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I
OBJECTIVE
The purpose
of
the program is
to determine the characteristics
of
those perceptual modalities
through which individuals obtain information
about their environment,
wherein such information
is not presented
to
any known sense.
The program is divided into two categories
of investigation of
approximately equal effort,
applied research and basic research.
The
purpose
of
the applied research effort
is
to explore experimentally
the potential for applications
of perceptual abilities
of
interest,
with special attention given to accuracy and reliability.
The purpose
of
the basic research effort
is to identify the characteristics
of
individuals possessing such abilities,
and
to identify neurophysiologica
correlates
and basic mechanisms involved in such functioning.
II
PROGRESS DURING THE REPORTING PERIOD
A.
Applied Research
1.
Remote Viewing
A number
of efforts were begun with respect
to obtaining
further information concerning remote viewing phenomena.
First,
an
experiment has been designed in consultation with
SRI psychologists
which will yield precise statistical data
as to discrimination ability.
Ten sites known to the
subject
are
to be visited
in random sequence by
a
target demarcation
team.
The subject must then make
a choice
as
to
which site
is being visited,
in addition to providing descriptive material
for content
analysis.
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Secondly,
a pilot series involving real-time questioning
of
the
subject by the target team via walkie talkie
is being explored
to provide
information for designing
a protocol
to investigate real-time correlations.
One viewing with positive results has been carried out.
Finally,
a preliminary remote viewing pilot experiment was
carried out with
a subject
(H.II.) previously screened by the EEG correlates
experiment described
in. our paper submitted for publication
(Appendix
I).
The target chosen
at random was
a small red clapboard schoolhouse
structure with
a bell steeple
on
top
in
a miniature
golf course.
The
subject's response was
that
she
saw
a red clapboard structure with
a
steeple
that seemed
to be artificial
as in a movie
set.
Based on this
result,
a series
of remote viewing experiments under strict protocols
are planned with
this
subject.
2.
Detection of Variable Density Target Material
*
Twenty-seven envelopes were submitted by the sponsor
to
the
client containing target drawings
of variable content and density.
Several hundred sorting trials resulting from six passes per day through
the
27 cards have been carried out,
the goal
to date being delineation
of
the. twelve
low density target cards from the pencil
(6)
and blank
(9)
cards.
The numbered envelopes containing the
target material,
sealed and specially secured by the
sponsor,
are randomized before each
trial and placed inside non-numbered opaque envelopes before being
presented to
the subject for sorting.
Statistical analysis
of
the
results
and comparison with the key
(unknown to the client)
will be
carried out
after completion
of
the experimental
series.
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SG1D
SGI
I
SGI
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B.
Basic Research
1.
Testing Program
During the first month
of
this program,
the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale
(WAIS)
instrument was administered by
of
to three
programs
as being gifted in the
area
of paranormal perception.
They are
Mr.
Patrick H. Price,
screened for remote viewing ability,
Mrs.
Ilella Hammid,
screened for EEG correlates
to remote stimuli,
and Mr.
Duane Elgin,
screened for high scoring response
to
a random target generator.
Further
in-depth interviewing of
the first
two subjects was carried out by
and
colleague,
A
preparation by
and will be available
to the contract
technical representatives when completed.
On the basis of discussion with technical representative,
SRI representatives have consulted with
a number
oi
Bay Area neurophysiologists concerning administration of
the Halstead-
Reitan
(H-R) Neuropsychology Test Battery.
Those contacted include
Dr.
Karl Pribram of
the Stanford Medical School,
Dr. Robert Ornstein
of
the Langley-Porter Neuropsychiatric Clinic,
and Dr. Donald Lim of
the Veteran’s Administration Hospital in Palo Alto.
To date satisfactory
arrangements for administration of
the H-R instrument have not yet been
made,
as only the latter facility has personnel experienced in its
administration,
but not ordinarily available for subcontracted consulting.
The
three individuals named above have,
however,
agreed to help locate
an appropriate individual or facility to carry out
such testing so no
difficulty is anticipated in meeting this requirement.
SGI
I
SGI
I
SW
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A measure
of
the visual acuity of
one subject
(P.P.)
was
obtained utilizing one
of
the instruments available in the optics
group
of
the Electronics
and Bioengineering Laboratory
of
SRI.
The
measurement method involves forced-choice discrimination on the part
of
the subject between alternate
zero
and finite-contrast grating images,
for each
of
a number
of
spatial—frequency gratings.
(See Appendix
II.)
The
system,
which is
automated,
tracks and records
the subject's
forced-choice responses
to yield
a curve
of
threshold
(75% correct choice)
contrast sensitivity as
a function
of
spatial frequency.
As might be
expected,
higher contrast
is required at the
low and high frequency
tails
of
the distribution,
as compared with the middle
range,
to
discriminate between grating and uniform images.
The purpose
of
the
test with regard to our program was to determine whether
a subject
possessing an unusual ability to view remote stimuli
also possessed
an
unusual visual acuity response in a threshold-determining instrument,
either because
of unusual acuity in the ordinary
sense,
or through
the
use
of
an extraordinary ability to discriminate between
a target
and
a
blank under conditions
of vanishingly-small information content.
The resultant curve
lay within the range
of expected human
variation indicating no unusual response
activity.
2.
Measurement Program
A 10-channel polygraph facility under the direction of
Dr.
Jerry Lukas
of
the Sensory Sciences Research Center has been brought
into
the program and certain functions tailored
to our specification.
The facility will be used initially
to monitor GSR,
blood flow
(plethysmograph)
,
and EEG activity
of
subjects carrying out
tasks
involving perception -of
remote
stimuli.
For our purposes,
the display
of
raw data has been augmented by
a computer program which has been
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written and debugged
to provide on-line 5-second averages
of EEG activity
in the
theta,
alpha,
and beta bands.
Discussions
are now in progress
on experimental protocols
to be employed
in
the utilization of
this
facility.
EEG data taken prior
to this program,
but unahalyzed,
has been
subjected
to analysis in an effort
to determine whether
a particular
protocol was
a viable instrument for defining correlates
of remote
perception.
The description of
the experiment
and the results
of
the
analysis
is given in the EEG section
of
a paper submitted for publication
to Nature ,
given here
as Appendix
I.
In an effort
to determine
the effects
of motivation on
paranormal functioning,
the following test procedure has been initiated.
One subject
(P.P.)
has completed 7075
trials
on guessing the
state
of
a
four-stage electronic random target generator without monetary reward
being associated with the
scoring,
and is now repeating
the
series
wit!
a monetary reward scaled
to scoring.
Upon completion
of
the series,
the results will be
analyzed to determine whether the difference betwe
x
scoring under
the two conditions
is significant.
The reward system,
shewn in Table
1,
is scaled linearly with difficulty.
Table
REWARD SYSTEM FOR SCORING ON 25-TRIAL RUN, P=l/4 PER TRIAL
hits/25-trial run,N
Prob.
of
at least N hits
Reward
0.071
$
0.030
0.010
0.0034
0.00092
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FIGURE CAPTIONS
1.
Target
pictures and responses drawn by Uri Geller under shielded
conditions.
2.
Computer drawings
and
responses
drawn by Uri Geller.
a.
Computer drawing stored on video display
b.
Computer drawing stored
in computer memory only
c.
Computer drawing stored on video display with zero intensity
3.
Occipital
EEG spectra,
to
Hz,
for one subject
(H.H.)
acting as
receiver,
showing amplitude changes
in
the
-
Hz band
as
a
function
of
strobe frequency.
Three
cases:
0,
6,
and
flashes
per
second
(12
trial
averages).
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INTRODUCTION
In
this
paper we present
results
of
experiments
suggesting
the
existence
of
one
or more perceptual modalities
through which
individuals
obtain information about
their environment, wherein
this
information
is
not presented
to
any
known
sense.
Such perceptual abilities
are often
1-3
considered
to be paranormal.
The literature
in the
field
coupled with
our
own observations have
led
us
to conclude
that
such abilities
can be
studied under
laboratory
conditions.
The phenomena we have investigated most extensively pertain
to
the
ability
of certain individuals
to describe graphical material
or remote
scenes shielded against ordinary perception.
In addition, we also performed
pilot studies
to determine
if
electroencephalographic
(EEC)
recordings
might
indicate perception of
remote happenings even
in
the absence
of
correct
overt
responses.
in
these experiments we concentrated on what we considered
to be our
primary
responsibility—namely,
to
resolve under
conditions
as unambiguous
as
possible
the basic
issue
of whether
a certain
class
of paranormal
perception phenomena
exists.
Therefore,
we conducted our experiments with
sufficient
control,
utilizing visual,
acoustic,
and electrical shielding,
to
ensure
that
all
conventional
paths
of
sensory
input were blocked.
At
all
times we were vigilant
in
the design
of
our experiments
to
take
measures
to
prevent
sensory
leakage and
to prevent deception, whether
intentional
or unintentional,
on
the part
of
our subjects.
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Tin.'
overal.1
goal
of our research program
is
the determination
of
the
laws
underlying
these
phenomena.
That
is,
our
goal
is not just
to catalog
interesting events,
but rather
to uncover patterns
of
cause-effect
rela-
tionships
that
lend
themselves
to analysis
and hypothesis
in
the
forms
with which we are
familiar
in scientific
study.
The results presented
here, constitute
a
first
step
toward
that
goal,
in
that we have established
under known conditions
a
data base
from which departures
as
a
function of
physical
and psychological variables
can be studied
in future work.
In
this
paper we describe three related experiments which we consider
to
represent
a single ability exhibiting different rates
of
information
transmission.
First,
we conducted experiments with Mr.
Uri
Geller
in
which we
examined his
ability,
while
located
in
an electrically
shielded
room,
to
reproduce
target pictures drawn by experimenters
located
at
remo
locations.
Second,
we conducted double-blind experiments with
two
individuals,
Mr.
Ingo
Swann and Mr.
Pat Price,
in which we measured
their
ability
to describe remote outdoor scenes many miles
from their physical
location.
Finally,
we conducted preliminary
tests using electroencephalo-
grams
(EEG),
in which subjects were asked
to perceive whether
a remote
light was
flashing,
and
to determine whether
a subject could perceive
the
presence of
the
light,
even
if only at
a noncognitive level
of awareness.
REMOTE PERCEPTION OF GRAPHIC MATERIAL
We describe here
a series
of
experiments
in paranormal perception
with
a
27 year old Israeli subject,
Uri Geller.
In preliminary
testing
Mr.
Geller apparently' demonstrated an ability
to reproduce simple pictures
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(line
drawings) which
had been drawn
and placed
in opaque sealed envelopes
which
Mr.
Geller was
not permitted
to handle.
However,
since each
of
the
targets was known
to at
least
one experimenter
in
the room with
Mr.
Geller,
it was not possible on
the basis
of
the preliminary
testing
to discriminate between Mr.
Geller’ s
direct perception of envelope
contents
and perception via some mechanism involving
the experimenters, whether
paranormal or subliminal.
Therefore,
an experimental
study was undertaken
to
examine
the
phenomenon under conditions specifically designed
to eliminate
all
conventional
information channels,
overt
or subliminal.
This was accomplished
by separating Mr.
Geller from both
the
target material and anyone knowledgeable
of. the
target material,
as
in
the recent
experiments by Musso
and Granero.
The
first part
of
the study consisted
of
a series
of
thirteen separate
drawing experiments
carried out over
a seven day
period.
The thirteen-
experiment data set
constitutes
the entire set
of consecutive experiments
carried out
in
the
time available
for
the study, with
no
experiments
deleted.
The protocol
for
the experiments was
as
follows:
At
the beginning
of
the experiment either Mr.
Geller
or
the experimenters
entered
a shielded
room so
that
from
that
time
forward Mr.
Geller was
at
all
times visually,
acoustically,
and electrically shielded
from personnel
and material
at
the
target
location.
Only
following Mr.
Geller’s isolation
from the experimenters
was
a
target chosen and drawn,
a procedure designed
to eliminate pre-
experiment
cueing.
The method of
target selection involved random
procedures,
such
as
randomly opening
a dictionary and selecting
the
first
word describing an object
that
could reasonably be
drawn.
Furthermore,
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in order
to eliminate
the possibility
of
pre-experiment
target
forcing,
Hr.
Geller was
kept
ignorant
as
to
the
identity of
the person selecting
L he
target
and
as
to
the method
of
target selection.
Mr.
Geller 's
task
was
then
to
reproduce with pen on paper
the line drawing being generated
by
the experimenters
at
the
target
location.
Following
a
period
of effort
ranging from a
few minutes
to half
an hour,
Mr.
Geller either passed
(when he did
not
feel confident)
or indicated he was ready
to submit
a
drawing
to
the experimenters,
in which
case
the drawing was
collected
before Mr.
Geller was permitted
to
see
the
target.
In order
to prevent
sensory cueing of
the
target information,
Experiments
through
10 were carried out using
a shielded room in
SRI's
facility
for EEG research.
The degree of acoustic
and visual isolation
provided
for
this
experiment
is
that afforded by
a double-walled steel
room,
locked by means
of
an inner and outer
door,
each
of which
is
secure,
with
a refrigerator-type, locking mechanism.
The person inside
the
room
is
continuously monitored by means
of
a one-way
audio monitor.
The
target picture was never discussed by
the
experimenters after
the picture
was
drawn
or brought near
the shielded
room.
In our detailed examination
of
the shielded room and
the protocol used
in these experiments,
no sensory
leakage has been
found.
The conditions
and results
for
the
ten experiments
carried out
in
the
shielded
room are displayed
in Table
1.
As indicated
in
the Table,
all
experiments,
except
Experiments
and
5, were conducted with Mr.
Geller
closeted
inside
the shielded
room.
In Experiments
4 and
,
the procedure
was reversed— i.e.
,
the
target was
located inside
the shielded
room, with
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TABLE
1.
SUMMARY:
REMOTE
PERCEPTION
OF
GRAPHIC
MATERIAL
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Mr.
Celicr
on
the outside
in
cm adjacent
room.
For
those experiments m
which
Mr.
Geller was
inside
the shielded
room,
the
target
location was
Ln
an adjacent
room at
a distance of about
4 meters,
except
for Experiments
and
8,
in which
the
target
locations were,
respectively,
an otfice
at
a distance
of
475 meters
and
a room down
the hall
at
a distance
of
about
7 meters
In Experiment
i, the object drawn
on
the basis
of random dictionary
selection was
a
firecracker,
shown
in Fig.
1(a).
Mr.
Geller's
immediate
verbal
response via
the
audio monitor was
that
he
saw "a cylinder with
noise coming out
of
it."
He made
two responses
to
the
target,
also
shown
in
Fig.
1(a).
In Experiment
2,
the target-also chosen by random dictionary
selectir..
was
a
cluster
of
grapes.
Mr.
Geller said
that he was quite certain
that
he had
the picture.
Both
the
target picture and Mr.
Geller's response
».
have
grapes
in
the
cluster
(Fig.
1(b)).
In Experiment
3,
Mr.
Geller was
locked
in the shielded room with one
experimenter outside
as
a monitor while
the
target was drawn
in another
building 475 meters
away.
The
target,
again randomly selected
from
the
dictionary,
was
a devil
(Fig.
1(c)).
Mr.
Geller spent
30 minutes
on his
drawing and expressed
. considerable difficulty
in getting
the
target.
The
results
are interesting from
the standpoint
of
possible insight
into
the
process
that
they provide.
His
drawings consisted of representations
of
Biblical symbology,
including
the
"Moses tablets,"
an apple with
a worm,
a snake,
and
a concluding composite picture with
the
tablets
on
top
of
the world
and
the
trident
outside.
Of
these only
the
trident corresponds
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direuLly
to
an element
in
die
target
drawing.
One.
is
led
Lo
spee.ul.ate
that
the Biblical
elements
in
these
three drawings are
perhaps associational
material
triggered by
the.
target.
The
target
picture
for
Experiment
4 was
drawn by an experimenter
while he was
inside
the shielded room,with Mr.
Gel ler outside the room
with another experimenter.
In
this
case
the
target
(Fig.
1(d))
was
a
representation
of
the
solar
system.
Mr.
Geller’s
response
to
the
target
while outside
the room coincides
quite well with
the
target
drawing.
In Experiment
5,
the person-to-person link was
eliminated by arranging
for
a scientist outside
the
usual
experimental
group
to draw
a picture,
lock
it
in
the shielded room before Mr.
Geller's arrival
at
SRI,
and
leave
the
area.
Mr.
Geller was
then led by
the experimenters
to
the
shielded
room and asked
to draw
the picture inside
the
room.
He said
tha
he
got
no
clear impression and
therefore did not
submit
a drawing.
The
elimination of
the person-to-person link was
examined
further
in
the
second series
of experiments with
this subject, which
is described
later.
Experiments
6 and
7 were carried out while we recorded Mr.
Geller's
EEC during his
efforts
to
perceive
the
target pictures.
The
target pictures
were,
respectively,
a
tree and an envelope.
He
found
it difficult
to hold
adequately still
for good EEG records,
said
that
the experienced difficulty
in getting impressions
of
the
targets,
and again submitted no drawings.
For Experiment
8,
the
target picture was
a camel and Mr.
Geller's
response was
a horse
(Fig.
1(e)).
In Experiment
9,
the
target was
a bridge.
Mr.
Geller's drawing bears
some resemblance
to
the
target
(Fig.
1(f)),
but
before seeing
the
target picture he stated
that he did not know what
the
picture was.
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At
the beginning
of Experiment
JO,
Mr.
Geller expressed extreme
confidence and
entered
the shielded
room.
The
target
then chosen
for
Experiment
10 was
a bird
in
flight.
Mr.
Geller
said
almost
immediately,
via
the audio monitor
in
the shielded
room,
that
he
saw
a
swan
flying over
a hill and
that
he was
sure
that
his
drawing was .correct
(Fig.
1(g)).
Experiments
through
13 were carried out
in
SRI. 's Engineering
Building,
to make use
of
the computer
facilities
available,
there.
For
these experiments,
Mr.
Geller was
secured
in
a double-walled,
copper-screen
Faraday cage
54 meters
down
the hall
and around
the
corner
from
the
computer
room.
For Experiment
11,
a picture
of
a kite was
drawn by one
of
the
experimenters
on
the
face of
a cathode
ray
tube display screen,
driven
by
the computer's graphics
program.
Mr.
Geller 's
response, show
in
Fig.
2(a),
was
a square with diagonals.
For Experiment
12,
a picture
of
a church was drawn and stored
in
the
memory
of
the computer.
Mr.
Geller 's
responses
are shown
in
the drawings
of
Fig.
2(b).
Although his
responses have some elements
in common with
the
target drawing,
he did not recognize
the target
as
a church.
In Experiment
13,
the
target
drawing,
an arrow through
a heart
(Fig.
2(c)),
was drawn
on
the
face
of
the cathode
ray
tube and
then
the display
intensity
was
turned off
so
that no picture was visible.
Mr.
Geller immediately
”*'The
Faraday
cage provides
120
dB attenuation
for plane wave radio frequency
radiation over
a
range
of
KHz
to
GHz.
For magnetic
fields
the attenuation
is
dB
at
KHz and decreases
to
dB
at
Hz.
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TARGET
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drew
an arrow under
a rectangle
and
then drew another arrow inside
a suit-
case,
which
he
considered
a better representation of
the
target.
To obtain
an
independent
evaluation
of
the correlation between
target
and
response
data,
the
experimenters
submitted
the
data
for judging
on
a
"blind" basis by
two
SRI scientists who were not otherwise associated
with
the research.
For
the
ten cases
in which Mr.
Geller provided
a
response,
the. judges were asked
to match
the
response data with
the
corresponding
target
data
(without
replacement).
In
those cases
in which
Mr.
Geller made more
than one drawing
as his
response
to
the
target,
all
the drawings were combined
as
a
set
for judging.
The two judges
each
matched
the
target data
to
the response data with no
error.
For either
judge
such
a correspondence has
an a priori probability,
under
the null
-1
-7
hypothesis
of
no
information channel,
of
p
=
(10!)
=
3 x
The
quality
of match between
target
and response
in certain
cases,
together with
the overall probability of matching obtained by
the judges,
constitute
strong evidence
for
the existence
of
a potentially useful
information channel.
A second series
of
experiments was carried out
to determine whether
direct perception
of envelope contents was possible without some person
knowing
of
the
target picture.
One hundred
target pictures
of everyday objects were drawn by
an SRI
artist
and
sealed by other
SRI personnel
in double envelopes containing
black cardboard.
The hundred
targets were divided randomly
into
groups
of
for
use
in each
of
the
three
days'
experiments.
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On
each
of
the
three days
of
tlio.se experiments,
Mr.
Geller passed.
That
is,
he declined
to associate
any
envelope with
a drawing
that he made.
On each
day he made approximately
recognizable drawings, which he
felt
were associated with
the entire
target
pool
of
100.
He seemed
to be
disturbed by
the existence
of
such
a large
target
pool'.
On each of
the
three days,
two
of
his drawings
could reasonably be associated
with
two
of
the
20 daily
targets.
On
the
third day,
two of his drawings
were very close replications
of
two
of
that
day's
target
pictures.
We
consider
that
the drawings resulting from this experiment
do not depart
significantly
from what would be expected by
chance, which appeared
to
be Mr.
Geller's conclusion also,
leading
to passes on his
part.
Thus,
it would appear
that eliminating
a person knowledgeable
of
the
target degrades
the quality
of
the information channel.
However, based
on Mr.
Geller's subjective impression,
there
is
also
the possibility
tha'
advance preparation of
a large
target
pool,
in comparison with single
target preparation, results
in cross
talk— i.e.,
diffuses
the identity
of
the
target.
In
a simpler experiment Mr.
Geller was successful
in obtaining
information
in which
no persons were knowledgeable
of
the
target.
A double
blind
experiment was
performed
in which
a single die was placed
in
a small
steel box.
The box was
then vigorously
shaken by one of
the experimenters
and placed
on
the
table.
The orientation of
the die within
the box was
unknown
to
the experimenters
at
that
time.
Mr.
Geller would
then write
down his perception as
to which die
face was uppermost.
Thus,
in
this
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case
the
target
pool was known,
but
the
targets were
individually prepared
in
a manner blind
to
all
persons
involved
in
the experiment.
This
experi-
ment was performed
ten
times,
with
Mr.
Geller passing twice and giving
a
response eight
times.
In
the eight
times
in which he gave
a response,
he was
correct
each
time.
The probability
of
this occurring by
chance
is approximately one
in
a million, (1/6)
.
To summarize
the work with
Mr.
Geller, ^ we observe
that
in certain
situations significant
information
transmission can take place under
shielded conditions.
Factors which appear
to be important
and
therefore
candidates
for
future investigation include whether
the subject
knows
the
set
of
targets
in
the
target
pool,
the actual number of
targets
in
the
target
pool at any given
time,
and whether
the
target
is known by
any
of
the experimenters.
REMOTE VIEWING OF NATURAL TARGETS
In experiments
carried out
in our program
to
investigate
the abilities
of
a
Neii? York artist,
Mr.
Ingo
Swann,
he expressed
the opinion
that
the
insights
gained during experiments
at
SRI had strengthened his ability
to
view remote locations
that had been researched before he joined
the
SRI
program.
To
test Mr.
Swann's
assertion,
a pilot study was
set
up
in which
a
The distribution
of
responses
consisted
of
three
2s,
one
4,
two
5s,
and
two
6s
.
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series
of
targets
from around
the
globe were supplied
to
the experimenters
by
SRL
personnel
on
a double-blind basis.
In our estimation,
Mr.
Swann's
ability
to describe correctly details
of buildings,
roads,
bridges,
and
the
like
indicated
that
he could perceive
remote’ locations
,
sometimes
in
great
detail,
given only
their geographic
latitude
and
longitude.
Thus,
we considered
the descriptions were sufficiently accurate
to warrant
our
setting up
a
research program in remote viewing.
We present here
the results
of
a remote viewing experiment,
carried
out with
a
second subject
in
the remote viewing program,
Mr.
Pat
Price,
a
former California police commissioner and
city
councilman.
This
experi-
ment
consisted
of
a series
of double-blind,
demonstration-of-ability
tests
Involving
local
targets
in the
San Francisco Bay area which could be
documented
by several
independent
judges.
We planned
the experiment
considering
that natural' geographical places
or man-made sites
that
h
existed
for
a
long
time are more potent
targets
for paranormal percept
m
experiments
than are artificial
targets
prepared
in
the
laboratory.
This
is
based
on
the opinions
of Mr.
Swann and Mr.
Price
that
the use of
artificial
targets
involves
a "trivialization
of
the ability"
as compared
with naturaL pre-existing
targets.
In
each of nine experiments
involving Mr.
Price
as remote-viewing
subject and
SRI experimenters
as
a
target demarcation
team,
a remote
location was
chosen
in
a double-blind protocol.
Mr.
Price, who remained
at
SRI,
was asked
to describe
this
remote location,
as well as whatever
activities might be going on
there.
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Data
from
the
nine experiments
are
presented
in
the
following para-
graphs.
Final
.judging
indicated
that
several
descriptions yielded
significantly
correct
data pertaining
to and descriptive
of
the
target
location.
REMOTE VIEWING PROTOCOL
In
the nine double-blind remote-viewing experiments,
the
following
procedures were
used.
An experimenter was
closeted with Mr.
Price at
SRI
to wait
30 minutes
to begin
the narrative description of
the
remote
location.
The
SRI
locations
from which
the subject viewed
the
remote
locations, consisted of an outdoor park
(Experiments
1,2),
the double-walled
copper-screen Faraday cage discussed
earlier
(Experiments
3,
4,
6-9),
and
an office
(Experiment
5).
A second
experimenter would then obtain
a
target
location
from an
individual
in SRI management,
the director
of
the
Information Science and
Engineering Division,
not otherwise associated with
the experiment.
This
location was
either
in
the
form
of
traveling orders previously prepared,
sealed,
and randomized by
the
target selecter
(Experiments
1,
2,
j,
6)
,
or by his
driving
the
target demarcation
team
to
the target himself without
any written
indication
(Experiments
3,
4,
7-9).
The set
of
targets was
chosen
from
a
target-rich environment by asking
the selector
to
use his
judgment
in providing
a set
of nine
target
locations which were
clearly
differentiated
from each other
and within
thirty minutes
driving
time
from
SR [
.
In all
cases,
the
target demarcation
team proceeded directly
to
the
target
by automobile without communicating with
the subject
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or experimenters
remaining behind.
Since
the experimenter remaining with
the subject
at
SRI was
in ignorance both
as
to
the particular
target
and
also
as
to
the
target
pool,
he was
free
to question Price
to clarify his
descriptions.
The demarcation
team
then remained
at
the
target
site
for
an
agreed-upon
thirty minute period
following
the
thirty minutes allotted
for
travel.
During
the
observation period,
the
remote-viewing subject
would describe his
impressions
of
the target
site
into
a
tape recorder.
A comparison was
then made when
the demarcation
team returned.
To
represent
best
the
detail and
style of
these narratives,
we have included
the
entire
'
|.
unedited
text
of one
of
the better narratives containing very
few
incorrect
statements,
Experiment
7,
in an appendix.
In general,
the descriptions contained inaccuracies
as well
as
correct
statements.
To obtain a numerical evaluation of
the accuracy of
the
reir
te
viewing experiment,
the nine original
target locations were subjected
tc
independent judging on
a blind basis by
five
SRI scientists who were
no’
otherwise associated with
the research.
The judges were asked
to match
the
nine
locations,
which
they independently visited,
against
the
typed
manuscripts
of
the
tape-recorded narratives
of
the remote viewer.
The
transcripts were unlabeled
and presented
in random order.
The judges
were asked
to
find
a narrative which
they would consider
the best match
for each
of
the places
they visited.
A given narrative could be assigned
to more
than one
target
location.
The hypothesis
is
that
the judges,
when asked
to match
the actual
targets with
the
transcripts,
would place
the actual
target
in
the most
favored
category more often
than
they
would
be expected
to
by
chance.
Table
shows
the distribution of
the
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PLACES
VISITED
BY
JUDGES
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TABLE
2.
Distribution
of
correct
selections
by
Judges
A,
B,
C,
D,
and
E
in
remote
viewing
experiments.
Of
the
selections
(5
judges,
choices),
were
correct.
Boxes
heavily
outlined
indicate
correct
choice.
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judges'
choices.
For purposes
of display we present
the
table such
that
the main diagonal corresponds
to
the correct
choices.
The number
of
correct matches by judges A through
E
is
7,
6,
5,
3,
and
3,
respectively.
The expected number
of
correct matches
from
the
five judges was
five;
in
the experiment
twenty-four
such matches were obtained.
Among all possible analyses,
none
is more conservative
than
a
permutation analysis
of
the majority vote
of
the judges'
selections
assuming assignment without replacement.
By majority, vote,
six of
the
nine descriptions and locations were correctly matched.
Under the null
hypothesis
(no remote viewing and
a random selection of descriptions
without replacement)
,
this
outcome has an
a. priori probability of
p
=
-4
5.
x
,
since,
among all possible permutations
of
the integers
one
tb
ough nine,
the probability of six or more being
in their natural
p
tion
in
the list has
that value.
Therefore,
although Price's
descrip-
ti
is contain inaccuracies,
the descriptions
are sufficiently accurate
to permit
the judges
to differentiate among
the various
targets
to
the
degree
indicated.
EEG EXPERIMENTS
An experiment was undertaken
to determine whether
a physiological
measure
such' as
EEG activity could be used
as
an indicator of information
transmission between an isolated subject and
a remote
stimulus.
We
hypothesized
that perception could be indicated by such a measure even
in
the absence
of verbal or other
overt
indicators.
’
In other words,
this experiment examines
the hypothesis
that perception may
take place
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at
noncognitive
levels
of awareness and be measurable,
even though not
expressed verbally.
It was assumed
that
the application
of
remote stimuli would
result
in
responses
similar
to
those obtained under conditions
of direct
stimu-
lation.
For example,
when normal subjects
are stimulated with
a flashing
light,
their
EEG
typically shows
a decrease
in
the amplitude
of
the resting
rhythm and
a driving of
the brain waves at
the frequency
of
the
flashes.
Uo hypothesized
that
if we stimulated one subject
in this manner
(a sender)
the EEG
of another subject
in
a remote room with no
flash present,
(a
receiver), might show changes
in alpha
(9-11
Hz)
activity,
or possibly
EEG driving similar
to
that
of
the
sender.
Applying
this
concept,
we informed our subject
that
at certain
times
a
light was
to be
flashed
in
a sender's
eyes
in
a distant
room,
and
if
the
subject perceived
that
event,
consciously
or unconsciously,
it might
b
evident
Trom changes
in his
EEG output.
The receiver was
seated
in
the
visually opaque,
acoustically and electrically shielded double-walled steel
room previously described.
The sender was
seated
in
a room across
the hall
from
the
EEG chamber
at
a distance
of about
7 meters
from the receiver.
In order
to
find subjects who were responsive
to
such
a remote
stimulus,
we initially worked with
four
female and
two male volunteer
subjects.,
all
of whom believed
that
success
in
the experimental situation
might
be possible.
These were designated "receivers."
The senders were
cither other subjects
or
the experimenters.
We decided beforehand
to
run one
or
two
sessions
of
trials
each with each subject
in
this
selection procedure, and
to
do
a more extensive
study with any subject
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whose
results were
positive.
A Grass
PS-2
photostimulator placed about
1 meter
in
front
of
the
sender was used
to
present
flash
trains
of
sec
duration.
The receiver
s
KEG activity
from
the occipital region
(0 Z )
,
referenced
to linked mastoids,
was amplified with
a Grass
5P-1 preamplifier and associated driver
amplifier with
a bandpass
of
to
120
Hz.
The EEG data were
recorded
on
magnetic
tape with
an Ampex
SP
300
recorder.
On each
trial,
a
tone burst
of
fixed frequency was presented
to both
sender and
receiver,
and was
followed
in one second by either
a
ten-second
train
of
flashes
or
a null
flash interval presented
to
the sender.
Thirty-
six such
trials were given
in an experimental
session,
consisting of
12 null
r:als— i.e.,
no
flashes
following
the
tone— 12
trials
of
flashes
at
fps,
trials
of
flashes
at
fps,
all randomly
intermixed.
Each
of
the
L:
.a Is generated
an 11-second EEG epoch.
The last
seconds of
the epoch
wo
. selected
for analysis
to minimize
the desynchronizing action
of
the
warning
cue.
This
4-second segment was subjected
to Fourier analysis on
a
LINC
8 computer.
Spectrum analyses
gave no evidence
of
EEG driving
in any
receiver,
although
in control
runs
the receivers
did exhibit driving when physically
stimulated with
the
flashes.
However,
of
the six subjects studied
initially,
one subject
(H.H.)
showed
a consistent alpha blocking effect.
We
therefore undertook
further study with
this
subject.
Data
from
sets
of
trials
each were collected
from this
subject
on
three
separate
days.
This comprises
all
the
data
collected
to
date
with
this
subject
unefcr
the
test
conditions' described above.
The
alpha
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band was
identified
from average spectra,
then scores of average power
and
peak
power were obtained
from individual
trials
and subjected
to
statistical analysis.
Of our six subjects,
H.H.
had by
far
the most monochromatic
EEG
spectrum.
Figure
3 shows
an overlay
of
the
three averaged spectra
from
one
of
this
subject's
36-trial
runs,
displaying changes
in her alpha
activity
for
the
three stimulus
conditions.
Mean values
for
the average power and peak power
for
each of
the
seven experimental
sets were given
in Table
3.
The power measures were
less
in
the
fps
case than in
the
fps
in
all seven peak power measures
and
in six out
of
seven average power measures.
Siegel's
two-tailed £ approximation
to
the nonparametric randomization
test"^ was applied
to
the data
from all
sets,
which
included
two sessions
in which
the
sender was
removed.
Average power
on
trials associated with
the occurrence
of
fps was significantly
less
than when
there were
no
flashes
(jt
=
2.09,
df
=
118, £
<
.04).
The second measure,
peak
power,
was also significantly
less
in
the
fps conditions
than
in
the
null
condition
(_t
=
2.16,
df
=
118, £
<
.03).
The
average response
in
the
fps
condition was
in
the same direction
as
that
associated with
fps,
but
the effect was
not statistically significant.
Spectrum analyses
of
control
recordings made from saline with 12K
ohms
resistance
in place
of
the
subject with and without
the addition of
a
Hz,
pV
test
signal applied
to
the saline solution,
revealed no
indications
of
flash frequencies,
nor perturbations
of
the
Hz
signal.
These controls
suggest
that
the
results were not
due
to system artifacts.
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sjiun
Ajejjjqjfc
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THREE CASES
0,
and
16 Hz
flashes
(12
trial
averages)
FIGURE
OCCIPITAL EEG FREQUENCY SPECTRA,
0 TO
Hz, OF ONE SUBJECT
(H.H.)
ACTING AS
RECEIVER SHOWING AMPLITUDE CHANGES
IN THE
9-11
Hz BAND
AS A FUNCTION OF STROBE FREQUENCY
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TABLE
3.
EEG data
for H.H.
showing average power and peak power
in
the
-
11 Hz band,
as
a function of
flash frequency and
sender.
Each
table entry
is an average over
trials.
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Further
tests
also gave no evidence
of radio
frequency energy associated
with
the stimulus.
Subjects were asked
to indicate
their conscious assessment
for
each
trial as
to which stimulus was
generated.
They made
their guesses known
to
the
experimenter via one-way
telegraphic
communication.
An analysis
of
these
guesses has
shown
them
to be
at
chance,
indicating
the absence
of
any supraliminal
cueing.
Thus,
we note
that
in
this
pilot study,
one of
six subjects showed
significant
EEG changes associated with
the presence of remote stimuli
under conditions
of
sensory
shielding.
This
form of noncognitive arousal
evidenced by alpha blocking has also been observed by Tart
(1963),
using
small electric
shock stimulus applied
to himself
as
sender
in
a similar
periment.^
We hypothesize
that
the protocol described here may prove
be useful
as
a screening procedure
for latent remote perceptual ability
;
i
the general population.
DISCUSS LON
We have presented evidence
for
the existence of
a biological informa-
tion channel whose characteristics appear
to
fall outside
the
range of
known perceptual modalities.
The precise nature
of
the channel
or
channels
is
as
yet undefined,
but may involve either direct perception
of
hidden information content,
perception of mental
images of persons
knowledgeable
of
target
information,
precognition,
or some combination
of
these
or other
information channels.
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We have worked with
three individuals,
two
of whom are reported on
in
detail here,
whose
remote perceptual abilities were sufficiently
developed
that
they were able
to describe both pictorial and geographical
material blocked
from ordinary perception.
In addition
to experiments which centered on subjects'
conscious
perceptions,
we have also conducted EEG experiments
in which we have
found
statistically
significant evidence of direct physiological indications
(if nonconscious
perception of remote stimuli.
The observation that
a
nonconscious
link with physiological correlates
can exist between separated
Individuals
is
one
that merits considerable study.
From these experiments we conclude
that
o A channel exists whereby information about
a
remote location can
be obtained by means
of
an
as yet unidentified perceptual modality,
o
As with all biological
systems,
the information channel
appears
to
be
imperfect,
containing noise along with
the
signal,
o While
a quantitative signal- to-noise
ratio
in
the information-
theoretical sense cannot
as yet be determined,
the results
of our
'
experiments
indicate
that
the functioning
is
at
the level
of
useful
information transfer.
It
may
be
that
remote perceptual ability
is widely distributed
in
the general
population,
but because
the perception
is generally below an
individual's
level
of awareness,
it
is
repressed
or not
noticed.
For
example,
two
of
our subjects
(H.H.
and P.P.)
had not considered
themselves
to have unusual
perceptual ability before
their participation
in
these
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experiments.
We conjecture
that
it
is
partially
the prevailing philosophical
attitudes
o£
the
times
in which we live
that prevent
such ability as may
exist
from surfacing
to
a greater extent.
Our shared
cultural
constraints
deny permission
for
the demonstration of
such
abilities.
With
regard
to
the methodology
itself,
our observation of
the phenom-
ena
leads
us
to conclude
that experiments
in
the area
of
so-called paranormal
phenomena can be scientifically conducted.
The results
presented here
offer
a basis
from which departures
as
a function of other observables
can
be studied.
Our goal
for
future experimentation
is
the investigation
of
the physical and psychological
laws
underlying
these phenomena,
rather
than just
the addition of
further demonstrations
of
the statistical
ipearance
of
paranormal phenomena
in
the
laboratory.
'KNOWLEDGMENTS
This
researcii was
sponsored by The Foundation for Parasensory
Investi-
gation,
New York City.
We wish
to
thank
its
president,
Mrs.
Judith
Skutch,
and
their representative,
Dr.
Edgar
D.
Mitchell
of
the
Institute of Noetic
Sciences—as well
as
our
SRI associates,
Mr.
Bonnar
Cox,
Mr.
Earle Jones,
and
Dr.
Dean Brown— for
their support
and encouragement
throughout
this
work.
We also wish
to acknowledge
Dr.
Wilbur Franklin
of
Kent
State Uni-
versity
for
his
contribution,
especially
in
the early phases of
this
research
Finally,
we acknowledge
the many
constructive suggestions
provided
us
through
conversations with
Mrs.
Jean Mayo,
Dr.
Charles
Tart,
University
of
California,
and
Dr.
Robert Ornstein and Dr.
David Galin of
the Langley
Porter Neuropsychiatric
Institute.
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REFERENCES
1.
J.
Pratt,
J.B.
Rhine,
C.
Stuart
and
J.
Greenwood,
EXTRA SENSORY PERCEPTION
AFTER STXTY YEARS,
New York,
Henry
Holt,
1940.
2.
S.
Soal
and
F.
Bateman,
MODERN EXPERIMENTS
IN TELEPATHY,
London,
Faber
and
Faber,
1954.
3.
L.L.
Vasilliev,
EXPERIMENTS
IN MENTAL SUGGESTION,
Hampshire,
England,
ISMI Publications,
1963.
4.
J.R.
Musso and
M.
Granero,
"An ESP Drawing Experiment With
a High-
Scoring Subject,"
J.
of Parapsychology,
Vol.
37,
pp.
13-37,
March,
1973.
5.
It
has been widely reported
that Mr.
Geller has demonstrated
the ability
to
bend metal
by paranormal means.
Although metal bending by Mr.
Geller
has been observed
in our laboratory, we have not been able
to combine
such observations with adequately controlled experiments
to obtain
data sufficient
to
support
the paranormal hypothesis.
6.
K.
Osis, ASPR Newsletter,
No.
14,
Summer,
1972.
7.
C.T.
Tart,
PHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF PSI COGNITION,
Inti.
J.
of
Parapsychology,
Vol.
V,
No.
4,
Autumn,
1963.
8.
E.D.
Dean,
"Plethysmograph Recordings
as
ESP Responses,"
Inti.
J.
of
Neuropsychiatry,
Vol.
2,
October,
1966.
9.
D.
Hill and
G.
Parr,
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY:
A SYMPOSIUM ON
ITS VARIOUS
ASPECTS,. Macmillan,
New York,
1963.
10.
S.
Siegel,
NONPARAMETRIC STATISTICS
FOR THE BEHAVIORAL
SCIENCES,
pp.
152-156,
New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
Inc.,
1956.
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APPENDIX
Following
is
the unedited transcript
of remote viewing Experiment
7,
where
the
target
was
an Arts
and Crafts Garden Plaza.
This
is
a
large
plaza
resembling
a California mission.
There
are craft
shops around
the
perimeter
of
the
plaza.
In
the plaza
area
are many gardens,
flowers,
ceramic
pots,
fountains,
and
paths.
Overhead are
vines
on arbors
of
redwood.
Price's
description
is accurate
in almost every
detail
and
he
omitted
little
of
importance.
1:40
THIS
IS A REMOTE VIEWING EXPERIMENT WITH PAT PRICE,
DEAN BROWN,
AND RUSSELL TARG
IN THE SHIELDED ROOM
IN BUILDING
30.
THE TRAVELLERS TO
REMOTE LOCATION ARE BART COX,
HAL PUTHOFF,
JUDY SCHMICKLEY AND PHYLLIS
COLE.
WE EXPECT THE TRAVELLERS TO BE AT THEIR PLACE
IN ABOUT
10 MINUTES.
IT’S
1:58.
OUR TRAVELLERS SHOULD BE NEAR TO ARRIVING AT THE PLACE.
Why
don't
I
start scanning by quadrant using
this
as
a
center
point.
2-3,
6-9
LI
go
from
12-3
first.
Seems
to me right now
that
I'm picking
them up
. n
the
12-3 quadrant,
but
I'll
go on
in
the
rest and
look.
I
haven't
Otually
identified
them,
I
just
feel
that
they're
there.
:ope,
I
don't get
them
there.
Now
I'll
go
from
6-9.
While
I
was
looking at
6-9,
it
looks
to me
like
I'm
looking
at
an
iris,
a
flower
of some
kind.
I'll
come back and
identify
that
later.
Just wanted
to
get
it down as having
a
flash
of
an
iris
flower-purplish.
I'll continue
to
scan
that quadrant.
Nope,
don'
t;
get
them
there.
I’ll
go
from 9-12.
Don't
get
them
there.
I'll
go back
12-3.
Yeah,
I
get
them
in
that quadrant.
Now
I'll
see
if
I
can
locate
them physically, and
identify
the
area.
I'm
looking at
something
that
looks
like
an arbor,
trellis-work arbor.
Seem.s
to be
cool,
shaded.
Doesn't seem
to me
that
they're
out
in
the
direct
sunlight.
Be more
1 ike
there’s
lots
of
trees,
in an arbor
area.
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The arbor appears
to
be made
of
wood,
possibly redwood.
They
’ re
Just .... looks
like
it's
a
dirt
path,
quite wide,
I’d
say
maybe
feet.
I
can see
some grass.
Looks
like possibly
a
fountain
of
some
kind.
Yeah,
I
can
see Dart
in his
red shirt and what
looks
like kind
of
a
gray
' paisley
tie
-
I
didn't
really
look at
that when he was
down
there.
The
red
shirt,
I
did.
Looks
like he has
on
a
gray paisley
tie
.
It appears
they're walking along quite
leisurely.
Looks
like
there's
some
red brick laid into
a walkway.
They
don
t
seem
to
be on
it,
they
just seem to pass over
that.
I
get
-
it
seems
like
a
little ways
away
from
them
there
are quite
a
few people but
right
where they're walking
it doesn't appear
to
l)e many
right
in
there.
This
is
an arbor
area.
Back
of
that
arbor,
back here
I'd
say
feet
from
that
arbor
to here,
seems
to be
a
lot
of people
in here.
They
were walking along here
on what
looks
like
about
a. 12
foot
dirt
path.
WHAT KIND OF PLACE
IS THE ARBOR
IN?
IS
IT A FIELD OUT
IN THE OPEN?
No,
I
want
to
say
park,
but
it
doesn't exactly
feel
like
a
paik.
If
you
took
a
-
the
feeling
I'm getting
-
it's
not
the specific place
Put
like
the Town and Country Market.
That
type
of an atmosphere,
with quite
a
section of
it
into
a
little outdoor
park,
but basically
I'm getting
a
very strong feeling
of
flowers.
Like
the
first
one
I
saw was
an
iris.
TELL ME ABOUT THE TOWN AND COUNTRY ASPECT.
IN WHAT WAY DOES
IT REMIND
YOU OF TOWN AND COUNTRY.
The
buildings,
not
right where
they're
at,
but
very
close
to
them have
that
same
kind of architecture
and
look.
The parking
lot
looks
similar
grand,
sweeping,
not
cluttered,
it's more
expansive
area.
You
take
a
place
like Sears Mall
-
it
seems
cluttered.
This
seems more
leisurely
paced
.
People are moving about
slower
-
there's
not
the hustle
and bustle
more
or
less
meandering.
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TOWN AND COUNTRY MEANS
TO ME A COHERED WALKWAY.
Yeah,
the back
of
them
it seems
to
be
- where
they
are
seems
to be
a
very
large arbor
like vines growing over
it and
things,
and
there possi-
bly
-
I
haven't
looked
in
there
yet
to
see
if
there's
any displays
like
pottery
and
things
-
I
get
the
feeling
that
there
is
right
close
to
it.
ALSO,
OUTDOORS?
Yeah,
it
seems
like
fairly high
shade
trees
-
kinda
bordering.
The
center
part doesn't seem
to have
it
-
this
part
in
here.
The
trees seem
to be
way
up
in here along
like
this over here.
This seems
to
be shaded
in
here,
but
it's
sunny out
here.
I
just saw something
that
looked
like
a windmill
-
not
a
farm
type wind-
mill
-
a Dutch-type windmill.
It's
smaller
-
it's
not
a huge
thing,
but
I’m getting
a definite
feeling that
it’s
like
a windmill.
The
area
in
there
feels
damp
-
not wet
-
they're
not walking
in water,
but
it’s
very moist.
'he
temperature
in
there... it's
secluded.
Feels
very comfortable.
A
ittle on
the shady
side.
HAT DO YOU FIND AS THE BOUNDARIES OF THE PLACE THEY'RE AT?
*
Hitsidc
of
this
little park-like affair
that
they seem
to be
in,
there's
i
street.
One
side
of
it
seems
to be
a
kind of
a residential ... the other
seems
to
be
a
little
bit more heavily
travelled.
Let me pick up
a
little bit more.
I
can
see one
very
large oak tree
-
exceptionally
large.
Right
now Bart
is
trying
to point
something out
that
is basically
the
significance
of
the whole
place.
It's
like
that
key
thing,
well,
if
you'd have mentioned
a
salt pile
I’d have blown my
lid.
Well,
this
has
a significance
that's just about comparable
to
that.
I'm screening
it
out
.
Thing
that just
flashed
in was kind
of
like
a
stadium structure
-
like
looking
down
into
a
stadium.
Just
when
I
did
that
I
-
I'll
have
to reorient
to make
sure
I'm looking
in
the
same
area
now..
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Seems
Like
they're
-
in
or if;- ina L Ly
.
Seems
I
stiLL
get
them
in
the same quadrant
I
had them
like some decorative brick walls.
J H
I‘‘
QnA1)RANT
YOlJ
I!AD THEM
IN
IS BASICALLY THE NORTHEAST QUADRANT?
Yeah,
I
got
them out
about
this
far
-
it's
not
far
away
-
I'd say
in
this
direction over here
about
-
feels
like
a mile
to
a mile
and
a
half
They
don't
feel
as
far
away,
and
I'm not
looking at
the
time
continuum.
They actually
don't
feel
as
far away
.
I’d
say
that
it
is
about
-
not
half
the distance
they were
to
the marina,
and
it
seems
to be
on
a
line
just
about
in
that direction but
just
a hair more
-
rather
than
a
direct
line
from here
to
the marina
-
they seem to be just slightly more
to
the
left
of
that
line.
I
was
looking back
to where
he had
the car parked and
on asphalt
then
a
curb
in
front,
and
then it's
like
a
then
a
sidewalk.
But
I
can see eucalyptus buds
on
the
brandies
of eucalyptus
there.
it
seems
like
it's
dirt walkway and
ground and some
One
of
the most dominant
things
to me
in the way
of unusualness
is
the
size
of
the oak
tree
that
I'm looking
at.
Looks
like an arboretum,
or
I
get
the definite feeling of
flowers.
Almost
get
the
feeling
like
it's
commercial
In
fact,
the most predominant
feeling
that
Don't
know why
iris particularly.
There's
something about
tho windmill
that
I
that
what
you
were.
.
. .?
flowers
.
I'm getting right now
is
flowers
was
going
to
look
at.
Wasn't
'
Be
Like
one you'd almost
see
in
a miniature golfcourse ... the windmill
Has
all
the
construction and detail
but
not
as
large
-
it's
fairly small
Seems
to
be made out
of
dark redwood and
it's
kind
of aged.
I'm going
to
try
to
look more directly
to
them.
Let's
see,
there's Bart
and
Hal,
and behind Bart
is Judy and behind Hal
is Phyllis,
kinda
stag-
gered
tliere.
Lo °ks
llke
a
possible
small
pool
of water
-
like
a garden pond.
Looks
like
a
1 it t le bridge
.
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I
was
trying
to
get
the
feeling
of what
type
of an area
it
was.
hot mo elevate
a
bit.
I'm
looking at much
too small
an
area.
There's
some greater significance
there
that
I
feel
I'm definitely not
looking
at.
-
let's jack up
a
bit... maybe 500
feet.
I
see
a
lot
of
trees.
I
see Judy's
red hair and her brown eyes and
her" flashing
teeth
-
she
lias beautiful
teeth.
Hadn't really looked at
them before.
Phyllis
and her are
talking about something and Hal and Bart
are talking
about something and he's pointing
at something and
it
seems
to me
that
lie’s pointing over
to what
I'd call
a windmill
or something that
looks
like
a windmill.
The water
I
see
looks more
like
a
pool
or
a pond
than
it
does
-
you
know,
it's
not big
like
a
lake
-
not very
large,
but
it
looks
like
a
definite
pool.
i ght
where
they're
at
I
don't hear
too much
traffic noise
-
it
seems
o
be
fairly quiet.
i
inks
like
a
little wooden walkway,
eels
a
little
early,
but
it
kinda seems
like
they're
retracing
their
tops heading back
toward
the
car,
but
they're
still moving quite
leisurely
IF YOU LOOK DOWN ON THE PLACE FROM ABOVE,
CAN YOU GET ANY FEELING FOR
THE
-
IS THERE ANY OVERALL LAYOUT OR PLAN?
When
I
went
up
I
could
see
trees
and
stuff,
and
I
kind
of
got
the
feeling
of
like
in
a
corner
of
a
golf
course,
you know
- where
there would be
a
lot
of
trees overhanging
the green and some
things
in
there
-
that
seemed
to
lie out
of
context,
but
when
I
elevated,
that's what
I
got.
It
kind
of
looked
like an
overlap
to
me,
so
I
didn't
talk about
it,
but
I
will.
When
I
elevated
it
kind
of
felt
like
it was
right over
the corner
of
a
golf course
of
some
kind,
with
a street running down
one side,
and
they
are
fairly close
to
that.
In
fact,
the bricked area
that
I
looked at
or
like
a
patio
thing kinda
Looks
like
a
walkway.
Seems
like
there's
small building
-
small meaning
not
tall
-
looks
like
a
single story building.
Looks
like
it
has
a
flat
roof
--
slightly
pitched.
Looks
like 4x4 poles supporting
it
-
has
a
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canopy out
over
it.
They're painted white,
place
looks
like very possible
l
i phi
yellow or cream color.
They
' re
walking not
too
fa-r from
that.
Still
seems
to me
that
they're
on
a
dirt pathway
.
In
the area
that
they're
in now
I
get
flowers again
-
where before
they
kinda
fell
out
of
the
flowers.
Looks
like maybe 80-100 yards
from where
they are
-
looks
like
guys
on
a motor
scooter.
They can
see
them.
WHAT WOULD YOU SAY
IS THE INTEREST TO THIS
PLACE?
WHAT'S SPECIAL ABOUT
THIS
PLACE?
It seems
to
be
a
kind of
a recreational,
relaxed. .. not energetic
-
looks
more
relaxed.
I'd say
it's
kind
of combination recreational
and relaxation
area
that
I'm getting out of
it.
That would be
the general character
of
it.
Two
aspects
-
one
is aesthetics and
the
other
is
a
kind
of
a mild recre-
ational
area.
There
seem
to be
some unique
features
-
I
don't have
it
totally
into
context
as
yet.
There's
a
number
of
things
that
I've rejected
-
looked
at
and
rejected
saying.
First,
I
got
the
impression
that
it
was
kind of
like
a miniature
golf
course
-
I
rejected
that.
Merely from saying
it
-
I
didn't reject
the
principle
-
I
just
rejected saying
it.
Then
I
kind of got
the
idea
of
a
standard golf
course
-
I
also rejected
that
on
the same principle,
so
I'm just
trying
to describe
the
terrain.
Seems expansive
-
doesn't seem cluttered.
Just
got
a
flash of
something
that reminded me of
the gyroscope
-
gimbals
on
the gyroscope.
Drinking
fountain
-
looks
like
it's made
out
of
kinda
like
field stone
built
up
into
a
foun tain ... bowl
.
I'm going
to
elevate
again
and
go
through
a
search quadrant
again.
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I
stiLl
ge t
them
in
that
general
location,
so
that
seems
to
set
all
right.
Distance
-
maybe
a mile,
mile and
a
half.
Doesn't seem much farther-
s coins
fairly
close.
The area
has
an awful
lot
of
grass,
lot
of
trees
-
looks
like
dirt walk-
ways,
well
trimmed.
I
can see
the
arbor,
and
the arbor could
be
a
place
to sit and
be
out
of
the direct
sun.
May
be
a
few
little
tables and benches
and chairs
in there.
That
outlooks
over quite
a grassy area
-
there
are quite
a
few
trees.
I
see basically
an
oak.
Right
after
they
got out of
the car
I
could
see
some eucalyptus buds
and branches
on
the
ground,
and
it seemed
like
the
trees were
there.
Looked
like
they
got
out of
the
car,
stepped upon
a
curb,
dirt
parkway,
a sidewalk,
and
then
they went
into
this
area.
I
get
the
feeling
this
windmill
type
thing
-
that
all
seems
fairly
real.
The
feeling
is
still
that
it's
relaxing and
has
some recreational
aspects
[
just haven't put
it totally
together
as
to giving
it
a
name.
Right now
I
get
a
very strong impression of
flowers
again.
It seems
like
right now they're back
to right where
I
originally
spotted'
them only
they're
going
in the opposite direction
-
like
they're moving
toward
the direction
they originally
went.
While
they were
there
they walked on several pathways
- walked out quite
a
ways,
then swung over and come over
and worked around
and
looked at...
One peculiar
thing
I
might
note
-
so far
I
haven't
sensed,
seen nor heard
an airplane.
Cars
seem quite distant
-
outside
of
that
little motor scooter affair
with
the
two guys
on
it.
That's
about
the only vehicular
traffic
I've
seen
-
except out
in
the parking
lot.
It
seems
like
to me
that
they've
got most
of
their attention off what
they
were
looking at
and
they've got
their attention more
on
the
car
now.
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I
want
to
look and
find
out what
the
significant
thing was
that Bart
was
talking about.
There’s something quite unusual
there
and
I
...
Damned
if
I
can pick
it
up.
WAS HAL DOING ANYTHING BESIDES WALKING ALONG
- WAS THERE ANY ACTIVITY
FOR HAL TO DO?
Most
of
the
time
I
was
looking
at Hal,he
was
kind of listening
to Bart
and Bart
was
pointing
out
a
number
of
things.
Part of
the
time Bart was walking with
Hal;
part
of
the
time he was back
by Judy.
When
I
first
saw
them,
it was Bart
in
the
front
on the
left
side,
Hal
was
on
his
right,
Judy was slightly behind
-
almost between Bart
and
Hal
but
behind,
and Phyllis
to her
right.
They wandered around but
the
first
time
I
picked up
-
they were
that
way
.
When
they were coming back,
they just about
reversed.
Bart would be
in
front.
When
they were coming
back,
it
looked
like Bart was
in front
with Phyllis,
and Judy was walking more behind Bart and Hal
on her right
when
they were
coming back out of
there.
They're actually at
the
car.
2:30
SHALL WE GO DOWNSTAIRS AND SEE HOW THEY'RE DOING?
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ftw/mnH ^ Pwhophvsics
1973.
I
ol.
14. .Vo.
2. 313-3 13
CPYRGHT
A study of sine-wave contrast sensitivity
by two psychophysical methods*
D. H. KELLY and R. E. SAVOIE
Stanford Research Institute. Menlo Park. California 94025
In
the
literature
on
visual
contrast
thresholds
for
sine
wave
gratings,
little
attention
has
been
paid
to
the
psychophysical methods used
to obtain these spatial-frequency response Curves. Here
vve report
a comparison of such
data obtained by two quite different psychophysical methods, but otherwise under identical conditions, using five Ss.
Both experiments were run by computer: (1
1 In the method of adjustments, the computer program merely controls the
order of the stimuli and records S's contrast
settings.
(2) In the forced-choice staircase (PCS) technique,
the program
determines how often S can discriminate the sinusoidal grating from a uniform field, informs S of his accuracy, controls
the
stimulus
contrast
on
the
basis of
S's preceding
responses, and
brackets
his
threshold by
a
series of
successive
approximations. Method 2 eliminates criterion effects
that occur
in Method
1, and hence tends to minimize individual
differences.
However,
the FCS
technique
requires
an
order
of magnitude
more
observing time
to obtain
equally
smooth contrast sensitivity
curves. FCS
also increases the overall sensitivity of some Ss by as much as five times, but
it
docs not
significantly change the shape of the contrast sensitivity curve; both methods show strong effects of lateral
inhibition at low spatial frequencies.
Measurements
of
the
contrast
threshold
for
a
sinusoidal
grating
as
a
function of
its spatial frequency
have been used to study the effects on the visual process
of
optical,
neural,
chromatic,
temporal,
and
other
factors. Van Meeteren (1966) has reviewed
a number of
•hese
studies.
We
are
particularly
interested
in
the
. ow-frequenc.y
region
of
such
data,
below
about
yclcs/dcg
(cpd),
because
the. monotonic
increase
of
ontrast
sensitivity with
increasing
spatial frequency in
lis
region
may
represent
a
simple
form
of
lateral
ihibit ion (Kelly, 1973).
In certain
cases,
little or no low-frequency falloff was
eported
(e.g.,
Westheiiner.
1960; Campbell & Green,
1965), but
this has been attributed to the use of small,
sharp-edged
targets
(Davidson!
1966;
Kelly,
1970)
or
flash
presentations
(Kelly,
1971,
1973),
which
are
unsuitable
for isolating the steady-state response to very
low
spatial
frequencies. However, some
Ss
report
that
the
task
of
detecting
a
low-frequency
grating
seems
different
from
the
high-frequency
detection
task;
this
raises
the question of whether
the apparent
inhibition
would
persist
at low frequencies if criterion effects were
eliminated.
Many of the data
in the literature have been obtained
by the psychophysical method of adjustments, which
is
the
easiest
and
fastest
procedure
when
Ss
are
experienced
in
this
type of judgment; variations of the
method
of
limits
have
also
been
used.
But
more
sophisticated
psychophysical
methods
have
been
developed
in
recent
years
which
are
essentially
independent of threshold criterion: these have not been
*Our w ork was partly supported by NIH Grant No. MS-08322
and NSi
Grunt No. G1M157
. Some of the data were reported
at
the October 1971
meeting of the Optical Society of America
in Ottawa. Canada. We thank T. N. Cornsweet
for suggesting
this
studs
.
applied
to
the
measurement
of
sine
wave
contrast
thresholds. We therefore undertook to compare the sine
wave thresholds obtained by the method of adjustments
with those
obtained by
a forced-choice staircase (FCS)
paradigm,
in which
the S was always informed
of the
correctness of his choice. Our main purpose was to find
out
whether
the
low-frequency
inhibition
was
independent of criterion effects, but our results are also
relevant to other sine wave contrast experiments that use
subjective judgments.
METHODS
The
stimulating
apparatus
is
described
in
detail
elsewhere
(Kells’,
1966. 1972); its components are shown schematically in
Fig.
1.
S
is
seated
comfortably,
viewing
a
cathode
ray
tube
(CRT) 50 cm distant through an artificial pupil. 2.3 mm in diam.
He
sees
an
8-deg
circular
field,
filled
by
a
vertical sinusoidal
grating. The
spatial frequency of this grating
is controlled by
a
(L1NC 8)
computer. The dependent
variable
is
the Michelson
contrast (m) of the grating, defined as
®max — ^min
+R
D max
“nun
where B raax and B min are the maximum and minimum values of
the
stimulus waveform,
in
trolands
(td)
of
retinal illuminance,
This contrast
is under the control of either the computer or the
S. depending on
the mode of operation. Since the grating does
not
flash
or
flicker
in
the
present
experiments,
our temporal
waveform source w as not used
I see Fig.
1).
Adjustments Mode
In
the method of adjustments,
the S controls the contrast
ot
the grating, using
a geared-down potentiometer w ithout stops or
other
mechanical
cues.
Spinning
the
knob
about
1.200 dee
covers the
entire adjustment range, which may be either 0-1
or
0-0.1
contrast,
depending
on
a
switch
controlled
by
the
S.
Another
switch
gives
him
the
option
of viewing
zero
or
lull
contrast
at
any
time, without
losing
his potentiometer setting.
When
the
w'ttine
meets
his
threshold
criterion,
he
pushes
a
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CPYRGHT
-'14
KELLY AND SAVOIE
'hi
FOHCfO CHOICE
STAIRCASE method
Fig.
1.
Signal-flow
diagrams
of
the
CRT
stimulator,
(a) Configuration
for method of adjustments, (b) Configuration
for forced-choice staircase (FCS) procedure.
button which enters this contrast into the computer.
He
is instructed
to fixate the center of the grating and to find
the contrast at w hich
it can just be discriminated from a uniform
field.
(This
criterion,
which
we
always
use
for
sine
wave
thresholds,
should come
close
to matching
S’s performance
in
the forced-choice
task described below.! S spends as mucli time
as he wishes “hunting” back and forth to find his threshold, but
we
instruct him
to make
his final judgments only
in the steady
state:
i.e.. after he has refrained from changing the contrast for
several
seconds.
Twelve
spatial
frequencies were
tested
in one
experimental
session; each
pattern was presented
five
times
in
random
order, for a
total of 60 judgments. The means of these
five
settings
gave
fairly
smooth
spatial-frequency
response
curves, as described below. An experienced S can complete such
a run
in 20-26 min.
Forced-Gioice Staircase (FCS) Mode
Our
criterionless
psychophysical
procedure
combined
the
staircase method of ordering stimuli (Bekesv.
1947: Cornsweet.
1962)
with
the
forced-choice method
of response
collection
(Blackwell.
1946; Heinemann,
1961).
In
this
application,
the
two
techniques complement
each other
in such
a way
that
S
spends most of his time making discriminations near threshold.
The
S’s task
is much simpler
in
the PCS mode. The same
stimulus
patterns
are
used, but
their contrast
is now under
the
control
of
tire
computer. One
stimulus
cycle
consists of two
successive
intervals,
each
5 sec
long:
a
pattern
of
nonzero
contrast
is
presented
in
only
one
of
these
intervals, which
is
determined by
the computer from
a
table of random numbers.
One second
after
the beginning of each
interval,
a marker lone
sounds to notify S that the stimulus may be visible. He makes his
choice of interval by pushing a button, w hich also starts the next
trial: but
this button has no effect until after the second tone,
hr
other words. S must make
a choice
in order to start
a new
trial,
but
lie cannot do so until after the second interval has started.
As
soon
as
he
makes
his
choice,
he
hears
a
pleasant
tone
(different front the marker tone)
if he
is correct or an unpleasant
noise if lie is not.
His only
other control
is
a "pause” switch, which interrupts
the experiment
for
rest
periods.
S may
use
this switch also to
abort
a given
trial
(if.
for example, he happened
to be looking
away
when
the
marker
tone
sounded).
Tire
aborted
trial
is
repeated when the pause switch
is reset, but the stimulus will not
necessarily occur in the same interval.
In order to avoid transient effects (Kelly.
1971.
1973), as we
do in the adjustments mode,
the temporal waveform of the FCS
stimulus
is carefully controlled. The mean luminance of the CRT
screen
is held constant throughout the experiment. When a given
pattern
is presented,
its contrast
is smoothly
“faded
in" from
zero
to whatever
value
is
set
by
the
computer,
as shown
in
Fig. 2a.
The
temporal
envelope
of
the
fade-in
waveform
resembles
a half-cycle of
a 0.5-Hz cosine wave,
so that the
full
contrast of the pattern
is present after
1 sec (this contrast always
being zero in either
the
first or second interval, at random). The
pattern is also faded out the same way.
AU
staircases
are independent and randomly
interleaved,
which
helps
to
eliminate
subjective
bias
effects
iCornsweet.
1962). On
each
trial,
the
contrast
of
the FCS
stimulus
is
contingent on the correctness of the preceding responses to the
same pattern, according to an algorithm described in detail in the
Appendix. When
the
responses
indicate
that
S
can
detect
the
pattern, the contrast
is decreased; when
lie cannot, the contrast
is increased, by a constant logarithmic increment
in either case.
Thus,
tlie contrast
is forced
to cross and recross the threshold
level
(which
is
about 75T
correct). At
first,
the
size
of
the
increment
is decreased each time the response sequence indicates
that
a contrast increase has probably crossed S’s threshold. But
the
third
time
this
indication
occurs,
the
smallest
increment
(30fc
contrast
change)
is
maintained
and
the
staircase
is
terminated with a fixed number of additional trials.
A
typical
staircase
illustrating
these
properties
is shown
in
Fig. 2b.
Each
stimulus
is
first
presented
at
full
contrast,
to
familiarize S with
its appearance and to provide a suprathreshold
baseline.
If he
detects
it
correctly,
its next presentation
is
at a
contrast
of 0.02; the
staircase then
enters
the main algorithm
(see Appendix).
First
lul.'rvji
time
-
vcomij
Motkcr
lot'-'l Oua'
til
Ihr.- A"u.»
"m” a Coinru
,>d hy n»'
o'MmM A |,iM , i , it
SltanHul Oiiu'i
'ft
(he
Fi'kl
o'
SxCOAtl
Interval
at
R.-hUiJ'n
(a)
FORCED-CHOICE PRESENTATION CYCLE
i
*>
io
is
TR.At NUVblH
(hi
TYPICAL STAIRCASE
Fig. 2. Details of the FCS procedure,
(a) Temporal waveform
of one stimulus cycle and timing of alerting tones, (b) A
single
staircase, reassembled to show
all contrasts presented, increment
sizes, wrong responses, and calculated threshold.
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CPYRGHT
Several
hundred
trials
are
required
to
terminate
all
staircases:
an
experimental
session
iisualls
takes
65-75 min.
regardless
of
the
skill
or
experience
of
the
S,
Most
of
the
variability in length of the individual staircases (Rose et
al. 1970)
is
averaged
out
by
the
large
number
of
staircases
being
run
simultaneously. 1
The threshold for each pattern
is calculated as the mean of the
last
eight
contrasts
presented, no
adjacent
pair
of
these being
separated by more than
the smallest increment. The intersession
v-
variability of
I CS data obtained
in this way
is no greater than in
<
the
adjustment
mode,
but
is
mainly
random
rather
than
systematic.
Thus,
to
obtain
equally
smooth
spatial-frequency
z
response
curves,
one
must
average
the
data
from
three
FCS
~
sessions, as described below,
RESULTS
Figure
.3
shows
some
contrast
sensitivity
data
obtained
with
a
20-year-old emmetropic
naive
S. The
upper
curve
(filled
circles)
represents combined
data
from
three
FCS
runs;
three
comparable
adjustment
curves
are
plotted
separately (open
circles). These data
are
typical of our results
in three ways.
First,
the shape
of the FCS curve
is
essentially
the same
as that of the
adjustment curves; in both cases, the contrast sensitivity
increases
steeply
at
low
spatial
frequencies,
to
a
axitnum
near
4 cpd.
Second,
the FCS
sensitivity
is
.
itematically greater than that in any of the adjustment
is.
by
a
factor
of
to
5.
Third,
there
are
also
Ucmatic differences among the individual adjustment
vcs.
but
these
are smaller than
the FCS-adjustment
Terences.
The
lowest
sensitivity
in
Fig. 3
represents
the
first
Fig. 3.
Contrast
sensitivity
vs
spatial
frequency
for
S K.S.
Retinal
illuminance.
1,300 td:
artificial
pupil.
2. mm.
Filled
circles
are
the means of three FCS runs. Open
circles represent
tiirec successive adjustment runs.
SINE-WAVE CONTRAST SENSITIVITY
315
Fig. 4.
Contrast
sensitivity
vs
spatial
frequency
for
S D.K.
Same conditions as Fig. 3.
experiment
with
S K.S.
Her
adjustment
sensitivity
increased
subsequently,
but
leveled
off between
the
second and
third
adjustment
runs. Typically,
a naive S
starts
with
a
high
threshold
criterion, which
he
then
lowers
after
some
experience
with
the
method
of
adjustments. However, his adjustment thresholds seldom
get
as low as
his. FCS thresholds; apparently he adopts a
criterion
in
the
range
of 90%-100%
probability
of
detection
(compared
to
the 75% imposed by
the FCS
mode).
Figure 4 shows
a
similar comparison
for another
S.
S D.K. (one of the authors) is somewhat atypical, having
had hundreds of hours of practice in experiments with
this
particular
apparatus.
If
practice
lowers
the
adjustment
threshold, his adjustment
sensitivity should
be
greater than
that of SK.S.; and
it
is.
relative
to his
FCS
sensitivity.
Firs adjustment
sensitivity .may
still be
slightly
less
than
his FCS
sensitivity, but
the two
are
much
closer
together
than
they
are
for our other
Ss.
Evidently he
uses
a lower threshold
criterion, closer to
the FCS level. As
in
Fig. 3, the FCS curve
in
Fig. 4 was
obtained by averaging data from three sessions, a total of
about 3.5 h observing time.
However,
the
contrast
sensitivity
curves
obtained
from
individual FCS
sessions
are
also instructive: these
are shown
for
a
third S
in
Fig. 5. Each of the dashed
curves
in
this
figure connects
the end points of the
staircases obtained
in
a single experimental session
(see
Fig. 2b). The mean curve
for these three FCS sessions
is
shown
for
comparison
with
the
previous
figures.
Figure 5
also
shows some
systematic
variation
among
three
adjustment
runs
for
this
S.
(S H P.
was
more
experienced
than
K.S.. but even
an
experienced
S will
not always hold
the same adjustment criterion from one
run
to
the next.) Again, the FCS sensitivity
is about
five
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CPYRGHT
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hFLLY AND SAVOIE
Fig. 5.
Contrast
sensitivity
vs
spatial
frequency
for
S H.P.
Same conditions as Figs. 3 and 4. Dashed lines show data from
three FCS runs, averaged to obtain filled-circle points.
times greater than the adjustment sensitivity.
The
most
important
result
shown
in
Fig. 5
is
the
nature
of
the
variability among FCS runs and among
adjustments
runs. Although
the FCS data
are about as
variable
as
the
adjustment
data,
the
adjustment
variability
is
mainly
systematic,
while
the
variability
among the FCS runs seems random. (Note that the FCS
curves
from
individual
sessions
cross and
recross each
other and the mean curve several times.) The data were
subjected
to
a
chi-square
test
of
the
hypothesis
that
mean rank contrast sensitivity
is independent of session
number.
This
hypothesis
can
be
rejected
for
the
adjustments data
(p < .001), but cannot be rejected for
the FCS data (p = .1).
Now, if the FCS method eliminates systematic intra-S
variability
from
one
run
to
the
next,
and
if
this
intersession
variability
is caused mainly by changes in S’s
criterion,
then
we
would
expect
this
method
to
minimize
the
variability among Ss
as
well. The
data
shown
inr Fig. 6
tend to confirm
this expectation. Here
the mean FCS curve for S H.P.
is repeated, together with
similar data
for two other young, emmetropic
Ss. Note
the close
similarity among
all
three contrast
sensitivity
curves,
particularly
at
frequencies below
2 cpd. These
data (and others not reported here)
all tend to confirm
the presence of a low-frequency inhibiting effect with a
relatively steep slope (about 2 in log-log coordinates).
DISCUSSION
Instructing S to try to detect any perturbation of the
uniform
field
may
be
important
in
making
the
adjustment curves so similar in shape to the FCS curves.
One
should
not
assume
that
our
results
would
be
obtained
if S were instructed to detect the presence of a
grating, or to report
its orientation, count
its fringes, etc.
The use of other subjective criteria can doubtless change
the shape of the sine wave threshold curve.
When minimum threshold values are not required, and
occasional criterion differences among and within Ss can
be
tolerated,
the method
of adjustments
is obviously
preferable,
because
it
yields
equally smooth
curves
in
about
a
10th of the time required by the FCS method.
However,
the
FCS
method
eliminates
criterion
differences
and
provides
information
about
S's
performance (not just his judgments).
Summarizing
our
results
with
five
Ss. ranging from
naive
to quite experienced:
( 1 ) Both methods yield
the
same
curve
shape,
but
the
FCS
method
gives
significantly greater sensitivity than that obtained by the
method of adjustments: the increase may be as great as a
factor
of
(depending
on
S’s
adjustment
criterion).
(2) Presumably
because
it
is independent of threshold
criteria,
the
FCS
method
does
not
show
systematic
changes
of sensitivity from one run
to the next
(as the
method
of
adjustments
sometimes
does.)
(3) The
variability
of the FCS data
is mainly random and can
therefore
be made
quite small by taking enough
data.
(4) When
this
is
done,
individual
differences (among
young, emmetropic Ss) tend to disappear.
These results are essentially what would be expected,
based
on
the
differences
between
the
two
psychophysical methods. We conclude
that,
if the
S
is
appropriately
instructed,
the
shape
of
lids
sine wave
grating
sensitivity
curve
is
not
affected
by
using
the
method of adjustments. Moreover,
it seems
likely
that
this negative
result would be maintained
if the present
study
were
extended
to
other
criterion-dependent
Fig. 6.
Contrast
sensitivity
vs
spatial
frequency
for
three
young, emmetropic Ss, obtained by the FCS technique.
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CPYRGHT
SIM; -WAVE CONTRAST SENSITIVITY
317
EXECUTIVE
Fig. 7. Flow-chart representation of the FCS computer program.
various bookkeeping functions, and calculates and prints
out
the
average
data
at
the
end
of
an
experimental
session. The
staircase
control
portion
of
the program
operates on
a parameter table
for the staircase currently
selected:
it
keeps track of the previous three responses,
the
previous
eight
contrasts,
the
present
contrast, and
contrast
increment
size
(and
other
parameters
for
internal
use). These
historical
data
are needed
for each
staircase to determine
its subsequent contrasts.
The interface control portion of the program controls
the
stimulator
interface,
which
operates
the
entire
sequence
of
each
trial:
stimulus
generation,
contrast
fading, marker tones, and reinforcement. When S makes
a response,
the computer reads data from
the interface,
indieating whether
the
response was
right
or wrong tor
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psychophysical
methods
in
general.
Thus,
our
results
tend
to support
the
sine wave
threshold data obtained
by these methods.
APPENDIX
The Forced-Choice Staircase (FCS) Computer Program
**
•
The operation
of the FCS computer program can be
divided
into
five
functional
categories:
executive,
interlace control, staircase control, response history, and
contrast change (see Fig.
7).
The
executive
section of the program
initializes
the
experiment,
selects (from
a random [able) one of the
stimulus patterns
tor presentation
at each
trial, performs
I
saici
i.fv.
]
STAIRCASE
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CRYRGHT
318
KELLY AND SAVOIE
whether
t he “pause" switch was set).
The
response
history
section
is the heart of the FCS
program
; Fie. 7 shows a flow chart ot this section and
its
relation
to the other parts of the program. Each staircase
follows
the
algorithm
according
to
its own
history,
independent of the other staircases. The next contrast to
be presented (for the selected staircase)
is calculated on
the
basis of the
present
contrast, the present response,
the previous two responses,
the contrast increment, and
whether
the
contrast
was
changed
atter
the
previous
response. The contrast algorithm
is as follows: (1) When
S
makes
a wrong (W)
response,
the
contrast
of
that
pattern
is
increased
for
its, next
presentation.
After he
makes two
successive
right (R) responses
to
the same
pattern,
its contrast
is decreased
(this
sets the average
end
point
of each
staircase
at about 75%
correct). The
new contrast
is obtained by multiplying (or dividing) the
preceding contrast by
a
fixed ratio
(i.e.,
a constant
log
increment).
(2) Each time
the sequence \V.R,R
occurs,
the
size
of
this
increment
is
decreased.
(This
is most
likely
to occur when the contrast increases from below
to
above
the
75%
correct
level.)
The
successive
increment
sizes
are:
8X.
2X,
1.3X.
(3) After
the
sequence W,R.R
has occurred
three
times with
a given
pattern,
the
staircase terminates with
three more
trials
using
the
smallest
increment,
and
that
pattern
is not
presented
again.
The
session ends when
all
staircases
have terminated.
The
last
eight
contrasts
from
each
staircase
are
averaged to obtain the threshold. The minimum number
of
trials before termination but
after the second W.R.R
sequence
is eight. Therefore,
all contrasts being averaged
were
necessarily
presented
during
the
period when the
smallest contrast increment was in effect.
REFERENCES
Be'kesv. G.
v. A new audiometer. Acta Oto-Iaryngologica, 1947.
35. 41 1-422.
Blackwell. H. R. Contrast thresholds of the human eye. Journal
of the Optical Society of America. 1946. 36. 624-643.
Campbell.
F.
\V., &
Green,
D.
G.
Optical
and
retinal
factors
affec tins: visual resolution. Journal of Physiology, 1965,
181,
576-593"'.
Cornsweet.
T.
N.
The
staircase
method
in
psychophysics.
American Journal of Psychology, 1963, 75, 483-491.
Davidson.
M.
A
perturbation
analysis
ot
spatial
brightness
interaction
in Hashed visual
fields. Doctoral
thesis. University
of California. Berkeley, 1966.
Hcincmann.
£.
G. The
relation
of apparent brightness
to
the
threshold
for
differences
in
luminance.
Journal
of
Experimental Psychology, 1961, 61, 389-399.
CPYRGHT
icily. D. H. Frequency doubling
in
visual responses. Journal of
the Optical Society of America. 1966. 56. 1628-1633.
i lolly. D. H. Effects of sharp edges on the visibility of sinusoidal
"ratines. Journal of the Optical Society of America. 1970. 60.
98-103.
Ielly.
D.
H.
Transient
effects on
the
visibility of low
spatial
frequencies. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 1971.
61.1576 (A).
ielly.
D.
II.
Adaptation
effects on
spatio-temporal
sine-wave
thresholds. Vision Research. 1972.
12. 89-101.
ielly.
D.
H.
Lateral
inhibition
in human colour mechanisms.
Journal of Physiology, 1973, 228.55-72.
iohavakawa,
Y. Contrast-difference
thresholds with
sinusoidal
stratings. Journal of the Optical Society ot America. 1972, 62.
584-587.
lose, R. M., Teller. D. Y.. & Rendleman. P. Statistical properties
of staircase
estimates.
Perception &
Psychophysics.
1970.
8.
199-204.
,'an Mecteren. A. Spatial sincwave response of the visual system
(a
critical
literature
survey).
Soesterberg:
Institute
for
Perception RVO-TNO. 1966.
Vesthcimer.
G.
Modulation
thresholds
for
sinusoidal
light
distributions on the retina. Journal of Physiology. 1960. 152.
67-74.
NOTE
1. Because
the FCS
sessions are long and tiresome,
a number
>f
preliminary
experiments
were
conducted
to determine
the
nost
suitable
compromise
between
speed
and
end-point
liability. We found that the variability shown in Fig. 5 could not
te
decreased
significantly without
prohibitive
increases
in run
ength. The number and
sizes of our increments were governed
3 y
the
following
constraints
(see
Cornsweet.
1963):
(a) For
naximum
efficiency,
the
smallest increment must be
fixed
at
ibout
the
same
size
as
the
contrast-difference
threshold
for
sinusoidal
gratings;
at
a
spatial
frequency
of
2.1
cycles/deg,
Kohayakawa
(1972)
obtained
jnds
of
300
to
600
with
low-contrast gratings. (Note
that
this
is much larger than the jnd
of
luminance.)
(b) All
staircases
must
start
at
a common
baseline; for
this purpose, we chose
1000- contrast. (To start at
equal
distances
from
threshold
would
require
an
a priori
assumption
of the
curve shape we
are measuring, which could
bias
the
result.)
<c) If
the
contrast
is
to
approach
threshold
quickly, the
initial increment must be much larger than speeitied
in
(a). The increment should decrease as the contrast approaches
threshold,
but
not
so
rapidly
as
to
run
a
high
risk of being
“trapped”
in
a
small increment
far from
threshold,
(d) Subject
to
constraint
(c),
the
total number
of
increments
should
be
minimized.
(Received for publication January
16. 1973:
accepted March
15. 1973:
revision received March 29. 1973.)
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