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The reader has doubtless noted that the choice of the function
fit - r/c)
is highly arbitrary, since the field equation admits also
a solution fit + r/c). This function leads obviously to an advanced
time, implying that the field can be observed before it has been
generated by the source.
The familiar chain of cause and effect
is thus reversed and this alternative solution might be discarded
as logically inconceivable.
However, the application of
logical
causality principles offers very insecure footing in matters such
as these and we shall do better to restrict the theory to retarded
action solely on the grounds that this solution alone conforms to
the present physical data.
Such caution is justified by the example in the early 1920 s of
Dirac’s development of the mathematical description of the
Relativistic electron that also yielded a pair of solutions, one of
which was discarded as inapplicable until the discovery of the
positron in 1932.
In an analysis by O. Costa de Beauregard, an argument is put
forward
that
advanced
potentials
constitute
a convergence
toward “finality”
in a manner symmetrical to the divergence
of retarded
potentials
as
a
result
of
causality
[77].
Such
phenomena are generally unobservable, however, on the gross
macroscopic scale for statistical reasons.
This
is codified
in
the thermodynamic concept that for an isolated system entropy
(disorder) on the average increases.
It
is just this requirement
of isolation, however, that has been weakened by the observer
problem in quantum theory , and O. Costa de Beauregard argues
that the finality principle
is maximally operative in just those
situations where the intrusion of consciousness as an ordering
phenomenon
results in
a significant local reversal of entropy
increase.
At this point, further discussion of the subtleties of
such considerations, though apropos, would take us far afield,
so we simply note that such advanced waves, if detected, could
in certain cases constitute a carrier of information precognitive
to the event.
The above arguments are not intended to indicate that the
precise
nature
of the
information
channel coupling remote
events and human perception
is understood.
Rather, we in-
tend to show only that modem theory is not without resources
that can be brought to bear on the problems at hand, and we
expec* that these problems will, with further work, continue
to yield to analysis and specification.
Furthermore, independent of the mechanisms that may be
involved
in remote sensing, observation of the phenomenon
implies
the
existence
of
an
information
channel
in
the
information-theoretic sense.
Since such channels are amenable
to analysis on the basis of communication theory techniques,
as indicated earlier, channel characteristics such as bit rate can
be determined independent of a well-defined physical channel
model in the sense that thermodynamic concepts can be ap-
plied
to
the
analysis of systems independent of underlying
mechanisms.
Furthermore, as we have seen from the work of
Ryzl discussed in Section II, it is possible to use such a channel
for error-free transmission of information ^redundancy coding
is used.
(See also Appendix A.)
Therefore, experimentation
involving the collection of data under specified conditions per-
mits headway to be made despite the formidable work that
needs
to
be
done
to
clarify
the
underlying
bases
of
the
phenomena.
VI. Conclusion
For the past three years we have had a program in the Elec-
tronics and Bioengineering Laboratory of SRI
to
investigate
those
facets of human perception that appear to
fall outside
the
range
of well-understood perceptual or processing capa-
bilities
The primary achievement of this program has been
the
elicitation of high-quality “remote viewing”-the
ability
of both
experienced
subjects and
inexperienced
volunteers
to view, by means
of innate mental processes, remote geo-
graphical
or
technical
targets
such
as
roads,
buildings, and
laboratory apparatus.
Our accumulated data from over fifty
experiments
with more than
a half-dozen
subjects
indicate
the following,
a) The phenomenon
is not a sensitive function
of distance over a range of several kilometers,
b) Faraday cage
shielding does not appear to degrade the quality or accuracy of
perception,
c) Most of the correct information that subjects
relate
is
of
a nonanalytic nature pertaining to shape, form,
color, and material rather than to function or name.
(This
aspect
suggests
a
hypothesis
that
information
transmission
under
conditions
of sensory shielding may be mediated
pri-
marily
by
the
brain’s
right
hemisphere.)
d) The
principal
difference
between
experienced
subjects and
inexperienced
volunteers
is not that the latter never exhibit the faculty, but
rather that their results are simply less reliable.
(This observa-
tion
suggests
the hypothesis
that remote viewing may be a
latent
and
widely
distributed, though
repressed,
perceptual
ability.)
Although the precise nature of the information channel cou-
pling remote events and human perception
is not yet under-
stood,
certain
concepts
in
information
theory,
quantum
theory, and neurophysiological research appear to bear directly
on the
issue.
As a result, the working assumption among re-
searchers
in
the
field
is that the phenomenon of interest
is
consistent with modern
scientific thought, and can therefore
be expected
to yield to the scientific method.
Further,
it
is
recognized
that
communication
theory
provides
powerful
techniques, such as the use of redundancy coding to improve
signal-to-noise ratio, which can be employed to pursue special-
purpose application of the remote-sensing channel independent
of an understanding of the underlying mechanisms. We there-
fore consider
it important to continue data collection arid to
encourage others
to do likewise; investigations such as those
reported here need replication and extension under as wide a
variety of rigorously controlled conditions as possible.
Appendix A
Signal Enhancement in a Paranormal
Communication Channel by Application
of Redundancy Coding
Independent
of
the mechanisms
that may
be
involved
in
remote
sensing,
observation of the phenomenon implies the
existence
of
an
information
channel
in
the
information-
theoretic
sense.
As we have seen from the work of Ryzl dis-
cussed in Section II,6
it
is even possible to use such a (noisy)
channel
for
error-free
transmission
of
information
if
suf-
ficient redundancy coding is used [30]
, [31]
.
Following is a
general procedure
that we have used successfully
for signal
enhancement.
.
We
shall assume that the “message” consists of a stream ot
binary
digits
(0,1)
of equal probability
(e.g., binary
sort of
green/white cards as in Ryzl’s case, English text encoded asm
Table X and sent long distance by strobe light on/off, and so
on).
To combat channel noise, each binary
digit to be sent
through the channel requires the addition of redundancy bits
(coding).
Efficient coding requires a compromise between the
desire to maximize reliability and the
desire to minimize re-
« See
also the note added
in proof on the successful work done by
Carpenter.
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PUTHOF^^^^Gpr^piRgjga^ ZQQQmmin
1 0001 0002-8
TABLE X
5-Bit Code for Alphanumeric
Characters
E
00000
Y
01000
T
111U
G
, J
10111
N
00001
w
01001
R
11110
V
10110
I
00010
B
01010
11101
10101
A
00011
01011
s,x,z
11100
10100
D
00100
01100
H
11011
10011
L
00101
01101
C ,K, Q
11010
10010
F
00110
OHIO
P
11001
10001
U
00111
01111
M
11000
10000
Note: Alphabet characters listed
in order of decreasing frequency
in English text.
See, for example,
A.
Sinkov
[79].
(The
low-fre-
quency letters, X, Z , K, Q, and/,
have
been
grouped
with
similar
characters
to
provide
space
for
numerics
in
a
5-bit
code.)
In
consideration of the uneven
dis-
tribution of letter frequencies in
English
text,
this code
is chosen
such
that
and
have
equal
probability.
COz
<
as
£ <
cc uj
LU 2
it
LU <
>H
h-
S
5r
D23u
Fig. 18,
DECISION
Accept
"1"
as
i
i
i
i—
i
the
Bit
Being
—
Transmitted
-^DECISION 3^^
Continue
Transmission^^
—
DECISION
^—
Accept "0"
as
the
Bit
Being
—
'./‘iX
Transmitted
l
NUMBER OF TRIALS
E
nrn!!»5men
/
t
°f
®ignal -to -noise ratio by sequential sampling
procedure (p 0 =0.4,p, = 0.6, a = 0.01, ft = 0.01).
The
question
to
be
addressed
is
whether,
after repeated
transmission, a given message bit is labeled a “1” at a low rate
Po commensurate with the hypothesis H0 that the bit in ques-
tion
is
a “0,” or at a higher rate p x commensurate with the
hypothesis Hi
that the
bit in question is indeed a “1.”
The
decision-making
process
requires
the
specification
of
four
parameters.
dundancy.
One efficient coding scheme for such a channel ii
obtained by application of a sequential sampling procedure ol
the type used
in production-line quality control
[80],
The
adaptation of such a procedure to paranormal communication
channels,
which we now
discuss,
was
considered
first
by
Taetzsch
[81]
.
The sequential method gives a rule of proce-
dure for making one of three possible decisions following the
receipt of each bit: accept
1 as the bit being transmitted; reject
as
the
bit
being
transmitted
(i.e.,
accept
0); or continue
transmission of the
bit under consideration.
The
sequential
sampling procedure
differs from fixed-length coding in
that
the number
of
bits
required
to
reach
a
final decision on
a
message
bit
is not fixed before transmission, but depends on
the results accumulated with each transmission. The principal
adn
age °/ the sequential sampling procedure as compared
with the other methods is that, on the average, fewer bits per
fina1
dedsion
are
required
for
an
equivalent
degree
of
reliability.
Use of the sequential sampling procedure requires the speci-
fication of parameters that are determined on the basis of the
following considerations.
Assume that a message bit (0 or
1)
is being transmitted.
In the absence of a priori knowledge, we
may assume equal probability
(
p
= 0.5) for the two possibili-
ties (0
1).
Therefore, from the standpoint of the receiver
the
probability of correctly identifying the bit being transmitted is
P
0.5 because of chance alone. An operative remote-sensing
channel
could
then
be expected
to
alter the probability of
correct identification to a value p = 0.5 + 0, where the param-
eter *
satisfies 0 <
| (M < 0.5.
(The quantity may be positive
or
negative
depending on whether
the paranormal
channel
results m
so-called psi-hitting or psi-missing.)
Good psi func-
lomng on a repetitive task has been observed to result in
=
0.12,
as reported by Ryzl
[31],
Therefore, to indicate
the
esign
procedure,
let
us
assume
a
baseline
psi
parameter
Wb -0.1 and design a communication system on this basis.
Po
The probability of labeling incorrectly a “0” message bit
as a “1."
The probability of labeling correctly a “0” as
a
/;
0 ’’
]sp ~ °- 5 +
= 0.6.
Therefore, the probability
of labeling incorrectly a “0” as a “1” is
1 - p = 0.4 = p 0
Pi
The probability of labeling correctly a “1” message bit
as a “1,” is given by p t = 0.5 + \p b = 0.6.
a
The probability of rejecting a correct identification for
a
‘0” (Type
I error). We shall take a = 0.01.
The probability of accepting an incorrect identification
for a “1” (Type II error). We shall take [3 = 0.01.
With
the parameters thus specified, the sequential sampling
procedure provides
for construction
of
a
decision
graph
as
shown in Fig. 18. The equations for the upper and lower limit
lines are
£
=di +SN
Z 0 = -d0 + SN
where
d i
1-/3
a
,
P i
log —
Po
1 ~ Po
1 " Pi
do
log
1 - a
1 ~ Po
1 ~ Pi
log—™.
5 =
log^ii-"^
Po
1 - Pi
in which S is the slope, N is the number of trials, and d x and
do
are the y-axis intercepts. A cumulative record of receiver-
generated responses to the
target
bit is compiled until either
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Fig. 19.
Reliability curve for sequential sampling procedure (p 0 - 0.4,
= 0
. 6 , a = 0 . 01
, P = 0 . 01 ).
the upper or the lower limit line
is reached, at which point a
decision is made to accept 0 or
1 as the bit being transmitted.
Channel
reliability
(probability
of
correctly
determining
message
being
transmitted)
as
a
function
of
operative
psi
parameter
i//
is plotted in Fig. 19. As observed, the sequential
sampling procedure can result in 90 percent or greater reliability
with psi parameters on the order of a few percent.
Implementation
of
the
sequential
sampling procedure
re-
quires
the transmission of a message coded
in binary
digits.
Therefore, the
target space must consist of dichotomous ele-
ments such
as the white and green cards used in the experi-
ments by Ryzl.
In operation, a sequence corresponding to the target bit (0
or 1) is sent and the cumulative entries are made (Fig. 18) until
a decision
is reached to accept either a
1 or a 0 as the bit being
transmitted.
At
a prearranged
time,
the
next sequence
is
begun and continues as above until the entire message has been
received. A useful alternative, which relieves the percipient of
the burden of being aware of his self-contradiction from
trial
to
trial, consists of cycling through the entire message repeti-
tively and entering each response on its associated graph until
a decision has been reached on
all message
bits.
The authors
have used
this technique successfully
in a pilot study, but a
discussion of this would take us beyond the intended scope of
this paper.
From the results obtained in such experiments, the channel
bit rate can be ascertained for the system configuration under
consideration.
Furthermore,
bit
rates
for other
degrees of
reliability
(i.e., for other Po, Pi
. a > and P) can be estimated by
construction of other decision curves over the same data base
and
thus
provide
a measure
of the
bit
rate per
degree
of
reliability.
In summary, the procedures described here can provide for a
specification of the characteristics of a remote-sensing channel
under well-defined conditions.
These procedures also provide
for
a determination of the
feasibility of such a channel
for
particular applications.
Appendix B
Remote -Viewing Transcript
Following
is the unedited transcript of the first experiment
with an SRI volunteer (S6), a mathematician in the computer
science
laboratory,
with no
previous experience
in remote
viewing.
The
target, determined by random procedure, was
White’s
Plaza,
a
plaza with
fountain
at Stanford University
(shown in
Fig.
8).
As
is our standard protocol, the experi-
menter with the subject
is kept ignorant of the specific target
visited as well as the contents of the target pool.
The experi-
menter’s statements and questions are italics.
Today
is Monday, October 7th.
It is 11:00 and this is a re-
mote viewing experiment with Russ Targ, Phyllis Cole, and Hal
Puthoff.
In
this experiment Hal
will drive
to a remote
site
chosen by a random process.
Phyllis Cole will be the remote
viewer, and Russ Targ is the monitor.
We expect this experi-
ment
to
start at twenty minutes after eleven and run for fif-
teen minutes.
It
is just about twenty minutes after eleven and Hal should
be at his target location by now.
Why don’t you
tell me what kind of pictures you see and
what you think he might be doing or experiencing.
The first thing that came to mind was some sort of a large,
square kind of a shape.
Like Hal was in front of it.
It was a
... not a building or something, it was a square.
I don’t know
if
it was a window, but something like that so that the bottom
line of it was not at the ground. About where his waist was, at
least.
That’s what it seemed to me.
It seems outdoors some-
how.
Tree.
Does Hal seem to be looking at that square?
I don’t know.
The first impression was that he wasn’t, but
I
have
a sense that whatever
it was was something one might
look at.
I don’t know if it would be a sign, but something that
one might look at.
Can you tell if it is on the ground or vertical?
It seemed vertical.
I don’t have a sense that
it was part of anything particular.
It might be on a building or part of a building, but
I don t
know.
There was a tree outside, but
I also got the impression
of cement.
I don’t have the impression of very many people
or traffic
either.
I have the sense that he
is sort of walking
back and
forth.
I don’t have any more explicit picture than
that.
Can you move into where he
is standing and try to see what
he is looking at?
I picked up he was touching something-something rough.
Maybe warm and rough.
Something possibly like cement.
It is twenty-four minutes after eleven.
Can you
change your point of view and move above
the
scene so you can get a bigger picture of what’s there?
I
still see some
trees and some sort of pavement or some-
thing like that.
Might be a courtyard. The thing that came to
mind was it might be one of the plazas at Stanford campus or
something like that, cement.
Some kinds of landscaping.
I said Stanford campus when
I started to see some things in
White Plaza, but I think that is misleading.
I have
the
sense
that
he’s not moving around too much.
That it’s in a small area.
I guess I’ll go ahead and say it, but I’m afraid I’m just putting
on my impressions from Stanford campus.
I had the impres-
sion of a fountain.
There are two in the plaza, and it seemed
that Hal was possibly near the, what they call Mem Claw.
What is that?
It’s
a
fountain that looks rather like a claw.
It’s a black
sculpture. And it has benches around it made of cement.
Are there any buildings at the place you are looking at? Are
there any
buildings?
You described a kind of a courtyard.
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Usually
at some
places
there should be a
building,
large or
small that the courtyard is about. Look at the end or the sides
of the courtyard.
Is there anything to be seen?
I have a sense that there are buildings.
It’s not solid build-
ings.
I mean there are some around the periphery and
I have a
sense that none of them are very tall. Maybe mostly one story
maybe an occasional two story one.
Do you have any better idea of what your square was that
you saw at the outset?
No.
I could hazard different kinds of guesses.
Does it seem part of this scene?
It ...
I think it could be.
It could almost be a bulletin board
or something with notices on it maybe.
Or something that people are expected to look at. Maybe a
window with things in it that people were expected to look at.
what kind of trees do you see in this place?
I don
t know what kind they are.
The impression was that
they were shade trees and not terribly big.
Maybe
1 2 feet of
trunk and then a certain amount of branches above that
So
that the branches have maybe a
foot diameter, or some-
thing.
Not real big trees.
New trees rather than old trees?
Yeah, maybe 5 or 10 years old, but not real old ones.
h there anything interesting about the pavement?
No.
It seems to be not terribly new or terribly old.
Not
very
interesting.
There seems to be some bits of landscaping
around.
Little patches of grass around the edges and periph-
eries. Maybe some flowers.
But, not lush.
You saw some benches. Do you want to tell me about them?
ell,
that s my unsure
feeling about
this fountain.
There
was some kind of benches of cement.
Curved benches, it felt
like.
They were of rough cement.
What do you think Hal is doing while he is there?
I have a sense that he
is looking at things trying to project
them.
Looking at different things and
sort of walking back
and forth not covering a whole lot of territory.
Sometimes standing still while he looks around.
I just had the impression of him talking, and
I almost sense
that
it was being recorded or something.
I don’t know if he
has a tape recorder, but if it’s not that, then he is saying some-
thing because
it needed to be remembered.
It’s 11:33.
He’s
just probably getting ready to come back.
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to thank the principal subjects, Mrs. Hella
ammid, Pat Price, and Ingo Swann, who showed patience and
forbearance m addition to
their enthusiasm and outstanding
perceptual
abilities.
We note with sadness the death of one of
our subjects, Mr. Price.
We express our sincere thanks also to
Earle Jones, Bonnar Cox, and Dr. Arthur Hastings, of SRI, and
Mrs.
Judith
Skutch
and
Richard
Bach,
without whose
en-
couragement
and
support
this work
could
not have
taken
place.
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