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experiments
with
military
application.
Dr.
Natalya
Zavalova, a Soviet psychologist is reportedly in charge
of
psychological
testing
and
training
for
flight
personnel in the Soviet Air Force. At an International
Symposium
devoted
to
research
on
the
Central
Nervous
System
in
the US
in
February
1968,
Dr.
Zavalova reported that she had implanted electrodes
in
the
brains
of
jet
pilots.
Actually,
Zavalova’s
experiment was divided into two parts. The purpose of
the
first phase of her experiment was to examine the
capability of aircraft
pilots
to make decisions under
stress.
These
pilots were placed
in
cither aircraft or
simulators with a second pilot who had been directed
to
maneuver
the
aircraft
into
dangerous
flight
attitudes. The procedures the subject pilots were asked
to perform to correct the “emergency” were not pre-
announced and the “stress”
situation
in which they
found
themselves
was
reportedly
life
threatening.
Assessments of their reaction times during response to
the emergency were recorded.
The second phase of the experiment was devoted to
examining the impact of electrical brain stimulation
on the capability of aircraft pilots to make decisions
under stress. The exact same procedures were followed,
however,
this time when the plane was maneuvered
into dangerous
flight
altitudes,
the electrodes in the
pilots
brains
were
simultaneously
stimulated.
Zavalova claimed that fear was controlled in the pilots
when
the
electrodes
were
stimulated and
that
this
control
was
indicated
when
pilot
performance
of
emergency procedure checks was reduced from 30 to 5
seconds.
Zavalova
indicated
that
this
experiment
was
undertaken
to
aid
in
the
development
of
reliable
methods
for differentiating performance capabilities
of pilots. There was no indication of where the testing
took place. A vVcstern scientist who talked to Zavalova
reported that she admitted that her experiments with
Soviet Air Force personnel were not well received by
the aviators. Even though the aviators complied with
all of her requests, there was a strong feeling among
the pilots that her activities were totally unnecessary.
In the open literature reprint of Zavalova’s paper only
the
first phase of the experiment was discussed. In the
opinion
of a US neurophysiologist who knows both
Drs. Bekhtereva and Zavalova, the electrode implant
phase
of
the
study
was
probably
not
actually
supervised by Zavalova but rather by Bekhtereva or
one of her colleagues at the Institute of Experimental
Medicine.
At the 19th International Astronautics Conference
in
October
1968
from
which
Zavalova
was
conspicuously
absent,
it was rumored
that she had
been temporarily exiled to the Crimea on a six to eight
month forced vacation.
If true,
it may suggest that she
presented
too
much
information
at
the
earlier
Conference and was in disfavor as was claimed by one
source.
Thus
the
contradiction
between
the
open
literature
and
what
Zavalova
reported
informally,
along with the rumor of her exile, tends to reinforce
the speculation that Soviet electrical brain stimulation
research with normal subjects
is being conducted and
may be partially classified in some instances.
Despite reported experiments with human subjects,
the mechanics of Soviet stereotaxic surgery appear to
be basically the same as those applied in the US. At
present,
differences
in technique are attributable
to
the
individual
scientists’
preference
rather
than
a
serious lag
in scientific know-how. The most obvious
technical
difference
is
in
the
material
used
for the
electrodes.
Although
many
Soviet
scientists
use
platinum
or
stainless
steel
electrodes
as
in
the US,
Bekhtereva’s group consistently uses gold.
It appears
that they used a number of different metals such as
graphite,
silver, and stainless steel before deciding on
gold.
Bekhtereva has stated that the use of stainless
steel
was
discarded
due
to
the
high
noise
levels
associated with the metal.
Since the
use of stainless
steel has not posed a serious problem for US scientists
since about
the
1950s
it may be
that
Bekhtereva’s
problem was due to the use of an inferior type of steel.
Electrodes used
for stimulation and recording
are
usually
between
50-100
microns
in
tip
diameter.
Electrodes used for lesions may be of similar diameters
or much larger depending on the area to be destroyed.
Although
recent
US
research
shows
a
trend
in
decreasing the size of the gross recording electrodes to
reduce trauma during implantation, US neurophysiol-
ogists for the most part use electrodes of approximately
the same tip diameter. Reportedly, in 1968 Bekhtereva
used
the
same
electrodes
for
recording
and
stimulation. The main drawback with this procedure
is
that
using
the
same
electrode
for
stimulation
produces
a
momentary
depolarization
thereby
temporarily
destroying
the
effectiveness
of
the
electrode
for
recording.
According
to
a
US
neurophysiologist,
Bekhtereva
was
aware
of
this
problem and indicated during an informal discussion
that
the problem was “avoided
as
far as
possible.”
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Another US neurophysiologist who
is well acquainted
with
Bekhtereva’s work reported
in 1975 that most
likely Bekhtereva
is using gold electrodes to evaluate
the oxygen content of the tissue and for recording but
that another metal
is used for stimulation.
In both the US and Soviet Union, cerebral atlases
are
normally
used
in
preparing
for
the
stereotaxic
operations.
In
the
mid-1960s,
Bekhtereva’s
group
developed a technique for transfer of cartesian to polar
coordinates
so
that with the use
of a computer the
depth
and
direction
of
the
electrode
could
be
estimated
during
surgery.
The
first
step
in
the
implantation
is to insert one electrode and take X-ray
pictures
in
several
planes.
Angles
arc measured on
these X-ray films and the data is fed to the computer.
The computer
then
provides an immediate answer
giving the necessary lengths and directions for all other
electrodes.
This
use
of
the computer
to
calculate
electrode
coordinates
serves not only
to
reduce
the
time
involved
but
also
increases
the
reliability
of
hitting
preset brain
structures with many electrodes
and thus provides comparability of results obtained on
different
patients.
According
to open
literature,
the
computer used
is
the Minsk- 1. The Minsk scries of
computers arc most commonly employed in scientific
research. Even though the Minsk- 1
is limited in the
type and speed of data input and output and
is not
solid-state,
it
is
capable
of
performing
the
data
manipulations needed for the stereotaxic surgery.
Soviet scientists also use encephalography to assist
in
electrode placement.
With
the use of an on-line
computer
analysis
of
average EEG
frequency
the
scientist is able to pinpoint more precisely the position
of
the
electrodes.
With
this
slight
variation,
the
contrast roentgenological exams after surgery confirm
the electrode position.
In general the Soviets allocate equipment in terms
of the priority of the research being done. According to
a western scientist who visited Soviet Brain Research
Facilities in 1972, the brain research laboratories had
comparatively excellent equipment. He reported that
about half of the laboratory equipment was made in
Japan,
especially
the
electron
microscopes,
while
oscilloscopes were
of Czechoslovak
origin. Hungary
supplied
fine
mechanical
tooling,
while
most
photographic equipment and
film came from East
Germany. Contrary to Bekhtereva’s reported use of the
Minsk- 1 computer, he reported that most of the brain
research
computers
were
solid-state
computers
manufactured
in
Yerevan, Armenia. The computers
the distinguished scientist saw may have been those
located in a central computer center servicing all the
physiology labs in the institutes and therefore capable
of performing functions other than the basic types of
computer
analysis
needed
by
Bekhtereva s
group.
Since Bekhtereva
is one of the top neurophysiologists
in
Soviet
electrical
brain
stimulation
research,
it
is
quite probable
that
the
lab
within
the
Institute of
Experimental
Medicine
which
does
the ESB
data
analysis has
its own computer.
Soviet
scientists
performing
electrical
brain
stimulation
research have observed both simple and
complex
changes
in
mental
activity
during
these
experiments.
Some
of
these
changes
include
fluctuations
in
waking
states,
simple
visual
and
auditory
hallucination,
diverse
psychosensory
disturbances and “body scheme” disorders, changes in
memory,
mood
fluctuations,
and
development
of
attraction to repeated electrical stimulation inducing
pleasant emotions. In general, electrical stimulation of
the brain can produce
a
large variety of responses,
from motor
effects
to emotional
reactions. Some
of
these
observations
have
raised
questions
among
scientists
regarding
whether
humans
can
be
manipulated
in
such
a
manner
that
they can
be
transformed (in the words of one Soviet scientist), into
“robots.” This fear has been perpetuated by the fact
that the Soviets appear to have more of an opportunity
to experiment with normal human subjects rather than
any hard and fast statistics on their actual capability
to
control human
behavior
through
application
of
electrical brain stimulation.
Western
scientists
are
in
general agreement
that
purposive,
complex
motor
behavior
cannot
be
generated through electrical stimulation of the brain.
Soviet
scientists
at
the
Gelfand
Institute
of
Information
Transmission
Problems,
however,
in
studying the physiology of locomotion, have reported
that
stimulation
of
the
midbrain
region
evokes
locomotion in animals including many complex motor
behavior
activities
such
as
climbing,
jumping,
running, and walking. Although
their research does
not indicate that this complex behavior
is purposive,
M.
L.
Shik,
a member
of Gelfand
research
team,
expressed fear that such research could be misused by
Soviet authorities.
Although
Soviet
brain
stimulation
studies may
provide some information about the way the brain
is
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organized
to
control
movements,
the
inability
to
predict the sequence of responses that will be elicited
indicates
that
this phenomenon
has
little
practical
application. Most Western neurophysiologists believe
that even though the flexion of a limb could be radio
controlled and an emotional state artificially induced,
the
sequences
of
responses
and
adaptation
to
the
environment depend on well established intracerebral
mechanisms whose complexity cannot be duplicated
by electrical stimulation of the brain.
Unique
possibilities
for studying the neurophysio-
logical bases of various mental phenomena are pro-
vided
by
the
method
of
implanted
electrodes.
No
anatomical
structures have been identified by either
US
or
Soviet
scientists
which
“control
memory
thereby
allowing
localization
of
this
center.
The
currently
favored
Soviet
position
regarding
the
location
of memory
is
similar
to
that
of
the
US,
namely,
the
“functional’’
centers
of memory
arc
located in a variety of places in the brain and operate
in concert.
Bekhtereva reportedly has found, from stimulation
of the thalamic region, a tendency toward euphoria on
the part of patients which some have interpreted as the
opposite to a fear center. The experiment reported by
Zavalova
in which purportedly the fear of
pilots
in
stressful situations was eliminated was most likely an
attempt
to
further
corroborate
evidence
of
a
fear
center.
A
neurophysiologist who
visited
the
Institute
of
Experimental Medicine in Leningrad reported in 1972
that Bekhtereva’s group was planning to treat mental
disorders with electrode implants and noted that this
was a tool of great potential danger. Bekhtereva has
recently
stated
that they
arc
treating schizophrenia
with
electrical stimulation of the
brain. During
this
treatment, electrodes arc implanted into the brains of
patient who then
leaves
the
hospital
for 6 months.
After
the
month
period,
the
patient
returns
for
necessary
follow-up
treatment.
She mentioned
that
epilepsy may be treated by the same procedure. No
further details were given. Although electrodes have
been implanted in the brains of epileptic patients in
the US
for treatment purposes, the implantation
of
electrodes
in
the
brains
of
patients
suffering from
schizophrenia has thus
far only been used in clinical
research to help clarify the nature of schizophrenia. In
essence,
the
use
of ESB
to “treat” schizophrenia
is
without
precedence
in
the
West.
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