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John A. Swets and Robert A. Bjork
t,'on
ater
-tecj
s
in
ntai
< &
88 ).
en.
ica*
ac^
ing
are
as
tor
ro-
-
i
i
ion of learning during sleep) that seem sensitive to
JiscU
0f learning without awareness (“data-driven
typing”),
there
is renewed
interest
in
subliminal
p
r°
.
g
(e .g., Jacoby & Whitehouse, in press; Marcel,
\Vhile such results suggest a new look at the sub-
I
• al-learnmg issue, a large variety of subliminal tapes
*
ned to alter attitudes, enhance confidence, reduce
de5
!®tje s, and so forth, have had striking success in the
jSU
1**'
\jtanipulatin8 mental, emotional, and arousal states
a
draft review of the
literature on techniques
to
nge mental
states, commissioned by ARI and pre-
-red by J- Brener and S.R Connally, was reviewed by
iickman and Posner for implications for task perfor-
F
n
rl&Ajalanmonte in i/oriAiic
c
inpli irl_
malice Research developments in various fields, includ-
health psychology,
suggest that altered
states of
nsciousness may affect a variety of physiological pro-
c
sses . The converse may be true as well; recent work
C
mgests that mood states may be altered by influences on
bloodflow that are a consequence of the differing facial
muscuiar patterns corresponding to various emotional
expressions (Zajonc, Murphy, & Inglehart,
1989). ARI,
m0tivated by the problem of detecting deception (Hy-
man. 1989)’ has urged the committee to consider also the
physical manifestations of mental and emotional states.
ies
ire
io-
tte
:u-
ire
ml
n-
P-
/e
le
>n
rs
n
i-
'e
y
r
j
Career development
I
a class of techniques designed
to improve perfor-
I
j mance through increased
self-insight
is widely used
in
j public and private organizations; included are assess-
i
I ment batteries designed to facilitate leadership, interper-
'
sonal influence skills, team building, and decision mak-
ing.
Specific examples
are
the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (Myers & McCaulley,
1985),
the Managerial
j
Grid (Blake & Mouton, 1964), and the Social Styles Pro-
I
file (Merrill & Reid,
1981). These techniques have con-
'
siderable appeal to trainers as well as to the trainees be-
J
cause of high “face validity,” but they have been subject
i
to little rigorous research. To help define the questions,
J
the committee commissioned Paul Thayer to write a crit-
{
ical review of the relevant literature.
f
Part-whole methods to enhance group processes
At its first meeting the continuing committee became
convinced that certain issues of group performance de-
s
served study. Should the members of a working group be
I
trained as a team or individually? If team training facili-
|
tates
initial performance,
is
that advantage
offset by
>
greater disruption when
original members of the team
l
need to be replaced by new members? Should the indi-
j
viduals in a group be trained in only their task, or should
I
there be backup training to increase the flexibility of the
I
group? Current research may not supply definitive an-
swers to these and a number of related questions, but the
issues are important enough to army functioning to be
addressed,
if only to clarify the questions and to outline
needed research.
CONCLUSION
Although other arrangements might be workable, we
found that the National Research Council provides an
ideal setting for a study of this
sort. The Council was
designed expressly for the purpose, first under the spon-
sorship of the National Academy of Science and now
administered as well by the National Academy of Engi-
neering and the Institute of Medicine. The NAS was
chartered by Congress in 1863; the NRC was established
in 1916. Among the NRC’s strengths are that it spans the
scientific and professional disciplines; it benefits from the
prestige of its governing academies;
it provides in com-
petent fashion the services required by committee func-
tion; and
it follows guidelines to promote thorough and
objective reports, including procedures for proposal and
report review. Committee members are suggested by
broadly based advisers, proposed by a commission’s staff
and executive director working with the committee’s
chairperson, nominated by the commission, and
ap-
pointed by the NRC’s chairperson in the interests of com-
petence, relevance, and diversity of viewpoints. They are
asked to verify that they have no conflict of interest and
they serve without financial compensation.
Members of the committee generally regarded
their
task as challenging and they demonstrated consistently
that
it was engaging. They came to the meetings almost
without exception, made
site visits willingly, submitted
draft sections of the report nearly on time, and achieved
consensus
in an advised,
efficient, and congenial way.
They feel that their training and experience were ade-
quate to the task and they are pleased to recommend the
process to psychologists and scientists in related fields.
The continuing committee can reasonably anticipate that
it will contribute more by steering the army toward prom-
ising new ways to enhance training and performance and
less by saving the Army from investing
in ineffective
techniques.
It will likely also serve an advisory role for
some specific enhancement projects undertaken
in the
army.
A long-term,
successful impact of the committee’s
work, in both of its phases, is hardly assured. The power
of the human-potential movement
in the minds of the
citizenry,
as evidenced by
its marketplace popularity,
dwarfs the force of mainstream psychology. New Age
techniques are also apparently making substantial
in-
roads on the more than $30 billion a year that the Amer-
ican Society for Training and Development estimates to
be spent on formal courses in industry
( Wall Street Jour-
VOL.
1, NO. 2, MARCH 1990
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o
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
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n Performance
nal y August 5, 1986). The army, of course, will continue
to have serious needs for performance enhancement and
will continue to be bombarded by strong, new claims for
existing and new techniques. The lack of theoretical and
empirical support for many such techniques does not sti-
fle their ability to capture the imagination of consumers.
Still, the Condon Report of 1968 on unidentified flying
objects was cited recently (Alexander, 1989) as continu-
ing to depress the government’ s interest in that subject,
and we note
that the Condon Committee had nothing
positive to substitute. The continuing challenge to main-
stream psychology
will be to translate
its findings and
concepts into practical enhancement techniques and to
package those techniques
so
it can “give psychology
away”—or sell
it, for that matter. The committee’s ef-
forts, we submit, should be only an installment.
Acknowledgments—This article
is based on a study conducted by
the National Research Council for the Army Research Institute and
reported in Druckman and Swets (1988). The authors thank Daniel
Druckman, Edgar M. Johnson, Alvin M. Liberman, Raymond S.
Nickerson, and Jerome E. Singer for comments on a draft of the
article.
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