Approved For Release 2002/05/17
: CIA-RDP96-00789R003200240001-0
Phenomenological Research and Analysis: Final Report
various body parts fell “asleep,” and that the experience was not particularly pleasant; other receivers
did not mind the setup. No receivers, however, found the experience enjoyable.
We suspect that since this environment was sufficiently different from our usual one, it may have failed
to provide a conducive atmosphere to elicit AC functioning.
1.2.13 Thrget Systems
The meta-analysis of the historical databases clearly show a preference for certain target systems. For
example, as we have shown above, complex visual targets provided better AC than do simple geometric
symbols.
In addition, Bern and Honorton have demonstrated a statistical preference for even more
complex targets than static photographs. They observed a significant difference in the Ganzfeld favor-
ing video segments from popular movies over single photographs. There is no evidence in the literature
to suggest that a 100-millisecond long sinusoidal grating constitutes a viable AC target. In fact, our en-
tropy results suggest that it would not be a good target, because it's total change of Shannon entropy is
small (May, Spottiswoode, and James, 1994).
13.1.4 Conclusions
Except for the alpha blocking experiment done at SRI in the early 70’s, we have not been able to observe
CNS correlates to AC functioning. We think that this may have resulted because of methodological
issues. In the remainder of this section, we describe a much-improved approach that remedies the prob-
lems of the previous methodologies.
1.2.2
Protocol
1.2.2.1 Introduction
Using an electroencephalograph (EEG), we corrected the shortcomings of the previous work. Each
stage of the investigation was built upon the results to date, and represented only modest extensions to
the previous stage.
In addition, we used traditional EEG methods for data collection and analysis so
that comparisons with the established literature were straight forward.* We assumed that AC exists in
general (i.e., within the framework discussed above); however, our approach included a “local” verifica-
tion of AC's existence.
Consider event-related desynchronization (ERD).
Spontaneous EEG reveals short-lasting, task- or
event-related amplitude changes in rhythmic activity within the alpha band (i.e., 8 to 12 Hz). This am-
plitude change or desynchronization is one of the elementary phenomena in EEG.
It was first described
by Berger (1930) in scalp EEG as alpha blocking, and was later termed ERD by Pfurtscheller and Arani-
bar (1977). ERDs can be quantified as a function of time and can then be used to study cortical activa-
tion patterns during the planning of motor behavior (Pfurtscheller and Aranibar, 1979), sensory stimu-
lation, and cognitive processes (Pfurtscheller, lindinger and Klimesch, 1986; Klimesch, Pfurtscheller and
LindingerKlimesh, 1987; and Sergeant, Geuze, and Van Winsum, 1987). Kaufman, Schwartz, Salustri
and Williamson (1990) provide a more recent example of cognitive-process-related ERDs, which they
call alpha suppression. They found a significantly shorter ERD when subjects simply responded to a
target stimulus, compared with the ERD that occurred when a subject had to search visual memory to
determine whether the target matched one previously presented.
Because ERDs arise from external
* For these investigations, we did not require the special properties of aMEG (e.g., source localization), sowe used the less com-
plex and more readily available EEG technology.
Approved For Release 2002/05/17
: CIA-RDP96-00789R003200240001-0
Approved For Release 2002/05/17: CIA-RDP96-00789R003200240001-0
Phenomenological Research and Analysis: Final Report
stimuli, cognitive tasks, or motor functions, they are a likely variable to use to study how the CNS
might
respond to AC stimuli.
It would be odd, indeed, if AC was the only stimulus that did not produce an ERD.
1*2.12 Thrget Stimuli
To overcome the potential problems associated with the earlier stimuli, we used throughout this study
our standard National Geographic target pool. These images are complex, but there is an increasing
database in our laboratory that shows they are suitable for targets in AC experiments. In addition, the
results of the meta-analyses, which were described above, show a significant preference for complex
target systems as opposed to symbols or 100-millisecond long sinusoidal gratings. Our target pool was
digitized for later display on a laboratory PC.
Figure 1 shows the stimulus timing. During a trial, a ran-
domly selected photograph was displayed for one second with an inter-stimulus interval (ISI) of 3 seconds.
While this stimulus-post stimulus pattern is fixed throughout the session, what happens in a stimulus
window is counter balanced between two stimulus types and random. We created a digital “image” that
was technically identical to the target images (e.g., same resolution, size) except that the color was nu-
merically identical to the background color of the display. These pseudo stimuli could not be detected
visually and, thus, served as a within run control.
1223 Receivers
We asked three of our best receivers, 009, 372, and 389 to participate in the experiment. Because of the
pilot nature of this approach, we did not set the total number of trials; rather, time and receiver avail-
ability determined the number of trials for each receiver.
1 .2.2.4 Thai Protocol
The following was the sequence of events for each trial:
(1) The receiver was wired at the standard positions for right and left hemisphere EEG for occipital
and parietal measurements referenced to CZ (i.e., the center of the top of the scalp).
(2) The receiver was seated in a sound-attenuated and electrically shielded room that
is commonly
used for such measurements.
(3) One of two possible random sequences for pseudo and target stimuli was selected randomly, and
the trial was initiated.
(4) The receiver was instructed to silently obtain AC data for the first five minutes.
(5) The receiver debriefed his/her experience during the next five minutes in words and drawings.
(6)
After the response had been collected, the receiver was presented visually with the exact same stim-
ulus pattern that was used in the first five minute interval as feedback.
Approved For Release 2002/05/17
: CIA-RDP96-00789R003200240001-0
Approved For Release 2002/05/17
: CIA-RDP96-00789R003200240001-0
Phenomenological Research and Analysis: Final Report
After a brief rest, a second trial was conducted, which was identical to the first except that a new target
was selected randomly and the second possible stimulus order was used in step 3 above.
12.2.5 AC-Behavior Analysis
An analyst who was otherwise blind to the experiment and trial details, was given a target pack number
that contained the original target and four decoy photographs in random order. The analyst's task was
to rank-order the five targets from best to worst match to the trial behavior response (i.e., writings and
drawings). With the usual sum-of-rank statistic, we could determine the overall level ofAC functioning
in the study, for each receiver, and determine the level ofAC for each trial.
12.2.6 ERD Analysis
The EEG record for each trial contains continuous samples at 500 samples/second for five minutes of
AC-stimuli and five minutes for direct stimuli (i.e., feedback of the target visually). Each epoch con-
tained random sequences of stimuli and pseudo stimuli.
These data were low pass filtered to avoid
aliasing, then reduced by five, yielding an effective sampling rate of 100/second. The alpha content (i.e.,
7.81 to 12.7 Hz) was extracted with a 32-pole, FIR, zero phase shift, digital filter, and the alpha power
was estimated by the ensemble square.
We computed an ERD template for each receiver. For each direct stimulus during the feedback five
minute interval, the alpha power was ensemble averaged and normalized by the average alpha power
for one second of prestimulus time. The resulting ERDs were averaged to produce the template for
each trial.
Figure 2 shows a typical ERD from one such calculation for receiver 372. We see that for
direct stimuli we expect a latency of approximately 0.5 second (i.e, time after stimulus onset), an 85%
reduction in alpha power and approximately two seconds for recovery.
This template was cross correlated with the data during the AC-portion of the trial. That is, for each
stimulus and for each pseudo stimulus, the maximum of the absolute value of the cross correlation for
±0.2 seconds surrounding the stimulus time was accumulated separately for each stimulus type. A stan-
dard non-parametric sum-of-ranks method was used to compare the resulting two distributions.
Figure 2.
Average ERD Normalized by Pre-Stimulus Mean.
Approved For Release 2002/05/17
: CIA-RDP96-00789R003200240001-0
Approved For Release 2002/05/17
C|A,-RDP96
Phenomenological Research anaAnaiysis: Final Report
-00789R003200240001 -0
1.2.3
Results and Discussion
Tkble 1 shows the results of the blind rank-order judging for the three receivers;
Ihble 1.
AC Results
Receiver
Tlials
<Rank>
ES
P-value
009
2.389
0.432
0.033
372
2.500
0.354
0.042
389
2.750
0.177
0.175
Total
2.571
0.303
0.006
Ttoo receivers produced independently significant evidence for AC and the combined data were also
significant. Thus we have corrected one of the shortcomings of our earlier efforts; we have independent
evidence for AC.
Thble 2 shows the results of the non-parameter Wilcoxon sum-of-ranks test between the distributions
resulting from the pseudo- and AC-stimuli.
Since the total number of stimuli per receiver was over 1600, the statistics shown in Table 2 are not en-
couraging. That is, given we observed significant evidence for AC, how is it that we do not see a signifi-
cant CNS response?
Thble 2.
Wilcoxon Statistics for ERDs
Receiver
Z-score
P-value (2t)
009
-0.758
0.448
372
1.509
0.132
389
0.930
0.352
Total
0.938
0.175
To determine the overall sensitivity of our signal detection methodology, we inserted template ERD s
into copies of the EEG data. Averaged over all receivers, we found that a 0.2 % change from pre-stimu-
lus alpha would lead to a significant difference between the distributions resulting from the AC-stimuli
and the pseudo stimuli.
This high sensitivity arises primarily because we have over 1600 stimuli per
receiver and because the cross correlations technique (i.e., frequently referred to as a matched filter)
can be shown to be the best possible signal detection algorithm in a noise environment.
Yet, with this
sensitivity we did not observe a statistically significant ERD. We must examine some of our basic as-
sumptions, if we are to understand this result.
One assumption is that a putative ERD would result, on the average, from every AC-stimulus. To test
this, we re-analyzed the behavioral data post hoc.
Rank-order analysis does not usually indicate the
Approved For Release 2002/05/17
: CIA-RDP96-00789R003200240001-0
„
Approved For Release 2002/05/1 7
CIAcRDP96-00789R003200240001 -0
Phenomenological Research ana Analysis: Final Report
absolute quality of the AC. For example, a response that is a near-perfect description of the target re-
ceives a rank of one. But a response which is barely matchable to the target may also receive a rank of
one. Ihble 3 shows the rating scale that we used to perform a blind assessment of the quality of theAC
responses, regardless of their rank.
Ihble 3.
0-7 Point Assessment Scale
Score
Description
Excellent correspondence, including good analytical detail, with essentially no
incorrect information
Good correspondence with good analytical information and relatively little
incorrect information.
Good correspondence with unambiguous unique matchable elements, but
some incorrect information.
Good correspondence with several matchable elements intermixed with
incorrect information.
Mixture of correct and incorrect elements, but enough of the former to indicate
receiver has made contact with the site.
Some correct elements, but not sufficient to suggest results beyond chance
expectation.
Little correspondence.
No correspondence.
To apply this subjective scale to anAC trial, an analyst begins with a score otseven and determines if the
description for that score is correct. If not, then the analyst tries a score of six and so on. In this way the
scale is traversed from seven to zero until the score-description seems reasonable for the trial.
We thought that by analyzing the EEG data only when the AC functioning was high, we might have a
better chance of detecting an ERD. Unfortunately, we found no statistical change of the Wilcoxon Z-
scores only using data from the upper portions of the scale shown in Table 3. Thus, we must examine our
assumptions further.
One implicit assumption in the search for AC-ERDs is that there is a direct casual and temporally stable
link between the stimulus and the response. That is, since the data analysis involves an ensemble aver-
age over time, we must assume that changes in spontaneous alpha that are not associated with the stim-
uluswill be averaged out of the ensemble. It may be, however, that AC is more complex. In Honorton’s
meta-analysis of the precognition data (Honorton and Ferrari, 1989), the precognition of complex visu-
al targets reported by Jahn (1982), and the anecdotal reports of many of our receivers all suggest that
AC may not be stable in time.
One explanation for the significant improvement in AC when complex targets are used instead of sym-
bols maybe related to imagery. If a receiver knows the stimulus set (e.g., in the case of Zener cards; star,
cross, square, circle and wavy lines) then he or she is likely unable to differentiate between a vivid inter-
nal image of one of the symbols, which results from memory or imagination, and a putative “signal”
resulting from AC.
In the case of more complex targets, such as National Geographic photographs,
Approved For Release 2002/05/17
: CIA-RDP96-00789R003200240001-0
Approved For Release 2002/05/17
: CIA-RDP96-00789R003200240001-0
Phenomenological Research and Analysis: Final Report
—
there maybe a lesser tendency to remember all possible combinations of elements one may find in such
a target pool. If this speculation is correct, then internal imagery is a source of noise, and we might not
expect to see changes in occipital alpha.
Some receivers report that their internal experiences tend to be kinesthetic rather than visual. These
ideas have not been formally tested in the laboratory, yet they are commonly reported by many of our
excellent receivers. We have assumed that the CNS will respond as if the AC-signal stimulates neurons
near the visual cortex. Given that we were unable to take survey data over the entire scalp, it is possible
that we might not have positioned the EEG electrodes for optimal detection of an AC response.
We recommend that we adopt the new technology of functional magnetic resonance imaging, which can
survey the entire CNS. In addition, we suggest that we optimize the target pool to contain the largest
possible gradient of Shannon entropy. This should be the best possible next step to observe the CNS’s
response to an AC stimulus.
2. Data Patterns/Parameter Correlations
The task of this section was to identify parameters that would potentially lead to an increase ofAC func-
tioning and assist in determining optimal protocols for potential applications.
2.1 The Gradient of Shannon’s Entropy
The primary activity in this category was to determine if the total change of Shannon entropy could be
confirmed as an intrinsic target variable. This effort constituted a replication of our finding during the
1992-1993 period, and led to three papers that have been accepted for publication at the Parapsycholog-
ical Annual Convention. We include these three papers as Appendices B, C, and D and summarize
their findings here.
The Ganzfeld experiments as summarized by Bern and Honorton (1994) suggest that using dynamic
targets produces stronger results than using static ones.
Bern and Honorton, however, only analyzed
Ganzfeld studies that included the use of a sender.
Since it is known that a sender is not a necessary
requirement in forced-choice trials, we designed and carried out a study to see if a sender is required in
non-Ganzfeld, free-response trials. In the first of two experiments, five experienced receivers partici-
pated in 40 trials each, 10 in each condition of a 2x2 design to explore sender and target type. We
observed significant effects for static targets (i.e., exact sum-of-rank probability oip < 0.0073, effect
size = 0.248, n=100), chance results for dynamic targets (i.e.,p < 0.500, effect size = 0.000, n = 100),
and no interaction effects between sender and target-type conditions. One receiver slightly favored the
no sender condition (F(l,36) = 4.43, p < 0.04), while another slightly favored static targets (F(l,36) =
5.47, p < 0.04). We speculate that these surprising results (i.e., favoring static over dynamic targets)
arose, in part, because of the difference between a topically unbounded dynamic target pool and a topi-
cally restrictive static pool.
In a second experiment, we redesigned the dynamic pool to match more
closely the properties of the static pool. Four of the receivers from the first study participated in at least
20 trials each, 10 in each target-type condition. No senders were used throughout this experiment. We
observed a significant increase in anomalous cognition for the new dynamic targets (
2 = 9.942, df —
1,
p < 1.6 x 10~3
), and an increase in anomalous cognition for the static targets (X2 = 3. 158, df= l,p<
0.075). We conclude that a sender is not a necessary requirement for free-response anomalous cogni-
Approved For Release 2002/05/17
: CIA-RDP96-00789R003200240001-0
Approved For Release 2002/05/17
: CIA-RDP96-00789R003200240001-0
Phenomenological Research and Analysis: Final Report
tion. A rank-order analysis showed no target-type dependencies in the second study (.
2 = 0,df=l,p<
0.5), but a rating analysis revealed some difference favoring dynamic targets (t = 1.32, df= 68, p<
0.096) for the significant receivers. Based on our analysis, we believe a fundamental argument suggests
that in free-response anomalous cognition experiments, dynamic targets should be better than static
ones.
The experimental result, however, was surprising—it was directly opposite to the results that were
derived from the Ganzfeld database. The topics of the dynamic targets were virtually unlimited, where-
as the topics for the static targets were constrained in content, size of cognitive elements, and range of
affect. In our second experiment, we redesigned the target pools to correct this unbalance and observed ,,
significant improvement ofAC functioning. We incorporate these findings into a definition of target
pool bandwidth and propose that the proper selection of bandwidth will lead to a reduction of incorrect
information in free-responseAC.
Based upon our early entropy result and using the knowledge gained about the target pool bandwidth,
we propose that the average total change of Shannon’s entropy is a candidate for an intrinsic target
property. We find a significant correlation of the gradient of Shannon’s entropy (Spearman’s q = 0.337,
df = 31, t = 1.99, p < 0.028) with an absolute measure of the quality of the anomalous cognition. This
result is a successful replication of our 1992 finding.
Our identification of an intrinsic target property that correlates with the quality of AC is an extremely
important finding. Not only does it instruct us to select better target material for laboratory studies, but
it also guides us in task selection for practical applications.
2.2 Senders in the Ganzfeld
Another primary activity in this category was to assess the role of a sender in an AC experiment. We
subcontracted to the Psychology Department at the University of Edinburgh to conduct a detailed test
using the methodology of the Ganzfeld. Appendix E contains their final reports which detail their ex-
periment and results. We summarize their findings in this section.
The Ganzfeld methodology differs in three fundamental ways from our usual AC experiment:
(1) A mild altered state is used to elicit AC functioning.
(2) Senders are used in a “telepathic” modality.
(3) The receivers perform their own the rank-order judging in the analysis of the data.
Otherwise the Ganzfeld protocol is similar to ours. A receiver is asked to register his/her impression of
an isolated target that is randomly selected from a pre-defined set. We asked Dr. Robert L. Morris to
use this methodology to determine the role of the sender. As they will be reporting at the next Parapsy-
chological Association Annual Convention, they found, as we did, that a sender is not a necessary partic-
ipant in successful AC experiments. In addition, they were able to show that the sender may not partici-
pate in any significant way in the process. As a consequence of this experiment, they are considering
dropping the sender in all of their future experiments.
While it is agreed that perhaps for psychological reasons, some receivers may produce better results
with a sender, there appear to be no mechanistic arguments favoring the use of a sender.
Approved For Release 2002/05/17
: CIA-RDP96-00789R003200240001-0
r Release 2002/05/17
: CIA-RDP96-00789R003200240001-0
esearch and Analysis: Final Report
2.3 Q-Sort Personality Assessment
The objective of this study was to explore potential personality variables as they relate to AC ability
through the use of the Q-Sort method.
2.3.1
Introduction
Historically, a wide range of psychological tests have been used in an attempt to detect correlations be-
tween personality variables and AC performance. These tests have included standard clinical batteries
as well as the Personality Assessment System (Lantz, 1987). Some of these have yielded statistical cor-
relations; however, the magnitude of the correlations are often too small for predictive purposes.
The Q-Sort differs from other methods of personality assessment in that it is not a psychological test,
but merely an empirical system devised to permit individual personalities to be comprehensively de-
scribed and quantitatively compared. First conceived by William Stephensen, the Q-Sort method has
become a useful tool for comparing personality variables between a wide variety of different popula-
tions (Block, 1978). For example, studies have ranged from examining the differences between effec-
tive and ineffective liars to analyzing the difference between individuals who tend to rely upon external
visual fields rather than proprioceptive (i.e., muscular skeletal) cues in determining true vertical.
One common difficulty with traditional self-report personality tests is that they ask the subject to identi-
fy where they fit on a continuous spectrum of pre-determined dimensions. For example, one dimension
of the MBTI ranges between extroversion and introversion. Even if the subject chooses not to describe
him/her self in these terms, nonetheless, they must respond. The Q-Sort allows the subjects to deter-
mine the appropriate dimensions for themselves.
In 1989 we conducted a preliminary test of this method using 14 individuals, including three receivers
who were known to be talented in anomalous cognition (AC). Cluster analysis was used to assemble the
results of individual Q-Sort scores into groups of similar profiles, at the same time attempting to create
groups that are as different from one another as possible. The result is a visual display called a cluster
diagram. To the 14 receivers, we added three standard profiles; a normal personality profile, two differ-
ent types of pathology personality profiles, and a tentative AC-Profile; an average of the personality
traits of the three known viewers. The result was that the pathological profiles were in a cluster by them-
selves while the normal profile and the tentative AC-Profile were clustered together with the known
receivers.
As a result of the 1989 Q-Sort work, we proposed to expand the use of the Q-Sort and to attempt to
answer the following questions:
(1) What personality variables are common to those individuals who perform well on AC tasks?
(2) How do the personality descriptions of individuals who do not do well on AC tasks differ from those
who do?
(3) What might an “ideal” AC profile look like?
2.3.2 The Q-Sort Method
For each individual, the Q-Sort method involved sorting 100 cards into nine categories with an assigned
number of cards placed within each category. The 100 Q-Sort cards look something like a deck of nor-
mal playing cards, except that on the face of each is written a single psychological statement in a theoret-
ically neutral form (e.g., “Initiates Humor”). Each psychological statement is written in a way so as to
Approved For Release 2002/05/17
: CIA-RDP96-00789R003200240001-0
Shannon EnM|ign»rt m»rW*lteJwSfW)B*S‘’ty
: CIA-RDP96-00789R003^6b3bft8fy"4
CPYRGHT
Shannon Entropy as an Intrinsic Target Property:
Toward a Reductionist Model
of
Anomalous Cognition
by
Edwin C. May, Ph.D.
S. James P. Spottiswoode (Consultant)
and
Christine L James
Science Applications International Corporation
Cognitive Sciences Laboratory
Menlo Park, CA
Abstract
We propose that the average total change of Shannon’s entropy is a candidate for an intrinsic target
property. We analyze the results of two lengthy experiments that were conducted from 1992 through
1993 and find a significant correlation (Spearman’s q = 0.337, df — 31,
t — 1.99, p < 0.028) with an
absolute measure of the quality of the anomalous cognition. The 1993 result replicated the similar find-
ing from the 1992 study. We describe the methodology, the calculations, and correlations in detail and
provide guidelines for those who may wish to conduct similar studies.
In addition, we provide circum-
stantial evidence which leads us toward a reductionist view of anomalous cognition.
Approved For Release 2002/05/17
: CIA-RDP96-00789R003200240001-0