"
In
a^ttw^de^^^^of^partkdpant-relateirvariables.
ft is appropriate to use the most
%rStS
of the method used in the
r®seaJ^ ^J^
ces betWeen experimental and global data,
are
alternate explanations
for the
dl*f «*eP
*
the game time.
The only method
since the global data cannot, by
b*^fy the same circadian phase angle is to
^fitlTo^a^^^^
This possibility will be examined.
The insignificant <K«<*en“ b*tW“S^e thl
riitSc^ l^dw^Hwlver, it
the two experiments (p = 0.2)
£
d
test
sinCe the histograms of scores contain
isssss
sm:««
SSmatelethcSs
ofltatistical processing would be most welcome.
CONCLUSIONS
Two
statistical
analyses
of
psi
runs <»rned out with the
psf^nd^control period
have tasen reported.
They
°T^<en^at
l
face
value,
the resets
statistics,
derived from
strings
of
velocity
.
DS ; effect.
However, this is
suggest the rejection of the null
moted
and the results should be treated with
WEst experiment of this type to be
various alternate statistical
caution untU they are substantiated by further rese
treatments.
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REFERENCES
1.
Pleass,
C.
M.
and
N.
Dean
Dey.
1985.
"Using
the
Doppler
effect
to
study
behavioral
responses
of
motile algae
to
psi
stimulus."
Proceedings
of
the
28th
Parapsychologicai Association Convention, August 1985, p. 373-406.
2.
3ahn, R. G. and B.
3. Dunne.
1984.
"On the quantum mechanisms of consciousness
with
application
to
anomalous
phenomena."
Technical
Note
PEAR
83005.1,
Princeton
Engineering
Anomalies
Research,
Princeton
University,
School
of
Engineering and Applied Science.
3.
May, E. C., D.
I. Radin, G.
S. Hubbard, and B.
S. Humphrey.
"Psi experiments with
random number generators: an informational model." Idem, p. 235-266.
4.
Radin,
D.
I.,
E.
C.
May,
and
M.
3.
Thompson.
"Psi
experiments
with random
number generators: Meta-analysis Part 1."
Idem, p. 199-234.
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Appendix
TARGET SYSTEM AND DATA SECURITY
The lab building
.
+
t0
J
5®
fre®
from
extraneous
vibration
and
electrical
noise,
the
lab
is
{
°n
,
a sand lune known as Beach Plum
Island, adjacent to the CMS campus
at
Lewes, Delaware.
To access the lab one must cross the Broadkill River in a small boat,
l here are no other projects ongoing in the lab.
The laser room
•
The culture of Dunaliella, the laser, and the transmitting and receiving optics are
ail
mounted
on
a
vibration
isolation
table
in
a
very
heavily
insulated
room.
Quantitative
data
describing
the
residual
vibrations
on
the
table
under
the
conditions
of
the
experiment
were
obtained
using
an
integrating
FFT
oscilloscope. When compared to similar FFT's of the Doppler shifts from a culture
of
Dunaliella
on the same
table
(Figure
A-l)
it
is
evident
that
the
vibration
isolation is effective.
•
There are no motors
or lights other than the
laser
in the room with the subject
culture.
The laser power supply, the tracking electronics and the PC are
in the
adjacent room.
•
insula^ on makes the room almost soundproof. Wind noise outside the
building
is
totally imperceptible.
The laser tube
is a minor heat source, and
to
ensure a constant temperature at the culture vessel the room
is cooled by water
from
dedicated
wells, circulated through the room
and returned to the aquifer
under the
lab.
This avoids the problems of sound, e.m. field, and air turbulence
associated with air conditioning.
The temperature of the well water may change
oy
5 C
over
the
year, but no change
is
detectable over
the
period
of a run.
Room temperature is routinely recorded.
•
The
door
to
the
laser
room
was
barred
by
a
thick
sheet
of
urethane foam
irwulation, which was pressed into place in the early morning immediately after
the
culture had been
changed.
The
participant
could not remove
this
without
being observed by the experimenter.
The participant's room
•
This
adjoins
the
laser
room.
The
participant may
close
the
door,
isolating
themselves visually from the experimenter.
Until
1986 there were a number of
things which
a
dishonest
participant
might
have
tried
to
do
in
an attempt
to
create an artifically high score:
1)
Knock (vigorously) on the wall between the two rooms during either the psi or
control period.
However, this would be clearly audible to the experimenter.
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2)
"Play” with the knobs on the electronics adjacent to the computer keyboard.
This would normally throw the equipment out of lock, causing the data string
to terminate.
If by some remote chance
it did not, the data might show a
sudden mean shift.
However, the probability of a participant being able
to
repeat
this
without
losing
control
is
virtually
zero.
Since
the experiment
appears to have potential, we have now (1986) placed
all the electronics in a
glass fronted locked cabinet.
3)
"Play" with the computer keyboard.
Nothing the participant could do at the
keyboard could give them
access
to
the
data
or
cause
any change
in the
evolving data string. Feedback was after the conclusion of the set.
The participants
•
No
participants
professed any
psychic
ability.
Some were from
the University
community, and some were interested Lewes residents.
The male/female mix was
approximately even.
•
Each participant was allowed to study algae swimming in a haem ocytom eter prior
to their set, to help with visualization.
This was done in a separate room.
None
could have predicted changes in algal velocities based on this preview.
Only a few
alga
are
visible
in
the
microscope
field,
and
their
behavior
there
will
be
dominated by the effect of the high intensity white light of the microscope.
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>
Figure
A-l
Live Dunaliella
Vibration
on
pedestal
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