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rSenaer Dependencies in Anomalous Cognition
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II. INTRODUCTION
The field of parapsychology has been interested in improving the quality of responses to target material
since the 1930’s when J. B. Rhine first began systematic laboratory studies of extra sensory perception.
Since that time, much of the field’s effort has been oriented toward psychological factors that may influ-
ence anomalous cognition (AC).
In this section, we review the pertinent literature that describes at-
tempts to improve the quality of AC by categorizing target content.
At a recent conference, Delanoy reported on a survey of the literature for successful AC experiments,
and, she categorized the target material according to perceptual, psychological and physical character-
istics. 1 * Except for trends related to dynamic, multi-sensory targets, she was unable to observe system-
atic correlations of AC quality with her target categories.
Watt examined the AC-target question from a theoretical perspective.2 She concluded that the “best”
AC targets are those that are meaningful, have emotional impact, and contain human interest; those
targets that have physical features that stand out from their backgrounds or contain movement, novelty,
and incongruity are also good targets.
The difficulty with either the survey of the experimental literature or the psychologically oriented
theoretical approach is that understanding the sources of the variation in AC quality is problematical.
Using a vision analogy, sources of visual material are easily understood (i.e., photons); yet, the percept
of vision is not well understood.
Psychological and possibly physiological factors influence what we
“see.” In AC research, the same difficulty arises. Until we understand the influence of these factors on
the AC percept, results of systematic studies of AC are difficult to interpret.
Yet, in a few cases, some progress has been realized. In 1990, Honorton et al. conducted a careful meta-
analysis of the experimental Ganzfeld literature.3
In Gansfeld experiments, receivers are placed in a
state of mild sensory isolation and asked to describe their mental imagery. After each trial, the analysis
was performed by the receiver, who was asked to rank order four pre-defined targets, which include the
actual target and three decoys; the chance first-place rank hitting rate was 0.25.
In 355 trails collected
from 241 different receivers, Honorton et al. found a hitting rate of 0.31 (z = 3.89, p < 5 x 10~5
) for an
effect size of 0.20.
In addition, he found that AC quality was significantly enhanced when the targets
were video clips from popular movies (i.e., dynamic) as opposed to static photographs (i.e., effect sizes
of 0.32 and 0.05, respectively). All trials were conduced with a sender.
In a carefully conducted meta-analysis, Honorton and Ferrari report significant hitting in forced-
choice, precognition experiments. 41" They analyzed 53 years of experiments conducted by 62 different
investigators using a limited set of symbols (i.e., called Zener cards) as target material.
Fifty thousand
* References may be found at the end of the document.
t Forced-choice means targets are randomly chosen from a known and limited set of possibilities (e.g., red or black playing
cards). Precognition means that the target is generated randomly after the guess has been registered.
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subjects contributed a total of approximately 2 X 106 individual trials. The overall effect size was 0.020
corresponding to a p-value of 6.3 x 10 -25
.
Similarly, in an earlier review article, Honorton analyzed
7.5 x 105 forced-choice Zener card trials that were collected from 1934 to 1939 and found a significant
overall effect size of 0.016±0.001.5
Puthoff and Targ publish the results of 39 AC real-time trials where the targets were natural scenes in
the San Francisco Bay area.6 The effect size for the 39 trials was 1.15.
Table 1 summarizes these results for each target type:
Table
1.
Effect Size as a Function of Target type
Thrget type
Trials
Effect Size
Symbols (Real-Time)
7.5 X 105
0.016 ± 0.001
Symbols (Precognitive)
2.0 X 106
0.020 ±0.001
Static Photographs
165
0.05 ± 0.08
Dynamic Photographs
190
0.32 ± 0.07
Static Natural Scenes
1.15 ±0.16
The effect sizes shown in Table 1 are qualitatively monotonically related to target “complexity;” yet an
appropriate quantitative description for target type is currently unknown.
Yet, target “complexity” was
one of the experimentally observed and theoretically conceived target concepts found by Delanoy and
Watt, respectively.
A number of confounds exist, however, in this database for the effect-size measures. For example, in all
but the Puthoff and Targ study (i.e., targets were natural scenes), the receivers were unselected. That is,
they did not participate in the various experiments on the basis of their known ability as receivers. So, is
the large effect size for the Puthoff and Targ study because of the accomplished receivers, the natural-
scene targets, or some combination of both? While there are a number of other exceptions, the prepon-
derance of the data were from unselected individuals. In many of the trials, a sender was concentrating
on the target material, and as in most perception experiments, psychological factors and boredom con-
tribute to the variance in the effect sizes.
In this pilot experiment, we will apply one physical measure to static and dynamic photographs to quan-
tify the relationship between target type and AC quality. By careful selection of target content, we will
minimize the psychological factors in perception.
In addition, we will minimize individual differences
by conducting many trials with each receiver and by only choosing receivers who have previously dem-
onstrated excellent AC skill.
Because the previous database included trials with and without senders, we will explore the effects of a
sender on AC quality, as well.
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III. APPROACH
. Target-pool Selection
The static target material for this pilot study will be an existing set of 100 National Geographic magazine
photographs.
This set has been divided into 20 sets of five photographs that were determined to be
visually dissimilar by a fuzzy set analysis.7 The dynamic target material will be approximately 50, 60 to
90 second clips from popular video movies. These clips will be selected because they:
• are thematically coherent,
• contain obvious geometric elements (e.g., wings of air craft), and
• are emotionally neutral.
The intent of these selection criteria is to control for cognitive surprise, to provide target elements that
are easily sketched, and to control for psychological factors such as perceptual defensiveness.
The video segments will be drawn from a variety of themes including adventure, documentary, and fantasy.
2. Target Preparation
The target variable that we will consider in this experiment is the total change of entropy per unit area,
per unit time. We have chosen this quantity because it is qualitatively related to the “complexity” of
target type shown in Thble 1, and because it represents a potential physical variable that is important in
the detection of traditional sensory stimuli.
In the case of image data, the entropy is defined as:
Sy= ~ X Pn lo82{Pj*)>
y-o
where pjk
is the probability of finding image intensity j of color L
In a standard, digitized, true color
image, each pixel (i.e., picture element) contains eight binary bits of red, green, and blue intensity, re-
spectively. That is, Nfc is 256 (i.e., 2s
) for each k, k = r,g, b. The total change of the entropy in differential
form is given by:
dSt =
VS*
•
dr +^
dt
.
(1)
We must specify the spatial and temporal resolution before we can compute the total change of entropy
for a real image. Henceforth, we drop the color index, k, and assume that all quantities are computed
for each color and summed.
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2.1
Static Photographs
Each target from the pool of 100 National Geographic magazine photographs will be scanned at 100 dots per
inch (dpi) for eight bits of information of red, green, and blue intensity. At 0.25 inch spatial resolution, for
example, this scanning density provides 625 pixels for each 0.25 x 0.25 in2 patch to compute the pj.
For a specified resolution, the target photograph is divided into an integral number of macro-pixels ex-
cluding a thin border, if necessary. The entropy for the (i,j) macro-pixel is computed as:
w-i
su = -
lo8tiPi ).
J=0
wherepj is computed empirically from the pixels in the (i, j) macro-pixel only. For example, consider the
target photograph shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
City with a Mosque
Figure 2 shows the probability density for green macro-pixel (3,3), which is shown as a white square in
the upper left hand corner of Figure 1.* The probability density and the photograph indicates that most
of the intensity in this patch is near zero value (i.e., no intensity of green in this case). In a similar fash-
ion, Sij are calculated for the entire scene. For the photograph shown in Figure 1, i ranges from zero to
43, and j ranges from zero to 32 for a total of 1,452 macro-pixels.
* The original photograph was 8.5 X 11 inches, and we have standardized on 0.25 inch resolution.
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Intensity (j)
Figure 2.
Green Intensity Distribution for the City Thrget (Macro-pixel 3,3).
We will use a standard algorithm to compute the 2-dimensional spatial gradient of these 1,452 values of
the entropy. Figure 3 shows contours of constant change of entropy (calculated from Equation 1) for
the city target. The total change per unit area is 1.98 bits/0.25 in2.*
Figure 3.
City with Mosque (
| AS
| = 1.98 bits/0.25 in2
).
+ In this formalism, entropy is in units of bits and the maximum entropy is 24 bits.
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In Table 2, we modify Ihble 1 to show the values of AS (0.25 in) -2 for two of four target types.
Table 2.
Potential Correlation of AS with Effect Size
Target fype
AS (0.25 in)
Symbols
0.15
Static Photographs
1.35
Dynamic Photographs
?
Static Natural Scenes
?
We illustrate in this table the intent of this pilot study. We will compute AS for all the static and dynamic
targets and, using accomplished receivers, measure their associated AC effect sizes.
2.2 Dynamic Photographs
The total change of entropy for the dynamic targets will be calculated in much the same way. The video
target will be digitized at approximately one frame per second. The spatial term of Equation 1 will be
computed exactly as it was for the static targets. The second term, however, will be computed from dif-
ferences between adjacent frames. Or,
dS<j
ASu (t)
Su« + At) - Suit)
„v
dt
At
At
)
where At is the one over the digitizing frame rate. We can see immediately that the dynamic targets will
have a larger AS than do the static ones becuase Equation 2 is identically zero for all static targets.
2.3 Cluster Analysis
As a result of the above calculations, the static and dynamic target sets will have associated sets ofzlS.
Using standard cluster analysis, each set will be grouped into relatively orthoginal clusters of relatively
constantA S, Inspection and fuzzy set analysis will be used to construct packets of five visually dissimilar
targets from within each cluster. Since we do not yet know how to assign entropy to an AC response, the
AC analysis must be performed on the basis of visual discrimination.
3. Target Selection
For a specified target type (e.g., static photographs), a target pack will be selected randomly and one
target of the five within the that pack will also be chosen randomly.
4. Receiver Selection
Six experienced receivers, who have produced significant AC effect sizes in previous investigations, will
contribute 40 AC trials each. Each receiver will contribute ten trials in each of the conditions shown in
Table 3.
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Table 3
Experiment Conditions
Condition
Target Type
Sender
i
Static
Yes
Static
No
Dynamic
Yes
Dynamic
No
5. Sender Selection
The sender for all trials will be the principal investigator (PI).
6. Session Protocol
Before the pilot experiment begins, the experiment coordinator will generate, randomly, a counter bal-
anced set of 20 dynamic and 20 static targets and, within each target type, generate randomly a counter
balanced set of sender/no sender conditions. Each of the six receivers will have their own individual set
of targets/conditions. For each receiver, the experiment coordinator will prepare 40 sealed envelopes
containing the target number and condition for each trial. For the no-sender condition, the target num-
ber will be sealed in a smaller internal envelope so that the PI will remain blind to the target choice, but
in the sender condition, the target number is visible in the outer envelope. The receivers will be notified
about the dates and times of day when their individual targets are available.
For each trial and for each receiver, the PI will perform the following tasks:
• Determine from the above list, the target and sender condition.
• In the sender condition, study the selected target and attempt to “transmit” it to the intended receiver.
In the no-sender condition, do nothing
• At the conclusion of the 15 minute trial period and after the receipt of the receiver’s response by fac-
simile, send a copy of the target material
(i.e., either a photograph or video tape) to the receiver by
over night mail.
During each trial, the receiver will perform the following tasks:
• At a prearranged time, the receiver will find a quiet and lighted room in his or her home and sit at a desk.
• For a period lasting no longer than 15 minutes, the receiver will write and draw his or her impressions
of the intended target material, which will be located in Lititz, PA.
• At the end of the AC trial, the subject will send the response by facsimile to the principal investigator (PI).
• By overnight mail, the subject will receive a copy of the actual target as feedback for the trial.
We will not provide specific instructions beyond logistical information to the receivers, because they are
all experienced in this type of task.
For each receiver, the 40 trials will occur at a rate of three per week (i.e., one every other day) during a
five-month period beginning in January 1992.
There will be significant breaks during this period for
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holidays and to allow the receiver to participate in other experiments. The PI will maintain frequent
phone contact with them during the experiment.
At the end of the study, the PI will remove the receiver’s name, date, and time from each response; ran-
domize the order within a receiver set; and provide an analyst with a set of responses and associated
target packs. The indented target within each pack will not be disclosed.
7. Analysis
For each trial, there is a single response and its associated target pack (i.e., either static or dynamic).
During the first part of the analysis, a judge, who is blind to the condition and target for the trial, will be
asked to rank-order the targets within the given pack. This is a forced rank, so regardless of the quality
of match between the response and targets within the pack, the judge must assign a first place match to
the response, a second place match to the response, and so on for each of the five targets. The output
from this part of the analysis is a rank-order number (i.e., one to five, one corresponding to a first place
match) for the correct target.
For each receiver, target type, and condition there are 10 such rank-order numbers that constitute a
block of data. A rank-order effect size will be computed for a block as:
£u
(3 )
where Rij
is the average rank for target type i and sender condition j, and Ro
is the expected average
rank, which for this study is equal to three for all cases. In Equation 3, N is the number of possible ranks
and is equal to five throughout this study. Thus, Equation 3 reduces to:
_Xtj- 3
Jl
'
During the second part of the analysis, a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) will be computed for
each receiver. The main effects are target type and sender condition.
In this part of the analysis, we do not plan to combine data across receivers.
In the third part of the analysis we will construct a scatter diagram of rank-order number versus AS.
Using a logistic transformation on the rank-order numbers, we will compute a linear correlation coeffi-
cient to determine the degree to which AC quality linearly depends upon A S. By inspection of the scat-
ter diagram, we will determine if higher-order correlations should be calculated.
8. Hypotheses
8.1
Null Hypothesis
The overall null hypothesis is that eg will not be significantly different from zero. Even with only 10 trials
in each condition and given that the historical effect size of many of the receivers is approximately 0.8,
there is an 80% chance of observing a significant effect size for a given block of data.
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8.2 Sender and Target Condition
Using an F-test we will test the hypothesis that the quality ofAC does not depend upon a sender regard-
less of target type. Similarly, we will use an F-test to test the hypothesis that the quality ofAC does not
depend upon target type regardless of the sender condition.
The interaction terms in the ANOVA will test the hypothesis that a sender might improve AC quality for
only a specific target type.
8.3 Target Entropy
The AC quality of each trial is assessed within a given target type and as closely as possible with similar
AS. Thus, a significant correlation between target AS and AC quality will be a valid indication of the
primary hypothesis that they are linearly related.
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IV. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
In this pilot investigation we will study the degree to which the change of target entropy affects the qual-
ity of anomalous cognition, and we will explore the relationship of a sender to the AC process. There
are a number of potential outcomes to this investigation and a number of post hoc analyses that could
yield productive insight. We discuss these outcomes and analyses below.
1. Null Result
At the 95% confidence level, no statistically significant deviations are observed for any of the block ef-
fect sizes, Eij .
If a X2 test for homogeneity of effect sizes across receivers demonstrates that the data are
homogeneous (i.e., p(X2
) > 0.05), then we conclude that the experiment failed to demonstrate signifi-
cant AC functioning. In this case we will recommend that a replication be conducted with more trials,
because there is a 20% chance the the data produced by a single receiver would not reach statistical
significance even if an alternate hypotheses was true. That is, the TVpe II error is 20%.
If, however, the effect sizes across receivers is not homogeneous (i.e., p(X2
) < 0.05), then the data for
each receiver will be examined individually. Depending upon available resources and the advice of the
SOC, the receivers who may have demonstrated individually significant results might be asked to con-
tribute additional data.
2. Significant Deviations
The are a number of different ways, in accordance with the analysis described above, that significant
deviations could be observed.
2.1 Dependency on Target Type
Suppose that the ANOVA demonstrates significant effects for the target type regardless of the sender
condition. Suppose further that we observe a significant correlation betweenAS and AC quality. In this
case, we would consider that the primary hypothesis (i.e., the change of target entropy is sensed by AC)
has been confirmed. We would recommend that we extend the study to include natural scenes as target
material, lb do this properly, however, we must estimate the potential change ofthermodynamic entro-
py for real locations.
2.2 Dependency on Sender
If the ANOVA demonstrates significant effects in support of a sender regardless of target type and
there is no significant interaction terms between target type and sender condition, we would conclude
that a sender can significantly improve the quality of AC. Furthermore, we would conclude, as Delanoy
before us, that we still do not understand what constitutes an AC target.
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REFERENCES
1.
D. L. Delanoy, “Characteristics of Successful Free-Response Thrgets: Experimental Findings and
Observations,” Proceedings of Presented
Papers
of the
Parapsychological Association
31st
Annual Convention, pp. 230-246, Montreal, Canada (August 1988).
2.
C. Watt,
“Characteristics of Successful Free-Response Ihrgets: Theoretical Considerations,”
Proceedings of Presented Papers of the Parapsychological Association 31st Annual Convention,
pp. 247-263, Montreal, Canada (August 1988).
3.
C. Honorton, R. E. Berger, M. P. Varvoglis, M. Quant, P. Derr, E. I. Schechter, and D. C. Ferrari,
“PSI Communication in the Ganzfeld,” Journal ofParapsychology, Vol. 54, pp. 99-139 (June 1990).
4.
C. Honorton and D. C. Ferrari, ‘“Future Telling:’ A Meta-analysis of Forced-choice Precognition
Experiments, 1935-1987,” Journal ofParapsychology, Vol. 53, pp. 282-308 (December 1989).
5.
C. Honorton, “Error Some Place!” Journal of Communication, pp. 103-116, (Winter, 1975).
6.
H.
E. Puthoff and R. Targ, “A Perceptual Channel for Information Transfer over Kilometer
Distances: Historical Perspective and Recent Research,” Proceedings ofthe IEEE,
Vol. 64, No. 3,
pp. 329-354, (March, 1976).
7.
E. C. May, J. M. Utts, B. S. Humphrey, W. L. W. Luke, T. J. Frivold, and V V. Trask, “Advances in
Remote-Viewing Analysis,” Journal of Parapsychology, Vol. 54, pp. 194-228, (September, 1990).
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APPENDIX
This appendix contains the full reprints of the following seven papers:
(1 )
Characteristics of Successful Free-Response Thrgets: Experimental Findings and Observations
(2)
Characteristics of Successful Free-Response Thrgets: Theoretical Considerations
(3)
PSI Communication in the Ganzfeld
(4)
“Future Telling:” A Meta-analysis of Forced-choice Precognition Experiments, 1935-1987
(5)
Error Some Place!
(6) A Perceptual Channel for Information Transfer over Kilometer Distances: Historical Perspective
and Recent Research
(7)
Advances in Remote-Viewing Analysis
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CHARACTERISTICS OP SUCCESSFUL FREEHRESPONSE TARGETS:
EXPERIMENTAL FINDINGS AND OBSERVATIONS
Deborah L. Delanoy
Psychology Department
University of Edinburgh
7 George Square
Edinburgh EH8 9JZ
Scotland,
U.K.
Abstract
This paper reviews experimental findings and
observations concerning
characteristics of successful free-respcnse targets.
Information relevant
to
the
following
categories
of
target characteristics
was
examined:
colcur/black
and
white;
ccnplex/simple ;
novel/familiar ;
abstract/
concrete;
dynamic/static ;
form/idea find meaning;
emotion;
and
theme/
(xxitent.
Very few
conclusions
could
be
drawn
fran
the
data
base,
although a tentative finding related dynamic, multi-sensory targets to ESP
success.
Other
suggestive
findings were reported for novel and abstract
characteristics . The discussion considers possible reasons for the general
lack
of
findings and presents a possible avenue for future research.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
Ms.
Caroline
Watt
and
Professor
James
Crandall
cxantributed
substantially to the research for this paper,
for which I am
nest grateful.
My
thanks
also
to
Dr.
Julie
Milton and Ms. Watt for
helpful
comments on the paper's content and again to
Ms.
watt
for
the
typing of the references.
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Thif ^
following
paper,
presented
by
Caroline
Watt,
represents
the
findings
of
a
literature review examining what mglc^s a
successful
(in
terms
of
being
accurately
perceived
by the percpient)
and/or unsuccessful free—respcnse GESP target.
The
review was undertaken
to assist the Koestler Lab in constructing a free -response target pool for
future research.
We thought
such
a
review
was necessary as
initial discussions as
to
what
type of targets we should be looking for
reyeaied
that:
various
researchers
in
our
group
held
differing
^imons/ideas as
to
what
qualities
a
successful
target should have.
Biese
differences
were
further
reinforced
when
we started discussing
various targets which we had used in
our
own
independent research,
and
those of other researchers with whose targets pools we were
familiar.
An
initial
search
through
sane
of
the
major parapsychology journals and
revealed
very
little
coherently
arranged
information
regarding
free-response targets. This review was undertaken in an attempt
remedy
this
situation,
To
this
end,
we
examined
relevant
parapsychological and
psychological experimental findings and theoretical
models,
post hoc observations,
and lab lore in hopes of discovering sore
consensus regarding psi-oonducive
target
qualit.es
and materials.
This
first paper will present the findings
from parapsychological experimental
findings,
including post hoc findings and anecdotal observations.
It
should
be
stressed
that
this
review
is
not
meant
to
be
exhaustive.
We have tried to scout out
related
information
in the main
journals
and
newsletters
(Journal of the American Society for Psychical
Research,
Journal of Parapsychology,
Journal
and
Proceedings
of
the
Society
for
Psychical
Research ,
European
Journal
of Parapsychology,
International
Journal
of
Parapsychology,
Parapsychology
Review,
and
Hesearcn
letter).
We
have also examined various conference proceedings
(Parapsychological
Association
and
Parapsychology
Foundation),
major
parapsycho1ogica1 source books,
some
of the popular literature regarding
tiie development of psychic abilities,
seme
of
the
related
psychology
it?
2?
111*6 '
other
P«minent books in our field
which
we
thought
likely to contain the
information
we
were
seeking.
However,
it
was
obviously
impossible
to
examine all of the possibly related literature.
Oar survey of the
historical literature was necessarily quite limited (in
feet
we
examined
only two
main
sources,
Waroollier s
writings
and
Phantasms of the Living ,
1886).
Target-related information from forced
choice
studies
has not been
systematically considered here, the primary reason for this omission being
the two reviews of this literature already
ccnduci:ed by Palner (1978) and
Carpenter
(1977).
However,
general
findings
fran
these
sources
occasionally will be referred to where appropriate in this review.
The
most
frequent
Garments
regarding
targets
found
in
these
sources were
generalizations regarding the choice of frangpfr material. For
exanPle contents might be made that targets were cltosen which were vividly
coloured,
intrinsically
interesting,
pleasant, and so on.
Wiile such
ooranents may be viewed as conveying the experimenters ' perspective of what
constitutes an easy-to-perceive target,
to
list all such coiments would
have been a very tedious task
for
both
the
author
and
her audience.
Rirthermore,
no
caiment
could
be
made
upon
the utility of
whatever
parameters vere adopted when choosing targets unless one were to attarpt a
meta-analysis of the relevant studies,
a project which was far beyond the
scope of the present undertaking.
Thus,
such corroents were not
included
in
this review unless information was provided which
related
target characteristics
to the success or failure of the study, and/or the
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target materials were
specifically
cnosen to oe unusual in sane respect/
with
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The initial task in this
undertaking
required
finding
sane way to
organize the target information in a meaningful and useful
manner.
This
proved
to
be
quite
problematic/
as
target materials and content are
seldom
one-dimansions! .
Thus
it
was
required
to
find
a
. means
of
categorizing a diverse range of target materials/
such
as
film
.clips,
actual
geographical
sites,
agents' experience of sane sensory stimulus,
an! a large
range
of
assorted
pictorial
material,
each representing
varying
degrees of denotative and ccnnotative complexity •
Indeed,
even
defining
the
target
in
many
studies
was
not
a
straight-forward
proposition,. Ebr
example,
in
telepathic
designs,
is
the target the
agent's experience of the target material or the target material itself?
In approaching this task
it was thought that
the target information
could
perhaps be divided according to the type of
target
material
used
(e.g. art
prints,
film
clips,
geographical locations, etc.).
However,
this approach was rejected as in many cases there was not enough available
information
about
a
specific
target
material
to
allow
sensible
generalizations to be made.
Also
explored were various ways of trying to
represent
and
categorize
the
obtained
target
information
in
a
multi-dimensional
manner,
taking
into
account
both
denotative
and
cannotative meaning.
To this end,
attempts
were
made
to apply to the
data
various
three-dimensional
conceptualizations
of the sort obtained
fran
the
semantic
differential.
Thus,
we
sought
to find one scale
which
would
categorize
the
obtained
target
information
taking into
consideration
various ccnnotative components such as evaluation (does the
information convey
something
which
is
good-bad,
clean-dirty,
sacred-
profane,
etc.),
potency
(weak-strong,
pcwerless-powerful ,
light-heavy
,
etc.),
and
activity
(fast-slow, active-passive,
sharp-dull,
etc.).
This approach of organizing
the data was rejected as there was not enough
information about most targets to
justify
a
post
hoc
fitting
of
the
nhhainad
information
into
such
a model. Thus ,
in the end the task was
necessarily
defined by the type of information obtained in the literature
search.
Looking
through
the
data
obtained,
it
was
decided
that
the
information could best be organized
according
to
the
following
target
characteristics:
colour
/ black and white*
complex /
simple;
novel /
familiar;
abstract /
concrete;
dynamic
/
static;
form
/ idea and
meaning;
emotion;
and
theme / content.
The "working definitions" of
these categories will be
delineated in the following appropriate sections
of this paper.
There were
many instances where the same data fitted into
several different categorizations.
Ebr instance,
in Krippner, Ullman, et
al.
(1972) the target consisted of a randomly
chosen
word,
an art print
which
portrayed
the word, and then a multi-sensory (auditory, gustatory,
olfactory,
tactile
and
kinesthetic)
environment
relating
to
the
word/picture was created
for
the
agent.
Such a target could easily be
classified as complex, novel, dynamic, emotional, and as having
a
strong
theme.
In such situations,
the author has
attempted
to
refer
to
the
information
in
all
the
relevant
categories,
but
has only
provided
detoils of the study
in the category where it was first mentioned.
Colour / Black and White
The
colour
category
referred
to
all target materials
which
were
coloured,
as opposed to black and
white .
A
telepathic
dream study by
Krippner and Zeichner
(1974)
obtained a significant degree (p <
.002) of
psi-hitting using 74 art prints as the targets.
A descriptive analysis of
232
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SSt
«._
crinteTsina
“**. ^hree
jud9®P evaluated each of the art
gyAfJA'a-jas:
orange and yellow wSe assocLSl
e^nlfioant
is «WrAff4^-^
associate^S^iS^LSiri J^ctTSL?* T*
hits,“Ie
SirthaT
colour peL^S, may^
8^ “ue
aU
S°
ry
£fcgy
hal^
<*
of Karoollier's
(1938) work Sed Circle
f
black land
‘SlfS
1 “*^'
?“ch
as targets.
However, he observed informally that vhon
wh
J'
te line dr^win9s
SSi. “—-<»«» Perceived S?S»
S. 5 £
freguL^?^cuSe 3 d&t^s *3 fe
118
(1965)
the
ganzfeld
states.
As
this st^
no tfcf1
dreFan9 ™d
indicate
what
types of imagery teve^T. ^^
9e^! hl^f,f
e3uItB
,
cgjld
mentioned mare often
than
others
in relation
^ein9
found that dreaming and ganzfeld
imaqerv caJt^.
t£r^
08t®9DT ^
(among other thingl) .
Ihesi re^ultTSld^iertS^T^S °1•!Sour
discussed in MtIq mnor
j_
..
.
uta
. 08
Ps^tinent
to the findings
sin^fl
JiS£ ^5Sfct=“,‘? * *°*
opposed to reflecting actual transmission
of
_ imagery as
possible that the higher fregS^I
to spurious observations of success
with
cnl«Sr? ~^enerf
1 could lead
examined.
Biis
should
he
hr.rr,ri
i ™
•°^la^L tar9®ts unless formally
observations.
“ mnd
14» considering
anecdotal
Many studies have been conducted usino blarteL^a
t
.
..
notably
those
experiments
v*err
whitetargets,
most
drawings.
fr^eSe TS^S.
0? ******
effectiveness
of
black
and
whit^
CCnpared ***
Rhine
(1947) ocducted a forced-S^iL st^^n^,^36?
-
C*^8
?, 8nd
and
white
Zener cards
Thev
» \SLU8la5r
1x31:11 coloured and black
coloured cards than
with the^bSk^nd
soore
significant^
with the black and white,
blit the difference was not
diff^cef teSSn ST success-rate
©! SloTan^^snfL?®8^
materials.
As both have
a long todrceSd^f
“? "“S-® t8r9®^
outcones,
research
specifically
aired
at
cjSSS
free—response setting would be needed before am»
a
auperiority of one o^r the S£?£iS1?53T ^^rons regarding the
Qcpplex / Simple
j
Information included in the "canolex"
cateanir,
.
g»a^«5#c3£SS3
Eding *3L sigSfiSnt STSt
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subjects but the judges,
as
complex
targets
could make the evaluation
procedure
overly
problematic,
with the creative judge finding n™erous
correspondences
between
many
dream
sequences
and
complex,
detailed
pictures.
On the other hand,
significant results have been obtained with
very complex target material
such
as film clips
(Psychophysical Research
laboratory,
1985) and the multi-sensory target
environment
of Krippner,
Ullman,
et. al.
(1972) described in the introduction.
information
classified
as
"simple" included references to
targets
rr^yippcicy^ of clear, unequivocally
definable,
common
objects and symbols.
Mast frequently these targets were simple
line
drawings.
Both Carington
(1940) and Stuart
(1946a) recommended the use of
simple,
as
opposed to
compound,
drawings
so as not to confuse the subject.
Warcollier
(1963)
noted that even
though
his
targets were simple,
percipients
responses
still showed considerable distortion.
As above,
Krippner
_ and
Zeichner
(1974)
found
a
higher
percentage
of
hits associated with more simple
as measured by the number of
adjectives
used
to
describe
the
target (again, whether this finding was significant is not reported)
.
Several
forced
choice
studies
have
examined
the
use
of
multiple-aspect targets.
Generally
these targets would be considered to
be
'simple ' by free-respcnse
standards .
However ,
being multi-aspect by
definition,
they
would
represent
more
complex
material
than
many
forced-choice
targets*
Palmer
(1978) in reviewing
this
work
concluded
that when
multiple-aspect
targets were used subjects tended "to score at
least as high or
higher
an
the
total target than on any of its primary
attributes.
Such results suggest either that such targets
are
perceived
holistically (even
if
the
overt
responses
are
fragmentary) or that a
correct
guess
on
one attribute somehow facilitates correct
guesses
on
other
attributes. "(Palmer,
1978,
p.88)
In
a
review of six studies
utilizing
dual-aspect
targets f
Kennedy
(1980)
examined
whether
carplex
target
information
was
treated
as
a
gestalt
or whether the
individual
parts
of th** information appeared to be processed separately.
No support for or
against
either
mode
of
information
processing
was
obtained.
,
,
_
_
Hie
above
findings do
not
merit
any
clear
conclusions.
Before
such
conclusions
could
be
drawn direct comparison
within
studies
of
complex target material is needed.
Novel / feuniliar
InfoEmution
relating
to
unexpected,
unfamiliar,
unusual
and/or
incongruous target material was included
in
the novel category.
Cavanna
and
Servadio
(1964)
conducted
a pilot study
to
investigate
suitable
methodologies for studying the occurrence
of ESP during states induced by
taking hallucinogenic drugs,
ttieir targets were photographs consisting of
very incongruous elements,
for example an upside-down foot,
balancing an
arfi fH Hal
eye
between
the
toes. The
results
were
ncn—significant,
although this outcome
could have been due to the difficulties involved in
attending
to
a
test
situation
when
under
the
influence
of
an
hallucinogenic
drug.
Krippner and
Zeichner
(1974)
obta i ned
a
higher
percentage
(whether
or
not
significant
was
not reported) of hits when
targets
were
A>qfr
iiM as imaginative and interesting
(qualities
which
could be
construed
as
novel).
Ullman
and Krippner
(1973) ran a four
subject dream study
in
which
the
same
target was used for half of the
testing nights and a different target used for
each
REM
period
for the
other
half.
They observed that the the four participants preferred the
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use of different
targets
for
every
dream
against
a
single target.
Hie authors thought this indicative of the
dreamers ' attention being more
engaged by novel ESP stimuli,
in another of
the
dream
studies
(female
subjects ,
eight
nights
ESP,
eight of control,
no significant scoring)
Ullman and Krippner
(1973)
contented
that
the
subjects
felt
that the
target material should be as unusual as possible.
Roll and
Harary (1976)
found
that "interesting responses"
(hits) were obtained when spontaneous,
unexpected changes
were
made
in
the
experiment.
Two
exanples
they
provided
of
this
involved
last minute changes being made to the target
material
.
Several forced-choice
studies have considered
the effect of novelty
of task and/or target material upon
ESP
performance.
In reviewing these
studies
Carpenter
(1977)
concluded
that
novelty
could
facilitate
pei-hitting
for
most subjects,
but could be oounterrproductive for star
subjects used to a specific routine.
Information classified as
"familiar" included references to
targets
which
held varying degrees
of
recognition
for
the
percipients.
Many
studies have been conducted using targets of emotional significance to the
subject and
with
which
the
subject
would
have
been also necessarily
familiar.
However,
as emotional significance was usually deemed the more
Important aspect of such targets,
these studies will be
considered under
that section.
P
Irwin
(1982)
conducted a study examining the influence of subjects"
familiarity with
the
targets.
Half of the targets (Maimanides slides)
*ere exposed to the subjects
prior
to testing,
and half were not.
This
i nanipulation
had
no
significant
effect upon the
study 's
outcome,
farcollier's
(1938) research lead
him
to anecdotally conclude that only
elements of a target familiar to
both
the
subject
and
agent
could be
successfully
transmitted.
Targ, Puthoff and May (1979) have cemented an
he basis
of
informal
observations
of
their own research
that use of
'iither repetitive target sequences and/or use of target pools of which the
i subject had prior knowledge would inhibit remote viewing success.
The
few
findings
reported in this category
do
not
support
the
ilrawing of any firm conclusions.
There is sane anecdotal
support for the
utility of using a
different
target,
with
which
the
subject
is
not
: familiar,
for
each
testing
of
that
subject.
Also, the Krippner and
lleichner
(1974)
findings offer seme support far this use of imaginative and
interesting targets.
i bstract / Concrete
Abstract
information included references to
targets which portrayed
a
potentially
realistic
scene or object in either
an
abstract
and/or
unrealistic manner
(to
varying
degrees) or in a not readily recognizable
: ashion.
Krippner and Zeichner
(1974)
found
a
greater
percentage
of
iiisses
with
targets
which
were
described
as unrealistic (whether
i his
finding was significant was
not
reported) .
Ullman
and
Krippner
1 1973) in
the series of dream studies with
'Erwin',
reported that purely
abstract pictures which
lacked
human
figures
gave
poorer results than
-targets which contained human figures engaged in activity.
Information
included
in the concrete category
would
be references
Id target material
which
presented
an object or scene in an imnediately
lecognizable,
undistorted
manner.
While a great
number of studies have
used targets which could be characterized as
being concrete,
we found no
i pecific reference
regarding
the utility of this characteristic
in
the
: fee-response studies.
Although
Krippner
and
Zeichner 's
(1974)
finding
and
Ullman and
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Krippner s
(1973) observation suggest
abstfaWTWgetS
day VOL
be
cocducive
to
pfi i —hi tt-i ng ,
more
research
is
needed
before
firm
conclusions can be drawn.
Dynamic / Static
The dyramSc
categorization
was used to refer to informations about
targets which portrayed anchor
conveyed
movement*
a sense of movement*
and/or
gustatory*
olfactory*
auditory *
tactile*
and/or
kinesthetic
stimulation.
Thus
a
wide
diversity of target materials fell into this
category
including
pictorial
material
(showing
movement)*
film
clips
(containing movement) *
and a
variety
of ncn~visual target material such
as masLc excerpts, the taste of
a
food,
etc.
In considering this large
category
perhaps it should first be noted that Braud* Davis*
and
Opella
(1985)
in
their
nen-pei,
no
target
study,
found
a
predominance of
activity
c™*^™**
in
ganzfeld and dreaming imagery.
Gurney* Myers and
Itocknore (1886) reporting on
the
findings
of
the
Society for Psychical
Research's
Census
of Hallucinations
found
that
in
cases of apparent
GESP of
literal
reproductions
of
the
agent's
bodily sensation (pain*
smell,
touch, etc.) were rarely transmitted.
They noted
from
their cwn
experience
that
while
taste
was perceived in experimental situations,
they
received
no accounts of
such
in
the
spontaneous
reports.
The
spontaneous
seldom
contained
reports
of
touch*
and
when it was
reported
it
was
normally
associated
with
auditory
and/or
visual
impressions.
Music and other auditory stimuli were
frequently reported.
Warcollier
(1963) informally
observed that moving objects or
the ability
of the target to suggest movement seemed to be
perceived by the
subject,
warcollier
(1938)
also
expressed the belief that kinesthetic sensations
should be easily transmitted,
but admitted to having little data to back
this up.
Reporting on an
Esalen Meeting on Psi Research,
Schlitz
(1984)
reported
general
agreement
among
the
participants
that
kinesthetic*
auditory and olfactory images were as
important *
if
not
more
so*
as
visual images in conveying psi information.
Hdnortan
and
Schechter
(1987),
reporting on the significant (p -
0.027*
1-t) outcome of 187
automated
testing
ganzfeld
sessions*
fcwnd
that
BessicTiff
using dynamic targets
(video segments and other "lifelike"
material) were independently
significant
(p
“ 0.007* l*t),
while those
using static targets (defined as "still
pictures")
were
at chance.
The
difference
between
the
two
was suggestive*
but not significant
(p . =
0.079* 2-t).
Likewise,
Krippner and
Zeichner
(1974)
found
more
hits
with
targets
having
dynamic
content
(whether
this
finding was significant was not reported) .
.
Alton and Braud (1976) ran a pilot study aimed at exploring the idea
that right-hemisphere brain activity may be
conducive
to psi.
They used
four different excerpts of music as targets*
which
it
was thought might
encourage right"*hemisphere activity.
They obtained a significant level of
psi
scoring
(p
*
0.05).
Resner and Morris
(1978) conducted
a
guided
imagery*
precognition
study using music from
records
and
their
album
covers as targets.
The
subjects '
imagery
was
rated by an independent
judge
who
individually
rated
subjects'
visual
and
auditory imagery.
Neither
the
results
from
the
visual
or
the
auditory
ratings
were
> Tvtop*»nripntly
significant*
however
the two combined were
(p
<
0.02),
suggesting that the more senses involved in a target,
the better.
Several
dream
studies have
been
conducted
using
dynamic
target
material.
Krippner* Honorton*
and
Ullman
(1972)
obtained
significant,
results
(p <
.001) usings thematically related slides,
accompanied by an
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