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the world.
They will be told that this study explores the range of RNGs that are amenable to
RA effects, that we anticipate success on all of them, but need further descriptive data.
The
exact nature of this talk will vary with the agent, some of whom will already be sophisticated.
After the talk, agents will be shown the SRI questionnaire and the CSL consent form, and will
be encouraged to complete them both.
Following this, agents will be shown the equipment
room and where the experimenter will be sitting during the session.
At this time, the
experimenter will actually start up a demonstration display, then lead the agent to the
adjoining experimental room where the display will now be running.
The experimental room itself is sizable, approximately 15 feet square.
The walls are
thick and covered by light brown sound absorbent drapes; only loud sounds from outside can
be heard.
Lighting is either by overhead fluorescent or by small floor lamp with dimmer,
placed in one comer.
Furnishings include a brown leather sofa, matching leather recliner,
and two additional brown cushioned chairs.
The display
is a low, black octagonal wooden
table, approximately four feet across.
Protruding through holes in the top of the table are 128
small light bulbs arranged in a circle 3 feet in diameter.
At the start of a run, certain of the lights are
lit; decisions of the RNG are used to shift
the set of lights that are
lit one position at a time, either clockwise or counterclockwise.
The
subject’s task is to bias the shift of the
lit lights consistently in whichever direction has been
designated as target.
The movement of the lights around the circle can be displayed in a
variety of ways,
e.g., as shifts in the position of a single light, a small group of lights, several
small groups of lights equally spaced around the circle, or as a gap in a ring of lights.
The
lights can move at a rate of over a hundred steps a second or any slower speed.
The RNG
can be used to bias them clockwise or counterclockwise, in a random walk, or can step them
in one direction only, with the decision being between taking a step or not taking a step.
The
latter provides feedback, but feedback that does not allow subjects to know how much better
or worse than chance they are doing at a given moment.
Such indirect feedback may be
preferred under certain circumstances.
The RNG can be omitted, such that the lights simply
circle evenly in one direction, to produce visual effects or to provide a focus of concentration.
Any display mode can be maintained for any length of time, and displays of different modes
can be strung together in sequence.
On the basis of pretesting with a variety of potential agents, we have selected five kinds
of displays, representing various combinations of initial light patterns.
Four of the five involve
binary choices of advance clockwise versus no advance; the fifth
is a random walk.
Agents
are shown each of the five and given an opportunity to explore them.
At the start of each
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experimental session, the agent will be asked to select one of the five, which will then be used
throughout that session.
The agent’s task for each display is to facilitate
its smooth and rapid
movement in a clockwise direction.
Agents are encouraged to use any metaphor or image
that they find helpful, as long as they
all share the concept that the display
is functioning best
when
it is proceeding clockwise, to keep the task consistent and straightforward for
all
participants.
That consistency enables them to become absorbed in the task without needing
to keep track of which direction the target
is or without being concerning that half of the time
the target
is in their preferred direction and half of the time not.
In pretesting, clockwise was
almost unanimously preferred as target direction.
Because target direction
is not varied, we need to build in controls against short term
first order bias in the RNGs.
This
is done in two ways.
First, at periodic intervals throughout
the experiment, control data will be collected by duplicating the conditions of a session save
for the absence of a designated RA agent.
Such sessions will be assigned a session number
above 100, to indicate that they are controls
(see below).
Second, within each run, two
separate programs will be run.
One program designates 0 as clockwise,
i.e., as target; the
second designates
1 as clockwise.
Within each session, either the
first four or the last four
runs uses 0 as target, with the remaining four using
1 as target.
To avoid order effects, half
of the sessions employ 0 as target for the
first four runs.
Which session uses which as target
first has been prearranged at the start of the study, in counterbalanced order.
The
counterbalancing pattern
is deep, and thus would not match any gradual shift in RNG bias.
Agents are not told which bit is target for a given run; the experimenter does know, and thus
this study allows, directly, for experimenter RA effects
(difficult
if not impossible to eliminate
in RA studies under any circumstance)
.
Agents are given considerable freedom in the environmental conditions of each session.
They can fix their own level of lighting. A focusing object may or may not be placed in the
center of the table.
They may hear music of their choice, encouragement from the
experimenter, or silence through loudspeakers placed in two comers of the room.
Body
position can be varied within the session,
e.g., standing,
sitting, lying down, or moving around
in some way.
Agents are free to verbalize, as long as the noise level
is not too high.
(Because there
is no need to keep the target secret, agent and experimenter can interact quite
freely and naturally.)
At the end of each run, the agents can register any short commentary
that they wish, regarding what they tried, other special aspects, and so on.
Following this they
can be given feedback of results,
if requested.
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Toward the end of the introductory session, the above points are summarized and the
prospective agent
is requested to consider what specific conditions they might prefer for their
formal sessions.
If the agent seems uncertain, the experimenter can also summarize some of
the mental strategies that others have tried with some success in the past, and can make some
suggestions on how to prepare mentally in advance for the formal sessions
(e.g., advance
imagery of successful outcomes, and so on) .
Agents will be reminded that they have access to
practice runs at the start of each session and even,
if needed, in the middle of a session.
Any run intended as a practice run
is declared as such at the start by both agent and
experimenter, and designated as such to the computer system controlling the data generation,
such that the resultant data will not be stored.
These practice runs can then be available to
the agent for exploration of mental strategy or changes in environment.
A final aspect of the experimental design aimed at optimizing results concerns the
initiation of each run.
The timing of each run onset
is influenced by both agent and
experimenter, thus allowing ample opportunity for psychic functioning under the Intuitive Data
Sorting (IDS) model.
GOAL III:
On-line Multiple Laboratory Research with Mutual Confidence in Result
Validity
The current design allows formal experimental sessions that allow on-line data collection
from each of two research laboratories, such that each has reasonable confidence that the
data have been generated fairly and represent a valid description of what actually transpired.
The mechanics of this are evident in the procedure used in the formal experimental sessions,
to be run by number in that order.
Each session has been assigned in advance to one of two
counterbalanced RN characteristic orders (Order 0 or Order
1, see above).
Each session has
also been assigned in advance to one of two conditions, target is 0 for
first four runs or target
is
1 for
first four
(see above).
There are four combinations of these two pairs of variables;
these four combinations have been counterbalanced through the 32 sessions to control for any
order effects.
The experimenter has access to a sheet listing each of these conditions for each
of the sessions.
At the start of each run of the experimental session, the experimenter sends two control
bytes to SRI.
Within the
first byte, Bit 0 tells whether the
first four runs have 0 or
1 as
target.
This target assignment
is registered at both ends in advance of any RNG data
generation.
Bit
tells whether Order 0 or Order
1 of RNG characteristics counterbalanced
within and between runs will be used.
Thus both SRI and CSL computers know which order
of RNGs to sample in the production of data, given the run number.
Bit 2 declares whether
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or not the run is practice or will count.
Thus the designation of whether or not the data are
to count has been registered at both ends in advance of any data generation.
Bits 3-5
declare which run number, 0-7,
is to be generated,
this information plus Bit 1
tells the
computer in what exact order the six available RNGs are to be sampled.
Bit 6
is sent as a
1,
telling the SRI computer that
it
is to send bits from the three SRI RNGs to CSL.
The second
byte gives the session number.
Since control runs are always designated as part of sessions
numbered above 100, the designation of a run as experimental versus control has been
registered at both ends before any data are generated.
Once the SRI computer receives these two bytes, the actual run takes place,
bits from
each of the six RNGs are collected and displayed to the agent in the proper order.
As of this
moment in time, the SRI computer has
all the information that
it needs to score the data
generated by its own RNGs and
it has that raw data.
The CSL computer has the scoring
information plus
all the raw data from all six RNGs.
The experimenter then completes the
transaction for that run by sending the CSL RNG data for the run back to SRI.
This is
accomplished by sending the same two bytes back to SRI, but with one change:
Bit 6
is
changed from a
1 (SRI send data) to a 0 (SRI receive data).
The computer then transmits
the CSL data back to the SRI computer, thus completing the transaction and guaranteeing
that each laboratory has a complete record of each run before the next run
is begun.
Each run
is accomplished in the above manner until all eight for the session have been
completed.
It is understood that the agent cannot terminate a run once
it
is underway, and
the experimenter cannot exclude a run once
it
is completed.
Any equipment malfunction
which obviously damages data will lead to the discarding of those data.
If a session must be
interrupted before
it is completed, then the session can be resumed at a later date.
The rule
of thumb
is, any data designated as counting in advance and which
is successfully transmitted
must count.
If good data exists in the CSL computer but is not successfully transmitted
immediately to the SRI computer
it should be stored and transmitted later.
It
is possible that
decisions will come up that are not covered above, and we will learn from them. When in
doubt, keep the data.
This minimized criticism that decisions are biased by the
experimenter’s knowledge of whether or not the data look favorable.
It is also recommended
that at the end of each session hard copy of the data and control bytes be printed out, and
that the stored data be backed up periodically.
GOAL IV:
Elimination Of Reasonable Counterhypotheses
If the above procedure
is carried out as stated, any successful results would not appear
to be interpretable in terms of flaws in experimental design.
Experimenter fraud is
still
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possible, but
it would have to be quite sophisticated and willfully sustained over a substantial
portion of the experiment.
Any significant difference among RNG characteristics would be
likely caused by RA agent effects rather than experimental artifacts.
Statistical evaluation of
data will treat the mean scores for each RNG by session as the unit of analysis of a two-way
analysis of variance.
Primary effects will be examined, as will
all interactions.
An overall
Z-score for all sessions will be used to assess whether this study produced significant evidence
for an RA agent effect.
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III HARDWARE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
The hardware configuration has four units:
an LSI-11 computer system, and APPLE-II
computer system, the computer system at SRI, and the table of lights.
Communications
between the APPLE-II and the SRI computer are provided by authorized access through
TYMNET.
The table of lights
is a low, black octagonal table having 128 small light bulbs arranged
in a circle 3 feet in diameter. A detailed specification of the capabilities of this unit is given
elsewhere in this report.
The LSI-11 computer system has been programmed to control the
action of the table of lights, using control bits that are transmitted through a serial board
attached to the LSI- 11.
The LSI- 11 also maintains a record of all data used to control the
table of lights.
The hardware and software used to implement communication between the
LSI- 11 and the table of lights
is in place and functional.
The APPLE-II computer system contains two boards, which hold the RNGs and deliver
the data bits.
One board contains an avalanche diode random noise generator.
The second
board contains an atomic radioactive decay source;
it was designed and constructed by TWS
Associates, Inc.
Details for both boards are found later in this chapter.
The APPLE-II also
contains an implementation of the pseudorandom number generator algorithm that has been
supplied by SRI.
It
is the function of the APPLE-II to access random bits as needed, record
them, and send them to SRI, or to retrieve random data from SRI, and dispatch the
appropriate control bits to the LSI- 11 for table of lights control.
The experimental design
specifies the exact order in which random bits from SRI or from the APPLE-II source are to
be dispatched to the LSI-11.
The atomic radioactive generator acts continually.
Each time an alpha particle
is
emitted from the atomic source, the timing of the emission
is used to generate a random
number between 0 and 255. We refer to this 8-bit number as the RNG1 output data word.
Each time this generation occurs, the RNG1
status bit
is set to 0.
When the APPLE-II
accesses the RNG1 output data word, the RNG1 status bit
is set to
1.
The APPLE-II can
access the data word several times, but the program should check that the status bit
is 0 in
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order to be sure of having new (previously unread) data.
In principle, the RNG1 output data
word contains 8 random bits.
The APPLE-II peripheral card I/O space consists of 8
“slots,” each having 16 bytes
consecutive in memory.
The base address for each of these slots
is given as $C0a0, where a
is
8,
9, A, B, C, D, E, or F.
The peripheral card may be inserted in any slot so long as the
addressing scheme knows where to find the data.
Individual bytes within a slot are addressed
by SCOab, where b
is between 0 and F (hexadecimal).
Word
1 of the slot contains the
random number generated, a number between 0 and 255.
The status bit
is found in word 7,
where
all bits except for the status bit have been set to
1.
Thus,
if the status word has the
value 253, the status bit is low;
if that value
is 255, the status value
is high.
For example,
if
the
first slot is used, then
its base address is $C080, the output data word
is found in $C081,
and the byte containing 253
(status low) or 255
(status high)
is found in $C087.
The status bit
is low (0)
if the RNG1 output data word contains data that have been
refreshed and have not yet been read.
Otherwise
it contains
1.
Note that the status bits will
be valid within a few machine cycles after power-up.
And note that an inadvertent write to
the RNG1 output data location or to the word containing the status bit will have no effect on
either the output buffer contents or the status word output buffer contents.
The avalanche diode random number generator uses the random noise output of a
reversed-biased silicon avalanche diode as the basis for generating a random number data
stream.
The random avalanche waveform amplitudes and times of transition are transformed
from analog signals into a digital bit stream by a zero-crossing detector (or comparator).
This
data stream
is fed into a binary divider, to counter the effects of any uneven
1 to 0 content
(first-order error) in the digitized bit stream.
As a precaution against corruption of the
low-level analog signals at the input of the zero-crossing detector by digital interference
pickup, the analog data sampling process
is suspended by internal lockout circuitry during
periods of computer digital activity.
As a further precaution against first-order errors, the outputs of two independent
avalanche RNGs are combined in an exclusive-nor circuit.
The output of this circuit, which
is
still a bit stream in time,
is fed into a serial-in parallel-out shift register.
The parallel output
of the shift register, in the form of an 8-bit byte,
is transferred out of the RNG upon a
computer read command.
Because output bytes are refreshed regularly in time, no status
handshaking of data availability is necessary; only a minimum inter-read dwell time need be
observed in executing the computer program.
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The atomic event (radioactive) random number generator uses the random
time-of-anival of atomic disintegration particles as the basis for generating a data stream of
random numbers in the range from 0 to 255. A solid-state radiation detector and fast
preamplifier generate a series of trigger pulses, which are used to “capture” the instantaneous
values of a
fast clock, thus generating an output data byte (8-bit data word) stream.
In
addidon, a time history of the trigger pulse arrivals
is employed algorithmically to vary slighdy
the frequency of the fast clock (in a manner that will not introduce first-order errors into the
output data).
This
is done to ensure that unwanted synchronistic correlations will not appear
between any regularly periodic data sampling rate and the clock frequency.
Because the
frequency dithering is driven by atomic disintegration events, the output of the RNG is
still
conceptually entirely dependent on atomic events.
In addition, the generation of a new data word also causes a status bit to be reset
(i.e.,
set to 0
if not already 0) .
The act of reading the RNG data location in the computer causes
the status bit to be set to
(if not already set).
Because there can be a wide range of time
intervals between atomic disintegrations, the use of the status bit allows a maximum data
throughput rate, and ensures against old data being repetitively (and inappropriately) re-read.
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IV SOFTWARE DOCUMENTATION
The APPLE-II computer at CSL has 65,536 bytes of memory and one
one-and-one-half-inch disk drive.
The basic cycle time of the APPLE-II
is one MHz, and
the video cycle "steals” from the basic operation of the computer.
In addition, although the
computer allows for up to 8 peripheral I/O boards, there
is no interrupt facility available in
the system.
Data which
is received at a peripheral board,
if not seized when available may be
over-written by subsequent data transmissions.
For these reasons,
initial plans to implement
the software in a higher level language were abandoned.
The software has been developed in
the assembly language for the APPLE-II.
It is possible that at some future time
it will be found desirable to implement an
experimental protocol similar to that described in this report, by taking streams of random bits
from many distinct sources.
Anticipating this possibility, the basic software control package
has been designed to facilitate such expansion.
At the present time, this control program
processes input asynchronously from the keyboard, from a parallel board associated with the
LSI-11, and from a serial board associated with an external line to be connected through
TYMNET with the SRI computer system.
The basic plan has been to have the program
interrogate
(in order) the status of each of these three possible inputs, and when an input
is
found to have available data, the program determines exactly what action to take by
consulting a state variable.
For example, the program may determine by examining status bits
that there are data at the serial board, and the state variable may then instruct the program to
forward those data to the LSI- 11 and to a disk
file.
An initializing program establishes
contact with the SRI computer, using the APPLE-II as a terminal.
Note that the boards that
provide random data need not be included as asynchronously monitored inputs—the atomic
disintegration source provides a status bit which ensures the relevance of the data, and no
status signal
is needed for the electronic noise source.
In the control program lines 1-69 contain identifiers and minimal commenting.
Lines
70-94 contain the asynchronous control for the three inputs mentioned above.
Lines 95-109
contain code for handling data from the keyboard.
Lines 110-153 process data to the serial
board (communication with the SRI computer).
Lines 157-162 initialize the serial board for
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V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This Services Contract was initiated at CSL by Dr. Robert L. Morris, Arthur M. Koestler
Professor of Parapsychology at the University of Edinburgh.
The conception of the project
originated in conversations with the staff at SRI International, and the design and analysis was
done by Dr. Morris.
The experimental design report which Dr. Morris prepared is
reproduced as Section
II of this report.
Mr. Robert Chevako has contributed the design, construction, and delivery of the
hardware
facilities required to complete the work.
His work has been carried out through
NWS Associates, Inc., in New Woodstock, New York.
The software to control the table of
lights from the LSI-11 was prepared by Mr. Kevin Mack.
All the special software for this
project was designed, implemented, and tested by Mr. Richard Havourd.
Ms. Nancy Morrell
has been responsible for a variety of administrative and procedural matters, has recruited the
subjects for the experiments, and will act as experimenter.
Professor Edward F. Storm has
acted formally as principal investigator, and has administered the contract with assistance from
Mr. Richard E. Ward, Assistant Dean of the School of Computer and Information Science.
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