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BIOPHYSICS
CODIJTG
Inve st inations have been made relating the
intensi
’
y
of
the
put
st.lmul i
to
the
fr o (money output
for
all
of the
sense
rao dal it i;
Stevens hypothesizes
that the
sensory transduction
-process
follow:
power
law,
ie
f0
"
axn
p g
3.4
where
fo
-
output frequency
a,yn
=
dynamic discharge response to
stimulus
static discharge
rate.
then
3.4
is rewritten,
we
see that this
is simply a form of
log fQ
«
(n log x ± log
a)
±
b
0.5
the Heber-Fechner lawn relating sensation to
stimulus,
except here
the relationship
is
the frequency of neuronal output
_ to the
st imulu:
intensity,
Altho most transduction processes follow the power
: law-
over
a certain range of input
stimuli,
it has been hypothesised
(Liretz)
that
the transduction process
is better descrived by
-o
=
tanh
( hype rh o 1 i c
t angent
)
i . 6
'wince,
as
we
shall
show,
the greatest majority of output fre-
ouoncies
are betwwen 0.01 Hr and
500
Hz,
,
some mechanism must provide
discrimination for all
the messages crowding this given band,
which
•because of the extremely low frequencies,
have
a limited channel
capacity.
In
n art
If is
identification comes from the exponent which
is generally uni cue for
a given sense modality.
Of importance; is that
these exponents exhibit values
generalljr indicative
of the
oft
observed property of differences due
to organism
individuality,.
A
corollary to this would
be
that there
is probably no universally
compilable
frecuencjr or waveform dictionary .for
some
phenomena;.
Table
3.1
is
an arrangement of the various observed power l'w
exponents
.as compiled by Stevens
and by Lipctz from
a. large number of
investigations completed on the
average
,
since 1965.
TABLE
5.1
Power Law
dx.poneni
0,10
-
0. 21
0,53
0.52
0.62
0.67
0 .
0.67
0.7
0.715
0.735
0,8
0.85
0.89
0.975
0.18
Vertex potential
light
intensity
av,
cortical
potentials
Brightness
5° target
Av.
cort.
not.
200
II
a
vibration
on finger
Same
as
above,
50 Hz
Loudness
3000 Ez tone
Smell
- heptane
Deuel ar
i
%at ion current
optic nerve
at
550 nm
Projected visual
area
Intensity - light
Intensity -
680 nm
T ac tual
h nrdn e a s
Citric
acid
one
subject
Illumination
Light
intensity 620 nm
1.0
1.0
1.05
1.11
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.20
1.3
1.45
. 47
1.5
1.5
1.7
Cold
on
arm
Visual length
Sucrose
-av.
of
14: sub j.
- 1.97
Salt
'Elite noise duration
Vocal effort sound pressure
Static pressure
on skin
Depolarizing current for
630 nm
Finger span
He aviness- lift e d
we i gli
t
a
Citric
acid -one subject
T om p e r at urc--warm th; on
arm
! ac tual
r oughness
Force
of hand grin
3.5
Electric
shock-
current
through fingers
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Although the maximum firing rate
of
a given sensory afferent *r
motor efferent neuron
is limited to frequencies
(usually) below 1000
H;
either because
of refractory ueriod or spike duration,
it
is
also
understood that stimuli
change
rapidly,
so that
the
actual
signal
is
usually limited to only
a limited number of waveforms
in any given
tirrn
interval.
The various coding/transducing processes provide
several
different modes wherein
the frequency of neural discharges provide
unique
and unambiguous information about
the
stimulus.
For example,
in phase
coders
(T-type)
or latency-burst dispersion coders
(D type),
a given neurons’
output frequency
is relatively constant over
any giver
long duration,
lets say 120
impulses per
second.
The coding occurs by
the mechanism that
the discharges vary from their normal
interspike
interval by only
a few tenths
of
a milli-second,
the
information thus
being
a code based upon the phase or earliness-lateness of
a given
spit
with respect
the the
average
intersnike duration.
Bullock,
from who
the above coding schema are
credited
indicates
that
at least two
additional
codings occur,
one,
a probability coder
(P-tyne)
which
produces
spikes
in
a quasi-chance manner,
and two,
a, burst
coder
(B-typ
which produces
spikes
in clusters of varying number.
(Szabo
and Fes sard
Once
a stimulus
is superthreshold
,
a signal proceeds
into
the
brain structures
bjr various mult i ply-- sjm anted afferent pathways.
Once
in the
appropriate
cerebral structure
the
incoming information
is
processed
in masse,
producing the Phenomena of averaged cortical
responses.
It has been shown that these
average
cortical potentials
have almost unique waveforms for the given sensory
input.
The
average
potential's voltage
amplitudes vary unon the mechanism of whether or
not
the
appropriate neurons fire
in phase .
When neurons
of
a given
constant voltage
and given output frequency discharge,
amplitude
modulation
(ie of voltage)
is
a function of the phase differences
between those neurons.
For example,
in
a neuron firing
etc
60 Hz,
there
is one
spike
every 1/60 of
a sec,
or 0,0167
sec.
If another neuron,
regardless of
its output frequency delivers
to
some cortical structure
an
impulse
that arrives simultaneously with the above
60 Hz frequency,
the
two
waveforms,
much like oceanic
tides, crest together,
arapliflying the
voltage
of the thus
aye rage d cortical response.
However,' should
the
two
. (or three,
or n)
signals be out of phase,
varying degrees of
additive or
subtra.ctive construction will occur
in voltage
amplitude.
Consider then that the message
or meaning
(not
the
information
as we
shall later
specify)
is function of several
factors:
tho
sensory
out-put frequency.#
all usually under 1000 Hz;
the power law functions
of the modalities,
rrhich discriminates but their
rate of change,
(that
is growth)
the modality;
and
the
amplitude
o"r the averaged cortical
responses,
a. function
of the phase
of the
incoming; frequencies.
The following
is then very illuminating.
Amplitude modulation
(AT
is
a function of phase.
However,
the
time rate
of change of Phase,
that
is
its. first derivative,
is degrees per second,
that
is frequency,
Fow,
in addition,
the waveforms
arc
transient, growing and diminishing
rapidlv,
and tho frequency also
changes, with respect
to
time
and the
first derivative of frequency
is change of frouoncy per time,
or
as
wo kno^.it,
frequenev modulation
(FM).
Therefore,
the
'message
is
a function of phase,
tho first derivative
of phase,
which
is frequency
and
the
second derivative of phase.
which
is frequenev modulation.
Message
( AM
)
(PR 10.
)
which
is frequency modulation.
A <|>
‘2“
A T
(FM)
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t p p
CODING-
"B
B 10 PH x 3 ICS
tho
r:oko
of simplicity,
tho coefficients
3.7
,
But
it
should bo understood that
in
any given
limiting
that
facesage
'
to
onl?
,vo boon eliminated
’moGsage
or
CJ
shall
so
another
,
are
some
31)0 Ct to
tl
For
from
Fa.
tho coefficient
of any term may ho
ocro
one
or two
of the possible throe
commoner), cs
.
All
of the
sensory codings
wo have
soon
va.ria.ti at ion upon frequency
coding,
yet thor
codings; which illuminate
tho nature of perception most poignantly.
Most
of tho codings
we shall examine
are continuous
,
that
. is
cUo>? may
have
any value from
tho minimum
to
tho maximum for that given
f-.jensory
modality,
except those
of olfaction,
and. perhaps
some others
that have
not
yet: been investigated.
.
>
Hughes
et
al
implanted
electrodes
into
23 patients during orrho
neurosurgery .
^Standardized atmospheric solutions of various
oq.oran fcu
were
adm ini stored
to
the patients
end responses were recorded from the
olfactory bulb,
and amygdala of tho conscious subjects.
Tho results
can only bo described
as revolutionary ,
for what Hughes end
hi£j co-
workera had found was that odor qualities wore recorded
into
spqcix ic
,
that
is' discrete frequencies
,
rather than
a wide band of frequencies.
Altho
some
of the lines responded to more than one
stimulant,
it could
he said
in general that only very specific frequencies were allocated
for very specific odorant
quel it
jo,
tho result being that
some
sensor;
coding was
as accurate
and
as specific
as emission or absorption lines
from stellar
spectra.
Here
it
can be said
ic epeo '.fio evidence for
a diet ionary- -like frequency
code of sensation.
Table 3.2 lists
the
maior fro queries- components
in
c
cl.oe per
second,
in
a human olfactory
bulb.
(J.R.
Hughes,
et
al
)
Table
3.2
f ac t o ry
s p e ctr al
Linos
Odorant
Menihone
Peppermint
Huger ol
25.8
33.3
30 .
26.4 38.3
46.0
51.6
51.6
50.6
51.6
53.3
57.3
65,9 68.5
additional common lines occur
at
70.8,
72.9,
73.9,
75*8
end
79.9,
with components higher
than 140
II z being very rare.
figure #3.5
Let us
conclude
d i agram s
.
The first
,
joint position receptors,
and
of
a muscle
stretch rocoetor.
as
wo
shall later
do not exceed 5O0
II z,
tho following diagrams
no
sensory output frequency exceeds
500 H z.
Hone
joint receptor
1 is section on sensory coding by showing; two
shows
the output frequency of bone
econd,
shows
the output frequency
asked
to
1 verify;
tretch receptor.
Although the roador
show,
that audition
and vision output frequencies
w-
th
are
added
Muscle
evid;
load
impulses
per
second
impulses-
mce
that
receptor
\.y
per
-L
;
,/j
\
second
j
\
//
/
\\
S'
\/l
,
/
it
\
\
|
X
A 8
\
1)
!
/
(
\
\
i
11— s.
\
\
\
OCi
io5 150° 180°
-0.5-
0.5
1.0
.pint position
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load
in grams
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BIOPHYSICS
ELECTRORfC 9PT0R3
5»5
Kl.octroreceptors
a,nd the Acoustieo-lateralis
System.
Although
it
is
popula.rly accepted that there
are five
senses ?
ie.
smell,
taste,
touch,
audition
and vision,
recent physiological
irork has
. identified many additional
sense modalities,
including pain,
carbon-dioxide and specialized eloctroroceptors
.
Of interest
to
the
tonic
. of sensation and perception
is' the fact that
a given physiologic
identified
. sense organ may respond’ to more than one
input
sense modal-
fty.
For
instance,
pressing the
eye lightly creates visual
'phosphene
imagoes
,
whereas certain pain and thermal
receptors
in the
skin respond
as well
to pressure.
.Additionally,
pain may be nerceivod by injury
in areas
in
the
skin which are not
innervated by either touch,
pain or
thermal receptors.
In this
section
we
shall demonstrate
the existence
of specialized
olectrorocoptors
,
but
it
is our additional thesis
that
all neurons
and
some synapses
are olectrosonsitive
.
Consider,
for
instance
that that
which we
. call taste
and smell
is really
a function of given
concentrat-
ions
of
ions,
which themselves
are
electrical charges of specific
polarity
(valence)
and frequency.
Similarly,
that which we
call hear-
ing occurs
•
.
when
a. mechanical vibration acts upon the cilia in the
organ of.Corti,
it
is
the stress-strain mechanical energies
of the
cilia which
create* boat
(infra-red)
which stimulates
the
auditory
neurons ;
the
specific mechanism
is called piezoelectric.
Thermal
receptors respond to
"heat”,
but
that which
we call
"heat"
is
specific-
aliy infra-red electromagnetic radiation.
Finally
we
shall not'belaboj
. the noint that vision
is
the response
to
electromagnetic radiation
in the
1 •visible-light" frequencies.
The
specific electro-receptor organs
as described forewith are
all revealed from research
in ordinary and electro-sensitive
fish.
However ,
since our thesis
is specifically electromagnetic
reception
in
l,he ELF bands
and
the
25m
to
m band,
the reader shall keen
in mind
tha,t^ these electroreceptors
are part of the acoustieo-lateralis system,
0-"
W-iich
i/he cochlea and semi-circular canals
in man have evolved,
and also closely resembles the
"acupuncture point
system" both shown
to
oe
electro,sensitive
.
Leydig
in 1851 had studied the lateralis system and concluded
a
sensory function for
the organs.
Later,
Schulze,
in 1861,
had hypo-
thesized that the
cupulao of the system were stimulated by
l)
water
movements
directed,
against
the
fish or
amphibian,
and
2) /low frequency
vibrations
(sound)
in
the
water.
Sand,
in 1958 demonstrated
that
the
ampullae
(of Loren zini)
were
infra-red
sensitive.
In 1955 Hansel
confirmee
Sand's work and extended
it
to show the
similarity with
mammalian thermo-receptors.
Li.ssmann,
in 1951,
had discovered
a low voltage 0-550 Hz steady
-ischarge from electric organs,
and later suceeded
in conditioning
a species of fish
to microvolt ELF fields.
Bullock
ot
al,
in 1961
1<be
specialized electro—receptor organs- were derivsti
of the lateral line
sense
organs.
(FE3SARD,
1974,
ed.)
Tho
specialized lateral
line organs of which
we
shall
soon sneak
occur
in Integration with the ordinary lateral
line
systems,
that
is,
not
in substitution.
It should bo mentioned that
species not contain-
mg
"the
SLL0
reonondod.
“co electrical
fields o:f mV intensity
in
the
BLF
range.
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