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characteristic
of various physiological frequencies, especially
the brain wave spectra. Some variations of these have invoked
modulation of the earth’s magnetic field or of the electrostatic
fields of the atmosphere.
Wave models involving other than
electromagnetic environmental media have also been proposed,
such
as infrasonic atmospheric waves, geoseismic waves, and
barometric fluctuations, possibly stimulated by contemporary
attention to the inexplicable homing capabilities of birds, fish,
and animals, and the hive or swarm behavior of certain insects
[101], [1021, [132].
As suggested by the pre-occupation with screen-rooms in the
early days of the electromagnetic concept, and by more recent
long-distance remote perception experiments, some of the ob-
vious
validation/disqualification
tests examining attenuation,
diffraction, interference, and polarization effects have indeed
been attempted, but the very large dimensions involved for these
wavelengths leave the studies less than conclusive.
Some con-
temporary workers retain support for this category of model,
claiming
that the necessary
electromagnetic
signal levels re-
quired for influence on the brain circuitry are so small that no
coarse-grained
tests can
properly
discriminate
against them.
More
problematic, in my own view, are the absence of any
demonstrated velocity of propagation of psychic effects and
the
large body of precognition evidence which,
if accepted,
cannot
be accommodated by any reasonable advanced wave
characteristics.
However, setting aside for the moment the quantitative func-
tional difficulties with the electromagnetic approach to psychic
phenomena,
certain
broader
philosophical
analogies
in
the
conceptual and experimental aspects of the two topics may be
worth noting. In electromagnetism, beyond the bald empiricism
of the definition of the fields themselves as representations of
“action-at-a-distance,”
there
are many
features which
to
a
naive or primitive observer would, and indeed historically did,
appear as “paranormal,” or at least anomalous: the noncolinear
aspects of Ampere’s and Biot-Savart’s laws and of the Faraday
effect; induction effects and switching transients; the Maxwell
displacement current; the propagation of waves in a vacuum,
with a specified
finite velocity—each of these in some sense
digressed from contemporary “normal” experience, was con-
ceptually
difficult
in
its time, and required certain leaps of
empiricism to get on with the formalism.
To the extent that we just now hold a similarly naive and
primitive view of psychic phenomena,
it may be necessary to
tolerate similarly empirical representations until a more com-
prehensive model
can
knit
itself into
a more fundamental
representation.
For this purpose, there may be some merit in
looking to just such electromagnetic effects for analogies.
As
one example, the pervasive “decline effect” in psychic experi-
mentation, wherein the performance on psychic tasks is widely
reported to be highest immediately after initiation, to decrease
over protracted testing periods, and then to improve again just
before
termination,
is somewhat reminiscent of the induced
signatures of certain electromagnetic processes.
The decline
effect has been commonly ascribed to a psychological boredom
or reduction in the emotional intensity of the operator per-
forming the task; just possibly it may be a more fundamental
characteristic of the phenomenological domain.
In a similar vein, many psychic effects are reported to be in-
trinsically transient, e.g., the “fleeting impression”; the “sudden
vision”; the “unexpected effect.” One of the favored techniques
of some remote perception percipients is to “sweep through”
their image of the target repeatedly until it is clarified. Many
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PK
effects
are reported to be achieved just at the first effort
or immediately after the effort is terminated. Such “beginner’s
luck”
evidence might be construed to indicate that psychic
processes
are invalidated by prolonged and careful examina-
tion; alternatively,
it may be a hint that they are inherently
“inductive,” in the electromagnetic sense, i.e, that they are in-
trinsically unsteady phenomena wherein the time
derivatives
influence the magnitudes of the effects.
Yet another
characteristic
that
psychic
effects share with
certain electromagnetic processes
is their tendency to be
in-
direct,
tangential, or peripheral:
direct effort on one PK task
fails, but a secondary effect
is noted on another component
or device; central elements of a remote perception target are
ignored by the percipient, but minor or peripheral aspects are
identified with precision; the pattern of physical disturbance in
a poltergeist event is reported to be vortical rather than radial,
all of which call to mind cross-product and vector curl effects
in the electromagnetic domain.
The point in suggesting such analogies is not to endorse direct
physical correspondence between electromagnetic and psychic
processes,
but
rather to speculate whether the human mind
may tend to perceive and assess phenomena in the two domains
in certain similar fundamental ways.
Entropy and the Random Process
A
second,
more
recently opened
class
of psychic model
addresses the interaction of consciousness with natural random
processes [95], [187], [191]. A common aspect of the estab-
lished physical formalisms of kinetic theory, thermodynamics,
statistical
mechanics, and information
theory
is the role of
randomicity as the reference plane for information and energy
exchange.
By whatever representation, the second law of ther-
modynamics,
expressing
the
tendency
of
isolated
physical
systems
to
drive
irreversibly toward configurations of mini-
mum order and information content, stands starkly asymmetric
in the time coordinate, thereby raising profound philosophical
issues in virtually every domain from biophysics to cosmology.
Some of the most controlled and replicable experiments in PK,
such as the REG studies outlined earlier, could be construed to
challenge the second law, or at least to suggest modifications of
the concept of an isolated physical system.
Namely, under
the circumstances of those experiments, human consciousness
could be
postulated to be inserting order,
albeit to
a small
degree, into a random physical process.
This possibility can be extended conceptually to the anoma-
lous acquisition of information in remote perception experi-
ments, to psychic healing, and to animal and plant PK, but to
my knowledge, no attempts at formulation have yet specified
any details of the ordering capability, e.g., its physical or phys-
iological source, its propagation modes, or its manner of inter-
action.
Pending these, one can again only proceed with high
empiricism to attempt to represent the observed correlations
in a useful fashion, a strategy which has sustained many other
observational fields in their primitive phases.
Notwithstanding,
this
class of psychic model poses a profound question: The
long-accepted essence of consciousness is its ability to extract
information from
its environment; may
the
reverse also be
possible?
May consciousness have the ability to insert infor-
mation into its environment?
One extreme variation of this model escalates the question
even one step further, to ask whether it is possibly an indige-
nous property
of extremely elaborate and complex systems
that they may embody inherent functional consciousness of
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159
their own-that somehow out of their very complexity, the
interlockings
of their systems, they
derive not only
abilities
to learn, to reproduce themselves, to adapt to their environ-
ment,
but also to exert an entropy reversing form of “con-
sciousness” on themselves
[ 1 92] ,
[ 1 93 ]
.
Hyperspace Representations
A few attempts have been made to represent paranormal
effects by re-casting the basic laws of physics in more than the
four coordinates of normal human experience and applying the
consequent new terms
to the
representation
of paranormal
effects 1104], [105], [194].
For example, one such approach
adds an imaginary component to each of the spatial and tempo-
ral coordinates, i.e., invokes complex space and time, somewhat
in the spirit of ac circuit theory or exponential wave mechanics
(195].
The imaginary components and their “cross-talk” with
the traditional real ones thereby permit representation of anom-
alous effects within the framework of established physical laws.
To
date, no convincing fundamental definition of these new
dimensions has been offered, thereby reducing such models to
an heuristic or empirical level.
In this sense, the approach bears
some similarity to the “hidden variable” aspect of quantum
mechanics, mentioned below.
One may speculate that if such models are to address the in-
teraction of consciouness with physical process, the requisite
new coordinates or components must relate to, or in some way
define
or
localize, the processes of consciousness.
In other
words, to the normal “hard” coordinates, whereby events are
conventionally specified in the physical world, it may be neces-
sary to add certain “soft” coordinates to specify the conscious
processes by which those events are perceived and possibly in-
fluenced.
Clearly, the coordinate frame in which one chooses to
observe and represent any physical process is intimately linked
to
the
perception
of that process.
Two common examples
would be the perceptions of kinematic and dynamic effects in
a rotating frame of reference, such as a merry-go-round or an
orbiting spacecraft, or the even more bizarre appearances of
physical processes in rapidly accelerating frames, a la general
relativity.
To compound this interdependence of perception and refer-
ence frame by including “consciousness coordinates” in the
specification of the latter
is an awesome proposition, but an
intriguing one.
And the consequences need not be restricted
to the mechanical behavior of physical systems, but may also
influence their perceived substance.
The noted British astron-
omer Sir Arthur Eddington, some fifty years ago, presaged this
concept most boldly and heretically
[ 196]
,
[ 197]
, [203]
:
The whole of those laws of nature.
. .have their origin, not in
any special mechanisms of nature, but in the workings of the
mind ....
All through
the
physical world runs that unknown content
which must surely be the stuff of our consciousness.
.
.
.
Where science has progressed the farthest, the mind has regained
from nature that which the mind has put into nature.
.
.
.
We may look forward with undiminished enthusiasm to learning
in the coming years what lies in the atomic nucleus-even though
we suspect that it is hidden there by ourselves.
.
.
.
The stuff of the world in mind-stuff.
Transform Models
Another rather extreme approach proposed recently has come
to be referred to as the “holographic” or “transform” model
ll98]-[200].
Essentially what is suggested here, as
I under-
stand
it, is that the information of the universe is arrayed, not
in terms of position and time as we have come to perceive it,
but rather as frequency and amplitude information, and that
the human consciousness essentially performs “Fourier trans-
forms” on this to order that information into the more familiar
form.
In the sense that the space and time coordinates are
thereby
downgraded
from
the
fundamental
coordinates
of
experience to useful ordering parameters, one could interpret
such models to imply that consciousness may, by this mecha-
nism, access any portion of space and time to acquire informa-
tion, and then interpret it in some characteristic form.
The physicist David Bohm, in conjunction with the psychol-
ogist Karl Pribram, has elaborated such concepts to a
consider-
able
degree
of
generality,
proposing
a so-called
“implicate
order” or “enfolded order” of fundamental reality from which
the more familiar “explicate order,” i.e., the commonly mani-
fest perceptions are assembled in accordance with the prevail-
ing circumstances of their observation [201 ]
, [202]
.
Quantum Mechanical Models
Probably the most exercised category of contemporary model
attempts to apply the concepts and formalisms of quantum me-
chanics to represent some of the paranormal effects presented
in the psychic domain.
Of all the forms of physical analysis,
quantum mechanics invokes the largest array of empirical pos-
tulates that are at variance with conventional rationality, and
yields in their implementation a corresponding array of results
which contradict common impressions of reality.
The quan-
tization process
itself, which limits measurable properties to
discrete
values; the representation of particulate systems by
wave functions; the role of observation in collapsing the wave
functions to a single state vector; the uncertainty
principle;
the exclusion
principle; the indistinguishability principle; and
most
drastic
of
all, the commitment to totally
probabilistic
mechanical behaviors-all,
in some sense concede a degree of
paradox in human perception of physical processes. The famil-
iar conundrums of “Schrodinger’s Cat,” “Wigner’s Friend,” or
the “Einstein-Podolsky- Rosen Paradox,”
all suggest that the
laws
of quantum mechanics are not so much statements of
fundamental physical
reality,
as of our ability to acquire in-
formation about that
reality.
Quantum mechanics,
in other
words, does not so much describe the state of a physical sys-
tem as it describes our knowledge of the state of that system.
It
is somewhat in this spirit that a number of authors have
aspired to model psychic process in quantum mechanical terms.
Some have attempted to invoke the so-called “hidden” or un-
used variables of the formalism to involve conscious process
more
explicitly
in
the
behavior of physical systems [107],
[204] -[208],
Others
have
endeavored
to draw
analogies
between
the
synaptic
processes
in the
brain and quantum
mechanical “tunneling” [209],
Given the primitive state of the phenomenological data base,
much of this effort may be prematurely elaborate and complex.
Our own approach to quantum mechanical modeling has been
far more superficial and generic, attempting only to explore
possible analogies between the paradoxical consequences of the
formalism, and the paranormal evidence of certain psychic ex-
periments.
Again with the indulgence of the reader, we might
sketch a bit of this argument,
for the purpose of illustrating
this class of approach with the example closest to hand.
One conventional interpretation of the application of quan-
tum mechanical formalism to the observable behavior of phys-
ical systems is to associate appropriate mathematical operators
with a corresponding measurement process.
When applied to
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the prevailing wave function of the system, these operators call
out the observable values of the property in question as eigen-
values of an equation of the form
Mipi = mi4ii
where M
is the measurement operator, ntj are the observable
values
of the measured
property, and
the corresponding
eigenstates of the wave function.
Our approach is to general-
ize this representation to include conscious systems as well as
conventional
physical
ones, and
to allow the measurement
operator concept to include specification of psychological as
well as physical properties.
Thus, we denote
a particular individual consciousness by a
“state function”
(//,•, and represent a situation to which it
is
exposed by an operator S.
Application of the situation opera-
tor to the consciousness wave function then yields the possible
psychological responses, Sj, as eigenvalues:
S
\pi = Sj
.
We then invoke certain aspects of quantum mechanical in-
teraction theory to develop the capacity for “paranormal” be-
havior of both physical and conscious systems. For example, in
the traditional theory of the covalent chemical bond between
two hydrogen atoms, one constructs from the separate atomic
functions,
ip
a and
\p b
, using arguments of symmetry and in-
distinguishability,
a composite molecular wave function
i//
,
which yields expectation values for the molecular energy levels
substantially different from simple linear superposition of the
atomic energy eigenvalues, i.e.,
ef = ef+e? +Aef
where ef and
e b
are
the energy
eigenvalues of the atomic
systems,
and Aef
embodies
an
“exchange
energy”
term
which
is
classically inexplicable, but devolves formally from
the
postulate
that
the
electrons are indistinguishable in the
bonded configuration.
Stated more bluntly, surrendering in-
formation about the identity of the atomic electrons in the
molecular configuration leads directly to a significant and ob-
servable
component
of the
binding
energy,
thus
posing an
equivalence between information and energy
far more stark
than that implicit in the second law of thermodynamics.
Using similar formalism, we may represent the state function
of two interacting individuals, or of an interacting individual
and physical system, by a composite state function
\j/ ab whose
behavior characteristics also differ significantly from those of
the separated systems, i.e.,
if =s<i+s?+As? + Asf
where s? denotes the “normal” response of the first individual
to the prevailing situation, and s b that of the second individual
or of the physical system, and Asf and As ba denote modifica-
tions of those behaviors arising because the two systems are
strongly interacting during the observed situation.
As a specific example, to apply this approach to remote per-
ception experiments we could denote the percipient by
t}j p
, the
agent by
ty
a
, and the experimental protocol by the mathemati-
cal operator P.
In the absence of interaction between the per-
cipient and agent, each would have certain “normal” reactions
to the experimental situation, pf,pf, derived from the eigen-
value relations:
P'P? = pf'P?
PVi^pl'bi
i.e.,
the
percipient would perceive nothing about the target
that was not accessible to his normal perceptual modes, and the
agent would react to the target under no influence from the
pfercipient.
However,
if the
percipient and agent are strongly enough
interacting to require a new “molecular” wave function,
\p pa
,
“paranormal” terms will appear in their response patterns:
P f
a =pf +p?+Ap?a +Apr
where in Apf
a we may accommodate the anomalous acquisi-
tion of information about the
target, and in Apfp the com-
monly reported experience of the agent of having his attention
attracted to specific details he would “normally” have ignored.
Application of this formalism to a PK experiment proceeds
in a similar fashion.
Here we might represent the experimental
operator (person) by
\l/°, and the experimental device by
i/> d
.
Again
the experimental protocol
is represented by a mathe-
matical operator, K.
In the absence of major interaction, the
device behaves “normally”:
Kipf=kfip?
and the operator has the “normal” psychological experiences:
K 4>? = kf 4/f.
But
if the operator and the device are in some state of reso-
nance,
\jj do
, each behaves somewhat differently, i.e.,
kf = kf + kf + Akf° + Akfd
.
The anomalous
modification
in
the
behavior of the system
Akf°
is termed PK; Akf* accomodates any paranormal psy-
chological reactions of the operator.
Development of further illustrations of this general method
here would be inappropriate and would require more detailed
specification of the nature of the consciousness wave functions,
their functional form, their proper “soft” coordinates, and the
interpretation of their quantum numbers.
Some of this has
been attempted, along with various other applications to the
psychic domain, and
is available in
a reference [210].
The
point of exposition here is largely a philosophical one: namely,
the “paranormal” effects emerge as a consequence of the com-
parison of the behavior of an interacting system with that of
its separated components.
Quantum
mechanics may
have
quite
another
analytical
precedent
to
contribute
to
the
representation
of
psychic
phenomenology.
Clearly, much of the psychic research data
will continue to be acquired and processed in statistical form,
using established statistical methods.
Yet, all statistical models
ultimately trace back to certain fundamental probability rules
for the elemental systems involved.
For the statistical models
to be viable, these probability rules must a) exist; b) be known;
and c) be analytically tractable.
At present, virtually
all pro-
cessing of psychic research data presumes the applicability of
classical statistics, yet the basic probability
rules for the ele-
mental processes are, in point of fact, unknown [211], [212].
It may fortuitously be the case that much of psychic process
can be adequately treated as marginal deviation from classical
chance behavior.
In some cases, however, it may be necessary
to invoke categorically different statistics, tracing back to funda-
mentally
different probability
rules, to deal with the effects.
The quantum mechanical precedents of relevance, of course, are
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statistics,
i.e., the Fermi-Dirac
and Bose-Einstein systems, which are based upon the phase-
space population rules for half-integer and integer spin particles
as imposed by the Pauli principle, i.e., the wave function sym-
metry requirements.
For most common physical systems, these
quantum
statistics conveniently degenerate into the classical
form, but for certain special situations, e.g., the specific heats
of metals and certain radiation properties,
their
full applica-
tion is essential.
By analogy, one could postulate that physical reality, as per-
ceived and influenced by human consciousness, actually plays
by more elaborate probability rules than commonly attributed
to
it, and hence strictly requires a more complex
statistical
mechanics. Thus, in this view, the processes commonly regarded
as “normal” would be those for which the “classical” approxi-
mation to this more complex system is adequate; small-scale
psychic effects would then comprise those displays of minor
deviations of the complex statistics from the “classical” limit;
the more
drastic phenomena—poltergeists,
levitations, metal
bending,
etc.—would presumably become explicable only in
terms of the full statistical formulation.
Holistic Models
Yet more extreme in conceptual difficulty
is a body of con-
tention that psychic processes are inseparably holistic, and that
no model rooted
in any sector of established science can ad-
equately represent them [213].
In particular, the suggestion
is offered that psychic processes are manifestations of the inter-
diffusion of the analytical,
scientific world with the creative
aesthetic world, and thus to represent them effectively
it will
be
necessary
to combine
the philosophical perspectives and
techniques of both domains.
To resort to metaphor for illus-
tration once again, one could ponder such analogies from the
common physical world
as the interface regions between the
sea and
land, where the diffuse patterns of the ocean wave
structure meet the solid promontories and sloping beaches of
the coast to produce the crashing breakers and hissing foam of
seashore
phenomena,
or
the overrunning of a warm, moist
atmosphere by a cold-front of drier, cooler air to initiate the
striking
electrical and
acoustical phenomena of the summer
thunderstorm.
By whatever analogy it may be illustrated, theoretical repre-
sentation of the interpenetration of causal physical mechanics
with creative conscious process must be a formidable under-
taking, yet not totally without precedent or allied effort.
For
examples, interest
is just now growing in the humanistic psy-
chology community in the analytical study of human creativity
[ 214] — [216], and, on the other side of the interface, a few
piiysicists
are
beginning to muse
openly about the
role of
aesthetics
in subnuclear and
cosmological physical behavior
[21 7]- [220].
In yet a different arena, certain futurists are
now examining the interplay of aesthetic and functional hu-
man needs and values in the evolution of social and political
structure [221]. To be sure, none of these has produced much
in the way of analytical formalism, but the peculiarity, magni-
tude, and significance of the interpenetration effects are being
acknowledged.
Any summary assessment of the status of physical models of
psychic phenomena should properly begin with reiteration of
the opening statement: none of the approaches outlined above
has yielded anything approaching a functional theoretical basis.
Yet, the ensemble of empirical experimental experience seems
to suggest that certain of the conceptual and perceptual char-
acteristics
underlying
those formalisms may be
relevant
to
ultimate representation of such processes.
Specifically, they
suggest that the following rather general hypotheses may be
worthy of more detailed examination:
1 ) The phenomena may be inherently statistical, rather than
directly causal, and we may be observing them “on the margin.”
That
is,
the
observed phenomena may
represent
marginal
changes from normal behavior on a very grand scale and with
fluctuation times which tax human observational capability.
It
also may be necessary to deal with more complex statistical
mechanics,
appropriate
to more
involved
basic
probability
rules, to represent the most drastic effects.
2)
Just as human consciousness has the ability to extract in-
formation from an external system,
e.g., by observing
it, that
consciousness may also have the ability to project information
into it, e.g., by ordering random processes.
3) Quantum mechanics may be more than a system of physi-
cal mechanics; it may be a more fundamental representation of
human consciousness and perception processes, and the empiri-
cal pillars of this formalism, such as the uncertainty principle,
the exclusion principle, the indistinguishability principle, and
the wave/particle dualities may be as much laws of conscious-
ness as laws of physics.
4) Psychic
processes may
be inherently holistic, and thus
the ultimate model may need to integrate both the scientific
and the aesthetic aspects in order to identify the sources of
the phenomena.
That is, psychic processes may be manifesta-
tions
of the
intersection
of the
analytical,
scientific world
with the creative, aesthetic world, and thus, to represent them
effectively,
it may be necessary to integrate both perspectives
without sacrificing the integrity of either.
Clearly, any of these intuitions will have to be developed in
far more philosophical and analytical detail before a trenchant
theoretical model can emerge, but at this primitive stage it is
probably stimulating to consider a few such radical possibilities,
along with more prosaic explications.
Changes of this magni-
tude in representation of human perceptual reality inevitably,
and
properly, would be attended by much philosophical
re-
calcitrance and agony, but the broader personal and collective
insights that could derive from legitimate efforts to bridge the
analytical/aesthetic interface could be of at least corresponding
benefit.
The Negative Side
Contemporary criticism of psychic research and rejection of
the phenomena it purports to demonstrate tend to focus on a
number of specific objections, each of which has some degree
of validity and merits some thought
in any balanced
assess-
ment of the
topic
[118], [178],
[ 222] — [224]
.
The most
commonly cited concerns include:
1) demonstrable fraud;
2)
naivete
of
technique,
including inadequate
controls,
faulty equipment, sensory cuing of participants, other
experimenter
biases,
selective treatment
of
data, im-
proper
statistical
methods,
and
general experimental
and theoretical incompetence;
3)
little improvement in comprehension over many years
of study;
4) absence of adequate theoretical models;
5) suppression of negative results;
6) poor experimental replicability;
7) elusiveness of effects under close scrutiny;
Approved For Release 2000/08/07
: CIA-RDP96-00788R001 10001 0004-6