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difference between positive and negative emotional targets.
Eisenberg and
Donderi
(1979) used 7 emotionally stimulating
sound films as targets in a
study
incoporating both forced-choice and free-response conditions.
They
obtained a significant degree of psi-hitting (forced-choice condition? p <
.02?
free-respanse
condition;
p
<
.001).
The
film
clips
were
classified
as
conveying
either
positive
or
negative
emotions,
although no significant difference was found between
the
scoring
on the
positive
and
negative
emotional targets.
Krippner and Zeichner
(1974)
found more misses when
the target was described as pleasant and mare hits
when the target was described
as
unpleasant (whether these findings were
significant is not reported).
Che
forced-choice
study
which
specifically
addresses
the
positive/negative issue was conducted by Johnson
(1971) who asked subjects
to
provide two words,
one having an exceedingly pleasant meaning far the
subject
and the other having a very unpleasant meaning,
from
which
he
created targets
of associated words/ccnoepts.
These concepts
(secondary
targets) ware paired
with
a
digit
from
one
x> five
(primary targets),
although
per cent of the primary targets
were
left
unpaired
as
a
control
(emotionally neutral
targets).
The subjects in this precognitive
study were to guess what number would be selected as the target.
Johnson
ocmpared
performance
on positive,
neutral
and
negative
emotions.
NO
significant overall scoring
was
obtained,
the positive targets showed a
non-significant degree of psi-hitting,
the negallve targets significantly
rr^-sse£i
Cp
.0094,
1—t),
and
the
neutral targets scored at chance.
The difference between the positive and negative targets
was
significant
(p <
.005,
1-t).
The
anecdotal
observations
in
this
category
reveal
that
many
researchers
believe
emotional
targets
to
be superior to ncn-emotional
ones.
However,
only two studies
(Williams
&
Duke,
1979; and Sondow et
al.,
1981)
explicitly
examined
this
asBunirtian
and
they
obtained
xnflicting results.
Che analysis in Sondow et al.
(1981) found that
the
percipient
would experience more emotion with a high emotion target,
but
as this
study
also
obtained a
greater
degrees
of psi-hitting with low
motion targets,
this result could
be seen as arguing against the use of
ligh
emotion
targets.
Nor can the
physiological
studies
be
readily
Interpreted as providing
support for the utility of using target material
chosen to have specific
emotional
significance
for individual subjects,
iside from the general lack of significant outcomes of these studies,
the
)ean
(1971) study actually obtained a greater
response
from
his control
subjects
to
whom
the
target
material
should
have
had
no
special
elevance.
The
studies
comparing
positive emotional targets to
i/ith negative emotive qualities
also obtained conflicting results.
Thus,
again
more
research
is needed
before
airy
conclusions
can
be
drawn
] regarding the psi-conducive effects of emotional
Theme / Content
This category
includes
all
references
content or theme of individual
targets
with the
largets.
Williams and Duke
(1979)
found that
largets
were
natural,
while
; the
missing]
( ibjects—metal , concrete, man-made,;
and mechanic
analysis
revealed
this
difference
to be signij
«!‘ahn, and Nelson
(1983),
reporting
on
several
roted that there was no difference in effect^
ite
characteristics:
natural vs. man-made;
: ndoor
vs.
outdoor.
The
Psychophysical
Res<
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associate the specific
success/failure of these
of
the
psi-hitting
targets
were
material
l."(p.
8)
A post hoc
leant
(p <
.02).
Dunne,
remote
viewing studies,
s between
the following
lent vs. transient; and
ch
laboratory
(1985)
03100120001-4
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successful
than others.
The category of "disasters" obtained significant
psi-hitting
(p
=
.014,
2-t).
Sexual
themes
were
associated
with
significant psimissing
(p “ .008, 2—t ) .
Nonsignificant
scoring in the
psi-hitting
direction
was
obtained
by (listed in descending
PTr^p>T~
of
strength of effect) the categories
of
religion, sports/hunting,
locales,
and
animals.
Non-significant scoring in the psi-missing
direction
was
obtained
by the
racing
and
fighting/warfare
categories.
A
post
hoc
analysis by
Sondow
(1979) found that targets were chosen and non-targets
avoided significantly often when
the
pictures
showed
horses
(p <
.01),
water (p <
.02), fire
(p <
.03),
and
flying-leaping-swinging
(p <
.04).
aach effects were not found with the target categories of food,
war
and
famine,
and
music.
Ullman
and
Krippner
(1973) observed that the art
prints
containing/portraying religion, colour, eating/drinking, emotions,
and. people
tended
to
be
successful,
as did the agent's multi-sensory
involvement with the target.
Stuart
(1945), using simple line drawings as
targets found that the two most successful
targets
portrayed
a
cartoon
character
and a candle.
The two least successful targets were a book and
a mathematical
equation.
In another drawing study,
Stuart
(1947) found
the best target ves
a
church and the worst was a train.
Lastly,
Braud,
Davis, and Opella
(1985) found a
predaninanoe
of
human
characters
and
architectural
content
contained
in ganzfeld and dreaming imagery.
Less
frequent were mythical characters,
animals,
food,
and unconnected body
parts.
These
findings
could
contribute
to
spurious
anecdotal
observations.
Examining
these
diverse
content
categories
it
was discoved that
religion was mentioned three times as a generally successful target topic.
Vfarfare was twire mentioned
as
being
less successful. Williams and Duke
(19/9) found that natural targets were associated
with
psi-hitting,
and
the
categories
specified
as successful by Sondow (1979) could
also
be
classified as natural.
However,
given
the
wide
diversity
of
actual
targets
which
these
findings
represent,
these similarities should be
viewed
at
most as possible trends
which
require
further
reseach
for
confirmation.
Discussion
The most consistent
category
findings of this paper relate to the
possible advantages of using dynamic,
multi-sensory
targets.
However,
these
findings
are
based
on the outcome of relatively few
studies and
thus should be treated with
caution
pending
further
cxanfirriaticn*
The
novel category provided sane tentative support
for the use of new targets
with
which
the subject is not familiar for each trial with that subject,
and also suggested
possible benefits of using imaginative and interesting
targets.
But
again these
finding
are derived from very
few
studies.
The
two
findings
relevant to the
abstract
categorization
both
found
abstract targets to be
associated
with poorer results.
The emotionality
of targets,
often quoted in the
literature
as
one of the yardsticks by
which targets are chosen,
has not been shown to
be
reliably
associated
terein
•
Nor
have
any
of the other categories investigated
111 short,
this review has not
succeeded
in
shedding
a great deal
light
upon
what qualities/characteristics
might discriminate successful
fran unsuccessful free—response
targets.
Indeed,
the
outcome of this
paper could be viewed as demonstrating how
very
little
we actually know
about successful versus unsuccessful target nharactgH g
-H ng
,
However,
another
interpretation
of these findings could
be
that
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n „
,
-
J
—
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—
^39X8
«^W
Warcollier
(1963) ccnmented that "No two subjects
respond
to
the
same
target.
No
two targets
seem
to affect 1:he
******* subject
in
the
same.
way. "(p.
56).
Indeed,
a
great
deal
of
expgiH Tnpntat- i np
has
examined and
revealed
interactions
between
various trait factors and
psi
performance (far reviews of this
literature’
see
Palmer,
1978; or
Carpenter,
1977).
Other
variables
such
as
state, setting, response
method,
and so on,
may also
influence
the
particular
type
of target
which
is
successful
in
any
given
situation.
Future
research could
profitably
examine
the
effects
bf
such
variables.
In addition,
the
development of a descriptive set of scales,
such as the three-dimensional
scale discussed in the introduction of this paper,
which could be used on
an inter-laboratory basis,
could forward our knowledge
of target
considerably.
The development of such scales will be
the focus of future
research at the Edinburgh Lab.
of
experimentation
has
tvarious trait factors and
-
see
Palmer,
1978; or
state, setting, response
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In
—
fL.
Cavnna
(Bd.).
Proceed
i
nag
o£
an
International
Cqnfffrsnc?
sm
Methodology
in
Eai
Bsaengshi
1M>
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