Approved For Release 2000/08/08, >GtA-RDR&6 -00789R002200650001-6 a Enhancing Human Performance a TT That research, employing amnesic as well as normal sub- jects, has illustrated that certain indirect measures of memory (for example, perceptual identification, word- fragment completion, procedural skills) can show large effects of prior episodes when conventional recall and recognition measures fail to show any such effects. Viewed in that context, only certain types of learning should take place during true EEG-verified sleep, and learning should show up on only certain types of memory tests. In general, the past negative results were obtained with inappropriate presentation procedures and with test- ing procedures that were insensilive to any learning that might take place. The committee's primary recommendation was that the degree of learning of materials presented during sicep be examined again as a basic-research problem. Rather than looking at intentional recall or recognition of mate- rial presented during true sleep. the committee urged the army to look for effects such as lowering of perceptual thresholds for items presented during sleep, semantic or affective biasing in the postsleep interpretation of verbal items as a consequence of their being presented in biased contexts during sleep, repetition effects (enhancing postsleep performance on material studied before the sleep period by repeating the material during the sleep period). and priming effects (facilitating postsleep acqui- sition of material by presenting (hat material during the preceding sleep period). Recent research on state dependencies in human learning (Eich, 1989) also influenced the committee. If learning during sleep is to some extent state-specific. then it might transfer more effectively to the states of drowsiness and semisleep that accompany exhaustion and sleep deprivation than it does to the normal waking state. Since cognitive performance deteriorates under sleep deprivation, such potential transfer of sleep- training might help the subject when he or she needs it most. Finally, the committee thought that learning that depends on sleep disruption might be examined from a cost-benefit standpoint; procedures that disrupt the quantity or quality of steep might shorten training or have other benefits that could outweigh (heir costs. Accelerated Learning The committee focused primarily on one particular learning package, SALTT (Suggestive accelerative learn: | ing and teaching techniques.) Literature in the Journal of the Society of Accelerative Learning Was reviewed and committee member Schneider attended the society's na- tional meeting in 1986. The commissioned paper by Slavin provided background information on the teacher's contributions to effective instruction and the paper by Harris and Rosenthal considered the potential contribu: 83 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789R002200650001-6 : a tion of the learner's expectations in the SALTT environ- ment (see footnote 2). The committee concluded that the extravagant claims for accelerated learning programs are unjustified. The ef- fectiveness of such programs did not exceed what might be expected on the busis of the mainstream instructional elements (for exumple. imagery. cooperative learning, \ tests as motivational devices and learning events) that are i. embedded in a non-traditional framework including re, laxation exercises and special music. The committee did feel. however, that there was value in the kind of holistic approach {o instruction exemplified by such programs. The army was encouraged to use its resources to evaluale competing training procedures in order to isolate the components of instruction that are effective in army set- tings. Improving Motor Skills Fhe committee focused on three strategies to enhance motor skills: mental practice, visual concentration, and biofeedback. A background paper by Feltz. Landers, and Becker. on the mental-practice literature was solicited by the committee (see footnote 2), and there were four brief. , ings: one on peak performance issues, and three by ex | perts on or promoters of visual-training techniques. In addition, Landers and Bjork made site visits to the head quarters of SyberVision® and to the Vic Braden Tennis ; Academy. SyberVision is a highly successful marketer of, audio and visual tapes designed to enhance skills such as golf, tennis, skiing, bowling. racquetball, and others. | Tapes such as ‘The Neuropsychology of Achievement" | address more global skills. What is shown on the tapes and the instructions to the learner are supposedly guided by a principle of ‘neuromuscular programming.” which is in turn derived from Kar! Pribram’s holographic theory | of brain function. The subcommitice interviewed Pri | bram. director of research for SyberVision, and Stephen : DeVore, founder and president. ~ With respect to mental practice, defined as ‘the sym-| bolic rehearsal of a physical activity ia the absence of any | gross muscular movements” (Richardson, 1967, p. 9). the committce’s recommendations were quite positive. A meta-analysis of the relevant research literature revealed ; that mental practice yields a gain in performance on the | * order of half a standard deviation when, compared to ap. | propriate controls. The gain is somewhat greater for mo- tor tasks that incorporate a substantial cognitive compe ; nent. and the advantages of mental practice can be enhanced if physical practice and mental practice are it terspersed. The committce recommended that the army evaluate mental practice as a training component in Op. erational military tasks. and that the army pursue basic, research to determine what mixture of mental and phys ae VOL 1. NO 2, MARCH. se TOD et ee PRaw in iE pl the py ‘ tia ot ve
Approved For Release 2000/08/080::-GIA-RBP96-00789R002200650001-6 -_ | John A. Swets and Robert A. Bjork fle » ical practice might be optimal (given considerations of | or induction methods that might provide a basis for tech- expense, equipment availability. and so forth)” niques for manipulating internal states. It recommended a 18 Concerning visual-training programs, the committee | literature review of links between such techniques and f- concluded that there was no research base to suggest (hat changes in performance and, in its next phase, will ex- hi such training leads to improved performance. There is | amine further the techniques of intensive meditation and al | evidence that certain visual abilities can be improved by selt-hy pnosis. , g. + yaining the eye muscles. but evidence that attentional The committee considered issues of brain asymmetry re skills can be enhanced by visual training is lacking. in detail. It reviewed Hemi-Sync, in part through a visit e- The committee concluded that there remain too many by Springer, Thompson, Druckman, and Luwrence to the id bose ends for the relationship between biofeedback and | Monroc Institute in Virginia where it was developed. Al- ie | skilled performance to be determined. Part of the prob- | though this technique is said to be valuable in therapeutic Ss. ; lem is that biofeedback is often used as part of broader | settings (pain control in cancer patients, alcohol abuse, te |therapeutic programs that incorporate other. possibly ef- | retardation, autism, and seizure disorders) and though qe ‘Vecuve. techniques. Another problem is that biofeedback | formal research designs have been approximated for its “te 8 used to train physiological parameters (heart rale, for | application in a few educational settings (courses in basic example) although clear knowledge of the most desirable | broadcasting. ear training, and introductory psychology). lievels of these parameters with respect to a given skill | the committee concluded that current attempts to alter { ypically does not exist. In cases where that relationship | performance through coordinating the two hemispheres lis known (c.g., hand warmth and finger dexterity), there | by an external or instructional device do not appear to be ce | isevidence of performance benefit, effective. It observed, more generally, that the scientific nd avuluation of claims for enhancing performance by in- nd '| Altering Mental States volving the hemispheres differentially awaits the devel- by The idea that people can achieve an internal state that opment of reliable measures of hemispheric activity in 2f- ( will be optimal for a broad range of performance has been individuals. iXe ‘ ippealing. Some level of arousal is optimal for perfor- In mance of a given complexity (Duffy, 1962; Yerkes & Stress Management id- | Dodson. 1908) and, specifically, the optimal level de- ; ris | ‘lereases as task complexity increases (Easterbrook, The clear thrust of the evidence from various types of | of | [* 959. This concept fits the behavior theories of the research on stress, from animal studies as well as human as | [1880s which specified that a source of energy or drive is studies, is thutan individual's uncertainty about impend- rs. equired to keep the organism active and was reinforced | ing cvents and sense of control over them are the main | a7 ) by the physiological discovery of a diffuse activating sys- factors in perceived slress. This conclusion is supported es | lem in the brain (Moruzzi & Magoun, 1949), However. by the extensive review paper on stress and performance ed - ith new knowledge of the variety and specificily of neu- prepared for the commitiee by Seymour Levine (see foot- ch ntransmitter systems (Robbins & Everitt, 1982) and with note 2), A case in point is the study of hormonal and wy psychological theory focused on cognition, we have be- behavioral responses of Norwegian puratroop trainees as ri- |} qunto think of a large number of cortical computations in they made repeated jumps from a tower on a guide wire | en , ¥idely distributed neural systems (Rumethart & McClel- | (Ursin, Baade, & Levine, 1978). Initially high elevations | | lund, 1986). The view that cortical computations are mod: of cortisone in the blood were reduced to basal levels m- {uated by different transmitter systems in varying way's after the second jump and fear ratings changed similarly. ny (makes it more difficult to suppose that any training tech- The implications of this research evidence for the 5), | rique will provide optimal states for all forms of physical | #rmy are complex, There surely are practical limitations A nd mental activity. An example comes from the finding | 9" how much knowledge and understanding of the future ed | | atthe optimal conditions of alertness for rapid respond. |“) be disseminated during combat and on how much he (|i differ from those for the best memory performance individual or group contro! can be permitted or demon- ip- \ Posner, 1975). strated. Moreover, though the committee focused prima- 10- | Unfortunately. the commniiltee did not find time to ex- rily on stress reduction, the army mustalso induce stress 10- | plore the evidence for the wide variety of specific training | during training (0 prepare soldiers for real combat. A | be | ——_ aaa y Novato, Cook, and Sarason (1983) showed that in- i ae providing marine recruits with more realistic information pr "ponent in the training of complex suldering af electranic circuits, necessary for coping with the rigors of boot camp, led stc Landers guided the design of conditions that will permit a comparison them to exhibit higher expectations of personal control y3- “id mental-practice. placebo. and standard training groups. and efficacy. NO. 2, MARCH LA) 89 \ 4 . | Approved For Réleads 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789R002200650001 -6