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specimen
(deformations
and
4).
After each deformation,
one
observer recorded the profile
of
the specimen,
while the other
remained close to J.
P.
Girard.
The two largest deformations
(3
and
4)
could be
followed visually.
They both occurred
dbwnwards over
an interval
of
to
seconds.
After each
deformation,
it was verified that no heating was detectable
by manually touching
the bar,
and that the deformations pro-
duced effortlessly by
J.
P.
Girard were
all in the same plane
(at
an angle of
34°
relative
to
the initial bending plane men-
tioned above), marked by the scratches indicated above.
These scratches also permitted the observers
at each instant
tp verify that the same bar was always in view.
Immediately
after the experiment,
the specimens were locked in
a briefcase
and taken to the
laboratory.
We now describe the laboratory examinations:
First of all we verified in the laboratory that all
the
marks
,
scratches
and defects initially present on the bar were
present on the bar returned from the experiment,
thus permit-
ting
us
to affirm unequivocally that there had been no substi-
tution of
the specimen.
Figure
1 shows
a photograph of the
bar after the experiment.
The following examinations were
aimed at characterizing,
in non-destructive
fashion,
the modifications
introduced into
the bar,
and more particularly into section A,
which corre-
sponds
to the maximum curvature.
We
noted:
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FIG.
Photograph of the AU2 bar
of
17 mm diameter
after bending.
Scale in centimeters.
-
a significant increase in hardness of the two fibers
located
in the bending plane,
attaining
a maximum of 11 points
Vickers
(i.e.
27%)
in section A, which corresponds
to the
maximum curvature.
The
length of the
zone where
the hardness
was greater than the initial hardness
is
ca.
120 mm
(60 mm
on both sides of section A)
- in section A,
and perpendicular
to the bending plane,
the hardness measured at the circumference
is maximum in
the
bending plane,
and varies linearly with height relative
to
the
neutral
line,
as in the
case
of
simple bending.
To determine the moment which would have to be applied by
mechanical bending
of the bar
to obtain the observed permanent
deformation,
we subjected a reference bar identical to the
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IHest bar
to mechanical bending with
a distance of
200 mm be-
tween fixed supports.
The variation of residual deformation
measured
as
a function of applied moment
is
shown
in Figure
2.
We can thus deduce that,
to obtain the deformation observed
f|or
the bar bent by
J.
P.
Girard
(deformation
=
13.5 mm),
a
moment M of
ca.
75 N*m would have to be applied.
This
is two
and one half times the critical moment Me
=
30 N-m,
and twice
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the moment exerted by the strongest man we tested.
The total
deformation energy can be calculated as
J.
The preceding results permit
us completely
to rule out
the hypothesis
of surreptitious deformations of muscular origin
which would have escaped
the notice of the observers.
More-
over,
the fact that
"normal"
consolidation of the deformed zone
was observed permits us
to rule out the surreptitious
use of
thermal
or chemical means which had locally diminished the
mechanical strength of the
alloy.
Finally,
the group of observations made during and after
the experiment on the duralumin bar deformed by J.
P.
Girard
in the experiment of October
27,
1976,
permits us to conclude:
- that the successive deformations achieved were
not,
and
could not have been produced by application of the normal mus-
cular
force of the
subject;
- that the
final deformation obtained
is comparable
at
all points
to what would be obtained by applying
a point force
of 1500 N to the center of the bar resting on two supports.
Tests on stainless
steel
in closed tubes
Materials
anj3
operafcir\g_
During
a session at the Centre Technique de l'Aluminium
on March
25,
1976, martensitic transformations,
with
or without
deformation,
of test specimens were observed
in front of three
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FIG.
Photomicrograph of the locally transformed
zone of stainless steel specimen No.
2:
(a)
near the surface;
(b)
at the core.
revealed
a mixture
of
e
and
a'
martensites.
By comparison
with the previous studies
on this
steel,
we
can affirm that
these structures have neither the appearance
of
a martensite
obtained by cooling,
nor that of
a martensite produced by de
sensitization of austenite by heating
it.
It can only be
a
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.
r^artensite of deformation
(with some traces
of martensite due
t|o preparation of
the polished surface)
.
The martensite den-
sity seems
fairly uniform over the entire section.
Despite
Ahe uncertainty which always
results
in photomicrography due
tlo the choice of fields,
Figures
4a and
4b exhibit comparable
Appearances
at the surface
and at the
core.
The quantity of
observed in these photomicrographs corresponds
to
tjhat obtained
in this steel by tensile deformations
of
to
3^0%.
Thus
it_ is much higher than what would correspond
to the
Alight bending deformation observed
(Figure
3)
.
Its position
is very surprising.
S\imulation
tests
The local magnetism of the head of specimen No.
2 could
not have
gone unnoticed in the verification performed before
the test, particularly on the ends.
Nevertheless,
since
two assurances
are better than one,
v^e asked ourselves
if we could imagine
a metallurgical pro-
cess capable of producing these
localized martensites while
ljeaving
the specimens quite straight or only slightly bent.
Since
the martensite involved here
is
the result of work-
hardening,
it was necessary to operate by deformation.
The
closest method
of reproducing this position close to one
head,
with this abundance,
is alternating bending.
We ran tests on
another specimen
(No.
1), which initially was non-magnetic
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It was necessary to clamp one head in
a vise,
and bend the
specimen by about
30°
and then restraighten
it.
Then,
however,
because of the special properties of this
steel,
the specimen
had a very visible S-shape
(Figure
5)
.
To restore
the straight-
ness,
it would be necessary to machine
a die and recompress
the specimen with
a press
I
Another difference:
in specimen
No.
1 treated in this way,
the magnetism of the end of the
shaft
is comparable to that of specimen No.
2,
but the head
is not magnetic, which
is obviously normal.
FIG.
Stainless
steel specimen No.
1 after
a
simulation test.
A photomicrographic examination of another specimen which
was bent even more strongly and then restraightened revealed
martensite
of work-hardening, but with
a very distinct hetero-
geneous distribution:
the density of martensite
is
lower
at
the heart than
at the surface
(Figures
6a
and
6b)
,
which
is
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«)
b)
FIG.
Photomicrographs
similar
to those of Figure
4, but for
a
specimen subjected to
a similation test:
(a)
near
the
surface?
(b)
at the
core.
normal, but constitutes a difference with respect to specimen
n|o.
2.
To obtain
a uniform density in the cross
section,
and
in the concentration observed,
it would be necessary to be
able to exert
a tensile deformation localized
in the end
of
the shaft and in the head
(of around
to
10%
for specimen No.
2,
and
at least
10%
for specimen No.
3)
, without appreciably
Altering the diameters of the shaft and head*.
A succession
of hammering and molding operations would be necessary,
all
wjithout leaving
a trace on the
specimen!
*!
In the case of specimen No.
3,
we measured
a very slight
decrease
of
cross section
(0.5%)
in the
zone which hud
become magnetic.
Note that we
could also have considered
simulation by torsion.
However,
we do not
see how to
accomplish
a localized deformation near
a head
and in
it by this method.
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Conc_l us_iori
The group of observations described above permits
us
to
state:
- that a
local martensitic transformation occurred during
the test on two specimens,
accompanied in one test by
a small
deformation near one of
the heads;
- that we have been unable to conceive of any simple
metallurgical operation capable of exactly reproducing
the
structures observed in the transformed zones.
Local modifications
in hardness of metal plates
This experiment was performed four times by J
.
P
.
Girard
in different places and before different observers.
During the
first session
(October
27,
1976),
one of the investigators un-
expectedly proposed
a new type of test to him:
to harden
a
metal plate by trying
to
"compact"
the metal.
The experimental
routine used
for this test and repeated
for the other three,
with some minor exceptions which will be mentioned,
was
the
following:
a duralumin plate of dimensions,
composition and
mark known only
to the investigator
(and different
for each
new experiment)
was submitted to J
.
P.
Girard.
At the
outset,
J.
P.
Girard made contact with the specimen by rub-
bing or stroking
it with his
fingers under close inspection by
the investigators.
The specimen was then placed by
the
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I
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investigator
in
a closed glass
tube,
after he had verified the
straightness
and the marking.
The tube was
then returned to
J.
P.
Girard
for the
test.
The specimen remained in the
tube
until the laboratory examination.
For test
4,
the step with
the glass tube was eliminated,
since
it did not provide any
additional guarantee relative to
the initial
routine,
which
apcepted manual contact during
the initial phase.
Test materials
and operating conditi ons
The four modified plates all consisted of duralumin
in
the T351 state
(quenched at 505°C
in
cold water,
stress-
relief stretching of 1.2
to
2%, maturing for at least
48 hr).
Tyo compositions were used
(a quaternary alloy,
A-U4SG, of
nc|)n-commercial composition,
and
an industrial
alloy,
2017)
.
An anonymous
symbol scratched by iron on the metal and dif-
ferent
for each experiment permitted the observers unequivoc-
ally to identify the test plate at
a glance.
Each plate was
taken
from
a lot of identical plates which had been subjected
to the same treatment,
and reference plates from each lot were
kept in
the laboratory
for comparison
and for subsequent simu-
lation tests.
Table
II summarizes
the places and
the characteristics
of the test materials
for the
four experiments.
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Table
II
Test
Date
Place
Observers
Initial characteristics of the
specimen
Nature
Dimensions
Mark
Oct 27,1976
Grenoble
J.B.
et
B.D.
X
2.5
X
150
11-1
A-U4SG-T351
Nov 25, 1976
Lyon
J.B.,
P.G.
et
J.G.
X
2.4
X
160
- J
A-U4SG-T351
Nov 25,1976
Lyon
J.B.,
P.G.
et
J.G.
X
2.6
X
160
11 -H
A-U4SG-T351
+ ball-tested
Oct 10, 1977
London
J.B.
et
J.H.
f
i
X
3,0
X
160
VG
A-U4G-T351
machining +
polished
O^serva^^oiis
durjjig
the.
ejc^erJjnjent
FIRST TEST:
During the phase of contact at the ends of the fingers
(ca.
2 min), we observed two successive slight flexures
of
the plate
(11-1)
,
in opposite directions, with deformations
of +1 mm and -0.5 mm.
The specimen was then placed
in a glass
tube with
a total residual deformation of +0.5 mm
(the slightly
convex fiber corresponded to the scratched
face)
.
The tube
was then given to
J.
P.
Girard
for two periods
(5 min)
.
SECOND TEST
:
No flexure before being placed in the
tube.
Exposure time
3 min.
THIRD TEST:
Specimen
11-H had been
shot-peened
over the entire
length
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of both faces,
to determine whether supplementary local harden
iing was feasible.
Duration:
around
3 min, without deformation
FOURTH TEST:
The specimen VG was held twice by J.
P.
Girard
(exposure
time:
2 times
2 min)
.
Zja&orafcory
ej{aniijiaJti_on^
For the
four tests,
comparative examinations of the
Scratched marks,
dimensions,
weights,
and initial impressions
Of hardness of the specimens confirmed that the specimens
sent
to the laboratory were indeed those which had been prepared
for the experiments.
HARDNESS
:
After electrolytic polishing, hardness measurements with
the Vickers microdurometer under
3-kg
load
(ca.
N)
were
performed on both faces
of the test specimens
as well
as on
reference specimens kept in the laboratory.
The impressions
v^ere produced with
a step of
to
2 mm
(depending on the
case)
Duplicate control experiments by different operators working
"blind"
(for tests
2 and
4)
led to equivalent results.
The results obtained by this technique, whose two cases
are represented on Figures
and
8,
permitted
us
to detect
notable and simultaneous increases
in hardness on the two
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- the absence of macroscopic bending deformation
(except
for test
1 — see
above)
,
'
*
Simulation
tests
i
As
in the case of stainless
steel,
we searched
for double
Assurance by trying
to conceive
of simple methods of defor-
mation which could simulate
the preceding states.
Let us note first that the electron photomicrographs show
that the Guinier-Preston zones
are not dissolved and are
the
^ame
at the end of the test
as during the original
state.
This
rules out any simulation by thermal treatment,
specifically by
Surface heating
(inductive
or radiative)
.
We were therefore
led to conceive of mechanical simulcition tests.
i
|
ALTERNATING BENDING
Considering that manual contact had been permitted during
tjhe
first step of the experiment,
we could
ask whether
a sur-
reptitious operation of alternating bending
in the plastic
domain might be sufficient
to lead to the observed modifica-
tions
.
•
•
AlternsLting bending tests
on reference specimens permitted
lis
to see that
it was necessary to introduce
a total plastic
deformation of
at
least
5% by alternating bending to obtain
gardening on
the order of that observed previously
(ca.
8%)
j
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FIG.
Thin-film electron photomicrographs
and electron-diffraction
diagrams of the
light-alloy specimen 11-1:
(a)
hardened sur-
surface
zone;
(b)
non-modified part.
Contrast conditions
identical
in both cases.
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c) Specimen for simulation by shot-pcening.
dj Specimen for simulation by compression with the press.
FIG.
Electron photomicrographs
of modified surface
zones,
at mag-
nification 64,500
(before reduction).
Fpr
this
it would be necessary
to bend the specimen very
strongly until
a radius of curvature of
50 mm was attained
(^corresponding
to
a deformation on
the order of
mm,
which
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is incompatible with the observations made),
and then to re-
store
it by
a deformation in the inverse direction.
However,
this simulation did not permit us
to reproduce,
the structural state observed in the specimens modified by
J.
P.
Girard.
In
fact,
electron microscopy of the hardened
zones
revealed tangles of dislocations,
but not the signifi-
cant increase in the number of dislocation loops.
COMPRESSION TEST WITH THE PRESS
A local compression test of the reference plate
11-U was
carried out with the press under
300 MPa
(a
e
«
220 MPa)
.
This
permitted us to obtain hardening
of the surfaces
in contact
with the stamper and with the table, with values close to that
desired
(A HV = 140 MPa)
.
The microstructure was similar
to
that observed in the modified specimens
(Figure
lOd)
,
but had
a lower density
of loops.
However, we observed a
13% decrease
of thickness
and a uniform modification in the cross
section
of
the structure and in the hardness, which was
not the case
for the specimens
"hardened"
by
J.
P.
Girard.
However, meas-
urements
of the thickness
of plate
11-J revealed
a reduction
in thickness on the order of
2%,
perpendicularly through the
modified
zone.
SHOT-PEENING TEST
A test involving surface shot-peening
of
the
two opposite
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faces
of reference specimen 11-M* permitted us
to simulate
the
essential features of the points which. we were trying
to re-
produce:
surface hardening
A HV of
70 MPa,
absence of per-
manent deformation,
similar microstructure
(heterogeneous
in
fhe thickness,
with maximum density of the dislocation
loops
Close
to the surfaces)
.
By this method,
however,
we obtained
a dull surface with
a very different appearance
from that of
the specimens modified by
J.
P.
Girard,
and it was necessary
t}o perform supplementary polishing to return to a comparable
surface condition.
The set of observations and simulations showed that
it
Would be necessary to exert
a compression force on the plates
normal
to the surface,
creating
a heterogeneous plastic defor-
mation through the section to reproduce the essential
features
cjf the physical peculiarities observed
in the metal plates
hardened
locally and superficially by J.
P.
Girard.
The
mechanical energy required to simulate such
a modification can
be estimated
from the test of simulation by compression:
1.6
J.
We
can also produce
loops of this type by neutron irradia-
tion.
* Operating
conditions: Matrasur machine;
air pressure
7 bars;
capacity 0.85 m /mm?
glass balls
(diameter
to
110 microns)
duration
1 min.
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Con clMS_ion
The group of observations on the duralumin plates
sub-
mitted to J.
P.
Girard permits us
to state:
- that the required hardening was achieved four times
during
the
test?
- that no simple metallurgical operation known
to the
authors permits us exactly to reproduce the different physical
peculiarities observed
in the locally hardened
zones.
DISCUSSION AMD CONCLUSION
In this
article we have described
a certain number
of
deformations and transformations
of metals under particular
conditions.
The places where these tests were performed,
and
the persons who observed them were varied.
The only constant
presence,
common to all these tests, was
that of
J.
P.
Girard
himself.
Thus
there was
a correlation between his presence
and the appearance of the particular effects observed.
It
therefore seems that we have the right to say that
J.
P.
Girard was part of the
"cause"
of these effects.
However,
during these deformations or transformations,
we neither ob-
served nor recorded
any use
of muscular
forces
or of physical
effects on his part capable of producing such phenomena.
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