¥ “8 A proved For Release 2000/08/07 : CIA-RDP96-00787R000500230002-2 BIOPYS TOA BLEC TROR AC YPLORS 19 3.3 Hlectroreceptors and the Acoustico-lLateralis System. Although it is popularly accepted that there are five senses, ie. smell, taste, touch, audition end vision, recent physiological vork has identified many additional sense modalities, including pain, carbon—dioxide and specialized electroreceptors. Of interest to the tonic of sensation and vercention is the fact that a given vhysiologic identifie’ sense organ may resnond to more than one invut sense modal-. ity. For instance, pressing the eye lightly crestos visual 'phosphene imsecs, whereas certain vain and thermal receptors in the skin respond as well to pressure. Additionally, pain may be verceived by injury in areas in the skin which are not innervatcad by either touch, pain or thermal receptors. a In this section we ghall demonstrate the existence of specialized clectroreceptors, but it is our additional thesis that all. neurons and some synoanses are olectrosensitive. Consider, for instance that that which wo call taste and smell is really a function of given concentrat- ions of ions, which themelves are clectrical charges of snecific nolarity (valence) and frecuecncy. Similarly, that which we call hear- ing occurs . when a mechanical vibration acts unon the cilia in the organ of Corti, it is the stress-strain mechanical energies of the cilia which create. heaS (infre-red) vhich stimulates the auditory neurons; the snecific mechanism igs called piezoelectric. Thermal recentors resnond to "heat", but that which we call "heat" is specific- ally infra-red eloctromagnetic radiation. Finally we shall not belabor the voint that vision is the response to electromegnotic radiation in the “visible-light" frequencics, The svecific clectro-recentor organs as described forevith are all revealed from research in ordinary and cloctro-sensitive fish, However, since our thesis is specifically eclectromagnetic recention in the ELF bands and the 25m to am bend, the reader shall keen in mind that these electrorecentors are vert of the acoustico-latoralis syoten, of waiich the cochlea end semi-circular canals in man have evolved, and also closely resembles the "acupuncture voint system}! both show to be electrosensitive, Leydig in 1851 had studied the lateralis system and concluded a sensory function for the organs. Later, Schulze, in 1861, had hyno- thesized that the cunulac of the system were stimulated by 1) water movements directed acrainst the fish or amphibian, and 2), low frequency vibrations (sound) in tho water, Sand, in 1938 demonstrated that the amnullac (of Loren7ini) were infra-red sensitive. In 1955 Hensel confirmed Sand's vork and extended it to show the Similarity with mammalian thermo-recentors. . Lissmann, in 1951, had discovered a low voltage 0-330 Hz steady discharge from electric organs, and later suceeded in conditioning a snecios of fish to microvolt BLE fields. Bulloc's et al, in 1961 hypothesized tnat the specialized clectro-recentor organs were derivati of the lateral line scnse organs. (FESSARD, 1974, ed.) The svecialized lateral linc organs of which we ehall soon sneak occur in Entegration with the ordinary lateral line systems, that is, not in substitution. It should be mentionca that species not contain- ing the SLLO resnonded to electricrl fiel&sof mV intensity in the ELF range. Approved For Release 2000/08/07 : CIA-RDP96-00787R000500230002-2
Approved For Release 2000/08/07 : CIA-RDP96-00787R000500230002-2 BIOPHYSICS BLECTRORMCEPTORS 20 There are three basic tyves of lateral line organs. The first are the ordinary LLO, second and first order neurons canned with micro-~ villi, in general only mechanically sensitive, hovever, still piczo- electric. Ampullee viz ampullae of lorenvini, are canals, usually lem long by lmm in Chameter , filled with on ecidic muconolysaccharide, and ere directly connected to the enithelial layers. The wall resistance of the canal ic 6M2*om?, with a canacitanco of 0.4 -0.8 UF-cm7*, the jelley however, has a resistivity of 25-31 from, and & composition that varios somewhat gsnetially, but in sencral is, in mM-kg7+ H20, Na(2) 44° Ca(2) and Mg(2) 50, “1(- 15 580, K(1) 12.5, ané urea 75 (MURRAY ) The ammullae occur in meny varieites of fish end amphibia, In general the end organ is 10-15 ym in diamter, with groups or clust ers of 10-50 amoullas yer organ. The density of the organs range from 12-80-mu7* | and mev number e total of 40,000 in any given specics. Of specific interest to us is) that the amoul1ac resvond to field strens of 1-15 wy. mt ay and only iff the input frequencies are low, that is in general, le than 300 Hz, and most often, less than 50 Hz. The third. ‘tyne of lateral line organ is called tuberous, and is found only in weakly clectric fish. The tubcrii are located in invag- nations below the evithelius, and surrounded by sunportive cells. The tuborid resvonded to ficlds of 4-20 uV-m~1 of high frequency, usually up to 1000 Hz, specifically synchronous with the clectriec organ dis- charge of that fish or of cloctric fich of the same snecie. ‘Figure 3.6 shows the comparetive vhysiolosy of the three receptor organs. Ordinary lateral line electro-recentors are innervated by an efferent neuron, the amouallac and tuberii are not. a COCHLEA AMPULL 5 | TUBSRII y | pe) en ese rs afferent\'; efferent | ma if ~ po ve specific ele etro-sensitivity VAS seconsteat ‘4 J Dijkgraat and Kalmijn (1963, 1966, 1971) in a series of experiments omohasizingboth electrolocation and conditioning stimuli phenomena At first they noticed that dogfish resnonded to a 5 Hz 10-5 Ve omnt field by a twitchin of the cvelids, intercstingly enough, when the dogfish were drowsy. (Altered States' rescarchers, tale note!) Later they noticed that when the BCG was monitgre 2d, the heart rato slowed from 1 Hz to 0.7 Hz when stimulated by 107° V- m ficlds, Late in 1965 dogfish were trained to seelt food with a 4¥107-9 Vem-l ficld, In all casos, the responses to etimulii or conditioning ceased when the amnullary nerves were sectionc even when the fi- ‘id strength was roised 30 ab (1000 X). In addition it vas noticed that the doatip sh naturally avoided arcas where the field strength was 1- 0.1 mV°m Three types of rosnonses to B fields were noticed. ‘ho first reaction was a, twitching of the body or anvondage, usually in resvonse to 10 + 1 Vem fields, but somctimes es low as 1072 Vem~l, The second Approved For Release 2000/08/07 : CIA-RDP96-00787R000500230002-2
ao? a7 s LARRKONEd For Release 2000/08/07. FA RAB 88 -00787R000500230092-2 response tyne is galvanotaxis, a turning into or pnernendicular to the field, Tho third resnonse tyne is galvano--narcosis, an immobilisation of the test subject. Final proof of syccific electrosonsitivity was provided by Kalmij: who sequestered a flatfish 'prey' in sand, and with ©. other controls excluded visual, mechanical or chomical clues, yet the sharks and rays were able to locate the flatfish. Extra weight is added to the cvidon: when an artifical current similar to that of the flatfish vroduced the samo location results, ~ Figure 3.7 below ig an adaptation of Table2 ( in Kalmijn (1974), which vlots tho clectrosensitivitios of the various specics tested. by numerous authors, Two tyvnes of cloctrical cnergy paramctcors were present at the time of testing, one being ficld strongth, in volts per meter (Vem-1) ang the other being current density in amperes per ceonti- meter squared (A-cem=2). Curve fitting reveals that the relation be- tween the two threshold narameter ig (3.8 ) log Vem7L t= log Ae &mce 5.0 Figure 3.8below shows that in sharks and rays, generally consider: weakly clectro sensitive, the relation between current density and in - put frequency reveals that the threshold increascs as the frequency increases, a relation which ig also observed in man (Cf. 3.6 - 3.9). 0” et log” . * Volts per 9 meter ~ =12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7'-6 =§ “4-3 25> log,q amperes ver centimeter squared Although specifie electroreception has been demonstratod by Lisa- mann, Bullock, Kalmijn and others, of specific intcrest to us is that tho ampullae heave been demonstrated to be widely receptive to other electrical and vara-clectrical vhenomena. The reader is requested to study the following closely, for what has boon demonstrated in the amoullae of fish has also becn observed in man, that is both wide and nirrow clectro-resnonsc. Here the work is primarily duc to Murray, specifically on the aopullac of Lorengini. Our interest in this organ is due to the fact that it is widely distributed in vertabrates, and its responsc to electrostimuli is a tonic, that is frequency coded message, whereas the tuberii, found only in fish poscessing EOD, resnonded with phasic, burst—dispersive andtonic—phesic codings. Figures 3.9a to 3.9b below show the following responses of a Single unit of amnullac, In 3,9a the input verameter is voltage and polarity. Notice thet the organ has a discherge rate of about 30 Hz, and the outnut frequency therofore codes volarity and intensity. Notic Approved For Release 2000/08/07 : CIA-RDP96-00787R000500230002-2
rt Approved For Release 2000/08/07 : CIA-RDP96-00787R000500230002-2 BIOPHYSICS ELACTRORECEPTORS 22 also the output frequcneies in all cases are in the BLF range (3 - 3 kHz). Figure £3.10 shows the resnonse of the game unit to temocratu: (infra-red), while figures 3.11 abe record the resvonse to pressure and touch (viz the niozoolectric effect), end finally, figure 3, 12 reveals the res»onse of an ampoullary orrsan to the apnlication of a soa water solution of various galinitics. (It should be noticed thet the average concentration of the neural solutions ere two to three tim: that of sca wator.) Again, what is most important horo is the wide renge of clectro-sénsitivitios of the anpullary organs, - Fig. 3.9 Resvonse to el ical sti i outyut 100 & ectrical stimuli frequency | a imnulses oo yer - 7 second | 50 | Oe cette et oe | | 5 6 5 16 15 20 25 stimulus. in anodal cathodal microvolts Fig. 3.10 Temperature Fig 3.11 Pressure differential ; fe) impulses — A --16,0°C a per 30 fi imp. 30) second ph per O Ll 2 3 "4 win 0 50-100 em He Time - Fig. Al2 ) Salinity Change 30 frequency ee in. 10. | a impulses 0 | - mo es —_ per ' , ee 7 second -10 | pew (ie Hz) 20 - ~30 Fee ete we ena ge meee mee 80 90 100 1107 “130 % Sea water Approved For Release 2000/08/07 : CIA-RDP96-00787R000500230002-2
BIAppreved For Release 2000/08/07: ClA2RDP96-00787R000500230002-2 Returning to syecific elcctroreecntion, it wes observed that stimuli of duration 0.1 to 1.0 seconds were most cffective in cliciting electroroesyvonse., . Vaveforma of the above durations sre equivalont to 10 Hz to 1.0 Hz frequencies. Also observed was the phonomena that stimuli that were cither too brief, or sustained for too long were lee effective in producing olectrorcesnonse. Along the same line, it was shown that stimuli that were cithor emplitude modulated or frequency modulated gave resnonse when the ficld strengths were as Low as 10 uVem-4+ Tho most effective froquency of frequency modulation was 3 Hz. Let the reader remembor this, for in the next section, (on eudition), it will be show the the auditory sense, again, histolomice. derived from the LLO elso dononstratos a provensity to sclectivly resvond to certain stimuli, if and only if that stimuli is cither amplitude or frequency modulated, In eddition to the above velectrorecentivo characteristics, a nhenomena of valuo *o the biofecdbeck resesrches occurs vhen two olectrosensitive spectes with cloctric orgen discharges (HOD) wore connectod with contact clectrodes. It was observed that when the two fish of the same snecic, cach with the same basic EOD freauoncy, were connected, both fish weve observed to change their BOD in such a manne: to produco dissimilar, that is divergent EBOD. Secheich and Bullock indicate that this “jamming evoidancoe resnonge" occurs so that each fish can discriminate its own nourol patterns, such that confusion, and therefore less sclf control may be avoided, This JAR accurs only if tho BOD's arc within 15-20 Hz of cach fish' own EOD, end is most nronounced whon the difference is 3+5 Hz, This is related to the FM resnonso to 3 Hz, ginec two fish within 3-5 Hz of cach other will yroduce high anvlitude 3-5 Hz modulation of cach others EOD. The phenomena of eleetrorceention has been studicd by the various psychologists, physiologists and biologiests, who deem the phenomena as necessery for the survival of the aquaric svccios observed. They call the vhenomena electrolocation end clectrocommunication, yot a verusel of their bibligravhics indicate that none has cited or studied the biovhysical or parangychological literatures, and their conelusion. were thus reached indenendently. In electrolocation, for oxamnle, in Eigenmannia, the males! basic freaucncy was 250-600 Hz, whercas the females! wes 340-560 Hz. Similar: an adversary or prey may bo located at a distance thru cloctroreceptio: Again, certain current velcocitios in the oceans or strezms con tin snecific life forms, and it has been demonstreted that sconsitivit to current volocitics 28 low as 2.5% 165m.sec~loxist. Another revort indiestos that 107? msec" may be used ac a conditioning stimulus. In a similar study, a 2 um vibration at 15 Hz resultod in a 50 Hz sign (Schwartz). Tho amnullary organs, snecifically clectrorcentive, have boen chown to have evolved indoendently in several svecics of vortabrates. And, sitho the LLO are found only in water dyvellors, evolution has produced tyo organs soccifically derived from the LLO. At one time, olfaction, vision, end certain creniel nerves were part of the Leteral. cyetoms. In men, the vestibulsr canals (not uncoincidentally namod Ampnllae by anatomista), and the cochlea are circetly doscended by amphibial 710. In the noxt section wo shall show tho very close similarity betwoon tho cluctrorecentive ampullary orgens in woter dwellers, end the acoustico-clovbre recovtive vestibular and cechloar orgens in msn, Approved For Release 2000/08/07 : CIA-RDP96-00787R000500230002-2
ian] id BrosRprayed For Release 2000/08/07 : i gRPP96-00787RO00S00230002-2 aa UDITION 3.4 AUDITION end MECHANO-RECEPTION Recalling that J. Rhine has indicested that GESP is ultimately processed thru the central norvous system and that the acoustico- latoralis system nrocessee some oclectro-receyntion, it behooves us to study eudition and the mecheno-reoptive functions, for it will be showr that there are goneralized responses anvlicable to ell sensory modaliti . | The sensitivity to sound is in fact the sensitivity to mochanical vibrationsset un in the atmosyhere. The inner car is the site of this acoustico-mochanical recontion, and those familisr with audition know thet the mechenical vibrotions set un are relayed to the inner car by a okin-like mombrane, the tymoanus, anc then thru throe small boncs, the mallous, the incus, and the stances to the inner car which contain: both the semicircular canals end the cochlonr, both of which innervate the cighth craniel nerve. It has been shown by von Bokesy, who won the Nobel Prize for his work, that the process of audition in:ludes that of bone conduction as woll as the resnonse of the whole body to mechanc vibrations, And altho sudition is a snoecialged sense scquestered from spurious vibrations, we shall show later how the whole orgen of the ski is © kind of mechano-receptor, the results applicable to "dormo-ovtics. In eddition, tho skin is the site of contact elcectro-rcecention, and it shall be showmthe similaritics betwoon these various sense modalitic Specifically, the organ of audition is the organ of Corti located in the center of the cochlear snirals. The Organ of Corti is “= layer of hair ccolls connectod tothe basilar membrane which connects directly to the cighth nerve. fThoro are about 15,000 hair colls on the basilar mombrane enc a totel of about 15,000 neuron fibres in the cocloar nerve These hair cells renge in size from cbhout 130 um, which aro high frequc ey resyvonsive, to 275 ym, which are low frequoncy resnonsive. Of un- usual interest is that thosc nerve fibres have afferent nerve ending, tho there is no motor function to be found, and in addition the notenti across tho hair cells in the organ of Corti is about 140 mV. Since these cells are avoroximatoly 140 um in longth, the ficld strength representcd in the orran of Corti is: 39 BO av dort = 24 LOT 0+ 107 mt 1.4 104m Tho hair cells in the orgen of Corti relay the mechanical vibratic set un upon them from the ctress-strein ronactions caused by their bend: ahoat set off by the friction then stimulates, thru this pniczocloctric nroccss, the gsonerstor votentials. Of interest is thet, un to 60 Hz, the outvout frequency resvonse is =n exact notch of the input frequency resnonse. Above this freeuoncy svecialirod arcas in tho cochloa at specific distences from the stapes vroduce complex volleys resyonsivle for eudition at these froqucncics. In addition, the three semi- circular cenels, which rescmblo three mutslly pendicular half~lLoon antennee, arc also innervated by cupulac and microvilli which als: resvond in viczoclcctric process to mechanical bending sot up by chang: in velocity and scccleretion. These semicircular canals are ebout 1 cm in hcighth, and thus may vrovide cleectrorecytion fora EMR in this wavelength. Approved For Release 2000/08/07 : CIA-RDP96-00787R000500230002-2
f Pa er i) pAppreved.For Release 2000/08/07.; SIA; RDP96-00787R000509230002-2 . Our interest in eudition stome from that sense modelitics! relatio shin to the lateyalis sys*em, but also from the fact that audition is Ty & sense modality concerned with the frequency and the intensity of the invinging :timuli. Altho the cnergy intensity by which audition : Ss mossured is usually Yatts nor centimeter squered (W ‘om-2), the veriouc onergy dimensions are interchangorsble, like motors into foot, end it Sati bo directly shown that tho clectro—-sonsitivty threshold may be computed directly from the audition thresholds. (Cf 3.5 ) Since, as we heve indicated, that audition is = skin membrenc, bone conduction phonomena, and that therc exist severel formulac re- lating skin area to height ond mass, and the »rovortion of bone mass to totcl oreeninm mass, it is not survrising that a mathomatical relet ion ship oxists betweon auditory throgholds end physical body moasurem monts,. Mastorson end Diamond have ompirically vroduced the following relationships, Eq. 3. shows that the lowest frequency resnondod to is related to body mass, ond that in addition, the high frequency threshold is a mathematical function of the low frequency cutoff threshold. 310 log flow 4 10Bnage (ke) = o09 TRL 3.1 fhigh = 20 kHz * log Tioy Other physiological asvects of audition illuminate processes relevant to extra, or as one professional calls it, oxnanded scnsory nercention. Von Bekesy studied tho auditory thresholds with respect to three variables; heredity, age, and renal time. He found for ingten that the audiograms of mombers within = femily were significantly Similar, whereas en sudiogrem of someone not in that family differcd ag well significantly. Viz, a »roof of the horedity of sensory and nercevtual abilitics and resnonses. In eddition it was found that with increasing age, the ability to nerceive sound frequencies 2nd intensitios was attenuated at the high frequeney resnonse band, but was basienlly unchanged st the low frequency cond of the scoustical spectrum. Of very svccific interest to perception was von Bokesey's observation of the following, Audiograms were msdo of subjects! ; threshold sensitivitics at two figquencics, 200 Hz and 1000 Hz, and observed for a duration of twenty minutes. It was found that the thre holds varicd 5 to 15 db with poriodicitics of 8 minutes for the former and 64 minutes for the latter. It would nrove to be highly illumin- ating to discern if cach frequency had its own periodicity of thres- hold sensitivy, for in addition, periods of 8 minutos and 64 minutes are in effect frequencios of 1/480 seconds and 1/350 seconds, and it is well demonstrated that higher frequencies are harmonics of lower: frequencios, end we may summize ultro-low freaquoney modulation or driving of higher frequency ncoustico-mechano-clectro-sensitivitios, In this section we shall observe the various response charsacter- istics of the auditory system in order to esteblish the Limits of the energy verccived, It has been adovted as convention that tho root- mean-square threshold for audition is 0.0002 dynos*cm72 at 2000 Hz, the fequoney of highest sonsitivity. However, von Bekesy has observed sensitivity thresholds of 0.00005 dynes.cm—2 at 2200 Hz, Therefore, while we shall discuss standard auditory thresholds, but again the reader is ceutioned that the demonstrated human perception thresholds may vary os much as 5 to 15 db below the 50% povulation standard threshold, Approved For Release 2000/08/07 : CIA-RDP96-00787R000500230002-2
4 . ze BIO Approved For Release 2000/08/022 CIAYRDP96-00787R000500230002-2 . Lite the electroreceptive sengos (ELF, infra-red, ond vision), audition is crgotonic, that is, its sensitivity of cnergy (ergo) is . function of the froguoncy (tono) o * the impinging stimuli. Also, like the clectrorcecentive senses, ondition shows tho vronerty of excitory and inhibitory resvonsce. That is, most neurons havo a pase, that is 2 stobic discharge rate, so that, while some stimuli cauce an incroase in the neural discharge rates, some stimuli csuse an inhibditic that ig decrenso of tho static discharge rate. This is e very inter- ooting aspect of senuntion and perception, for the verecipicnt must be aAwere that the information is "the absence of information,", or to put it crudely, the porcinicnt is required to be aw-re not of the donut, but the hole. Figure 3,13 below is the oft rowrduccd and now 6 andard auditory intensity-frequency rosponse chart. The sound pressure level is given in dynos-cm™ an@ Joules por square motor por second on the Loft hand ordinate and (tents tively) Volts por meter ner square root of the frequ- ‘acey (Vem-lHz-4) on the right. It is convenicnt to use Jem™2 seem rather than Watts-em72 because we should like to be able to caleulate the cnergy in 2 given frequency waveform. (Seo the next section for conversion factors. ) Figure 3.13 Auditory frequoncy--cnergy threshold resvonsos oy _ pain 0 ‘ : thunde: 10 - 2! ‘ 6.6  symphor 4 me i 10 - 4) ~~ he 4.6 traffic 10 ~ 6 FN 2.6 conver: 1 i 4 A -~ 8) \ A 0.6. LO 10, * fo ; 1.4. KN meer LE SPONSE | 1074 OD ee ee eerie inhibitery_3 4° 125 250 500° “1000 2000 4000 Hz aengs log Joules frequency (Fz) log VY exper: cm m<*soc mf ° Additional evidonce for the coding of sensory information into the ELF band con bo seen in Figure 3.14 below, which charts the frequency of the neural imoulses in resnonse to a given stimulus intensity input for nourons #ith frequoney-cpocifice responses. Notice that the hyper- bolic tangent (tanh x) grovth rate saturates at about 450 Hz. nerve EmPAESEBS09 | eo second —4oq | oa fn y 300 600 KX toso 6,700 200 | / y 100 | / / / | Approved For Releasé 2000/08/07 : CIA- RDP96-00787R000500230002-2 ~12 -~10 ~8 6 —4. _ O Log Jem7 soc7l ma