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AUTONOMIC DETECTION OF REMOTE OBSERVATION:
Two Conceptional Replications 1
Marilyn J. Schlitz
Cognitive Sciences Laboratory,
Science Applications International Corporation
and
Stephen Laberge
Lucidity Institute
ABSTRACT: Two experiments were conducted in the Cognitive Sciences
a
oratory ®
Science Applications International Corporation to measure the
extent to which people are able to unconsciously detect another person staring
at them from a distance. A closed-circuit television set-up was employed in
which a video camera was focused on the experimental volunteer (Observee)
while a person in another room (Observer) concentrated on the image of the
distant person as projected on a color monitor; this procedure was used to
preclude any conventional sensory contact between the two people.
During
the
experimental
session,
the
Observee's
galvanic
skin
responses were
monitored.
An automated and computerized system was programmed to
record and average the physiological responses of the Observee during 32 30-
second monitoring periods.
A random sequence was used
to schedule 16
periods of remote observation and 16 control periods when no observation
efforts were attempted.
A within-subjects evaluation was made
for each
experimental
session with
a comparison between
the mean amount
of
autonomic nervous system
activity during
the experimental and
control
conditions.
Twenty four sessions were conducted in each of two experiments.
As predicted, both experiments yielded significantly more autonomic activity
during
the remote
observation periods
as compared
to
control
periods
(Experiment
1: t=1.878, pc.036,
1-t, es=.36; Experiment 2: t=2.360, p<.014
1-t
es-.44).
As preplanned, the two experiments were combined
to increase
statistical power, yielding a significant t-value of 2.652 (p<.005, 1-t, es=.36).
The authors wish to acknowledge the technical support, design contributions
and
general encouragement of William Braud and the staff of the Cognitive Sciences
SkCr S rh
t0
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al a5
si^
ance - we appreciate the useful suggestions offered by
Noetic Selene
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Additional support was provided by the
Institufe of
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INTRODUCTION
The past few decades have witnessed an increasing interest in the
possibility of direct mental influences on living systems. A diverse range of
experiments have been conducted by researchers within the United States,
Canada, and Europe (for reviews, see Benor, 1990; Dossey, 1993; May and
Vilenskaya, 1994; Solfvin, 1984).
In a typical experiment, some physiological
activity or other selected behavior
is monitored
in the context of a formal
laboratory experiment.
Efforts
are made by experimental participants
to
influence
a
distant biological
target system with
a comparison between
experimental conditions and non-influence or
control
conditions.
Target
systems
for
these
experiments
have
included
micro-organisms,
plants,
animals, and human physiology or motor activity (Schlitz, 1983, 1994).
Based on this database, there
is compelling evidence to support the
hypothesis that people are able to use intentionality to bring about changes in
distant target systems under conditions that preclude conventional sensory or
motor exchange.
At the
least, the findings are intriguing and worthy of
further research;
at the best, the data have profound
scientific,
social, and
philosophical implications.
One promising
area
of research involves
the
influence
of human
autonomic nervous system activity by a distant person.
Braud and Schlitz
(1992)
reported
statistically
significant
differences
across
a
series
of
experiments in which periods of intentionality to affect the physiology of a
distant person were interspersed with counter-balanced control periods.
This
research led to the development of a protocol designed to measure the degree
to which people are able to unconsciously detect someone observing them
from a distance.
Many people have had the experience of being stared at from a distance,
only to turn around and discover a pair of eyes gazing upon them.
Indeed,
survey data support the widespread distribution of these experiences. As early
as 1913, J.E. Coover reported that 68-86% of respondents in California had this
type of experience on
at least one occasion.
A survey of the Australian
population reported that 74% of the respondents had such an experience
(Williams 1983), 85% within a student population at Washington University
in
St. Louis, (Thalbourne and Evans, 1992) 94% of those surveyed in San
Antonio, Texas
(Braud,
Shafer, and Andrews
1990), and 80%
of
those
informally surveyed in Europe and America (Sheldrake 1994).
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Several attempts have been made
to explore
these claims within a
laboratory setting. A review of this literature was reported by Braud, et al.
(1990), who identified four studies.
The first was conducted by Coover (1913)
in his initial work as the Thomas Welton Stanford Psychical Research Fellow
in the Psychology Department of Stanford University.
Each of 10 subjects
made 100 guesses
as
to whether or not they were being stared
at by an
experimenter seated behind them in the same room. A random schedule of
remote observation (RO) and non-observation periods was determined by the
rolling of a die. Each observation period was of a 15-20 second duration over a
several hour series of sittings spanning a period of weeks.
Having obtained
chance results, Coover interpreted his findings as support for the belief that
staring detection was empirically groundless.
A second study was carried out in 1959 by J.J. Poortman (1959) of Leyden
University in the Netherlands.
In this study, the two people were separated in
two rooms but
still within sensory range.
The experiment spanned a
13-
month period.
The remote /non-remote observation intervals were of 2-5
minute duration based on a random sequence determined by card shuffling.
This resulted in a 59.55% accuracy rate (p=.04 1-t).
A better controlled experiment than the previous two was reported by
Donald Peterson (1978), a graduate student at the University of Edinburgh.
Following two
informal
pilot
studies,
the
investigator made
use
of
a
procedure in which the subjects were positioned in separate, adjacent closed
cubicles.
One-way mirrors and special lighting provided visual perception in
one
direction and button pushes were
used
to measure
the
subject's
perception of RO/non-RO periods.
In 36 experimental sessions, each of six
minute duration, there was a significant effect (p=.012, 2-t).
This experimental design was further improved by Linda Williams
(1983), a student in the Psychology Department of the University of Adelaide
(South Australia).
Subjects were positioned in rooms at a 60 foot distance and
were monitored via
a
closed-circuit video camera/monitor arrangement.
Through the use of carefully controlled randomization procedures, the author
reported significant RO detection guesses (p=.04, 1-t).
Based on the four experimental studies, Braud, et al (1990) concluded
that there
is suggestive evidence to support the hypothesis that people can
consciously discriminate periods of RO from non-RO under conditions that
controlled for subtle sensory cues.
The effect size in these studies was not
particularly strong, however.
This, according to Braud and his colleagues, was
due to the fact that "the testing method used in these studies was not the most
appropriate one"
(p.
17).
In particular, the authors argued that the use of
conscious guessing might be
less relevant to everyday
life experiences, in
which RO detection takes the form of bodily sensations and spontaneous
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behavioral changes.
For example, people frequently report the prickling of
neck hairs or the tingling of the skin.
With these considerations in mind, Braud, et
al (1990) designed an
experimental procedure based on the hypothesis that remote observation may
be detected at the level of sympathetic autonomic nervous system activity.
In
a series of three experiments (Braud, Shafer, and Andrews 1990, 1992), a person
stared at a distant subject through the use of a closed-circuit television system
while
the autonomic nervous system
activity
of
the
subject was being
monitored via chart recorder and computer.
The experimental design, like
previous studies involving remote mental influences on human physiology
(e.g., Braud and Schlitz 1989, 1992; Schlitz and Braud, 1986) allowed a within-
subjects evaluation of RO versus non-RO (control) periods. The researchers
reported that the electrodermal properties of receivers correlated significantly
with the
intense
attention of the
isolated and remote experimenter
(i.e.,
p=0.009, effect size per session=0.59).
Results were bi-directional, depending on
the attitude of the Observer.
In addition to the main effects, Braud et al (1992) reported a positive
correlational trend between social avoidance and the degree of change in the
subject's electrodermal
activity.
This was measured by administering the
Social Avoidance and Distress (SAD) scale (see below).
Increasing degrees of
social avoidance/distress/anxiety were also found to positively correlate with
introversion.
The present experiments were designed as conceptual replications of the
work by Braud, Shafer, and Andrews.
Further, we extended previous studies
of remote influence on autonomic nervous system
activity by Braud and
Schlitz (1989, 1992).
Two formal predictions were made.
First, we anticipated
a significant difference in the mean rate of autonomic activity in experimental
compared with control conditions across subjects.
Second, we predicted the
direction of the effect by instructing the remote Observers to activate the
distant person.
As such, we predicted an increase
in autonomic
activity
during remote observation as compared with control conditions.
In addition to the primary hypotheses, we anticipated
a
significant
correlation between social avoidance and the remote observation effect. On an
exploratory basis, we also examined the social relationship between Remote
Observers and Observees; this included the interaction of gender and cross-
gender pairs.
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