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I
OBJECTIVE
The purpose of
the program is to determine the characteristics
of
those perceptual modalities through which individuals obtain information
about their environment,
wherein such information is not presented
to
any known sense.
The program is divided into two categories
of investigation of
approximately equal effort,
applied research and basic research.
The
purpose
of
the applied research effort is
to explore experimentally
the potential for applications of perceptual abilities
of
interest,
with special attention given to accuracy and reliability.
The purpose
of
the basic research effort
is to identify the characteristics
of
individuals possessing such abilities,
and
to identify neurophysiological
correlates and basic mechanisms involved in such functioning.
II
PROGRESS DURING THE REPORTING PERIOD
A.
Applied Research
1.
Remote Viewing
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(a)
Local Targets
\.
An experiment is continuing in which ten sites known to
r v
the subject
are being visited in random sequence, with replacement,
by
a
target demarcation team.
A comparison is to be made
as to hit accuracy
under conditions
of
(1)
identifying the site by name
and,
(2)
identifying
^
the site by photographs.
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(b)
Remote Targets
In conjunction with a vacation trip by one
of
the
experimenters
(H.P.)
to Costa Rica,
a week of remote target viewing will
be carried out
at
1330 local time
(1430 Costa Rica time)
.
Pictures
of
the target locations
are to be taken.
Upon return and development of
the pictures,
the subject will be asked to match target pictures with
narratives,
as will the experimenter,
both
in blind fashion.
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2.
Detection
of Variable Density Target Material
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An initial experiment with twenty-seven sponsor drawings
of
variable content and density was completed.
The goal was the difi-ren-
tiation of
twelve
low—density cards,
six pencil,
and nine blank cards.
The numbered envelopes containing the target material,
sealed and
specially secured by the sponsor,
were randomized before each trial and
placed inside non-numbered opaque envelopes before being presented to
the subject for sorting.
Two series were carried out.
The first consisted of
24 runs
through the 27 cards,
choosing
12 cards each run,
the goal being to
choose the
12 low-density cards.
Out
of
the
12 x 24 =288 choices,
the
expected number of
target cards by chance was
128,
the observed number
chosen,
133.
The second series consisted
of
18 runs through the 27 cards,
choosing
6 cards each run,
the goal being
to choose the
6 pencil cards.
Out
of
the
6 x
18 = 108 choices,
the expected number of
target cards by
chance was
24,
the observed number chosen,
19.
Thus,
the overall result
given the task did not differ significantly from chance.
However,
when we examine the ranking of cards by number
of
times chosen,
we observe
a significant skew in the distribution.
Independent
of
the assigned task,
in the 24-run series
of
12 choices
each,
the expected number
of
times
a given card is chosen is
11.
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In the
18 run series of
6 choices each,
the expected number
of
times
a
given card is chosen is
4,
In the two series,
of
the
17 cards chosen
more often than expected by chance,
the expected number
of
low density
cards is 7.5,
the observed number
13,
a result significant
at the
-3
p
= 2 x
level.
Thus,
in the overall distribution certain of
the
low-density cards were chosen often enough to yield
a significant result
in the ranking distribution.
It
is considered that the initial experiment was unnecessarily
complex,
there being a mixture
of
target sizes
(2),
symbols
(3),
and ink
techniques
(3).
New experiments are
to be carried out to clarify
whether
a usable talent exists
in this
area.
B.
Basic Research
1.
Testing Program
(a) Psychological Testing
Arrangements have been made with Dr. Donald Lim of
the
Palo Alto Veteran’s Administration Hospital for
the administration of
the Halstead-Reitan neuropsychology test battery.
Dr. Lim is experienced
in the administration of
the battery and has personally consulted with
Dr, Reitan on testing procedures and interpretation.
In connection with testing hypotheses associated with
hemispheric specialization
of
the brain,
Dr. Robert Ornstein of
the
Langley Porter Neuropsychiatric
Institute, University of California,
San Francisco,
has agreed
to administer tests appropriate to testing
hemispheric predisposition.
(b)
Medical Testing
The physical characteristics part
of
the program will be
administered by the Environmental Medicine facility of
the Palo Alto
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Medical Clinic.
The basic physical includes urinalysis,
bloodwork
(hemoglobin,
STS,
CBC,
blood pressure pulse), hearing tests
(frequency
and intensity),
eye tests
(depth perception,
color vision,
far and near
vision,
peripheral vision),
pulmonary function test,
EKG,
tonometry,
height,
weight,
and
a physical examination.
A consultation appointment
has been set up to explore further testing for special areas beyond the
basic physical.
—
.
Measurement Program
(a)
EEG Experiment
A variety of evidence from clinical and neurosurgical
sources indicates that the
two hemispheres
of
the human brain are
specialized for different cognitive functions.
The
left hemisphere
is
predominantly involved in verbal and other analytic functioning,
the
right in spatial and other holistic processing.
(See Appendix.)
In consultation with Dr. Robert Ornstein of
the Langley
Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute,
an hypothesis was formed based on
certain observed characteristics that paranormal functioning might
involve right hemispheric specialization.
To test this hypothesis,
the
EEG remote strobeflash experiment described in Report No.
1 was repeated
Ljthree times with monitoring of right and
left occipital regions.
Each
^experiment consisted of 20
15—second trials,
10 no-flash trials,
and
li 16 Hz trials randomly intermixed.
Reduction
of alpha activity
(arousal
response) correlated with remote stimuli was observed
as in previous
experiments,
but essentially only in the right hemisphere
(average
alpha reduction
16 percent in right hemisphere,
2 percent in left,
during the 16 Hz trials
as compared with the no-flash trials).
Such
'results indicate initial
support for the hypothesis
of right hemispheric
specialization,
and therefore further investigation
of right hemisphere
specialization seems indicated.
I
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(b)
Physical Measurements
A meeting was held with Mr.
Stacy Luke of
the client's
organization in which
it was agreed that an experiment
shall be carried
out utilizing the client's Josephson junction gradiometer.
Alternate
SRI
locations were examined and
a suitable one chosen.
The purpose of
the experiment
is
(1)
to determine whether magnetic field gradients can
be established on command by the subject,
and,
if
so,
(2)
to investigate
such effects under conditions of viewing the probe from remote locations,
and,
if
the latter is positive,
to examine the effect
as
a function of
subject-probe distance.
Two additional sensitive instruments
are being set up as k
f.i
v
remote probes.
One
is
a radiation probe box which includes
a photo-
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multiplier
and geiger counter.
The other is
a mechanical force indicator
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consisting of
a torsion pendulum suspended on
a metal fiber,
enclosed
in
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a bell
lar,
and monitored by a laser beam reflected from
a mirror on the
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pendulum to
a beam-position detector.
Baseline data are being taken for «
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these instruments,
and experimentation will proceed during April.
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Reference
1:
"Hemispheric Specialization and
the Duality of Consciousness,"
David Galin,
M.D.
and Robert E. Ornstein,
Ph.D.,
in press
in:
X
Widroe,
Harvey,
M.D.,
ed.
Human Behavior and Brain Function ,
:
,
i m
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Published by Charles C.
Thomas,
Springfield,
Illinois,
1973.
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APPENDIX
Hemispheric Specialization
and
the
Duality of Consciousness
David
Gal in,
M.D.
and
Robert
E.
Ornstein,
Ph.D.
Institute
for
the Study of Human Consciousness
Langley Porter Neuropsychiatric
Institute
University of California,
San Francisco
in press
in:
Widroe,
Harvey,
M.D.,
ed.
Human Behavior and
Brain Function
published
by
Charles
C Thomas
Springfield,
Illinois
1973
\
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Hemispheric Specialization and
the
Duality of Consciousness
David Galln,
M.D.,
and Robert
E.
Ornsteln,
Ph.D.
Institute
for
the Study of Human Consciousness
Langley Porter Neuropsychiatric
Institute
University of
Cal
I fornla ,
San Francisco
CPYRGHT
A variety of evidence from clinical
and neurosurgical
sources
Indicates
that
the
two hemispheres of
the human
brain are
specialized
for
different cognitive functions.
This evidence has
been confirmed
In studies
of normal
subjects.
The
left
hemisphere
Is predominantly
Involved
In
verbal
and other analytic functions,
the
right
In
spatial
and other
holistic processing.
The two hemispheres
have been surgically separated
for
the
treatment
of certain
cases of epilepsy;
after
the operation,
It
has
been
found
that
each hemisphere
is conscious,
and
can carry out complex cognitive processes
of
the
type for which
it
is
specialized.
In
short,
there appear
to
be
two
separate,
conscious minds
in one head.
The study of how these
two half-
brains cooperate or
Interfere with each other
in
normal,
intact people has
just begun. We believe
that
this work has
Important
implications
for
psychiatric theory and practice,
and education,
as well
as
for clinical
neurology.
In our
laboratory at Langley Porter we have
been
studying
this
lateralization of function with EEG
techniques.
With
the method which we
have developed we
can distinguish between
these
two cognitive modes
as
they
occur
In normal
subjects,
using simple scalp
recordings.
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CPYRGHT
We will
review some of
the experiments and clinical
observations on
this duality
In human nature,
and mention
some of
the opportunities
for
future
research
that seem
to us most promising.
.
Specialization of
the
two Hemispheres
- "Split-Brain
11 studies
:
The asymmetrical
localization of cognitive
function has
long
been
established.
Language was ascribed
to
the
left hemisphere
by Dax
in
1836
(Benton
S Joynt,
I960).
Since
then clinical
work with brain damaged
patients
has continued
to differentiate
the cognitive functions of
the
hemispheres
(Semmes
et al.,
1955,
Milner,
1965a,
Lurla,
1966,
Corkln,
1965)»
For example
right
temporal
lobectomy produces
a
severe
impairment
on
visual
and
tactile mazes.
In contrast
left
temporal
lobectomy of equal
extent produces
little deficit on
these
tasks
but
impairs verbal
memory
(Milner,
1965a,
Corkln,
1965).
In general,
clinical
work has
found verbal
and arithmetical
functions
(analytic,
linear)
depend on
the
left hemisphere
while spatial
relationships
(holistic,
gestalt)
are
the special
province of
the
right hemisphere.
Sperry,
Gazzanlga,
Bogen and
their associates
(1969,
Levy,
1970,
Bogen,
1969)
have had
a
unique opportunity
to study
the
specialization of
the
two halves of
the brain
Isolated from each other.
They worked with patients who had undergone surgical
section of
the corpus
callosum for
the
treatment of epilepsy.
These "split brain" patients were
tested with special
apparatus
to
Insure
that
the
task was presented
to only
one hemisphere at
a
time.
Sperry,
Gazzanlga and
Bogen have
been able
to
establish
that each hemisphere can
function
Independently and
Is
Independently conscious.
Learning and memory are found
to continue
separately
In each hemisphere.
The
right hand
literally does
not
know what
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CPYRGHT
the
left hand
Is doing.
Both halves
Independently
sense,
perceive
and conceptualize.
Unilateral
associations
between
tactual,
visual
and auditory sensations
remain.
In
these patients,
the
left
hemisphere
Is capable of speech,
writing and mathematical
calculation,
and
Is severely
limited
in problems
involving
spatial
relations.
The
right hemisphere has use of only a few words and
can perform simple
addition only
up
to
ten,
but
can perform
tasks
Involving
spatial
relationships and music patterns.
It
is
Important
to emphasize
that what most characterizes
the
hemispheres
Is not
that
they
are specialized
to work with different
types
of material,
(the
left with words and
the right with
spatial
forms);
rather each hemisphere
Is
specialized
for
a different cognitive
style;
the
left
for
an
analytic,
logical
mode
for which words are
an excellent
tool,
and
the
right
for
a holistic,
gestalt mode, which happens
to
be
particularly suitable
for
spatial
relations,
and music.
The difference
in cognitive style
Is explicitly described
In
a
recent paper by
Levy,
Trevarthen,
and
Sperry,
1972
:
"Recent commissurotomy studies
have shown
that
the
two disconnected
hemispheres,
working on
the same
task,
may process
the same sensory
information
in distinctly different ways,
and
that
the
two modes of
mental
operation
involving
spatial
synthesis
for
the
right and
temporal
analysis
for
the
left,
show
indications
of mutual
antagonism
(Levy,
1970).
The propensity of
the
language hemisphere
to note
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CPYRGHT
response when
the
Information
Is presented
to
the
left
hand or
the
left
visual
field
(they will
In
fact,
often confabulate).
The mute
right
hemisphere
can,
however,
Indicate
Its experience with
the
left
hand,
for
example,
by selecting
the proper object
from an array.
2.
Dissociation of Experience :
The dissociation between
the experiences of
the
two disconnected
hemispheres
Is sometimes very dramatic.
A film made
by Sperry and
his
colleagues
shows
two Illustrative
Incidents.
The film shows
a young female patient
being
tested with
a
tachl stoscope as described above.
In
the series of neutral
geometrical
figures being presented
at
random
to
the
right and
left
fields,
a nude pin-
up was
Included and
flashed
to
the
right
(nonverbal)
hemisphere.
The girl
blushed and giggled.
Sperry asked "What did you
see?"
She answered
"Nothing,
just
a
flash of
light," and giggled again,
covering
her mouth
with her
hanjd.
"Why are you
laughing
then?" asks
Sperry,
and
she
laughs
again and says,
"Oh,
Dr.
Sperry,
you have some machine'."
The episode
is
very dramatic,
and
if one did
not know her neurosurgical
history one might
have seen
this as
a clear example of perceptual
defense:
one might
Infer
that
she was
repressing
the perception of
the conflictful
sexual
material--
even her
final
response
(a socially acceptable nonsequitur)
was convincing
(see also Sperry,
Am .
Psychol
,
1968,
23:723~33,
esp.
p.
732).
In another section of
the film a different patient
is performing
a
block design
task;
he
is
trying
to match
a colored geometric design with
a
set of painted blocks.
The film shows
the
left
hand
(right hemisphere)
quickly carrying out
the
task.
Then
the experimenter disarranges
the
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CPYRGHT
blocks and
the right hand
(left hemisphere)
Is given
the
task;
slowly and
with great apparent
Indecision
It arranges
the pieces.
In
trying
to match
a corner of
the design
the
right hand corrects one of
the blocks,
and
then
shifts
It again,
apparently not
realizing
it was
correct:
the viewer sees
the
left
hand dart out,
grab
the block
to restore
It
to
the correct
position— and
then
the arm of
the experimenter
reaches over and pulls
the
Intruding
left hand off-camera.
3 .
Psychiatric
Implications:
There
Is
a compelling
formal
similarity between
these dissociation
phenomena
seen
In
the commissurotomy patients and
the phenomena of
repression;
according
to Freud's early "topographical" model
of
the mind,
repressed mental
contents functioned
In
a separate
realm, which was
„
Inaccessible
to conscious
recall
or verbal
Interrogation,
functioning
according
to
Its own
rules,
developing and pursuing
its own goals,
affecting
the viscera and
Insinuating
Itself
In
the
stream of ongoing
consciously directed behavior.
This
parallel
suggests
that we examine the hypothesis
that
In normal,
Intact people mental
events
In
the
right hemisphere can become disconnected
functionally from
the
left hemisphere
(by
inhibition of neuronal
transmission across
the corpus callosum and other cerebral
commissures),
and can continue
a
life of
their own.
This hypothesis suggests
a
neurophysiological
mechanism for
at
least some cases of
repression,
and an
anatomical
locus
for
the unconscious mental
contents.
What are the circumstances under which such
a dissociation
could
take
place? There are several ways
in which
the
two hemispheres of an ordinary
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Re Approved For Release 2003/04/18 : CIA-RDP96-00791R000200040004-9 page 7 CPYRGHT person could begin to function as If they had been surgically disconnected, and cease exchanglng Information. The first way Is by active Inhibition of Information transfer because of conflict. Imagine the effect on a child when his mother presents one message verbally, but quite another with her factal expresslon and body language; "I am doing It because 1 love you, dear, say the words, but "! hate you and will detec you’ says the face. Each hemisphere Is exposed to the same sensory Input, but because of thei: relative speclallzations, they each emphasize only one of the messages. The left will attend to the verbal cues because [t cannot extract ‘information from the faclal gestalt efficiently; the right will attend preferentially to the non-verbal cues because it cannot easily understand the words (Levy et al., 1972). Effectively a different input has been deltvered to each hemisphere, Just as In the laboratory experiments In which a tachIstoscope Is used to present different pictures to the left and right visual flelds. We offer the following conjecture: In thts sltuatlon the two hemispheres might decide on opposite courses of action; the left to approach, and the right to flee. Because of the high stakes Involved each hemisphere might be able to malntain Its consclousness and resist the inhibitory Influence of the other side. The left hemisphere seems to win control of the output channels most of the time (Sperry, 1968), but if the left is not able to "turn off!' the right completely it may settle for — disconnecting the transfer of the conflicting information from the other gilde. The connections between heml spheres are relatively weak compared to the connections within hemi spheres(Bogen 1969) and It seems likely that each hemisphere treats the weak contralateral input in the same way in Approved For Release 2003/04/18 : CIA-RDP96-00791R000200040004-9
Approved For Release 2003/04/18 : CIA-RDP96-00791R000200040004-9 page 8 CPYRGHT | which people In general treat the odd discrepant observation which does not Fit with the mass of thetr belfefs; first we Ignore ft, and then If ft ts Inststent, we actively avold ft (Stent, 1972). The mental process In the right hemisphere, cut off tn this way from the left hemisphere consclousness which fs directing overt behavior, may nevertheless continue a life of Its own. The memory of the situation, the emotlonal concommt tants, and the frustrated plan of action all may persist, affecting subsequent perceptlon and forming the basf!s for expectations and evaluations of future Input. But active Inhibition arising from, conflicting goals is not the only way to account for a lack of communtcatlon between the two hemispheres, and a consequent. divergence of consclousness. In the simplest case, because of thelr special. modes of organization and special areas of competence, the knowledge which one hemi sphere possesses may not translate well Into the ‘language of the other. For example, the experlence of attendIng a symphony concert is not readt ly expressed in words, and the concept ‘Democracy ‘requires informed participation" ts hard to convey in images. What may be transmitted in.such cases may be the conclusion as to action, and not the details on which the evaluation was based. It is possible to convey some of the richness of the holistic consciousness in words, but it requires a great artist. 4, Neo-Phrenology: It ts not clear to what extent specific cognitive performances can be said to depend on specific areas of the cerebrum, beyond the gross distinction between left and right hemispheres. Without going too far in Approved For Release 2003/04/18 : CIA-RDP96-00791R000200040004-9 a , we
nN SU Approved For Release 2003/04/18 : CIA-RDP96-00791R000200040004-9 page 9 CPYRGHT the direction of assigning "centers" to each mental quality In the manner of the phrenologists, there seems to be some evidence for wlthin-hemisphere localtzatton. For example, MIIner (1965b) has correlated disorders tn specific kinds of language processing with lesions in spectfic areas of the “teft hemi sphere; verbal memory deficits with anterfor temporal lesions, speech deficits with posterfor temporal lestons, fluency deficits wlth > frontal lestons and reading defictts with lestons in the region of the parleto-occipital Junction. The difficulties Inherent In “localizing'’ complex functtons are exemplified in the conflicting literature on the lateralization of arithmetic calculation. Luria Finds “primary acalculta! or primary arithmetical disturbances with iestons of the left infero-partetai lobe (Luria, 1966), but Kinsbourne finds no systematic lateralization for arithmet{c (1972). The problem ts, complex, according to Critchley (1953) because calculatton may entail more than one type of mentation and different peopfe seem to employ different methods. Lesions in different areas would be expected to produce dyscalculla insofar as a person depended on the use of specific visual symbols or notation, or on rote memory (e.g. multiplication tables) or on an tdeokinetic factor based on concrete manipulation such as counting on fingers. The horizontal and vertical arrangement of numbers to represent units, tens, hundreds, etc., depends on spatial and constructional factors. Vivid imagery for numerical forms and sequences may be important to some people (Humphrey and Zangwill, 1952). Critchley concludes, ''Nonetheless, there are certain 'vulnerable' regtons of the Approved For Release 2003/04/18 : CIA-RDP96-00791R000200040004-9 “> “
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CPYRGHT
brain, wherein
a
lesion
Is more apt
to be followed
by
a severe dyscalculia
bearing
certain clinical
hallmarks.
Thus disease of
the dominant
left
hemisphere
Is more often followed
by severe disorders of calculation."
(Crltchley,
1953)
5.
Evidence
for
Lateral
Specialization
In Normal
People :
(
Some caution should
be exercised
In making
the
Inference of
lateral
special Izatlon of cognitive function
In normal
people from
lesion
studies
alone.
One might consider whether
the
'split
functions are due
In
some
part
to
the
radical
surgery,
or to
the other disturbances
In
these
patients.
The study of neurological
disorders or surgical
preparations
cast
light on normal
functioning,
but
the most
Important and most practical
question
Is whether
the normal
brain,
engaged
In everyday activities
Is
organized around
lateralization of cognitive
function.
Recent
research with normal
subjects provides support for
the
Inference
that
the
Intact
brain does
In
fact make use of
lateral
specialization.
With normal
subjects,
Fllbey and Gazzanlga have measured
the
time
required
for
Information presented
to one hemisphere
to be acted
upon
by
the other.
A verbal
reaction
to
Information presented
to the non-
verbal
right hemisphere
took
longer
than
a non-verbal
response.
(Fllbey
and Gazzanlga,
1969).
McKeever found faster
tachi stoscoplc word
recognition
for
words projected
to the
left hemisphere
than
to
the right
(McKeever and Huling,
1970).
In dichotic
listening
tasks,
normal
subjects
have better
recall
for verbal
material
presented
to
the
right
than
to
the
left ear and better
recall
for melodies presented
to
the
left.
(Kimura,
1961).
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Other
laboratories have
used electrophyslologlcal
techniques such as
evoked potentials
and DC potentials.
Buchsbaum recorded averaged visual
evoked potentials from
the
left and
right occipital
areas
In response
to
words and geometric stimuli
(Buchsbaum and Fedlo,
I969>
-
Thc responses
to
these two classes of stimuli were
the same
In
the
right hemisphere,
but
different
In
the
left hemisphere.
Wood et .1.0971)
found similar results
with auditory stimuli!
subjects
listened
to verbal
stimuli
under two
conditions;
to process them for speech cues
(stop consonants)
and
for non-
speech cues
(pitch).
The evoked responses were
the
same
In
the
right
hemisphere,
but different
In
the
left hemisphere.
Morrell
and Salamy
(1971)
reported
that evoked potentials
to speech
sounds were
larger
In
the
left hemisphere
leads
than
In
the
right,
and
Vella et al.
(1972)
reported
that responses
to complex visual
forms were
larger
In
the
right.
McAdam and Whitaker recorded DC potentials over the
left and
right fronto-temporal
areas,
just before subjects spoke,
a
negative shift appeared, more pronounced on
the
left
than on the right.
No
shift was
seen preceding non-verbal
vocal
tract activities
(voluntary
coughing,
spitting)
(McAdam and Wh I taker,
1970-
the past three years we have applied EEC methods
to the study of
this
lateral
special .ration
In normal
people.
By studying EEC asymmetry we
were able
to distinguish
the
two cognitive modes as
they occur
In norma,
subjects using simple scalp recording
(Dal In and Ornsteln,
1972).
In
brief, we examined
the EEGs of subjects performing verbal
and
spatial
tasks
to determine whether there were differences
In activity between
the
appropriate and
Inappropriate hemispheres.
We recorded from the temporal
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and parietal
areas
since
cl In I co-ana tom leal
evidence
Indicates
that
these
areas
should be
dl fferent ly engaged
In
these
tasks.
We
found
that during
verbal
tasks
the
Integrated whole-band power
In
the
left hemisphere
Is
less
than
that
In
the
right,
and during spatial
tasks
the
Integrated power
In
the
right hemisphere
Is
less
than
In
the
left.
Most of the task-dependent
asymmetry appeared
to be
In
the alpha band.
Our method of analyzing
the
ratios of
right
to
left EEG power was adopted by McKee, Humphrey and McAdam
(1973)
In
a study contrasting musical
and verbal
processing.
They confirm
our general
finding
that the ratio
Is higher
In
the verbal
tasks compared
to
the non-verbal
task.
Table
summarizes some of
the
results
from
two of our experiments.
The average alpha ratios
(right/left) were computed
for
temporal
,
parietal
,
and central
recordings during verbal
and
spatial
tasks
Intended
to engage
primarily
the
left or
the right hemisphere.
Spatial
tasks
Included building
geometric designs
from memory with blocks,
mirror drawing and
a mental
Form
Board
task.
Verbal
tasks
Included composing
a
letter mentally and
in
writing,
and memorizing and writing
the main
facts
from a
text passage. The
task pairs which were selected differ
In
their requirement
for motor
output,
and for memory.
The attentlon-to-breathing
task was
Included as
a
"neutral" non-cogni tlve condition.
(For further details of the methods and
results of Experiment
I,
see Galin and Ornsteln,
1972,
Doyle,
Ornstein and
Galin,
1973).
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TABLE
I
Inter- and
Intra-hemispheric Specialization
for Cognitive Mode:
Differences between Electrode Locations
- Alpha
ratios*
Experiment
Motor
tasks
Mental
tasks
"Non-cognl tl ve"
Written
Form
Mental
Attention
N-10
Blocks
Letter
P
Board
Letter
P
to- Breath
P4/P3
0.97
1.09
.01
0.81
0.98
ns
0.94
T4/T3
0.68
1.06
.01
0.79
1 .06
.05
0.87
Experiment
II
Memory tasks
Non-memory
tasks
"Non-cognitive"
Wri te
from
Ml rror
Text
Attention
N-35
Blocks
Memory
P
Drawing
Copying
P
to-Breath
P4/P3
0.99
1.19
.0003
1.01
1.07
.04
1.20
T4/T3
0.77
1.12
.00003
0.75
0.94
.0004
0.88
C4/C3
0.79
1.17
.0003
0.83
1.03
.0006
0.97
Geometric means over all
subjects of EEG power ratios
(right/left)
*,v Significance of differences
tested by Wilcoxon Matched-Pair Signed-Ranks
Tesi
all
P values
two-tailed,
ns *
.05.
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Fig.
shows
a. sample
from
the
EEC,
from one subject during
the Blocks
and Written Letter
tasks.
Fig.
2 shows
the
results of frequency spectrum
analysis of
the
EEG
from which Fig.
was
taken.
Insert Figures
and
2 about here
The second experiment
confirms
the main effect
found
in
the first;
higher
ratios are found during verbal
tasks
than during
spatial
tasks.
I\U
three
lead pairs show the task-dependent asymmetry
In both comparisons
(Blocks vs,
Wri te-from-Memory,
and Text Copying
vs. Mirror Drawing).
There are systematic differences between
the
leads.
The parietal
leads,
In
all
comparisons,
In both experiments,
exhibit
the
least
task-
dependent asymmetry,
l.e.
the difference
In alpha
ratio on
the verbal
task
and
the
spatial
task
Is smaller on
the parietal
leads
than on
the
temporal
and central
leads.
The temporal
and central
leads appear
to behave
similarly
In
this
respect.
The Attention-to-Breath
task most closely approximates
the conditions
under which clinical
EEGs are
recorded;
l.e.
little
information processing,
passive,
unstructured.
Clinical
EEC
texts generally state
that alpha
amplitude
is normally higher on
the
right
than
the
left.
We find
this
to
be so
for
the parietal
leads,
but consistently reversed for
the temporal
leads.
Table M
shows
the
results
from
the Breathing
task of Experiment
II.
Most subjects have predominant
right parietal
alpha and predominant
left
temporal
alpha.
The central
leads
show an
equal
distribution.
This
reversal
between parietal
and
temporal
alpha predominance can also be seen
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during
the active cognitive
tasks.
(Table
l,
all
tasks except Mental
Letter)
TABLE
II
.
Differences
between electrode
locations
in "resting" alpha asymmetry
Parietal
Temporal
Central
Higher Right Alpha
Higher Left Alpha
The functional
significance of
this
reversal
of asymmetry
Is not
yet
clear,
but
It precludes classifying
a person simply as "right dominant" or
"left dominant";
l ntrahem! spheric specialization must
be
taken
into
account.
Previous
Investigators have sought
to relate electrophyslologlcal
recordings
to cognitive functions.
A major effort
has
been
devoted
to
relating
the EEG
to "Intelligence"
(see
review by Vogel,
et al.,
1968).
Our approach
to
this
problem
takes
Into account
three
factors which seem to
have been neglected
in
the
past:
1.
Recording while
the subject
is engaged
in
a
task,
rather
than
trying
to relate
a "resting" EEG or averaged evoked potential
to subsequent
performance.
2.
Selection of cognitive
tasks which clinical
evidence
has
shown
to
depend more on one hemisphere
than
the other,
and which
therefore
should
be
associated with
a predictable distribution of brain activity.
3.
Selection of electrode placements
on
cl in i co-anatomi cal
grounds.
A
wealth of evidence
suggests
that
temporal
and parietal
leads
should
be
the
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most functionally asymmetrical,
and occipital
leads
the most similar.
Unfortunately,
occipital
leads have been
used most often
In
the past,
probably because
they are not
as
sensitive
to eye movement
and muscle
artifacts.
Usually recordings have been made only unilaterally.
Now that we have established
a method
for determining
lateralization
of cognitive function
In normal
Ss,
several major areas of concern
can be
studied:
the generality of
lateral
specialization of cognitive
function
in
the population,
the
role of
lateral
specialization
in critical
academic
skills,
the effect of social
drugs on hemispheric
interaction,
and
the
possibility of
training voluntary control
over patterns of
lateral
asymmetry using
the feedback EEG.
6.
I ateral
i zatlon
In left Handed and Ambidexterous People
-
The
lateralization of cognitive functions described above
Is
characteristic of
right handed people.
The cerebral
lateralization of
left
handed people
Is more complex.
Hecaen
(1364.1971)
has provided an
extensive review of
the neurological
literature and
a summary of his own
clinical
studies,
and concluded
that
left handers show
a greater
cerebral
ambl -lateral
I ty,
not only
for
language,
but also for gnoslc and praxlc
functions.
Hecaen distinguishes between
left handedness which
Is familial
and that which follows
a perinatal
injury
to
the
left hemisphere.
The
familial
type may or may not have reversed
language
lateralization.
These conclusions were generally confirmed
by Setz et
al
.
09«7)
*n
a
study of a neurological ly normal
population.
They used the dlchotlc
listening
test
to assess
language
lateralization and carefully
tested
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manual
superiority rather
than
relying on
the subjects'
self-classification
as
to handedness.
Following
the hypothesis of Orton that stuttering and dyslexia can be
due
to poorly established cerebral
specialization, many studies have found
high
Incidences of
left handers
and ambidexterous people among
these
clinical
grdups.
Hecaen
(196*0
concludes
that while no convincing direct
relation
has been demonstrated,
"disorders of
laterality
can play
a part
In
a certain number of
these cases."
The nature of
these "disorders of
laterality"
Is not clear.
To our
knowledge there have been no attempts
to quantitatively evaluate
the
interaction between
the verbal -analyt ic and spatial -hoi istic cognitive
systems
In normal
dally activities.
Our opinion
is
that
in many ordinary
activities
normal
people simply alternate between cognitive modes
rather
than
Integrating
them.
These modes
compliment
each other but
do not
readily substitute
for each other.
Although
it
is possible
to process
complex spatial
relationships
In words,
it would seem much more efficient
to use visual -kinesthetic
images.
For example,
consider what most people
do when asked
to describe a
spiral
staircase;
they begin using words,
but
quickly
fall
back on gesturing with
a
finger.
Processing
in
the
inappropriate cognitive system may not only
be
Inefficient;
it may actually
Interfere with processing
in
the appropriate
system.
This
'interference hypothesis'
is
supported
by a
study of
left-
handed subjects who were presumed
to have
bilateral
language
representation
(Levy,
1969).
Levy compared
left-handed and
right-handed subjects with
equal
WAIS
verbal
scores and
found
that
the
left
handers
had significantly
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lower performance
scores, which she attributed
to
Interference
from
the
presumed ambilateral! ty of
language.
Her observation has
been confirmed
by
Miller
(1971).
Similarly,
In
a group of patients
In whom right-hemisphere
language was demonstrated with carotid amytal
,
Lansdel
1 (1969)
found
a
negative correlation between
language ability and
spatial
performance
scores.
Brooks
(1970)
presents additional
support
for
the hypothesis of
" l nterhemi spheric
Interference".
Reading
a description of spatial
relations
Interferes with
the subsequent manipulation of
those spatial
relations.
DenHyer and Barrett
(1971)
demonstrated selective
loss of
spatial
and verbal
information
In
short
term memory
by means of spatial
and
verbal
Interpolated
tasks.
Levy has
In
fact
suggested
that verbal
and non-
verbal
functions evolved
in opposite hemispheres
to reduce
interference of
one system with
the other
(Levy,
1969).
This evidence
of
Interference between
the
right and
left cognitive
modes provides
a new kind of support
for
the hypothesis of Orton,
that
lack
of cerebral
lateral
specialization plays
a major
role
in dyslexia and
stuttering.
This hypothesis has continued
to sustain
interest, m
spite of
a
lack of convincing direct evidence.
Until
recently,
the only generally
available
index of cerebral
lateralization was
handedness,
and people with
little hand preference,
or
left handers who were "switched" or those with
mixed hand and eye preference were considered
to be "high
risk". The
Incidence of such people
in
clinical
categories
such as
stuttering,
dyslexia,
and specific
learning disability
is
usually found
to be higher
than
In
the normal
population.
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Our EEG method
for studying
lateralization of cognitive
function,
along with
the dlchotlc
listening
test,
can provide
a much more direct and
presumably more sensitive means
for
investigating
disorders of
laterality
than measures based on hand,
eye,
or foot dominance.
Our present
proposal
to extend our measures
to
left handed and ambidexterous populations will
lay
the groundwork
for
these clinical
studies.
7.
Biofeedback Training
for Voluntary Control
of EEG Asymmetry;
Our research has demonstrated characteristic patterns of activity and
Inactivity
for both
the verbal
and
the spatial
cognitive modes.
It
is
reasonable
to suppose
that more selective
Inhibition
and
facilitation of
each hemisphere can
Improve performance.
It has been
shown
In many
laboratories
that, when subjects are given exteroceptive feedback on
the
state of a physiological
variable,
they can
learn control
of
the variable,
e.g.
EEG alpha,
heart
rate,
EMG
(Nowlls and
Kamlya,
1970;
Budzynski,
Stoyva and Adler,
1970;
Hnatiow and
Lang,
1965).
For example, O'Malley and
Conners
(1972)
have
reported
a pilot
case of
a dyslexic boy who was given
lateral
I' zed alpha feedback
training,
and showed significant changes
in EEG
asymmetry.
Therefore, with
the aid of feedback from our
electrophysiologi cal
index of cognitive mode,
subjects may
be able
to
learn
to
reduce
the
Interference between hemispheres,
and
thereby
Improve
cognitive performance.
8.
Implications
for Education :
Our EEG and eye movement
studies
(Kocel
et al.,
1972;
Gal in
6 Ornstein,
1973)
provide potential
methods of assessing
an
individual's
preferred
cognitive mode.
An
individual's preferred cognitive style may facilitate
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his
learning of one
type of subject matter,
e.g.» spatial,
relational,
and
hamper
the
learning of another
type,
e.g.,
verbal
analytical. A student's
difficulty with one part of a curriculum may arise from hfs
Inability
to
change
to
the cognitive mode appropriate
to
the work he
Is doing.
Studies
by Cohen
(1969), Marsh e£ aJN
(1970),
and by Bogen
et_ aj_.
(1972),
have
Indicated
that subcultures within
the United States are
characterized by a predominant cognitive mode:
the middle class
is
likely
to use
the verbal “analytic mode;
the urban
poor
is more
likely
to use
the
spatial-holistic mode.
This
results
in
a cultural
conflict of cognitive
style and may
In part explain
the difficulties of
the urban poor children
In
the school
system oriented toward
the middle class*
There
seems
to be
a
new recognition among educators of
the
importance of both modes of
experiencing
the world
(J.
Bruner,
On Knowing
;
Essays
for
the Left Hand
,
1965). Many new programs
(e.g.. Sesame Street)
emphasize helping verbal-
analytlcally oriented children
to develop holistic mode skills as well
as
helping holistically-oriented children
to make use of
the traditional
verbal-analytic materials.
If our project
Is successful,
it
.may make
it
feasible
to train an
individual
child
to enter both cognitive modes
appropriately.
With EEG
feedback an
individual
may
be able
to
learn
to
sustain
a
pattern of brain activity and
the concommitant cognitive mode
which
Is appropriate
to reading and arithmetic on
the one hand and painting
and construction
on
the other.
Our approach may also be of use
in
the study of cognitive development.
Since brain
injuries before
the age of
rarely
result
in permanent
aphasia,
it
is
reasonable
to suppose
that
the
lateralization of cognitive
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function
Is
still
In
flux
In young children after
the acquisition of
speech
and even after the acquisition of written
language.
The maturation of
the
child's cognitive power may be paralleled
by,
and perhaps even depend upon,
Increasing
lateral
specialization with a resulting decrease
in
interference
between cognitive
systems.
Our EEG measures of cognitive functioning could
be powerful
tools
for mapping
the course of
this growth.
These measures
could be used
In diagnosing aberrations
In cognitive development.
For
example,
certain forms of dyslexia may be caused by
interhemispherlc
Interference.
Perhaps "feedback" training
to
improve selective
Inhibition
of the inappropriate cognitive mode would prove useful
In
therapy.
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71:826-856,
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Corkin,
Suzanne.
"Tactually-guided maze
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Crltchley,
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E.
Arnold,
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DenHyer,
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